,,university ,,of ,,illinois ,,bulletin ,,vol4 ,x4 ,,nov4 #be1 #aiab ,,no4 #ac ,entered ,february #ad1 #aijb1 at ,urbana1 ,illinois1 as second-class matter under ,act of ,congress of ,july #af1 #ahid4 ,department of ,household ,science ,some ,points in ,choosing ,textiles ,by ,charlotte ,m4 ,gibbs1 ,m4 ,a4 ,illustration ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,university ,,urbana-,,champaign ,,some ,,points ,,in ,,choosing ,,textiles ,in the past century a great change has come about in the position of the woman in the home1 which has very vitally affected her relation to the textile industries4 ,in the early days in this country nearly every woman produced the clothing for herself and family1 also the household linens from the raising of the sheep or flax to the finished product4 ,now all is changed2 with the introduction of ready-made suits and other garments1 even the sewing is rapidly going from the home1 while the manufacture of cloth is a forgotten art4 ,in olden times the quality of home-spun and woven material was the best possible to be obtained from the materials and methods known4 ,woolen cloth was all wool1 and linen cloth was not adulterated with starch1 or half cotton4 ,honest and durable materials were the rule of the day4 ,with the introduction of machinery and the factory system came keen competition4 ,modern discoveries1 chemical and otherwise1 have increased the possibilities of cotton1 linen1 silk and wool so that now it is difficult to recognize the original fiber in some of the materials sold4 ,thus on the one hand the field of textile knowledge has grown very much1 while on the other hand the knowledge of women concerning textile fabrics has decreased1 since they are no longer the makers of cloth1 nor do they always gain a knowledge of its characteristics through the making of garments4 ,the result has been that women depend more and more on the word of clerks1 who are often as ignorant as themselves1 until by painful experience the buyers learn some of the things to be avoided4 ,as cost of living increases1 and demands upon the family purse increase1 it is more and more important that the woman of the household should know how to spend the family income most economically4 ,since from ten to twenty percent of this income is spent for clothing and house furnishing1 it is imperative that more thought and careful study should be put upon this branch of household economy4 ,the object of this bulletin is to give some bits of information about textile fibers1 their manufacture and adulteration1 which may help in gaining that judgment in buying essential to every woman4 ,certain adulterations and devices of the modern manufacturer are so skillfully concealed as to be detected only by the use of chemical tests1 or the high power microscope4 ,with these this bulletin will not deal1 but only with those qualities and adulterations which may be detected without the aid of laboratory equipment4 ,much of course may be learned by experience1 but it seems better to save time and money by knowing beforehand what is to be demanded1 what guarded against4 ,each one of the common materials used for textile fabrics1 cotton1 linen1 wool and silk1 has its characteristics1 each its definite uses4 ,certain peculiarities in physical or chemical nature make each fiber peculiarly adapted to certain uses1 but so long as these general qualities are maintained the variety of materials produced from these fibers may be enormous4 ,combinations of fibers in one material1 adulteration with cheaper fibers1 or with starches or metallic salts1 may serve to reduce the cost1 and yet the purpose of the material may be fulfilled4 ,for certain purposes the materials may be used interchangeably4 ,,cotton ,cotton is cheap and very plentiful4 ,it has short1 flat fibers1 with a spiral twist1 thus giving elasticity and the possibility of being spun into fine thread4 ,being in itself very useful and inexpensive and capable of replacing1 to a certain extent1 any other fiber1 it is used in very large quantities the world over1 and is manufactured into a great variety of materials4 ,the quality of these materials depends on the strength of the fibers1 the fineness or coarseness of material1 the weave1 the color and design1 and the adulterations4 ,cotton1 being cheapest1 is not adulterated with any of the other fibers mentioned1 when the material is to be sold as cotton cloth1 but it can be made to appear heavier by the addition of mixtures called sizing4 ,starches1 gums1 dextrine1 glue1 china clay1 as well as other ingredients in varying proportions1 constitute this sizing which may add a large percent to the weight of the cloth4 ,the spaces between the threads are filled up and a good finish is given to the cloth1 although the wearing quality is not increased4 ,if present in