,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,footnote anchors are denoted by number1 and the footnotes have been placed at the end of the paragraph4 ,some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,trophyme ,,at ,,arles4 ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,architecture ,,by ,,arthur ,,lyman ,,tuckerman ,,with ,,illustrations ,,by ,,the ,,author ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #ahig ,,copyright1 #ahhg1 ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,,trow',s ,,printing ,,and ,,bookbinding ,,company1 ,,new ,,york4 8,to build1 to build6 ,that is the noblest art of all the arts4 ,painting and ,sculpture are but images1 ,are merely shadows cast by outward things ,on stone or canvas1 having in themselves ,no separate existence4 ,architecture1 ,existing in itself1 and not in seeming ,a something it is not1 surpasses them ,as substance shadow40 --,,longfellow1 in ,michael ,angelo4 ,,preface4 ,i have written this short history of architecture to meet the requirements of those who wish to become acquainted with the main facts without having to read voluminous works1 many of which are addressed1 not to the student1 but to the connoisseur1 who is presumed at the start to have a knowledge of the subject sufficient to enable him to comprehend critical and theoretical essays4 ,the plan ,i have adopted has been to trace the origin of each style1 its characteristic points and its connection with those which preceded and succeeded it1 without introducing technical terms or any but the most important dates4 ,there is a temptation to enter into the social and political histories of each building race1 but brevity forbids this1 as well as any of the gushing descriptions usually found in modern handbooks on art4 ,i imagine that very few people have the time to read lengthy treatises on architecture1 but that there are many who would be glad to know the chief historical facts1 were these to be presented within a small compass4 ,i hope1 therefore1 that this volume may be of interest to the general reader and may find its way to schools other than those which make art matters their specialty1 for it seems to me that if the average schoolboy were taught as much about the history of the most useful and beautiful of the creations of the people of each age1 as about the manner and quantity of warfare and slaughter in which they indulged1 he would obtain as valuable a quality of information4 ,,art ,,schools ,,of ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,museum4 ,march1 #ahhg ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,,st4 ,,trophyme ,,at ,,arles1 ,frontispiece4 ,,facing ,,page ,,the ,,greek ,,orders1 #ef ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,theseus ,,at ,,athens1 #fb ,,the ,,roman ,,orders1 #gj ,,palace ,,of ,,diocletian ,,at ,,spalatro1 #gc ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,pantheon ,,at ,,rome1 #gd ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,baths ,,of ,,agrippa1 #ge ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,at ,,baalbek1 #gf ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,basilica ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,beyond ,,the ,,walls1 #hi ,,st4 ,,vitale1 ,,of ,,ravenna1 #ib ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,minerva ,,medica1 #ic ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,vesta1 ,,sometimes ,,called ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hercules1 #id ,,the ,,baptistery ,,of ,,constantine1 #id ,,the ,,pendentive ,,system ,,in ,,byzantine ,,domes1 #ig ,,church ,,of ,,sergius ,,and ,,bacchus ,,at ,,constantinople1 #ih ,,plan ,,of ,,st4 ,,sophia1 ,,constantinople1 #ii ,,romanesque ,,construction1 #aba ,,comparative ,,series1 ,,showing ,,greek1 ,,roman1 ,,romanesque1 ,,and ,,gothic ,,methods ,,of ,,support1 #abd ,,plan ,,of ,,strasbourg ,,cathedral1 #abh ,,chevet ,,of ,,notre ,,dame ,,du ,,port ,,at ,,clermont1 #acj ,,plan ,,of ,,rheims ,,cathedral1 #acd ,,plan ,,of ,,an ,,english ,,cathedral1 #acf ,,plan ,,of ,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,as ,,originally ,,designed ,,by ,,michael ,,angelo1 #aee ,,plan ,,of ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,hotel ,,des ,,invalides ,,at ,,paris1 #afj ,,contents4 ,,page ,,introduction1 #a ,i4--,,celtic ,,or ,,druidical ,,remains1 #e ,,ii4--,,the ,,monuments ,,of ,,egypt1 #aj ,,iii4--,,asiatic ,,architecture1 #cj ,,iv4--,,greece1 #eb ,v4--,,etruria ,,and ,,rome1 #fh ,,vi4--,,the ,,early ,,christian ,,style1 #hh ,,vii4--,,the ,,byzantine ,,style1 #ie ,,viii4--,,mahometan ,,architecture1 #aje ,,ix4--,,the ,,romanesque ,,style1 #aae ,x4--,,gothic ,,architecture1 #acb ,,xi4--,,the ,,renaissance1 #aea ,,xii4--,,conclusion1 #afb ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,architecture4 ,,introduction4 ,architecture is an art combining the qualities of utility and beauty4 ,its object is1 and has been from its origin1 to satisfy both the necessities and tastes of the various building races4 ,for this purpose the two distinct1 and yet closely related1 sciences of construction and decoration have been employed1 and the history of the progress which has been made in each1 goes hand in hand with the history of each age and each race4 ,the requirements of the inhabitants of every country have always been defined by its character and climate1 and1 in order to satisfy these requirements1 the art has adapted itself to them and grown up and expanded in the different fields in which it has been directed4 ,it is customary to explain the origin of the art of building somewhat as follows3 ,the first impulse of the barbarian1 in whatever part of the globe he may be born1 is to seek a shelter from the varying temperature of night and day4 ,if he lives in the mountains1 he chooses the caves and clefts in the rocks for his habitation2 if on the plain1 he follows the example of the animals and hollows out a retreat in the ground where he may seek warmth and protection4 ,where the soil is rocky1 he gathers branches and moss1 and piles them in such a manner as to form a rude dwelling4 ,soon after1 he perceives the inconvenience of these untrimmed boughs1 and remedies the discomfort by driving four straight posts into the ground1 and roofing them over with cross-pieces1 inclined so as to shed the rain4 ,this is the first semblance of a thoughtful construction1 and the improvements upon it gradually develop into the more studied forms of architecture4 ,when the first requisite of shelter has been obtained1 the early builder cuts off the rough edges and carves upon the posts rude emblems of the natural objects he sees about him1 and in doing this takes the first step in design and decoration4 ,when wood is not abundant1 he seeks a similar result in stone1 and the treatment of each material gives rise to distinct principles of construction4 ,the ,greeks1 who had marble-quarries of easy access1 bridged over their posts or columns with straight lintels1 capable of supporting the weight of the roof without danger of fracture4 ,the ,romans1 who found their travertine difficult to handle1 built their baths and palaces of brick1 and1 in seeking to connect their pillars and piers1 adopted the round arch as a means of effecting this end1 and this round arch was the main principle of ,roman architecture4 ,when1 in due time1 the pointed arch was found to combine great strength and beauty1 this new method of building became the leading principle of ,gothic art4 ,so1 according to each necessity1 the different styles of architecture arose4 ,when civilization increases the requirements of man1 it is no longer possible to begin a rude construction1 and alter it afterward to suit these needs2 therefore it becomes necessary to consider beforehand all the elements required1 and1 in order to facilitate this consideration1 drawing comes in as a simple means of placing before one all that enters into the proposed building4 ,therefore1 in the study of architecture four divisions of the art must be considered1 namely3 ,the construction of buildings with various materials1 the appropriate proportions of the same1 their representation by draughtsmanship and their history in various times and among various peoples4 ,it will be readily understood that each of these divisions embraces a wide scope individually1 and yet no one can be separated from the others without affecting the result as a whole4 ,it is proposed1 therefore1 to review briefly the history of this art1 and the causes which have affected it1 in order that1 knowing the reasons which led to the formation of each style1 the student may follow its study with the practical understanding and logical inference which lead to the best results4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the question of which country furnished the first or earliest period of approach to civilization in the building of monuments or habitations has been1 and is likely to be1 an open one for some time to come4 ,speculative discussion on this point can serve no end of importance to architects2 it interests more especially the historian and antiquarian4 ,consequently we will1 for the sake of convenience1 glance over the periods of architecture in the following order3 #a4 ,celtic or ,druidical remains4 #b4 ,the ,monuments of ,egypt4 #c4 ,asiatic architecture4 #d4 ,greece4 #e4 ,etruria and ,rome4 #f4 ,the ,early ,christian style4 #g4 ,the ,byzantine style4 #h4 ,mahometan architecture4 #i4 ,the ,romanesque style4 #aj4 ,gothic architecture4 #aa4 ,the ,renaissance4 ,i4 ,,celtic ,,or ,,druidical ,,remains4 ,the ,celtic race has left enduring marks of its power in the numerous monuments which are found in various parts of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,spain1 and scattered through adjacent countries4 ,these consist of collections of huge uncarved boulders1 arranged in geometrical lines1 and often found in the centre of vast plains1 far removed from quarry or mountain-side4 ,the more common forms are called 8menhirs or peulvans10 signifying in ,celtic 8long stones40 ,these are either found separately or ranged in long parallel lines4 ,the most remarkable examples are at ,carnac1 in ,brittany1 where there are twelve hundred of these huge stones1 varying from three to eighteen feet in height1 ranged in eleven rows1 leading to a semicircular enclosure4 ,what purpose they served1 and whether of a religious or civil character1 has not been conclusively determined4 ,some consider that they served to mark the burial-spot of the ,druids2 others that they were landmarks or emblems of victory4 ,to another class belong the so-called ,rocking ,stones1 which consist of two immense blocks of rock1 placed one upon the other1 and either balanced so exactly that the slightest touch will suffice to shake them1 or pivoted so as to revolve4 ,there are examples at ,tenanville1 near ,cherbourg1 in the north of ,france1 and in ,sussex1 ,england4 ,one of these1 called the 8,great upon ,little10 is estimated to weigh a million pounds4 ,batissier considers them to have been erected by the priests1 either to strike terror and wonder into the hearts of the people1 whom they sought to hold in subjection1 or as emblems of the world suspended in the air4 ,we know that they have existed from remote ages1 as mention is made of their antiquity by ,pliny and ,ptolemy4 ,trilitha1 or lichavens1 are formed with three stones1 two vertical and one horizontal resting upon the others1 in the shape of a rude gateway4 ,this is what they were probably intended for1 though it has been suggested that they were used for altars4 ,similar to these are the dolmens1 or table-stones1 consisting of one large flat boulder supported by several smaller ones4 ,their upper surfaces1 as a rule1 have channels cut in them1 which are generally believed to have been receptacles for the blood of victims sacrificed upon them1 and some are even hollowed out in the shape of the human body4 ,the ,merchants' ,tables1 at ,lochmariaker1 are the most noted among the many that still exist4 ,from fragments of skeletons usually found in the vicinity of dolmens1 it has been imagined that either the priests or their human offerings were buried there as upon consecrated ground4 ,there are several instances where these dolmens form covered ways or avenues1 being placed one beside another in continuous line1 and generally surrounded by a plantation of trees4 ,they are frequently divided by blocks of stone into several compartments1 and1 like the tumuli or barrows1 were probably used as places of interment for the dead4 ,the most interesting1 perhaps1 of any of these groups of stones are the 8cromlechs03 enclosures formed of numerous boulders1 arranged either in elliptic rows or in concentric circles1 with a large monolith in the central point4 ,each circle is composed of a definite number of 8menhirs10 and the whole is usually surrounded by a ditch4 ,it is supposed that each stone represented a minor deity1 and the central one the chief of the gods4 ,their purpose apparently was to mark the place of large assemblies1 called together for the administration of civil1 military1 and religious rites4 ,the cromlech of ,stonehenge in ,wiltshire is the most celebrated and one of the largest known4 ,the country folk call it the ,cor-,gaur1 or dance of giants1 and attribute its formation to the magic of the famous enchanter1 ,merlin4 ,it is composed of two circular and two elliptic enclosures1 the one within the other1 and is several hundred feet in circumference4 ,in none of these ,celtic monuments is there anything which may be called strictly architectural1 but some of them illustrate a principle of building which is of importance to note4 ,to place a row of stones in upright positions denotes no special phase of intelligent thought1 beyond a desire to permanently mark some interesting locality1 but when the ancient race which raised these massive rocks conceived the idea of supporting one block upon a number of smaller ones1 it had reached a first principle of construction1 destined to be employed for many centuries afterward in some of the finest buildings4 ,after the trilithon came the table-stones1 and from these it was but a step to the covered alleys1 which were in themselves a first conception of a rude habitation1 walled in and roofed over4 ,there can be nothing more elementary than this1 and no simpler constructional expedient1 in whatever country it may first have been evolved4 ,we do not know the precise date of ,celtic monuments1 nor is it probable that they are as ancient as the ,egyptian pyramids1 but as in any case they illustrate the transition from brutal ignorance to an era of thought1 we may place them at the commencement of our chronological list4 ,in the various themes and discussions advanced by archologists1 and the strange legends and tales of the peasantry with regard to them1 we have no concern4 ,it is sufficient for us to know that they exist and afford us an insight into the dawning efforts of a barbaric people to progress in the art which we propose to study4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,monuments ,,of ,,egypt4 ,the history of ,egypt is divided into five periods1 from the earliest ages down to its conquest by the ,romans at the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,the first period comprises the first fourteen dynasties of ancient kings1 among whom the most important are3 ,menes1 founder of ,memphis1 ,shoofoo or ,cheops1 ,shafra or ,chephren1 and ,mycerinus1 builders of the pyramids of ,gizeh1 and the two ,theban monarchs1 ,osirtasen ,i4 and ,amenemha ,,iii41 by whom the tombs at ,beni ,hassan1 the ,labyrinth and ,lake ,moeris were constructed4 ,according to ,bunsen these fourteen dynasties date from #cfbc to #bedg ,b4,c4 ,the second period is marked by the invasion of the ,hyksos1 or ,shepherd ,kings1 of whom there were three dynasties4 ,they remained in power until #afbe ,b4,c4 and were a warlike and destructive race1 leaving no permanent traces of their occupation4 ,the third period is the most brilliant in ,egyptian history1 extending from #afbe to #ebe ,b4,c41 and comprising nine dynasties of great conquerors and builders4 ,the best known of these are3 ,amosis1 ,thothmes ,,iii41 ,sethi ,i41 ,rameses ,,ii4 7the ,great71 called also ,sesostris1 and ,rameses ,,iii4 ,under these kings the great temples of ,luxor1 ,abydus1 and ,karnak were erected and the arts were assiduously cultivated4 ,the ,persians under ,cambyses occupied the country in the year #ebe ,b4,c4 ,they were expelled a century later1 but were again victorious in #cdj ,b4,c41 and remained in possession until the conquest of ,alexander the ,great in #ccb4 ,this fourth period was as unproductive in works of art as had been that of the ,hyksos dominion4 ,after ,alexander1 the ,ptolemys ruled until the close of the first century before ,christ4 ,their government promoted the cultivation of the arts and industries and formed the fifth and last period in the history of ancient ,egypt as an independent state4 ,of these five epochs there are1 therefore1 only three--namely1 the first1 third1 and fifth--during which architecture flourished1 and these three in reality form but one long period in the history of an art which remained almost unaltered1 scarcely either improving or receding1 from the remotest times to its last day4 ,our knowledge of ancient ,egypt has been chiefly derived from bass-reliefs1 mural paintings and hieroglyphics4 ,the latter were unintelligible until the discovery of the ,rosetta stone by the ,french consul ,champollion1 in #agih4 ,this was part of a stone tablet bearing three inscriptions1 one in hieroglyphics1 one in the ,cursive letters used by the lower classes1 and the third in ,greek4 ,by means of this the old alphabet was reconstructed and all the ancient inscriptions deciphered4 ,,tombs4 ,the most important monuments of the first period are the pyramids1 the oldest of which were built between three and four thousand years before ,christ4 ,there remain about a hundred of these in the vicinity of the ancient city of ,memphis1 extending over a considerable extent of country1 and others are found in ,thebes and at ,mero in ,ethiopia4 ,there have been many theories advanced upon the subject of their origin and purpose1 and many arguments set forth seeking to prove that they were observatories1 temples1 granaries1 meteorological monuments1 or tombs4 ,nearly all modern authorities agree upon the last as the most probable solution of the problem1 not only from the sarcophagi and mummies found within many of them1 and from inscriptions relating events in the lives of important personages which adorn the walls of some of their inner chambers1 but from the fact that these buildings are never found beyond the confines of cemeteries4 ,in erecting these monuments1 the ,egyptians usually selected a site upon a rocky plateau1 on which a space equal to the superficial area required for the base was made level1 a mound being left in the centre which was bonded in with the masonry4 ,below this platform a sepulchral chamber and connecting passage were hollowed in the rock4 ,the pyramid was built over this chamber and contained one or more additional apartments1 reached from the outside by narrow and inclined corridors4 ,it was generally constructed with blocks of limestone1 in successive steps receding at an angle varying from forty-five to seventy degrees4 ,the outside was afterward cased with slabs of polished syenite1 upon which inscriptions were engraved or painted4 ,the interior chambers and corridors were likewise lined with polished granite1 sometimes so mathematically jointed that a needle could not be pushed between the stones4 ,ceilings were formed by inclined slabs resting against each other or the walls were corbelled inward until they met4 ,the entrances to the passages were invariably closed and concealed1 and portcullises of heavy granite blocks1 sliding in grooves1 were placed at intervals along the corridors1 the more effectually to preserve the sepulchre from violation4 ,nearly all have1 nevertheless1 been entered and rifled1 so that but little is left to aid the archologist in his researches4 ,fragmentary inscriptions and local observations compared with the accounts given by ,greek and ,latin authors have1 however1 resulted in the piecing together of what may be presumed to be an accurate history of the pyramid-builders4 ,the three largest pyramids are situated at ,gizeh1 a small village near ,cairo1 and are respectively those of ,cheops1 known also as ,suphis or ,shoofoo1 ,chephren or ,shafra1 and ,mycerinus4 ,the following table shows the dimensions given by two of the best authorities3 ,,side ,,of ,,base4 ,,perpendicular ,,height4 ,sir ,g4 ,col4 ,h4 ,sir ,g4 ,col4 ,h4 ,wilkinson4 ,vyse4 ,wilkinson4 ,vyse4 ,cheops #gef #gfd #dhj #i #dhj #i ,chephren #gjg #i #dec #ded #c ,mycerinus #cfd #f #bjh ,all of these are oriented and the entrances are all on the ,north sides4 ,this is a rule applicable to all the pyramids except that of ,sakkarah1 which is placed without reference to the points of the compass and was probably erected at a much later date4 ,the first or ,great ,pyramid contains one subterranean chamber1 reached by a passage some three hundred feet long1 and two other apartments above the level of the ground1 the one above the other1 called the ,king's and ,queen's sepulchres4 ,the entrance to the connecting corridors is placed #de feet above the ground and #bc feet away from the true centre in order to deceive explorers4 ,the ,queen's ,chamber is about #ah feet square by #bj feet in height1 and is placed directly under the apex of the pyramid4 ,it is #fg feet above the ground1 and #ga feet below the ,king's ,chamber4 ,the passage leading to the latter is #bh feet high1 formed by corbelled walls4 ,this chamber is roofed by a flat ceiling and measures #cd feet in length by #ag in breadth1 and is #ai feet high4 ,the walls and ceiling are built of finely polished granite1 and the apartment contains a sarcophagus of the same material4 ,the weight of the superincumbent masonry is relieved by five other compartments placed over the chamber1 four of which are covered by flat slabs1 and the fifth by inclined stones resting against each other4 ,it was in this highest compartment that some hieroglyphics scrawled in red ochre on the walls were discovered1 by means of which the name ,shoofoo became known4 ,herodotus says that one hundred thousand men were employed during twenty years in building the ,great ,pyramid1 after they had devoted ten years1 previous to its erection1 to the construction of a causeway to the ,nile1 over which the stone was carried1 which had been brought down the river from the ,arabian hills4 ,diodorus asserts that the number of workmen employed was upward of three hundred and sixty thousand4 ,the second pyramid contains two chambers1 the most important of which is on the ground level1 partly sunk in the rock4 ,its dimensions are #df feet long by #af in width1 and #bb feet high4 ,within it a granite sarcophagus was found1 containing the bones of an ox4 ,this discovery gave rise to much speculation1 as to whether the pyramids were not originally intended for the sepulchres of the animal deities worshipped by the ,egyptians1 the bull ,apis in particular4 ,the third pyramid was covered by a casing of polished red granite1 formed of blocks with bevelled edges4 ,there are several chambers inside1 one of which contained a mummy and case1 now transferred to the ,british ,museum4 ,near the pyramid of ,cheops1 on the same plateau1 is the ,sphinx4 ,this great statue1 with a human head and the body of a lion1 is carved in the natural rock1 deficiencies being made up by added masonry4 ,its dimensions are colossal1 the body being #adj feet long1 and the face #cj feet high by #ad feet in breadth4 ,this mysterious creation was intended as the representation of a god1 and as such had sacrifices offered before it1 as the altars and temples erected beneath it attest4 ,from inscriptions upon a stone found near by1 it is known that the ,sphinx was called ,hor-em-khoo1 8,the ,sun in his ,resting-place40 ,the head was originally surmounted by a royal helmet1 the face had a beard1 fragments of which have been unearthed1 and it is otherwise badly mutilated4 ,this fanciful creature has doubtless much affinity with the winged bulls and lions of the ,assyrian epoch4 ,the ,egyptians also buried their dead in smaller tombs1 in subterranean vaults1 and in catacombs excavated in the rock of mountainous regions4 ,a great number of these smaller tombs were built in the vicinity of ancient ,memphis and are now commonly called 8mastabahs40 ,in arrangement they were nearly all similar1 the sepulchre consisting of three parts3 a temple overground1 a pit or well1 and a subterranean chamber4 ,the temple was in the shape of a frustum of a pyramid1 the walls inclining inward at an angle of seventy degrees4 ,it contained one or several apartments1 used as places of assembly for the relatives and friends of the deceased1 who came at stated intervals to hold services and to bring offerings of a suitable character4 ,a list of these occasions was placed over the entrance1 and on a second tablet or stella1 inside1 the name1 titles1 and virtues of the dead were recorded4 ,the walls were brilliantly painted1 domestic and religious scenes being the usual subjects depicted4 ,the well-opening was usually concealed and filled with masonry4 ,its sides were formed of slabs of granite down to rock level and then excavated in the rock1 sometimes thirty or forty yards below the surface4 ,from the bottom of the pit a doorway1 usually walled up1 opened into a chamber containing a stone sarcophagus1 in which the mummy was placed4 ,the finest excavated grottos are found at ,beni ,hassan and in the neighborhood of ,thebes4 ,those at ,beni ,hassan follow the type of the 8mastabah10 having the assembly hall1 the well1 and the chamber beneath1 all being hollowed out of the rock4 ,the sides are decorated with columns1 architraves1 and cornices1 in imitation of constructive architecture1 and the ceilings are cut out to represent vaults1 the uncarved surfaces being adorned with paintings and hieroglyphics4 ,the columns are especially interesting1 as having evidently furnished the ,greeks with the model for their ,doric temples1 and the order has in consequence been called the proto-doric4 ,they have a diameter of five feet and are sixteen feet high2 the shaft has sixteen sides with flutings and is surmounted by a tile or abacus4 ,besides these1 there are other columns with capitals in the form of a lotus or papyrus bud1 which are more commonly found in ,egyptian temples4 ,the tombs of the kings at ,thebes are arranged on a different principle2 they consist of long sloping corridors opening into chambers and halls1 and penetrating in a continuous line into the mountain rock4 ,there are several groups1 the most important of which is situated in the valley of ,biban-el-,molook1 or the 8,gates of the ,kings40 ,the tomb of ,sethi ,i41 the father of ,rameses ,,ii41 discovered by the explorer ,belzoni in the earlier part of the century1 is the finest example1 the sculpture and paintings which it contains being very remarkable for their execution and of great historical interest1 as they illustrate very completely the manners and customs of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,every effort had evidently been made to conceal the tomb1 for not only was the entrance closed and covered with loose rock1 but the first chamber1 reached by a succession of passages and steep staircases1 had been walled up and the four sides painted1 so as to have the appearance of being the limit of the extent of the tomb4 ,the hollow sound1 caused by hammering on the walls at one point1 led the explorer to continue his efforts1 which were rewarded by the discovery of several more halls and chambers1 terminating in a great vaulted chamber1 thirty feet long1 containing an alabaster sarcophagus4 ,it has been conjectured that many of these excavated grottos were occupied as residences by the kings and great personages of the empire during their lifetime1 and converted into sepulchres after death4 ,the custom of relatives meeting at intervals in an assembly hall connected with the tomb does not seem to have prevailed here as at ,memphis1 but it is not improbable that the great ,theban temples were used1 if indeed they were not erected for this purpose4 ,the great mass of the people were not honoured by such magnificent tombs1 but were buried in subterranean vaults in the necropolis 7,greek1 8city of the dead07 attached to each great town4 ,the largest are those of ,sas1 ,sakkarah near ,memphis1 ,thebes1 and ,abydus4 ,these underground galleries were reached by deep wells1 and often contained several stories of small chambers in which the embalmed bodies were placed1 together with vases1 statuettes1 and other votive offerings4 ,there were also cemeteries in which the animals worshipped by the ,egyptians were buried1 containing thousands of embalmed birds and reptiles1 particularly the ibis and crocodile4 ,the ,apis mausoleum at ,sakkarah1 where the sacred bulls were interred1 is one of the most important1 the chambers and galleries being excavated in the rock and covering an immense area4 ,the mausoleum was connected with the ,serapeum1 a temple above ground1 where the living bull was worshipped as a deity4 ,,temples4 ,there are two classes of ,egyptian temples--those hollowed out of the mountain rock1 commonly called speos1 and those built upon the open plain and distinguished by the term 8hypthral0 7,greek1 8under air074 ,the most important of the latter are the temples of ,sethi ,i41 at ,abydus2 ,amun re1 at ,kooneh2 the great and small temples of ,medeenet ,haboo1 erected by ,rameses ,,iii4 and ,thothmes ,,ii42 the ,rameseum or ,memnonium1 of ,rameses ,,ii42 ,luxor and ,karnak1 at ,thebes2 and the temples of ,denderah1 ,edfou1 and ,phil1 built by the ,ptolemys4 ,all of these are similar in general plan1 consisting of a greater or less number of courts1 halls1 and sanctuaries1 which in each case are placed 8en suite10 that is1 one opening into the other in a continuous line1 the larger apartments being in about the centre of this line and gradually diminishing in size1 the last chamber being the smallest4 ,as the main characteristics of the largest temples apply in a modified form to the smallest1 a description of a complete temple would seem to be the best way of explaining the usual arrangements4 ,a wall of crude brick usually enclosed the whole structure1 which was surrounded by a sacred grove1 or temenos4 ,this wall was entered by an outer gate1 or pylon1 built in the shape of a frustum of a pyramid1 and surmounted by a coved cornice1 the doorway having perpendicular or slanting jambs4 ,from this an avenue1 or dromos1 bordered with sphinxes with human or rams' heads1 led up to the propyla1 or towers4 ,the latter resembled the outer pylons1 but were on a larger scale1 containing staircases leading to upper terraces4 ,they were spaced a short distance apart to admit of a passage between them1 which was entered through a second gateway similar to the first4 ,the sides of these buildings were usually elaborately painted1 and rings were inserted in the masonry to hold the poles upon which the royal banners were hoisted4 ,this second entrance was often flanked by two obelisks--long tapering monoliths with pyramidal summits1 covered with hieroglyphic inscriptions recounting the dedication of the temple by the king to his favorite divinity4 ,these obelisks were sometimes ninety feet high1 and mounted upon square blocks4 ,they were not always of equal size1 probably owing to the difficulty of obtaining single stones of such enormous length4 ,it is of interest to note that their sides were made slightly convex in order to prevent their appearing concave1 which would be the effect had they been left quite flat4 ,a second set of towers1 or propyla1 with staircases1 came next1 with a court or area intervening4 ,on each side of this court a colonnade was generally placed2 and sometimes before the entrance to the towers two colossal statues of the king1 represented seated1 with his hands resting upon his knees in the conventional attitude of repose4 ,the most famous are those known as the ,colossi of ,memnon1 which stand on the plain of ,thebes4 ,they were probably in the court of the temple of ,amunoph ,,iii41 of which scarcely any vestige now remains4 ,they are fifty feet high1 mounted upon pedestals4 ,one of them is called the ,vocal ,memnon1 as1 in ancient times1 it gave forth sounds at the break of day--a phenomenon more easily explained as a trick of the priests1 than by natural causes4 ,beyond this court there was usually an inner vestibule1 with columns forming porticos on the four sides2 those opposite the entrance being connected by stone screens1 reaching half-way up1 forming a shaded anteroom1 or pronaos1 to the great hall of assembly1 which was the next apartment4 ,the shafts and capitals of the columns varied in different buildings4 ,the plain cylinder1 carrying an inverted bell decorated with palm or other smaller leaves1 or a capital in the shape of the lotus flower were the commonest forms4 ,a column1 representing the stems of water-plants bound together with rings1 and swelling out at the top in the place of the capital1 was also often employed4 ,besides these1 statues of kings1 or shafts surmounted by the heads of ,isis or ,osiris1 were used as supports4 ,the architrave1 or beam1 did not rest directly upon the capital1 but upon an intermediate block4 ,this block1 when on the heads of deities1 was in the shape of a miniature pylon4 ,the cornices were formed of a deep cove and fillet decorated with winged asps4 ,some idea of the size of these inner vestibules1 or peristyles1 may be formed from the dimensions of that in the great temple of ,medeenet ,haboo1 which measures #abc by #acc feet1 and has a height of #ci feet #d inches4 ,each of the porticos of the ,east and ,west sides is supported by five columns2 those on the ,north and ,south by eight ,osiride pillars1 having a circumference of #bc feet and a height of #bd feet4 ,the great hall of assembly1 which adjoined the vestibule1 was generally the finest portion of the temple4 ,the architraves supporting the roof rested upon a great number of lofty columns1 which in the centre rose to a greater height1 in order to obtain a clerestory1 by which the hall was lighted4 ,the largest of these is in the temple of ,karnak1 measuring #agj by #cbi feet4 ,the central avenue consists of twelve columns1 #fb feet high by #aa feet #f inches in diameter4 ,besides these there are one hundred and twenty-two others1 #db feet #f inches in height and #bh feet in circumference4 ,the lintel over the doorway by which it is entered measured #dj feet in length4 ,the sanctuary was contiguous to the great hall1 and terminated the suite4 ,this consisted of a chamber1 either occupying the whole of the rear space1 or isolated by corridors on each side1 with smaller sanctuaries opposite4 ,in many of these1 altars and statues have been found1 some of the former formed of a single block1 hollowed at the top and pierced through from top to bottom1 so that sacrifices placed upon them could be consumed apparently without ignition1 by means of fires kindled in subterranean vaults4 ,in connection with the halls in the temple of ,abydus and elsewhere there were a number of vaulted chambers2 the vault not being formed of a series of true arches1 that is1 with joints radiating to a common centre1 but consisting of stone beams placed one beside the other1 and hollowed out on the under side4 ,the arch1 however1 was not unknown to the ,egyptians--there are stone vaulted tombs at ,sakkarah of the time of ,psammetichus 7#fej ,b4,c471 and crude brick arches have been found at ,thebes dating as far back as the period of the eighth dynasty 7#bibe ,b4,c4874 ,the antiquity of the arch has been the subject of much debate1 owing chiefly to the fact that the ,greeks made no use of it2 recent explorations have1 however1 shown that this constructive expedient was known both in ,egypt and ,assyria many years before it was adopted by the ,etruscans1 to whom its invention was long attributed4 ,the exterior walls of all temples were built on a batter1 sloping inward at an angle of about seventy degrees and with scarcely any openings4 ,the inside walls were perpendicular1 and decorated with bass-reliefs and paintings4 ,these were often of a most elaborate character1 and it is from them that so much has been learned concerning the ancient history of the country4 ,the rock-cut temples of ,nubia are laid out on much the same plan4 ,they usually consist of a pronaos1 naos1 and sanctuary1 forming a suite1 with an entrance marked by colossal statuary hewn out of the side of the cliff4 ,some have a dromos of sphinxes1 propyla1 and a peristyle court of masonry preceding the excavated portions4 ,the temple of ,wady ,sabooah is the best example of the latter4 ,of the former none can compare with the ,great and ,small temples of ,aboo ,simbel1 or ,ipsambool1 which are of the time of ,rameses the ,great4 ,the smaller of the two is dedicated to the goddess ,athor1 the ,venus of the ,egyptians4 ,the exterior is ornamented with six statues of deities recessed in the rock1 each measuring thirty-five feet in height4 ,in the interior there is a first hall1 supported by square pillars1 opening into a corridor1 flanked by smaller halls1 leading to the sanctuary4 ,the front of the ,great temple is adorned with four statues of the king seated upon his throne1 each sixty feet high4 ,in the great hall there are eight ,osiride pillars1 upward of thirty feet in height4 ,the sides of the speos are carved with bass-reliefs1 representing the conquests of ,rameses the ,great4 ,there are some sixteen smaller chambers1 the suite terminating in the sanctuary1 which contains an altar and four statues--the three deities1 ,amun re1 ,phre1 and ,phtah1 with the king seated in their company4 ,under the headings tombs and temples are comprised the chief architectural works of the ,egyptians4 ,besides these there were one or two gigantic constructions1 famous in antiquity1 but which have now almost disappeared4 ,of these1 the ,labyrinth and the ,lake ,moeris were the most important4 ,the former appears to have been an immense structure1 half palace1 half tomb1 built by ,amenemha ,,iii41 of the twelfth dynasty4 ,it was built on three sides of an open square1 measuring about five hundred feet on the side1 consisting of numerous chambers and courts1 in two stories1 one above and the other below the level of the ground4 ,at the open end was placed a large pyramid1 of which the ruins still remain4 ,herodotus admired the ,labyrinth more than any other of the ,egyptian buildings1 declaring it to surpass the pyramids in labour and expense4 ,near by was the artificial ,lake ,moeris1 formed to retain the ,nile waters during the inundation1 for the purpose of irrigating the country surrounding ,memphis1 during the dry season4 ,it covered an immense area2 tradition says #dej miles in circumference4 ,the banks were fortified with massive masonry1 and the waters distributed by means of locks and sluices4 ,the ,egyptians appear as a civilized nation1 having a scientific1 artistic1 and political knowledge of no mean order1 at a time when the greater part of the world's inhabitants were but a step removed from the level of ignorant savages1 and when1 according to a generally accepted chronology1 the world itself had existed but a few hundred years4 ,the construction of the ,pyramids reveals a building capacity which has rarely been rivalled1 requiring not only immense mechanical power1 but an accuracy of judgment and calculation in the adjustment of blocks of granite weighing many tons1 not simply piled one above the other1 but perfectly jointed and polished1 and so disposed that passages and chambers were roofed over and their ceilings relieved from superincumbent weight by ingeniously contrived compartments1 one above the other1 and closed by sliding doors of monolithic stones1 the handling of which could only have been successful by people well versed in the theories of equilibrium and support2 and yet all this was done at a date which the best authorities agree in saying could not have been later than three thousand years before ,christ4 ,their temples show an equally advanced erudition1 and the paintings and hieroglyphics with which the walls of these buildings are adorned give a faithful representation of the customs of a people acquainted with the minor arts and sciences and the appliances requisite for agriculture4 ,the admiration with which we may regard the excellence of so ancient an art is tempered when we find that it contained no element of progress4 ,the monuments of the eighteenth dynasty1 though numerous and imposing1 scarcely differ from those of the preceding period1 and even in the days of the ,ptolemys1 who encouraged the native art1 there was nothing attempted but a repetition of the old methods4 ,from beginning to end the arts were so fettered by conventionality and dogmatic laws1 opposed to originality or change1 that the only improvements made were in mere mechanical execution4 ,a great prevailing thought seems to have actuated this people1--that of death and eternity4 ,their aim in erecting their buildings was to render them quasi-eternal1 and by embalming the bodies of the dead they even sought to perpetuate the semblance of life4 ,their kings at the beginning of their reigns commenced the construction of their own sepulchres1 employing hundreds of workmen and immense expenditure of the national funds for the purpose1 and countless thousands passed their lives in hollowing temples in the mountain rock and in carrying huge blocks from great distances for the building of the pylons and hypostylic halls of the ,nile1 in which durability and massiveness were considered all-important4 ,egyptian architecture1 simply from the enormous scale of everything it produced1 was always dignified and it had also the merit of severe simplicity2 but mere size can scarcely be rated as an artistic quality of a high order1 and on that account it cannot compare favourably with the art of the ,greeks1 who were probably inspired by what they saw in ,egypt1 but who1 in their own work1 succeeded in combining the qualities of majesty and beauty without resorting to the use of extraordinary materials4 ,,iii4 ,,asiatic ,,architecture4 ,it would1 perhaps1 be reasonable to suppose that in ,india1 where the ,aryan race had its origin1 the earliest traces of dawning art would be found4 ,it has1 however1 been fairly well established that all remnants of very ancient art1 which may have existed there in former times1 have now virtually disappeared1 and that at present there are no remains in ,hindostan of a remoter antiquity than the second or third century before the ,christian era4 ,the architecture of ,india loses much of its interest for us from the fact of its having had no influence upon the origin or development of the ,european styles of building1 which1 starting in ,egypt and ,assyria1 formed a continuous chain1 each linked with its predecessor and successor down to modern times4 ,the ,indians were1 in fact1 never a migratory or colonizing race of people1 and their architecture was a distinctly native production1 executed in accordance with the rules laid down by the priests in their sacred books1 having no affinity with the constructive principles of the ,western world and showing no trace of the arts practised by ,western nations1 except in the slight resemblance of a few mouldings and fragments of sculpture4 ,the chief structures of the country are temples1 pagodas1 and dagobas1 which are found in many different parts of the peninsular and adjacent islands1 resembling each other in general style1 but with some local peculiarities which have caused them to be usually classified in certain comprehensive divisions1 of which the following are the most important3 ,the ,buddhist style1 including the stambhas or lats1 a species of commemorative pillar1 the stupas or topes1 of which the best examples are found at ,sarnath and ,manikyala1 and the viharas of ,bengal4 ,the ,dravidian style1 exemplified in the temples of ,chidambaram1 ,tanjore1 ,combaconum1 and ,madura1 and the rock-cut temples of ,mahavellipore1 and those known as the ,kylas at ,ellora4 ,the ,indo-,aryan1 or ,northern1 comprising the temples of ,kanaruc1 ,bhuwaneswur1 ,jajepur1 and ,cuttack1 in the province of ,orissa4 ,the stupas1 or dagobas1 were a form of structure specially erected for the purposes of ,buddhist worship4 ,they were sometimes built in the shape of a square tower upon rising ground1 of which that at ,sarnath1 north of ,benares1 is the best known4 ,the more important1 however1 are cylindrical and surmounted by a semicircular dome4 ,these are usually erected on artificial mounds or tumuli1 and are constructed either with jointed stones or with rough blocks bedded in cement4 ,the interiors are of solid masonry1 with the exception of a small square chamber1 used as a repository for sacred emblems1 the walls of which are continued up to the top of the dome4 ,the stupa at ,manikyala1 is of great size1 being upward of eighty feet in height1 and measuring some three hundred feet in circumference4 ,the base of the building is in the form of a cylinder1 six or seven feet high1 supporting an attic decorated with pilasters2 above this the walls recede1 and are capped by a hemispherical dome4 ,there are a great number of dagobas in ,ceylon1 in the mountainous districts4 ,they are usually placed in a walled enclosure1 and surrounded by commemorative pillars4 ,smaller constructions of the same description are found in the interior of some of the temples1 being placed where the baldachins1 or altars1 would be placed in ,christian edifices4 ,the rock temples of ,india are of two classes1 the one consisting of grottos hollowed in the mountain side1 and the other of a series of monolithic buildings cut bodily out of the solid rock1 and detached from the surrounding hill plateaus by wide excavated areas4 ,the former1 resembling the speos of ,egypt1 consists of long galleries1 divided into aisles by piers of the natural rock left at regular intervals to sustain the superincumbent mass4 ,a recess or sanctuary is placed at one extremity1 containing the statue of the divinity to whom the temple is dedicated4 ,in some cases the interior is terminated by a semicircular apse with a hemispherical vault1 and the entrance preceded by a vestibule containing votive figures1 the whole forming a plan very similar to that of the ,latin basilicas1 which will be described in a subsequent chapter4 ,the grottos are frequently excavated in several stories and connected by corridors and ramps4 ,the walls or sides are ornamented with rude sculptures1 representing various forms of animal life and monstrous creations of native fancy4 ,the piers or pillars are generally either square or octagonal1 decorated with mouldings and flutings1 and having well defined capitals and bases4 ,the capitals usually support a stone beam or bracket1 evidently in imitation of those used in wooden construction1 in which a similar expedient would be employed to distribute the sustaining power over a wider surface than that directly above the column or post4 ,this imitation of wooden forms1 which we have already noticed in ,egypt1 is found universally in all ancient constructions showing that in nearly every country wooden architecture was employed before stone4 ,the group known as the ,kylas of ,ellora1 is the finest example of the temples fashioned both inside and outside from the solid rock4 ,the whole edifice is monolithic and situated in an oblong court formed by a trench excavated 8vivo saxo0 on the four sides4 ,the exterior surfaces are richly carved1 and the piers shaped to represent elephants1 lions1 and fantastic creatures supporting the superstructure on their backs4 ,the court is entered from a monumental porch1 the upper story of which is connected with a small chapel by a bridge4 ,this chapel is flanked by two colossal elephants1 and by two columns or towers standing isolated on either side4 ,a second bridge leads from this to the hall of ,shiva1 the chief room in the suite1 which is divided by sixteen columns1 with corresponding pilasters on the walls4 ,at the farther extremity is the sanctuary containing the statue of the presiding divinity4 ,beyond this are open terraces1 surrounded by chapels4 ,the great hall is connected laterally with subterranean chambers in the surrounding cliffs1 reached also from excavated corridors which follow the perimeter of the court1 the mass above being sustained by square piers spaced at short distances apart4 ,the inside walls are decorated with bass-reliefs and the ceilings ornamented with stucco relievos1 which were originally brilliantly painted4 ,the height of the hall of ,shiva is about fifty feet1 the hillside opposite to it being about ninety feet high4 ,these temples may be said to be the most remarkable and unique architectural productions to be found anywhere4 ,they are examples of long-continued perseverance and patience1 and can only be the result of a preconceived design which must have been thoroughly studied in all its elaborate detail before the first stroke was given toward its realization4 ,the unity of conception and execution exhibited in such works is truly wonderful1 and it is not astonishing that the superstitious natives should attribute their creation to ,visvakarma1 the heavenly architect4 ,on the other hand1 there are but few practical lessons to be learned from their examination4 ,such methods are not possible in our day1 nor if so1 would they be desirable4 ,architecture of this kind is scarcely more than wholesale sculpture1 and as such can in no sense compare favourably with the grace of form and scientific construction which we see in the works of ,greek and ,gothic artists4 ,the ,pagodas are the most important of the buildings constructed with jointed materials4 ,they consist of vast enclosures containing numerous religious and domestic edifices4 ,there are often double or triple series of enclosing walls of great height and thickness4 ,the sides are usually placed so as to face the points of the compass and each contains a monumental entrance1 richly sculptured1 and adorned with bands of embossed copper4 ,the chief buildings within are the temple proper1 or vimana1 and a number of hypostylic halls with small sanctuaries dedicated to different divinities4 ,the form of the vimana differs in the ,north and ,south of ,india4 ,in both cases it is pyramidal1 but while in the ,southern temples the plan is rectangular and the elevations marked by a series of horizontal stories and mouldings1 in the ,north the exterior surfaces are convex and the outlines curved1 showing vertical instead of horizontal divisions4 ,the lower story1 containing the idol1 is usually a hollow cube of granite1 and serves as a base to the pyramid above1 which is most frequently built of brick with stucco facing4 ,the halls are composed of a great number of columns of varied design1 placed in parallel rows4 ,the ceilings are formed by stone beams or slabs resting upon the columns4 ,the central aisle is frequently wider than the others and is roofed over by a corbelled vault4 ,a tank of sacred water surrounded by an open colonnade is not uncommonly placed within the enclosure1 the waters being used by the infirm for the healing properties which they are supposed to contain4 ,the pagodas of ,tanjore1 ,combaconum1 and ,madura are among the finest and most celebrated4 ,they were built between the fifth and eleventh centuries of the ,christian era1 and should hardly1 therefore1 be described among the ancient buildings of the world1 were it not that they are linked in with the chain of the older ,indian art too closely to be separated from it4 ,in the period corresponding to the ,middle ,ages of ,europe1 ,mahometan architecture was introduced in ,india and many beautiful buildings were erected in a new style blending the foreign art with the native ideas and taste1 but offering a marked contrast to that which preceded it4 ,although ,china was one of the oldest of civilized countries it contains but few monuments of great antiquity4 ,the temples and palaces1 being built of wood1 were exposed to fire and decay1 and were often pulled down and rebuilt4 ,with the exception of the great wall and of the numerous bridges crossing rivers or arms of the sea1 there are no important stone constructions to be found there4 ,the latter are formed of huge granite piers1 spanned by massive stone lintels1 requiring the united labour of thousands of men to convey them from the quarries to their destination and to set them in place4 ,in the mountains the ravines are bridged by iron chains suspended from cliff to cliff4 ,the great wall was built as a frontier protection1 and extended the entire length of the boundaries of the country4 ,it has always been kept in repair1 although obviously absurd as a fortification in modern times4 ,it is of great thickness1 and upward of twenty feet in height4 ,the foundations are of stone1 and the upper part of brick with stone facing1 the joints of which are extremely accurate4 ,at short intervals there are towers1 placed so that the middle distance between any two is within arrow-shot4 ,chinese wooden buildings are all much alike1 whether temples or palaces4 ,as a rule1 they have but one or two stories2 they are surrounded by porticos1 consisting of wooden columns mounted on stone bases1 without capitals1 which are replaced by a species of bracket4 ,the roofs project considerably1 and their angles are turned up1 this form being undoubtedly borrowed from the old tent habitations1 which were composed of hides stretched tightly on bamboos4 ,the tiles with which they are covered are semicylindrical in shape and are enamelled with bright colour4 ,the celebrated taas1 or ,buddhist towers1 are of similar construction4 ,they are generally octagonal1 and from six to ten stories high4 ,each story is set back from the one below1 and has a balcony and projecting roof1 with bells hung in the angles4 ,the walls are covered with tiles or paintings4 ,a high staff is placed on the top and connected with angles of the roof by chains4 ,the tower of ,nankin1 known as the ,porcelain ,tower1 was the most famous4 ,it was erected in #adca1 and but recently destroyed4 ,the ,chinese have always excelled in artificial or landscape gardening4 ,in this work they build airy bridges1 with open-work balustrades1 pavilions highly ornamented and enriched with painting and gilding1 and boundary walls with circular openings1 disclosing vistas of great beauty4 ,their commemorative gateways are of interest1 as they have a central opening and a smaller one on each side1 like the ,roman triumphal arches2 the heads are square1 however1 with brackets in the corners4 ,the upper parts are ornamented with figures in relief and inscriptions recording the virtues of persons to whose memory they are dedicated4 ,although communication existed between ,china and the countries bordering upon the ,mediterranean from remote ages1 ,chinese architecture1 like the ,indian1 was without influence upon that of ,europe4 ,it is only in ,western ,asia that the first forms of building are discernible1 which were subsequently imitated or followed in ,european constructions4 ,the most important of these are situated in ,mesopotamia1 the fertile region comprised between the ,tigris and the ,euphrates4 ,the political histories of ,assyria1 ,babylon1 and ,persia are generally treated separately1 but the architecture of each belongs to one style1 which may be called the ,assyrian1 for its distinguishing characteristics remain the same in all the great cities which were in turn the capitals of reconstructed kingdoms and empires4 ,it may be considered in four chronological divisions3 ,in ancient ,babylon1 from #bbcd ,b4,c4 to #aebj ,b4,c41 at ,wurka and ,mugheyr2 in ,nineveh1 from the fourteenth to the seventh century ,b4,c41 at ,nimrod1 ,khorsabad1 and ,koyoundjik2 in the second ,babylon1 during the seventh century and after the capture of the latter by ,cyrus in the year #ech ,b4,c41 in ,persia1 at ,persepolis1 ,passargad1 and ,susa4 ,a renaissance of the art may be traced in ,sassanian buildings erected eight centuries later4 ,the citadels1 palaces1 and other important structures of these cities were usually built upon artificial mounds or terraces1 strengthened by massive walls4 ,the materials used were bituminous bricks1 cemented with bitumen1 slabs of gypsum anchored with copper nails and bands1 and timber for roofs and columns4 ,stone and gypsum or alabaster were employed in ,nineveh and in the cities of ,persia4 ,in ,babylon the only available material was bituminous clay1 and consequently all the buildings there were built of brick4 ,at the present day nothing remains of these but irregular mounds1 from which but little can be gathered toward an understanding of what their appearance was when entire4 ,wood was probably used to a great extent1 and was naturally most easily destroyed by the fire of invading armies4 ,the roofs1 formed of thick layers of earth carried on beams1 in falling in1 buried the lower portions of buildings1 and it is probably due to this fact that the bass-reliefs have been preserved4 ,the surfaces of the bricks were frequently enamelled in colours1 and the wood-work was probably brilliantly painted1 as traces of pigments have been found upon the more durable materials4 ,but little was known of ,assyrian art prior to #ahdc1 when the excavations of ,botta1 the ,french consul at ,mosul1 followed soon after by those conducted by ,layard1 brought to light many ruined buildings1 in which bass-reliefs1 inscribed stones and metals1 and other important relics were found1 enabling historians to form a consecutive account of the government1 warfare1 and arts practised by a people whose cities have lain buried and whose very name has almost been forgotten for over two thousand years4 ,the explorations were made in ,nimrod1 ,koyoundjik1 and ,khorsabad4 ,the palace of ,asshur-bani-pal1 erected at ,nimrod1 in the ninth century ,b4,c41 is situated upon a terrace1 or platform1 approached by a wide staircase1 and preceded by two gates decorated with winged bulls4 ,these winged bulls1 or lions1 were placed as the guardian deities1 at the portals of all the great ,assyrian palaces1 after the manner of the ,egyptian sphinxes1 not standing isolated like these1 