,,physical ,,science ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,nero ,illustration ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,limited ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,melbourne ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada1 ,ltd4 ,,toronto ,,physical ,,science ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,nero ,,being ,a ,,translation ,,of ,,the ,,quaestiones ,,naturales ,,of ,,seneca ,,by ,,john ,,clarke1 ,m4,a4 ,,lecturer ,,on ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,aberdeen ,,with ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,treatise ,,by ,,sir ,,archibald ,,geikie ,k4,c4,b41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,sc4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,street1 ,,london #aiaj ,plurimum ad inveniendum contulit qui speravit posse reperiri4 ,,seneca1 ,q4,n4 ,,vi4 ,v4 #b4 ,,preface ,this book is intended primarily for ,english readers1 to most of whom it will probably be at least new4 ,thomas ,lodge1 the well-known dramatist1 published in #afad a translation of the whole of ,seneca's prose works 7except the ,apocolocyntosis71 but no ,english editor or commentator seems to have turned his attention to the ,quaestiones ,naturales1 either before or since4 ,lodge's translation1 a folio volume of nearly a thousand pages1 was probably very good for its day1 but is now out of date4 ,the ,introduction is designed to give a setting to the translation1 and to answer a few of the questions that would naturally occur to the mind of an intelligent reader who was not a classical scholar4 ,in the ,index also some details are included that may be helpful to those who have neither time nor opportunity for hunting up historical and other allusions in books of reference4 ,the object has been to make the volume self-interpreting1 though it may be that the course has not always been judiciously steered between too little and too much4 ,the ,quaestiones ,naturales must be regarded as occupying historically an important position4 ,it was the latest deliverance of the classical world upon the subject of physical speculation4 ,its currency during the ,middle ,ages rendered it for many centuries the chief authority in science in ,western ,europe4 ,its cosmology represented not only popular but also educated opinion1 and became the source of many of the accepted ideas concerning the universe that passed into early modern literature in our own and other countries4 ,indebtedness to editors of ,seneca and to others1 which has been very great1 is acknowledged as fully as possible in the ,introduction and elsewhere where help has been availed of4 ,the interest taken in the book by various friends is also gratefully acknowledged4 ,professor ,sir ,joseph ,larmor and ,professor ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson have made several useful suggestions4 ,professor ,herbert ,j4 ,c4 ,grierson has very kindly read the proofs and given valuable assistance in other respects4 ,but my chief acknowledgments are due to ,sir ,archibald ,geikie4 ,to him the translation owed its inception3 his constant aid and encouragement have enabled me to complete a task from which ,i should probably have otherwise shrunk4 ,i am indebted to him also for the ,commentary appended to the translation1 in which the questions treated by ,seneca are considered from the point of view of modern ,science4 ,it has been to him a labour of love3 may our readers enjoy something of the same satisfaction6 ,j4 ,c4 ,old ,aberdeen1 ,september #bg1 #aiji4 ,,contents ,,preface v ,,introduction xxi ,,book ,i ,,meteors1 ,,halo1 ,,rainbow1 ,,mock ,,sun1 ,,etc4 ,,preface ,,page ,contrast between human 7moral7 philosophy and divine 7natural1 physical74 ,the sublime character of the latter which lifts us above the contemplation of the littlenesses of the earth and earthly life to the knowledge of ,god and ,his nature4 ,compared with astronomical conceptions and dimensions the world of man is but as a threshing-floor1 the haunt of ants4 ,the mind of man attains its true height in contemplation and investigation of these sublime facts4 ,some of the problems thus raised #c ,,chap4 ,i4 ,meteoric fires--she-goat1 kid1 etc4 ,occasions of their appearance2 connection of portent with event4 ,explanation of the phenomena4 ,they may be due to pressure of the atmosphere4 ,aristotle attributes them to the effect of terrestrial evaporation3 difference of density causes various outbursts of this kind4 ,they are analogous to lightning1 but less violent #h ,,ii4 ,halos4 ,produced by the light of a heavenly body striking the surrounding air and forming a circle as a stone does when thrown into a pond4 ,formed far away from the heavenly body and comparatively near the earth in the region of the wind4 ,require a particular state of the atmosphere neither too dense nor too thin4 ,more frequent at night than day for this reason3 by day the sun rarefies the air too much by its heat4 ,method of dissipation gives indication of wind or rain4 ,calmness a condition of formation1 as in the analogous case of water #ab ,,iii4 ,rainbows4 ,generally by day1 produced by inequalities of surface and density in clouds4 ,another species seen in a burst pipe or a fuller at work4 ,various explanations4 ,light and shade will not explain the varied colours4 ,some explain the rainbow as a confused reflection of the sun from individual drops of rain3 every bounded surface1 large or small1 thus reflects--fish-pond and dew-drop equally4 ,aristotle attributes the confusion of colours to weakness of human sight2 parallels may be found in persons whose sight is abnormally weak4 ,as the innumerable drops1 apparently without intervals1 fall1 human vision fails to distinguish severally the reflections of the sun1 which thus become blended and confused4 ,vision is similarly deceived in the case of an oar in water1 apples in a glass globe1 etc41 even in the size and movements of the sun himself4 ,at any rate the rainbow requires both sun and cloud1 and these opposite to each other4 ,these two in operation produce the varieties of colour #af ,,iv4 ,that the rainbow is an image is shown by the relation of sun to cloud in position1 by the rapidity of formation and dispersion4 ,artemidorus' explanation of the shape of the cloud 7concave71 and the consequent position of the red in the rainbow #bb ,v4 ,arguments to show that the cloud is coloured by the sun1 like a dove's neck or a peacock's tail1 and that the rainbow is not a reflection of the sun4 ,the position 7opposite7 would be equally necessary in this case4 ,answer to this contention by ,posidonius4 ,the colour effects4 ,author agrees with ,posidonius' position but not his arguments4 ,the only proof is the geometrical one #bc ,,vi4 ,arguments from the size--never more than a semicircle--and shape of the bow4 ,as the colour1 whether real or reflected1 is derived from the sun1 so must also the shape be4 ,the size is accounted for by the magnifying power of water1 glass1 etc4 ,the sun as he appears in the rainbow is seen through moisture #bh ,,vii4 ,the arguments from the dispersion of the sun's rays through glass 7prism74 ,contention that they confirm author's view #cj ,,viii4 ,the form once more2 why it is never larger than a semicircle4 ,a wrong explanation refuted4 ,explanation of ,aristotle's remark as to the seasons of rainbows1 in summer only in the morning or evening1 in autumn at any time #ca ,,ix4 ,streaks or weather-galls4 ,merely abortive or imperfect rainbows #cc ,x4 ,relations and differences of halos1 bows1 and weather-galls #cd ,,xi4 ,mock suns4 ,their appearance and position in relation to the sun4 ,they are a reflection of the sun in a suitable medium #cd ,,xii4 ,the formation of a mock sun may be compared to the image of the sun in eclipse as seen reflected in a dish of oil or pitch3 the medium must be adapted to give the impression4 ,the mock sun requires a certain consistency of cloud1 failing which1 a different effect is produced--obscuration1 dissipation1 etc4 #ce ,,xiii4 ,there may be two mock suns simultaneously4 ,some think the one is a reflection of the other1 the clouds acting as mirrors set opposite to one another4 ,mock suns1 especially in the ,south1 are a sign of rain #cf ,,xiv4 ,other celestial fires4 8,cave meteors10 8,barrel meteors10 8,chasms10 with a brief description of each4 ,the rapidity of their flight1 just as of lightning1 deceives the sight4 ,their origin and cause4 ,they indicate wind #cg ,,xv4 ,gleams 7flashes1 74 ,their production and motions1 varieties of them4 ,some do damage4 ,some are analogous to comets4 8,bearded10 8torches10 8cypress0 are different kinds4 8,beams0 and 8barrels0 may be of the same class4 ,a curious case where such an appearance raised an alarm of fire4 ,they are real fires4 ,on the contrary1 rainbows and halos are mere reflections4 ,mirrors have this wonderful power of false presentation #ci ,,xvi4 ,the 8mirrored den0 of ,hostius ,quadra #da ,,xvii4 ,the philosophy of the looking-glass4 ,the evolution of mirrors4 ,mirrors of full length are now used4 ,they cost a fortune greater than the ,senate gave ,scipio's daughters4 ,a harmless necessary device has become an instrument of luxury1 the adornment of women1 the burden of men1 nay1 part of the kit of the soldier #dd ,,book ,,ii ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,air4 ,,thunder ,,and ,,lightning ,i4-,,xi4 ,prefatory to treatment of thunder and lightning1 descriptive of the nature of the air1 in which these phenomena occur4 ,i4 ,divisions of physical science--astronomy1 meteorology1 geography4 ,cross divisions1 e4g4 earthquakes1 belong to meteorology1 being produced by air2 so the earth1 as a planet1 belongs to ,astronomy but its properties belong to ,geography #ea ,,ii4 ,unity and composition in bodies4 ,the analogy of the seen applies to the unseen4 ,the atmosphere is possessed of unity 7unitas7 #eb ,,iii4 ,parts and material of bodies distinguished4 ,in the human body blood is both #ed ,,iv4 ,the atmosphere is an integral part of the universe3 has unity #ed ,v4 ,the earth is both part and material of the universe4 ,from it nourishment is supplied to the latter #ee ,,vi4 ,the atmosphere has unity--is not compact of atoms1 otherwise it could not exert tension1 which is one of its main features1 with endless manifestations #ee ,,vii4 ,there is no vacuum in the air1 as the analogy of water shows #eg ,,viii4 ,the exertion of tension presupposes tensibility1 just as motion does mobility4 ,its existence in air proved by the effects of air1 which tosses about mountains1 houses1 walls1 etc4 ,the propagation of sight and sound proves the same #eh ,,ix4 ,its tension is seen in raising water1 as in the jet in the amphitheatre4 ,proofs from a ship upborne of water1 a quoit flung from a height1 sound heard through a wall #ei ,x4 ,varieties of density and temperature in the atmosphere3 the central layer is coldest #fj ,,xi4 ,the lower parts are most subject to change4 ,the cause of this is in part the earth1 in part the sun1 moon1 and other stars4 ,so much by way of preface to explain the nature of that atmosphere in which thunder and lightning occur #fa ,,xii4 ,lightning1 thunder-bolt1 thunder4 ,all agree that they occur in the clouds1 but different explanations are given of their cause and relations4 ,anaxagoras connects them with the ether2 ,aristotle says they are due to exhalations of various kinds1 from the earth1 coming in contact with the clouds #fb ,,xiii4 ,the fire cannot be inherent in the clouds and fall from them4 ,when it so comes it is forced #fd ,,xiv4 ,there is nothing inconsistent with this in the explanation given 7,i4 xv47 of meteors4 ,there may be an analogy with what is observed in cases of fire when isolated groups of houses take fire through gradual accumulation of heat #fe ,,xv4 ,some 7,stoics7 think that spontaneous combustion takes place in the air #ff ,,xvi4 ,difference between a flash of lightning and a bolt #ff ,,xvii4 ,some explain the noise of thunder as due to hot meeting cold1 as in the case of hot iron plunged into water #fg ,,xviii4 ,anaximander attributes the effects to air and explains all the phenomena by reference to it #fg ,,xix4 ,anaxagoras says it is the ether that acts on the lower atmosphere to produce them3 it sends out fire #fh ,,xx4 ,diogenes of ,apollonia thinks that fire and air interact1 producing one another1 as may be observed in the various phenomena #fh ,,xxi4 ,authorities discarded3 independent explanation4 ,a flash and a bolt are fire in some form3 they differ only in degree #fi ,,xxii4 ,analogy of fire on earth3 it must apply above4 ,lightning due either to impact or friction4 ,hurricanes are a sufficient cause of the former #gj ,,xxiii4 ,clouds and air may through friction also be a cause4 ,the fires so produced are insubstantial and evanescent #ga ,,xxiv4 ,fire by reason of its lightness levitates1 just as water gravitates4 ,but in the case of a bolt it is forced down1 contrary to its nature1 like a 8weeping0 tree #ga ,,xxv4 ,but it is said that wet clouds produce fire4 ,how8 #gb ,,xxvi4 ,there is no inconsistency in the combination in the same cloud of potential fire and water4 ,a log burns at one end1 exudes moisture at the other4 ,an island on each of two occasions was thrown up by fire in the ,aegean ,sea1 fire overcoming water4 ,and clouds are1 as a matter of fact1 required for lightning3 exceptions to this are only apparent #gb ,,xxvii4 ,different kinds of thunder4 ,the growling and the crashing1 with their causes #ge ,,xxviii4 ,in order to the sound of thunder1 clouds of a particular shape must meet in a particular way4 ,a bladder does not burst with a report if cut4 ,a broad simultaneous blow over the whole cloud is necessary to an explosion #gf ,,xxix4 ,the proper shape and the rupture of the cloud are necessary4 ,compare drums1 etc4 #gg ,,xxx4 ,according to some1 clouds are not necessary to thunder3 witness eruptions of ,etna and the overthrow of ,cambyses' army1 where particles of sand were the medium of the thunder and lightning4 ,but in this case1 too1 a cloud was formed1 it may be1 a denser1 and more solid than one composed of mere air1 before the sound was emitted #gg ,,xxxi4 ,strange effects of lightning #gh ,,xxxii4 ,portents and events1 their undoubted and widespread connection #gi ,,xxxiii4 ,thunderbolts4 ,threefold division of the art of dealing with them #ha ,,xxxiv4 ,mistaken views as to the relation of lightning to other presages4 ,the former are of equal1 not superior1 value #hb ,,xxxv4 ,fate cannot be changed by expiation and entreaty #hc ,,xxxvi4 8,god is not a man0 that he should change fate4 ,what is the use1 then1 of rites8 #hd ,,xxxvii4 ,answer--,fate fixes some things only conditionally3 the alternative issues are determined by the conduct1 active or passive1 of the worshipper #hd ,,xxxviii4 ,this action of his is likewise a part of fate4 ,the soothsayer1 like the physician1 is the minister of fate4 ,discussion of free will deferred #he ,,xxxix4 ,three classes or kinds of thunderbolts1 as judged by their indications1 according to ,caecina #hf ,,xl4 ,these are kinds of prognostications rather than of bolts4 ,the different species of the latter are distinguished by their effects--boring1 splitting1 burning4 ,fine distinctions of ,latin terms #hg ,,xli4 ,a kind that stains or discolours4 ,the ,etruscan view of the three kinds of bolt according to their division #hh ,,xlii4 ,the ,etruscans knew what they were about in attributing certain motives and actions to ,jupiter4 ,their theory was for the benefit of the ignorant mass of humanity #hi ,,xliii4 8,which things are an allegory40 ,an example is set to earthly rulers to be merciful and consider well their judgments #ij ,,xliv4 ,jove does not change his missiles2 but there are gradations in the offence to be punished4 ,that is the lesson #ia ,,xlv4 ,by ,jove the ,etruscans meant1 as we do1 all that is greatest and best--,fate1 ,providence1 ,nature1 the ,universe #ia ,,xlvi4 ,he is the source of the thunder's power1 though he does not superintend each stroke4 ,why he spares the guilty is another affair1 which will be discussed in another place #ib ,,xlvii4 ,an erroneous classification of thunderbolts according to time #ib ,,xlviii4 ,it must be wrong1 because the time is always limited4 ,a better basis of treatment is that of ,attalus4 ,place1 time1 person1 etc41 must all be looked into #ic ,,xlix4 ,caecina's division1 his names and their meanings #id ,l4 ,that of ,attalus is much better1 being based on the true signification #ie ,,li4 ,the signification of some does not affect1 of some does not reach1 us #ie ,,lii4 ,the force of lightning as seen in different materials1 and at different times in the same material 7cf4 xxxi47 #if ,,liii4 ,poisonous effects3 may be followed up afterwards4 ,panegyric on philosophy #ig ,,liv4 ,returns to ,posidonius' 7,aristotle's7 opinion as to the cause of thunder1 an explosion of air #ih ,,lv4 ,the collision of clouds may produce it4 ,air is the cause in this instance also4 ,shooting stars are associated with thunder1 but this is the exception1 not the rule #ih ,,lvi4 ,heraclitus and ,caecina think sheet lightning an intermittent incipient fire4 ,change in the pronunciation of the ,latin word #ajj ,,lvii4 ,lightning is probably due to the air turning into fire through rarefaction of the clouds4 ,it is naturally most frequent in summer4 ,sheet and forked lightning differ in degree1 not in kind #ajj ,,lviii4 ,reasons for rapidity of lightning and its obliquity #aja ,,lix4 ,every story should have a moral4 ,death cannot be prevented2 why fear it8 ,it is cowardly and silly4 ,death by lightning is rather an honour than otherwise4 ,besides1 fear is futile #ajb ,,book ,,iii ,,on ,,forms ,,of ,,water ,,preface ,having begun a mighty task in my old age ,i must make up for lost time by hurrying on4 ,the magnitude of it is actually an incentive to effort4 ,such studies are far superior to the historian's task of recording the deeds of the robbers and butchers of mankind4 ,the former raise us above the vicissitudes of fortune4 8,the principal thing0 is to have a pure heart and clean hands1 to escape slavery to self4 ,the study of the universe exalts us to this #aji ,i4 ,the cause of rivers and their varieties4 ,waters vary in amount at different seasons1 in temperature1 in medicinal qualities #aad ,,ii4 ,varieties of taste1 weight1 colour1 utility to health1 consistency #aae ,,iii4 ,gravitation or the force of air determines the flow of water4 ,surface and spring water3 they may be combined as in ,lake ,fucinus #aae ,,iv4 ,why is the sea not filled nor the earth drained dry by rivers8 #aaf ,v4 ,some hold that what flows into the sea returns by secret passages cleansed of its salinity #aaf ,,vi4 ,some think rain supplies the rivers1 and in proof cite the interior of ,africa as contrasted with ,gaul and ,germany #aag ,,vii4 ,objections to this argument4 ,rain does not penetrate more than #aj feet4 ,if the earth is dry1 it absorbs the rain2 if it is saturated1 the rain runs off4 ,again1 rivers rise in rocks and mountains1 where what rain ever fell must have run off4 ,rich wells of 8living0 water are found in the driest ground at depth4 ,fountains well out at mountain tops #aag ,,viii4 ,the interior of the earth is1 according to some1 a huge receptacle of fresh water #aah ,,ix4 ,others think the air which is contained within the earth being prevented from circulating turns into water #aai ,x4 ,but indeed the four elements are all interchangeable #abj ,,xi4 ,though the supply of water is perennial1 rivers and springs are intermittent #aba ,,xii4 ,the abundance of water is no difficulty1 since it is a fourth part of the universe #abc ,,xiii4 ,the relation of water to the other elements4 ,thales' silly notion that the earth sails in water like a ship at sea #abd ,,xiv4 ,the ,egyptians divide each of the elements into male and female #abe ,,xv4 ,the veins of the earth resemble those of the human body4 ,there are likewise the analogies of marrow1 mucus1 etc41 of injuries and of bleeding1 of parturition1 perspiration1 etc4 #abe ,,xvi4 ,intermittent fountains are an illustration of seasonal activity4 ,the great vacant spaces of the earth and their tenants4 ,underground fish #abh ,,xvii4 ,the incredible wonders of nature are paralleled and even outdone by the excesses of luxury #abi ,,xviii4 ,the extravagances of luxury1 which make a wise man mad #acj ,,xix4 ,to return--a sudden eruption of water casts up fish1 generally poisonous4 ,this points to the unfailing supply of subterranean water #acb ,,xx4 ,various tastes of water due to four causes2 qualities of water--petrifying1 soporific1 intoxicating1 fatal #acc ,,xxi4 ,the same pestilential influence as taints rivers is perceived in caves3 the noxious rivers flow from or through them #acd ,,xxii4 ,the ,ocean and seas are coeval with the universe4 ,so probably are abnormal rivers like the ,danube and the ,nile #ace ,,xxiii4 ,rain and surface water must be added to subterranean #ace ,,xxiv4 ,the causes of hot springs #acf ,,xxv4 ,poisonous rivers4 ,colouring power of others4 ,great specific gravity of certain waters1 its effects and cause #acg ,,xxvi4 ,intermittent rivers and springs4 ,means possessed by river1 fount1 and sea of purifying themselves #ada ,,xxvii4 ,digression on the universal deluge which will destroy the world4 ,nature is niggardly in creation1 lavish in destruction4 ,ovid is unequal in his treatment of this catastrophe #adc ,,xxviii4 ,further imaginative pictures of what water can do by way of destruction4 ,alternative methods of destroying the earth--water and fire #adh ,,xxix4 ,further possibilities of the same character4 ,distinctions of seas1 gulfs1 etc41 will all be obliterated2 nature and the works of man will alike be overthrown #aej ,,xxx4 ,nature shows by the chafing of the sea that she designs to inundate the world4 ,a deluge is part of the fore-ordained plan4 ,but there will be a new earth and a new race of men who will not sin--for a time #aed ,,book ,,iv ,,containing ,a ,,discussion ,,of ,,snow1 ,,hail1 ,,and ,,rain4 ,,the ,,nile ,,preface ,the dangers of flattery and its insidiousness4 ,if you must have praise1 praise yourself4 ,lucilius has good cause3 he must not1 however1 think too much of himself because he is governor of that historic province ,sicily1 which has ere now decided the fate of generals and of empire #aei ,i4 ,leaving ,sicily and its marvels let us deal with the omitted part of the last book1 the ,nile4 ,there is no real analogy between it and the ,danube #aff ,,ii4 ,the course of the ,nile2 its cataracts4 ,the inundation of the river4 ,its meaning to ,egypt4 ,its denizens2 crocodiles and dolphins in conflict4 ,causes of the overflow3 melting of snow2 ,etesian ,winds2 drying up of the springs through internal heat of the earth in winter2 the attraction of the sun in ,africa draws water from the sea to fill up the gap caused by evaporation none of the accounts apparently accepted #afg ,,iii4 ,origin of hail2 why it differs from snow #agg ,,iv4 ,causes of snow in winter1 hail in spring #agi ,v4 ,it is said that the cooler air of the ,north 7,scythia1 etc47 is stirred by the melting of the snow in spring and floats ,south1 causing hail instead of rain #ahj ,,vi4 ,hail1 it is again alleged1 is averted by sacrifice4 ,if there is not a victim handy you have merely to prick your finger6 #aha ,,vii4 ,this belief in the power of blood was an ancient superstition #ahb ,,viii4 ,three causes why the air near the earth is warmest1 and therefore produces snow rather than hail #ahb ,,ix4 ,democritus' view--dense bodies are heated most quickly1 and retain their heat longest #ahc ,x4 ,the air nearest the earth is denser than elsewhere #ahd ,,xi4 ,the tops of mountains1 it is urged1 should be warmer because nearer the sun4 ,the difference is wholly inappreciable if we adopt the scale of the universe1 the true one #ahd ,,xii4 ,the comparatively mild air near the earth causes snow1 but not hail #ahf ,,xiii4 ,the despicable luxury of the effeminate ,romans1 who bought snow1 bathed in it1 and must resort even to ice to cool the unnatural feverish thirst born of their indulgence #ahf ,,book ,v ,,treating ,,of ,,winds ,,and ,,movement ,,of ,,the ,,atmosphere ,i4 ,definition of wind--air flowing in one direction4 ,the air1 like the sea1 is always moving1 even when it is thought to be still2 hence the necessity of the additional qualification--in one direction #aic ,,ii4 ,democritus says wind arises from a multitude of atoms in a small space striving to get free1 just like a crowd jostling each other #aid ,,iii4 ,but wind does not thus depend on density2 cloudy or misty weather does not necessarily produce wind1 while wind is produced when the morning sun dissipates the air4 ,democritus is1 therefore1 wrong #aie ,,iv4 ,wind arises in two ways--from the interior of the earth by emission--like wind on the stomach6--and from evaporation #aif ,v4 ,the air has inherent power of movement1 which is the chief cause of wind1 evaporation being a less powerful one4 ,water has the power of moving and of imparting life to animals and plants #aig ,,vi4 ,fire even1 the destroyer1 sometimes generates life4 ,air in like manner has a peculiar power of its own #aig ,,vii4 ,breezes before dawn arise from rivers1 etc4 ,do not last long #aih ,,viii4 ,the 8gulf0 wind 773 its origin and duration #aih ,,ix4 ,connection of winds with seasons of the year and with the heat and light of the sun4 ,the sun does not directly cause the winds #bjj ,x4 ,some cite the ,etesian ,winds as proof that he does4 ,they blow in summer when the snows melt and the moisture is carried ,south #bja ,,xi4 ,but as to the effect of the sun1 there is no analogy between the ,etesian ,winds1 which do not spring up till late in the day1 and the winds which rise at dawn and fall as the day advances #bjb ,,xii4 ,cloud squalls 774 ,their formation and combinations #bjc ,,xiii4 ,the breaking up of clouds produces wind4 ,air1 in an effort to get free1 or heat1 may produce this4 ,interruption of free passage may produce a whirlwind1 just as an obstacle in a river a whirlpool4 ,violent whirlwinds take fire 774 ,some winds produce different ones4 ,an analogy holds between air and drops of moisture4 ,a union of forces in air or in dew is necessary to give impulse and produce a current4 ,air and wind are merely a matter of degree #bjd ,,xiv4 ,mode in which the subterranean winds are generated and make their escape #bje ,,xv4 ,ancient miners of ,philip's saw rivers and vast underground reservoirs4 ,it is some consolation to read such a story1 which shows greed is no new vice3 the older generations were as reckless as we are in their quest for treasure better hid #bjg ,,xvi4 ,the four cardinal winds4 ,the full list includes twelve4 ,their names and directions #bjh ,,xvii4 ,the great circles of the earth which give twelve divisions1 and therefore prescribe the possible number of the winds #baj ,,xviii4 ,the uses of wind and the illustration afforded of the wisdom of ,providence4 ,the crops are dependent on it4 ,so is commerce4 ,but we make the sea a highway to war and not to peace4 ,we go to seek for death1 as if it were not always near4 ,xerxes1 ,alexander1 ,crassus are warnings of the mischievous use of power to cross the sea4 ,better1 perhaps1 the winds had never been given at all4 ,but the value of a natural gift must not be estimated by the depraved use of it4 ,every gift1 even sight and speech1 man has perverted in the same way #bab ,,book ,,vi ,,treating ,,of ,,earthquakes ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,earthquake at ,pompeii and the alarm it caused1 many giving up ,campania as a residence altogether4 ,if the solid earth fail1 what can be done8 ,refuge from tempest and fire and thunderstorm and war is possible1 but not from earthquake4 ,but 7#a7 the whole earth is subject to such movement3 we cannot escape by changing our ground--,tyre1 ,asia ,minor1 ,achaia have all suffered4 7#b7 ,death is the same in whatever form it come1 the circumstances matter not1 a stone is all one with a mountain #bba ,,ii4 ,we cannot escape death4 ,the hopeless find refuge in despair4 ,the knowledge of our frailty and mortality is our true solace4 ,death must come1 a death with circumstance is rather to be preferred than otherwise4 ,in an earthquake the earth shows itself mortal as men are #bbe ,,iii4 ,our fears are due to ignorance4 ,through lack of a philosophic view of the universe we consider phenomena strange which are merely rare1 e4g4 eclipses4 ,fear may be removed by knowledge #bbh ,,iv4 ,the study of such problems is the very worthiest2 it reveals the secrets of nature1 and is disinterested4 ,but it is highly profitable at the same time #bbi ,v4 ,various explanations of earthquakes have been suggested4 ,the earlier ones are crude1 but not therefore to be despised4 ,every subject develops as time goes on4 ,gratitude is due to the investigators who first dared to question nature #bcj ,,vi4 ,the cause of earthquakes is by some said to be water4 ,thales of ,miletus explains how this takes place1 but he must be wrong3 the analogy of a ship sailing the ocean will not apply to the earth 7cp4 ,,iii4 xiii47 #bca ,,vii4 ,water may be the cause1 but may operate in quite different ways from those supposed by ,thales4 ,storms1 etc41 in subterranean seas may cause earthquakes #bcc ,,viii4 ,there must be such subterranean water4 ,the ,tigris and ,arethusa prove it4 ,nero1 the virtuous and the veracious1 sent two officers to investigate the sources of the ,nile2 their account confirms the assumption #bce ,,ix4 ,fire is another alleged cause4 ,it either bursts out through opposing obstacles1 as in the clouds 7,anaxagoras71 or burns away the foundation and causes a subsidence at the spot #bcf ,x4 ,pieces of the earth falling in merely through the decay of age may produce the effect without fire or any external influence4 ,this is ,anaximenes' opinion #bcg ,,xi4 ,fire is supposed by some to cause earthquakes by expanding the vapour which it first causes to be given off from the subterranean waters #bch ,,xii4 ,archelaus sets down the cause as air pressing up the earth's internal wind which is already condensed to bursting point #bci ,,xiii4 ,aristotle and ,theophrastus take evaporation to be the cause4 ,strato1 much in the same way1 thinks that differences of internal temperature are the cause #bdj ,,xiv4 ,by some it is thought that air is the cause1 but that its operation1 along with water1 is like that of blood and air in the vessels of the body4 ,the earth1 it is assumed in this case1 admits air1 which must find an exit4 ,when it does so violently1 the result is an earthquake #bdb ,,xv4 ,the earth is porous1 perforated at many points1 and it is thus that the air enters #bdc ,,xvi4 ,the earth is full of air1 nourishing plants rooted in it1 and exhaling enough to feed the sun and the other heavenly bodies4 ,air is the most movable of elements2 therefore the earth1 if it is full of air1 must also have