large quantities the cloth is greatly reduced in weight and firmness after the first washing4 ,adulterations of this kind can be detected by the feeling1 a large quantity imparting a harshness to the material4 ,in very thin fabrics the sizing may often be detected by holding the cloth up to the light when the starch shows between the threads4 ,washing or thorough boiling of a sample will show the amount of sizing present4 ,another method of adulterating cotton is shown in certain kinds of dotted swiss4 ,a good swiss has thread dots woven or embroidered in the cloth4 ,fig4 #a;,a shows a piece of material sold at the price of a good swiss1 but in this case the dots are merely a heavy paste1 printed on the cloth4 ,fig4 #a;,b shows the result of continued washing1 where the dots have disappeared1 and ,fig4 #a;,c1 the result of ironing with a hot iron1 which turned the spots brown before the cloth itself is harmed4 ,mercerized cotton is a cloth produced by the action of a strong alkali on cotton fiber rinsed under tension4 ,it is a strong1 attractive material1 with good wearing qualities4 ,an imitation of this may be made by the action of very heavy and very hot cylinders on ordinary cotton cloth4 ,the mercerized cloth has a high luster which it retains after many washings while the imitation loses its luster with the first washing4 ,sometimes cotton cloth which has been on the market for some time is weakened by the action of the chemicals used in bleaching1 dyeing or in the sizing4 ,this may be easily detected by tearing the cloth4 ,standard cotton materials such as muslins1 organdies1 percales1 calicoes and sheeting1 differ only in the weight of the material1 fineness of thread1 hardness of twist and method of finish4 ,ginghams have the thread dyed before weaving and fancy weaves are frequently used4 ,duck1 denim and some other heavy materials have very hard twisted threads and are frequently woven with a twill4 ,silkolene is a trade name for a fine cotton cloth with a silky finish given after the cloth is woven4 ,mercerized cottons make lustrous materials as poplin1 imitation pongee and numerous attractive house furnishing materials4 ,india 8linon0 is entirely cotton1 with a fleecy surface on the wrong side1 as is 8outing flannel0 and 8canton flannel04 ,many 8tussahs10 8voiles0 and 8economy linens0 and other materials with rather deceptive names are cotton materials made to imitate silk1 wool or linen4 ,,linen ,linen was formerly the most important vegetable fiber1 and was commonly used for all household purposes4 ,of late years it has been largely replaced by cotton with which it may be compared although there are still uses for which we demand linen1 and others for which we prefer linen to cotton4 ,the linen fiber is long1 smooth and quite lustrous1 when spun into a thread4 ,it is very strong and there are not so many fuzzy ends as are found in cotton4 ,cloth made from it is not only lustrous and rich looking1 but because of its smoothness stays clean longer than cotton4 ,the snowy whiteness of linen obtained with some difficulty in bleaching is quite permanent1 and since the fiber takes dyes with difficulty and parts with them quite readily1 it also does not retain stains as persistently as cotton does4 ,linen is much more expensive than cotton1 and when linen prices are paid linen should be demanded4 ,since the two fibers are rather hard to distinguish1 especially when heavily starched and given a good finish1 it is quite easy to deceive the buyer4 8,linen0 collars are frequently largely cotton1 8linen0 handkerchiefs may not have a thread of linen1 as is apt to be the case with rather inexpensive embroidered handkerchiefs1 and table 8linen0 may be mercerized cotton1 cotton and linen1 or even ordinary cotton4 ,illustration3 ,a ,b ,c ,,fig4 #a ,to distinguish linen from cotton1 examine the threads carefully2 cotton is made up of short fibers which project from the surface of the thread1 and become fuzzy when the thread is rubbed between the fingers2 when broken1 cotton has a tufted end1 while the linen fibers break more unevenly and leave a more pointed end4 ,the linen thread should be stronger than the cotton2 it has more luster and is usually more uneven4 ,some kinds of linen have flat threads1 but cotton is frequently finished in imitation of flat thread linen4 ,the old test of moistening the finger and putting it under the cloth is not always a sure one1 as the moisture will not come through a heavy linen1 or one with much starch in it1 and it will come through a sheer1 tightly twisted cotton4 ,a better test is to put a drop of olive oil on the cloth and press between blotting papers4 ,the linen becomes more transparent than the cotton4 ,there is a peculiar leathery feel about good table linen1 which cotton will not give1 and the luster is different although