however1 but built into the masonry1 one side or the front and one side only1 being carved4 ,the head was human1 with long beard and hair1 and surmounted by a helmet1 the wings large and proportioned to the body4 ,as ,sir ,henry ,layard remarks1 it would have been difficult to find more fitting symbols to express at once the wisdom1 power1 and ubiquity of a supreme being4 ,the chief apartments of the palace are a large assembly hall1 #aeb feet in length by #cj feet in width1 and a number of smaller chambers and banqueting-halls1 ranged around an open court4 ,the walls of the great hall were decorated with bass-reliefs1 representing triumphal processions1 carved upon slabs of gypsum eight feet in height4 ,the palace of ,esarhaddon1 erected in the seventh century1 on the same terrace1 contains a large hall1 #afe by #fb feet1 divided in its length by a wall1 surmounted by a gallery of columns4 ,one of the only well-preserved ramps which has been discovered was that leading to this palace4 ,at ,koyoundjik1 opposite ,mosul1 the palace of ,sennacherib was found at the ,southwest corner of a mound a mile and a half in circumference4 ,it contained a vast number of courts and halls1 decorated with bass-reliefs and winged bulls1 and two colossal statues4 ,the palace of ,sargon at ,khorsabad1 erected in the year #gjd ,b4,c41 is among the best preserved4 ,like the others it is placed upon an artificial terrace1 enclosed by a wall a mile long on each side4 ,it was defended by a citadel of eight towers with doors flanked by winged bulls4 ,the palace was reached by a long1 narrow passage leading to a court and entered through three great gates4 ,the bulls of the central portal were #ai feet high4 ,on each side were two bulls1 #ac feet high1 with the figure of a giant strangling a lion between them4 ,the halls and chambers were grouped around two great courts measuring about #cej by #bjj feet4 ,the hareem formed a separate set of buildings1 as did also the stables and outhouses4 ,the walls were of great thickness1 evidently for coolness4 ,they were decorated with slabs of alabaster1 enamelled tiles1 and designs painted on stucco4 ,there has been much speculation on the method of roofing these rooms1 some believing that circular vaults were employed and others that wooden beams1 supported on wooden columns1 similar to the stone ones found in ,persian palaces1 were used for this purpose4 ,the latter theory seems the more probable1 as the local manner of building is the same as this at the present day4 ,no traces of columns remain1 however1 and the spans are in many cases too great to be roofed by single pieces of timber4 ,one of the most interesting discoveries made at ,khorsabad was the gate of the city1 the jambs supporting a semicircular arch over a span of eighteen feet4 ,the gate was a double one having two separate passages1 one for vehicles and the other for pedestrians3 the marks of chariot-wheels still remaining in the pavement of the former4 ,the sides were ornamented with winged bulls1 and the archivolts of the arches were decorated with blue and yellow designs in enamelled tiles4 ,it had been long supposed that the ,etruscans were the first to make use of the true semicircular arch 7i4e41 formed of wedge-shaped stones or bricks1 with joints radiating to a common centre71 but this discovery1 and the finding of pointed arches in the sewers of ,babylon1 by ,layard1 places the date when both these expedients were known1 at a much remoter period1 though even these are probably much later than the examples found in ,egypt4 ,no complete example of a ,chaldean temple has been found1 but there are several the lower stories of which are sufficiently well preserved to give an accurate idea of their size and details1 and in the tomb of ,cyrus at ,passagard1 in ,persia1 we have probably a model on a small scale of one of these buildings when entire4 ,this tomb consists of a platform of six steps1 eighteen feet high1 surmounted by a rectangular chamber4 ,the latter has a doorway and a ridged roof abutting against pediments4 ,it has been surmised that all the temples were like this1 consisting of a chamber or cella built on the summit of a several-storied structure1 each story being either concentric and reached by a ramp winding around the four sides or placed farther to one side than that immediately below it and approached by straight flights of stairs4 ,the oldest is probably that at ,wurka1 dating as far back as #bjjj ,b4,c41 known as the ,bowariyeh4 ,there are the remains of two stories1 the lower occupying about #bjj square feet4 ,it is probable that a third story or a cella was placed above these1 but nothing positive can be said on the subject1 owing to the extremely ruinous condition of the building4 ,the temple of ,birs ,nimroud1 probably identical with the tower of ,babel1 is in a more satisfactory condition1 the upper story having been preserved by a process of vitrification4 ,the lowest story occupies a square measuring #bgb feet on the side1 each of the upper ones1 of which it is supposed there were originally six1 being #db feet less4 ,for the materials used in its construction we have the scriptural authority3 8,go to1 let us make brick and burn them thoroughly4 ,and they had brick for stone1 and slime had they for mortar0 7,gen4 xi472 slime being probably bitumen4 ,m4 ,place discovered the remains of a tower at ,khorsabad1 with a winding ramp1 which he thinks was originally seven stories in height4 ,the walls were strengthened with buttresses and decorated with sunken panels1 and from traces of colour found upon them it has been supposed that each floor was painted in a different hue4 ,the area covered by the base is about one hundred and fifty square feet1 and the total height was probably one hundred and thirty-five feet4 ,the ruins of ,persepolis are the best preserved of the ancient ,persian buildings1 those at ,susa and ,passagard being in too bad a condition to offer much that is interesting4 ,they are situated in the plain of ,mardacht1 upon a terrace partly formed of masonry1 and partly cut in the rock of the adjoining range of hills4 ,the wall is composed of huge blocks of stone fitted together without mortar1 but with the finest of joints4 ,the terrace is reached by a splendid double flight of steps1 upward of twenty feet in width1 and on a grade easy enough to permit of the passage of long processions without interruption4 ,at the head of the stairs is a propylum1 or outer gate1 flanked by colossal human-headed bulls4 ,beyond this1 a second staircase1 ornamented with a triple row of bass-reliefs1 gives access to the ,chehil ,minar1 or great hall of ,xerxes4 ,this building occupies a rectangle about three hundred and fifty feet long by three hundred in width4 ,it consists chiefly of a central hall and three lateral porticos1 the roofs of which were sustained by #gb columns1 #cf in the hall and #ab in each of the porches4 ,thirteen of these are still standing1 and the position of all the others is well defined by broken bases or shafts4 ,they are of two different kinds1 the one having a capital composed of double-headed bulls1 and the other a capital with volutes1 not placed horizontally as we see them in classical columns1 but vertically and resting on a complicated series of mouldings4 ,these last may have been also surmounted by the double-headed bulls1 as without such an addition the columns are shorter than the others1 which measure #fg feet #d inches4 ,the beams which they sustained1 rested upon the body of the bull between the two heads4 ,the shafts of the columns at ,persepolis are fluted and taper upward from the bases1 which are elaborately ornamented with mouldings4 ,it is probable that the ,greek ,ionic capital was derived directly from the ,persian voluted model1 as the order originated in the ,greek colony in ,asia ,minor4 ,the ,chehil ,minar is the finest building on the platform1 the other halls of ,darius and ,xerxes being smaller1 and though a hall containing #ajj columns has been found1 it is inferior in height1 the total altitude not exceeding twenty-five feet4 ,the hall of ,darius contained sixteen columns1 forming a square1 preceded by a portico with eight more4 ,the walls have long since disappeared1 but the faade of the building is reproduced upon the face of the rock-cut tomb of ,darius in the neighbouring hill called ,naksh-i-,rustam1 so that a restoration of the structure as it originally appeared is easily made4 ,this tomb shows the four front columns of the porch with double-headed capitals1 sustaining an entablature1 above this is placed an attic decorated with bass-reliefs and a figure is represented standing on the top in the act of sacrificing on an altar4 ,the stone buildings of ,persia are generally supposed to be reproductions of the wooden constructions of ,assyria1 as the character of the art is similar in both1 the bass-reliefs and winged bulls of ,persepolis being practically identical with those of ,nineveh4 ,we find no traces of ,assyrian art for several centuries after the erection of the buildings just described1 though it is probable that it had influence in all ,eastern edifices erected during the interval1 not only in ,asia1 but in ,greece and later in ,byzance4 ,there was evidently a revival of ,assyrian taste during the dynasty of ,sassanian kings who reigned between the third and seventh centuries of our era4 ,the remnants of their palaces are found at ,firouzabad1 ,al ,hadhr1 ,serbistan1 ,ctesiphon1 and ,mashita1 where we find large halls vaulted and domed and ornamented in a manner directly traceable to the ancient buildings in ,assyria4 ,the chief peculiarity of these structures lies in the use of the horseshoe or elliptical arch1 which is found nowhere else4 ,the porch of the ,tak-,kesra at ,ctesiphon consists of a great elliptical tunnel-vault1 #aae feet deep1 #he feet high1 over a span of #gb feet4 ,there is more or less ,roman influence in the details of the ,sassanian palaces1 but it is not altogether certain whether the knowledge of domical construction which they exhibit was derived from1 or was not itself parent to1 ,byzantine art4 ,comparatively little is known concerning this ,assyrian style1 but it contains interesting elements1 and it may be that its constructive forms are susceptible of a greater development in our own time4 ,asia ,minor1 ,palestine1 and ,cyprus are fields covered with the evidences of the glory of past ages1 but the ruin and desolation everywhere is complete4 ,the case of the temple of ,jerusalem1 where not one stone remains upon another1 applies in most instances in places which have formerly been great cities1 filled with magnificent buildings which were their pride in the day of their prosperity4 ,the temple of ,solomon was situated upon ,mount ,moriah1 and was built to accommodate the ,levites1 to offer a place of assembly for the people1 and as a temple for the worship of the priests4 ,the two sanctuaries were richly decorated with polished cedar and gold1 with columns and cornices of bronze1 and divided by linen curtains embroidered with purple and scarlet4 ,the peculiar formation of the hill upon which it was built1 required immense walls of the most substantial character to be raised from the valley below to enlarge its summit1 so as to afford sufficient space for the erection of the various courts4 8,it was built of stone1 made ready before it was brought thither2 so that there was neither hammer1 nor axe1 nor any tool of iron heard in the house while it was in building0 7#b ,kings vi41 #g74 ,the temple itself is supposed to have been #fj cubits long1 the porch #bj cubits1 the ,holy place #bj cubits2 the width was #bj cubits and the height #cj cubits4 ,the porch1 however1 was #abj cubits high4 7,the cubit is estimated to equal from #aj to #bj inches47 ,the temple underwent several profanations1 and at last was utterly destroyed in the reign of ,jedekiah by ,nebuchadnezzar1 #ehj ,b4,c4 ,after laying in ruins #db years1 the foundation of the second temple was laid by ,zerubbabel and in breadth and height was double that of ,solomon's4 ,this second temple was plundered and profaned by ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 and afterward rebuilt by ,herod4 ,it was considerably larger than its predecessor and was made of marble and of the most costly workmanship4 ,it became the admiration and envy of the world1 but1 as our ,lord predicted 7,mark xiii41 #b71 it was completely demolished by ,titus1 ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,many restorations of the temples of the ,greek colonists in ,ionia have been attempted1 but they are based on historical descriptions1 inscriptions on coins1 and other uncertain records1 and are too conjectural to be accepted as accurate4 ,there are1 in fact1 but few architectural remains sufficiently well preserved to be of interest to the architect1 excepting the temples at ,baalbek and ,palmyra which are of the ,roman period4 ,there are several groups of tombs1 the most important being in ,lycia4 ,these are of interest1 as they illustrate more completely the transition between wooden and stone building than any other examples4 ,there are two kinds1 the one consisting of sarcophagi standing isolated1 and the other of excavations in the mountain-sides4 ,the former are composed of a stylobate or pedestal1 serving as a base to a coffer ornamented with uprights and cross-pieces and panelled doors imitating exactly a wooden original4 ,the roofs are curved1 having in section the form of a pointed arch1 being probably the earliest instances of its employment as a decorative feature4 ,the tombs cut in the face of the rock are of a similar description1 having the same carpentry framework4 ,the upper parts are terminated by a low pediment or by a row of stone logs supporting a horizontal moulding4 ,later on during the ,greek occupation1 these wooden forms were abandoned and replaced by porticos of the ,ionic order4 ,in various parts of ,asia ,minor1 there are remains of tombs similar to these erected by the ,pelasgi and ,etruscans1 which will be described in another chapter4 ,,iv4 ,,greece4 ,the oldest architectural works in ,greece are those erected by the ,cyclopes or ,pelasgi1 a race who came originally from ,lycia1 and moved gradually ,westward1 peopling successively the islands of the ,grecian ,archipelago1 the ,peloponnesus1 ,sicily1 and ,italy4 ,at ,tiryns and ,mycen1 in the province of ,argolis1 are to be seen the most remarkable remains of the buildings of this people1 which were always grouped together in walled cities1 serving as strongholds to protect the inhabitants of the province from the wild tribes with whom they came in contact4 ,these cities were generally placed upon a rocky eminence1 difficult of access and commanding a view of the surrounding country4 ,there are remains of high walls at ,tiryns built of huge stones extracted from a neighbouring quarry and put together without cement or mortar1 the interstices being filled with smaller stones4 ,from the fallen blocks lying scattered at their base it is estimated that they originally measured sixty feet in height4 ,at intervals these walls are pierced by triangular doors and windows1 the sides of which are curved1 forming arches obtained by corbelled or overlapping instead of wedged stones4 ,these ,cyclopean constructions date from the seventeenth century before ,christ4 ,the ,acropolis of ,mycen is entered by a doorway formed of two vertical monoliths of great size supporting a lintel1 and called the ,gate of the ,lions1 from the carving above1 representing two rampant lions separated by an engaged column4 ,this city was surrounded by high fortified walls1 and contained a place of assembly for the people and rude habitations1 the remains of which are still visible4 ,there is also still to be seen a conical or bee-hive-like structure1 commonly called the ,treasury of ,atreus4 ,this cone is formed by overlapping stones1 curving gradually until they meet at the top of the vault1 which is capped by a large block4 ,the doorway by which it is entered is composed of slanting jambs of stone1 sustaining a massive lintel4 ,this lintel is relieved from direct weight above by a triangular opening1 obtained by a similar process of corbelling4 ,the ,cyclopean remains are of interest to architects chiefly on account of this system of corbelled vaulting employed in their construction1 which would never have been adopted had their builders been acquainted with the voussoir principle4 ,dr4 ,schliemann has recently excavated the ,acropolis of ,mycen1 and found there many interesting objects of gold and pottery4 ,bronze nails with flat heads have also been found within the ,treasury of ,atreus1 which were evidently used to attach copper plates with which the interior was lined4 ,pausanias speaks of a similar treasury belonging to ,king ,minyas1 at ,orchomenos1 and other remains of the same description have been discovered in different parts of the ,morea1 bearing a resemblance to the ruined cities of ,etruria4 ,in fact1 the various tumuli found in ,western ,europe1 ,sardinia1 ,sicily1 ,greece1 and ,asia are all of the same type1 and were a form commonly adopted by the ancient nations4 ,when we come to the epoch preceding ,roman architecture1 we will examine the character of ,etruscan buildings1 which were similar in many respects to the works of the ,pelasgi2 at present the subject of most interest is that of the great century of ,greek art1 for it marks the transition from ,crude ,art1 to which belongs all that has preceded1 to ,fine ,art1 in which the ,greeks excelled4 ,greek buildings were erected according to the rules of three systems or orders1 of the origin and character of which ,vitruvius gives the following account1 which1 if not strictly accurate1 is at least as reasonable as some of the versions which have been advanced4 8,dorus1 ,king of the ,peloponnesus1 having had a temple erected to ,juno1 in ,argos1 it was built by chance in the manner which we call ,doric2 afterward1 in several other towns1 other temples were built in this same order1 having no established rule for the proportions of their architecture4 ,about the same period the ,athenians established several colonies in ,asia ,minor under the guidance of ,ion1 and they called the country which he occupied ,ionia4 ,these colonists built ,doric temples there at first1 of which the chief was that of ,apollo1 but as they did not know what proportion to give to the columns1 they sought the means of making them at once strong enough to sustain the building1 and of rendering them at the same time agreeable to the eye4 ,for this they took the measure of a man's foot as the sixth part of his height1 and on this measure formed their column1 giving it six diameters4#a #a ,we have already seen that there are columns at ,beni ,hassan1 in ,egypt1 resembling so closely the ,greek ,doric1 that it is reasonable to suppose that the ,greeks borrowed their conception of the order from the ,egyptians and refined it4 8,some time afterward1 wishing to build a temple to ,diana1 they endeavoured to find a new method1 equally beautiful and more appropriate to their purpose4 ,they imitated the delicacy of a woman's form2 they heightened the columns1 gave them a base like the twisted cords which bind a sandal2 they carved volutes in the capital to represent that portion of the hair which falls to the right and left of the head2 they put circles and rings on the columns to imitate the rest of the hair which is braided and caught up on the back of women's heads2 and by flutings they imitated the folds of the dress4 ,and this order1 invented by the ,ionians1 took the name of ,ionic4 8,the ,corinthian column represents the delicacy of a young girl1 at the age when the figure is slender and best suited to the display of ornaments which may add to her natural beauty4 ,the invention of its capital is due to the following incident3 ,a young girl of ,corinth1 who was about to marry1 having died1 her nurse placed some little vases which she had been fond of during her life1 in a basket on her tomb1 and1 in order that the weather should not spoil them1 she placed a tile on the basket4 ,this1 having been laid accidentally over an acanthus-root1 it came to pass1 when the leaves began to grow1 that the stems of the plant crept up the sides of the basket and1 meeting the corners of the tile1 were forced to curve downward1 and to take the form of volutes4 ,callimachus1 a sculptor and architect1 struck by the harmonious result1 imitated it in the capitals of columns which he subsequently made in ,corinth1 establishing on this model the proportions of the ,corinthian order40 ,illustration3 ,,doric4 ,,ionic4 ,,corinthian4 ,,the ,,greek ,,orders4 ,at this stage it is necessary to explain briefly that an order consists of a column1 the pedestal upon which it stands1 and the entablature1 or top member1 which it supports4 ,the column is subdivided into the capital1 or head2 the shaft1 or body2 and the base1 or foot4 ,the entablature has likewise three divisions3 the architrave1 or beam sustained by the columns2 the frieze1 or space occupied by the cross-beams2 and the cornice1 or line of stone marking the extremity of the rafters4 ,these were originally made of wood and subsequently imitated in stone4#b #b ,viollet le ,duc maintained that the ,greek buildings were in no sense an imitation of wooden constructions1 but gave no very satisfactory explanation of the origin of their component parts4 ,it is perhaps best to conclude that they were adaptations of pre-existing edifices to new materials4 ,the ,greek ,doric column had no base and rested upon a series of steps in place of the pedestal4 ,the ends of the cross-beams were marked upon the frieze by a projection1 upon which were cut three grooves into which the rain-water ran and fell in drops to the ground4 ,these drops were represented in stone underneath1 completing an ornament which was called a triglyph 7meaning in ,greek1 three grooves74 ,the spaces intervening between the triglyphs were called metopes4 ,the inclination of the sides of the roof formed the lines of the triangular termination which we call the pediment4 ,the ,greeks employed three methods in their ,doric1 namely1 the hexametric1 heptametric1 and octometric1 that is1 a proportion of six1 seven1 and eight diameters to the height4 ,we have seen what were the component parts of the ,ionic and ,corinthian orders in the quotation from ,vitruvius4 ,in ,greek temples the shafts of the columns not only tapered considerably1 but the vertical lines of an entire building inclined to imaginary points determined by the intersection of lines following the inclination of the end columns4 ,the mass was thus in the form of the frustum of a pyramid1 being intentionally so designed to bind the parts of the building together in a manner to withstand effectually the oscillation caused by earthquakes1 which occur frequently in this region4 ,the city of ,athens contained numerous examples of each of these orders1 and a brief account of the buildings of that city will be the best means of showing their principal characteristics4 ,the city proper1 in which were the chief temples1 was built upon a rocky hill rising from the valley of the ,illysus1 lying between the mountain-chains of ,pentelicus and ,hymettus1 and situated about five miles from the port of ,phalerum1 on the ,gulf of gina4 ,this ,acropolis 7rock city7 is approached by a broad flight of stairs leading to the ,propylum1 or outer gate1 with high pedestals on each side which were formerly surmounted by equestrian statues4 ,the ,propylum is composed of a porch of six ,doric columns1 giving access to a large vestibule flanked by two outer halls4 ,this vestibule is divided by a flight of steps1 placed between six ,ionic columns on pedestals1 supporting nine marble beams or architraves which carry the weight of the roof4 ,beyond is a second porch1 opening on the plateau of the ,acropolis by means of five doors of different proportions4 ,the lintel of the central or largest door measures #bc feet1 while the architraves are #ag feet in length and of single stones4 ,the ,athenians prided themselves greatly upon the vestibule of the ,propylum1 and believed ,pericles1 by whose direction the building was erected1 to have been divinely inspired4 ,the details and proportions of the two orders here combined are of great beauty1 and show the most refined study4 ,from the farther porch1 the ,parthenon 7meaning in ,greek1 virgin71 or temple of ,minerva1 is seen to the right1 exhibiting a fine perspective view of its ,north and ,west elevations4 ,the temple is raised upon a platform surrounded by steps1 and is rectangular in form1 composed of a cella1 or oblong room1 surrounded by an open portico4 ,it measures #bbh by #aja feet1 having eight ,doric columns on the front and seventeen on the flank1 inclusive of the corner ones4 ,ictinus and ,callicrates were the architects1 under the general supervision of ,phidias1 who designed the gold and ivory figure of ,minerva within4 ,the ,doric is of the hexametric order1 having an approximate proportion of six diameters of the column to its height4 ,the pediments of the ,parthenon were decorated with rich carvings in high relief1 representing1 in the one1 the presentation of ,minerva to the assembled gods by her father ,jupiter1 and in the other1 the contest of ,minerva and ,neptune for the naming of the city4 ,in the metopes were depicted the battles of the ,athenians with the ,centaurs1 and scenes in the lives of ,perseus1 ,theseus1 and ,hercules1 in the admirable sculpture of ,phidias4 ,the building stood almost intact from the fifth century before ,christ to the seventeenth century of our era1 when it suffered greatly from ,venetian artillery1 and in modern times its richest sculpture was torn from it under the ,turkish rgime1 by order of ,lord ,elgin1 who obtained permission from the authorities to remove it to the ,british ,museum4 ,one of the ships containing the marbles was sunk off ,cape ,matapan4 ,even in its ruined condition the ,parthenon stands to-day a great example of the finest architecture the world has known4 ,on the plateau of the ,acropolis are the three contiguous temples of ,pandrosus1 ,erictheus1 and ,minerva ,polias1 and the temple of the ,wingless ,victory 7,nik ,apteros71 of the ,ionic order4 ,the temple of ,pandrosus is virtually a porch attached to the larger temple of ,erictheus4 ,it is composed of six female figures or caryatides upon a high base1 supporting an entablature without frieze4 ,these figures are of exceeding grace and beauty1 and are models of the sculptor's art4 ,the single cella was probably divided into three1 to which access was had separately by the several porches4 ,the ceilings of these temples are flat and decorated with sunken panels1 ornamented with egg and dart moulds4 ,according to ,diodorus ,sicculus1 the temple of ,erictheus was erected in his honour by the ,athenians1 in gratitude for his having instructed them in the worship of ,ceres1 ,goddess of ,agriculture4 ,while ,pausanias states that it contained the miraculous spring created by ,neptune1 who shared in its dedication4 ,there are three windows in the wall of the cella--unusual features in ,greek architecture--and the levels of the temples are different1 evidently so arranged1 with a view to distinguish them the more completely4 ,the temple of the ,wingless ,victory is supposed to have been erected where geus fell from the wall upon seeing the black sails of his son's ship returning after his victory over the ,minotaur4 ,others again assert that it was built without reference to site and so-called because the ,athenians considered victory would never leave them1 and consequently needed no wings4 ,the temple is composed of a cella and two porches of four columns each1 supporting a beautifully decorated entablature4 ,at the base of the ,acropolis stood the resident portion of the city1 containing also other temples and public buildings1 which are still standing4 ,the most important are the temple of ,theseus1 the ,tower of the ,winds1 the theatre of ,bacchus1 and the monument of ,lysicrates4 ,besides these there are many ,roman buildings1 but they belong to a subsequent period4 ,plutarch says that the ,athenians under ,cimon erected the temple of ,theseus on his return from ,crete1 and that it is of older construction than the temple of ,minerva4 ,it has six columns in the front and thirteen in flank1 supporting marble beams the extremities of which rest on the inner wall and correspond on the other with the triglyphs on the outer face4 ,the metopes had carvings representing the exploits of ,theseus4 ,the temple stands at the base of the ,acropolis to the ,north2 it is similar to the ,parthenon in many respects1 being of the same ,doric order1 though less rich in sculpture4 ,it is the best preserved of all the monuments1 having suffered but little during the twenty-two centuries it has existed4 ,the ,tower of the ,winds1 erected by ,adronichus ,cyrrhastes1 is an octagonal structure surmounted by a frieze1 upon which the eight winds of heaven are carved in allegorical figures4 ,the roof is a pyramid of marble slabs and was at one time surmounted by a bronze triton holding a switch1 which answered the purpose of a vane1 but has since disappeared4 ,the building was used as a