frequent movements #bdd ,,xvii4 ,obstruction of air1 just as of water1 causes greater impetuosity when it escapes4 ,wind is frequently associated with earthquakes1 as at ,chalcis #bde ,,xviii4 ,additional considerations to prove that the great cause of earthquakes is air1 i4e4 wind #bdg ,,xix4 ,metrodorus of ,chios compares the rumbling of an earthquake to the resonance of the voice in a tub2 the underground caves impart the sound #bdh ,,xx4 ,various combinations of water and air supposed by ,democritus and ,epicurus to co-operate to the production of earthquakes #bdi ,,xxi4 ,air must be the cause4 ,different kinds of earthquakes #bea ,,xxii4 ,first species--shaking of the earth3 its causes #beb ,,xxiii4 ,next comes the form of concussion caused by air4 ,the great ,callisthenes1 who braved the fury of ,alexander and lost his life for it1 supports this view4 ,submarine effects of it are particularly noticeable #bec ,,xxiv4 ,different explanations may be given of the exact method in which air acts #bee ,,xxv4 ,the striving of the air in subterranean caverns produces a concussion or collapse in the earth above4 ,the area of disturbance is limited1 never over #bjj miles1 as numerous instances prove4 ,the ,penes and ,ladon were thus produced #bef ,,xxvi4 ,the nature of the soil composed of muddy accretions without interstices is said to account for the exemption of ,egypt from earthquakes4 ,so ,delos in the sea has porous rocks which emit the air easily4 ,but the facts are wrong4 ,there is abundant proof that proximity to the sea is no safeguard against shock #beh ,,xxvii4 ,a peculiarity of the ,campanian earthquake1 that it killed #fjj sheep1 is explained by the emission of pestilential vapour1 by which sheep1 with their heads close to the ground1 naturally were most readily affected #bei ,,xxviii4 ,noxious vapours are not1 however1 peculiar to earthquakes4 ,they are found in several parts of ,italy habitually4 ,such1 too1 is the origin of new diseases #bfa ,,xxix4 ,excessive fear drives people mad4 ,earthquakes split statues and divide kingdoms1 e4g4 ,sicily from ,italy1 ,spain from ,africa #bfb ,,xxx4 ,the action of the air accounts for all the detailed phenomena1 splitting of walls1 houses1 towers1 statues2 also for the prolongation of shocks for several days #bfc ,,xxxi4 ,a further proof that air is the agent is to be found in the gradually diminishing violence of the successive shocks4 ,phenomena in the pavement witnessed by a philosopher who was in his bath #bfd ,,xxxii4 ,the moral4 ,life hangs on a thread2 why should one dread the loss of it8 ,the greatness of the cause of death is no source of terror4 ,the hereafter is better and safer than earth4 ,there there is no fear of earthquake or thunderstorm1 fire or flood4 ,fear of death magnifies all human risks4 ,do not dread death1 long for it1 and1 if necessary1 meet it half way #bfe ,,book ,,vii ,,treating ,,of ,,comets ,i4 ,phenomena1 however wonderful1 are not noted and admired unless they are uncommon4 ,the sun and moon and starry heavens have no observers1 but a ,comet at once sets the whole world agog4 ,the nature of the stars is a sublime and likewise a profitable study #bga ,,ii4 ,the nature of ,comets has not been hitherto fully investigated4 ,they are so rare that one wants a record of the movements of all ever observed #bgc ,,iii4 ,democritus1 ,eudoxus1 ,conon1 ,epigenes1 and ,apollonius of ,myndus all fail to give any satisfactory account of the matter4 ,nor had the ,egyptians or ,chaldaeans investigated them #bgd ,,iv4 ,epigenes explains the ,comet as due to a conjunction of ,saturn with ,mars or the ,sun3 it is akin to whirlwind and 8beam0 meteors #bge ,v4 ,but there are essential differences between whirlwind1 which is terrestrial1 and beams and torches1 which are above the clouds4 ,there is a difference of duration also4 ,beams and ,comets1 it is true1 have been mistaken for one another4 ,it was a ,comet1 according to ,aristotle1 that appeared before the destruction of ,buris and ,helice4 ,the character of the flame differs in the two forms #bgf ,,vi4 ,there are two kinds of ,comets1 according to ,epigenes4 ,they are produced by air driven up and setting on fire suitable material above1 which takes place every day at the same hour #bgg ,,vii4 ,but ,comets are not concomitants of winds2 there is no parallelism in the phenomena4 ,the higher ones1 which have an orbit1 he attributes to the north wind1 but the facts do not square here either #bgh ,,viii4 ,the course and altitude of ,comets render the whirlwind explanation impossible #bgi ,,ix4 ,the force and duration of whirlwinds are similarly inadequate #bhj ,x4 ,the slowness and steadiness of the ,comet could not be accounted for on this assumption1 nor its general behaviour and shape #bha ,,xi4 ,we must look for some other explanation4 ,now ,comets1 it must be premised1 appear in all quarters of the sky4 ,whatever the divisions of them made by the ,greeks1 they are all of one origin4 ,some of the ancients thought they were due to the union of two planets #bhc ,,xii4 ,again the facts do not square4 ,comets and planets appear simultaneously4 ,a conjunction is momentary1 a ,comet lasts six months sometimes4 ,the planets do not pass much beyond the ecliptic1 but ,comets appear in every quarter of the sky4 ,and there are other objections #bhd ,,xiii4 ,artemidorus thinks the firmament is solid and has openings for stars4 ,comets are casual planets1 or formed by conjunctions of them4 ,his account is a tissue of barefaced falsehoods #bhf ,,xiv4 ,how would a solid firmament be supported8 ,no feasible explanation can be offered4 ,besides1 the number of stars is so great--and they may all be 8wanderers0 if an indefinite number is--that there must be innumerable conjunctions of them1 i4e4 ,comets4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 ,comets are rare #bhg ,,xv4 ,again the huge ,comets of the times of ,demetrius and ,attalus would require scores of planetary conjunctions to form them #bhh ,,xvi4 ,ephorus1 a mere chronicler1 who takes this view1 has nothing to support him4 ,he tries1 like others of his set1 to embellish his work by narrating marvels4 ,why did he not tell us what the two stars were into which the ,comet resolved itself1 as he alleges it did8 #bhi ,,xvii4 ,apollonius of ,myndus holds the ,comet to be a true star 7planet7 with an erratic course1 visible only when it approaches the lower part of its orbit4 ,different colours of ,comets #bij ,,xviii4 ,but ,comets do not wax and wane as they approach and recede like planets4 ,nor do their orbits lie within the ecliptic4 ,besides1 we can see through a ,comet but not through a true star 7planet7 #bia ,,xix4 ,zeno the ,stoic thinks the light of converging stars gives the appearance of a longer star4 ,others hold modified forms of the same opinion or analogous views #bia ,,xx4 ,most of the ,stoics hold ,comets to be evanescent1 and attribute them to friction of the air4 ,various phenomena are analogous #bib ,,xxi4 ,their methods of accounting for varieties of orbits in ,comets #bic ,,xxii4 ,i do not agree with any ,school4 ,reasons #bie ,,xxiii4 ,further arguments showing difference between fires and ,comets #bie ,,xxiv4 ,there may be many stars in the universe whose paths have not been traced3 ,comets are such4 ,no satisfactory explanation has been given of the mind1 but its existence is not doubted #big ,,xxv4 ,comets are not yet fully understood4 ,many things are in the same category4 ,a future age will be amazed at our ignorance of such matters #bih ,,xxvi4 ,reasons of apparent movements of ,comets4 ,the transparence and shape accounted for #bii ,,xxvii4 ,parallels to the differences between ,comets and other planets #cjj ,,xxviii4 ,comets give prognostications1 but not of immediate events or weather #cjb ,,xxix4 ,denial of heaviness and slowness of ,comets #cjc ,,xxx4 ,humility is as becoming in investigators of the nature of the heavens as in worshippers4 ,god has revealed but a little of ,himself to man #cjd ,,xxxi4 ,one cannot be surprised that everything has not yet been discovered4 ,we must leave something to succeeding generations4 ,we are not yet fully proficient in vice1 though we have striven so long and hard4 ,we still retain1 strange to say1 some traces of manhood #cje ,,xxxii4 ,we are all given up to low pleasures and vices1 and devote our strength to them4 ,philosophy is kept for wet days4 ,the old teachers have no successors4 ,in fact1 we are letting go what they discovered4 ,we at best play with truth1 which1 as of old1 lies at the bottom of the well1 and needs the best efforts of young and old1 late and early1 to bring it to light #cjg ,,notes ,,by ,,sir ,a4 ,,geikie #cji ,,translator',s ,,notes ,,on 8,,air10 ,,quotations1 ,,and ,,gercke',s ,,readings #cdd ,,index #cea ,,introduction ,,seneca ,i4 ,,life ,lucius ,annaeus ,seneca was the second son of ,annaeus ,seneca 7generally1 but apparently without authority1 called ,marcus ,annaeus ,seneca7 of ,corduba 7,cordova7 in ,spain3 his mother was a ,spanish lady named ,helvia4 ,the elder ,seneca was himself a man of note4 ,he is known as ,seneca the ,orator or ,rhetorician1 in contradistinction to his more famous son1 the ,philosopher4 ,his works that have come down to us suggest by their titles1 ,controversiae and ,suasoriae1 the rhetorical character of the contents4 ,seneca had an elder brother1 ,m4 ,annaeus ,novatus1 and a younger one1 ,l4 ,annaeus ,mela 7or ,mella71 father of ,lucan the poet 7,m4 ,annaeus ,lucanus74#a ,the family was thus a distinguished one4 ,the poet ,martial1 himself a ,spaniard1 speaks of 8the house of learned ,seneca thrice to be numbered0 7iv4 #dj4 #b73 the allusion might with equal appropriateness apply either to the three brothers or to the three generations3 ,seneca the ,elder1 ,seneca1 ,lucan--father1 son1 grandson4 #a ,lucan1 owing to the jealousy of ,nero1 was induced to join ,piso's conspiracy in #fe and suffered the penalty4 ,his heroic poem1 the ,pharsalia1 though in many respects crude1 is a wonderful production for a man of twenty-six4 ,the eldest brother of the ,senecan family1 ,novatus1 was adopted by a friend of the family1 ,junius ,gallio1 by whose name he is known to history4 ,seneca on more than one occasion makes reference to him in the ,q4,n41 and always in the most laudatory terms4 ,in iv4 ,pref4 #i et sqq41 he pays a high tribute to his character1 and a further proof of his admiration and affection is afforded by his addressing to him his treatise on ,a ,happy ,life4 ,gallio is of interest in another connection4 ,he was proconsul of ,achaia during the period of the ,apostle ,paul's activity there 7,acts xviii471 and his conduct on the occasion of a sectarian uproar at ,corinth has attached to his name a certain stigma which1 perhaps1 he does not altogether deserve4 ,seneca was born about the beginning of the ,christian era1 probably in the year #c4 ,by this time the language and the arts of ,rome had spread widely over the conquered provinces1 in many of which independent centres of culture and literary activity had sprung up4 ,while ,rome as the capital and heart of things continued to draw to herself all that was best1 or1 at any rate1 all that was most enterprising and ambitious1 her literary and even her political life was largely recruited and maintained by supplies from external sources1 such as ,spain1 ,gaul1 and ,africa4#b #b ,from ,spain1 besides the ,senecas1 ,lucan and ,martial1 already mentioned1 came ,columella1 ,pomponius ,mela1 ,quintilian1 etc42 from ,gaul came many rhetoricians2 ,africa sent so many of the same class that by ,juvenal's time 7circ4 #ajj7 it could with propriety be designated 8nursery of lawyers0 7see ,teuffel1 ,hist4 of ,rom4 ,lit4 vol4 ii4 #f74 ,seneca was brought by his father to ,rome at an early age1#c and there he was educated and spent practically his whole life4 ,his lot was cast in perilous times1 those of ,caligula the madman 7#cg-da71 ,claudius the imbecile 7#da-ed71 ,nero the monster 7#ed-fh74 ,seneca's early studies were devoted to rhetoric4 ,with such assiduity did he prosecute them1 and with such brilliant success were his efforts at the bar crowned1 that he speedily awakened the jealousy of ,caligula4 ,the hint of danger was taken4 ,by his father's advice he abandoned law in the meantime and devoted himself with equal ardour and enthusiasm to philosophy4 ,among his philosophic tutors were ,attalus1 a ,stoic1 and ,sotion1 a pupil of the ,sextii1 the decline of whose school is lamented in the ,q4,n4 7#cjg74 ,he first embraced the ,stoic doctrine1 but finding the tenets and practices of this sect not sufficiently severe1 he adopted those of the ,pythagoreans4 ,his father1 a man with a good deal of worldly wisdom1 saw the dangers of extreme eccentricities of this kind1 which implied a covert condemnation of the whole world4 ,he exhorted his son to live more like other people2 he might otherwise be mistaken for a ,jew 7i4e4 a ,christian76 ,the young barrister's difficulties were1 however1 ended for a time by the death of ,caligula 7#da74 ,seneca1 who was now thirty-eight1 resumed his practice at the bar1 and opened a school for youths of noble birth1 which was largely attended4 ,about this time also he obtained the quaestorship1 the duties of which introduced a young man into public service and enabled him to obtain some insight into the financial methods of the ,empire4 #c ,his maternal aunt acted as nurse on the occasion3 see ,consol4 ad ,helviam1 xvii4 ,his re-entry on public life was1 however1 destined to be the prelude to another disaster4 ,indeed1 all through his subsequent life his interests were so involved with the affairs of the rulers of the ,state that he must always stand on slippery ground4 ,the fact is1 ,seneca's abilities were too great for his position4 ,he was a man of the most brilliant parts1 8one of those ardent natures the virgin soil of whose talent shows a luxurious richness unknown to the harassed brains of an old civilisation0 7,cruttwell1 ,hist4 of ,rom4 ,liter4 p4 #cgh74 ,in an age of absolute and suspicious tyranny all eminence is obnoxious to the ruling powers4 ,it is a standing reproach to them1 hence a source of fear and alarm1 a menace as they imagine1 and an incentive to disloyalty4 ,during the very first year of ,claudius' reign ,seneca was banished to ,corsica1 where the next eight years find him4 ,it was the outcome of a ,court intrigue4 ,messalina1 wife of the ,emperor1 was apparently jealous of the influence of ,claudius' nieces1 ,julia and ,agrippina1 whom he had just recalled from banishment4 ,julia was again banished1 and ,seneca1 on the ground of an alleged improper intimacy with her1 was made to share her disgrace4 ,his banishment was really a blessing in disguise4 ,he employed assiduously the period of enforced leisure1 devoting himself again to philosophy1 and returning to his first love1 ,stoicism4 ,here he perfected his study1 and probably elaborated most of those doctrines with which his writings abound4 ,in ,cruttwell's words1 he 8struck out the mild and catholic form0 of the ,stoic philosophy 8which has made his teaching1 with all its imperfections1 the purest and noblest of antiquity0 7op4 cit4 #cgi74 ,to this period1 too1 belong some of what may be called his earlier works1 already showing remarkable power4 ,his exile had been compassed by the notorious ,messalina1 the third wife of ,claudius4 ,on her fall ,claudius married1 as his fourth wife1 his niece1 the still more notorious ,agrippina1#d daughter of ,germanicus ,caesar and sister of ,caligula and of ,julia4 ,one of ,agrippina's first acts was to have ,seneca recalled and appointed tutor to the young ,nero1 her son by a former marriage and now heir-apparent to the throne4 ,this was in #dh1 when ,nero was but eleven years of age1 and henceforth to the end of his life ,seneca's fortunes are closely associated with those of ,nero1 8a name to all succeeding ages curst40 ,to be tutor to a prince means much if the pupil is docile4 ,if he prove headstrong and at the same time vicious1 as ,nero speedily did1 the choice of the tutor is an unenviable one1 either to follow his pupil and palliate his conduct1 or else to resist at the risk of position and influence and1 it may be eventually1 of life4 ,with ,seneca at first all went well4 ,the prince was amenable1 the tuition seemed to bear good fruit4 ,the teacher was faithful to his charge1 and loyal to the prince's mother1 ,agrippina1 to whom he owed his office and influence4 ,mother and son were still in accord4 ,to the philosopher there was no conflict of duty1 no necessity for the choice of one of two evils4 #d ,this lady must not be confounded with her mother1 who bore the same name4 ,in #ed the vacillating ,claudius was poisoned by ,agrippina1 and ,nero succeeded to the throne4 ,for a time the government was virtually in the hands of ,seneca and of ,burrus1 also an excellent man1 commander of the praetorian guards4 ,in these earlier years the young ,emperor gained a reputation for justice and moderation which has thrown a halo round that golden quinquennium4 ,his tutor must in fairness receive a portion of the credit4 ,he seems to have been throughout imbued with an honest desire to promote virtue and good government and to check such vicious propensities as a youth with ,nero's antecedents was not unlikely to develop2 but whether the means adopted were always unimpeachable seems more open to question4 ,seneca's own interests were apparently not neglected4 ,in #ej he had been made praetor2 shortly after he was raised to the consulship4 ,within the short space of four years from his appointment as ,nero's master he had attained a position of commanding influence in the ,state1 and had amassed a colossal fortune 7nearly #c1jjj1jjj it is said74 ,the latter he attributed to the unsolicited generosity of his master1 but his enemies and detractors had quite a different version of the matter4 ,for more than a decade after ,nero's succession ,seneca's life is part of the history of the ,roman ,empire4 ,the philosopher had become1 as it appeared1 de facto king and a new era seemed to have arisen on mankind4 ,philosophers1 it is true1 have neither in ancient nor in modern times shone in the sphere of action4 ,the troubled sea of practical politics is strewn with the wrecks of philosophic reputations4 ,still1 even before the age of the ,antonines1 ,seneca1 if any man1 might have been the exception to prove the rule4 ,he was a man of versatile genius1 he had had a practical training1 he was a man of affairs4 ,the facts show that he had a true conception of the necessities as well as of the duties of government4 ,but he was placed in an impossible situation4 ,agrippina wished to rule her son1 and her chosen means was through his tutor4 ,nero1 on the other hand1 once he had tasted the sweets of power1 determined not to be ruled by his mother1 but to make her instrument his tool4 ,the condition of unstable equilibrium could not long continue4 ,the conflict came to a head through a disgraceful intrigue of ,nero's about the year #ei4 ,seneca had to make his choice1 and never was choice more difficult4 ,to ,agrippina he owed everything--life1 position1 fortune1 his past belonged to her4 ,but he saw that ,nero was to be the winner in the struggle2 his safety1 his hopes1 his future lay with the ruling power4 ,he may have felt that expostulation was vain and resistance fruitless4 ,he does not appear to have attempted either4 ,he decided to cast in his lot with the ,emperor4 ,when ,nero finally decided to get rid of his mother1 ,seneca not only adhered to the plan but consented to vilify her memory by composing the letter to the ,senate1 in which the matricide sought to justify his act4 ,it was the great treason of his life4 ,in a critical situation he had chosen a wrong course1 and it cannot have been without a pang1 a sense of moral cowardice and tergiversation4 ,he had sacrificed self-respect1 he had lost philosophic caste4 ,after the murder of his mother1 ,nero abandoned himself to the wildest excesses and extravagances4 ,the philosopher had perforce to follow in his wake1 and humiliating enough he must have felt the part he was obliged to play4 ,still1 he and ,burrus continued to act as a sort of drag1 conspiring with what of conscience was left to ,nero in checking his headlong course4 ,the beginning of the end1 so far as ,seneca was concerned1 came with the death in #fc of ,burrus1 his constant friend and ally4 ,various indications now showed that the tyrant was anxious to be freed from the last remaining restraint4 ,the philosopher felt his position was insecure4 ,the man who had murdered his mother1 not to mention his 7step-7brother and his wife--two of his other victims--was not likely to have great compunction in ridding himself of his tutor4 ,seneca sought to anticipate the storm by abandoning politics1 retiring from ,court1 and surrendering his estates4 ,nero refused the offer1 and expressed profusely his continued regard for his tutor2 shortly afterwards he displayed the sincerity of his professions by an insidious attempt to poison him6 ,the philosopher then renounced all his state1 adopted a voluntary poverty1 and by putting into practice his professed tenets of the simple life endeavoured to avoid a repetition of the risk at least of poison4 ,his diet was herbs1 his drink1 water from the fountain4 ,but it was only a matter of time now4 ,the occasion for which the ,emperor was on the watch came in #fe4 ,in that year ,piso's conspiracy was formed against the ,emperor's life1 and ,seneca was accused1 falsely so far as we can judge1 of complicity4 ,he was ordered to prepare for death1 which1 according to the custom of the day1 allowed the victim the choice of means1 and was usually a voluntary opening of the veins in order to bleed to death4 ,tacitus has with characteristic power and pathos depicted the scene 7,annals1 xv4 #fa-d74 ,no act of his life1 it would seem1 became ,seneca better than the leaving of it4 ,his death was worthy of a philosopher and a ,stoic4 ,with the utmost calmness1 amid a throng of mourning1 sympathising friends1 he faced his fate1 and yet with the studied pose of a man who had conned the part4 ,the age was one of posturing4 ,men were always under the eye of the informer and the spy1 and learnt to act their part accordingly4 ,the 8meditation of death0 must often have occupied the philosopher's latter days4 ,he was a second ,socrates consigned to an unjust end2 the last scene was enacted with all the dignity1 composure1 and even cheerfulness of his great prototype4 ,the cock due to ,aesculapius has a parallel more worthy of the occasion in the libation to ,jupiter the ,liberator4 ,the supreme act atoned for many weaknesses and failures4 ,though ,seneca was not without many detractors1#e his worth as a man is attested by many proofs4 ,his young wife ,paulina desired to share his fate1 and opened her veins along with her husband4 ,by ,nero's orders she was saved1 but she continued to the end of her life to bear in her unnatural pallor the marks of her devotion4 ,tacitus1 writing at a distance of thirty or forty years1 describes the character of ,seneca in terms of commendation and esteem4 ,no doubt the historian had himself borne the yoke of the savage ,domitian1 and knew what life under a tyrant meant4 ,but withal he was too acute an observer and too impartial a critic to be blinded by any mere sentimental sympathy4 ,he understood and appreciated ,seneca1 to whose genuine worth his testimony is the most enduring tribute4 #e ,dio ,cassius is often very caustic in his criticisms1 but even he recognises ,seneca's sterling merit and services to the state4 ,the age of ,seneca1 whose 8life almost coincides with the ,julio-,claudian tyranny10 has been made to re-live for us in ,professor ,dill's ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius1 which ought to be studied by those who desire to understand more of ,seneca as statesman1 philosopher1 and man4#f ,in addition to a short account and criticism of the ,quaestiones ,naturales 7pp4 #cjj et sqq471 the chapter 7,book ,,iii4 ch4 i4 pp4 #bhi-ccc7 on 8,the ,philosophic ,director0 is particularly illuminating4 ,the following tribute from it may fittingly close our brief sketch3-- #f ,mr4 ,henderson's ,the ,life and ,principate of the ,emperor ,nero should also be studied4 8,the man who approaches ,seneca thinking only of scandals gleaned from ,tacitus and ,dio ,cassius1 and frozen by a criticism which cannot feel the power of genius1 spiritual imagination1 and a profound moral experience1 behind a rhetoric sometimes forced and extravagant1 had better leave him alone4 ,the ,christianity of the twentieth century might well hail with delight the advent of such a preacher1 and would certainly forget all the accusations of prurient gossip in the accession of an immense and fascinating spiritual force4 ,the man with any historical imagination must be struck with amazement that such spiritual detachment1 such lofty moral ideals1 so pure an enthusiasm for the salvation of souls1 should emerge from a palace reeking with all the crimes of the haunted races of ,greek legend0 7op4 cit4 p4 #bie74 ,,ii4 ,,writings ,seneca was a voluminous writer4 ,most of his works partake more or less of a philosophical character4 ,in a class by themselves may be placed the ten tragedies1 together with some verses1 attributed to him4 ,the titles1 ,medea1 ,hercules ,furens1 ,hippolytus1 ,agamemnon1 etc41 suggest the ,greek subjects as well as the plays of the same names by ,euripides and ,aeschylus4 ,the treatment of the themes is all ,seneca's own4 ,moral maxims abound2 the plays are homiletic and were never designed to be acted4 ,one of the plays is of special interest as dealing with current topics4 ,this is the ,octavia1 whose chief character is ,nero's wife of that name1 exiled by him in order to make room for the licentious ,poppaea ,sabina4 ,seneca himself is introduced as one of the characters1 deploring the vices of the age and the unhappiness of those set in high position4 ,if the play is genuine1 which has been doubted on the ground of references in it that seem to apply to ,nero's death1 it goes to prove that ,seneca used very plain language toward his master and pupil4 ,in any case1 it shows what the relation of ,seneca to ,nero was generally supposed to be4 ,tacitus 7xv4 #fa7 represents ,seneca as telling ,nero by messenger that the latter has had more frequent experience of his independence than of his servility1 and the ,octavia is fair comment upon his statement4 ,here is a specimen of the dialogue3-- ,nero4 ,fortune has put everything in my power4 ,seneca4 ,distrust her favours3 she is a fickle goddess4 ,n4 ,to fail to see all that one may do1 betrays the coward4 ,s4 ,the credit lies in doing not what one may1 but what one ought4 ,n4 ,the crowd tramples on a feeble prince4 ,s4 ,they will crush a hated one3 and so forth4 ,seneca's last remark may be a prophecy--some would say after the event4 ,the play contains other allusions which suggest some of the actual details of ,nero's end4 ,the prose works include3 7a7 ,philosophical ,essays such as ,anger1 ,clemency1 ,benefits1 ,calmness of ,mind1 ,a ,happy ,life1 ,the ,shortness of ,life1 ,providence1 or ,why ,providence allows troubles to afflict the ,just1 ,the ,constancy of the ,sage1 ,the ,leisure of the ,sage4 7b7 ,letters1 or rather ,treatises1 of ,condolence1 the so-called ,consolations1 addressed respectively to his ,mother ,helvia2 to ,marcia1 the daughter of ,cordus1 on the death of her son2 to ,polybius1 the powerful freedman of ,claudius1 on the loss of his brother4 7c7 ,letters to ,lucilius1 a hundred and twenty-four in number4 7d7 ,apocolocyntosis--a lampoon on the deceased ,emperor ,claudius4 ,on such occasions deification 7apotheosis7 was accorded to the late ruler1 and he was received into the number of the gods4 ,this skit describes the reception of ,claudius in heaven and his expulsion thence to the lower regions1 with his trial and sentence there4 ,pumpkinification is the nearest ,english translation of the title4#g #g ,one would have expected that ,claudius' fate would be to be enrolled among--the ,pumpkins4 ,but the piece as we have it contains no allusion to this4 7e7 ,quaestiones ,naturales4 7f7 ,works no longer extant1 the only one of them that concerns us being that on ,earthquakes1 referred to as a work of his youth in ,q4,n4 #bcj4 7g7 ,a spurious work1 as is now on all hands conceded1 is the correspondence between ,seneca and ,st4 ,paul4 ,in his opposition to popular beliefs and superstitions1 and in the purity of his moral tenets1 ,seneca approached some of the ,christian doctrines1 and it was no improbable supposition that at the ,court of ,nero he might have became acquainted with the ,apostle of the ,gentiles4#h ,but the assumption of a correspondence of this kind is another affair4 ,its genuineness was believed from the time of ,jerome 7#djj7 till the sixteenth century4 #h ,see ,mr4 ,henderson's ,life and ,principate of ,nero1 #bhf-g1 and ,mr4 ,glover's ,the ,conflict of ,religions in the ,early ,roman ,empire1 #adi4 ,seneca is generally considered to appear at his best in the ,consolation to his ,mother ,helvia and in the ,epistles to ,lucilius1 which are therefore usually ranked as amongst his finest works4 ,the latter work1 which from the outset was designed for publication1 is not an ordinary correspondence on the current affairs and interests of everyday life like ,cicero's ,letters1 but is philosophic in character2 it covers a wide range of moral discussion and reflection1 and is full of admirable maxims4 ,many of its sentiments have become commonplaces2 their almost hackneyed character detracts perhaps somewhat from our appreciation of their intrinsic merit4 ,on the other hand1 the spitefulness of the ,apocolocyntosis1 the servility of the ,consolation to ,polybius1 and the flattery of the ,clemency1 which was addressed to ,nero1 show the reverse of ,seneca's character4 ,of the characteristics of his style1 however1 and of his position in ,roman literature--one of commanding importance--this is not the place to speak4 ,his works reflect truly enough both the iron and the miry clay which entered into his mental and moral composition4 ,,iii4 8,,quaestiones ,,naturales0 ,this work stands in a category by itself4 ,it raises a number of difficult problems1 in which every reader of it1 whether classical scholar or not1 is interested4 ,the historical title1 ,natural ,questions1 is convenient1 though1 without explanation1 a little misleading4 ,the nearest rendering of the ,latin form ,quaestiones ,naturales is ,physical ,inquiries1 or ,investigations in the ,domain of ,physics1 or1 as in the title1 what we should now call ,physical ,science4 ,the terms ,physics and ,science had a very different connotation in that age and in ours4 ,plutarch1 almost a younger contemporary of ,seneca1 gravely discusses in a work with a similar title such questions as ,why shepherds give their sheep salt1 ,why horses' hair is