the difference is hard to describe4 ,the typical weaves used for linens are as follows4 ,the damask1 satin or sateen weave used for table linens and towels is especially good for the former because of the very smooth lustrous surface it affords1 but not so good for towels as it does not absorb moisture very readily1 although it is very attractive4 ,huck1 an uneven weave1 giving a good surface for the absorption of water1 makes splendid towels1 and decorated with designs in damask weave may be very handsome4 ,many linens in plain weaves are available for clothing1 embroidery1 etc41 while the coarse ,russian crashes are becoming quite popular for decorative purposes4 ,the texture of linen is such that the heavier kinds hang well in folds1 lie flat on a table1 and are very artistic for many purposes4 ,,wool ,wool1 the second fiber in amount used for clothing1 is an animal fiber and differs greatly from the vegetable fibers discussed4 ,wool from the sheep's back differs from hair of goats or other animals in several ways4 ,wool is very curly1 and possesses a scaly structure in a much more marked degree than hair1 in which the external scales lie flat4 ,the surface of wool has sometimes been compared to a pine cone1 or the scales of a fish1 although these two are quite different4 ,the scales on the wool fiber when moist and warm stand up1 more as the pine cone1 and when cold and dry or cold and moist1 lie flat4 ,this peculiar structure of the surface of the wool fibers gives them the property of felting1 or matting very closely together4 ,wool is also quite elastic1 although it has not great strength4 ,since the demand for woolen cloth far exceeds the supply of new wool there are many devices for making the supply go a long way1 and consequently many methods for deceiving the buyer4 ,in adulterating a material the manufacturer seeks a material cheaper than the fiber he wishes to adulterate1 one which can be concealed readily4 ,wool when combined with the cheaper cotton fiber makes a material which wears well1 but does not keep its shape as well as all-wool cloth1 is less warm1 and should of course receive a lower price than all-wool4 ,because of the felting property of wool it is quite possible to conceal a good deal of cotton under the surface of the woolen cloth1 and when the fibers are mixed before the threads are spun the task of detecting them becomes doubly difficult4 ,,woolens ,,and ,,worsteds ,two classes of cloth are manufactured from wool4 ,woolens are made usually of short wool carded and spun into yarn in which the threads lie in all directions4 ,this is woven into cloth which usually has the surface heavily felted1 so that all of the intersections of threads in weaving are covered4 ,here then is splendid opportunity for adulteration1 since cotton or poor wool may be covered up by the surface felting4 ,,worsted ,the other class is made from longer staple wool1 combed1 and drawn until the fibers are parallel1 then hard twisted4 ,when woven the ends of the threads do not project on the surface1 and the finish is not intended to cover the weave1 hence it is more difficult to adulterate unless entire cotton threads were woven with the worsted1 and these are more easily detected than a mixture of cotton and wool1 or shoddy in woolen cloth4 ,common examples of woolens are flannels1 broadcloth and venetian cloth2 of worsteds1 serge1 challie1 men's suitings and voile4 ,mohair is a worsted cloth woven of the wool of the ,angora goat1 with a warp usually of cotton or silk4 ,illustration3 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,,fig4 #b ,the most reliable tests for a mixture of cotton and wool are chemical or microscopic ones1 but as these are not practical for the average buyer1 others must be sought4 ,wool has luster and 8kinks20 the ends of the threads are stiff and look rather wiry4 ,when a sample is carried home1 burning will serve to distinguish between the two4 ,wool burns slowly1 chars1 has an odor of burnt feather1 goes out easily and leaves a crisp ash2 cotton burns quickly with a flame1 with little odor and leaves no ash4 ,a little practice in breaking the threads will help one to distinguish between the two2 the difference is not one that can be easily explained1 but the experienced housewife knows it well4 ,fig4 #b;,a shows a sample of all-wool cloth1 of the class of worsteds which cost seventy-five cents a yard4 ,fig4 #b;,b shows a sample of cloth of the same price1 called by the clerk1 all-wool1 but which on examination was found to have only four threads of wool to every twelve threads of cotton4 ,fig4 #b;,c shows this same cloth with the wool removed by strong alkali1 caustic potash1 leaving the cotton4 ,fig4 #b;,d shows the wool left when the cotton has been ravelled out1 or has been removed by a strong acid solution4 ,fig4 #c shows a