water-clock4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,theseus ,,at ,,athens4 ,the choragic monument of ,lysicrates1 commonly called the ,lantern of ,demosthenes1 is a circular structure of the ,corinthian order4 ,the spaces intervening between its six columns are closed by panels of a single stone upon which trivets are carved4 ,the stone roof is decorated with scales and surmounted by a finial of delicate workmanship4 ,on this was placed the tripod of the choir which had been successful in the ,olympian contest of the year #cge ,b4,c41 according to inscription4 ,there are other ,corinthian buildings scattered throughout ,greece1 but this is generally taken to be the best example and its proportions followed4 ,the carvings of the frieze depict the exploits of ,hercules1 who is represented clothed in the traditional lion's skin4 ,on the opposite slope of the hill are the ruined chairs and benches of the theatre of ,bacchus1 fronting an open stage4 ,in building a theatre1 the ,northern slope of a hillside was generally selected for the site1 in order to avoid the direct solar rays4 ,seats were provided for the audience by cutting circular tiers in the rock and a marble stage1 profusely ornamented1 was erected facing them4 ,the stage was raised in order that the orchestra might not interfere with the view of the actors1 and a portico adjoining it1 served as a promenade during the intervals in the performance4 ,the stadium1 or circus1 of ,athens was formed in this way1 taking in plan the shape of a horseshoe4 ,it was here that the public games and races took place1 the upper or circular end being occupied by the seats of the judges4 ,it belongs1 however1 to a later period1 having been constructed in the time of the ,roman ,emperor ,hadrian4 ,a few years ago the ,king of ,greece caused the stadium to be excavated1 and several marble chairs and seats were discovered4 ,each city of importance possessed a ,palstra1 or gymnasium1 in which were rooms for bathing in hot or cold water1 for the wrestlers to anoint themselves with oil and fine dust1 and a school for young lads4 ,the building was enclosed by a portico and surrounded by pleasure-grounds in which the public exercises took place4 ,the private dwellings were of one story in height1 surmounted by terraces and divided by courts4 ,the women's apartments were separated from the men's1 and the larger houses contained banqueting-halls with accommodation for musicians and singers4 ,the furniture consisted of tables in wood and choice stone1 vases1 candelabra1 tripods in bronze1 and rich ,oriental carpets4 ,externally the houses were painted brilliantly and decorated with wreaths1 garlands1 and arms4 ,outside the entrance door stood the statue of the god of the household--,jupiter1 ,minerva1 or ,mercury4 ,the richer citizens preferred country villas to city residences1 which they surrounded with ornamental gardens and woods4 ,the groves of the ,academy where ,plato held his school in the shade of the olives1 outside the city gates1 are probably the most celebrated of the latter4 ,the dead were buried in necropoli without the city1 and their place of interment marked by tombs in the form of pyramids or funeral pyres1 or more simply by a stella1 or upright tablet1 inscribed with the name and virtues of the deceased1 and upon which were carved scenes in his life4 ,in the colonies in ,asia ,minor the system of excavating chambers in the rock was adopted1 the entrance to them being marked by ,ionic columns supporting entablatures and pediments4 ,the public buildings of ,athens were built of white marble from the island of ,paros and the mountain quarries of ,pentelicus1 resembling in its fracture the purest loaf-sugar4 ,the sun and rain have stained them to a tawny red during the many ages which have passed over them1 and nearly all trace of the various dyes1 with which they are supposed to have been coloured1 has disappeared to-day4 ,the ,greeks built their walls of bonded masonry1 the vertical joints coming in the centres of the stones above and below1 and they were frequently additionally strengthened by metal anchors4 ,in walls of unusual thickness it was customary to construct the inside and outside faces first and fill the intervening spaces with loose stones and mortar1 with an occasional through stone to connect the parts and bind them together4 ,the joints were sometimes emphasized by grooves1 but this ornament was used more frequently in ,roman work4 ,until its introduction by the ,romans the arch was rarely1 if ever1 employed1 and the limit of inter-columniation was restricted by the necessity of finding stones of sufficient length to form the architraves4 ,the roofs were generally of wood1 covered with terra-cotta tiles or sheet metal1 and left open at intervals for the admission of light4 ,this is1 however1 a disputed point1 as the wood1 being perishable1 has left no positive proofs of the method employed4 ,it appears that an awning or sail was stretched over these openings when services were being held4 ,it is probable that in many instances there was no light admitted1 except that from the entrance door4 ,the effect of a religious ceremony performed in the temples by the artificial light of torches1 with the flickering fires from the tripods and votive stands reflected upon the ivory and gold of the statues1 and the smoke wreathing weirdly above the heads of the assembled multitude1 must have been infinitely more impressive than if lit by the colder light of day4 ,the ,greek colonists carried the principles of their architecture with them1 leaving monuments of their genius wherever they established themselves4 ,of the temple of ,diana1 at ,ephesus1 nothing but a few fluted drums and scattered fragments remain to-day4 ,it was the most magnificent temple of the ,ionic order1 erected with lavish expenditure1 and decorated within with panels of cedar wood4 ,it was burned and pillaged by the ,persians4 ,at ,agrigentum1 in ,sicily1 and ,pstum1 in ,southern ,italy1 there are several ,doric temples of massive proportions4 ,of these the temples of ,concord1 ,jupiter1 and ,neptune are the most notable4 ,the columns are shorter and their capitals broader than the ,athenian type1 and in one instance there are two orders superposed1 within the cella1 to support the roof4 ,the ,greeks erected buildings in many parts of ,southern ,europe1 in ,asia ,minor1 and in ,egypt1 and in later times1 even under the ,roman conquest1 they remained the masters of the arts1 teaching their principles and supervising the erection of the monuments of ,rome4 ,the race was1 indeed1 peculiarly endowed with a genius for creating the beautiful1 for though we have but scant information on the subject of ,greek painting1 we have preserved to us examples of sculpture which have never been surpassed or even equalled1 and in architecture1 though many more elaborate buildings have since been erected1 nothing has ever been produced worthy of comparison with the harmonious proportions and majestic simplicity of the temples of ,attica4 ,v4 ,,etruria ,,and ,,rome4 ,etruria was peopled1 from remote ages1 by the indigenous inhabitants1 and by colonizing races from ,asia and ,greece4 ,to the latter may be attributed the chief architectural works of the country2 the ancient ,etruscan walled cities resembling1 in their general construction1 those of ,tiryns and ,mycen4 ,judging from the remains found upon the soil at the present day1 the ,etruscans used their knowledge of the laws of building principally in the erection of tombs4 ,of temples there now remain no traces2 but1 according to ,vitruvius1 they were composed1 as a rule1 of the rectangular chamber1 or cella1 of the ,greeks1 which was divided into three parts1 and preceded by a porch of ,tuscan columns4 ,the origin of the latter he describes as follows3 8,the ,greek colonists1 having brought to ,etruria1 the ,tuscany of to-day1 their acquaintance with the proportions of the ,doric order1 which was the only one as yet used in ,greece1 they employed this order there during a long period1 in the same manner as in the country where it originated2 but finally they changed it in several respects2 they lengthened the column1 and added a base to it2 they altered the capital1 simplified the entablature1 and1 thus changed1 it was adopted by the ,romans1 under the name of the ,tuscan order40 ,etruscan tombs varied with the nature of the districts in which they were erected4 ,in the flat portions of the country they consisted usually of an earthen cone raised upon a circular foundation of masonry1 with one or more chambers within for the reception of the dead4 ,the largest of these tumuli was that called the ,cucumella1 at ,vulci4 ,in the mountains1 where material was abundant1 it was customary to bury the dead in a square stone chamber1 surmounted by a pyramidal roof1 and entered by a doorway ornamented with the ,greek architrave4 ,there are several examples of these at ,castel d',asso4 ,a third form of sepulchre was the hypogee1 or underground tomb1 the entrance to which was marked by a colonnade of the ,tuscan order1 carved in the face of the rock2 the interior apartment being usually rectangular1 and reached by a staircase4 ,the walls were decorated with paintings1 and the tomb filled with vases1 tripods1 arms1 and other votive offerings4 ,the body was generally either placed in a stone sarcophagus or laid upon a bronze bed4 ,the ceilings in the older tombs were either flat1 being cut in the natural rock1 with piers left as supports1 and ornamented with sunken panels1 or constructed of inclined slabs1 resting against and sustaining each other4 ,the corbelled vaults1 similar to those of ,mycen1 were employed for a considerable number of these buildings1 but were subsequently relinquished for vaults of voussoirs1 or wedge-shaped stones4 ,the invention of the semicircular vault1 the joints of which converge to a common centre1 was long attributed to the ,etruscans1 but we have seen that recent discoveries have shown that it was already in use in ,egypt and ,assyria many centuries before4 ,this principle1 however1 was the chief feature of ,etruscan architecture1 and its great legacy to succeeding styles4 ,etruria as well as ,greece sent artists to ,rome1 and the conjunction of the methods used in the two countries produced ,roman art4 8,the ,romans took from the ,etruscans the semicircular arch1 formed of jointed stones2 from the populations of the ,campagna they obtained the general arrangement of sacred edifices1 the ,greek orders1 the distribution and decoration of private dwellings4 ,they drew thus from two different sources1 and endeavoured to unite two principles diametrically opposed to one another--the principle of the ,greek lintel and the ,etruscan arch4 ,in doing this they show clearly that their ideas upon the arts were but little better than those of pirates1 whose acts are actuated by pride rather than by taste1 and who adorn themselves in spoils of distinctly different origin1 the mingling of which produces unseemly contrasts40#c #c ,entretiens sur l',architecture4 ,illustration3 ,,column4 ,,entablature4 ,,pedestal4 ,,base4 ,,shaft4 ,,capital ,,architrave ,,frieze4 ,,cornice4 ,,wash4 ,,ovolo4 ,,astragal4 ,,corona4 ,,astragal4 ,,cyma ,,reversa4 ,,tenia4 ,,facia4 ,,abacus4 ,,ovolo4 ,,neck4 ,,astragal4 ,,fillet4 ,,torus4 ,,plinth4 ,,tuscan4 ,,doric4 ,,the ,,roman ,,orders4 ,illustration3 ,,ionic4 ,,corinthian4 ,,the ,,roman ,,orders4 ,illustration3 ,,composite4 ,in fact1 the ,greek orders1 modified to suit the taste of the ,romans1 and combined with the ,etruscan arch and vault1 formed the basis of all ,roman architecture4 ,the scale of their buildings1 however1 was vastly greater than that of those upon which they were modelled4 ,the colonnades of their palaces and the arcades of their aqueducts were to be measured by the mile1 the vaults of their baths were of prodigious span1 and1 in general size and number1 the edifices erected by the ,romans exceeded anything which had come before them4 ,the ,roman orders were five in number1 namely1 the ,tuscan1 ,doric1 ,ionic1 ,corinthian1 and ,composite4 ,the ,tuscan we have already examined4 ,the ,doric was somewhat more elaborate1 having additional mouldings in the capital and base1 and the triglyph ornament in the frieze4 ,the ,ionic and ,corinthian were but modifications of the corresponding ,greek orders4 ,the ,composite was of the same proportion as the ,corinthian1 the capital being a combination of the ,ionic and ,corinthian4 ,the ,corinthian order was the most generally used1 its rich character suiting the ostentatious ideas of the ,romans4 ,the superposition of columns was a common method of indicating different stories1 and different orders were often employed where different-sized columns occurred in the same building4 ,in plan the ,roman buildings were rectangular1 polygonal1 and circular1 or combinations of these geometrical forms4 ,the materials used were local stone1 imported marbles and alabaster1 and bricks1 which were flatter and longer than the form employed at the present day4 ,the ,romans excelled in their mortars and cements1 which were of a strength sufficient to make their walls virtually of one mass4 ,in bonding their stone they employed various methods1 including those of the ,greeks4 ,of these1 a favourite one was the building of exterior faces only1 and filling up the intervening space with broken stone and mortar4 ,in order to produce the greatest effect at the least cost1 in the use of marble1 they resorted to panelling the external surfaces only with thin slabs4 ,interiors were lined with stucco and frequently ornamented with paintings1 and the floors inlaid with mosaic4 ,roman mouldings were sections of the sphere1 differing from the ,greek1 which were hyperbolas or parabolas4 ,the chief constructions of the ,romans were houses1 temples1 palaces1 amphitheatres1 theatres1 aqueducts1 sewers1 baths1 triumphal arches1 tombs and commemorative structures1 camps1 bridges1 and basilicas4 ,illustration3 ,,palace ,,of ,,diocletian ,,at ,,spalatro4 7,from ,durand47 ,in1 and in close proximity to1 the ,forum ,romanum1 or ,campo ,vaccino1 are admirable examples of nearly all these different buildings4 ,the level of the ancient market-place is several feet below that of the streets of modern ,rome1 but in the excavated portions are to be seen the old pavements of irregular stone slabs1 laid upon concrete foundations and worn with the wheels of chariots4 ,many ruined temples1 the arches of ,septimius ,severus1 of ,titus and ,constantine1 the palace of the ,csars1 the ,colosseum1 and the ,baths of ,constantine are collected here within a stone's throw4 ,by taking up each class of buildings separately1 however1 we will get a better idea of the nature of ,roman architecture than by a description of isolated buildings4 ,roman houses resembled in a measure the ,greek1 the different apartments being grouped around inner courts4 ,the rooms consisted of halls1 vestibules1 banqueting-rooms1 and sleeping-chambers1 the women not being separated from the men1 as was the case in ,greece4 ,the courts were surrounded by colonnades and in the centre a well was usually placed1 to receive the water from the roofs4 ,many of the houses were several stories in height1 but a limit to their altitude was fixed by decree4 ,the excavations in ,pompeii have uncovered many interesting specimens of private dwellings1 richly decorated with several paintings and having elaborate mosaic patterns on their floors4 ,in the city of ,rome the palace of the ,csars was the most notable example of domestic architecture1 but at the present day it is difficult to discern among the dbris and fallen walls what its original plan may have been4 ,some paintings in the so-called house of ,livia1 upon the plateau of the palace1 however1 show that the artists of the period had attained a high degree of merit4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,pantheon ,,at ,,rome ,roman temples consisted generally of a cella or rectangular apartment1 preceded by a porch1 the whole being raised on a platform1 reached by stairs and enclosed by a colonnade below4 ,occasionally there was a double cella1 with separate entrances and porches1 as in that of ,venus and ,rome2 and there are two remaining examples of circular temples--that of ,vesta1 on the ,tiber1 in ,rome1 and of the ,sybil1 at ,tivoli--while still another type1 that of the ,pantheon of ,agrippa1 had a circular cella and a rectangular porch4 ,the ,corinthian order was the most frequently employed1 that of the temple of ,jupiter ,stator being the richest1 while those of the ,pantheon1 the ,maison ,carre1 at ,nmes1 and of the temple of ,antonine and ,faustina are admirable specimens4 ,this last is one of the best preserved temples1 being very nearly entire at the present time2 its frieze is of the most refined workmanship1 representing allegorical animals1 plants1 etc4 ,the temple of ,fortuna ,virilis is a good example of the ,ionic order1 but this order was never a favourite with the ,romans4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,baths ,,of ,,agrippa ,,connecting ,,with ,,the ,,pantheon1 ,,according ,,to ,,palladio4 7,from ,durand7 ,a debased form of ,ionic is that of the temple of ,concord1 or ,vespasian1 where the capital is altered to a considerable extent and a rope moulding added4 ,a remarkable constructional feature of this temple is the relieving arch of brick1 concealed behind the frieze1 to diminish the weight on the lintel below4 ,the great drum of the ,pantheon1 enclosed by a circular vault1 is one of the earliest examples of domical architecture4 ,a notable feature in it is the absence of the keystone1 which is replaced here by an open ring1 leaving an aperture for the entrance of light4 ,the walls are pierced with niches and relieved by immense arches4 ,the pediment of the porch is one of the most perfect remaining2 in height its proportion exceeds that of ,greek temples4 ,the temple of ,diana1 at ,nmes1 is a remarkable structure1 having three aisles1 the central one being decorated with niches and columns1 which support an entablature and a ribbed vault4 ,the ruined temples of ,baalbek and of ,jupiter ,olympius1 at ,athens1 are among the most colossal of this class of building4 ,the ,corinthian columns of the latter measure upward of sixty feet1 and their capitals are of singularly fine workmanship4 ,the ,emperor ,hadrian embellished ,athens with numerous and splendid buildings1 which to-day have assumed the colour and ruined appearance of the older constructions of the time of ,pericles4 ,of the temple of ,jupiter ,olympius there are scarcely more than a dozen columns standing of the original one hundred and twenty4 ,the ,turks ground up many of them to make lime for their mortar4 ,the ,romans took their conception of the theatre from the ,greeks4 ,the building was composed of two parts1 the one devoted to the stage and its accessories1 and the other to the accommodation of the audience4 ,the stage was usually in the form of a rectangle1 the longer side of which formed the diameter of the semicircle1 which was the plan of the second part4 ,the latter was composed of concentric seats in successive steps1 to which access was had by stairs radiating from the centre and leading to an upper surrounding gallery4 ,at the foot of these steps a space was reserved called the orchestra 7,greek1 8dancing place071 usually occupied by the senators4 ,the stage1 which was decorated with columns and niches1 was raised above the orchestra1 and was connected with the actors' rooms4 ,the wall at the back of the stage was carried up to the level of the circular enclosing wall1 and treated with superposed orders4 ,the theatre of ,marcellus1 in ,rome1 and those of ,herculaneum1 ,arles1 and ,orange are among the best examples4 ,the most celebrated amphitheatre 7amphi theatron1 ,greek1 8double theatre07 is that commonly known as the ,colosseum1 or ,flavian ,amphitheatre4 ,it is composed of the arena or oval space1 occupied by the combatants1 and of the 8visorium10 formed by concentric seats placed in tiers1 one above the other4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,at ,,baalbek4 ,it was capable of seating eighty thousand spectators1 and upon its arena four thousand gladiators have fought at a time4 ,it was here that before commencing their combats they came to the foot of the emperor's throne1 saluting him with the celebrated cry1 8,morituri te salutamus40 ,the substructure of the building consists of vaulted passages1 communicating with the visorium by numerous staircases1 and with the exterior by the doors called 8vomitoria40 ,the arena was surrounded by a ditch of running water1 and under it were chambers in which prisoners and animals were confined4 ,the visorium was divided according to the rank of its occupants4 ,the upper classes occupied the 8podium0 or lower gallery1 which extended on either side of the emperor's throne1 at the extremity of the longer axis of the building4 ,for protection from the elements during performances an immense sail was stretched over the building from posts inserted in stone brackets at the top of the exterior wall4 ,the heights of the three lower stories of the ,colosseum are marked externally by arcades and superposed orders with engaged columns1 ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,corinthian1 and the fourth and upper one by ,corinthian pilasters4 ,the entablatures of each order are carried around the entire circumference of the building4 ,architects generally criticise this construction adversely1 for 8if1 on the one hand1 the engaged columns might be supposed to serve as buttresses and thus become a useful decoration1 it must be admitted1 on the other1 that the projecting entablatures carried from column to column do more harm than good as regards the solidity of the building4 ,the architrave having no longer the force of the ,greek lintel1 being composed of several blocks supported by the arch below4 ,the ,romans1 however1 did not always falsely apply the true principles of architecture4 ,in the arena of ,nmes1 for instance1 the two superposed orders which serve as buttresses between the arcades of the two stories on the exterior of that building1 are real buttresses4 ,the lower order is composed of projecting piers1 the upper order of engaged columns2 the cornices follow the contour of each pilaster or column and do not form those projecting belts which are placed so clumsily and uselessly around such buildings as the theatre of ,marcellus and the ,colosseum of ,rome40#d #d ,viollet le ,duc4 ,this amphitheatre was commenced by ,vespasian and continued under ,titus1 who dedicated it in the year #hj ,a4,d4 ,in the ninth century it was half destroyed1 and subsequently became a quarry1 from which materials were extracted for the construction of the ,farnese palace and other buildings4 ,a large part1 however1 is standing to-day1 having been rescued from total destruction by order of ,pope ,benoit ,,xiv4 ,there are celebrated remains of amphitheatres at ,verona1 ,pola1 ,capua1 ,arles1 and ,nmes4 ,circuses and ,naumachias belong to the same class of buildings1 the one serving for chariot and other races1 and the other for naval combats4 ,the arena in each was oval in plan and from it rose the successive tiers of broad steps upon which the seats were ranged4 ,at the top a portico decorated with statues enclosed the whole building4 ,the ,circus ,maximus was the most important of these1 containing numerous splendid statues and obelisks1 and covering a vast area4 ,the aqueducts of ancient ,rome stretched for miles across the ,campagna4 ,the channel in which the water flowed was supported by one or more arcades1 superposed according to the height required4 ,these arcades consisted of round brick arches carried on substantial piers1 and were placed where possible upon the highest elevations of the country they traversed4 ,at intervals wide basins were provided for the collection of sediment1 and reservoirs received the water at their termination4 ,from the latter pipes supplied the baths and private dwellings4 ,in ,france the famous ,pont du ,gard is a portion of an immense ,roman aqueduct formed of three rows of arcades1 which supplied the city of ,nmes4 ,bridges were constructed on the same principle2 the arches increasing their span according to the depth of the piers upon which they rested1 being generally of two stories1 the upper one having double the number of piers4 ,the ,roman bridges and aqueducts in ,spain are among the most justly celebrated1 notably those of ,segovia1 ,tarragona1 and ,alcantara4 ,bridging rivers by boats was a common method in use by the ,roman armies under ,julius ,csar4 ,we have also an account of a wooden bridge over the ,danube1 constructed by ,trajan4 ,under every street in ,rome there ran vaulted sewers conducting all impurities into the main artery1 called the ,cloaca ,maxima1 which in turn discharged its contents into the ,tiber4 ,this sewer is one of the oldest examples of the use of voussoirs1 dating from the reign of ,tarquinius ,priscus4 ,it is covered by a triple vault1 sustaining the street above4 ,agrippa conducted the waters of several streams into the sewers and appointed inspectors to keep them in repair and good order4 ,in the building of the baths of ,rome1 ,agrippa1 ,nero1 ,vespasian1 ,caracalla1 ,titus1 ,diocletian1 and ,constantine vied with each other in the production of the most magnificent structures4 ,they are to-day in a hopelessly ruined condition1 but from the numerous fragments of carved marble and panelled stucco lying on their sites1 and from the rich paintings and mosaics of the baths of ,titus and ,caracalla1 it is not difficult to form an idea of their original splendour4 ,it is not a little significant of what their rich decoration must have been to note that such marvels of statuary as the ,laocoon1 the ,farnese ,bull1 and the ,gladiators have been discovered within them4 ,besides the necessary administrative rooms1 these buildings generally contained a frigidarium or cold bath1 a tepidarium or warm bath1 and a sudatorium1 circular in form and covered in by a dome4 ,the walls1 built of brick1 were pierced with niches and supported high cross and barrel vaults of immense span4 ,it has been conjectured that the ,pantheon was the entrance hall of the baths of ,agrippa1 the porch having been added at a later period when the building was converted into a temple4 ,the chief commemorative structures were triumphal arches and votive columns4 ,the former were of two kinds1 having either one main arched opening1 or a large central arch for vehicles and two lower ones on either side for foot passengers4 ,the arch of ,titus in ,rome is an example of the first1 its main arch being flanked by composite columns1 supporting a richly carved entablature1 which is in turn surmounted by an attic1 inscribed with the dedication to the conqueror by the ,senate and ,roman people4 ,the bassi relievi employed in its decoration represent the sacking of ,jerusalem by ,titus2 a specially notable feature among the spoils depicted being the golden candelabra with the seven sockets1 mentioned in ,scripture history4 ,the arches of ,constantine and ,septimius ,severus are of the second category4 ,they are covered with rich sculpture and are of very beautiful proportion4 ,famous arches are those of ,orange in the south of ,france1 ,beneventum1 ,ancona1 ,rimini1 ,pola1 and ,athens4 ,everywhere1 in fact1 where a victory was to be commemorated1 or the termination of a great military road to be marked1 it was customary to erect an arch4 ,another method of paying homage to great men was to erect columns surmounted by their statues4 ,the columns of ,trajan and ,antoninus in ,rome are especially remarkable4 ,the former is the higher and of the best workmanship4 ,the pedestal upon which it rests is ornamented with elaborate carvings representing the arms of conquered nations1 and is enriched at the four upper corners of its cornice by imperial eagles with garlands suspended between them4 ,a wreath replaces the torus or round mould at the base of the column1 and around the shaft is wound a ribbon of sculpture1 representing a triumphal procession1 which terminates at the capital4 ,isolated columns were also often employed for the inscription of legal notices1 as boundary-marks1 or for marking military limits4 ,the gates at the entrances of the principal cities were similar to the triumphal arches4 ,there are two especially fine examples in ,france1 those of ,autun and ,treves4 ,in these the attic story is replaced by a gallery connecting the two flanking wings1 which are several stories in height1 and contain chambers which it is commonly supposed were used as courts of justice4 ,roman camps were regulated and arranged with military precision1 and were of two descriptions4 ,the one1 erected for temporary use1 was defended by a rude palisade of branches and a ditch1 the other1 the 8castra hiberna10 or winter quarters1 was generally a permanent structure1 built of brick1 containing within a square enclosure the barracks1 workshops1 hospitals1 and other necessary buildings4 ,this enclosure was divided by cross-roads1 passing through gates in the outer wall4 ,the gate facing the enemy was called the porta prtoria1 hence prtorian camp4 ,necrological monuments were built in various forms1 