superior to mares' for casting-lines1 and even1 ,why a dog runs after a stone rather than after the person who threw it6 ,the extent of such a title is determined pretty much by the range of topics an author decides to include4 ,in ,seneca's case1 as it happens1 the branches chiefly dealt with are ,astronomy and ,meteorology1 together with certain portions of what may be designated as ,physical ,geography including ,seismology4 ,science was in that day synonymous with ,philosophy1 or at any rate ,philosophy embraced all that could claim to be ,science4 ,learning was homogeneous2 its subdivisions had not yet been separated or differentiated4 ,the treatise was addressed in a quasi-epistolary form to ,lucilius ,junior1 procurator#i of ,sicily4 ,most of our knowledge of him is derived from ,seneca1 who1 besides the ,q4,n41 addressed to him his ,epistles and his tract on ,providence4 ,lucilius seems to have been a protg of ,seneca1 and rising from the ranks under his fostering care and guidance1 not only to have attained a position of influence1 but also to have achieved literary distinction4 ,his philosophical predilections were toward ,epicureanism1 but he was a man of high principle and character1 though not exempt from dangerous temptations at various points in his career4 ,his public labours had associated him with ,sicily1 and the themes of his writings1 chiefly poems as it would appear1 had been drawn from the same quarter4 ,he is1 not without probability1 supposed to have been the author of the anonymous didactic poem ,aetna1 for long attributed to ,virgil1 a work which presents many interesting parallelisms to the ,q4,n4 both in its science and its philosophy4 ,seneca's ,epistle lxxix4 contains a special charge to ,lucilius1 who was at the time making a circuit of his province1 to report the facts concerning ,charybdis--,seneca knew all there was to know about ,scylla--and to investigate in detail the present condition of ,aetna4 ,the letter goes on to banter ,lucilius upon the inclusion of ,aetna in the poem on which he was engaged--no doubt the work referred to in ,q4,n4 #aad1 #adb2 cf4 #afg4 ,the whole question is discussed with full knowledge by ,professor ,robinson ,ellis in the ,introduction 7xxxvi-xlviii7 to his edition of the ,aetna1 to which reference should be made4 ,for other allusions to ,lucilius in ,seneca see1 besides the ,q4,n41 ,epistles xix4 xxvi4 xxxiv4 etc4 #i ,the procurator was in this case practically governor4 ,in some instances he was the representative of a chief governor 7praeses7 to whom he was subject1 e4g4 ,pontius ,pilate was procurator of ,judaea under the ,governor of ,syria4 ,the ,q4,n4 was composed probably about the year #fc or #fd4 ,we might content ourselves with the statement of the fact1 did not the circumstances of composition throw light upon difficulties of arrangement and sequence which can scarcely be passed unnoticed4 ,the evidence on which we have to rely is chiefly internal4 ,the exact date of ,lucilius' procuratorship in ,sicily 7#aei7 is unknown1 but the consulship of ,regulus and ,virginius1 which witnessed the ,campanian earthquake 7#bba71 fell in #fc1 that is1 some two years before ,seneca's death4 ,the allusions in the ,preface to ,book ,,iii4 7#aji7 are still more direct and convincing4 ,the writer was drawing near his end1 pressed hard on the rear by old age1 with every necessity and incentive to hurry on the completion of his task4 ,on the other hand1 the mission despatched by ,nero to the sources of the ,nile 7#bce-f7 would naturally point to an earlier date during the more promising years of his reign--unless indeed1 as is by no means improbable1 the complimentary reference to the emperor's virtues be a piece of adulation4 ,a similar reference recurs in connection with the comet in ,nero's reign 7#bij71 the date of which must 7after ,tacitus7 be assigned to the year #fa4 ,the ,elder ,pliny1 writing in #gg1 about a dozen years after ,seneca's death1 adds to each ,book of his ,natural ,history an exhaustive list of the authorities1 native and foreign1 that he had used4 ,book ,,ii4 deals with many of the subjects of the ,q4,n41 of which it is in some places an expansion1 but in most little more than an epitome4#aj ,and yet no mention of ,seneca occurs in the list of authorities attached1 which seems strange if the work had then been given to the world4#aa #aj ,see particularly ,pliny's treatment of ,comets 7ii4 xxii471 ,winds 7xliv4-l471 ,lightning 7liii471 ,floating ,islands 7xcvi474 ,but most striking of all is the reproduction 7lxiii47 of ,seneca's remark 7#bjh end of c4 xv471 8,if any nether gods existed1 they would have been dug up long ere this in the mines sunk by our avarice and luxury40 ,the two authors had hit upon the same thought1 and ,seneca had happened to use it first4 ,or it may have been a current witticism in an age of unbelief4 #aa ,seneca's name does occur in the lists attached to ,books ,,vi4 ,,ix4 and ,,xxxvi42 the first is geographical1 dealing with ,asia and ,africa1 the second has for subject fishes and aquatic life in general1 while the third deals with the natural history of stones4 ,we read in the ,sixth ,book of the ,q4,n4 7#bcj7 that the author had previously1 when a young man1 composed a work upon ,earthquakes4 ,this1 taken in connection with what precedes1 and with what we know of the author's character and interests1 affords some ground for the conjecture that he may have worked intermittently at the subject at various periods of life4 ,but no doubt the arrangement of the materials and the completion of the work belong to his latter years4 ,he had by this time lost his hold upon ,nero1 and had practically retired from political activity4 ,his trust in princes had been found misplaced4 ,he was disappointed if not embittered4 ,the discussion of public affairs was precluded4 ,it was dangerous even to let one's thoughts rest upon them4 ,but there were consolations for political disappointment and inactivity4 ,recourse might be made to the contemplation of those great works and workings of ,nature which are exempt from the caprices of human passion4 ,the study of ,nature was equally fitted to humble and to console2 to it ,seneca betook himself for refuge4#ab #ab 8,the ,stoics affected to despise physical studies1 or at any rate to postpone them to morals4 ,seneca shared this edifying but far from scientific persuasion4 ,but after his final withdrawal from court1 as the wonders of nature forced themselves on his notice1 he reconsidered his old prejudice1 and entered with ardour on the contemplation of physical phenomena0 7,cruttwell1 op4 cit4 #cha74 ,the ,q4,n4 may1 thus1 have been composed at different dates1 materials for it being gathered at various times as opportunity offered4 ,but the final arrangement and systematisation belong to the last years of the author's life1 about the years #fc or #fd4 ,the publication may not have taken place until some time subsequently1 and may have been carried out by ,lucilius1 who was ,seneca's literary executor4 ,so much is certain1 that the work as we have it is not the work as it left the author's hand4 ,much time and ingenuity have been bestowed on attempts to restore the ,q4,n4 to what may be supposed to have been its original form4 ,the most casual reading of it as it stands1 shows that it is full of inequalities4 ,if the clue could only be recovered1 much of its difficulty and obscurity would disappear4 ,as it is1 it abounds in abrupt transitions1 interruptions of the logical sequence1 repetitions1 excrescences1 and even irrelevancies and inconsistencies1 which it can hardly be supposed that an author would have allowed to remain in a treatise prepared for publication4 ,one or two considerations derived from the present arrangement will serve to throw light upon this point4 ,in the first place1 ,book ,,iv41 as we have it1 is evidently composite4 ,between ,chaps4 ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 there is a deep hiatus4 ,in the former chapter the discussion of the ,nile is cut short1 and the author's own view is not even indicated1 much less established2 while the latter opens so abruptly as at least to suggest that it may have originally been preceded by something with which it stood in organic sequence4 ,again1 the several ,books do not conform to the author's division of the subject as set forth in the opening of ,book ,,ii4 7#ea71 but follow--or precede--one another anyhow4 ,then1 three of the ,books 7,i4 ,,iii4 ,,iv47 have a formal ,preface1 while the others have not1 though in them1 too1 with the exception of the ,sixth1 the opening chapter is introductory in character4 ,any attempt to restore a more intelligible order must depend for its success on the extent to which we may assume ,seneca to have been a methodiser4 ,in ,book ,,ii4 i1 he certainly states very distinctly the divisions of his subject--7a7 things in the heavens1 7b7 things between heaven and earth1 7c7 things on the earth4 ,but it by no means follows that he himself maintained this order of treatment1 or that he always exhausted one subject before passing on to the next4 ,the division evidently enumerates the subjects in order of dignity or worth1 and may have little1 if any1 relation to the order of their discussion2 in fact1 in ,book ,,ii4 he goes on immediately to deal with meteorology1 his second and not his first topic4 ,bernhardt 7,die ,anschauung des ,seneca vom ,universum1 p4 #g7 frankly accepts the traditional order of the ,books1 and finds its explanation in the distinction between phenomena and elements4 ,the first three ,books deal with the phenomena of heaven1 air1 earth1 respectively2 the last four respectively with the elements--water1 air1 earth1 fire4 ,this is ingenious1 if not altogether convincing4 ,the most recent editor1 ,professor ,gercke1 divides ,book ,,iv4 into its two constituents1 ,,iv4 7a7 ,,iv4 ,pref4-ii41 ,,iv4 7b7 ,,iv4 iii4-xiii41 and arranges the ,books in ascending scale thus3 ,earth ,,iii4 ,,iv4 7a72 ,air ,,iv4 7b71 ,,ii4 ,v4 ,,vi2 ,heaven ,,vii4 ,i4 ,there seems great probability1 almost amounting to certainty1 that there were originally eight ,books1 as he supposes4 ,but a consistent and fairly natural order might perhaps be restored with less violence to the accepted form than his scheme involves4 ,books ,,iii4 and ,,iv4 7a7 seem to have been misplaced or transposed1 being placed after ,book ,,ii4 instead of after ,book ,,vi41 where they originally stood2 ,book ,,iv4 7a7 had somehow got mutilated1 which the more easily led to the confusion4 ,book ,,iv4 7b7 also suffered somewhat in the process4 ,thus the original order may have been ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iv4 7b71 ,v4 ,,vi42 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 7a72 ,,vii42 the first five ,books deal with ,meteorology1 including ,seismology 7air71 the next two with ,physical ,geography 7earth71 the last ,book with ,astronomy 7heaven74 ,a single change of the order is thus all that is required2 but1 of course1 the regrettable gap after ,,iv4 7a7 remains4 ,even with this rearrangement the sequence leaves something to be desired4 ,but it must be borne in mind that the author makes a claim to philosophic liberty 7#agh71 and that in no case can the rules of modern requirement be applied to him4 ,of course1 if the assumption of methodical arrangement be unfounded1 and the author composed just as the humour took him1 the existing order may be all right3 it is as good as any other fortuitous collocation4 ,some have supposed that the work was left unfinished at the author's death1 but of this we have no proof4 ,the language of the ,preface to ,book ,,iii4 has been taken by some to imply that this was the opening of the whole work4 ,whether this is so must remain to some extent matter of opinion4 ,it may1 however1 be pointed out 7a7 that the claim of the ,preface to ,book ,i4 seems at least equally strong1 7b7 that the language of #d of the ,preface to ,book ,,iii4 7#aaj71 8how much is unaccomplished of my plan1 though not of my life10 seems inapplicable to a work that was not begun or merely beginning4 ,there was a remnant of the work and a remnant of life1 but they were disproportionate1 the one large1 the other small4 ,this was a reminder to hurry on to completion a work with which1 ex hypothesi1 some progress had already been made4 ,when all has been said1 we must1 for practical purposes1 accept the book as it has been handed down to us and make what we can of it4 ,the difficulties are not exhausted even when the pristine order is restored4 ,what is true of the work as a whole is true of it also in detail4 ,the text is full of uncertainties and corruptions4 ,the work was popular and was frequently copied1 and this naturally gave rise to variations1 which1 being improved upon by succeeding generations of copyists1 in course of time rendered the text in many places very obscure if not unmeaning4 ,the nature of the subject matter1 frequently little understood1 no doubt facilitated and hastened the process of corruption4 ,hence the translator has at every turn to decide first what1 and then how1 he shall translate4#ac #ac ,gercke says 7,preface1 xlvi7 that the traditional text of the ,q4,n4 is utterly corrupt and still requires the united efforts of many earnest scholars for its restoration4 ,he writes as recently as two years ago 7#aijg71 and has himself probably made the most considerable contribution of all the editors to the correction of the text2 but he modestly calls himself only a pioneer4 ,an added difficulty is the form of address to ,lucilius4 ,the adoption of the epistolary style1 whatever its other advantages1 has not1 it must be admitted1 conduced to the lucidity of the argument4 ,science does not readily lend itself to exposition by dialogue1 and the trouble is aggravated when1 in addition to the correspondent1 an imaginary opponent is from time to time introduced and indifferently addressed in the second person1 or referred to in the third4 ,to make matters still worse1 the author frequently conceals himself behind the mask of one or other of the disputants1 irrespective of pronouns4 ,finally1 he employs 8we0 sometimes of himself and his correspondent1 sometimes of his philosophic sect1 the ,stoics1 sometimes of his nation1 the ,romans1 sometimes of his kind1 man in general6 ,,iv4 ,,seneca',s ,,method ,,of ,,treatment ,,of ,,subject ,in order to appreciate ,seneca's treatment of his subject we must understand something of his philosophical tenets4 ,he was in the main a ,stoic1 but with such a strong tendency toward independence that he may be considered an ,eclectic4 ,the ,stoics1 whether or not they originated1 at any rate recognised and adopted the threefold division of philosophy--,physics1 ,ethics1 ,logic#ad--which was originated among the ,greeks and handed down by them to the ,romans1 who were in this department their pupils4 ,seneca is typical of the ,stoics in regarding ,ethics as of supreme importance4 ,on ,logic he did not apparently set any great store1 though he must have been a diligent student of the cognate branch1 ,rhetoric4 ,physics1 as we have seen1 did not claim much attention from him in early life2 only as he approached the mature age of threescore did his study of it become more detailed and systematic4 ,no clear line of demarcation existed in his mind1 or for the matter of that in his age1 between philosophy and science4 ,yet there is considerable internal evidence in the ,q4,n4 that his pursuit of such studies was in part an outcome of the true scientific spirit1 and that he possessed in no ordinary degree the scientific imagination4 ,still1 when all due allowance is made for this1 it remains true that ,seneca was moralist first and physicist or scientist afterwards4 ,physics led to theology1#ae and had thus a direct bearing on man's destiny and fate4 ,had there been no ,ethics1 whose interests were involved in a knowledge of the universe1 its parts1 its function1 and its author1 the impelling motive for the study of ,physics would have been removed4 ,possibly when his political career was closed by the death of ,burrus in #fc1 ,seneca might in any case have devoted some of his leisure to a subject which offered such opportunities of exalted contemplation4 ,but it was his ethical aims that added the chief zest to the pursuit4#af ,as the various departments of knowledge had not assumed definite divergent forms1 there was nothing incongruous to his mind in the mixture1 or as he might have regarded it1 the union1 of what to us seem so different from one another as ,physics and ,ethics4 ,the facts of nature had1 in his view1 to be brought into connection with the lessons that may be derived from them4 ,in so many words he tells us 7#ajb7 that every study must have a moral attached to it1 or to put it otherwise1 that physical phenomena must be made the occasion for driving home some general truth1 establishing some ethical position1 clinching an argument1 reprobating a vice4 ,the conclusion of each ,book of the ,q4,n4 contains the practical application of the lessons to be derived from its subject3 there are not infrequent digressions1 too1 for the same or a cognate purpose4 ,the author's moral zeal sometimes ran off with him1 and he felt constrained to break off for the time his discussion of scientific truths and to assume the rle of the moralist and reformer4#ag #ad ,see ,professor ,davidson's ,the ,stoic ,creed1 p4 #db1 where it is pointed out that each of these may be subdivided so as to bring the number up to six--,physics and ,theology1 ,ethics and ,politics1 ,logic and ,rhetoric4 ,see also ,seneca1 ,epist4 lxxxix41 where the division is discussed4 ,for further information on the subject1 the article on the ,stoics in the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica and any of the histories of philosophy1 e4g4 ,erdmann or ,zeller1 may be consulted4 #ae ,cf4 ,professor ,burnet's ,early ,greek ,philosophy for illustration of this in earlier times4 #af ,cf4 footnote #b to p4 xxxiv4 #ag ,the method was not obsolete for many centuries1 even if it is yet wholly dead4 ,on more than one occasion the study of ,natural ,history has been advocated on account of the abundance of figures of speech that may be drawn from it6 ,erasmus esteemed it because of the light it threw on the classics2 his insensibility to the wonders of natural forces and processes provoked ,luther's remark that 8,erasmus looks upon external objects as cows look upon a new gate40 ,the reader of the ,q4,n4 need not1 therefore1 regard as matter of surprise this curious medley of science and morality1 which is of the very essence of the author's principles and purpose4 ,seneca performs this part of his task with evident relish4 ,he is always ready to improve the occasion1 and will even go out of his way to find it4 ,his censure of vice1 his denunciation of luxury and self-indulgence1 his castigation of immorality1 seem to afford him a kind of morbid satisfaction4 ,even a note of insincerity may sometimes be suspected4 ,he is rather too ready to display his own acquaintance with all the refinements of the vices of 8good society03 perhaps it was the fault of his age to gloat over unsavoury details that a moralist would now be more anxious to conceal than to reveal4#ah #ah 8,there are pictures of voluptuous ease and jaded satiety which may be the work of a keen sympathetic observation1 but which may also be the expression of repentant memory0 7,dill1 op4 cit4 p4 #bih74 ,with ,seneca as moralist1 however1 we are not here directly concerned4 ,but what attitude are we to assume toward his ,science8 ,it need scarcely be said that of ,science in the twentieth century sense1 the first century of our era knew very little4 ,its greatest weakness was that it possessed practically no means of interrogating nature save those afforded by the human senses4 ,the sundial was known1 but the thermometer1 the barometer1 the telescope1 and even the microscope1 had still to be invented4 ,experiment except in the most rudimentary form was impossible4 ,observation was the only method available1 and it lost much of its value from the necessary looseness and inaccuracy attaching to it4 ,seneca was fully alive to the necessity of procuring correct data4 ,he records his own observation when digging among his vines 7#aag72 he had visited the ,sabine country to see a floating island 7#aci72 he had evidently watched closely rainbow1 lightning1 meteors1 comets1 etc1 etc4 ,he laid friends like ,lucilius under contribution1 and he insists on the necessity for keeping records of observation1 especially when the phenomenon is comparatively rare1 as a ,comet 7#bgd74 ,besides1 he draws not only upon the history of his country1 but also upon the learning of other nations--,greeks1 ,babylonians1 and ,egyptians--records which for the most part are no longer extant4 ,the ,q4,n4 thus embodies many out-of-the-way facts which otherwise would be unknown to us4 ,accuracy is nearly always a relative term3 approximate accuracy is the most we can look for in that age4 ,seneca's contribution of data is curious1 interesting1 and valuable4 ,again1 in arguing from facts1 or supposed facts1 ,seneca is entitled to credit for his method if not always for his results4 ,a great merit is that he endeavours to account for the phenomena observed1 he habitually raises the causal issue1 and he is not satisfied until he has passed in review all the considerations involved in the observation or problem4 ,he is scrupulous in always giving the other side a hearing1 and in discussing views with which he disagrees1 even though only to reject them4 ,on the negative side he is generally fairly convincing1 and succeeds in showing the fallacies involved in a proposition4 ,but on the constructive side he is many times ingeniously perverse1 curiously blind to the inadequacy of the theories which he himself advances1 and which he would readily have confuted in an opponent4 ,sometimes he adopts an error already current1 as old as ,aristotle or older2 sometimes he advances a fresh one of his own4 ,but even his errors are instructive1 and represent a phase of progress4 ,the line of progress is zigzag4 ,only after errors have been exhausted does the truth emerge and advance become possible4 ,the amenities of ancient science seem to have been somewhat scanty4 ,a mistake1 a false inference1 an erroneous view1 is met with the lie direct4 ,the moral stigma of falsehood is1 at any rate in certain instances1 attached to such a deviation from fact4 ,nor is this all4 ,the whole character must be bad if a man has 8lied40 ,the authors1 whom ,seneca calls chroniclers1 and particularly ,epigenes1 are in one passage quite fiercely attacked 7#bhi74 ,in justice to ,seneca it must be said that he is hardly more polite toward himself4 ,the words on p4 #aed1 #b1 rendered1 8,i can give my own word1 etc410 read literally1 8,i'm a liar if water does not meet us1 etc40 ,perhaps1 therefore1 it is only a manner of speaking4 ,in the early days of public education in ,britain a ,government report recorded as a proof of moral progress the substitution in some parts of the country of 8,i beg your pardon0 for 8,you're a liar60 ,the child seems to have here re-lived the history of the race4 ,seneca had a wide outlook1 too1 and a splendid scientific faith4 ,with prophetic eye he sees the day when an astronomer will arise to demonstrate the nature and orbit of ,comets#ai 7#bii72 he is content to let posterity have a share of the credit6 ,nor is his humility less than his confidence4 ,his lessons may still usefully be taken home2 we imagine we have pierced to nature's inmost sanctum1 yet we are still loitering round her outer court 7#cjf72 let us not despise the day of small things1 the investigation of nature's marvels requires generations of workers and ages of work2 there will come a day when all will be revealed1 when posterity will smile at our feeble and clumsy efforts and wonder how we missed such obvious truths 7#bih74 ,the ancients must be treated leniently2 it was a large contribution to discovery to have conceived the hope of its possibility 7#bca74 ,seneca maintained and promoted this belief in ultimate success4 ,he displays throughout the same alert1 buoyant1 enthusiastic confidence1 together with patient1 reverent search for truth in nature and truth about ,god4 #ai ,the fulfilment1 or at least the beginning of the fulfilment1 of this prediction may be dated from ,newton in #afhj4 ,seneca nowhere gives us a reasoned connected exposition of the views entertained by him regarding the ,universe as a whole or the relation of its parts4 ,only 8by parcels0 and inference can we glean them from scattered remarks and comments that he makes in the course of his work4 ,in ,physics even more than in ,ethics he was an ,eclectic2 he criticises freely1 and occasionally rejects entirely1 the opinions of his own school1 the ,stoics1 at one point going so far as to call them silly 7#aha1 cf4 #bie74 ,he claims authority1 too1 for his own research1 and asserts the right to hypothesise for himself3 he is hopeful1 if not certain1 of discovery 7#cjd74 ,he frequently quotes rival opinions without indicating his own4 ,he is familiar with conflicting theories which he does not attempt1 or fails in his attempt1 to harmonise4 ,and in the end one is tempted to ask whether he himself had reached any consistent comprehensive cosmical scheme4 ,there is much that is quaint and interesting and ingenious1 but it seems doubtful whether an attempt to construct from the ,q4,n4 a complete cosmology would in the end repay the labour4 ,the scheme might prove self-contradictory2 it would in any case be full of error1 and there would in no case be the assurance that it was all ,seneca's own4 ,this seems sufficient reason for declining the task4 ,if one care to pursue it further1 helpful information may be obtained from ,bernhardt's brochure 7,die ,anschauung1 etc47 already referred to1 while a discussion of the whole subject will be found in ,crousl's ,thesis1 written in ,latin1 ,de ,l4 ,annaei ,senecae ,nat4 ,quaest41 which for fulness and fairness leaves nothing to be desired4#bj ,in the ,commentary and ,notes at the end of the volume ,seneca's scientific opinions and methods are discussed by ,sir ,archibald ,geikie4 #bj ,ideler's ,meteorologia veterum ,graecorum et ,romanorum1 which forms the ,prolegomena to his edition of ,aristotle's ,meteorology1 but is printed as a separate volume1 also contains much curious information on this recondite subject4 ,v4 ,,some ,,of ,,seneca',s ,,predecessors ,,and ,,contemporaries ,the history of ancient ,science is a very tangled and abstruse subject1 a portion of the history of ancient ,philosophy1 which lies as much outside the scope of the present work as beyond the powers of the writer4 ,still1 ,seneca cannot be altogether detached from what preceded him4 ,in order to throw light upon his work1 it may be permissible to pass in rapid review a few of the chief sources from which he drew4 ,our starting-point may be ,aristotle4 ,aristotle is with good reason named 8the master of those who know0 7,dante1 ,h4 iv474 ,he may be said to have summed up the knowledge of the ancient world1 at least as far as ,greece is concerned1 on all subjects4 ,if not the founder of ,science any more than of ,philosophy1 he recapitulated so fully all that went before that he became the fountain-head and source from which all succeeding workers mainly drew4 ,he systematised the existing materials1 adding his own criticisms and observations1 and illuminating the whole with the strong light of his unrivalled powers4 ,he drew upon many authorities whose works are now lost1 the leading names among them being familiar from the ,q4,n4--,thales1 ,anaximander1 ,pythagoras1 and the rest4 ,the extent and variety of the material may1 perhaps1 best be understood from a work like ,professor ,burnet's ,early ,greek ,philosophy1 to which reference should be made4 ,a reasoned consecutive account will there be found of the individual contributions made to philosophy 7including science7 by the early ,greek thinkers4 ,long before ,aristotle's time numerous physical theories had been propounded1 and had been supported by their authors with great acuteness of argument2 hardly any question had been left unasked that related to matter1 motion1 or mind4 8,we may smile1 if we please1 at the strange medley of childish fancy and true scientific insight4444 ,but we shall do well to remember at the same time that even now it is just such hardy anticipations of experience that make scientific progress possible1 and that nearly every one of the early inquirers 444 made some permanent addition to the store of positive knowledge1 besides opening up new views of the world in every direction0 7op4 cit4 #bi74 ,seneca probably possessed fuller details of the investigations and speculations of these early workers than we now do4 ,the existing materials are contained in ,professor ,diels' ,die ,fragmente der ,vorsokratiker1 with which his other great work1 the ,doxographi ,graeci1 should be compared4#ba #ba ,these are1 of course1 only for the classical scholar4 ,the chief work of ,aristotle upon which ,seneca drew was the ,meteorologica4 ,the extent to which its subject coincided with that of the ,q4,n4 may be inferred from a glance at its contents4 ,the ,meteorologica is divided into four ,books1 arranged thus3-- ,i4 ,scope and relations of ,meteorology4 ,the four elementary bodies--earth1 water1 fire1 air--and their relations4 ,celestial fires4 ,shooting stars4 ,comets4 ,the ,milky ,way4 ,clouds4 ,fog4 ,dew4 ,hoar-frost4 ,rain4 ,snow4 ,hail4 ,wind4 ,formation of rivers4 ,change in land through action of rivers3 effects on movements of races4 ,,ii4 ,the sea and its salinity4 ,theory of the winds1 their varieties1 positions1 etc4 ,earthquakes and their explanation4 ,lightning and thunder4 ,,iii4 ,lightning1 thunder1 and similar phenomena4 ,halo and rainbow4 ,mock sun and cognate appearances4 ,exhalation and its influence4 ,,iv4 ,theory of the elements 7 ingredients or first principles72 two active--hot and cold1 two passive--dry and moist4 ,their effect on bodies4 ,cohesion1 ,liquefaction1 ,solidification1 ,coagulation1 ,fusion1 ,solubility1 and other properties4 ,homogeneous and non-homogeneous bodies4 ,effects of temperature4 ,place of this work in author's scheme4 ,another work that goes under ,aristotle's name1 but is now generally considered spurious1 is the ,de ,mundo 7the ,universe71 which in part repeats the subjects of the latter part of the ,meteorology4 ,seneca may also have drawn on the ,de ,coelo 7the ,heavens71 whose subject covers portions of the ,q4,n4 ,he refers more than a dozen of times to ,aristotle by name1 but it was not customary to refer to individual works4 ,there are numerous instances in which ,aristotle is his authority1 though no specific mention of him occurs4 ,theophrastus1 the pupil of ,aristotle1 and1 his successor as head of the ,academy1 is also frequently referred to in the ,q4,n4 ,his master