sample of mohair in which the wool has been partly removed1 and the cotton warp is left4 ,in this case the price is not high1 and because of the character of the cloth the mixture is a good one1 light1 smooth1 and clean4 ,this cloth is not sold for all-wool1 so is not considered adulterated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,,shoddy ,as has been said before1 the demand for woolen goods is so much greater than the supply that it is necessary to resort to various measures to increase the supply of cloth4 ,one method is to use the wool over and over again4 ,rags are bought up by the rag man1 sold to the larger dealer1 again to the 8shoddy0 manufacturer who cleans them1 sorts them1 tears them to pieces1 using the best all-wool rags to produce fibers1 which are respun and again woven either separately1 if of very good quality1 or mixed with new wool or cotton4 ,such a material is warm1 looks well for a time and has its place1 but must not be bought for new wool1 or demand the price of good woolen cloth4 ,this industry is enormous and shoddy is often found in expensive novelty materials as well as in cheap 8all-wool0 cloth4 ,because of the shortness of the fibers it may be detected readily1 when used alone1 but in combination with good wool it is more difficult4 ,one class of shoddy consists of very short fibers1 clippings from the mills1 which are worked into the surface of a felted cloth after it is woven4 ,these short fibers after a time work out1 and are found in the bottoms of coats1 inside the linings1 etc41 leaving the surface of the cloth threadbare4 ,fig4 #d shows a piece of shoddy cloth1 sold for all wool at fifty cents a yard4 ,this cloth would be warm1 but does not look as well as more expensive cloth1 and will not wear as long as new wool4 ,there is some cotton mixed with the wool before spinning1 therefore it is difficult to detect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,,silk ,silk is frequently known as the fiber of luxury4 ,it is the most expensive to cultivate1 the most beautiful and the strongest fiber4 ,since it is the most expensive fiber to buy1 and the demand for it is so great1 the temptations to adulterate are also naturally very great4 ,the long1 strong1 lustrous silk fiber which bleaches and dyes beautifully and is fine as a spider's web1 is not to be duplicated4 ,the best grade or 8reeled silk0 is taken from the cocoon in one continuous thread which may be several hundred yards long4 ,in manufacturing reeled silk many defective cocoons are found in which the fibers are not perfect1 or are broken4 ,the silk from these cocoons may be treated like a short fiber and spun into threads varying in strength according to the length of the fibers4 ,this so-called 8spun0 silk has not the high luster nor strength of 8reeled0 silk1 but is often used as warp with reeled silk filling1 or in imitation pongee1 and back of satins1 velvets and in many other ways4 ,in olden times the price of silk was much greater than now1 but the material was much more durable4 ,silks which have been laid away for a hundred years are still in fairly good condition4 ,now our silks are much cheaper1 but the result is that when they are put away1 even for a few months they may fall into bits1 and their wearing quality can not be compared with the good old silks of long ago4 ,the reason for this change is not hard to find4 ,the cost of raw silk is about thirty times that of raw cotton and the waste at least five times that of cotton4 ,the manufacturer must make up in some way if he is to sell silk at the prices demanded by the public4 ,silk has a very great ability to absorb dyes and metallic salts without apparently changing the quality of the material1 and since dyes and metallic salts are much cheaper than pure silk1 the manufacturer makes great use of these materials4 ,loading is the common name for this process of treating silk and it is common practice to add thirty percent of foreign material1 just the percent lost by the silk when the gum is removed1 while it is possible to add two hundred fifty or even three hundred percent4 ,when we buy novelties and do not care how short their life is to be1 these heavily weighted silks answer the purpose very well1 but when we wish for durability and the silk begins to crack and split or to become shiny after a few wearings we realize the disadvantage of our modern methods4 ,practically no silk can be found on the market entirely free from loading1 but there is a great difference in the amount present4 ,burning is the simplest test for good silk2 a thread of pure silk will burn slowly leaving as it burns a very small amount of crisp ash in a ball at the end of the thread4 ,heavily weighted silk burns and leaves the ash in the form of the original thread2 this ash of course drops to pieces readily4 ,fig4 #e;,a shows a piece of taffeta sold for one dollar a yard4 ,fig4 #e;,b shows the result of burning the silk4 ,this ash1 left in the shape of the original sample1 is made up of metallic salts1 dyestuffs1 etc4 ,a very small percent of ash would be left from the silk itself4 ,another method of adulterating silk is with cotton4 ,the fibers are not spun together here as the cotton and wool1 but the threads of the two materials are woven together4 ,in satins1 velvets and brocades the cotton is entirely covered by the silk threads on the surface1 and appears as the back of the cloth4 ,in cheap silks a fine cotton thread sometimes forms either warp or filling4 ,pongee is a material made from the cocoon of the uncultivated silk worm2 rajah1 tussah and other uneven1 coarse materials are from the same source4 ,these silks are very strong1 but do not have a high luster4 ,mercerized cotton looks quite silky and is sometimes mixed with these silks1 or a material of mercerized cotton and spun silk may be sold for pongee1 or even a material entirely of mercerized cotton4 ,,conclusion ,to sum up1 the adulterations most likely to be found and the tests for them are as follows3 ,,method ,,of ,,adulteration #a4 ,by combination4 ,use of other fibers than the one indicated by the name of the material4 ,example1 cotton in woolens1 cotton in linens1 etc4 #b4 ,by substitution4 ,selling one fiber under the name of an entirely different one4 ,example1 mercerized cotton sold for silk or linen4 ,illustration3 ,a ,b ,,fig4 #e #c4 ,by increasing the weight of a material4 a1 ,cottons and linens with starch2 b1 silks with metallic salts and dyes4 #d4 ,by giving a finish which is deceptive4 a1 ,heavy pressing or calendering an ordinary cotton to imitate mercerizing2 b1 finishing cotton to look like linen2 c1 printing paste dots on cotton to produce the effect of embroidered dotted swiss4 #e4 ,by use of made-over yarns4 ,example1 shoddy in woolens1 also addition of short wool1 felted in surface4 ,,tests ,,for ,,adulteration #a4 ,examination of cloth to see if all threads are alike1 and to distinguish kind of thread4 #b4 ,examination of individual threads4 ,cotton3 short fibers1 ends appear fuzzy in thread4 ,wool3 short fibers1 decidedly kinky and stiff4 ,silk3 long straight fibers with luster2 if spun silk1 fibers short2 thread looks more like cotton2 breaks more easily than reeled silk4 ,linen3 strong threads2 high luster2 when broken ends very uneven and straight4 #c4 ,burning tests3 a1 cotton burns quickly with flame2 b1 wool burns slowly1 chars1 gives off odor of burnt feathers2 c1 silk burns slowly1 leaves small crisp ash1 and when weighted leaves more ash2 d1 linen1 similar to cotton4 #d4 ,linen if without much starch1 becomes translucent when treated with olive oil2 cotton remains opaque4 #e4 ,a mixture of cotton and wool when wet1 wrinkles more than pure wool4 #f4 ,a careful examination of the finish of the material4 ,observe if alike on both sides1 if the apparent beauty of the material is due to finish or to good quality of material4 ,finally1 the best grades of material are generally what they seem to be2 although this does not always hold true in silks1 nor in materials where the effect is more important than the wearing quality4 ,expensive broadcloths1 worsted suitings1 expensive table linens1 good cottons1 do not pose for more than their true worth4 ,it is when one turns to novelties1 to silks and to inexpensive materials that one needs to be most vigilant4 ,be sure the inexpensive is not cheap1 unless you want a material1 cheap in wearing quality and appearance1 as well as in cost4 ,,other ,,points ,,in ,,buying ,aside from the question of whether the buyer is getting the kind of material she pays for as to character of the fiber1 there are other things to be considered in choosing textile fabrics4 ,the weave affects the appearance and often the wearing quality of cloth4 ,a close twill weave makes a firm1 durable material1 while the loose basket weave gives quite a different effect and is frequently lacking in firmness4 ,the satin or sateen weave makes a beautiful surface especially in linens or silks1 but may cover up defects in the hidden threads4 ,fancy weaves in cotton novelties1 in shirt waist materials and in fancy mulls1 etc41 often leave loose threads which become soiled easily and may not be as attractive after washing4 ,a cloth with a very heavy cross thread or filling1 and a very fine warp1 or vice versa1 may split because of the great difference in the strength of the threads4 ,sometimes figures are woven in such a way that when the cloth is finished each figure has short ends of thread4 ,for example1 in weaving madras curtain material1 the filling thread which makes the figure1 jumps from one figure to another1 and after the material leaves the loom the loose threads