from the simple tablet to the immense mausoleums of the emperors4 ,just without the walls of ,rome are still to be seen the remains of the sepulchre of ,caius ,sestius1 a large pyramid containing a chamber several feet above the ground level4 ,farther out1 on the ,appian ,way1 is the tomb of ,ccilia ,metella1 a cylindrical structure upon a square base1 of considerable magnitude4 ,the exterior is simple1 the only decoration being a series of ox-skulls in the frieze4 ,this building was probably originally surmounted by an earthen cone1 after the manner of the ,etruscan tombs4 ,the tomb of ,augustus was constructed in a similar manner but on a larger scale4 ,the entrance was preceded by a porch and the exterior walls contained niches4 ,the conical mound above was planted with trees and shrubbery4 ,the ,scipios were buried in stone sarcophagi in a subterranean chamber1 which has been but recently discovered4 ,a curious monument was that of the ,horatii1 consisting of a rectangular block of masonry1 containing the sepulchre1 surmounted by four stone cones1 grouped around a fifth and higher one4 ,these probably had a symbolical meaning1 as a similar structure1 called the tomb of ,porsenna1 is said to have existed in ,etruria4 ,by far the most magnificent building of the kind was the ,mausoleum1 or ,mole of ,hadrian1 the ruins of which now go by the name of the ,castel ,st4 ,angelo4 ,the tomb rose conspicuously on the banks above the ,tiber1 on a square foundation2 its two upper stories were circular in plan1 and decorated with colonnades and statuary1 and the whole was capped by an immense roof1 terminated by a pineapple of bronze4 ,the tombs of ,st4 ,helena and ,st4 ,costanza were circular structures similar to that of ,ccilia ,metella1 the cone of earth1 however1 being replaced by a dome4 ,the interior of the tomb of ,st4 ,costanza was divided by columns which sustained a vault connecting with the outer wall4 ,the practice of burning bodies and preserving their ashes gave rise also to the building of columbariums1 rectangular structures containing in their walls receptacles for funereal urns4 ,in the valley of ,jerusalem the hypogee was the form of sepulchre commonly adopted1 its entrance being decorated with a colonnade of one of the ,roman orders4 ,basilicas were the law courts of the ,roman people and places of assembly for the transaction of their daily affairs4 ,on the exterior1 these buildings were surrounded by numerous courts and porticos1 where the merchants assembled daily to discuss their affairs or to await the result of the trials conducted within4 ,in the interior they contained a large hall or nave flanked by side aisles1 preceding a transept or further room which was terminated by a semicircular apse4 ,this apse was occupied by the magistrate while presiding in the cases submitted to his decision4 ,the ruins of the basilicas of ,titus and ,maxentius remain1 at the present day1 in sufficient preservation to show that in the one a flat ceiling of timber was employed1 and in the other a system of intersecting vaults similar in construction to those of the baths of ,caracalla4 ,there are traces of several ancient buildings of this kind1 but it is supposed that many were pulled down by the ,christians1 who erected churches on their sites1 using the old basilica as their model4 ,the plan was1 in reality1 but an improvement on that of the ,roman temple1 the side aisles and transepts being naturally developed additions to the older cella to which the apse had been added previously in many examples4 ,the great administrative power governing the erection of the buildings of ,rome was one of the most remarkable features connected with them4 ,architecture with the ,romans was a means to an end1 this end being the construction of edifices suiting their requirements and their desire for display4 ,no scope was allowed for individual talent or ingenuity1 unless employed in the carrying out of a distinct programme1 laid down by those in power2 each building forming part of a great scheme1 prevailing throughout the conquered world4 ,in ,greece architectural works were produced in the different cities and states under the guidance of independent artists1 with the co-operation of their fellow-citizens who were eager to attain the true principles of art2 in ,rome and the ,roman world1 art was entirely subservient to a system of politics which ran through all departments4 ,the vast wealth which flowed into the capital from tributary provinces was the great mainstay which permitted the execution of so many vast and expensive structures1 forming a collection never surpassed4 ,roman art corresponded with the national character1 for it was coarse and ostentatious1 but at the same time vast and strong4 ,the population of ,athens delighted in intellectual pursuits1 in philosophy1 in art2 it crowded the seats on the slope of the ,acropolis to enjoy the wit and satire of schylus and ,sophocles1 and the palstra to witness the development of bodily grace and dexterity1 while the ,romans flocked to the ,colosseum for the enjoyment of scenes of blood and carnage1 to gaze upon the slaughter of captives and the anguish of animals4 ,the force of their government1 nevertheless1 was unquestionable2 their patriotism1 unlike that of the ,greeks1 was unaffected by civic jealousies or party feeling2 they trod rough-shod upon the nations1 but they planted everywhere the imprint of their heroic civilization and made their capital the centre of the world1 and left to it1 for all ages1 the proud appellation of the ,eternal ,city4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,early ,,christian ,,style4 ,after the conversion of the ,emperor ,constantine to ,christianity1 in the fourth century1 the ,christians who1 as a persecuted sect had hitherto held their religious observances in hiding1 in the catacombs of ,rome1 adopted the basilica as the most convenient form of building for the purposes of their worship4 ,the bishop occupied a throne in the apse1 surrounded by the presbyters or fathers of the church1 and the congregation of the faithful filled the central nave4 ,for several centuries this plan was but little changed1 the only notable additions to it being the continuation of the transept beyond the line of the walls of the nave1 thus making it cruciform2 the occasional substitution of double aisles1 making five divisions in the body of the church1 instead of the original three1 and the addition of a tower or belfry4 ,all subsequent churches1 whether ,romanesque1 ,gothic1 or ,renaissance were constructed on but slight modifications of this original plan1 which1 in fact1 was itself evolved from that of the ,roman temple4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,basilica ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,beyond ,,the ,,walls4 ,a - ,apse ,t - ,transept ,n - ,nave ,x - ,narthex ,the first basilicas erected for ,christian worship had double aisles2 this form was1 however1 soon discontinued1 probably owing to the difficulty of observing the offices of the clergy from the outer aisle4 ,of these ,st4 ,peter's1 ,st4 ,paul's beyond the walls1 and ,st4 ,john ,lateran were the finest examples4 ,the first-named was built upon the site of the present cathedral1 and was removed in the sixteenth century to make room for it4 ,its dimensions were of notable size1 being about #chj feet long by #bab feet in width4 ,it was preceded by an atrium1 or open court1 surrounded by a colonnade1 in which the ,christians met to transact their affairs4 ,the basilica of ,st4 ,paul's was destroyed by fire in the early part of this century1 and a new structure resembling the old was erected in its place on a scale of great magnificence4 ,the columns of its ,corinthian colonnade and the floor are of polished marble and the wooden roof lavishly ornamented with carving and gilding4 ,the transept is enriched with mosaics1 and contains a baldachin over the altar1 in which malachite and other choice stones have been used unsparingly4 ,a typical basilica was generally arranged as follows3 ,the atrium or quadrangular open court1 surrounded by porticos1 preceded the main building1 or was replaced by a porch composed of columns sustaining a low roof which was called the narthex4 ,within1 the structure was divided into a nave1 side aisles1 transept1 and apse4 ,the nave 7derived from 8navis10 a vessel1 symbolical of that of ,st4 ,peter7 was loftier than the adjoining aisles1 the upper wall being usually panelled with pictures and pierced at the top by a range of windows1 from which the ,gothic clerestory was derived later on4 ,in one or two instances where the side aisles had a second story or upper gallery for the women1 the panels and windows were placed in the outer wall4 ,the interior lines of columns were usually of the ,ionic or ,corinthian orders1 having been taken from older buildings1 but if new they were of stouter proportions than the ,classical models4 ,these columns supported either a continuous architrave or circular arches4 ,wooden doors1 often covered by chased bronze1 were hung in the main entrance and the wall above was usually pierced by a round window or bull's-eye1 afterward developed into the rose window4 ,at the other end of the nave a wide arched opening1 called the triumphal arch1 connected it with the transept4 ,an enclosure1 separated from the body of the church by a balustrade1 at the upper end of the nave1 contained the seats of the choristers and the reading-desks4 ,the altar was placed in the transept and was frequently surmounted by a baldachin composed of four or six columns supporting a light dome4 ,behind the altar in the centre of the apse was the throne 7cathedra7 occupied by the bishop 7episcopus71 being raised by steps from the semicircular stone seats 7exedra7 used by the presbyters1 which were covered with carpets4 ,the walls of the transept and apse were inlaid with mosaic inscriptions and pictures1 in which the head of our ,saviour1 the figures of saints and holy emblems were the chief subjects4 ,deep blue1 purple1 and green were the prevailing colours and the letters were of gold4 ,the floors were decorated with mosaic patterns4 ,the roofs were either flat with sunken panels framed with mouldings and gilded ornaments1 or else showed the open trussed wood-work1 though the latter was the exception4 ,externally there was no attempt at enrichment1 the exterior generally offering a great contrast to the lavish internal decorations4 ,at the present day nearly all the basilicas have undergone transformation1 the old roofs have been replaced1 the walls covered with a modern adornment of pilasters and gaudy paintings1 the colonnades have been broken through to allow of entrances to side-chapels1 or disfigured by the heterogeneous decoration of the eighteenth century1 and the exteriors treated with renaissance faades4 ,nevertheless the general plan and arrangements have remained substantially the same1 and we have very interesting specimens of this class of building in ,st4 ,maria ,maggiore1 ,st4 ,agnese1 ,san ,clemente1 and others1 in ,rome1 ,san ,appolinare1 in ,ravenna1 the basilicas at ,torcello1 in the ,venetian lagoons1 and later examples in ,st4 ,ambrogio1 of ,milan1 and ,st4 ,maria ,sopra ,minerva1 in ,rome4 ,the basilica at ,torcello was built mainly from fragments of an older church upon the mainland at ,altino4 ,the bishop's throne is one of the most interesting and best preserved examples we have4 ,the ,greek name for this1 cathedra1 was the origin of our term cathedral1 applied to churches containing the bishop's seat1 there being no architectural distinction between the buildings4 ,from the tombs of the ,romans the ,christians derived their conception of the edifices which they used as baptisteries4 ,their exterior walls were either polygonal or circular1 and of severe simplicity4 ,the interiors were generally divided by a row of columns sustaining a round vault1 and forming a circular enclosure in which the font was placed4 ,a wall1 carried on these columns1 contained windows1 and served as a lantern to light the building4 ,this wall occasionally supported a dome4 ,san ,stephano ,rotondo1 in ,rome2 ,st4 ,angeli1 in ,perugia1 and ,st4 ,vitale1 in ,ravenna1 are the best examples among the many found in ,italy4 ,san ,stephano has a double range of interior columns1 taken from ,roman temples1 the one supporting an entablature1 and the other a series of arches4 ,the church has been much modified by successive alterations1 and the interior is ornamented with curious paintings1 representing the sufferings of the martyrs4 ,the baptistery of ,st4 ,angeli is smaller1 but has preserved its original form in a greater degree4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,vitale1 ,,of ,,ravenna4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,minerva ,,medica4 ,st4 ,vitale is a type of structure much copied in subsequent buildings4 ,it is itself modelled on the so-called temple of ,minerva ,medica1 differing only in having an octagon instead of a decagon plan4 ,of this ,fergusson gives the following account3 8,it certainly belongs to the best days of the ,roman empire1 if1 indeed1 it be not a ,christian building1 which ,i am very much inclined to believe it is1 for on comparing it with the baptistery of ,constantine and the tomb of ,st4 ,contanza1 it shows a considerable advance in construction on both of these buildings1 and a greater similarity to ,san ,vitale1 at ,ravenna1 and other buildings of that time1 than to anything else now found in ,rome4 ,it has a dome eighty feet in diameter1 resting on a decagon of singularly light and elegant construction4 ,nine of the compartments contain niches1 which give great room on the floor1 as well as variety and lightness to the general design4 ,above this is a clerestory of ten well-proportioned windows1 which give light to the building2 perhaps not in so effective a manner as the one eye of the ,pantheon1 though by a far more convenient arrangement1 to protect from the elements a people who did not possess glass4 8,so far as ,i know1 all domed buildings erected by the ,romans up to the time of ,constantine1 and1 indeed1 long afterward1 were circular in the interior1 though they were sometimes octagonal externally4 ,this1 however1 is a polygon both internally and on the outside1 and the mode in which the dome is placed on the polygon shows the first rudiments of the pendentive system1 which was afterward carried to such perfection by the ,byzantine architects1 but is nowhere else to be found in ,rome4 ,it probably was for the purpose of somewhat diminishing the difficulties of this construction that the architect adopted a figure with ten instead of eight sides40 ,the plans of the temple of ,vesta and of the baptistery of ,constantine have been placed here next to one another in order to show the transposition of the columns from the exterior to the interior1 which is the chief distinction between the ,roman circular buildings and ,christian baptisteries4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,vesta1 ,,sometimes ,,called ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hercules4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,baptistery ,,of ,,constantine4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,byzantine ,,style4 ,constantine and his mother ,st4 ,helena built churches in ,bethlehem1 ,jerusalem1 and ,antioch1 and embellished ,constantinople with numerous splendid edifices4 ,the ,eastern basilicas preserved the same character in their construction as those of ,italy1 but their component parts were more homogeneous1 the materials being specially prepared1 instead of being borrowed from ancient buildings4 ,the first vigour of emancipated ,christianity found vent not only in the erection of edifices devoted to its religious observances1 but in the infliction of irreparable injury upon the pagan monuments of ,greece and ,rome4 ,constantine brought many fragments of these ,classical buildings to the new capital1 but they have been destroyed1 together with the palaces1 churches1 and baths which he built there1 in successive invasions1 by fire1 or by earthquakes4 ,in ,thessalonica there are two good examples of early basilicas--the old mosque and the five-aisled church of ,st4 ,demetrius2 and in ,northern ,syria there are many admirable specimens4 ,of these the churches at ,rouheilia1 ,kalb-,louzeh1 and ,tourmanim deserve special mention4 ,the latter is a particularly successful building1 designed in the new style growing out of the older ,roman one1 and is a model structure1 being constructed exactly in accordance with the requirements of the early ,church4 ,in plan1 the ,syrian conventual buildings depart but slightly from that of the basilicas of ,rome1 but in their interior treatment they show a gradual secession from the rules which govern ,classical buildings1 retaining only their useful and discarding their merely ornamental features4 ,when the seat of the empire had been transferred to ,byzance1 the ,christians carried with them the principles of the arch and the vault and combined them in a new form of structure4 ,this construction1 differing from that employed in ,rome1 combined with ,eastern or late ,greek forms of ornament1 produced a new style called the ,byzantine4 ,the distinctive feature of this method of construction was the placing of the circular dome1 not upon a cylindrical drum1 as had been done by the ,romans in the ,pantheon and other buildings1 but upon four walls1 square in plan1 surmounted by semicircular arches1 with the intervening spaces occupied by pendentives4 ,to each side of this central square was joined a nave of the same length1 forming thus in plan a ,greek cross1 that is1 one having each arm equally long4 ,these naves were usually short1 more frequently semicircular than rectangular1 and often terminated by an apse4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pendentive ,,system ,,in ,,byzantine ,,domes4 ,we have seen1 in the baptistery of ,st4 ,vitale1 at ,ravenna 7in which ,greek artists were undoubtedly employed71 a tendency to reduce the number of sides of polygonal buildings supporting circular domes2 the architects of ,byzance were therefore merely taking another step in the same direction when they placed the dome upon a quadrilateral substructure4 ,to comprehend the pendentive1 let us take a circle and inscribe within it a square2 at the four angles of the square we will place solid piers of masonry and connect them with semicircular arches4 ,let us now suppose that a hemispherical dome had been built upon this circle as plan1 and we will see that the planes of the arches and the plane passing at the level of the top of the keystones of the arches1 in intersecting this dome1 would leave but four triangular portions of it4 ,these triangular portions are called pendentives1 and are the only portions of the original hemisphere which are actually built4 ,as this hemisphere would have been necessarily constructed of materials the joints of which would have radiated from the centre of the sphere1 so also do the joints of the pendentives radiate from this same centre1 which is identical with the centre of the original circle4 ,the plane passing at the level of the top of the keystones in intersecting the hemisphere describes another circle1 upon which the actual dome is placed4 ,the question has not been established satisfactorily whether the ,byzantine architects really understood the pendentive1 as in many instances they resorted to less scientific methods of filling in the vacant spaces between the arches and the upper dome1 but the only logical method of constructing it is that which has just been described4 ,in building domes1 it was not uncommon in the ,east to replace stonework by light terra-cotta pipes1 fitting into each other1 giving great lightness and comparative strength4 ,justinian gave a marked impetus to architectural work and to the building of religious edifices in particular4 ,he commissioned ,anthemius of ,thralles1 and ,isidor of ,miletus1 to execute the plans for the new church of ,st4 ,sophia1 upon the site of an older building of ,constantine1 also dedicated to the 8,holy ,wisdom10 which had been burnt during an emeute soon after it had been repaired by ,theodosius4 ,justinian had already built the church of ,sergius and ,bacchus in ,constantinople1 on a plan nearly identical with that of ,st4 ,vitale1 at ,ravenna1 with the exception that the whole structure was externally in the form of a square1 enclosing the octagon supporting the dome4 ,this served as a stepping-stone to the conception of the larger church1 which became the type of all subsequent ,byzantine constructions4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,sergius ,,and ,,bacchus ,,at ,,constantinople4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,st4 ,,sophia1 ,,constantinople4 ,by comparing the plans of the ,pantheon1 the temple of ,minerva ,medica1 the baptistery of ,constantine1 ,st4 ,vitale1 at ,ravenna1 and the church of ,sergius and ,bacchus1 in the order in which they are enumerated1 with that of ,st4 ,sophia1 the sequence and continuous progress of domical construction is at once apparent1 and such comparison explains the successive steps in a more satisfactory manner than a folio of description4 8,the church of ,st4 ,sophia10 says ,m4 ,texier1 8is built on a square plan1 #bea feet long by #ahf feet wide4 ,in the centre of this square rises the dome1 the diameter of which1 measuring #ajh feet1 determines the width of the nave4 ,the dome is supported by four great arches and four pendentives4 ,two hemispheric vaults abut against the two arches1 which are perpendicular to the axis of the nave1 giving it an oval appearance4 ,each of these hemispheres is itself pierced by two smaller hemispheres carried on columns4 ,this superposition of domes1 whose points of abutment are not visible1 gives to the whole structure a lightness difficult to realize40 ,the church is built upon a foundation of bton twenty feet deep4 ,it is preceded by an atrium surrounded by a portico of the ,ionic order4 ,the nave is entered by a double narthex1 or porch1 extending along the whole width of the ,west front4 ,the interior1 both floor and walls1 was formerly adorned with rich marbles1 and paintings upon a ground of gold4 ,the dome was built of light bricks faced with hard cement and mosaic1 and was lighted by forty windows4 ,originally a painting of the ,holy ,father was placed in the centre of the dome1 and four cherubim in the pendentives4 ,the latter are still to be discerned under the coat of whitewash with which the ,turks have hidden the original magnificence of the interior4 ,the apse1 lighted by three windows1 contained the throne and seat of the ,church fathers4 ,the columns supporting the great arches and the galleries1 originally occupied by the women1 are of rare marble1 eight of them having1 it is said1 formed part of the temple of ,diana at ,ephesus1 being brought1 together with the spoils of many ,eastern and ,western buildings1 to adorn the great edifice4 ,the foliage of their capitals is fine and sharp and intricately interlaced1 having no resemblance to the ,classic models beyond a debased form of the volute which terminates their upper corners4 ,this style of ornament is a distinguishing feature of the ,byzantine style1 and reappears in many examples both in the ,east and ,west4 ,the church1 commenced in the year #ecb1 took sixteen years to build1 during which time incredible sums were expended upon it4 ,when completed1 the appearance it presented was most magnificent1 resulting not only from the rich marbles1 wood-work1 paintings1 and mosaics with which it was decorated1 but also from the countless candelabras1 curtains1 precious vases1 and golden vessels with which it was furnished4 ,after the capture of ,constantinople by ,mahomet ,,ii41 in the year #adec1 ,st4 ,sophia was converted into a mosque1 and suffered greatly at the hands of the ,turks4 ,it is only within recent years that any attempt at preserving its original splendour has been made4 ,the architectural principles upon which ,st4 ,sophia was constructed were reproduced in all ,byzantine buildings in ,italy and ,france as well as in the ,orient4 ,in ,turkey1 indeed1 the edifices subsequently erected are almost counterparts of the original structure1 the mosque of ,suleiman and that of ,achmet1 built as late as #afaj1 embodying almost identical features of construction4 ,in ,athens there are two or three small ,byzantine churches1 which1 though differing greatly in point of size1 are founded upon the plan of the mother church2 and in ,asia ,minor generally and ,armenia especially1 there are a great number2 notably the churches of ,daghour and ,pitzounda and the cathedral of ,anim4 ,the decoration of some of the latter differs from the usual ,byzantine methods in the frequent revival of ,classic forms1 and in the use of thin pilasters1 carrying blind arches on the exterior4 ,this feature reappears in the buildings of ,italy1 influenced by the style1 particularly at ,pisa4 ,in some later buildings a new manner of obtaining light was introduced1 by raising the dome upon a cylindrical drum1 supported by the four arches and pendentives of the older system4 ,st4 ,nicodemus1 of ,athens1 is one of the best examples of this4 ,when the body of ,st4 ,mark was brought to ,venice1 having been stolen from ,constantinople by means of a clever trick about the year #hca1 the ,doge ,partecipazio ordered a church to be built to his memory4 ,the greater part of this building as it stands to-day dates1 however1 from the tenth century4 ,it resembles ,st4 ,sophia in a great degree1 the frequent intercourse of the ,venetian maritime population with the ,orient having enabled them to study the principles of ,byzantine art1 and to bring spoils from the buildings of the ,east to their native city4 ,st4 ,mark's has also much affinity with the church of ,mone-tes-,koras1 in ,armenia1 the principal faade1 with its five large bays decorated with columns and arches framing the five doors which give access to the church1 being identical in general conception4 ,the interior of the building has the form of the ,greek cross1 the four arms of which and also the central compartment formed by their intersection1 are roofed by domes supported on arches and pendentives4 ,the style of ornament is very similar to that of its prototype1 with its rich gold mosaics1 frescos1 and inlaid marble1 some of the details being essentially ,oriental in character4 ,the constructors of the pendentives in ,st4 ,mark's do not seem to have properly understood that they formed part of a sphere to the centre of which their joints should have converged1 but filled up the spaces between the supporting arches by a series of small superposed arches4 ,the influence of this ,byzantine construction extended into ,aquitania1 in the ,south of ,france4 ,at the close of the tenth century a number of churches were erected there1 with the dome as a prominent feature4 ,st4 ,front1 of ,perigueux1 was built upon a plan closely resembling that of ,st4 ,mark's in ,venice1 and very nearly upon a similar scale of dimensions4 ,the architects of the church1 however1 seem to have distrusted the strength of the semicircular arch1 and resorted to the ogival#e or pointed form as a means of securing greater supporting power1 although this arch had not as yet been adopted in ,france4 #e ,from augere1 to strengthen4 ,they1 too1 failed completely to grasp the principle of the pendentive1 as those of ,st4 ,front are formed of corbelled stones with horizontal beds1 instead of voussoirs converging to the centre of the hemisphere of which they should form part4 ,besides ,st4 ,front1 the churches of ,fontevrault1 ,souliac1 ,angoulme1 and others in ,aquitania were built with similar characteristics1 though in plan they adopted the ,latin instead of the ,greek cross4 ,the abbey church of ,fontevrault is perhaps the most successful of these1 the four domes of its nave producing a very pleasing effect4 ,the greater number of these buildings were erected during the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 in an imported fashion1 rather than in a style destined to be engrafted upon ,french national architecture4 ,all of them show the want of a clear comprehension of the principles involved1 and are evidently foreign to the taste of the people4 ,the introduction of this style in ,france1 offers a parallel case to the introduction of ,gothic architecture in ,italy1 a century or two later1 for in neither case were the styles in accordance with native inspiration4 ,,viii4 ,,mahometan ,,architecture4 ,the year #fbb of our era is a remarkable one in historical annals1 being the date of the flight of ,mahomet1 the ,hegira from which all events are computed by followers of his religion4 ,within a marvellously short period the new faith spread from the confines of ,arabia1 throughout ,asia ,minor and ,persia and all along the ,north coast of ,africa to ,spain1 propagated everywhere by the force of the victorious sword1 until1 scarcely a century later1 we find its promoters bearing the crescent against ,charlemagne1 under the shadow of the ,pyrenees4 ,as a political and theological narrative the history of the rise of the faith of ,islam1 is a wonderfully interesting one1 and to us it is important as it