bequeathed to him his library and original manuscripts1 and ,theophrastus was himself also a voluminous writer4 ,among his extant works on ,science1 we have treatises or tracts dealing with ,fire2 ,winds2 ,stones2 ,signs of ,rain1 ,wind1 ,storm1 and ,fine ,weather2 not to mention ,colours1 ,odours1 etc41 and an extensive work on ,plants and their ,history4 ,his work on ,perception and ,percepts is said to be a chapter of a larger work on the history of philosophy4 ,at any rate1 it records and discusses the opinions of earlier writers on the subjects to which the title refers4 ,for his further views on ,physics1 and the lost treatise on the subject1 see ,diels1 ,dox4 ,graec4 #aai et sqq41 and #dgc et sqq4 ,aratus1 who flourished about #bhj-bgj ,b4,c41 wrote two poems 7in ,greek7 entitled respectively ,phaenomena1#bb an introduction to the knowledge of the constellations2 and ,prognostics1 a method of forecasting the weather from astronomical phenomena4 ,aratus scarcely ranks as a scientific writer1 but ,seneca refers to his opinions on one occasion in the ,q4,n4 ,he was apparently held in high esteem by the ,romans1 for he found a translator 7in part7 in ,cicero1 and an imitator in ,virgil 7,georgics74 #bb ,it is from this poem 7l4 #e7 that ,paul quotes 7,acts xvii4 #bh71 8,for we are also his offspring40 ,aratus was a native of ,soli in ,cilicia1 and therefore a compatriot of ,paul4 ,plutarch stands in a somewhat different relation to ,seneca4 ,he was a little subsequent in date1 but there is a sort of parallelism between the two1 both in their scientific and their more general interests4 ,besides the ,physical ,causes1 already referred to1 ,plutarch made a compilation in five ,books--at least it goes under his name--of the ,tenets of the ,philosophers 7,placita ,philosophorum7 regarding a vast number of physical1 especially astronomical and physiological1 subjects4 ,diels 7op4 cit4 #fe7 scouts the idea of the genuineness of the 8wretched epitome10 and assigns it to the middle of the second century4 ,whether this be so or not does not much affect its value for us4 ,the existence of the work shows the nature of the material which was available in ,seneca's age4 ,the work is a kind of distant echo of ,theophrastus' lost treatise and preserves many opinions of the older philosophers1 of which1 to say the least of it1 we should otherwise have been less fully informed4 ,the parallelism of the ,placita to the ,q4,n4 will appear from a few of the titles4 ,books ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 of the former reproduce a long array of opinions of ,thales1 ,empedocles1 ,anaxagoras1 ,diogenes1 ,anaximenes1 ,democritus1 ,xenophanes1 ,xenocrates1 not to mention ,plato1 ,aristotle1 the ,pythagoreans1 the ,stoics1 etc41 etc41 regarding such subjects as ,eclipses1 the ,milky ,way1 ,comets1 ,earthquakes1 ,clouds1 ,winds1 ,thunder and ,lightning1 etc41 etc4 ,plutarch also has questions regarding ,aratus ,prognostics1 and a ,miscellanea of discussions on allied subjects4 ,of ,latin writers two have special bearing on ,seneca4 ,lucretius 7#ie-ea ,b4,c471 in his great poem on ,nature 7,de ,rerum ,natura71 has expounded the ,epicurean view of the universe4 ,in so far as science is capable of metrical and poetical exposition1 he ranks high among scientific writers2 while the recent resuscitation of the atomic theory lends special interest to his views4 ,the ,romans were always a practical and not a speculative nation1 and any deviation from the type1 such as ,lucretius or ,seneca1 becomes especially noteworthy and valuable4 ,numerous parallelisms between them have been brought out in the ,commentary and ,notes appended to this ,translation4 ,pliny the ,elder stands in respect of date in much the same relation to ,seneca as ,plutarch does4 ,his great work on ,natural ,history1 which was addressed to the reigning ,emperor1 ,vespasian1 was published in the year #gg1 that is1 about a dozen years after ,seneca's death4 ,we have already glanced at the bearing of this date upon that of the publication of the ,q4,n4 ,we are now concerned rather with the relation of the contents of the two works4 ,gibbon 7,decline and ,fall1 chap4 xiii47 speaks of 8that immense register where ,pliny has deposited the discoveries1 the arts1 and the errors of mankind40 ,nor is the description unjust4 ,the work is of portentous length1 extending to thirty-seven ,books2 it treats of an enormous variety of subjects1 physical1 geological1 geographical1 ethnographical1 botanical1 medical1 etc41 many of which are now quite dissociated from the title1 ,natural ,history4 ,pliny seems to have read everything that existed in writing on the various subjects included1 and his array of authorities attached to the contents of each ,book is very imposing4#bc ,but unfortunately his judgment does not appear to have been equal to his industry4 ,everything is recorded1 credible and incredible1 whether derived from trustworthy literature or based on mere report3 a more uncritical congeries of truth and error it would be difficult to imagine4 #bc ,he claims to have read about #bjjj volumes of #ajj choice authors1 but his lists seem to include a much larger number of names--#adf ,roman and #cbg foreign writers4 ,see ,teuffel1 ,rom4 ,lit4 vol4 ii41 under ,pliny the ,elder4 ,cf4 ,dill1 op4 cit4 p4 #adf and note4 ,book ,,ii4 deals with the constitution of the universe1 including astronomical and meteorological phenomena1 such as ,meteors1 ,halos1 ,eclipses1 ,winds1 ,earthquakes1 ,rain1 etc41 etc4 ,many of these cover the same ground as the ,q4,n4 ,among the domestic authors cited for this ,book are ,m4 ,varro1 ,livy1 ,cornelius ,nepos1 ,caecina1 8who wrote on the ,etruscan cult02 among the foreign authors are ,plato1 ,anaximander1 ,democritus1 ,archimedes1 ,aristotle1 etc41 etc4 ,the omission of ,seneca from the ,latin list is balanced by that of ,theophrastus from the ,greek list4 ,it is1 of course1 unsafe to build any theory on a merely negative basis4 ,obviously ,pliny had read at any rate portions of these authors1 to whom he elsewhere refers1 and may1 through mere oversight or negligence1 have omitted specific mention of them here3 he usually refers to authors and not to their individual works4 ,if1 at the time of the composition of ,book ,,ii41 which may have been considerably earlier than the date of publication of the whole work1 he did not know of ,seneca's ,q4,n41 then the inference seems inevitable that there were current a collection or collections of the opinions 77 of the older philosophers which were common property to any one interested in such matters4 ,the ,placita attributed to ,plutarch1 though its present form may be much later than ,pliny's time1 may have been derived from sources of this kind4 ,we shall not be far wrong in supposing that1 in addition to the works still extant1 there was a mass of material available to ,seneca and ,pliny alike which represented the traditional views on physical and allied subjects handed down from the old ,greek philosophy4 ,most of the ,latin authors1 seventeen in number in all1 cited by ,pliny on ,book ,,ii4 are now known to us only by name2 of those whose works remain1 ,varro is the only one whom we should consider likely to furnish much material for the topic in hand4 ,of ,pliny's lists in general it may be said that they indicate that a good many writers even among the ,romans had been attracted by subjects of a scientific or quasi-scientific character1 if we may not venture to say that their works can rank as science even in the modified sense in which the term is applicable to ,seneca or ,pliny4 ,it is in keeping with the character of the people that practical sciences like agriculture 7,varro1 ,columella7 and architecture 7,vitruvius71 not to mention cookery1 should have received special attention4 ,these authors1 with others like ,manilius 7,astronomica7 and ,pomponius ,mela 7geography71 however interesting in themselves1 have only an indirect and sometimes only a remote bearing on the ,physical ,science of their day4 ,,vi4 ,,the 8,,quaestiones ,,naturales0 ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,the ,q4,n4 is a landmark in the progress of ,physical ,science4 ,from ,aristotle and ,theophrastus there is a great gap until we reach ,seneca3 the gap is still greater between ,seneca and the ,renascence1 from which the era of true science is to be dated4 ,the ,q4,n4 is the last word spoken on the subject by the classical world1 and practically the only work of its kind that survives to us in ,latin4 ,various commentators on ,aristotle and ,seneca have1 probably unconsciously1 appeared as champions of either author's claim to be considered as the authority in ,science during the ,middle ,ages4 ,all the materials for forming an unbiassed judgment are to be found in ,dr4 ,sandys' ,history of ,classical ,scholarship 7vol4 i474 ,seneca possessed one or two initial advantages4 ,in the first place1 ,latin1 in which he wrote1 was understood and spoken throughout the world1 whereas for many centuries ,greek was over large tracts of it1 particularly in the ,west1 an unknown tongue4 ,again1 ,seneca was for long supposed to be a ,christian1 claimed by the early fathers as 8one of us10 and ranked by ,jerome among the ,ecclesiastical ,writers4 ,there was not therefore the same prejudice against his works as is known to have existed in the early ,christian centuries against pagan authors1 especially against the poets4 ,as a matter of fact1 the knowledge of ,aristotle's works1 at any rate in the ,west1 seems to have been derived in the first instance from ,arabic translations made in the ninth century and brought to ,spain about the twelfth century1 while from #abjd onwards he was known in ,latin translations made direct from the ,greek ,,mss41 which were now accessible4 8,in ,roger ,bacon's day1 not-withstanding his eagerness for promoting the study of ,aristotle in the original ,greek1 it was the ,latin ,aristotle alone that was studied in the schools0 7,sandys1 op4 cit4 #ege74 ,that was about the year #abfg4 ,seneca seems to have been well known1 chiefly as a moralist1 through the ,middle ,ages4 ,he 8was famous as the author of the ,naturales ,quaestiones0 7ib4 #fbgbd7 also4 ,saint-,hilaire's claim1 therefore 7,arist4 ,meteor4 ,pref4 ii4 iii471 8that ,aristotle laid down the law on ,meteorology1 as in everything else1 from the age of ,alexander right up to the ,renascence10 must be accepted with some qualification4 ,there seems room for ,ruhkopf's explanation 7,q4,n4 ,pref47 that ,seneca's work was1 and continued to be1 the sole fountain whence ,natural ,philosophy derived its source and drew its supplies during many centuries1 8until ,aristotle's books were transmitted for public use into ,western ,europe40 #bd ,see1 besides1 pp4 #chg1 #eda1 #edg1 #efj1 #efi1 etc4 ,by the thirteenth century ,aristotle had come fully into vogue1 and the references to his teaching in ,dante 7#abfe-acba71 said to number upwards of #cjj1 show what a hold he had obtained upon the greatest man of the age4 ,the 8moral ,seneca0 is also known to ,dante1 and placed by him in the same region of the unseen world 7,h4 iv471 but the references to his teaching are insignificant by comparison 7less than ten74 ,dr4 ,sandys states 7op4 cit4 #eia n47 that the references to ,aristotle are mainly to the ,ethics1 ,physics1 ,metaphysics1 and ,de ,anima4 ,but we are now on the eve of the ,renascence1 whose 8morning-star 444 arose in the person of ,petrarch0 7op4 cit4 #fej71 early in the fourteenth century 7#acjd-acgd74 ,greek scholarship was reviving in the ,west1 and ,petrarch studied the language in his later days4 ,but his inspiration was derived in the first instance from ,latin1 8the philosophical works of ,cicero and the moral letters of ,seneca0 7op4 cit4 ii4 #d74 ,the latter he cites as many as sixty times 7ib4 #g71 and he was also familiar with the ,senecan tragedies 7ib4 #f74 ,from this and from the general course of history we seem justified in believing that during the ,middle ,ages1 in default of any general knowledge of ,aristotle1 ,seneca was the chief authority on ,physical ,science4 ,the views transmitted by him1 for they were comparatively seldom altogether his own1 having obtained currency1 found their way into literature1 and probably went far to colour the conceptions entertained on the subject in all the earlier literature of ,modern ,europe4 ,later1 when ,aristotle's works became more widely known1 his authority became supreme alike in philosophy and in science4 ,nor does the temporary ascendancy of ,seneca1 though historically very important1 carry with it any presumption of rivalry1 not to say superiority1 to ,aristotle4 ,seneca may best be regarded as pupil and interpreter of ,aristotle1 in so far as the two come into competition4 ,his date1 the language employed as his medium1 his position1 his reputation as a ,christian1 and his activity in other fields1 all conspired to give him a position in the ,middle ,ages which is not necessarily the measure of his intrinsic merit as compared with ,aristotle4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,present ,,translation ,from what has preceded1 it will appear that the path of the translator of the ,quaestiones ,naturales is beset with snares4 ,at best he has a choice of difficulties1 ,it may perhaps1 therefore1 be well to say a word or two upon the method in which these have been dealt with on the present occasion4 ,a translator's prime duty is to follow his author1 for which purpose he must first understand him1 a requirement not very easily here fulfilled4 ,the texts of the ,q4,n4 vary greatly1 as already indicated1 and it is no easy matter to select any one that might be consistently followed4 ,the most recent and best text1 the ,teubner1 edited by ,gercke1 has strong claims1 and had it been my good fortune to have it by me when the translation was made1 ,i should have been tempted to adopt it simpliciter1 even though in many details it departs somewhat violently from the accepted arrangement4 ,as it was1 it did not come to hand until the translation was finished and paged for publication1 so that full use could not be made of it4 ,in a few cases its corrections had been anticipated2 in some its readings have been adopted2 some that could not be incorporated are referred to in a note on the subject4 ,the text being settled1 the translator must1 if possible1 put himself in the author's position and obtain his point of view4 ,in science1 particularly1 the milieu of the author must be caught if his thoughts are to be accurately reproduced4 ,the danger of attributing to ,seneca ideas that were unknown to him and that are due to modern analysis and discovery has to be constantly present to one's mind4 ,for example1 8homogeneity10 8elasticity10 8electricity10 8gas10 8explosion10 etc41 are a few of the terms that his language suggests1 but that would probably convey a wrong impression of his conception of the phenomena to which they relate4 ,they have been thus ruled out4 ,nor is ,seneca consistent in the use of the terms he employs2 he has no scientific vocabulary4 ,in a separate note attention is called to his words for 8air0 and 8atmosphere02 but there are many other terms that belong to the same category4 ,these are1 for instance1 three words for 8thick0 or 8dense10 crassus1 densus1 spissus1 which he seems to use almost indifferently1 at any rate without any precise discrimination4 ,so with terms like 8impetus0 7impulse1 onset7 8impulsus0 7shove1 impulse71 8ictus0 7stroke1 blow71 8vis0 7force1 quantity1 amount71 8curro0 7to run 7river71 to revolve 7heavenly body771 and its compounds1 eo 7to go71 and its compounds1 etc41 etc4 ,apart from any peculiarity of ,seneca1 ,latin allows the use of adjectives and pronouns1 whose distinctive gender points their reference1 where ,english requires substantives or their equivalent4 ,latin1 too1 often conveys by mere suggestion where ,english requires explicit expression4 ,this is particularly so with connectives1 where a separate clause may be required to develop the nuance of a subtle collocation4 ,in general1 assuming--and it is no great stretch--that the author meant to express something1 whether right or wrong1 ,i have endeavoured to ascertain what that something was and to convey it to the ,english reader4 ,in doing so ,i have had no scruple in using more words than ,latin1 or in making explicit what ,i conceived to be implicit1 or in varying the rendering of the same term to suit the context and idiom4 ,ambiguity has1 as far as possible1 been avoided and even removed4 ,at the same time the author has been followed as closely and faithfully as may be4 ,where he repeats a term purposely1 as he frequently does1 the repetition is retained1 though a variant might have sounded more euphonious4 ,probably1 in some cases--it may be in a good many--the meaning has been misconceived2 certainly1 there will be difference of opinion in regard to readings adopted for translation1 where one had to be taken and two or more almost equally good had to be left out4 ,ruhkopf was the text chiefly used2 in addition ,koeler and the ,variorum ,edition of ,bouillet were constantly at hand1 and ,i have been much indebted to all three in questions of interpretation4 ,nisard's ,french ,translation has also been of some service1 indirectly by suggestion perhaps rather than directly2 in a few passages the translation is from a different text from that printed on the same page4 ,the old ,tauchnitz text has been habitually consulted1 while ,gercke's text has been carefully collated throughout4 ,the latter does not mention ,ruhkopf at all in his ,bibliography--surely an involuntary omission4 ,there is a useful ,bibliography also in ,bouillet1 but the date of his ,edition is as far back as #ahcj4 ,to my regret ,i have not been able to procure ,lagrange's famous ,french ,translation1 and the same remark applies to several ,german works of repute4 ,lodge's ,translation 7#afad7 was not of any service for my purpose4 ,,the ,,natural ,,questions ,,of ,l4 ,,annaeus ,,seneca ,,addressed ,,to ,,lucilius ,,book ,i ,,meteors1 ,,halo1 ,,rainbow1 ,,mock ,,sun1 ,,etc4 ,,preface ,lucilius1 my much esteemed friend--,while a great gulf separates #a philosophy from the other learned arts1 there is to my mind an equally wide gulf in philosophy itself between the portion which relates to human conduct and that which deals with the nature and power of heaven4 ,the latter is more exalted and more speculative1 it allows itself wide liberty4 ,it is not satisfied with mere observation1 it surmises that there is a greater and fairer realm placed by nature beyond human sight4 ,between these two divisions of philosophy1 in short1 there is as wide a gulf as between their subjects1 ,god and man4 ,the one teaches us what should be done on earth2#be the other1 what #b is done in heaven4 ,the one dispels our errors and flashes a light by which to thread the mazes of life2 the other far transcends this gloom in which we grope1 rescues us from the darkness1 and leads us to the very source of light itself4 ,for myself1 ,i am grateful to nature1 not so much when ,i see her on the side that is open to the world1 as when ,i am permitted to enter her shrine4 ,then one may seek to know of what stuff the universe is made1 who is its author or guardian1 what is the nature of ,god4 ,is ,he wholly absorbed in ,himself1 or does ,he sometimes regard us8 does ,he do something daily1 or has ,he done once for all8 is ,he a portion of the world1 or the whole world8 may ,he issue new decrees even to-day and thus modify the laws of fate1 or is it an infringement of ,his majesty and an acknowledgment of error to alter what has once been made8 for surely the same must always please ,him who can be #c pleased only with what is best4 ,nor yet withal is ,his freedom or power diminished1 for ,he is a law unto ,himself4 #be ,in other words1 the principles of human conduct4 ,life would have been a useless gift1 were ,i not admitted to the study of such themes4 ,what cause for joy would it be to be set merely in the number of those who live8 ,in order to digest food and drink8 ,to repair a diseased1 enfeebled body1 that would perish unless it were continually refilled1 and thus lead the life of a sick man's attendant8 ,to fear death1 to which our very birth destines us8 ,away with the priceless boon6 ,life is not worth the heat and the sweat4 ,how #d despicable a creature is man1 unless he rise above the earth6 ,what great thing can we do as long as we have to wrestle with our passions8 ,even if we prevail1 we but conquer monsters4 ,what cause have we to esteem ourselves because we are not quite so bad as the very worst8 ,i can see no great reason for self-satisfaction because one's strength is rather above the average of those in the same hospital4 ,you are still far from good health and vigour4 ,or1 again1 you have escaped vices of soul1 the hypocrite's brow1 the flatterer's speech fashioned to serve another's will1 the dissembler's heart1 the miser's spirit1 which robs all1 but yet mortifies itself4 ,you are a prey neither to luxury1 which loses basely and repairs its losses still more basely2 nor to ambition1 which leads to place of worth only by unworthy means4 ,but #e yet you have accomplished nothing4 ,you have escaped many perils1 but not yet that of self6 ,the virtue we aim at raises to a splendid eminence2 not so much because escape from vice is in itself a blessed thing1 but rather because the soul is emancipated1 prepared for the knowledge of heavenly things1 and rendered worthy of entering into communion with ,god4 ,the full consummation of human felicity is attained when1 all vice trampled under foot1 the soul seeks the heights and reaches the inner recesses of nature4 ,what joy then to roam through the very stars1 to look down with derision on the gilded saloons of the rich and the whole earth with its store of gold6 ,gold1 did ,i say8 ,yes1 all the gold the earth ever produced and sent into currency1 and all that she keeps hidden in secret to glut the avarice of posterity4 ,only when one has surveyed the whole universe can one truly despise grand colonnades1 #f ceilings glittering with ivory1 trim groves and cooling streams transported into wealthy mansions4 ,from above1 one can now look down upon this narrow world1 covered for the most part by sea1 and1 even where it rises above the sea1 an ugly waste either parched or frozen4 ,the philosopher says to himself3 ,is this the plot that so many tribes portion out by fire and sword8 ,how ludicrous are their frontiers6 ,the ,dacian must not pass the lower ,danube2 the ,strymon must shut off the #g ,thracians2 the ,euphrates must be the barrier of the ,parthians2 the ,danube must form the boundary between ,sarmatian and ,roman2 the ,rhine must set a limit to ,germany2 the ,pyrenees must raise their chain between ,gallic and ,spanish provinces2 between ,egypt and ,ethiopia a desert of barren sands must stretch6 ,why1 if ants are ever endowed with human intelligence1 will not they in like manner portion out a threshing-floor into many provinces8 ,but when you rise to what is truly great1 then1 as often as you #h see armies marching forth with floating banners1 and the cavalry now scouting in front1 now massed on the flanks1 as if some great design were toward1 you will pleasantly remark3 ,the black swarm is hurrying through the plains4 ,that host is a throng of ants1 its evolutions are in a back garden4 ,in what do we excel the ants1 save in the measure of the puny little body8 ,that is a mere point in which you sail1 and war1 and dispose your kingdoms4 ,your kingdoms are lilliputian even when they stretch from ,ocean to ,ocean4 ,only on high are the domains spacious2 to their #i possession the mind is admitted1 provided always that it bring with it no taint of the body1 but wipe off all stain and pass forth like an armed man1 lightly equipped1 nimble1 modest in his wants4 ,when the soul reaches those regions1 it receives nourishment and growth2 as if freed from the shackles of earth1 it returns to the true source of its being4 ,a proof of its divine origin is furnished by the pleasure it derives #aj from what is divine2 here it feels itself at home1 not in a strange land4 ,without alarm it views the setting of the stars and their rising1 and the mazy orbits of the heavenly bodies that yet move all in unison4 ,it notes when each star first shows its light on earth1 when it attains its meridian height1 observes its orbit and the limits of its descent4 ,an interested spectator1 it examines and investigates every detail4 ,and why should it not8 ,it feels that they are akin to itself4 ,then contempt for the narrow limits of its former dwelling succeeds4 ,for #aa what after all is the space that lies from ,india to the farthest shores of ,spain8 ,a few days' journey if a prosperous wind waft the vessel4 ,but that heavenly region affords a route during full thirty years to the swiftest of the planets1 rushing with untiring velocity1 never once hal ting4 ,here at last the soul comes to learn what it has long sought1 it begins to know ,god4 ,but what is ,god8 ,the universal intelligence4 ,what is #ab ,god1 did ,i say8 ,all that you see and all that you cannot see4 ,his greatness exceeds the bounds of thought4 ,render ,him ,his true greatness and ,he is all in all1 ,he is at once within and without ,his works4 ,what1 then1 is the difference between the divine nature and the human8 ,in us the better part is spirit1 in ,him there is nothing except spirit4 ,he #ac is wholly reason3 though mortal eyes are so sealed by error that men believe this frame of things to be but a fortuitous concourse of atoms1 the sport of chance4 ,and yet than this universe could aught be fairer1 more carefully adjusted1 more consistent in plan8 ,but men will have it that it is tossed about at random in the confusion of thunder1 cloud1 and storm1 and the other forces by which the earth and its purlieus are haunted4 ,nor is this merely the madness of vulgar error2 even the philosophers are tainted by it4 ,men there are who think that they themselves have #ad a mind1 one1 too1 that foresees and orders events in detail whether relating to themselves or to others4 ,but this frame of things1 in which we men along with the rest of creation are set1 they deem void of counsel1 hurried hither and thither at random2 or at best1 nature1 they suppose1 does not know what her own aim is4 ,how profitable then1 think you1 will it be to ascertain the truth on such questions and exactly to define each position6 ,for example1 what is the extent of the power of ,god8 ,does ,he create matter or does ,he employ matter already given8 ,does the pre-existing archetype give shape to matter1 or does the matter determine the shape8 ,can ,god perform anything ,he wishes1 or does material fail ,him in many cases1 just as a great artist often produces inferior work1 not through any defect in his art1 but because the #ae material on which it is exercised is refractory8 ,to search into such things1 to learn them1 to meditate upon them--why1 is it not in effect to transcend the limits of mortality and to be enrolled a citizen of a higher state8 ,what good will it do you1 you ask4 ,well1 if nothing else1 ,i shall1 at any rate1 know that measured by divine standard all earthly things are mean4 ,but of this more anon4 ,i ,to come now to my purpose--listen to the explanation offered by #a ,natural ,philosophy concerning the ,fires which the atmosphere drives athwart4 ,their oblique course and amazing velocity furnish proof that they are thrust out with great violence4 ,evidently they do not come forth of themselves1 they are shot out4 ,there are many different forms of them4 ,a certain kind of them ,aristotle calls a ,she-,goat4 ,if you ask me why1 ,i must retort by asking you first to explain why they are also called ,kids4 ,it will1 perhaps1 be more to the purpose not to #b cross-examine one another with questions such as3 ,what does such and such an author say8 ,answer me4 ,better examine the cause of the phenomenon itself than form surmises as to why ,aristotle has applied the name ,she-,goat to a ball of fire4 ,this was the shape of the one as big as the moon that appeared when ,paulus was engaged in the war against ,perseus4 ,in our own days we have more than once seen a huge ball-shaped flame which broke up in the very middle of its course4 ,we #c saw a similar portent about the time of the death of the late ,emperor ,augustus4 ,we again saw one when ,sejanus was executed4 ,a warning of the same kind preceded the death of ,germanicus4 ,you may1 perhaps1 exclaim3 ,are you then so benighted as to suppose that the gods send out previous intimation of the death of great men8 ,do you imagine that anything on earth is so great that the ,universe should perceive its loss8 ,that question must be reserved for another season4 ,we shall then see whether a fixed succession is observed in all events1 and whether one event is so bound up with another that what precedes is either cause or at least token of what follows4 ,we shall then see1 #d too1 whether the gods trouble themselves about human concerns1 and whether the mere series of events reveals by unmistakable signs what its effects must be4 ,meantime1 ,i venture the opinion that fires of the class referred to are produced by violent friction of the atmosphere4 ,the pressure inclines toward one or other side1 and as there is no yielding there1 an internal struggle ensues4 ,from violent action of this kind arise the different varieties of fires--beams1 balls1 torches1 and gleams4 ,when the shock is less severe1 and the atmosphere is merely grazed1 as it were1 smaller lights are emitted1 ,and the flying stars drag their hairy tail4 ,then their thin fires mark a slender path1 which they prolong across #e the sky4 ,for that reason no night is without sights of the kind2 no great movement of the atmosphere is required to produce them4 ,in fact1 to put it shortly1 they are due to the very same cause as thunderbolts1 only they require less force4 ,clouds that encounter each other with little force cause flashes of lightning2 if impelled by greater violence1 thunderbolts4 ,aristotle offers the following explanation3 ,the earth gives forth many #f different exhalations1 some moist1 some dry1 some cold1 some containing the seeds of fire4 ,and little wonder if the earth's evaporation is of all varied kinds4 ,why1 even in the heavens the colour of objects does not show uniform2 the red of the ,dog-star is brighter1 that of ,mars duller2 ,jupiter has no red1 his sheen is prolonged into pure light4 #g ,well1 in the great abundance of minute bodies emitted by the earth and driven up to the higher regions1 of necessity some of the elements that reach the clouds furnish material for fires4 ,they do not require any collision in order to burn1 the breath of the sun's rays is sufficient to kindle them4 ,so with us1 shavings sprinkled with sulphur catch fire at some distance4 ,probably1 therefore1 tinder of