are cut off of the back of the material4 ,often these short pieces wash out or the ends become rough and fuzzy looking4 ,in choosing a material from the large variety on the market the first thing to be determined is the use to which it is to be put1 then determine what is appropriate to that use4 ,the cloth which is suitable for a street suit is obviously not suited to the party gown1 neither are laces of dressy waists appropriate for working clothes4 ,clothes that are to be worn constantly need to be of material that will stand frequent cleaning4 ,in materials used in house furnishing certain ones must be cleaned often1 and unless one can afford to pay frequent cleaner's bills1 washable materials are better for curtains1 bed-spreads1 table-covers1 etc4 ,the cost is the next point to be considered1 and that must necessarily be determined by one's purse4 ,it is not always economy1 however1 to buy the inexpensive things1 for1 as we have seen1 the inexpensive articles are more likely to be the cheap ones4 ,with our desire for continual change1 our love of novelty and fad we have become very extravagant4 ,so long as the fashion demands new garments every few months and women attempt to follow the styles1 they must choose inexpensive materials unless they have a large amount of money1 and care nothing for wearing quality4 ,in the end1 however1 the woman who buys carefully1 makes use of conservative styles which do not change every few months1 and chooses handsome material1 is not only more economically1 but also usually better dressed4 ,the hygienic properties of materials should be carefully considered4 ,those next the body should be able to care for the perspiration and the excretions of the skin4 ,woolen and silk are best suited by their physical structure to do this1 but wool is too warm and too irritating to many people1 and does not wash well1 while silk is too expensive4 ,many kinds of cotton underwear have been manufactured which by their structure aid in absorbing moisture4 ,underwear knitted or woven with meshes containing large enclosed air spaces is more hygienic than closely woven cotton garments4 ,the air spaces in the mesh material are non-conductors of heat1 and also ventilators4 ,the closely woven garment does not allow a change of air next the skin and becomes clammy when moist4 ,garments which come in contact with the outside air must be more closely woven to keep out the wind4 ,two layers of lighter weight material are warmer than one layer of thick because of the non-conducting air between4 ,heavy clothes are bad for the body because of the extra load which must be carried about4 ,finally1 in choosing materials1 if one is to have the greatest pleasure from them and give one's friends the greatest pleasure1 color and design are very important4 ,colors should be suitable to the use1 and to the person who is to wear the material4 ,bright colors make one conspicuous1 and are exciting2 dull ugly colors are depressing1 while soft rich colors are elegant1 becoming1 and in good taste4 ,designs should fit the place in which they are to be used4 ,rugs should be so designed that they serve as a background to the furniture of the room as well as add richness in color and some variety4 ,materials which are to hang in folds should have designs which do not depend on smoothness of surface in order that they may be effective4 ,for clothing1 designs should be inconspicuous1 modest stripes1 dots and plaids being most successful1 except on very soft thin materials when larger and less conventional designs may be used4 ,to be an intelligent buyer it is necessary then that the woman knows before she purchases a piece of cloth just where it is to be used1 just what she can afford to pay for it1 what she should be able to get for that amount of money and then be able to tell whether the piece of cloth she buys is really what it is represented to be4 ,at the present time the rush to the bargain counter1 the enormous amount of cheap1 poor material manufactured1 and the great waste in dress1 all go to prove that there are many women who are not intelligent buyers4 ,when women demand a better quality of materials and refuse to buy the cheap things1 the manufacturers will cease to produce worthless things4 ,perhaps however1 before that day arrives1 the thoughtful workers of the land will have succeeded in passing a pure textile law1 which shall do for our cloth what the pure food act is doing for our food supplies2 then the honest though ignorant buyer will be protected1 but it will still be her part to demand good1 artistic and useful materials4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note ,minor punctuation errors have been changed without notice4 ,spelling was retained as in the original except for the following changes3 8certain nses1 but0 8certain uses1 but0