explains the reason for the geographical position of so many buildings1 erected in accordance with the requirements of the new religion1 and therefore having a great similarity in all countries where it prevailed4 ,the ,kaabah1 or 8square house10 built by ,mahomet at ,mecca upon the site of a temple which tradition says was founded by ,abraham1 appears to have been the earliest ,mahometan mosque4 ,mahomet had already erected a building at ,medina1 but this seems to have been not so much a house of prayer as a dwelling-place for his family4 ,the ,kaabah has less importance as an architectural production than as the centre of the wheel of ,mahometanism1 the faithful being directed to turn their faces toward it when praying1 and to regard it as the ultimate goal of their wanderings4 ,the original structure was built by foreign workmen1 and had no great pretensions1 but subsequently it was surrounded by a colonnaded court1 and by later additions was very considerably enlarged4 ,although the ,koran decrees that all good ,mussulmen should make a pilgrimage to ,mecca1 it does not uphold the ,kaabah as a model to be followed in the erection of other mosques nor give any specific directions of the manner in which they should be built4 ,it was therefore natural when the peace1 following their rapid conquests1 permitted the ,mahometans to turn their thoughts to the erection of religious edifices1 suitable for the observances of their worship1 that they should borrow inspiration from the surrounding nations4 ,the style they eventually evolved was drawn from ,byzantine1 ,sassanian1 ,greek1 and ,roman sources1 and became native by adaptation4 ,in ,turkey1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,persia we find ,mahometan mosques closely resembling ,christian and ,byzantine churches1 many domed edifices being copied from ,st4 ,sophia and differing only in point of decoration1 while the atrium or courtyard preceding the entrance to ,christian buildings furnished the type for the wide colonnaded courts1 with porticos roofed with a succession of hemispherical or bulbous domes1 which became so common in ,arabian buildings4 ,the mosques of ,omar1 at ,jerusalem1 on the site of the temple of ,solomon1 of ,wallid1 at ,damascus1 ,al-,azhar1 ,athar-en-,neby1 ,ibn ,touloun1 and ,hassan1 in ,cairo1 are notable edifices1 in which the columns are either taken or copied from ,greek and ,roman temples1 and in which the pointed arches seem to have been suggested by the hyperbolic arches of certain ancient ,sassanian structures1 such as the palace of ,coroes1 the ,takt ,kesra in the ruins of ,ctesiphon1 on the ,tigris1 and the buildings of ,firouzabad and ,sarbistan1 which were mentioned in connection with ,persian art4 ,one of the earliest examples of the use of the pointed arch is in the ,nilometer1 erected on the ,rodah1 or ,isle of ,gardens1 at ,cairo1 by ,wallid1 in the eighth century4 ,this is a matter worthy of note1 as showing conclusively that the ,gothic arch was no invention of the thirteenth century1 in ,europe1 but merely the adoption of a form used five centuries before in ,egypt1 and probably universally known1 if indeed it had ever been lost sight of1 since the days of the prosperity of ,babylon4 ,of the early mosques the most important are those of ,omar and ,abd-el-,malek at ,jerusalem and of ,wallid at ,damascus4 ,the mosque of ,omar was but a simple vaulted chamber1 oriented in order to enable the faithful to turn in the direction of ,mecca while praying4 ,that of ,abd-el-,malek1 called the ,aksah1 adjoins it and is an extensive structure4 ,it is chiefly remarkable for its general resemblance to the basilica in its division into aisles4 ,the columns forming these carry pointed arches1 built over connecting beams4 ,it is not improbable that this design was inspired by the order of the church of the ,dome of the ,rock1 adjoining it1 built by ,constantine1 where the columns support circular arches1 over a continuous entablature4 ,wallid1 ,caliph of ,damascus1 erected a mosque on the site of the old church of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 and employed labour and material in its construction furnished by ,justinian1 ,emperor of ,byzance4 ,the mosques of ,cairo resemble each other in a great degree4 ,they have usually a first court1 giving access to apartments for the accommodation of strangers1 with baths1 and stables for their camels1 connected with a second and larger quadrangular court1 having a fountain in the centre and porticos on three sides4 ,the fourth side1 facing the entrance1 has a series of aisles roofed in and forming the sanctuary1 with recesses in the rear wall1 where the prayers are offered4 ,reading-desks1 provided with copies of the ,koran1 and hanging lamps form the chief furniture4 ,the minarets1 one or more of which are usually erected at the angles of the building1 are special features4 ,these tall1 graceful towers1 from whose summits a crier calls the people to prayers five times daily1 serve a purpose similar to that of the belfries and campaniles of ,europe4 ,the diameter of most of them is small in proportion to the height1 giving them a slender and beautiful aspect1 very distinct from another class of towers1 of which the ,giralda at ,seville is the best known1 which were conceived in the same spirit of massiveness in which the campanile in the square before ,st4 ,mark's in ,venice was built4 ,they are ascended by spiral staircases placed either within or without1 and have projecting balconies at various stages4 ,the building materials employed by the ,arabs were chiefly stone of different colours1 combined in bands and patterns1 and brick covered with stucco4 ,enamelled tiles and multicoloured marbles were used both externally and internally1 while within1 carved wood1 gilding1 painting1 and plaster were lavishly employed4 ,of the forms of decoration1 the chief were elaborate gold inscriptions in ,arabic characters1 floral and geometric designs in interlaced patterns of the most intricate combinations1 coloured with all the profusion suggested by the ,oriental love of brilliancy and with the exquisite harmony which we see in ,persian and ,indian fabrics4 ,a favourite form of decoration was that formed by a multiplication of minute pendentives1 called the honeycomb ornament1 the whole surface1 as well as the dome above1 being covered with an agglomeration of minute niches1 the effect of which is frequently compared to that of stalactites4 ,this form of ornament was much used1 particularly in the mosques and palaces of ,spain4 ,in ,cairo domestic architecture has a distinctive character of its own4 ,the houses have reception-rooms on the ground floor1 furnished with the divans1 carpets1 and lamps usual in ,oriental manner of life1 while the upper floors1 occupied by the women1 have projecting balconies of lattice wood-work1 which permit them to see without being seen1 and form an agreeable and picturesque feature on the exterior4 ,the richness and the progress of ,arabic art at a period when architecture had sunk to the lowest ebb throughout ,europe1 is due in great measure to the establishment of the learned academies of ,damascus1 ,bagdad1 and other principal cities1 and to the revival of ,classic learning by the translation of the works of ,greek authors4 ,in ,spain1 where the ,moorish and ,christian populations were thrown in constant contact with one another1 the difference of religious opinion maintained a wide gulf between them1 and while the ,christians struggled with the difficulties of the ,romanesque revival1 their opponents attained a brilliant era in art1 as a result of their superior industry and civilization4 ,one of the oldest ,arabian buildings in ,spain is the great mosque at ,cordova4 ,here1 as in the ,east1 we find ,corinthian and ,composite columns1 taken from ,roman buildings on the soil1 forming integral parts of the new structure1 but the ,classical principles of building are in no sense adhered to4 ,the entablature is replaced by cinque-foiled arches with voussoirs of alternate stone and brick2 a second order of columns is superposed directly upon the capitals of the first1 carrying horseshoe arches1 and between the two arcades an intermediary series of trefoiled arches is placed1 springing from the keystone of the lower arches and divided at the centre by the upper ones4 ,the general plan of the building consists of the usual series of aisles1 of which there are nineteen1 with divisional walls4 ,the sanctuary has a vault with intersecting ribs1 surmounted by a small dome and enriched by profuse ornament1 and is the object of much just admiration for its beauty4 ,the chapel of ,villa ,viciosa1 a later structure1 has a series of arcades similar to those before the sanctuary1 differing only in the arrangement of the intermediary arches1 which are carried up to the level of the upper arches from a horizontal course1 and are cinque-foiled instead of trefoiled1 both on the extrados and intrados4 ,the mosque was begun by ,abd-el-,rhaman1 in the eighth century1 and successively added to during the four centuries following4 ,it covers a very large superficial area1 upwards of one hundred and sixty thousand square feet1 and surpasses1 in this respect1 most ,european buildings4 ,its chief defects are the want of height1 which does not exceed thirty feet1 and the monotony of the aisles1 which are nearly all precisely alike4 ,at ,toledo there are several ,moorish buildings of merit1 the principal one of which is the mosque called1 at present1 the church of 8,cristo de la ,luz40 ,it is similar to the sanctuary of ,cordova in general aspect1 but is a marvel of intricate and minute workmanship4 ,the whole area which it occupies does not exceed four hundred superficial feet1 but the proportions are so nicely balanced that it appears much larger4 ,there are four columns carrying horseshoe arches1 above which comes a second arcade1 and each division is roofed in by a vault of intersecting ribs4 ,these vaults are formed of wood1 overlaid with plaster1 and have no pretension to scientific construction4 ,indeed1 in none of the ,arabian buildings in ,spain do we find anything of the kind attempted1 the decorative features being always the most prominent4 ,in the tower of ,seville a species of vault was formed by thickening the walls gradually as they rose from the ground until they met2 this1 however1 was nothing more than extensive corbelling1 and1 consequently1 very inferior to ,roman and ,byzantine methods4 ,the ,alczar1 at ,seville1 and the ,palace of the ,alhambra1 at ,granada1 are the richest examples of ,moorish architecture1 and show in their design and ornament the most fertile expression of the brilliant imagination with which this warm-blooded people imbued all its creations4 ,the ,court of the ,lions in the latter1 a rectangular enclosure1 surrounded by arcades1 with projecting domed pavilions at the upper and lower ends1 is generally held to be the finest production of the later period of the style4 ,the same materials are used here as in the other buildings--plaster shaped in the most exquisite forms and coloured brilliantly1 tiles ornamented with patterns and devices of the most elaborate character1 and wooden ceilings carved and richly painted4 ,all these are handled with such correct taste that their brilliancy never degenerates into gaudiness4 ,a splendid fountain in the centre of the court1 the lower bowl of which is supported upon the backs of lions1 explains the name given to this celebrated structure4 ,the mosque of ,cordova is superior1 in respect to materials1 to the other remaining ,moorish buildings in ,spain1 in which plaster is used to excess4 ,it is vain1 however1 to look in any of them for any distinct or novel constructional departure4 ,the lintel and arch in ,greece and ,rome1 the dome carried on pendentives in ,byzance1 were features giving character to each style1 but the art of the ,mahometan architects differed only in form and colour from its predecessors4 ,the horseshoe arch with one and two centres1 that is both round and pointed1 was used by them almost exclusively1 but it cannot rank as a constructional invention1 for the real arch starts only at the level of the centres1 and the remaining lower portion is a mere corbelling to obtain a form pleasing to the eye4 ,any new method of construction always affected the surrounding parts1 and often altered the whole design of a building4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that a mere change in the appearance of an arch such as this1 which affects nothing connected with it1 cannot be said to have created any new era in the progress of building4 ,we hear the question frequently asked why a modern and new style is not developed in our times1 and the answer architects make is illustrated by just this case1 that is1 that no new style can be evolved without a new constructive principle4 ,as yet none such has been forthcoming1 the only novel method of construction lately introduced being the employment of iron girders and posts1 which1 from an artistic point of view1 can scarcely be considered an improvement upon the use of what are called the natural building materials4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,romanesque ,,style4 ,some late historians have departed from the previously generally accepted nomenclature of architectural styles1 in designating under the general term of ,christian architecture all buildings erected between the tenth and sixteenth centuries in ,western ,europe4 ,as1 however1 ,christian building in ,europe began with the conversion of ,constantine1 this chronology is hardly satisfactory1 and as the customary division of ,gothic from the styles preceding it1 is on many grounds a convenient one1 it is preferable to adopt the conventional names1 and to distinguish under the title of 8,romanesque0 the outgrowth of the debased form of ,roman architecture which1 influenced by ,byzantine and ,arabic art1 formed a distinct method of building throughout the ,west for nearly two centuries after the year #ajjj ,a4,d41 giving it the alternative name of 8,norman0 in ,normandy and ,england4 ,previous to this date the long continuance of war and barbaric incursions seem to have prevented the erection of any stable edifices2 fire and the poverty of the material with which they were constructed having caused the destruction of the few of which an account has been preserved4 ,many churches subsequently built1 however1 were erected upon the sites of these older ones and have fragments of the older buildings incorporated in them4 ,of such are the churches of ,st4 ,germain des ,prs1 in ,paris1 and ,notre ,dame du ,port1 at ,clermont4 ,under ,charlemagne1 a revival of art was attempted1 the chief building constructed by him being a reproduction of ,st4 ,vitale1 of ,ravenna1 in which he employed sculpture and ornament torn from the original structure1 and fragments from the edifices of ancient ,rome2 but this effort soon died away1 and the period intervening between the eighth and tenth centuries was totally lacking in any architectural production of merit4 ,as the ,roman principles of architecture had been taken ,eastward and gradually transformed into a new style at ,byzance1 so also in the ,west they had been the forerunners of another method of building1 but proportionately different in accordance with the character1 customs1 and race of the ,western populations4 ,the basilica formed1 as it had in the ,east1 the model upon which all church architecture was designed1 the nave1 transept1 aisles1 and apse being all retained in this new class of buildings1 but many of the building methods were new1 and the details of their decoration differed considerably from the precise proportions and ,classic graces of the buildings of ,rome4 ,the result exhibits a curious contrast between the barbaric ornament and the scientific construction1 which advanced throughout the style in the genuine efforts which were made to progress in the art of building4 ,starting thus at the decadence of ,classic art1 with a ,classical building as the original type for their churches1 the ,romanesque architects took up each of the parts combining in its formation1 and sought to improve or elaborate each1 in pursuance of certain ends1 arising from local necessities4 ,there is virtually no point where ,romanesque ends and ,gothic commences1 to give due reason for the conventional divisions of historians1 for the one style melts into the other in the continual progress in the study of the principles of construction which was steadily effected throughout both styles4 ,they differ chiefly in that1 during the two centuries prior to the thirteenth century1 the pointed arch was rarely used1 and that the influence of the ,classic decadence is more apparent in the buildings of the earlier period4 ,after this1 the pointed arch became universal1 and the whole style becoming entirely distinct from its derivation1 the ornament and detail1 quite unlike anything which had come before1 it may be said that a new style had been created4 ,this new style1 which has been called ,gothic1 continued to be developed until the fifteenth century1 when its principles became exaggerated1 and it died out at the extreme point to which they could be pushed4 ,it has been customary to call the buildings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 built in the transition of ,roman to ,gothic art1 ,romanesque2 but the pointed arch was used in both styles1 though1 as stated above1 less frequently in the earlier one2 and it should not1 therefore1 be taken as the distinguishing characteristic of ,gothic architecture4 ,the chief points wherein the ,romanesque churches1 which were the only buildings of importance constructed at that period1 differed from the basilicas were in the methods of vaulting and their consequent effects upon the whole structure1 the elaboration of the apse1 and the system of connected supports employed4 ,the main characteristics of the style were the same in all ,western countries1 and these being known1 it is not difficult to distinguish the slight differences arising from local causes4 ,in the old basilicas the aisles1 whether of one or two stories1 were lighted by windows in the lateral walls1 while the nave borrowed light from them1 and also received it directly from a clerestory rising above the roof of the galleries4 ,as we have seen1 these buildings were usually covered by wooden roofs1 tunnel-vaults or a series of intersecting vaults thrown across the square formed by two of the columns of the nave1 equidistant from each other and from corresponding pilasters in the side walls1 being only occasionally used in the aisles4 ,the ,western architects of the tenth century continued to build their churches in this manner1 and we have a splendid example of a timber roof of this kind1 as late even as the twelfth century1 in ,peterborough ,cathedral2 but at an early period they sought to replace these perishable roofs by stone vaults4 ,they found the construction of the semi-dome of the apse and the vaulting of the side aisles1 either by a continuous tunnel-vault1 by a series of semicircular vaults perpendicular to the lateral walls1 or by intersecting vaults upon a square plan1 comparatively easy2 but the vaulting of the nave was a much more difficult matter4 ,the circular tunnel-vault would have been the simplest known method of accomplishing this1 but the pressure of a circular vault placed over the nave would have tended to push outward the walls upon which it rested1 and this pressure being continuous1 it was obviously of no avail to place buttresses at any separate point1 and to place a great number1 side by side1 all along the vault1 or1 in other words1 to greatly thicken the supporting wall1 was to take up too much valuable ground space4 ,in ,st4 ,front and kindred structures we have seen the problem solved in one way by the introduction of ,byzantine domes2 but these churches were confined to a province of ,southern ,france1 and had but little influence in other districts4 ,in ,st4 ,etienne de ,nevers1 ,st4 ,sernin de ,toulouse1 and in ,notre ,dame du ,port at ,clermont in ,auvergne1 and others1 this difficulty is partially overcome by the building of a half vault over the upper galleries connecting the tunnel-vault of the nave with the outer main walls1 and taking the strain continuously1 the thickness of the outer wall not being considered of consequence4 ,this system permitted the placing of roofing-tiles directly upon the extrados of the vaults1 and the entire suppression of wooden rafters1 which was advantageous in diminishing the risk of fire1 although the pitch was scarcely sufficient to prevent leakage4 ,the great disadvantage1 however1 was that the nave had only borrowed light1 and in large churches it was inconveniently dark4 ,another method adopted was that of suppressing the upper gallery1 and bringing the arches of the aisles up to the level of the springing of the main vault1 so that the summits of the side vaults and the walls erected between them1 which were at right angles to the nave1 served to counteract the strain of the upper vault4 ,we have examples of this in the cathedral of ,limoges and at ,fontenay1 but it is open to the same objection1 that of darkening the nave4 ,still another system consisted in binding the vault over the nave by ribs or arches thrown across to opposite piers1 which were strengthened by buttresses4 ,these buttresses1 however1 were built upon the top of the arches1 thrown across the aisles1 and did more harm than good4 ,illustration3 ,,elevation4 ,,romanesque ,,construction ,illustration3 ,,section4 ,there is an example of unusual construction at ,tournus1 in ,burgundy1 where the difficulty is effectually surmounted by the building of a number of arches at right angles to the axis of the nave1 between each set of piers2 but the effect is far from satisfactory4 ,finally at ,vezelay1 in ,france1 the tunnel-vault was abandoned and diagonal intersecting vaults were thrown across the nave1 framed in between semicircular arch ribs carried upon piers spaced at equal intervals1 the weight being thus wholly transferred to the four points at the angles of each compartment4 ,it was found1 however1 that these piers needed strengthening1 as the strain upon them was excessive1 and it was thus that external buttresses were resorted to1 which were connected with the piers by arches1 called flying buttresses1 bridging the side aisles and conveying the pressure to the outer wall4 ,a weight was placed over each buttress1 generally taking the form of a pinnacle1 which stiffened it and counteracted the pressure of the arch4 ,an illustration of this mode of construction has been attempted in the accompanying drawing1 which does not represent any special building1 but in which the chief characteristics of the style at this juncture have been introduced4 ,the distance across the nave being usually greater than that between the columns dividing it from the aisles1 the rectangular compartments of the vault were consequently no longer square1 but oblong1 so that while the arches crossing the nave at right angles were still semicircular those between the pillars were pointed4 ,the transition from this1 in the thirteenth century1 to the definite adoption of the pointed vault was consequently but a step4 ,we see1 thus1 that a continual progress was made in vaulting throughout the style1 and the principle of concentrating weight upon isolated points was evolved in order to vault the nave and at the same time give direct light to it4 ,in effecting this result1 however1 the original aim had been lost sight of--namely1 that of avoiding the use of wooden roofs2 for when the ,romanesque architects abandoned tunnel-vaulting they had to surmount their more complicated intersecting vaults by wooden roofs1 the perishable nature of which caused the ruin of many of the finest buildings4 ,nor was the external appearance of these roofs any improvement upon those of ,st4 ,etienne and ,st4 ,sernin1 for it is a question whether any more monumental roof has been conceived than that which is formed by the natural outside surface of stone vaults4 ,in the old basilicas1 columns taken from or modelled upon those of the temples and palaces of ,rome had sufficed to support the light brick wall1 carried upon an architrave or arches1 which enclosed the nave4 ,when the ,western architects resumed the building of churches1 after an interval of war and trouble which had proved fatal to architectural progress1 brick was little used and the formation of light masonry and good mortar were lost arts4 ,the slender ,classic column was consequently insufficient to carry the load of a heavy stone wall and had1 necessarily1 to be replaced by a more solid pier4 ,these piers assumed various forms in the tentative efforts made to construct them of the dimensions calculated to occupy the least amount of floor space2 some were square1 others circular or formed of a number of small columns grouped together1 but for a long time no very satisfactory shape was found which avoided a clumsy adjustment of the superstructure4 ,it came to be gradually recognized that the form of the pier should be subservient to1 and made to correspond with1 the arches and the column receiving the arch rib of the vault above1 which it had to sustain4 ,this was effected at first by a square pier1 with rectangular projections on each side1 forming abutments for the reception of the constructional arrangement above4 ,subsequently these were replaced by pilasters and engaged columns on each face1 three of which supported the rear and side arches of the nave1 the fourth being continued up to the springing of the vault1 and redeemed from exaggerated effect by bands or string-courses4 ,there are good examples in ,france at ,vezelay1 ,beaune and ,langres and ,autun4 ,in ,england the contemporary architects usually employed square or circular masses of solid masonry1 carrying a heavy abacus1 these pillars being sometimes ornamented with a fluting1 as in the crypt at ,canterbury1 or with zigzag patterns1 as at ,waltham ,abbey1 ,durham1 and ,lindisfarne4 ,the capitals of ,romanesque columns are especially interesting1 for they became constructively useful instead of simply ornamental1 as were those used in the ,roman orders4 ,the section of the arch rib being square and the column round1 it was necessary to afford support to the overlapping corners1 the whole surface of the projecting tile or abacus being occupied by the upper masonry1 instead of the line of the shaft being continued up1 as had been done in ,rome4 ,the capital was therefore made to spread outward from the shaft in order to corbel the superstructure4 ,illustration3 ,,comparative ,,series1 ,,showing ,,greek1 ,,roman1 ,,romanesque1 ,,and ,,gothic ,,methods ,,of ,,support4 #a4 ,greek ,lintel4 #b4 ,roman ,arch1 showing ,false ,lintel4 #c4 ,vault ,springing from ,entablature4 #d4 ,arch ,springing #e4 ,romanesque ,column1 with ,arches ,springing from ,outer ,edge of the ,capital4 #f4 ,romanesque ,pier4 #g4 ,gothic ,pier4 ,a simple form of this is found in many ,german1 ,italian1 and ,english examples1 the upper part of the capital being a cube and the lower a hemisphere4 ,the early examples generally imitate those of the ,corinthian order in a rude fashion corresponding with the poverty of talent of the period4 ,the capitals of the twelfth century are better carved and better suited to the services they have to perform4 ,figures representing biblical subjects are introduced in some and in others strange animals and conventional foliage1 sometimes arranged as the acanthus leaf had been in the ,roman models4 ,the proportions of the ,classic column were also departed from1 the capital often being a quarter or a sixth of the whole column2 its height being regulated by the size of the beds of stone1 which were generally low4 ,in ,germany1 however1 the older proportions were more closely adhered to4 ,the quality of the stone determined in a great measure the depth of the carving1 the harder kinds having less depth of incision and the style of ornament applied to them resembling the ,byzantine4 ,in ,france the ,romanesque column has usually a third of the diameter of its shaft engaged in a pier or wall1 though isolated ones are used in the triforiums1 towers1 and porches2 in ,england the latter are common1 and recessed columns1 that is to say1 placed in an angle of masonry1 are also frequently seen4 ,the bases of ,romanesque columns1 at first simple round and hollow moulds1 gradually became more elaborate1 until they resembled the attic base4 ,occasionally they were decorated with foliage or animals1 and there are instances where both capital and base are similar4 ,the introduction of an angle ornament1 connecting the torus or round mould with the corners of the plinth beneath1 is especially noticeable2 this was effective in preventing the angles from being broken by thickening the stone at the weakest points1 and in later examples added to the beauty of the base4 ,the arches of the period were usually semicircular and employed either separately or with a second and broader one1 their contour being frequently marked by a few simple mouldings of degenerate classic origin4 ,two or three arches supported by detached columns1 and comprised within a larger one1 were frequently placed