this kind gathering #h within the clouds is easily kindled2 greater or less fires are produced just as there has been more or less substance in the elements4 ,on the other hand1 to suppose either that actual stars fall or leap across the sky1 or that some portion of them is taken away or pared off1 is sheer folly4 ,if this had been so1 they would ere this have #i disappeared4 ,for there is not a single night on which there is not a very large number of stars that seem to break up as they pass across the sky4 ,yet they are all found again in their wonted places3 each one maintains its size unimpaired4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the fires referred to have their origin below the stars1 and that1 being without solid foundation on fixed abode1 they quickly perish4 ,why1 then1 you ask1 do they not cross the sky by day as well as by night8 ,the next #aj thing you will say will be that there are no stars by day because they are not visible6 ,the stars are1 of course1 there1 but obscured by the sun's brightness4 ,similarly1 meteor fires like torches cross the sky by day too1 but they are hidden by the brightness of the daylight4 ,if1 as sometimes happens1 a burst of light shoots out strong enough to assert its brilliance even in the face of day1 then they do become visible4 ,in fact1 our own age has more than once seen torches by day1 some #aa rushing from east to west1 others from west to east4 ,sailors consider it a sign of storm when there are many shooting stars4 ,if their appearance really is a sign of wind1 they must occur in the quarter where wind is found1 in other words1 in the atmosphere which lies between the earth and the moon4 ,in violent storms at sea there sometimes appear1 as it were1 stars settling on the sails4 ,the sailors who are in jeopardy then suppose that they are being aided by the power of ,castor and ,pollux4 ,they have really ground for better #ab hope in this appearance1 because it makes plain that the storm is breaking1 and the wind falling4 ,otherwise the fires would flit about without settling4 ,when ,gylippus was on the voyage to ,syracuse1 a star appeared1 resting on the very tip of his lance4 ,in the camp of the ,romans at times pikes appeared to be on fire1 no doubt because fires of this kind glided down on to them3 these fires are often wont to strike animals and trees1 just like thunderbolts4 ,if1 however1 they #ac are discharged with less force1 they merely glide down and settle1 and do not inflict stroke or wound4 ,again1 some are forced out from among clouds1 others come from a clear sky1 if the atmosphere has got into a condition to emit fire4 ,in like manner1 it occasionally thunders with a clear sky1 and from the same cause as with a cloudy one1 the atmosphere undergoing internal collision4 ,even when the air is comparatively clear and dry1 it may become condensed1 and form bodies similar to clouds1 the clashing of which causes the sound of the thunder4 ,from time to #ad time1 therefore1 arise meteors like beams and like shields1 and the semblance of vast fires over the sky1 if a force similar in kind but greater in degree encounter suitable material4 ,,ii ,let us now see how the brightness is produced that sometimes envelops #a the heavenly bodies4 ,history has put on record that1 on the day of the late ,emperor ,augustus' entrance into ,rome on his return from ,apollonia1 a parti-coloured circle1 such as is wont to be seen in a rainbow1 appeared round the sun4 ,the ,greeks call this a ,halo2 our most appropriate name for it is a ,crown4 ,let me explain how it is formed4 ,when a stone is thrown into a pond1 the water is observed to part #b in numerous circles1 which1 very narrow at first1 gradually widen out more and more until the impulse disappears1 lost in the surface of the smooth water beyond4 ,let us suppose something of the same kind to occur in the atmosphere4 ,when condensed it is capable of receiving an impact3 the light of sun1 moon1 or any heavenly body encountering it forces it to recede in the form of circles4 ,moisture1 be it observed1 and air1 and everything else that takes shape from a blow1 is driven into the same form as that possessed by the object that strikes it4 ,now every kind of light is round4 ,therefore1 the air when struck by light will #c assume this form4 ,accordingly the ,greeks gave the name ,threshing-floor 7i4e4 ,halo7 to a brightness of this kind1 because spaces set apart for threshing corn were1 as a rule1 round4 ,be the better name threshing-floors1 or be it crowns1 there is no reason to suppose that they are formed in the neighbourhood of the heavenly bodies4 ,they are a very long distance from them1 though as seen from the earth they seem to touch and encircle them4 ,in reality such an image is formed not very far from the earth1 but the wonted #d frailty of human vision is deceptive1 and we imagine the ring is formed close round the heavenly body itself4 ,but no such thing could possibly occur in the neighbourhood of the sun and stars1 as there is nothing but thin ether there4 ,it is only when bodies have become rough and dense that shape can be impressed upon them4 ,in subtle bodies there is no point on which form can lay hold or to which it can adhere4 ,a phenomenon of the same nature as the halo may often be witnessed in baths1 because the atmosphere is thick and dark3 it is most frequent when the wind is in the south1 when the air is heaviest and most dense4 ,halos sometimes are dissolved gradually and fade away1 sometimes they #e are broken up on one side4 ,in the latter case seafaring men look for wind in the direction in which the circle of the crown has been broken4 ,if the parting is on the north1 there will be a north wind1 if on the west1 zephyrs will follow4 ,this is a proof that these crowns are formed in the region of the sky in which the winds are usually formed4 ,the upper regions of air have no crowns because they have no winds either4 ,an additional proof of the connection of winds and halos is afforded #f by the fact that the halo is never formed unless the atmosphere is at rest1 and the wind1 as it were1 inactive4 ,under other circumstances it is not usually observed4 ,the atmosphere when it is at rest may be fashioned to any pattern by being driven or drawn in any direction4 ,but when it is in motion1 light cannot even strike it4 ,it takes no shape and offers no resistance1 because the part first affected is always dissipated by the motion4 ,therefore it is that no heavenly body can ever be surrounded by a #g figure of the kind referred to unless when the atmosphere is dense and motionless1 and so preserves the ray of round light that strikes upon it4 ,nor is it without good reason4 ,recollect the analogy mentioned a little ago4 ,a pebble thrown into a pond or lake or any other circumscribed piece of water produces innumerable circles2 but it has not the same effect if thrown into a river4 ,and why so8 ,because in the latter case the water as it hurries on prevents the formation of any definite figure4 ,so in the atmosphere the same thing happens2 when #h it is stationary1 it may receive a pattern2 when it rushes in rapid motion1 it evades all control1 warding off every blow and every form as it approaches4 ,when these crowns1 of which ,i have spoken1 have disappeared uniformly on all sides1 and vanished in their own tracks1 it is an indication of equilibrium in the atmosphere3 there is perfect quietness and you may then look out for rain4 ,when they break up #i at one side1 it means wind in that quarter4 ,if they burst at several points1 a storm is brewing4 ,the reason of this may be gathered from the explanations ,i have now given4 ,if the ring fade all round1 it is evident that the atmosphere is equable1 and therefore calm4 ,but if it is broken through on one side1 evidently there must be an inclination of the air in that direction3 hence that quarter will produce wind4 ,but when the halo is rent and torn on all sides1 plainly an attack is being made on it from several quarters at once1 and a disquieted atmosphere is assailing it on this side and on that4 ,so this disturbance of the heavens1 the repeated effort and striving in all directions1 #aj betokens evidently that a storm is coming up with sudden shiftings of the wind4 ,these crowns may be observed generally by night round the moon and other stars1 but very seldom by day2 in fact1 so rarely in the latter case1 that certain of the ,greeks have denied that they appear at all by day4 ,but history proves that they do4 ,the cause of the infrequency of their appearance by day is that the sun's light is stronger then1 and the atmosphere itself when stirred and warmed by it is less dense4 ,the moon's power1 on the other hand1 is feebler1 and is therefore more easily resisted by the surrounding air4 ,the rest of the heavenly #aa bodies are equally weak1 and unable by their own force to burst through the atmosphere4 ,so their shape is impressed and retained in the more solid and less yielding medium4 ,for1 in order to produce the phenomenon1 the atmosphere must neither be so thick as to exclude or dissipate the light that streams in on it1 nor yet so thin and rare as to furnish no hold to the rays that fall upon it4 ,this particular consistency is obtained at night3 the sluggish air is at that time struck with the faint light from moon or stars without violence or rudeness1 and1 being thicker than it is wont to be by day1 is tinged thereby4 ,,iii ,on the contrary1 the ,rainbow does not occur by night1 except on #a very rare occasions1 inasmuch as the moon has not sufficient strength to pierce the clouds and suffuse them with hues such as they receive from the brilliant light of the sun4 ,the shape and varied colours of the rainbow are due to the peculiarities of different kinds of clouds4 ,some parts of the clouds are swollen1 others hollow2 some are too dense to transmit sunlight1 others too rare to exclude it4 ,this difference in #b consistency causes alternations of light and shade1 and produces that marvellous variety presented by the rainbow4 ,another explanation is offered in instances like the following3 ,when a pipe bursts anywhere1 the water is observed to be forced by pressure through the small opening2 the drops seen against a slanting sun reproduce the appearance of the rainbow4 ,again1 if you will at any time watch a fuller at work1 you will observe the same appearance3 when he has filled his mouth with water and spirts it lightly on the clothes stretched on pegs1 the air thus besprinkled exhibits plainly the various colours that shine in the bow4 ,one cannot doubt that the reason of this lies in the moisture4 #c ,for a rainbow never occurs except when there are clouds about4 ,let us inquire how it is produced4 ,some authorities say that there are certain drops of water that transmit light1 while some are too compact to be translucent4 ,thus the brightness is the effect of the former2 the shadow1 of the latter2 by the intermingling of the two is formed the rainbow1 part of which is bright1 to wit1 that which admits sunlight1 part darker1 namely1 that which has shut out the light and cast a shadow from itself over the objects nearest it4 ,others again deny that #d this is so4 ,shade and light1 they say1 might be the cause if the rainbow had only two colours1 and thus was made up of light and shade4 ,but now1 though there gleam a thousand diverse hues1 ,their changes withal elude the eyes that behold4 ,the hues that touch seem actually one1 yet the edges are quite different4 ,in it sight detects something that is red1 something that is orange1 something that is blue2 and there are other colours too1 laid on in finest lines just like a skilful painting1 so that1 as the poet remarks above1 it is impossible to discover whether the colours differ from one another until the last of them is compared with the first4 ,the junction #e of colour with colour deceives the sight3 with such marvellous skill does nature starting from what is like end in what is totally unlike4 ,what good1 then1 do the two alleged colours1 light and shade1 do in a case of this kind1 when the presence of an endless variety must be accounted for8 ,again1 certain authorities are of opinion that the following is the method of formation of the rainbow3 ,in the quarter of the sky where rain is falling1 they say1 the drops of falling rain are so many mirrors2 from each mirror1 therefore1 is reflected an image of the sun4 ,by and by1 many1 in fact1 countless1 images1 descending and crossing abruptly1 are all blended together4 ,therefore the rainbow is just a blending of a great number of images of the sun4 ,they appeal to the following argument in proof of this3 ,on a clear day1 say they1 #f set out a thousand basins1 and they will all contain images of the sun4 ,or arrange single drops of water on single leaves2 they will each have an image of the sun4 ,on the other hand1 an immense pond will have no more than one image4 ,why so8 ,just because every smooth surface that is fenced off1 and surrounded by its own boundaries1 is a mirror4 ,again1 divide a pond of very large size into several small ponds by inserting partition walls2 it will show as many images of the sun as it has divisions4 ,leave it as it was1 spreading out to its full extent1 and it will show but one reflection of him4 ,the small extent of the liquid or #g pond makes no manner of difference4 ,if the surface is circumscribed1 it forms a mirror4 ,well then1 those countless drops1 which are carried down by a falling shower1 are so many mirrors1 and contain so many reflections of the sun4 ,to an observer right in front of them they present the appearance of being mixed up3 the intervals which part them from each other are not distinguished1 their mere distance from the observer prevents discrimination of them4 ,by and by instead of individual drops there is seen a single blurred mass that contains them all4 ,aristotle agrees with this opinion4 ,his words are3 ,beams of light are reflected by sight from every smooth surface4 ,now1 nothing is #h smoother than water and air4 ,therefore1 our sight is reflected back on us from thick air4 ,indeed1 where the vision is dull and feeble1 the slightest stroke of air checks it4 ,some people suffer from an affection which causes them to think that they are meeting their own image1 and they see everywhere the reflection of themselves4 ,and why8 ,because the power of their eyes is so weak that it cannot overcome the resistance of even the nearest layer of the atmosphere4 ,what dense air effects in ordinary cases1 any kind of air is sufficient to effect in the cases referred to by ,aristotle4 ,for whatever the nature of the air1 it is strong enough to defeat weak sight4 ,now1 much more is our vision reflected upon us by water because it is denser and cannot be pierced2 it absolutely stops the rays from our eyes1 and turns them back to the source whence they proceeded4 ,well then1 when there are numerous #i raindrops1 they are just so many mirrors4 ,but on account of their smallness they express the sun's colour without distinct shape4 ,by and by when the same colour is reflected in the countless drops that fall without intermission1 it begins to take on the appearance not of numerous images with intervals between1 but of a single1 long1 uninterrupted image4 ,but how1 you may object1 can you tell me that there are many thousands of images there1 where ,i can see none at all8 ,besides1 as there is but one colour in the sun1 why are there different colours in the #aj reflections of him8 ,these objections which you have put forward1 as well as others that no less call for refutation1 ,i will endeavour to refute4 ,and let me say1 first of all1 that nothing is more deceptive than our eyesight1 not merely in objects whose careful examination is prevented by distance in position1#bf but even in objects seen close at hand4 ,an oar1 though quite whole1 presents the appearance of being broken when seen in clear shallow water4 ,apples seen through glass appear much larger than they really are4 ,in long colonnades1 pillars #aa set at intervals present an apparently unbroken continuity of line4 ,or go back to the case of the sun himself2 his orb1 which reason proves to be larger than the whole earth1 is so contracted by human sight that some of the philosophers have maintained that it is only a foot in diameter4 ,he is1 we know1 the swiftest of all luminaries1 yet none of us can see him move2 nor should we believe that he does advance1 were it not evident from time to time that he has advanced4 ,the world itself glides on with headlong speed2 within an instant of time it unfolds its risings and its settings1 yet none of us is aware of its movement4 ,what cause1 then1 is there for wonder if our eyesight cannot separate #ab the drops of the rain showers1 and loses the distinction of the images on account of the vast distance at which they are beheld8 ,at any rate no one can doubt this1 that the rainbow is a reflection of the sun1 formed in a hollow cloud full of moisture4 ,this is made plain from the simple fact that the image is never seen except opposite the sun1 high up or low down1 in inverse relation1 just as he sinks or elevates his course4 ,when he descends1 it is higher2 when he is high in the heavens1 it is more sunken4 ,a cloud of the required kind is often at the side #ac of the sun without producing a rainbow1 because it does not catch his image straight in front4 #bf ,the received text gives 8diversity of colours40 ,as to the variegation in colour1 it is due simply to its double source1 derived partly from the sun1 partly from the moist cloud4 ,the moisture produces lines now blue1 now green1 now purple-like1 and orange or red--the two shades1 dull and bright1 combining to produce this diversity4 ,so also1 a purple garment does not always come out #ad in exactly the same tint from the same dye4 ,differences depend upon the length of time it has been steeped1 the consistency and the amount of moisture in the dye it has imbibed3 it may be dipped and boiled more than once1 or it may have received only one immersion4 ,in like manner then1 when there are the two elements1 sun and cloud1 in other words1 object and mirror1 it is little wonder that as many varieties of colour are generated as can be produced from them in higher or lower tone in countless different categories4 ,for example1 there is one #ae colour that proceeds from the light of fire1 another from a light that is duller and less violent than fire4 ,in other details concerning the rainbow the method of inquiry is full of uncertainty2 there is nothing concrete to lay hold upon1 and conjecture must be ventured in every direction4 ,but in this question of its origin doubt is precluded2 for it is evident that the causes of the rainbow are two in number1 sun and cloud4 ,the bow never appears when the sky is clear1 and never when it is so cloudy as to hide the sun4 ,it must1 therefore1 unquestionably arise from these1 failing either of which it cannot come into being4 ,,iv ,a further consideration must be mentioned1 which is just as manifest #a as the preceding1 to prove that the reflection is given back after the fashion of a mirror2 it is never given back save from straight opposite to the sun1 that is1#bg unless on one side stands the object to be reflected1 and on the other the mirror that reveals it4 ,proofs are adduced by the mathematicians that are not merely convincing but that compel belief of this4 ,nor can doubt be left in any mind that the rainbow is an image of the sun1 imperfectly reflected owing to the defective shape of the mirror4 ,but meantime let us recall other proofs that may1 so to speak1 be picked up in the street without any #b reference to mathematics4 ,among the proofs of this origin of the bow ,i place the extreme rapidity of its emergence4 ,in a single moment the huge form with its thousand lines is inwoven in the texture of the heavens1 and just as rapidly does it fade4 ,now1 nothing is returned so quickly as an image from a mirror4 ,the mirror does not create anything1 it merely reveals it4 ,artemidorus of ,parium tells us further even the kind of cloud required to reflect such an image of the sun4 ,if you #c make a concave mirror1 he says1 that is1 one resembling half of a ball cut through the middle1 and take your stand outside the centre1 then those who stand beside you will appear in the reflection inverted and nearer to you than to the mirror4 ,the very same thing1 according to him1 takes place when we look at a round hollow cloud from the side3 #d the image of the sun detaches itself from the cloud1 and is nearer us and more turned in our direction4 ,therefore the red colour is from the sun1 the dark blue is from the cloud3 the other hues are produced by a blending of these two4 #bg ,in a writer less prone to repetition the words to the end of the sentence would seem the insertion of a copyist4 ,v ,but there are arguments on the other side4 ,about mirrors there are #a two opinions2 some people think that only phantoms are seen in them2 in other words1 the shape of our bodies1 an emanation separated from our bodies4 ,others1 however1 affirm that images do not exist in the mirror1 but that it is the very bodies that are seen1 the eyesight being bent back and reflected on itself again4 ,now1 the point is not how do we see whatever it is we see3 the question is1 how the image should resemble the original in the cloud as in a mirror4#bh ,could anything be more #b unlike than the sun and a rainbow in which neither the colour nor the shape nor the size of the sun is to be seen8 ,a bow is far larger and1 in the bright part1 far redder than the sun3 in the other colours1 too1 it is different from him4 ,besides1 when you insist on comparing a mirror to the atmosphere 7i4e4 as embodied in a cloud71 you must show me in the latter the same smoothness of texture1 the same levelness of surface1 the same brightness as in the former4 ,but surely no clouds resemble mirrors to this extent4 ,we often pass through the middle of clouds without seeing ourselves in them4 ,people who climb to the tops of mountains look down on cloud1 but cannot make out their reflection #c in it4 ,true enough1 but it is separate drops that are separate mirrors1 says my opponent4 ,admitted4 ,still1 ,i deny that a cloud consists of fully formed drops4 ,it no doubt contains the elements from which the drops are formed1 but not as drops4 ,clouds do not contain even water1 but only the material to form water4 ,granting1 for the sake of argument1 that there are countless drops in the clouds and that they can reflect an object1 yet they do not all produce one and the same reflection1 but each its own4 ,further1 you may join mirrors to one another1 but they will not unite to form a single reflection3 #d each portion will enclose a likeness of the object4 ,some mirrors are composed of a large number of very small parts4 ,set before them one man and a whole people is reflected1 each portion producing an image of its own4 ,the portions of the mirror thus united and placed side by side none the less keep their images separate1 and out of one man make a crowd4 ,but they do not blend in one that troop2 #e they separate and distinguish the individual faces4 ,now1 a rainbow is bounded by a single outline1 the whole presents but one representation4 #bh ,the reading of the ,,mss4 is admittedly corrupt4 ,i have followed ,ruhkopf's conjecture1 though without conviction4 ,the argument seems to require dissimilis unlike1 or non similis 7cf4 c4 v4 #ac71 instead of similis like 78resemble0 in the text73 in that case the meaning would be3 how an image unlike the original ought to be reflected from the cloud as from a mirror4 ,cf4 #ac below4 ,well1 but1 says our opponent1 is not the water that is scattered from a burst pipe1 or that is tossed up by the oar1 wont to exhibit something similar to these colours that are seen in the bow8 ,true1 but not for the reason which you wish to bring out1 to wit1 that each single droplet receives an image of the sun4 ,as a matter of fact1 the #f drops fall too quickly to be able to form such an image4 ,the medium must be stationary in order to receive the impression of what is to be reproduced4 ,how1 then1 it may be asked1 does it come about8 ,the drops1 ,i reply1 receive the colour1 but not the image of the sun4 ,besides1 as ,nero ,caesar says very elegantly3 ,the neck of ,venus' dove glitters as the bird tosses its head1 and so the neck of the peacock shines with varied colours as often as it is turned hither and thither4 ,are we1 therefore1 to say that feathers of this kind1 whose every turn passes into new colours1 are #g mirrors8 ,well1 clouds differ in character from mirrors no less than the birds mentioned1 and as chameleons and the other animals whose colour changes4 ,in the latter case the cause is sometimes subjective3 the creatures when inflamed with anger or passion vary their hue through the suffusion of moisture3 at other times the position of the light1 direct or slanting1 gives the colour its particular hue4 ,what resemblance1 ,i say1 is there between mirrors and clouds8 ,whereas #h those are not translucent1 these transmit light4 ,those are dense and compact1 these are rare4 ,mirrors are of uniform material throughout1 clouds are made up of various elements brought together at random1 and therefore are full of internal strife1 and cannot long hold together4 ,consider further2 at sunrise one sees a certain portion of the sky ruddy2 at other times one sees clouds of fiery red4 ,this particular colour is received by the clouds from encountering the sun3 what1 then1 is there to prevent the many colours of the bow being derived by them in the same way from him1 even though they do not possess the power of mirrors8 ,a little ago1 my opponent retorts1 you advanced the argument #i that the rainbow is always produced opposite the sun1 because an image could not be reflected from a mirror unless the object were in front of it4 ,we agree in this point1 he adds4 ,yes1 for just as the object whose image is to be transferred to the mirror must be set opposite the mirror1 in like manner1 in order that the clouds may be tinged by the sun's rays1 the sun must occupy a suitable position4 ,he does not produce the same effect if his light streams in on all sides2 there must be a proper incidence of the rays to produce the effect4 ,such are the reasons alleged by those who will have it that the rainbow is a coloured cloud4 ,posidonius and those who are of opinion that the phenomenon is produced by reflection as from a mirror1 answer their arguments thus3 ,if there #aj were any real colour in a bow1 it would persist1 and be seen more distinctly1 the nearer it is4 ,as it is1 the image of the bow is clear only in the distance2 it is lost as it begins to approach4 ,i do not agree with this argument in refutation1 though ,i approve the main sentiment which it supports4 ,and ,i will tell you why4 ,the cloud is coloured1 but in such a way that the colour cannot be seen from every point4 ,and no more can the cloud itself3 for no one who is in it can see it4 ,what wonder1 then1 if its colour cannot be seen by one #aa to whom itself is not visible8 ,and yet1 although the cloud is not seen1 it is there3 and so is the colour4 ,it is1 therefore1 no proof of the deceptiveness of the colour that it ceases to be manifest when one approaches it4 ,for1 ,i repeat1 the same happens to the clouds themselves3 they are not all a sham merely because under certain conditions they cease to be visible4 ,besides1 when you are told that the cloud is dyed by the sun1 it does not mean that that colour of his is mingled1 as it were1 with a hard1 firm1 durable body1 but with a liquid unstable body that is incapable of more than a very brief impress4 ,let me add that there are certain artificial colours which #ab display their virtue at a distance4 ,the better and richer the ,tyrian purple is1 the higher up you must hold it to display its full blaze4 ,it does not cease to possess its colour simply because it does not reveal its best shade in any and every position in which it is exhibited4 ,i am of the same opinion as ,posidonius in holding that the bow is formed in a cloud shaped like a hollow round mirror1 whose form is that of a section through a ball4 ,this cannot be proved without the aid of #ac geometry3 the mathematical proofs leave no doubt that the bow is an image of the sun1 but one that does not resemble it4 ,nor1 indeed1 are all objects faithfully represented in mirrors4 ,there are some mirrors one is terrified to let one's eyes rest upon1 such is the misshapen and distorted image they reproduce of those who gaze upon them4 ,they deform the likeness they preserve withal4 ,some1 again1 there are1 a glance at which causes great self-satisfaction in one's strength3 the arms are #ad enormously increased1 and the appearance of the whole body is enlarged to superhuman proportions4 ,there are mirrors that turn faces to the right1 and mirrors that turn them to the left1 others twist and even invert them4 ,what wonder1 then1 that a mirror of this kind should be formed in a cloud by which a defective appearance of the sun should be presented8 ,,vi ,among the other arguments it must be mentioned that a rainbow never #a is seen greater than a semicircle3 the higher the sun is1 too1 the smaller is the bow4 ,as our countryman ,virgil says3 ,and deep drinks ,the mighty bow1 when rain is brewing4 ,but the threat the bow conveys is not the same whatever the quarter it has shown itself in4 ,if it rises toward the #b south1 it will bring a heavy fall4 ,the rain in that quarter1 such is its force1 cannot be mastered by the strongest midday sun4 ,if it shine toward the west1 there will be only a dew or a light rain4 ,if it rise in the east or thereabouts1 it prognosticates fine weather4 ,if1 however1 the bow is the sun's reflection1 why does it appear of far larger size than the sun himself8 ,just because there is a kind of mirror that exhibits objects on a far larger scale than that on which they are presented to it1 increasing their form to a portentous magnitude3 and in turn there is another kind that reduces the size4 ,and tell me this again1 why does an image assume the form of a circle if it does not answer to a circle8 ,you may1 perhaps1 tell me why the colour #c of the bow is varied3 why its shape is what it is1 you will not be able to tell me except by citing some model after which it is formed4 ,now1 other model there is none save that of the sun2 when you admit that the rainbow receives its colour from him1 it follows that it receives its shape also from him4 ,in short1 you and ,i are agreed that those colours by which its quarter of the heaven is adorned proceed from the sun4 ,but on one point we are not agreed3 you say that the colour is real2 ,i maintain that it is only apparent4 ,whichever it is1 real or apparent1 it comes from the sun4 ,on your assumption its sudden cessation cannot be explained1 seeing that all other bright lights in the sky are dispelled gradually4 ,its sudden appearance and1 at the same time1 its #d sudden extinction make for my contention4 ,for it is a peculiarity of a mirror that the reflection in it is not built up piecemeal1 but all at once comes fully into being4 ,every image in it is destroyed1 too1 with as great rapidity as it was formed4 ,for to the construction or removal of the images nothing is required but the presentation and withdrawal of the objects4 ,in the rainbow-cloud whose nature is in question1 there is no proper substance or material3 there is only a sham and a likeness without reality4 ,will you be convinced that this is so8 ,the proof is1 the #e rainbow will cease if you conceal the sun4 ,place another cloud1 ,i repeat1 in front of the sun1 and all the bright hues of the bow are gone4 ,but what is to be said1 you may ask1 in explanation of the size of the bow which is considerably greater than that of the sun8 ,i have already said that there are certain mirrors that multiply every object they reflect4 ,i may now add that every object much exceeds its natural size when seen through water4 ,letters1 however small and dim1 are comparatively large and distinct when seen through a glass globe filled with water4 ,apples floating in a glass vessel seem more beautiful than they are in reality4 ,the stars appear bigger if seen through a cloud1 #f because our vision is blurred in the moisture1 and cannot accurately grasp its object4 ,this will become plain to demonstration if you fill a cup with water and throw a ring into it4 ,while the ring lies right at the bottom its appearance is visible on the surface of the water4 ,anything1 in fact1 that is3 seen through moisture appears far larger than4 in reality it is4 ,what wonder that the image of the sun1 being #g seen in a moist cloud1 should be reproduced on a scale larger than the original1 and that for the two reasons indicated8 ,the cloud contains the two elements1 one like glass1 which can transmit light1 and one also of the character of water2 at any rate1 if it does not just yet contain the actual water1 it is now forming it1 its nature is already such as can easily be changed into water4 ,,vii ,as you have mentioned glass1 some one interposes1 ,i can draw from #a this same material an argument to confute you4 ,glass sticks are manufactured1 either fluted or bulging1#bi with many corners like a club4 ,if one of these sticks is placed obliquely in the path of the sun's rays1 it sends back the colour which is wont to be seen in the rainbow4 ,this proves that there is not here an image of the sun1 but an imitation of his colour from reflection4 ,now1 in this argument there are many points that make for my view4 ,first of all1 it is plain that #b there must be some smooth surface like a mirror to reflect the sun4 ,secondly1 it is plain that no colour is formed in the rod1 but only a false appearance of colour1 such as ,i mentioned above1 which the neck of a pigeon1 as it is bent hither and thither1 alternately puts on and off4 ,this1 ,i say1 is seen likewise in the case of a mirror1 which assumes no real colour1 but only a certain imitation of the colour of a foreign body4 #bi ,another reading gives 8twisted40 ,still1 this one point requires explanation2 it is not the sun's #c image that is beheld in that glass stick1 because it is not capable of expressing it accurately4 ,true enough it tries to reproduce the image1 because the material is smooth and suitable for this purpose4 ,but it fails because its shape is unsymmetrical4 ,if it had been suitably constructed1 it would reflect as many images of the sun as it had faces4 ,but since the sides are not distinctly separated from each other1 and not bright enough to serve as mirrors1 the images are only incipient1 not fully expressed2 they get confused through being crowded together1 and are reduced to the appearance of a single band of colour4 ,,viii ,but to return--why does the bow not complete the full circle in its #a form1 but appear as only a semicircle when stretched to the full extent of its greatest span8 ,some are of opinion that the reason is that the sun1 being much higher than the clouds1 strikes them only on the upper side4 ,hence their lower parts are not touched by his light4 ,receiving the sun only on one side1 the clouds reproduce only one portion of him1 and this is never more than a half4 ,there is very little force in this contention4 ,my reason for saying so8 ,the sun1 even though he is on #b the upper side1 yet strikes1 and therefore colours1 the whole cloud4 ,how could it be otherwise8 ,his rays are wont to be transmitted through the clouds and to penetrate any density in them4 ,further1 the proof they advance is flatly in opposition to their main proposition4 ,for if the sun is higher than the clouds1 and his beams1 therefore1 shed only on their upper side1 the bow would never come down as far as the earth4 ,yet it does descend to the very ground4 ,besides1 the bow is never #c seen except opposite to1 not below1 the sun4 ,the fact is1 the sun's highness or lowness does not affect the matter3 the side of the cloud that faces him is struck by him throughout its whole extent4 ,furthermore1 sometimes even the setting sun produces a rainbow2 surely at that time1 being near#cj the earth1 he strikes the clouds on their lower side4 ,and yet then1 too1 the bow is only a semicircle1 though the clouds receive the sunlight on their lower and darker portions4 ,the ,stoics1 who hold that the light is reflected in the cloud as #d in a mirror1 make the cloud hollow like the section of a ball4 ,such a mirror1 being but part of a circle1 cannot1 they think1 reproduce a whole circle4 ,i give my adherence to the proposition1 but ,i cannot agree to the argument in its support4 ,for1 if the whole figure of a circle placed opposite a concave mirror is reproduced in it1 then there can surely be nothing to prevent the whole of a ball being seen in a semicircular circular mirror4 ,besides1 we have already shown that #e complete rings resembling a rainbow surround the sun and the moon at times4 ,why should the circle be complete in the halo1 but never in the rainbow8 ,and then again1 why should the clouds that receive the sunlight be always hollow ones1 and not sometimes flat or bulging8 #cj ,the common reading makes this adjective refer to clouds--the clouds which are near the earth4 ,aristotle says that rainbows are formed1 after the autumnal equinox1 at any hour of the day1 but in summer only either in the early part of the day1 or when the sun has begun to sink4 ,the cause of this is obvious4 ,in the first place1 about midday the great heat of the sun #f dispels the clouds3 he cannot be reflected in the clouds which he breaks up4 ,but in the early morning and as he sinks toward the west1 his rays have less power1 and can thus be resisted and reflected by the clouds4 ,in the second place1 the sun is not wont to form a bow except when he faces the clouds in which it is formed4 ,when the days are #g shortening in autumn1 his rays are always slanting4 ,therefore1 he has some clouds facing him that he can strike1 at any part of the day1 even at the hour at which he attains his meridian height4 ,but in the summer season he sails right overhead4 ,therefore1 in the great altitude of his midday course1 he looks down on the earth too directly to encounter any clouds4 ,he has them at that period all beneath him4 ,,ix ,i must now go on to speak of ,streaks 7watergalls1 sun-dogs71 which #a are as bright and varied as the rainbow1 and commonly received by us as equally indicative of rain4 ,no great labour need be spent in explaining them1 for they are just incomplete rainbows4 ,they have the variegated #b appearance of the bow1 but none of its curve4 ,they lie in a straight line4 ,they are formed near the sun1 as a rule1 in a moist cloud that has begun to break up4 ,thus1 they have the same colour as is found in the rainbow1 but there is a difference in the shape1 due to the corresponding difference in the clouds over which they stretch4 ,x ,there is a similar variety of colours in ,halos4 ,but there is this difference in the various phenomena3 ,halos are formed at any point in the sky1 wherever there is a heavenly body2 rainbows are not found except opposite the sun2 streaks1 only in the neighbourhood of the sun4 ,i may express their difference in another way3 ,bisect a halo and you have a rainbow2 make it a straight line and you have a streak4 ,in all three there is the same multiplicity of colours1 the scale running from dark blue to orange4 ,streaks1 then1 are found only close to the sun4 ,rainbows are all either solar or lunar4 ,halos are seen with all the heavenly bodies4 ,,xi ,another kind of streak is visible when thin rays of bright light #a equidistant from one another are shot out through narrow apertures in the clouds4 ,these1 too1 are a prognostication of rain4 ,how am ,i to express myself here8 ,what shall ,i call them8 ,images of the sun8 ,the chroniclers call them merely suns1 and have put on record that they have been seen in twos and threes4 ,the ,greeks call them ,mock #b ,suns 7parelia beside the sun71 because they are generally seen in proximity to the sun1 and somewhat resemble the sun4 ,they do not give a complete reproduction of the sun1 but exhibit only his size and shape4 ,they are dull1 however1 and languid without any of his heat4 ,what name are we to apply to them8 ,shall ,i do as ,virgil did---hesitating about the name1 employ the very name which causes the hesitation8 ,and by what name#ca shall ,i call you1 ,rhaetian wine8 ,but yet you must not seek to compete with the ,falernian bins4 #ca ,he has altered ,virgil's word 8carmine0 to 8nomine0 to suit his meaning1 or1 as the editors say1 lapsu memoriae4 ,there is no objection to my calling these1 mock suns4 ,they are1 in fact1 images of the sun formed in a thick cloud close to him after #c the fashion of a mirror4 ,some writers define a mock sun as a cloud1 round1 bright1 and resembling the sun4 ,the mock sun follows the sun1 and is never left farther behind him in his orbit than it was at its first appearance4 ,none of us1 ,i suppose1 is surprised at seeing a reflection of the sun in some fountain or quiet lake4 ,well1 his disc may be reflected in the heavens just as readily as on earth1 if only the material is suitable to produce the reflection4 ,,xii ,whenever we wish to observe an eclipse of the sun1 we place on the #a ground basins filled with oil or pitch4 ,the thick liquid is not easily disturbed1 and therefore retains the images it receives4 ,images1 ,i may observe1 cannot be seen except in a liquid at rest4 ,then we are in the habit of noting how the moon obstructs the sun1 and by the interposition of her body hides his1 which is so much larger1 sometimes partially1 if it so fall out that she only encounter a portion of his orb1 sometimes completely4 ,the latter is called a total eclipse3 it quite shuts out the light and shows us the stars2 it occurs when the #b centre of the two bodies lies in the same straight line4 ,now1 just as the image of both sun and moon can be seen on earth1 so it is in the case of mock suns in the atmosphere4 ,the still air is so compact and yet clear that it can receive the sun's likeness4 ,other clouds receive it1 but let it go if they are either in motion1 or thin1 or black4 ,the moving clouds disperse it1 the rare let it slip1 the black and impure do not take the impress of it1 just as on earth soiled objects do not reflect an image4 ,,xiii ,mock suns are wont to be formed in pairs and on the same principle4 #a ,there is nothing1 in fact1 to prevent the formation of as many as there are clouds suitable for exhibiting an image of the sun4 ,some writers are inclined to hold that when two such phantoms are visible1 one arises directly from the sun1 the other from his image4 ,for1 to use an illustration from common experience1 when several mirrors are so arranged that one is in sight of the other1 all reflect the same image2 but only one is directly from the original1 the rest are reflections of images4 ,the nature of the object presented to the mirror makes #b no difference in the effect4 ,whatever it sees it reproduces4 ,so1 up on high there1 if some chance has so disposed the clouds that they face one another1 one of them reflects the image of the sun1 the other the image of his image4 ,the clouds that produce this effect must be dense1 smooth1 bright and flat1 analogous in character to the sun4 ,all phantoms of this kind are white and resemble so many discs of the moon1 for the reason that the sun's light that they receive and reflect back is always oblique4 ,if the cloud1 on the contrary1 is beneath the #c sun and too near him1 his rays dispel it3 or again1 if situated too far away1 it does not reflect them nor produce any image4 ,in ordinary experience in the same way mirrors withdrawn to a distance from us do not reproduce our features because our sight cannot carry back to us from them4 ,these suns1 too--to employ the name given by the chroniclers1--are an indication of rain1 especially if they have their position in a southern quarter1 from which the most heavily-charged clouds chiefly come up4 ,when such an image surrounds the sun on both sides1 then1 if we are to believe ,aratus1 a storm is brewing4 ,,xiv ,it is now high time that ,i ran over the other varieties of celestial #a fires1 whose forms are diverse one from the other4 ,sometimes there is a shooting star1 sometimes there are glowing lights1 which are occasionally stationary1 sticking to one spot1 and at times able to rush through the air4 ,several species of these may be observed4 ,there are1 for example1 ,bothynae 7cave-like meteors7 when within an outer circle there is a blazing gulf in the sky like a circular grotto excavated in it4 ,then there are ,pithitae 7barrel-shaped meteors7 when a vast circular mass of fire like a cask either rushes through the sky1 or blazes away in one spot4 ,there are ,chasmata 7chasms71 too1 when #b there is a subsidence of some portion of the heavens1 which sends out hissing flame1 as it were1 from its hidden recesses4 ,there are also a great number of colours in all these4 ,some are of brightest red1 some of light insubstantial flame1 some of white light1 some glittering1 some with a uniform glow of orange without sparks or rays4 ,we see1 therefore1 ,the stars' long tracks that gleam white behind4 ,these stars1 for so they appear to be1 dart forth and flit across #c the sky1 and by reason of their extraordinary rapidity seem to leave a long trail of fire4 ,our sight cannot follow their course1 and wherever their career leads we imagine the heaven is all on fire4 ,such is the swiftness of their flight that its separate portions are not distinguished and it can be grasped only as a whole4 ,we are aware rather of the quarter in which the star appears than of its route4 ,it1 therefore1 seems to mark its entire course with a line of continuous #d fire1 because the slowness of our vision fails to keep pace with the stages of its career and sees at the same moment the start and the finish2 as happens in a flash of lightning1 the fire seems a long train because the meteor traverses its path rapidly and the space through which it falls presents itself to our eyes as a whole4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 the fire does not extend itself all through the space crossed by the meteor4 ,nor have such long thin bodies strength enough for the #e effort4 ,how1 then1 it may be asked1 do they issue forth8 ,the answer is1 the fire is kindled by the friction of the atmosphere and is urged headlong by the wind4 ,still1 it does not always arise from wind or friction4 ,sometimes its origin is due to certain peculiar conditions in the atmosphere2 for on high there are many elements1 dry and hot and earthy1 among which fire is generated4 ,it then streams down in pursuit of fuel to sustain it1 and therefore is hurried rapidly along4 ,the reason for the differences of colour it presents lies in the #f nature of the material set on fire and in the degree of violence of the conflagration4 ,a falling body of this kind betokens wind1 which may be looked for in the quarter in which the meteor has burst out4 ,,xv ,how1 some one further inquires1 are those bright gleams of light #a which the ,greeks call ,sela 7luminosities7 produced8 ,in many ways1 people say4 ,they may arise from the violence of the winds1 or from the fervent heat of the upper heavens4 ,fire is a very widely diffused element there1 and sometimes catches the lower regions if they are combustible4 ,the mere motion of the stars in their courses may kindle fire1 and convey it to all that lies beneath them4 ,nay1 is it not quite possible that the atmosphere should drive up even to the ether the germs of fire1 from which may arise a glow or burning or darting resembling a star8 ,some of these gleams rush headlong like shooting #b stars1 some remain fixed in their place1 emitting light sufficient to dispel darkness and reinstate daylight1 until their fuel is used up1 and they gradually grow dimmer1 and by and by1 just like a flame which is dying out1 are by gradual subsidence reduced to nothingness4 ,some of these appear in the clouds1 some above them3 in such cases the thick #c air nearer the earth feeds them for a long time1 but eventually forces them right up to the stars4 ,certain of these last no considerable time3 they straightway dart across the sky1 or are extinguished just at their point of origin4 ,these are called gleams because their appearance is fitful and short-lived1 though their fall is not always unattended by injury3 they have often caused as much damage as lightning4 ,one has seen houses struck by them1 what the ,greeks call astrapoplecta#cb 7 star-struck74 ,those that have a longer career and a stronger fire #d which follows the motion of the heavens1 or those that pursue an orbit of their own1 are regarded by the ,stoic philosophers as ,comets3 of which more anon4 ,different kinds of these are pogoniae 7bearded71 lampades 7torches71 and cyparissiae 7like cypress trees71 and all the rest of them3 they have a thin tail of fire4 ,it is doubtful whether beams 7trabes7 and the rare barrel-meteors 7pithitae7 should be placed in this category or not4 ,such meteors require a great mass of #e fire1 since their immense orb sometimes surpasses in size that of the morning sun4 #cb ,the term might also mean struck by lightning4 ,a commoner reading gives the meaning3 which1 when grazed by this means1 the ,greeks called plecta 7 struck74 ,among these should certainly be placed a phenomenon of which we often read in the chronicles--the heavens appeared to be on fire4 ,the blaze of it is occasionally so high as to mount to the very stars2 occasionally it is so low as to present the appearance of a distant fire4 ,in the reign of ,tiberius ,caesar the fire brigade hurried off #f to the relief of the colony at ,ostia1 supposing it to be in flames2 during the greater part of the night there had been a dull glow in the sky1 which appeared to proceed from a thick smoky fire4 ,no one has any doubt that these burnings in the heavens contain flame as really as they display it3 they have a certain substance in them4 ,as to those formerly discussed1 ,i mean rainbows and halos1 it is a #g question whether they deceive the sight and consist of an illusion2 or really contain what appears in them4 ,i and those who think with me cannot convince ourselves that the rainbow and halo have a basis of any definite material in them4 ,for we judge that in a mirror there is nothing but a deception3 the mirror only pretends to show a foreign body4 ,what is revealed does not exist in the mirror4 ,otherwise #h it would not come out of it1 nor would it be forthwith obscured by another image3 nor would innumerable forms now fade from it1 now be received by it4 ,what follows1 then8 ,that these are mere phantoms and the insubstantial imitation of real bodies4 ,indeed1 in certain instances1 people have so arranged mirrors that the objects have been distorted and degraded in the reflection4 ,for1 as ,i have already said1 there are some mirrors that twist the faces of those who look into them1 some that enormously increase them until they exceed all size and proportions of these bodies of ours4 ,,xvi ,at this point ,i wish to tell you a little story to show you how #a unscrupulous lust is in seizing every instrument that will rouse passion3 so resourceful is it in goading to madness its own morbid fury4 ,there was one ,hostius ,quadra whose obscenity formed a model for everything that was lewd on the stage4 ,he was rich and avaricious1 a very slave to his millions4 ,he was eventually murdered by his own slaves1 but the late ,emperor ,augustus considered his murder undeserving of punishment1 and as good as declared that he had been justly slain4 ,this man's lust knew no distinction of sex4 ,among other things1 he #b had mirrors constructed of the kind just mentioned1 that reflected images of abnormal size1 causing1 for example1 a finger to exceed the size of an arm in length and thickness4 ,he so arranged his mirrors that he could see all his accomplices' movements1 and could gloat over the imagined proportions of his own body4 ,he raised a levy of scamps #c like himself in all the public baths1 where he chose men of the regulation height2 this but whetted his appetite to have his scenes of riot reproduced in false unnatural proportions4 ,go to1 you that say the mirror was invented for purposes of adornment6 ,i could not soil my pen by recording the foul words and deeds of that monster3 he deserved to be torn by his own jaws4 ,to aggravate his guilt1 mirrors faced him on every side that he might be a witness of his own infamy4 ,deeds of darkness1 which lie heavy on the conscience1 the #d imputation of which ordinary men will indignantly spurn1 weighed so lightly with him that he thrust them before his face1 and into his very eyes4 ,crimes1 in faith1 usually dread the sight of themselves4 ,even in those lost to shame1 and exposed to every insult1 the eye is still delicately susceptible4 ,but that beast thought his unparalleled wickedness but a trifle2 he summoned his eyes to witness it4 ,aye1 not content with seeing his sin1 he surrounded himself with mirrors to multiply and group his scenes of vice4 ,even when he could not see #e directly1 he employed the reflecting power of the mirrors to reveal scenes of revolting and abominable iniquity4 ,the filthy blackguard left nothing that could be called a deed of darkness4 ,he had no #f dread of the daylight1 but complacently applauded himself in all his bestial vice4 ,now1 don't you think he would have liked to have his portrait painted in that attitude8 ,the ministers of public vice draw the veil of modesty over them in part3 in fact1 a house of ill-fame is in some degree shame-faced ,but that brute had made an exhibition of #g his obscenity1 and presented to his own sight what the darkest night is not deep enough to hide4 ,i will be out and out bad1 was the monster's resolve2 my eyes must share my lust1 they must witness and superintend6 ,by my art ,i will defeat nature's shyness3 nobody must imagine that ,i #h do not know what ,i am about6 ,nature is niggardly to man1 she is more generous to the cattle4 ,i will find means to thwart her1 and to indulge my little weakness4 ,my lust shall go one better than nature4 ,i will construct a mirrored chamber that will reflect shapes of enormous size4 ,i only wish ,i could make the size real2 but ,i must be content with #i the belief of it4 ,my vice must see more than it can compass1 and must rest content with wonder at its own restraint4 ,away with such a fellow6 ,perchance he met a speedy death even before he could gloat over the sight4 ,he richly deserved to be offered up as a victim before his own mirror-idol4 ,,xvii ,go now and laugh at the philosophers for discussing the nature of #a the mirror and inquiring why our face is reflected in it1 and is turned toward us too4 ,what did nature mean by giving us real bodies and then ordaining that phantoms of them also should be visible8 ,what was her purpose in providing material of the sort capable of receiving and returning images8 ,not1 ,i trow1 that we men might use a #b looking-glass to pluck out the straggling hairs of our beard and polish up our face4 ,nature has never at any point merely provided resources for luxury4 ,first of all1 her motive was to show us the sun with his glare dulled1 since our eyes are too weak to gaze at him direct1 and without something to reflect him we should be wholly ignorant of his shape4 ,no doubt one may study him as he rises and as he sets4 ,but we #c should know nothing of his true figure as he shines in fierce noonday brightness1 without his softening ruddy glow1 unless an image of him could be mirrored in some liquid where he shines less directly and is more easy to observe4 ,in the second place1 we should be unable to see or investigate the conjunction of two heavenly bodies1 by which the daylight is wont to be interrupted1 unless we could examine the reflections of sun and moon in basins on the ground with comparative freedom4 ,in the third place1 mirrors were discovered in order that #d man might come to know himself4 ,many benefits have ensued2 first1 the knowledge of self1 after that1 devices to secure specific results4 ,the comely man was taught to shun conduct that would degrade him4 ,the uncomely learned that bodily defects must be compensated by virtue of character4 ,the young man was reminded by his vigour that youth was the time for learning and for performing daring deeds of chivalry4 ,the grey-beard was warned to have respect for his hoary hair and turn his thoughts sometimes to death4 ,it was for this that even objects in nature have afforded us the #e opportunity of seeing ourselves4#cc ,a clear fountain or a smooth stone gives each back his image4 ,in the poet's words3 ,lately ,i saw myself on the shore1 ,when the sea stood calm without a breath of wind4 #cc ,the meaning may be1 ,in addition1 i4e4 to artificial mirrors1 objects in nature1 etc4 ,what1 think you1 was the style of life of the people who dressed at a mirror of this kind8 ,the age was unsophisticated1 satisfied with what supplies chance presented4 ,it did not as yet degrade a boon into a vice1 or turn nature's invention to purposes of lust and luxury4 ,at first1 chance revealed to each his form4 ,in due time the inherent #f self-love of mankind endeared the sight of their own figure1 and they came to look more frequently into the mirror held up by nature in which they had first beheld their image4 ,later on1 when a worse race of men ransacked the very bowels of the earth for treasure better hid more deeply1 iron first came into use2 its production might have caused no damage had the world produced only that one metal4 ,but then in good #g earnest were brought to light the other precious banes of earth4 ,their smooth surface presented the image of their possessors1 who had in view some quite different purpose4 ,one saw his reflection in a cup1 another in a brass vessel procured for some ordinary use4 ,presently a round mirror was constructed specially to render this service3 it was not as yet of polished silver1 but of a common brittle ware4 #cc ,the men of ancient days lived a homely life2 they thought themselves smart enough if they washed off in the stream of the river the dirt contracted in their work4 ,but even then they bestowed pains on dressing their hair and combing out their flowing beards4 ,in this part of the toilet each attended to himself and at the same time helped his neighbour4 ,the #h thick streaming hair of the men1 which it was of old the fashion to wear1 was1 of course1 combed out by the wives4 ,but sometimes they thought themselves handsome enough without any such artistic hand1 and they just shook it out for themselves as spirited animals do their mane4 ,afterwards1 when luxury had now gained sway1 embossed mirrors of gold and silver of full-length size were made1 and at last they were actually adorned with precious stones4 ,one of these has ere now cost a woman more than the amount of a dowry given in the old days at the public expense to the penniless daughters of famous generals4 ,do you suppose ,scipio's daughters bought mirrors chased with gold #i from the iron money that their dowry was paid in8 ,happy the poverty that gave occasion to earn such a title to glory6 ,the ,senate would not have dowered them if they had been able to afford mirrors4 ,whoever the man was to whom the ,senate acted the part of father-in-law1 he knew that he had got a wife that was above suspicion4 ,nowadays the whole of the dowry that the ,roman people gave ,scipio would not be enough to buy a single looking-glass for some of the loose1 silly daughters of our freedmen6 ,luxury has been gradually developed merely by the #aj possession of wealth1 and has now gone to oppressive lengths2 therewith vices have received an immense accession of strength4 ,in short1 everything has got so mixed up through our perverted refinements that all that used to be regarded as the decoration of women has become part and parcel of the outfit of man2 ,i am understating1 it is now an essential portion of a soldier's kit4 ,the mirror was introduced for the sake of the toilet2 nowadays there is no vice to which it is not an indispensable adjunct4 ,,book ,,ii ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,air4 ,,thunder ,,and ,,lightning ,i ,every inquiry into the nature and constitution of the universe falls #a into three divisions--astronomy1 meteorology1 and geography4 ,the first investigates the nature of the heavenly bodies1 the size and shape of the fires that ring-in the world4 ,it inquires whether the heavens are solid1 composed of strong rigid material1 or woven of a fine thin stuff2 whether they receive or impart motion2 whether the heavenly bodies are beneath them or fixed in their texture2 in what manner the sun maintains the succession of the seasons2 whether he returns upon his track or not1 and all the other questions of a similar character4 ,the second division deals with what lies between heaven and earth1 to #b wit1 clouds1 rain1 snow1 and ,thunder that frights the heart of man3 in short1 all that the atmosphere does or suffers4 ,this subject is called meteorology 7sublimia raised on high71 because it deals with phenomena exalted above the low earth4 ,the third part inquires about waters1 lands1 trees1 crops1 or to use a legal phrase1 everything that is contained in the soil4 ,how comes it1 you ask me1 that you have put the question of #c earthquakes in the division under which you are going to treat of thunder and lightning8 ,for that is my plan4 ,well1 the earthquake is due to air1 and air is the atmosphere in violent motion4 ,now1 though the air may enter the earth in order to produce earthquakes1 the treatment of earthquakes does not fall under geography1 but more properly belongs to meteorology1 which deals with the sphere to which nature has assigned