in the triforiums2 when three were used the central one was usually higher than the others4 ,besides mouldings3 billets1 zigzags1 stars1 and similar simple ornaments were employed in their decoration4 ,where ,arabic taste exercised its influence1 it is not uncommon to find alternate voussoirs of different-coloured stones1 and variegated bands in the piers4 ,the ,italians were especially fond of this treatment and it is seen in the exteriors and interiors of many of their buildings4 ,to them is also due the introduction of blind arcades1 the columns of which were either engaged in the wall or separated from it by an intervening gallery4 ,the faade of the cathedral at ,pisa is perhaps the most beautiful example of this4 ,in the ,west1 arcades of this kind became a frequent method of decorating blank walls1 and there are instances where a second series of arches intersect the first1 resulting in a number of pointed arches formed by the crossing of the circular ones2 from this an ingenious but unfounded theory has been deducted purporting to explain the origin of ,gothic architecture4 ,the doors and porches of the ,romanesque period are among the most beautiful to be found in any style4 ,starting in the earlier examples with a simple1 round-arched opening1 the number of mouldings in the arch became richer and of greater number1 and1 as the style advanced1 recessed and supported by columns4 ,these mouldings were decorated with the zigzag1 billet1 and kindred ornaments1 many of which were probably copied from the decoration of the old basilica of ,st4 ,paul's without the walls of ,rome4 ,as the jambs of the doorways were generally built on an angle1 the contiguous shafts and arches sometimes gave the effect of an arched passage in perspective4 ,such effects were frequently intentional in the churches in ,southern ,france1 for we find that the walls of the nave and vault of ,notre ,dame de ,poitiers1 and of other buildings1 were purposely made to converge in order to give the appearance of greater length4 ,it was not uncommon to give the doors square heads1 supported by corbels and occasionally by a central shaft2 in these cases the arch above relieved the lintel from the weight of the superstructure1 and gave the character of the style to the whole4 ,the tympanum1 thus enclosed1 offered a ground for rich sculpture1 which was availed of to the fullest extent4 ,the outer door of a porch was usually richer in design than the inner one2 in ,england there are many examples of shallow porches with single deeply recessed doors4 ,in ,provence there are many beautiful examples1 foremost amongst which must be mentioned the porch of ,st4 ,trophyme1 at ,arles 7see frontispiece74 ,romanesque windows were but modifications of the doors2 often having recessed shafts at their sides and being frequently divided by a central column4 ,the bull's-eye1 or round window1 of the early ,christian basilicas continued to be used1 but it had not as yet the richness of tracery which it attained in the ,gothic period4 ,classical features of design still retained their hold upon many details1 notably in the cornices1 where the modillions or brackets of the ,corinthian order were frequently employed1 and but slightly altered in form1 although of native composition4 ,the corona of the cornice also differed but little from the ,roman models1 and was occasionally supported directly by engaged columns replacing buttresses1 chiefly on the exterior of apsidal chapels4 ,in the early ,christian churches the apse had consisted of a central semicircular termination to the building1 flanked occasionally by two smaller semicircular recesses containing altars4 ,in the baptisteries and ,byzantine churches these had been multiplied1 and had come to be customary features in every new building4 ,in ,england1 the ,norman architects generally ended their churches rectangularly1 without even the original single apse1 though there are a few examples in which it is used1 as at ,newhaven1 ,sussex4 ,in ,germany it was frequently the custom to affix apses to three sides of the square tower placed at the intersection of the nave and transept1 and the result was generally satisfactory1 as may be seen in ,st4 ,martin's of ,cologne1 and in the ,apostles' ,church in the same city4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,strasbourg ,,cathedral 7,compare with ,basilica1 page #hi47 ,in ,france the plan resolved itself into an open semicircular colonnade with a passage intervening between it and the outer wall which followed the outline of a series of small apses4 ,these formed an harmonious cluster1 and became a type which was matured in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4 ,those belonging to the ,romanesque period1 however1 had a distinct and constructively excellent character which has rarely been subsequently surpassed4 ,among the best are those of ,notre ,dame du ,port at ,clermont1 ,st4 ,etienne de ,nevers1 and ,st4 ,sernin at ,toulouse4 ,in ,france towers were generally placed at the ,west end of the church1 while in ,england and ,germany the usual way was to build them at the junction of the nave and transept2 in ,italy they were often detached from the main structure4 ,they were characterized by simple solidity2 the openings being few and the detail bold2 the angles were strengthened by stout piers2 the roofs were either of timber or stone1 according to the nature of the materials in the localities in which they were erected1 and they were usually lighted by the round-arched double window4 ,this round arch1 ornamented with a few simple mouldings and reposing upon short sturdy columns1 forms a constantly recurring feature in the composition of the several parts of ,romanesque buildings4 ,the corridors which surrounded the square courtyards adjoining churches1 and connected them with the dormitories1 refectories1 and other apartments of the clergy1 are called cloisters4 ,they differed but little from the ,roman 8impluvium0 and the 8atrium0 of the basilica1 the changes consisting chiefly in the addition of raised sills separating them from the court1 and in their being usually vaulted instead of carrying timber roofs4 ,the series of arcades forming them were treated in many ways1 and the detail admitted of much elaboration and variety1 as may be seen in the many remarkable examples throughout ,europe4 ,the cloisters of ,st4 ,paul's1 at ,rome1 and the atrium of ,st4 ,ambrogio1 at ,milan1 form very interesting historical links between the ,roman and ,romanesque styles and are very beautiful specimens of their kind4 ,it had been the custom during the struggling period of the early ,church to bury the bodies of saints in subterranean chambers called crypts1 a word derived from the ,greek verb 8to hide02 subsequently these became component parts of all churches1 serving as places of interment and for the occasional celebration of masses4 ,their masonry was necessarily of the massive character required for the foundation of the piers of the church above1 consisting generally in a grouping of columns sustaining a heavy vault4 ,illustration3 ,,chevet ,,of ,,notre ,,dame ,,du ,,port ,,at ,,clermont4 7,from ,chapuy47 ,the crypt of ,st4 ,eutrope1 at ,saintes in ,france1 may be mentioned as one of the best examples1 the pillars being richly carved1 and the ribs of the vault of great boldness and strength4 ,in ,germany the crypt is often raised sufficiently above the level of the ground to obtain light from windows1 as at ,spires1 and this is sometimes carried to such an extreme that the church becomes double1 that is1 of two stories1 as at ,schwartz ,rheindorf4 ,in ,england1 ,canterbury ,cathedral possesses perhaps the best example1 the crypt being very large and its details varied4 ,some of the capitals of the columns remain half finished1 the work upon them having been arrested by a conflagration in the twelfth century4 ,x4 ,,gothic ,,architecture4 ,briefly recapitulating the preceding chapters3 ,we have seen that the ,greek temple1 composed of a cella1 or oblong room1 surrounded by a colonnade1 was copied by the ,romans with but few alterations1 the only one of importance being the addition of a semicircular recess to the rear wall4 ,the columns of the colonnade having been transposed from the outside to the interior1 dividing the room in three parts1 longitudinally2 a cross wall having been introduced dividing it transversely1 and the apse retained1 the building became a basilica4 ,by extending the transept and nave the plan became cruciform and symbolically the most suitable for that of a ,christian church4 ,the ,western architects1 desiring to replace the wooden roofs by stone vaults1 found it convenient to substitute for columns carrying arches1 piers with engaged shafts connecting directly with the superstructure4 ,after various attempts to obtain direct light for the central division or nave1 rendered difficult by the necessity of counteracting the continuous thrust of the barrel vault thrown across it1 this vault was finally abandoned and replaced by intersecting vaults1 which conveyed the thrust diagonally upon equidistant piers4 ,to avoid increasing the size of the latter to an inconvenient extent1 an expedient was resorted to which consisted in propping them from the exterior by flying buttresses thrown from them to outside piers across the roof of the aisles4 ,the result of the width of the nave being usually greater than the distance between piers was that1 while the diagonal ribs of the vault remained semicircular1 their lateral intersection produced pointed arches4 ,this form of construction was developed during the middle and latter half of the twelfth century4 ,the pointed arch had been used occasionally before by the ,romanesque architects2 it had been used frequently by the ,arabs1 as far back as the eighth century1 and had been known and employed long before the ,christian era in the sewers of ,babylon4 ,it was1 therefore1 not a new invention1 but a known method adopted in a fresh departure in constructive architecture2 for the circular arches being abandoned and definitely replaced by the pointed arch the succeeding architecture became pointed or ,gothic4 ,this is the condensed history of the derivation of the style as generally accepted at the present day1 though the subject has given rise to much controversy4 ,the concentration of the weight of the vault upon the piers1 instead of upon a continuous wall1 was more or less the key to the whole scheme of ,gothic construction2 for the main principle remained the same throughout its many and varied examples4 ,the idea was improved upon gradually and finally pushed to exaggeration2 the decoration of the component parts of a building increased as the style advanced and they were reduced to just the sizes needed for stability1 but their construction remained almost unaltered throughout4 ,we have followed the steps by which the form given to ,christian churches emanated from the early basilicas2 this form of building1 that is1 its plan and divisions into nave1 aisles1 transept1 choir1 apse1 etc41 had become traditional and was generally accepted in all the best examples4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,rheims ,,cathedral4 ,the problem of accommodating large assemblies in the manner best suited to enable them to concentrate their sight and hearing upon a given point has been solved in various ways1 perhaps most successfully in our modern opera-houses1 but this problem was not one with which the ,gothic architects endeavoured to grapple2 their attention was devoted to the improvement and embellishment of the typical plan of structure1 which custom and dogma had prescribed as the most suitable and in accordance with the needs of the liturgy4 ,the plan was more or less elastic1 and differed without material distinction in the different countries of ,western ,europe4 ,these differences are easily noted by comparing the appended plans2 the one1 that of ,rheims ,cathedral1 showing perhaps the most perfect arrangement of any in ,france1 and the other1 that of a typical ,english cathedral4 ,the latter does not represent any particular structure1 but is a composition including all the usual divisions and connecting buildings1 taken from an old copy of ,rickman4 a1 a1 ,towers at ,west end4 b1 b1 ,porches4 c1 ,the nave4 d1 d1 ,side aisles of the nave4 e1 ,the cloisters4 f1 ,library4 g1 ,north transept4 h1 ,south transept4 i1 i1 ,side aisles of ,south transept4 k1 k1 k1 ,chapels4 l1 ,chapter house with passage from the cloisters4 m1 ,central tower1 cross or lantern4 n1 ,screen1 over which the organ is usually placed4 o1 ,choir1 at the east end of which the altar is usually placed4 p1 p1 ,side aisles of the choir4 q1 ,lady chapel4 ,in the thirteenth century the style was formed in all its purity2 it was characterized by great simplicity and beauty1 and in these respects was never surpassed4 ,the arch had few mouldings1 and these clearly defined and graceful2 the shafts of columns were of slender and charming proportions1 and the foliage employed for the decoration of their capitals1 while conventional1 departed entirely from the acanthus leaves of ,classic origin1 and assumed forms suggested by ,western plants4 ,piers were reduced to the precise dimensions needful1 and were formed of slender shafts1 grouped together1 which received the arch mouldings on either side1 and rose in the front and rear to the height necessary to take the springing of the vault4 ,in practice1 the thrust of the vault was found not to be transmitted directly to a point to be received by an arch1 but to two points above and below this theoretical one1 which necessitated the employment of two flying buttresses1 the one above the other4 ,in ,chartres ,cathedral these are connected by radiating columns1 and there are many examples where the intervening space is occupied by an open arcade4 ,the ,french generally built their vertical buttresses very massively1 but in ,england the pinnacle was more frequently used to counteract the thrust of the arch4 ,for this purpose it was eminently appropriate1 and might be considered ornamental1 but the placing of pinnacles upon the corners of the towers and elsewhere where they served no end1 which was often done1 was always a mistake2 and a defect which mars the effect of many beautiful ,english buildings4 ,in ,notre ,dame of ,paris1 we find the single round column still occupying the first story1 with the more complex arrangement of pier and connected shafts starting above the abacus of its capital1 but as a general thing1 a distinct shaft was provided for each set of mouldings4 ,in time this was replaced by a continuation of the vault mouldings down to the floor1 interrupted only by an occasional string-course1 or a band of foliage replacing the capital4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,an ,,english ,,cathedral4 7,from ,rickman47 ,once the weight of the vault had been transferred to piers1 the wall connecting them ceased to support anything but the extremity of the cross-vault comprised between the piers1 and otherwise served only as a screen4 ,the ,gothic architects soon took advantage of this to widen the windows1 which had been narrow in the early stages1 for by throwing a discharging arch just under the upper vault across the piers the whole space underneath could be occupied by windows1 which1 with the improvement in the making of painted glass1 became extremely desirable4 ,this was accordingly done1 the only stonework left being the network of mullions and tracery necessary to receive the panes4 ,this tracery1 probably suggested by the rich ,arabic window fillings1 made a great advance during the latter part of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 the combinations of geometrical figures1 chiefly the circle1 being often wonderfully beautiful4 ,the rose window was much favoured by the ,french in their ,west fronts and transepts1 but in ,england the large pointed window was generally preferred1 and admirably suited the square termination of the apse1 which was the most frequently used in that country4 ,the space enclosed by the pointed window had an outline to which it was always difficult to adjust geometric traceries so as to avoid clumsy joints1 or oddly shaped patterns1 and these were1 therefore1 subsequently replaced by flowing lines1 which could be used with much greater freedom4 ,as these grew bolder they assumed a flame-like appearance1 and the later period of the style to which they belong was1 in consequence1 called 8,flamboyant40 ,this development occurred chiefly in ,france1 some of the best examples being in the church of ,st4 ,ouen1 at ,rouen4 ,the simplest form of the ,gothic vault was that in which the compartment comprised between two piers on one side and two on the opposite side of the nave was marked by two ribs bridging it1 and two diagonal ribs intersecting each other4 ,as the system advanced the vault became more complex by the addition of other ribs1 as strengtheners or as ornaments1 until in some examples the whole vault became a network of intersecting ribs4 ,these intersections were frequently emphasized by a keystone or by an ornament called a boss1 which in ,english work was also placed at intervals along string-courses1 breaking the continuity after the manner of modillions in ,classic cornices4 ,a keystone placed in the centre of a vault was held there by a combination of great strength1 as it became a point of abutment for all the main ribs1 whose thrust was distributed against four piers and hence exteriorly by buttresses to the ground4 ,a good stone1 therefore1 in this position could have extraordinary dimensions1 and was susceptible of a variety of treatment4 ,in some ,french examples it was extended1 or rather hung1 considerably below the surface of the vault and ornamentally carved1 while in ,england1 in the late so-called ,perpendicular ,gothic1 it formed the centre of a large pendant1 or circular hanging ornament1 which in some cases came down almost to the level of the springing of the ribs4 ,this construction was used chiefly in connection with the fan-vaulting1 in which ,english architects excelled1 which may indeed be said to be an ,english invention and monopoly1 as no examples of it are found elsewhere4 ,the name explains1 in measure1 the form taken by the ribs1 which1 spreading out from the sheaf of mouldings in the pier1 trace a perfect semicircle on the upper ceiling1 their intervening spaces being occupied by panels4 ,the four semicircles thus traced by the ribs1 starting from four piers of a compartment1 are each tangent to a central and whole circle forming the contour of the pendant4 ,to be successful this requires that the compartment or space included between four piers1 two on each side of the nave or choir1 should be a square1 otherwise the circles do not touch1 and the lines are inharmonious4 ,the chapels of ,henry the ,seventh1 at ,westminster1 and of ,st4 ,george1 at ,windsor1 contain the best examples of fan-vaulting1 and are very beautiful in general effect1 though it is questionable whether such constructive tricks are worthy of unrestricted praise1 while the abuse of panelling in which ,english architects indulged in these later ,gothic buildings1 by which the whole wall and ceiling surface was cut up in an unending repetition1 was certainly blameworthy1 and tended to reduce their art to a mechanical science4 ,they excelled1 however1 in all mechanical workmanship1 in which perhaps that employed in the execution of timber roofs is the most remarkable4 ,these were in a measure1 at least upon so large a scale1 a feature wholly ,english1 for nothing approaching them is found elsewhere4 ,the roof of ,westminster ,hall is the most justly celebrated and is unique in general character4 ,the natural stonework showing all its joints was generally left untouched in the interior of ,gothic buildings1 and afforded the best finish as well as contrast to the stained glass in the windows4 ,polychrome decoration was attempted occasionally1 chiefly on the ,continent1 and in some instances successfully4 ,the best examples are the restorations of the ,ste4 ,chapelle and ,st4 ,germain des ,prs1 in ,paris1 though the latter belongs more properly to the ,romanesque period4 ,many churches have been completely spoiled as regards their inside appearance by coats of whitewash applied to the whole interior surface1 giving them a bleak and barn-like aspect fatal to architectural effect2 this is especially frequent in ,belgium4 ,this whitewash1 coupled with horribly incongruous late ,renaissance decoration1 has gone far in many cases to ruin what would otherwise be fine buildings4 ,externally all good ,gothic buildings showed a direct correspondence with the interior3 buttresses1 flying buttresses1 pinnacles1 etc41 were all constructive and never decorative devices2 there was never such a thing as a faade or false front built independently of the interior1 and though the harmony of the lines of both were often difficult to reconcile1 it was just in the overcoming of such difficulties that the brilliant qualities of ,gothic architects were called forth4 ,in the arrangement of the ,west fronts the ,french were at their best1 for the combination of deeply recessed porches with the rose window and gable above1 flanked by the towers1 which in ,france were usually placed here1 was both judicious and effective4 ,in ,england such porches as those of ,rheims1 or deep openings1 such as the entrances to the cathedral of ,paris1 were not used1 and the ,west elevations are consequently less interesting4 ,peterborough is an exception to this rule1 but the design is so exaggerated1 that the three immense arcades dwarf everything connected with them4 ,the custom of placing a tower and spire over the intersection of the nave and transept was always adhered to in ,england1 and was always a happy arrangement which gave the building dignity and character1 even when the ,western towers were omitted4 ,of this the celebrated ,salisbury ,cathedral is a beautiful example4 ,the spires of ,chartres and of ,st4 ,ouen1 at ,rouen1 are the finest in ,france1 where towers were frequently built to receive spires which were never added4 ,the height to which the nave was carried there often prevented the towers from having their due effect1 as it was impossible to carry them out on a scale large enough to give them a corresponding proportion4 ,english architects contented themselves with moderate interior heights1 rendering the proportioning of their buildings a much easier task than that which their neighbours imposed upon themselves1 by attempting with each new building a more daring altitude1 until the crumbling vaults of ,beauvais set a limit to their audacity4 ,the comparison of contemporary ,gothic in ,england and ,france covers the subject more accurately than between that of any other countries1 for these two nations rivalled each other all along in the solution of the various problems which arose with each step in their progress1 while the architects of other countries profited by the results they attained and erected their buildings on ,anglo-,french principles4 ,the cathedrals of ,cologne1 in ,germany1 and ,toledo1 in ,spain1 are as fine as any to be found in ,france or ,england1 but they are neither ,german nor ,spanish in conception and principle1 and therefore do not belong to the national architecture of these countries4 ,in ,italy1 ,gothic architecture was never understood as it was in the ,north1 and whenever anything was attempted in direct imitation of ,northern principles of design1 the result was always hard and mechanical4 ,the true ,italian ,gothic was of itself often beautiful1 but this was almost a separate style1 in which the influences of pointed forms1 ,oriental colour1 and the example which the ,classical ruins held out so conspicuously on their own soil1 were brought together by the ,italians so as to form an harmonious whole4 ,in ,venice a peculiar development of the style was attained1 adapted to the flat elevations of the canal palaces4 ,this arrangement consisted of a consecutive series of arcades1 in which the mouldings of each arch were carried up and returned1 forming a second and sometimes a third row of lights1 replacing1 in the play of light and shadow1 the forced absence of projections4 ,these arcades were surmounted by horizontal mouldings1 and the lines of the cornices and imposts were also horizontal1 the ,italians never having lost sight of the entablature1 which had been dropped in ,france with the rise of ,romanesque architecture and replaced always afterward by the vertical lines which are the prominent one sin of all ,northern ,gothic buildings4 ,the celebrated ,doge's palace is the foremost of these and ranks amongst the most picturesque buildings in ,europe4 ,it is not free1 however1 from grave defects and is criticised by architects for the top-heavy and injudicious construction1 by which a high and rarely pierced wall is sustained by the slenderest of arcades4 ,most of these palaces are of the fifteenth century and should not perhaps be mentioned first1 but as they illustrate the principle of horizontal lines more readily than by reference to the isolated parts of less well-known buildings1 they are introduced now4 ,although ,milan ,cathedral is one of the largest and most pretentious ecclesiastical buildings in ,italy1 it is scarcely a good example of ,italian ,gothic1 for ,german architects were employed in its construction and their influence is apparent4 ,it is rather to the ,cathedral of ,sienna that we should turn for a complete typical ,italian structure4 ,here we find a beautiful building and yet one which can in no way be judged from a ,northern standard4 ,the ,west front has three porches1 but their recessed arches are round instead of pointed1 although the detail is ,gothic 7the church having been begun in the middle of the thirteenth century72 above is a rose window1 but1 unlike the ,western models1 without dividing tracery4 ,both the exterior and interior are striped with alternate bands of black and white marble4 ,the intersection of the nave and transept is covered by a dome1 a feature unknown in ,france or ,england 7with the single exception of the wooden one in the cathedral of ,ely71 and the tower or campanile is placed in the angle of the ,south transept4 ,these points are all essentially different from ,northern treatment1 in which some of them would be considered defects4 ,here1 however1 the parts are sufficiently harmoniously united to produce a whole which is pleasing and original4 ,the cathedral of ,sienna has much in addition to these to make it interesting3 attached to it is a library--a later building1 beautifully decorated in a style similar to the ,loggie of ,raphael in the ,vatican2 the stalls of the choir are of carved wood1 of the richest ,renaissance design1 and the pulpit1 by ,nicholas ,pisano1 is a gem of sculpture4 ,this pulpit is octagonal2 its sides are carved in high relief in representation of ,scriptural scenes1 and it is supported by polished columns carrying trefoiled arches and resting upon marble lions in lieu of bases4 ,as a work in which both sculpture and architecture combine1 it is1 on a small scale1 one of the most beautiful productions of its kind1 essentially ,italian1 and rivalled only by that in the baptistery of ,pisa by the same artist4 ,the body of a lion as the base of a column was a favourite device of ,italian architects1 and is frequently met with4 ,porches formed of columns carrying a round arch and gable and resting on lions1 are often attached to the entrance of churches4 ,orvieto ,cathedral is1 on a smaller scale1 similar to the neighbouring cathedral of ,sienna4 ,the ,west front is designed with most elaborate detail and highly ornamented with painting and sculpture4 ,the ,duomo of ,florence partakes also of the general characteristics of ,sienna1 although its proportions are vastly larger4 ,its most striking feature is the great dome1 added by ,brunelleschi1 when the church1 designed by ,arnolfo1 was approaching completion2 but it is unsatisfactory1 as its immense size dwarfs the rest of the building4 ,the general picturesqueness of outline1 the delicate design of the doors and windows1 and the proximity of the beautiful tower of ,giotto1 go far to atone for this4 ,the exterior walls of the church are covered with a veneering of coloured marbles1 which1 while judiciously treated and good of its kind1 is too false to be easily reconciled to true artistic principles1 and its skin-deep beauty has been painfully apparent1 until very recently1 owing to the unfinished condition of the ,west front4 ,it may be said in extenuation of this that plaster1 while generally accepted as an honest material1 is no less a shallow covering to disguise naked walls2 it is1 however1 frequently misused1 and is only tolerable so long as it is not employed in imitation of better materials1 while the thin marble is really intended to deceive the eye1 and give the impression that its depth is equal to that of the wall4 ,the interior of the ,florence ,cathedral is disappointing1 it is insufficiently lighted1 bare1 and much in need of the frescos with which it was originally intended to be decorated4 ,the cathedral of ,pisa belongs in greater part to the preceding style1 but the campo-santo adjoining it has a cloister with traceried