the atmosphere4 ,i can tell you something that will sound stranger still3 ,i must speak of the earth when dealing with the heavenly bodies4 ,why8 you ask4 ,for this reason3 we discuss in #d their own proper place1 as part of geography1 the properties of the earth1 for example1 whether it is broad1 projecting unequally in a huge bulge to one side1 or whether it all assumes the shape of a ball1 gathering up its parts into a globe2 whether it binds its waters or is itself bound by them2 whether it is an animal or a lifeless mass without feeling1 full of air no doubt1 but not its own breath4 ,these1 and all other questions of the kind1 as often as they crop up1 will #e be relegated to geography1 and be placed in the lowest category4 ,but when the question comes to be the situation of the earth1 the part of the universe in which it has settled1 its position with respect to the heavens and heavenly bodies1 then the inquiry will take its place in the higher category1#cd and obtain higher rank so to speak4 #cd ,viz4 that of the heavenly bodies which constitute the subject matter of astronomy4 ,,ii ,having described the three divisions into which all the material of #a nature falls1 ,i must add a few general remarks on the subject4 ,and this must be premised1 that the atmosphere belongs to the class of bodies that possess unity4 ,what exactly this means1 and why it must be laid down as an axiom1 will appear if ,i go back a little1 and entering more fully into the subject1 tell you that certain bodies are continuous1 and certain formed1 by a union of different elements4#ce ,continuity may be defined as unbroken union of parts one with another4 ,unity #b is continuity without a break2 it is the contact of two bodies joined to one another4 ,there can be no shadow of doubt that of the bodies around us which we see and handle1 and which are either perceived or perceive1 certain are composite4 ,they are so either through nexus or #c through mere accumulation2 take as illustrations a rope1 corn1 a ship4 ,again1 there are bodies that are not composite1 as a tree1 a stone4 ,you must1 therefore1 grant that likewise among the objects that elude sense1 and are grasped only by thought1 some are possessed of unity#cf while some arise from junction of parts4 ,see how careful ,i am of your susceptibilities4 ,if ,i had chosen to employ the jargon of philosophy1 #d ,i might have got out of the difficulty by merely saying 8united bodies40 ,you must1 in turn1 be duly grateful for this concession to your weakness6 ,what am ,i driving at8 ,this3 if at any time ,i speak of 8unity0 in this connection1 bear in mind that it is not used of number1 but has reference to the composition of a body that coheres through no external aid1 but by its own unity4 ,to this category the atmosphere belongs4 #ce ,this difficult passage1 according to ,gercke's text1 runs3 ,you will understand the meaning of this1 and the necessity for my axiomatic position if ,i take up the argument a little farther back1 and say that there is one kind of body possessing unity1 another that is continuous1 and another that is formed by junction4 ,for junction is the contact of two bodies joined one to another1 continuity is the uninterrupted joining of parts one to another1 unity is continuity without junction 7i4e4 without a break74 #cf ,that is1 are not composite4 ,,iii ,the universe embraces all the objects that fall1 or that can fall1 #a under our cognisance4 ,of these some are its parts1 the remaining ones must form its material4 ,nature1 just like every manual art everywhere1 requires material4 ,let me make this a little plainer4 ,in ourselves #b the parts are hand1 bones1 sinews1 eyes2 the material is the sap of the digested food1 which will be distributed for the nourishment of the parts4 ,again1 blood is in a certain sense a part of us1 but still it is material as well4 ,for it goes to form other parts1 and1 none the less1 it is among the parts that go to make up the whole body4 ,,iv ,so the atmosphere is a part1 a most necessary one1 of the world4 #a ,this it is that joins heaven and earth1 separating highest and lowest in such a way as yet to unite them4 ,it separates by coming in between1 it unites by rendering possible communication between the two4 ,it transmits to the higher regions what it receives from the earth2 and again1 it transfuses terrestrial objects with the influences of the heavenly bodies4 ,i call it a part of the world in the same sense as animals and trees are parts4 ,the whole class of animals and trees forms #b part of the universe1 since it has to be taken in to make up the whole1 and without it the universe is not complete4 ,a single animal or tree is a quasi-part3 though it is lost1 that from which it is lost is still entire4 ,now the atmosphere1 as ,i have been saying1 adheres both to sky and earth4 ,in both it is inborn4 ,whatever is an inborn part of anything else possesses unity1 for without unity nothing can be born4 ,v ,the earth is at once part and material of the world4 ,you are not1 ,i #a think1 more likely to ask why it is a part than why the sky is a part4 ,the one is just as essential as the other to the existence of the whole1 which they go to make up1 and from which from the one no less than from the other#cg sustenance is provided for all animals and crops and stars4 ,from the earth all the strength of every man1 all #b the energy of the world with its ceaseless demands1 are supplied4 ,hence proceeds the force that1 by day and by night1 sustains in their labours so many stars1 so active and so eager1 and that provides their food4 ,the universal nature derives from this source what suffices for its nourishment4 ,the world has appropriated all that it requires throughout eternity4 ,to adopt a tiny illustration of a great subject3 eggs enclose within them as much moisture as they require for the completion of the creature that is to be hatched4 #cg ,the words in brackets are in all probability spurious1 the addition of some commentator4 ,the whole passage is very uncertain4 ,,vi ,the atmosphere is in unbroken contact with the earth1 in such close #a juxtaposition that it must always occupy the space that she has just quitted4 ,it is a part1 as ,i have said1 of the universe4 ,at the same time it receives all that the earth sends forth for the nourishment of the heavenly bodies2 so that1 of course1 it should be understood in this connection as material rather than part4 ,it is these earthy elements that cause its fickleness and constant turmoil4 ,some authorities believe the atmosphere to be composed of separate bodies as dust is1 but they are sadly in error4 ,for there can never be internal effort in a body held together in any other way than by unity1#ch #b since the elements must be in agreement in order to contribute their united strength toward the tension4 ,now1 the atmosphere1 if assumed to be cut up into atoms1 must be dispersed4 ,scattered elements cannot hold together as one body4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 the tension of the atmosphere is proved by inflated objects that will not yield to a blow4 ,it is proved1 too1 by weights carried up to a great height merely by the support of the wind4 ,it is proved by the sound of voices sinking or swelling1 according to the stirring 7 vibration7 of the air4 ,for what is voice save tension of the air moulded by a #c stroke of the tongue so as to become audible8 ,what is all running and motion8 ,are they not the effects of tense air8 ,this it is that imparts strength to the sinews1 and endows the runner with his speed4 ,when1 being violently stirred1 it has twisted itself into an eddy1 it uproots trees and woods1 carries aloft and shatters whole buildings4 ,when the sea lies all peaceful1 the air raises it in waves4 ,or1 to descend to #d less violent manifestations1 what song can be sung without tension of breath8 ,or1 take horns and trumpets1 or those organs that by means of hydraulic pressure can produce a greater volume of sound than the mouth is capable of doing3 is it not through atmospheric tension that they display their functions8 ,or1 let us note what an enormous force is #e exerted in secret by quite tiny seeds1 whose smallness has allowed them to find a lodgment in the clefts of stones4 ,their slender diminutive roots gather strength enough to dislodge huge boulders1 split statues1 and cleave crags and rocks4 ,and to what is this due but air tension1 #f without which there is no strength1 over which no strength can prevail8 ,the unity of the atmosphere may1 in fact1 be inferred from the mere coherence of our bodies4 ,what else is it that holds them together save air8 ,what else is it by which the soul is stirred 7literally1 moved78#ci ,what constitutes that motion if it be not tension8 ,what #g tension can there be except from unity8 ,what unity could there be unless it were in the air8 ,what else1 too1 brings forth from the earth its fruits and slender grain1 and sets erect the verdant trees1 and stretches out their branches1 or sets them on high1 but the tension and unity of air8 #ch ,or1 except in a body of uniform texture4 #ci ,nisard translates1 ,what imparts movement1 in man1 to the vital principle8 ,,vii ,some writers believe that the air is rent and separated into small #a parts with void spaces1 as they suppose1 between4 ,they consider the easy flight of birds through it a proof that it has not a compact body1 but has large empty spaces3 fowls1 great and small1 pass through it without difficulty4 ,but this is a mistake4 ,for water also affords the same easy motion1 and there is no doubt of its unity4 ,when it #b receives bodies1 it always retreats in the direction opposite to them4 ,this the ,stoics call displacement1 in ,greek it is peristasis1#dj which takes place in air just as it does in water4 ,for it literally stands round every body by which it is pressed4 ,there is no need to assume an admixture of vacuum with the element4 ,but more of this another time4 #dj a standing around4 ,the ,latin equivalent in the text is circumstantia1 rendered 8displacement40 ,,viii ,from what has been said it must be inferred that in nature there #a exists a principle of activity of enormous force4 ,for there is nothing that does not become more active through tension2 and it is no less true1 nothing will be found capable of tension from another body unless it have in itself capacity of tension4#da ,in the same way we say that nothing could be moved by another body without possessing the quality of mobility in itself4 ,but what element can be conceived more likely to possess tension in itself than air8 ,will any one deny that it can be subject to that force after seeing how it tosses about the earth #b with its mountains1 houses1 and walls and towers1 and great cities with their inhabitants1 seas1 and whole coast-lines8 ,the tension of air is proved1 too1 by its velocity and expansion4 ,illustrations of these properties are common3 in an instant the eye extends its sight over many miles2 a single voice resounds at the same moment through whole cities2 light does not creep forth little by little1 but is shed simultaneously over the whole world4 #da ,the reading at several points is so uncertain that one cannot be at all sure of the meaning4 ,probably the whole passage is very corrupt4 ,so far as the main theme is concerned1 the argument seems to be1 ,as mobility is a presupposition of motion1 so tensibility is a necessary condition of actual tension produced in a body by another body4 ,one is tempted to employ 8elasticity10 but the term contains implications with which the author was apparently unfamiliar4 ,,ix ,again1 how could water be subject to tension without the aid of #a air8 ,you entertain no doubt1 ,i suppose1 that the jet of water in the amphitheatre1 which is thrown from the centre of the arena to the highest pinnacle1 is accompanied by tension of the water8 ,and yet neither hand#db nor any other engine can send or force water more effectively than air4 ,it lends itself readily to the influence of the #b air1 by the compelling force of which within the pipe it is raised4 ,its nature is to flow down1 but under pressure it mounts and accomplishes great results contrary to its nature4 ,yes1 and do not heavily laden vessels also prove that it is the resistance of air1 not of water1 that prevents their sinking8 ,the water of itself would give way1 and would be unable to bear up the burthens1 were it not itself upborne4 ,so1 too1 a quoit thrown from a height into a pond does not fall straight #c in1 but recoils1 and that merely because the air bears it back4 ,in what way1 again1 could the sound of a voice be transmitted through the thick barrier of a wall unless the solid masonry contained some air to receive and transmit the sound from without8 ,the tension of the air1 of course1 affects not only what is exposed1 but what is concealed and enclosed as well4 ,this is easy for it to do1 since it is never #d divided1 but maintains an unbroken continuity even through the centre of objects by which it appears to be parted4 ,the interposition of walls and high mountains renders it impassable by us1 but is no obstacle to itself4 ,the air is there all the same1#dc but a portion is enclosed and we cannot follow it through2 that's all4 #db ,a conjecture widely adopted gives 8crane40 #dc ,the general sense is clear1 but the particular text is uncertain4 ,x ,thus the air passes through the middle of an obstacle by which it is #a apparently divided4 ,it not merely surrounds and encircles all objects1 but permeates them likewise4 ,it is shed abroad from the bright ether on high down to the very earth4 ,it is nimbler and rarer and more exalted than the earth1 and no less so than the waters of earth2 but1 on the contrary1 it is thicker and heavier than the ether1 and is naturally cold and dark1 its light and heat coming from without4 ,it is not of the same specific quality in every region1 but borrows its qualities from its surroundings4 ,the highest part of it is extremely dry and #b hot1 and so1 very rare also1 from the proximity of the eternal fires1 the endless motions of the stars1 and the constant revolution of the heavens4 ,but the lowest portion next the earth is dense and dark1 because it forms a receptacle for the exhalations of the earth4 ,the intermediate portion1 in dryness and rarity1 runs to neither extreme as compared with the highest and lowest strata1 but is colder than either4 ,the reason is this3 ,the higher parts are affected by the heat of the #c heavenly bodies that are close by2 and again the lower parts are warmed in the first place by the earth's breath which is charged with heat1 while in addition the sun's rays are reflected from the ground1 and as far as the reflection extends it renders the atmosphere kindlier and more genial4 ,besides1 the temperature of the lower air is raised by the warm breath of all animals1 trees1 and crops1 whose life is dependent on heat4 ,add to this also fires on the earth1 not merely the #d artificial ones about which we know1 but also those concealed beneath it1 some of which have ere this broken out1 and myriads of which are blazing away in the hidden depths incessantly4 ,add1 too1 that all the fertile parts of the earth have some degree of heat which is exhaled into the air3 heat is a condition of generation1 the frigid is sterile4 ,so1 then1 the middle portion of the atmosphere being remote from all these influences abides in its native cold3 for air is by nature chilly4 ,,xi ,such being the divisions of the atmosphere1 ,i may observe that in #a its lowest layer it is most variable1 unstable1 and changeful4 ,it is near the earth that the air is1 so to speak1 most enterprising and most long-suffering1 as it tosses or is tossed4 ,but withal1 it is not all affected in the same way1 but at different times at different points its different parts are in unrest and turmoil4 ,the reasons of the changefulness and inconstancy are in part derived from the earth3 her position turning hither and thither is a potent factor in determining the quality of the atmosphere4 ,other reasons are due to the heavenly bodies1 chiefly the sun1 whose course directs the year1 whose solstices determine winter and summer4 ,next in importance is the moon's influence4 ,but even the other stars produce an effect alike on #b the earth and on the air that rests upon the face of the earth4 ,their rising or their corresponding setting and their disturbances cause now cold1 now rain1 now other damage such as earth is subject to4 ,it was necessary for me to make these preliminary remarks before going on to speak of thunder and thunderbolts and lightnings4 ,for as these phenomena occur in the atmosphere1 ,i had to explain the nature of the latter1 that it might more readily appear what active or passive capacities it possessed4 ,,xii ,there are1 ,i have just said1 three phenomena--lightnings1 #a thunderbolts1 thunderings3 the last is simultaneous in occurrence with the others1 but its sound reaches us subsequently4 ,lightning 7i4e4 sheet7 merely reveals fire1 the thunderbolt 7forked lightning7 actually despatches it on its mission4 ,the former is1 so to speak1 a threatening and feint without a blow1 the latter a stroke and a blow4 ,there are some of the facts connected with the phenomena of thunder and lightning on which there is general agreement1 others on which there is much diversity of opinion4 ,for example1 there is agreement that they #b occur in the clouds and issue from the clouds2 further1 it is agreed that lightning of both kinds is either composed of fire or at any rate presents the appearance of fire4 ,but to pass on to the points which are disputed--some authorities believe that the fire is actually resident in the clouds1 some that it is merely produced for the occasion1 and that it does not exist until it issues out4 ,but yet there is no agreement as to what brings out the fire4 ,one explains it as due to #c light4 ,again1 a certain author says that the sun's rays accumulate through recurrent intersection1 and kindle the fire4 ,anaxagoras asserts that it is distilled from the ether1 that from such heat in the sky many sparks fall which the clouds enclose and retain for a long time4 ,aristotle supposes that the fire does not gather in the clouds any long time previously1 but rather that it bursts out at the same instant as it is formed4 ,his opinion runs thus3 ,two elements of the world1 #d land and water1 lie in its lower part2 each exhales its peculiar emanation4 ,the vapour of earth is dry1 resembling smoke1 and produces wind1 thunder1 and lightning2 the breath of water1 on the other hand1 is moist1 and produces rain and snow4 ,but that dry vapour from the earth1 to which as mentioned winds owe their origin1 on account of its accumulation in large masses1 is subject to violent lateral pressure when it is condensed for the formation of clouds4 ,thereupon it strikes the adjacent clouds over a larger surface1 and the blow #e reverberates loudly in thunder4 ,the effect is analogous to that produced by the crackling of flame from the moisture contained in green unseasoned firewood4 ,in this case the air enclosed in the wood has some moisture in it1 and when it accumulates it bursts out in the flame4 ,so likewise the air which1 as ,i said a little ago1 is driven out through a collision of two clouds1 cannot burst or leap out without noise4 ,the sound varies according to the variety of impact in the clouds2 the #f larger cavity in some clouds1 the smaller in others account for the variety4 ,that air violently driven out is fire1 which is called sheet lightning when it forms a fitful flame of no great violence4 ,we see the flash before we can hear the sound3 eyesight is swifter than hearing1 and far outstrips it4 ,,xiii ,the mistakenness of the opinion that the fire is stored up in the #a clouds may be inferred from many considerations4 ,for example1 if the fire merely falls from the sky1 why does it not do so every day from the glowing mass that is constantly up there8 ,then1 again1 the theory gives no explanation of the downward course of the fire1 an element which naturally rises4 ,fires on earth from which embers fall belong to a different category2 the embers possess a certain amount of weight1 which carries them down4 ,fire cannot descend in the same way1 but must be forced or conducted down4 ,nothing analogous to a terrestrial fire #b can take place in that pure ethereal fire which contains nothing that can carry it down to earth4 ,otherwise1 if any portion of it fall down1 the whole is endangered2 for anything susceptible of gradual diminution piecemeal may evidently also fall in a mass4 ,besides1 if an element whose lightness habitually prevents its fall contain any weight in its hidden depths1 how could it maintain itself in the place whence it fell8 ,but1 it is urged1 are not certain forms of fire wont to descend into the lower parts of air very much like these bolts of lightning that we are investigating8 ,admitted4 ,only they are conveyed1 they do #c not proceed of themselves4 ,some force not resident in the ether carries them down4 ,for in the ether no violent compulsion1 no breach1 no interruption of the wonted continuity1 can occur4 ,it preserves a fixed succession2 its fire cleansed of impurity claims the upper regions as its own1 and performs its functions in preservation of the universe with beautiful precision4 ,it cannot leave its place1 no1 nor even be thrust from it by external force1 because no disturbing body can find lodgment in ether4 ,its fixed and ordered composition renders conflict impossible4 ,,xiv ,some of your friends the philosophers1 a critic may say to me1 in #a giving an explanation of shooting stars have told us that some parts of the atmosphere contract fire which is drawn from these same higher regions1 and that the fires are kindled by the glow of the ether4 ,yes1 but ,i reply that it makes all the difference whether the fire is alleged to fall from the ether1 which is incompatible with its nature2 or whether it is asserted that from its fierce glow the heat leaps the boundary between it and the lower regions1 firing them by its power4 ,for on the latter assumption1 the fire does not fall from the upper region1 which is impossible1 but is kindled in the lower4 ,surely1 too1 when a widely spread conflagration occurs in one of our cities1 we #b see detached blocks which have for long been heated by the fire from a distance at last catch fire of themselves4 ,so in the upper atmosphere1 which is endowed with the power of drawing fire1 in all probability there are cases of ignition from the heat of the superposed ether4 ,in nature there is never a sudden transition from one element to a totally different one4 ,hence there must be some congruity between lowest ether and highest atmosphere2 conversely highest atmosphere cannot be wholly dissimilar to lowest ether4 ,on the confines the two elements pass so imperceptibly into one another that at a particular point there might well be doubt whether one is in atmosphere or in ether4 ,,xv ,some of the ,stoics believe that air1 being interchangeable with other elements such as fire and water1 does not derive from without a fresh cause of fire2 it kindles itself by its internal motion4 ,then in dissipating masses of thick1 compact clouds it necessarily emits a loud noise from the bursting of such large bodies4 ,besides1 the very conflict of the resisting clouds contributes to the energy of the fire4 ,in the same way the hand contributes to the cutting power of an instrument1 but the actual cutting is done by the steel4 ,,xvi ,let me now explain the difference between the flash and the bolt of lightning which you naturally wish to know4 ,the flash is the fire widely spread out1 the bolt is the condensed fire hurled with violence4 ,let me use a homely illustration4 ,we sometimes join our two hands in order to take up water in them2 then we squeeze our palms together and squirt out the water like a syringe4 ,imagine something like this to take place in the clouds4 ,when they are compressed the restricted space drives out the air between them1 setting it on fire at the same time1 and hurling it forth like a cannon ball4 ,the missiles from our balistae#a and scorpions#dd give forth a loud noise as they are hurled4 #dd ,the ancient counterparts of cannon4 ,,xvii ,a certain number of writers are of opinion that the air of itself emits a report as it traverses the cold and moist regions4 ,iron1 they point out1 when heated cannot be dipped in moisture without noise4 ,a mass of heated metal when plunged in water causes a loud sputtering as it is cooled2 so1 according to ,anaximenes1 air meeting cloud produces peals of thunder2 then as it rushes struggling through the obstructions that bar its way it kindles the flame of lightning merely by its escape4 ,,xviii ,anaximander refers all the phenomena of thunder to air4 ,peals of thunder are1 he says1 the sounds of blows on a cloud4 ,he explains the inequality of the peals by the inequality of the blows4 ,to the question1 why it thunders in a clear sky also1 he answers that even in absence of cloud the atmosphere is shaken and rent by the bursting forth of air4 ,but why is there thunder sometimes and yet no lightning8 ,the rarity and feebleness of the air render it incapable of producing flame1 while yet sufficient to produce sound4 ,lightning1 according to him1 then1 is really a disturbance where the atmosphere is merely parted and rushes hither and thither1 displaying a faint fire that will not issue from its place4 ,as for the thunderbolt1 it is the career of the more active and denser air4 ,,xix ,anaxagoras says all the phenomena correspond to the descent of some #a force from the ether to the lower regions4 ,so when the fire encounters cold clouds it emits a sound2 when it cleaves them there is a flash2 less violence in the fires produces lightning1 greater1 thunderbolts4 #b ,,xx ,diogenes of ,apollonia asserts that thunder arises in some cases from #a fire1 in some from air4 ,fire precedes those it produces1 to herald them4 ,those that are attended with rattling noise1 but without flash1 are produced by air4 ,either sound or flash1 ,i grant1 can and sometimes does occur without the other4 ,still1 their powers are not distinct1 each may be produced by each4 ,for will any one say that air borne with great violence1 when it can produce sound1 will not also produce fire8 ,will not every one grant1 too1 that fire as well as air may #b sometimes burst the clouds without darting from them1 for example1 if it has burst through a few of the clouds1 but is buried beneath an accumulation of them8 ,so fire will pass into air1 and lose its shining appearance in cutting through some cloudy obstacles and kindling what is within4 ,add now another inevitable result--the rush of the thunderbolt sends out blasts of air and drives them before it1 and raises a wind behind it through the great extent of its impact on the atmosphere4 ,thus1 through the vibration caused by the wind which the fire drives in front of it1 all objects quiver before they are actually struck by the bolt of lightning4 ,,xxi ,we must now dismiss our tutors and try to walk alone as we pass on #a from what is admitted to what is debatable in this subject4 ,what is to be classed as admitted8 ,it is admitted that the thunderbolt is fire of some kind2 similarly with the lightning flash1 which is simply flame ready to become a bolt if it had more strength4 ,the difference between the two is not in character but in force4 ,the fiery nature of the bolt is proved by its heat4 ,apart from that1 its effects prove it1 for it has often been the cause of great conflagrations4 ,forests and #b portions of cities have been burnt to ashes by it4 ,even objects that are not struck are yet seen to be scorched1 some are discoloured as if by smoky grime4 ,then1 again1 everything that lightning strikes has the smell of sulphur4 ,and so it is beyond dispute that both phenomena are a form of fire1 and that they differ merely in their method of movement4 ,a flash is a bolt that has not strength to carry it down to the #c earth4 ,and conversely you may say that the bolt is a flash that has been conveyed right down to the ground4 ,it is not for the purpose of refinement of terms that ,i deal at some length with them1 but in order to prove the phenomena related and of the same category and character4 ,a bolt is something more than a flash4 ,inverting the statement1 a flash is all but a bolt4 ,,xxii ,now that it is agreed that the two things are both fire1 let us see #a how fire arises on earth1 for no doubt the same method prevails aloft4 ,there are two common methods of producing fire--one by striking it out1 as1 for example1 from a stone2 the other by the more tedious method of friction1 as when two pieces of wood are rubbed together for some time4 ,it is1 of course1 not every kind of substance that gives the desired result2 you must choose one suitable for giving out fire1 for example1 laurel1 ivy1 and other trees familiar to shepherds for this purpose4 ,probably1 therefore1 clouds may in the same way emit fire either from a blow or from friction4 ,consider for a moment the force with which squalls rush forth1 the impetuous eddying revolution of #b the whirlwind4 ,anything that encounters a missile from an engine of war is scattered and removed and driven far from its position4 ,what wonder1 then1 that such violence in the wind extracts fire either from some external object or merely from itself8 ,you can readily see what a glow all neighbouring bodies grazed by its passage must receive4 ,but the force of storms cannot for a moment be compared with the energy of the heavenly bodies1 whose immense power is beyond question4 ,,xxiii ,perchance1 too1 when the wind only blows softly and exerts no great #a force1 the clouds1 wafted against each other1 will emit fire strong enough to show a gleam1 though not to issue from them4 ,less force is required for lightning than for the thunderbolt4 ,we found above what a glow the friction of certain woods caused4 ,now when the air1 which is interchangeable with fire1 has been changed in full force into fire #b and#de undergoes friction1 it is credible and even probable that fire is struck out1 but of an evanescent and transitory character1 as it arises from no solid material and has no fuel in which it can lodge4 ,it therefore quickly passes2 its duration is no longer than its route and course2 it has nothing to support it when hurled forth into space4 #de ,these words seem of more than doubtful genuineness4 ,,xxiv ,but how1 you ask me1 when you philosophers say that it is the nature #a of fire to rise1 does the bolt seek the earth8 ,perhaps what you said about fire is not true8 ,it seems to take its course down as well as up4 ,both my statements1 ,i reply1 may be true4 ,fire naturally does rise and mounts if nothing prevents it1 just as water naturally gravitates downwards4 ,but water if affected by a force which drives it uphill is pressed up in the direction