windows1 which1 notwithstanding its round arches1 more nearly resembles ,northern ,gothic than anything in ,italy1 and by its greater height shows a novel and more effective treatment than is usually seen in ,france or ,england4 ,the little church of ,st4 ,maria della ,spina in this town1 on the banks of the ,arno1 is a charming little edifice of the ,sienna type4 ,in civil architecture ,italy has much to boast of4 ,her palaces and fortresses are amongst the noblest and most picturesque buildings of the ,middle ,ages found anywhere in ,europe4 ,most of these are rectangular masses of stone1 the austerity of which is relieved by heavy window-openings with pointed heads and moulded frames1 and crowned by a battlemented cornice1 occasionally enlivened by shields placed between alternate corbels4 ,the addition of the campanile1 used as a lookout tower rather than as a belfry1 generally completes an imposing structure4 ,of those in stone1 the ,palazzo ,vecchio and the ,bargello1 in ,florence1 are among the finest of these half town-hall1 half fortress buildings1 while the ,municipio of ,sienna1 with its immensely high campanile1 may be mentioned as typical of those in brick4 ,nearly every large city possesses one of these tall towers1 notably ,verona1 ,cremona1 ,mantua1 and ,florence4 ,in the last-named the tower of ,giotto is the most highly ornamented and graceful of this class of structure1 and for general proportions unsurpassed4 ,longfellow1 in his well-known poem1 regrets the lack of a spire to complete it1 but it is questionable whether such an addition could have been made in keeping with the style in which it is designed4 ,in ,france the lately restored ,chateau de ,pierrefonds1 near ,compiegne1 illustrates1 perhaps as well as any1 the typical military building of the ,gothic period1 with all the usual accompanying structures4 ,the exterior walls are high and massive1 with round towers at the angles crowned with projecting battlements and conical roofs4 ,an interior court is reached only by traversing a drawbridge and passing through an outer gate and passage defended by heavy portcullis4 ,around this court are grouped the apartments1 banqueting-halls1 the chapel1 and the necessary quarters for residents and garrison4 ,the number of remaining domestic buildings of the period is comparatively limited4 ,the house of ,jacques ,coeur at ,bourges1 the monastic ,hotel de ,cluny1 in ,paris1 the ,palais de ,justice1 and the ,hotel ,bourgtheroulde1 in ,rouen1 may be mentioned among the few still standing1 as the best examples of contemporary architecture4 ,of small half-timbered houses there remain a fair number in ,france1 though they are daily being demolished1 in the principal cities1 to make way for so-called improvements4 ,england is rich in military and civil buildings3 the castles of ,windsor1 ,warwick1 ,kenilworth1 ,rochester1 and the ,tower of ,london1 are all well known and have been frequently described4 ,perhaps the most interesting of ,english civil structures of the ,middle ,ages1 are the colleges at ,oxford2 as1 however1 they follow1 in the ,gothic treatment1 the progress of the styles1 as illustrated in the contemporary ecclesiastical edifices1 they do not require special description4 ,the town-halls of ,belgium are important ,gothic buildings1 and are found in all the principal cities of that country4 ,their flat faades are singularly rich1 but as they embody only the forms and ornament of ,gothic art1 they are less interesting and poorer examples than any less pretentious structures showing the constructive element1 which predominated in the ,gothic style4 ,toward the close of the style1 and before the rebirth of ,classic art had completely superseded ,gothic architecture1 a curious transitional style had a brief sway1 in which both were blended4 ,the wing of the ,chateau de ,blois1 built by ,louis ,,xii41 and the ,chateau de ,gaillon1 built by ,cardinal ,amboise1 in the year #aejj1 the faade of which is now preserved in the courtyard of the ,ecole des ,beaux ,arts1 may be regarded as the best specimens of this charming and short-lived art4 ,the churches of ,st4 ,etienne du ,mont1 and ,st4 ,eustache1 at ,paris1 may be added to these as typical of the contemporary religious edifices4 ,in them we see the last throes of a dying style which had become extravagant and distorted in its final efforts to survive1 but retained traces of its former beauty even in its expiring moments4 ,the ,gothic style arose in the latter half of the twelfth century1 it attained its greatest purity and simplicity in the thirteenth2 during the fourteenth a more extensive use of ornament was introduced1 in consequence of which it has been termed ,decorated ,gothic2 finally1 in the fifteenth1 its principles and principal features were exaggerated and pushed to their utmost limits1 until its brilliancy1 flickering in the flamboyant traceries of the latest period1 expired and gave place to a ,classic revival4 ,,xi4 ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,a not uncommon error is made in applying the name ,renaissance only to the delicately treated style of revived ,classic art1 such as was prevalent in ,france during the reigns of ,francis the ,first1 and his immediate successors4 ,the word--derived from the verb renatre1 signifying in ,french the rebirth 7of the classics understood7--cannot1 however1 be confined to any such narrowed limits1 for no new style having been substituted since1 it is as correct a term to-day as it was in the sixteenth century4 ,there is certainly a distinction between the first brilliant productions of the revival1 and the more ponderous buildings which succeeded them1 but ,early and ,late ,renaissance express this satisfactorily4 ,it did not always follow1 however1 that all the work which1 from its characteristics1 would be classified under the first head1 necessarily antedated that belonging to the later period4 ,in ,italy1 where the works of the ,romans were too colossal to be utterly destroyed1 and too conspicuous to be easily forgotten1 the first movement naturally took place to reawaken the long dormant art1 by which they had been produced4 ,in the fifteenth century ,orcagua built the ,loggia dei ,lanzi1 in ,florence1 and boldly substituted round arches for the pointed ones then in vogue4 ,this was the turning-point in the tide of ,gothic architecture1 for it needed but little more to induce the delighted ,italians to throw off the yoke of an art which they had adopted but unwillingly1 and which had never been sympathetic to their taste4 ,consistently with their impetuous nature1 the change was effected without hesitation in a marvellously short period1 and with scarcely any of the usual intervening transitional stages4 ,the ancient forms reappeared and replaced the dying ,gothic as rapidly as in the days of the ,french monarchy the cry 8,le roi est mort4 ,vive le roi60 heralded at once the king's death and his son's succession to power4 ,it is strange that there should have been so little to connect the succeeding styles1 that the revival should have been so completely independent of and uninfluenced by a style which had been steadily growing for four centuries1 and which men must have become accustomed to consider the only one suited to their times4 ,delicate workmanship was1 however1 the only ,gothic legacy the ,renaissance architects accepted1 and this was the chief characteristic of the work of the early period4 ,the proportions and scale of their buildings were small2 a whole order3 pedestal1 column1 and entablature generally occupying and marking the height of an ordinary story of fifteen or twenty feet1 and the ornament used1 while profuse1 was executed in the lowest relief and with most minute detail4 ,if the revolution in art was great1 it had proportionately great exponents3 ,brunelleschi1 ,bramante1 ,raphael1 ,sangallo1 ,vignola1 ,michael ,angelo are names as prominent in history as those of much-lauded victors in the battlefield4 ,brunelleschi1 architect of the dome of ,st4 ,mary's in ,florence1 was one of the earliest innovators4 ,he designed the ,strozzi and ,pitti ,palaces in that city1 with the horizontal lines and round arches of the ,classic school1 although still retaining the feudal traditions in their massive stonework and in the austerity of their exteriors4 ,the great palaces of ,rome which belong to this period partake also of this external severity1 and confine their brilliancy to interior display4 ,the palaces of the ,cancelleria by ,bramante1 the ,palazzo ,massini by ,balthasar ,perruzzi1 of ,sienna1 the ,sacchetti and ,corsini ,palaces by ,sangallo1 the ,barberini designed by ,bernini1 and the ,farnese ,palace upon which ,sangallo1 ,vignola1 and ,michael ,angelo devoted their labors in turn1 are a few among the most celebrated4 ,most of these buildings1 while varying in size and in accordance with the character of their sites1 are rectangular in plan1 and enclose quadrangular courts1 the different stories being marked by superposed orders and arcades4 ,they are planned on a liberal scale1 with broad proportions and with great deference to symmetry4 ,the beauty of the plan was1 in fact1 one of the best features of the new style1 not only in domestic1 but in ecclesiastical architecture1 for the arbitrary ,gothic arrangements being once discarded1 it became possible to combine the circle and straight line in many novel and beautiful ways1 for which the older ,roman buildings furnished admirable examples4 ,the study of these plans forms one of the most important elements in an architect's education1 and their examination in these days of iron props and twelve-inch walls is fraught with much pleasure and profit4 ,the light and brilliant creations of the early period are abundant in ,northern ,italy1 and were models with which the ,french were readily impressed4 ,the faade of the church in the ,certosa of ,pavia1 with its elaborate detail and delicate ornament1 and such buildings as the ,spinelli ,rezzonico and ,vendramin palaces1 the church of ,st4 ,zachariah1 the ,logetta and ,library of ,st ,mark's of ,sansovino1 in ,venice1 and farther ,south the ,palazzo ,fava in ,bologna1 the ,capella ,pazzi attached to the older ,sta4 ,croce in ,florence1 and the monument to ,julius ,,ii4 in ,sta4 ,maria del ,popolo in ,rome are a few beautiful examples of the early treatment which has so much affinity with the works produced in ,france under the ,valois4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,as ,,originally ,,designed ,,by ,,michael ,,angelo4 ,the great ,italian cathedral upon which nearly all subsequent churches were modelled was commenced upon the site of the old basilica of ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome in the year #aejf1 upon plans by ,bramante1 and occupied a century and a half in completion4 ,after ,bramante1 ,giocondo1 ,julian ,sangallo1 ,raphael1 ,perruzzi1 ,antonio di ,sangallo1 ,michael ,angelo and ,carlo ,maderno each worked upon it in turn4 ,michael ,angelo1 who designed the dome1 wished to adopt the plan of the ,greek cross1 that is1 with equal arms1 as shown in the accompanying plan4 ,the result would have been much more monumental and would have given the dome its due effect within a moderate distance1 while now it can only be properly judged from afar1 and the high faade terminating the nave is both poor in composition and detrimental to the general conception4 ,the building is essentially ,classic in all its details1 but differs from the general design of any particular ,classical building4 ,the nave is formed by a ,corinthian arcade similar to those of ancient ,rome1 though on a vastly larger scale1 supporting a tunnel-vault1 which is decorated with sunken panels like those of the ancient ,baths4 ,the dome is supported on a circular drum carried on four immense piers and improves on the ,pantheon only in size1 while it is surpassed by ,st4 ,sophia in scientific construction4 ,the cathedral is most richly1 even gaudily1 decorated within1 with coloured marbles and mosaics and contains numerous tombs of great magnificence and an altar with twisted columns designed by ,bernini4 ,it is the largest church in the world1 and yet its proportions are so harmoniously1 or inharmoniously designed1 that it does not produce a corresponding sense of its vastness upon the beholder4 ,the single order occupying the height of two stories is a feature1 the invention1 or rather arrangement of which1 is attributed to ,michael ,angelo4 ,in subsequent buildings it was nearly always adopted in preference to the smaller orders marking each floor4 ,the life of this great artist forms of itself a chapter in the history of architecture4 ,michael ,buonarotti1 surnamed ,angelo1 the most brilliant architect of the sixteenth century1 was born of noble parentage in ,arezzo in the year #aege4 ,he developed extraordinary talents at an early age1 and after outstripping his first instructor1 took up his residence in ,florence1 where he studied anatomy and the human figure until he became the most expert draughtsman of his time4 ,in ,rome1 where he was summoned by ,julius ,,ii41 he produced several fine works in statuary1 but owing to the jealousy of ,bramante was forced to quit the city and return to ,florence4 ,there he aided the citizens to sustain a siege during a year1 by his superior knowledge of fortification1 and subsequently went to ,venice1 where he designed the famous ,rialto bridge4 ,at the earnest solicitation of the pope he returned to ,rome and commenced the great paintings in the ,sistine ,chapel1 to which work he had been assigned by the counsels of ,bramante1 who wished to prove his inferiority to his own nephew ,raphael4 ,the result of the work1 completed in a marvellously short period1 however1 was so successful that all ,rome ran to see it4 ,after the accession of ,paul ,,iii4 to the ,papal see1 ,michael ,angelo was definitely appointed architect of ,st4 ,peter's and worked on the building during the remainder of his life1 although he returned to ,florence several times and there executed the splendid statues which adorn the chapel of the ,medicis4 ,in his later days he was assisted by ,vignola in his work1 but died before its completion at the advanced age of eighty-eight4 ,giacomo ,barrozio1 called ,vignola from his birthplace near ,bologna1 is known for his great works1 the chief of which are the ,jesuits' church in ,rome and the castle of ,caprarolla at ,viterbo1 which he built for the ,cardinal ,alexander ,farnese1 and also1 especially to architects1 for the rules and measurements of ,classical orders which he composed from the buildings of ,rome with the aid of the manual of ,vitruvius4 ,this work comprises the elements of design used in nearly all the buildings erected during the two following centuries1 many of their elevations being simple combinations of different pages of ,vignola's book1 which to this day is the best guide for ,classical proportions and the architects' ,a ,b ,c4 ,the discriminator between the various architectural styles is fond of drawing a marked distinction between ,italian1 ,french1 and ,german ,renaissance1 and illustrating it by views of the typical ,italian palace1 with a flat tile roof and low pediments1 and the typical ,french house1 with immensely high slate roofs and pretentious dormers4 ,although the eye of the practised architect can distinguish between the representative work of ,sansovino and ,philibert ,delorme1 and between that of ,bernini and ,claude ,perrault1 yet such distinctions do not form separate styles1 for they are but unimportant differences1 caused by local influences4 ,the subject should be looked upon in a broader sense1 for all these subdivisions tend to confuse the student and lead him to forget the sequence of the great historical style of which they form part4 ,the ,jacobean1 ,queen ,anne1 and kindred so-called styles in ,england were merely eccentric streams flowing out of the one main channel1 which were scarcely worthy of distinction and certainly not of revival in our times4 ,in ,france1 under each reign1 there was a slight difference of treatment1 chiefly in the decoration of interiors1 which permits of a classification most convenient to the modern upholsterer1 but for our purposes it is sufficient to apply the two divisions--,early and ,late ,renaissance4 ,the ,chateaux of ,blois1 ,chambord1 and ,chenonceaux in the ,valley of the ,loire1 the ,palaces of ,fontainebleau1 ,st4 ,germain en ,laye1 the ,tuileries and the old ,louvre in ,paris are splendid examples of the former1 and monuments worthy of the great artists1 ,pierre ,lescot1 ,philibert ,delorme1 ,jean ,goujon1 and others1 who laboured upon them4 ,they are illustrative of the employment of the small orders and ornament in low relief1 which characterized the corresponding period in ,italy1 though they are generally richer and more spirited in design than the ,italian buildings1 and the soft stone which is so abundant in ,france permitted more lavish ornament upon the exteriors4 ,the skeletons of each design1 that is to say1 the main architectural lines1 stripped of elaborate detail1 are much alike and can nearly all be brought back to the ancient method of superposing orders4 ,this is no disparagement on the value of the work1 for the plans of many buildings were excellent1 and the variety of ornamental design was of a delicacy and imaginative beauty which has rarely been surpassed4 ,it is questionable1 indeed1 whether the change which took place in the century of ,louis ,,xiv41 in the introduction of larger proportions and greater severity of ornament1 was so much a gain as it was considered at the time4 ,to this period belong some of the great churches modelled upon or rather suggested by ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome3 ,st4 ,paul's in ,london1 rebuilt by ,christopher ,wren2 the ,val de ,grace1 the joint work of ,lemercier1 ,leduc1 and ,mansart1 and the church of the ,hotel des ,invalides in ,paris1 also by ,mansart1 are among the finest of the period and style4 ,the plan of the last-named church is appended as a particularly happy example in general arrangement and symmetrical variety1 doing great credit to ,mansart1 who also built the larger portion of the celebrated ,chateau de ,versailles4 ,the publication of ,stewart and ,revetts' great work upon the antiquities of ,athens called general attention in ,england to the beauty of ,greek art1 toward the close of the last century1 and resulted in the erection of a number of buildings in imitation of ,athenian monuments which were utterly inappropriate and unsuited to the ,english climate4 ,in ,france architecture went through two or three fashionable phases1 from great extravagance of design under ,louis ,,xv4 to extreme simplicity under ,louis ,,xvi41 finally relapsing under ,napoleon into the servile copying of entire ,classic buildings3 a great falling off from the principle of the sixteenth century work1 which had always been original in conception although borrowing detail from the antique4 ,during the early part of this century1 architecture sank to the lowest ebb all over the world1 probably owing to the disturbing influences of the great ,napoleonic wars4 ,within the last thirty years the spirited writings of a few enthusiasts and the liberal teachings of the ,french schools have caused a general revival1 and better work is being done now than at any time during the century4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,hotel ,,des ,,invalides ,,at ,,paris4 ,avaricious commerce and the predominance of the desire for display rather than quiet love of the arts are factors which stand much in the way of genuine progress1 but it is not improbable that the spread of refined education will eventually succeed in planting the seeds of this love in the heart of the great masses1 and enable architecture to resume its natural and elevating position in their midst4 ,,xii4 ,,conclusion4 ,at the present stage of modern art we have the principles1 broadly speaking1 of two great styles of architecture to guide us in the design of the buildings which we may have to erect4 ,these are the ,classic and the ,gothic2 for we may apply the term ,classic not merely to the works of the ,greeks and ,romans1 but to their offshoots the ,byzantine and ,romanesque styles1 the one branching ,eastward and the other ,westward1 altered in many respects1 but founded on the older systems2 and we have seen that the ,renaissance was but a revival of the same methods and forms4 ,in each of these styles the best result has always been attained where the constructional element has been held to be as important as the decorative1 where the essential and useful have not been subservient to considerations of ornament or display4 ,in ,classic work much has been done that is unworthy1 in the senseless repetition of columns and pilasters which support nothing1 in decoration which serves only to conceal ill-adjusted architectural lines2 and the same is equally true of degenerate ,gothic1 in which whole walls have been covered with meaningless panels1 and massive buttresses built up to receive no strain4 ,nevertheless1 by following only what is good in the principles of each1 and by avoiding the errors which experience has enabled us to perceive1 especially those which have engrafted themselves upon us by bigoted custom1 we can not only produce fine work but assist in the advance of architecture4 ,before deciding upon what style to employ in the composition of an edifice1 it is well to first consider thoroughly the programme of what is wanted in its plan1 and then the special character with which we desire to invest it both exteriorly and interiorly4 ,it is scarcely necessary to add that both should be intimately connected4 ,we have seen that the best period of ,gothic art was that wherein the whole structure was raised on a theory of weights and strains thrown from vault to pier1 and pier to buttress2 it is1 therefore1 absurd1 when a building occupies a space between the party-walls of modern street lots1 to attempt an interior construction having the appearance of corresponding with buttresses and similar contrivances for which there is no room on the outside4 ,if1 therefore1 we choose ,gothic for our style1 let us follow no false theory1 but work on the principles demonstrated in its innumerable examples1 in which it may be possible to find room for further development1 introducing no feature of construction which has not a full and consistent meaning4 ,one can scarcely go the lengths to which many venture1 in saying that ,gothic architecture is suited only to ecclesiastical buildings1 for there are many splendid military and civil structures1 from the keeps and castles of ,england and ,france1 to the town-halls of ,belgium4 ,but there is this much to be said in their favour1 that while the laws of fortification and domestic life have altered entirely since the ,middle ,ages1 on the one hand1 those governing the observances of religion have remained unchanged and no manner of building is so essentially religious in its character or better calculated to command the reverence and awe of the devotee1 on the other4 ,in support of this view many will agree in admitting that there is nothing of this religious sentiment expressed in the ,corinthian colonnades of ,st4 ,peter's1 or1 in fact1 in any of the great number of ,renaissance churches which are scattered throughout the cities of ,europe1 while it never fails to exercise its influence upon anyone entering the great ,gothic cathedrals4 ,the great prevailing thought of ,medival times was a religious one1 and we see it reflected in the minutest details of the lives of the people of that age2 it was1 consequently1 but natural that it should attain its highest expression when they filled their churches with the best that could be produced in architecture1 sculpture1 and painting4 ,while the ,classic orders seem out of place in a temple of ,christian worship they are appropriate in civil buildings1 and we have no better examples for beauty of proportion4 ,they are the result of the thought and taste of generations of architects and have stood the test of time1 for they are as pleasing to-day as in the days of ancient ,greece and ,rome4 ,it is their proportion rather than their component parts which we should follow1 for a column1 unless needed as a support1 is a questionable decoration1 and pilasters or engaged columns are only desirable where additional thickness of wall is required1 used as the ,gothic architect would have used buttresses1 and never as mere ornaments1 which are at once a fraudulent delusion and a retrogression in the progress of architecture4 ,a multiplicity of columns and entablatures does not make perfect architecture1 but great leading lines1 good proportion1 clear detail1 and appropriate ornament4 ,the guiding rule is to do nothing which has not intrinsic merit4 ,it is better to have an absolutely plain wall than one covered with poor decoration2 far better to have no cornice at all than a galvanized iron one1 painted to look like stone4 ,the true definition of architecture is 8ornamental construction40 ,it is not a utilitarian science1 because if so there would be no raison d'tre for beauty of design1 for mere shelter and commodious arrangement could as well be provided by the engineer as by the architect4 ,the art of the architect lies in the composition of buildings at once suited to their purpose and beautiful to the eye2 and as such his art is one that can progress1 not through a series of changing fashions which grow wearisome before they have lasted a decade1 but step by step1 according to the example of the great periods of the past4 ,this example teaches us never to copy slavishly1 but to imitate old examples only so far as they may suit modern needs1 in principle rather than in detail1 and to eschew the reproduction of defects1 however picturesque1 so that architecture may be a living art instead of the mummified representation of archological researches4 ,in pursuing the study of so vast and splendid an art we should do so with some feeling of reverence for its dignity1 not looking upon it as a mere money-making trade1 for the greatest architects the world has known have been satisfied in being only worshippers at a great shrine4 ,reverence is a sentiment slightly regarded in an age when delicacy of feeling in such matters is often held up as a butt for the jests and derision of the vulgar1 and the dignity of the art has little foothold when it has become a custom for the vendor of cheap furniture to style his shop an 8,art ,repository10 and the founder of cast-iron abortions to call his factory 8,the ,art ,metal ,works40 ,nevertheless all of our work must reflect something of our inner thoughts1 and if we do not place them upon a high plane it is not possible for their reflection to contain what is noble and true4 ,we cannot become artists in the true sense of the word without loving and reverencing the beauty and principles which have made the art so great a one4 ,it is the custom among certain people to sneer at sentiment1 and call for practical art2 but the most practical art is essentially the product of thoughtful sentiments4 ,as an illustration1 let us compare the ,laocon1 of sculpture2 the ,halls of ,karnak1 of architecture2 the ,dead ,march1 of music2 the 8,descent from the ,cross10 of painting1 with the 8,dancing ,faun10 the arabesques of the ,renaissance1 the waltzes of ,chopin1 and the gay feasts depicted by ,paolo ,veronese1 and the contrast shows us that each branch of an universal art expresses the opposite feelings of gravity or tragedy1 of joy or comedy1 each in its separate manner4 ,in designing1 questions arise every moment which can only be decided by an innate sentiment of what is good and appropriate4 ,there are no fixed laws governing the height of a spire or the projection of a moulding2 they are matters which depend upon correct feeling1 or1 in other words1 upon educated taste4 ,if it were not so1 art would become a mechanical science1 and could no longer be called by that name4 ,emotion has no place in mechanics1 but it has great influence in the arts4 ,we know the ,greeks were an emotional race1 and it is said that ,michael ,angelo wept before a beautiful statue or painting2 and the works of the people and of the individual were proportionate to the depth of their feelings1 and have perhaps never been excelled4 ,let us1 therefore1 commence this study--for the omega of this book is but the alpha of architecture--despising none of its delicate subtleties1 and endeavour to grasp its principles1 in the hope of doing our share in its further advance1 laying aside the petty gratification of our vanity in a genuine affection for our art4 ,,the ,,end ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,the index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,some hyphens in words have been silently removed1 some added1 when a predominant preference was found in the original book4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,page #ba3 8tenemos0 replaced by 8temenos04 #ca3 8,chilambaram0 replaced by 8,chidambaram04 #cb3 8baldaquins0 replaced by 8baldachins04 #dj3 8ababaster0 replaced by 8alabaster04 #aaa3 8,adb-el-,rhaman0 replaced by 8,abd-el-,rhaman04 #aai3 8continuons0 replaced by 8continuous04 #abf3 8weer0 replaced by 8were04