from which it was precipitated in rain4 ,in like manner the same force as launched the bolt from the cloud causes it to fall to the ground4 ,something of the same kind happens to these #b celestial fires as to trees when bent4 ,the topmost branches if slender may be dragged down so as to touch the ground2 but when you let them go1 they rebound to their original position4 ,you must not regard the condition which an object involuntarily assumes as characteristic of it4 ,if you allow fire to go where it will1 it will return to the sky1 the abode of all the lightest bodies4 ,but when there is anything to carry it down and divert it from its natural course1 that is not a mark of its disposition but a token of its subjection4 ,,xxv ,you and your friends say1 an objector interposes1 that clouds emit fire through mutual friction when they are moist1 indeed wet4 ,how can such clouds produce fire1 which is no more likely to be generated by a cloud than by pure water8 ,,xxvi ,well1 first of all1 the fire which is thus produced is1 as it is #a found in the clouds1 not water1 but thick air1 adapted for the generating of water2 it is not yet changed into it1 but is already inclined toward1 and ready for1 the change4 ,there is no ground for supposing that water is first gathered in the clouds and afterwards shed from them4 ,it falls simultaneously with its formation4 ,but in the second place1 though ,i grant that the cloud is moist and charged with fully formed water1 still there is nothing to prevent fire being drawn from what is moist1 yes--and what will surprise you more to learn--out of pure moisture4 ,some authorities have actually affirmed #b that nothing can be converted into fire without a prior change into water4 ,a cloud1 then1 without prejudice to the water it may contain1 may emit fire at some part of it1 just as often one end of a log is blazing while the other exudes moisture4 ,i do not deny that fire and water are opposing elements and that the one destroys the other4 ,but where the fire is stronger than the water it wins the day4 ,on the other hand1 where there is a superabundant supply of moisture1 then fire is powerless4 ,that is why green wood won't burn4 ,the result depends1 therefore1 on the quantity of water present4 ,if it is small1 no effectual resistance is offered1 the fire is not prevented4 ,why1 #c according to ,posidonius' account1 when an island rose in the ,aegean ,sea long ago in our forefathers' days1 the sea was lashed into foam for a long time previously and sent up smoke from its depths4 ,at last fire was emitted1 not continuously1 but in flames shooting out at intervals1 after the fashion of thunderbolts1 just as often as the fervent heat of what lay below had overcome the weight of water above it4 ,by and by boulders were thrown up and rocks1 part of them still unimpaired1 #d which the air had thrust out before their calcination1 part of them corroded by the fire and changed to light pumice2 at last the cone of a blasted mountain issued from the waves4 ,subsequently1 there was an addition to its height1 and the rock grew in extent into an island4 ,the same thing happened within our own recollection during the second consulship of ,valerius ,asiaticus4 ,why have ,i narrated these incidents8 ,my purpose was to make it #e evident that neither is fire necessarily extinguished by having the whole sea poured over it1 nor its violence prevented from bursting out by the weight of huge waves4 ,asclepiodotus1 a pupil of ,posidonius1 has left it on record that the height to which the fire mounted1 after overcoming the resistance of the waves1 was a hundred fathoms4 ,now1 if such a huge mass of water was unable to overcome the force of the flames that rose from its depths1 how much less can the thin1 dewy moisture in the clouds extinguish fire in the atmosphere8 ,in short1 the #f moisture of the clouds is so far from presenting any obstacle to the formation of fire that lightning is never seen to flash except when the sky threatens rain4 ,a clear sky has no bolts to hurl4 ,no terror of that sort proceeds from a bright day1 nor for the matter of that from a night that is not enveloped in cloud4 ,but what6 ,i hear some one say4 ,does it not sometimes lighten in a calm night when the stars are visible8 ,it does1 but you must remember that there are clouds all the #g same in that quarter whence issues the flash2 only1 the earth's hump does not allow them to be seen by us4 ,add1 too1 what is quite possible1 that low clouds near the earth may produce fire through friction4 ,this fire when forced up to the upper regions becomes visible in the clear bright part of the sky1 but none the less its place of origin was in the dark vicinity of earth4 ,,xxvii ,some writers have distinguished different kinds of thunder1 saying #a there was one kind with a deep growl like that which precedes an earthquake1 when the wind moans and tries to burst its prison walls1 ,let me tell you how they suppose this kind of thunder to arise4 ,when the clouds have enclosed air1 it rolls through their cavernous depths and emits a hoarse1 regular1 continuous sound like bellowing4 ,so also when that quarter of the heavens is charged with moisture1 its exit is prevented until the thunder begins4 ,therefore1 thunder of this kind #b is a sure sign that rain is to follow4 ,there is another kind1 which is sharp1 and it might be described more accurately as a crackling than as a regular sound2 it resembles the report one hears when a bladder is burst over some one's head4 ,such thunder is the result of the breaking up of a densely massed cloud and the release of the air by which it was inflated4 ,this is appropriately named a peal1 sudden and violent4 ,when it occurs1 people collapse and are sometimes literally frightened to death by it2 others retain life1 but are dazed and completely lose their wits3 we call them thunder-struck1 for that sound in the heavens has quite unhinged their minds4 ,this sound may also be produced by #c the atmosphere shut up in a hollow cloud being rarefied1 merely through motion1 and expanded4 ,by and by in seeking more room for itself it resounds against the walls that envelop it4 ,in fact1 is it not just similar to the applause given out by the clapping of the hands8 only1 when the clouds collide1 the sounds may be expected to correspond in volume to the greatness of the encountering bodies4 ,,xxviii ,but clouds1 says some one1 are seen striking upon mountains4 without #a causing any sound4 ,how is that consistent with your theory8 ,well1 in the first place1 a sound is not caused by any and every method of cloud collision1 but only when there is an arrangement of their position suitable for producing a sound4 ,striking the backs of the hands does not produce clapping1 but the contact of palm with palm does4 ,it makes a great difference1 too1 whether the clouds that strike are hollow1 or flat and extended4 ,in the second place1 the clouds must not merely drift1 as against a mountain1 but be driven with great tempestuous violence4 ,besides1 a mountain does not cut through a cloud1 it merely #b disperses it by displacing the successive front layers of it4 ,even a bladder does not give a report irrespectively of the method in which it emits the air in it2 it depends on the way in which the air escapes4 ,if the bladder is cut with a knife1 the air is emitted without the ear perceiving it4 ,it must be burst1 not cut1 in order to give a report4 ,the same1 ,i assert1 holds in regard to the clouds3 they emit no peal unless broken up with great violence4 ,besides1 clouds driven against a mountain are not broken up1 but merely pour round certain parts of #c the mountain1 tree branches1 shrubs1 and rough projecting boulders4 ,they are rent thereby1 and emit by numerous exits whatever air they may contain2 but there is no rattle unless the air all burst out at once4 ,in proof of this1 bear in mind that the wind blowing through a tree1 #d which cuts it1 hisses but does not roar4 ,a broad blow1 so to speak1 that dissipates the whole mass at once1 is required in order to the emission of a sound such as is heard when there is thunder4 ,,xxix ,moreover1 the atmosphere is by constitution adapted to the transmission of sound4#df ,of necessity this is so1 since sound is nothing but an impact of the atmosphere4 ,the clouds that as indicated are completely rent must therefore be hollow and taut4 ,one sees how much more resonant empty vessels are than full1 and distended ones than slack4 ,so this accounts for the sound of tambourines and cymbals2 the former resound because the blow upon the air is resisted at the farther side2 the latter are beaten against the air directly1 but unless there were a cavity in the instrument it would not tinkle4 #df ,the specific word vox voice is used in the text4 ,,xxx ,some authors1 including ,asclepiodotus1 are convinced that thunder #a and lightning may also be produced by the collision of certain solid bodies4 ,once ,etna was in violent eruption and cast up a huge quantity of burning sand4 ,the daylight was veiled with the cloud of dust1 and sudden night terrified the world4 ,on that occasion1 they allege1 there was much thunder and lightning1 produced1 they maintain1 by the concourse of dry bodies1 not of clouds3 with such a glow in the firmament there probably were no clouds at all4 ,cambyses once sent an army to the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon in the desert4 ,the sand raised by #b the south wind fell on it like snowflakes1 first covering and finally overwhelming it4 ,probably on that occasion also there was thunder and lightning1 caused by the mutual friction of the particles of sand4 ,such a view is not inconsistent with my contention above4 ,i have said that #c the earth's exhalations contain bodies of two kinds1 dry and moist1 portions of which roam through the whole expanse of the atmosphere4 ,so if any heavy element be introduced1 it makes a cloud thicker and more solid than if its texture were of pure air exclusively4 ,such a solid cloud may burst with a loud report4 ,the elements ,i have #d mentioned1 whether they have charged the atmosphere with moist fires or with earth-sweeping winds1 must produce a cloud before they produce a report4 ,dry elements no less than moist may make up a cloud4 ,for cloud1 as we have already said1 is just a condensation of thick air4 ,,xxxi ,but further1 if you will but open your eyes to them1 there are #a marvellous effects in lightning that leave no doubt that a subtle divine power is inherent in it4 ,for example1 coins are fused while the purse containing them is uninjured and intact4 ,a sword is melted while the sheath remains4 ,the iron point is fused in a javelin1 but the wooden shaft suffers no damage4 ,the jar is smashed and the wine frozen1 but the stiffness does not last for more than three days4 ,there are other no less notable effects of lightning4 ,the head of #b man or other animal struck by it always points in the direction whence the lightning issued3 the twigs of all trees that are struck rise straight up in the direction of the lightning4 ,let me add1 too1 when venomous serpents or other animals whose bite is fatal are struck with lightning1 all the poison disappears4 ,how1 you say1 can ,i tell that8 ,in the dead bodies of poisonous animals worms are not produced4 ,but when struck with lightning they breed worms within a few days4 ,,xxxii ,lightning portends the future1 too4 ,nor do the signs it gives refer #a to only one or two events4 ,often a complete series of fate's succeeding decrees is intimated1 with proof1 too1 plain to demonstration1 far more distinct than if it were recorded in writing4 ,there are differences of interpretation1 however1 between our countrymen and the ,tuscans1 the latter of whom possess consummate skill in the explanation of the meaning of lightning4 ,we think that because clouds collide1 therefore #b lightning is emitted2 they hold that clouds collide in order that lightning may be emitted4 ,they refer everything to the will of ,god3 therefore they are strong in their conviction that lightning does not give an indication of the future because it has occurred1 but occurs because it is meant to give this indication4 ,whether the indication is its purpose or its consequence makes no difference in the method of its occurrence4 ,how1 then1 do they give indication unless they are sent by ,god8 ,just in the same way as birds give favourable or unfavourable #c omens1 though they are not moved on their flight for the express purpose of meeting us4 ,god moves them too1 it is urged4 ,you imagine ,he has so little to do that ,he can attend to trifles of this sort1 if you will have ,him arrange visions for one1 entrails of victims for another4 ,nevertheless1 all those things are managed by ,divine agency1 not1 #d however1 in the sense that the wings of birds are immediately directed by ,god1 or the bowels of cattle arranged by ,him in certain forms under the priest's axe4 ,it is in far other way that the roll of fate is unfolded2 it sends ahead in all directions intimations of what is to follow1 which are in part familiar1 in part unknown to us4 ,everything that happens is a sign of something that is going to happen3 mere chance occurrences uncontrolled by any rational principle do not admit of the application of divination4 ,an event that belongs to a #e series thereby becomes capable of being predicted4 ,but why1 then1 is the honour conferred upon the eagle of giving omens concerning great events8 or a similar function assigned to the raven and a very few other birds1 while all the rest give no presage by their notes8 ,the reason simply is that some departments have not yet been brought within the sphere of the art of augury1 while some are incapable of ever being brought within it1 because our acquaintance with them is too slight4 ,as a matter of fact1 there is no living creature whose movement or #f meeting with us does not foretell something4 ,of course1 only some1 not all1 can be observed4 ,the omen lies in the observation4 ,so it concerns the person who directs his attention to it4 ,but other things as well concern him1 though they pass unheeded4 ,for instance1 the ,chaldaeans confined their observation to the five great planets4 ,but do you suppose that the influence of so many thousands of other bright stars is naught8 ,the essential error of those who pretend to skill in #g casting the horoscope lies in limiting our destinies to the influence of a few of the stars1 while all that float above us in the heavens claim some share in us4 ,perchance the lower stars exert their force on us more directly2 and#dg the same may be true of the stars that by reason of their more frequent movements turn their view upon man in a different way from that in which it is turned upon other living creatures4 ,but even those stars that are either stationary or1 from their velocity being the same as that of the world as a whole1 seem to be so1 are not without sway and dominion over us4 ,add one other #h consideration and you have the subject set out with due arrangement of its parts3#dh it is not more easy to ascertain what the power of the stars is than justifiable to doubt that they possess such power4 #dg ,or1 ,turn their view upon man no less than on the other living creatures now from one point1 now from another1 i4e4 under more varied aspects4 ,the passage is doubtful4 ,the general sense is plain3 nearness1 frequency of appearance1 and variety of aspect severally are or may be special factors in determining a star's influence on the fate of man4 #dh ,the text is corrupt and the sense more or less conjectural4 ,ruhkopf suggests that the words may have been transferred from some other passage to this4 ,one would be inclined to suspect that adjice add1 instead of aspice see1 regard1 is the correct word at the beginning of the sentence4 ,,xxxiii ,to return now to lightning3 the art relating to it falls into three divisions--its observation1 its interpretation1 its deprecation4 ,the first has regard to the category in which it should be placed1 the second to divination1 the third to the propitiation of the gods1 whose blessings we ought to ask and whose threats we must avert by prayer4 ,we must ask them to fulfil their promises1 pray them to remit their threats4 ,,xxxiv ,people are convinced that lightning possesses sovereign power1 #a because its occurrence destroys the force of other portents4 ,on the other hand1 whatever it portends is regarded as unalterable1 and the appearance of no other omen lessens its import4 ,anything threatened by unfavourable entrails or inauspicious birds will be cancelled by favourable lightning4 ,but any warning given by lightning cannot be defeated by opposing entrail or omen4 ,now this belief seems to me mistaken4 ,my reason8 ,simply that nothing can be truer than the truth4 #b ,if birds have truly foretold the future1 the omen cannot be nullified by lightning3 if it can1 then it was not a true prophecy the birds uttered4 ,it is not bird and lightning whose force ,i am here comparing1 but two revelations of truth1 which must be equal in authority if they are equally intimations of truth4 ,therefore1 if the occurrence of lightning destroys the indications given by priests or augurs1 there must have been a flaw in the inspection of the entrails or the observation of the auguries4 ,it is not a question of which of the #c two kinds of omen possesses the more exalted or powerful character3 if both have furnished indications of truth1 they are so far equal4 ,you would be quite justified in asserting that the power of flame was greater than that of smoke2 but flame has just the same power as smoke1 and no more1 in giving indication of the existence of fire4 ,so if the statement is confined to the assertion of the greater authority of lightning on occasions when the entrails give one indication and lightning a different one1 ,i shall perhaps agree4 ,but if the statement go on to affirm that although other signs have foretold the truth1 #d yet the lightning stroke has destroyed all that went before and claims credit only for itself1 then the statement is untrue4 ,and for this reason3 the mere number of the auspices makes no difference4 ,fate is but one4 ,if it was rightly understood through the first auspice1 it is not destroyed through the second2 it remains just the same4 ,and so ,i say again it does not matter whether the means of our inquiry 7 auspice7 is the same or different1 since the object of the inquiry remains the same4 ,,xxxv ,fate cannot be changed by lightning4 ,and why8 ,lightning is itself #a a part of fate4 ,well1 then1 it may be asked1 what is the good of expiation and atonement if the fates are immutable8 ,let me uphold the rigid sect that takes exception to such rites and regards vows as but comfort to a breast ill at ease4 ,the fates perform their function in a far different way from that supposed2 they are not moved by any prayer nor changed by pity nor by favour4 ,the course they hold is irrevocable2 once they have entered upon it they flow on by unalterable decree4 #b ,as the water of rushing cataracts returns not upon itself1 nor yet lingers1 since each succeeding wave drives headlong that which went before2 so the order of events is rolled on by the eternal succession of fate1 whose first law it is to abide by its decrees4 ,,xxxvi ,for what is one to understand as meant by fate8 ,i suppose it is the #a binding necessity of all events and actions1 a necessity that no force can break4 ,if you believe that such a power can be prevailed upon to change through sacrifice or the head of a snow-white lamb1 you know little about the ,divine dispensation4 ,you say that even a wise man #b does not change his mind3 how much less is ,god a man that he should change8 ,even the wise man knows what is best under present conditions2 to the ,divine wisdom everything is present4 ,still1 ,i wish1 for the moment1 to advocate the views of those who hold that atonement should be made for lightning1 and who have no doubt that expiation is of avail1 now to remove dangers1 now to mitigate them1 now to delay them4 ,,xxxvii ,in a little ,i will follow up what ,i have said and show the #a consequences involved4 ,meantime we have so much in common with the persons last mentioned in holding that vows are of service1 but without prejudice to the power and sway of fate4 ,some things are1 in fact1 left by the immortal gods in such a state of suspense as to turn to the advantage of worshippers if they employ prayer to heaven and take vows upon them4 ,this1 then1 is so far from being opposed to fate that it is actually a part of fate4 ,but my opponent argues thus3 an event is either going or is not going to take place4 ,if it is going to1 then #b it will take place1 even though you take no vows upon you4 ,if it is not going to1 then it won't1 even though you take the vows4 ,the dilemma1 ,i reply1 is no valid one3 you overlook an alternative that lies between those horns of yours4 ,this1 say ,i1 will take place1 but not unless vows have been taken upon those concerned4 ,this1 too1 one may say1 must be included in the order of fate1 either that you undertake the vows or that you do not4 ,,xxxviii ,suppose that ,i surrender at discretion and admit that it is likewise #a included in fate that vows be assuredly performed4 ,then for that reason they will be performed4 ,it is fated that a man be eloquent1 but only if he use due means and apply himself to study4 ,the same destiny enjoins that he should study2 therefore he will study4 ,another will be rich1 but he must first go to sea4 ,but in the order of fate in which he is promised a great fortune1 it is also decreed that he go to sea2 therefore he will go to sea4 ,in regard to expiation1 ,i apply just #b the same principle4 ,a man is fated to escape danger if he expiate the threats foretold by heaven4 ,but it is likewise contained in fate that he offer expiation2 therefore he will offer it4 ,an objection is usually urged against this view which seeks to prove that no freedom of will is on this assumption left to us1 all sway is handed over to fate4 ,when ,i come to treat of that subject1 ,i will explain how1 without infringing the power of fate1 something may still be left to human choice4 ,for the nonce1 ,i have explained the point at #c issue1 viz4 how1 consistently with an order fixed by fate1 perils from prodigies may be averted through expiation and sacrifice1 inasmuch as they do not conflict with fate1 but1 on the contrary1 are assumed by the very law of fate4 ,what benefit1 then1 you say1 can ,i derive from a soothsayer8 ,in any case ,i must of necessity offer expiation1 even though he be not by to advise it4 ,he so far does good in that he is the instrument of fate4 ,in like manner1 when recovery from illness seems the work of fate1 it is due at the same time to the doctor1 because the boon of fate passes through his hands in order to reach us4 ,,xxxix ,there are1 ,caecina says1 three kinds of lightning--the counselling1 #a the authoritative1 and what is called the ordinary4 ,the counselling occurs before an event1 but after the design is formed4 ,when something is simmering in one's mind1 the lightning stroke either urges it or deters from it4 ,the authoritative one succeeds an event1 indicating its outcome as good or ill fortune4 ,in the ordinary case1 people #b are busied neither with action nor design when the lightning suddenly occurs4 ,the flash conveys either threat1 promise1 or warning4 ,the last form is indeed called admonitory3 ,i am disposed to think it is identical with the counselling mentioned above4 ,one who warns at the same time counsels4 ,yet there is a distinction between them4 ,therefore they are put in different classes4 ,the one applies suasion or dissuasion1 the other is restricted to warning how to avoid an impending danger2 as1 for example1 fire1 or deception from #c neighbours1 or a plot by slaves4 ,besides1 ,i can perceive another difference between the two kinds3 if one has a design1 then the lightning that occurs counsels2 but if one has no such design1 it warns4 ,each situation has its own peculiar features4 ,in deliberation advice is appropriate1 but a warning comes unsought4 ,,xl ,on the face of it1 one's comment on this view would be that these #a are so many kinds of prognostications and not of lightning4 ,of the latter the kinds are the boring1 the splitting1 and the scorching4 ,the first has a subtle flame1 which from its unalloyed purity can win escape through the tiniest aperture4 ,the second1 which scatters to the winds what it strikes1 is massed fire with an admixture of condensed tempestuous wind4 ,so the first kind escapes again by the opening by which it entered4 ,the second spreads wide the effects of its violence1 it bursts what it strikes1 and does not perforate it4 ,the third kind mentioned1 the scorching1 has much earthiness in its composition1 #b and contains fire rather than flame4 ,it therefore leaves deep scars of fire1 which will be branded in what it has struck4 ,no lightning1 it is true1 that comes to earth is fireless1 but this kind is distinctively called fiery1 because it imprints the marks of fire so manifestly1 by either scorching or staining4 ,it scorches in three different ways1 that is1 it either breathes on its object1 so to speak1 inflicting slight injury1 or burns it right up1 or sets it on fire4 ,all those are methods of what ,i have called scorching1 differing1 however1 in character and degree4 ,whatever is1 for example1 burnt up is necessarily scorched as well4 ,but the converse is not equally true1 everything #c that is scorched is not necessarily burnt up4 ,and so with what is set on fire2 it is not necessarily consumed1 the fire may merely have scorched it in passing4 ,everybody knows that things may be scorched without breaking out into fire1 but that nothing can break out into fire without being scorched4 ,i have only one further remark on the point3 an object may be consumed without being set on fire2 it may also be set on fire without being consumed4 ,,xli ,i pass on now to the kind of lightning that stains objects struck by #a it4 ,the staining is either discolouring or colouring1 between which ,i draw a distinction4 ,when the colour is spoiled1 without being changed1 there is discolouring4 ,on the contrary1 there is colouring when the aspect of an object becomes different in kind from what it was1 for example1 when it turns dark blue or black or pale4 ,so far the ,etruscans and the philosophers are in agreement4 ,but disagreement begins when the former go on to assert that lightning is sent by ,jupiter1 to whom they assign three species of bolt4 ,the first1 according to their #b statement1 gives a peaceful warning1 being sent by ,jove's own counsel4 ,the second is1 it is true1 sent also by him1 but by advice of his council1 to which he summons the twelve gods as assessors4 ,this bolt is no doubt beneficial1 but not without doing damage to some extent4 ,the third kind of bolt is still of ,jove's sending1 but he summons into council the so-called supreme veiled gods4 ,this bolt causes destruction of what it encounters1 and in particular it changes the existing condition of private and public affairs that it finds4 ,for fire allows nothing to remain as it is4 ,,xlii ,taking a superficial view one would pronounce these old beliefs all #a wrong4 ,what could be more absurd than to believe that ,jupiter hurls bolts from the clouds1 aiming at pillars1 trees1 aye1 and statues of himself sometimes1 or that1 passing by the sacrilegious unbelievers1 he strikes sheep1 sets fire to altars1 and smites innocent flocks8 or can one imagine that great ,jove should call the gods into council1 as if he were himself lacking in counsel8 ,or that those bolts bring promise of peace and joy that he hurls unaided1 and those cause destruction in whose despatch a greater crowd of deities was concerned8 ,if you ask my #b opinion on the point1 however1 ,i may tell you that ,i do not for a moment suppose those people of old were so obtuse as to believe that ,jupiter was evilly disposed or1 to say the least of it1 insufficiently prepared with his missiles4 ,when he issued fiery bolts to pass over the heads of the wicked and strike the innocent1 as is alleged1 did he1 do you suppose1 refuse to send them with truer aim1 or did he miss his shot8 ,if that cannot be the explanation1 what was the idea of those ancients in speaking as they did8 ,being men of profound wisdom #c they were1 in my opinion1 of the settled conviction that fear was essential to restrain the passions of the ignorant2 we must reverence something higher than ourselves4 ,in a time of such audacious crime it was expedient that there be a belief in something which no criminal could seem powerful enough to resist4 ,and so it was to terrify those wretches1 against whose passions innocence is no protection unless backed up by fear1 that they placed over us in the heavens the image of an avenger1 and him well armed4 ,,xliii ,why1 therefore1 on this assumption1 is the bolt that ,jupiter sends alone1 peaceful1 while the other is destructive on which he has sought counsel1 and which he has sent down with the approval of other gods besides8 ,the reason is that ,jupiter1 that is1 an absolute monarch1 when acting alone ought to be always a power for good2 he should not inflict injury unless when a numerous council has ratified the decision4 ,from this let all those who have inherited great earthly power learn that not even the bolt of heaven is sent without counsel taken4 ,let them call to them their advisers1 let them ponder the opinions of a multitude of counsellors1 let them temper the rigour of their decrees2 and when some blow must fall1 let them not forget that even ,jupiter needs more than his own wisdom to guide him4 ,,xliv ,nor1 again1 were the ancient sages so stupid as to suppose that #a ,jupiter changed his missiles4 ,it is only the licence of poetry that can with decency say3 ,there is another and lighter bolt to which the ,cyclopes' hands ,have added less of harshness and of flame1 less1 too1 of wrath4 ,the dwellers above call them missiles of peace4 ,those men of exalted wisdom were undoubtedly not possessed with the #b delusion that ,jupiter sometimes employs lighter bolts1 weapons of the practising school1 so to speak4 ,their object was to warn those who have to direct their bolts against the sins of men1 that all offences are not to be visited after the same fashion3 some offenders must be crushed1 some censured and lightly punished1 some#di dismissed with an admonition4 #di ,admoneri to be admonished1 seems necessary1 instead of the authoriser admoveri1 to which it is impossible to attach any satisfactory meaning in this connection4 ,the word means to be moved towards2 amoveri to be removed1 would make sense4 ,,xlv ,nor yet did these ancient sages believe that the ,jupiter we worship #a in the ,capitol and the rest of the temples ever really hurled thunderbolts from his hand4 ,they recognised the same ,jupiter as we do1 the guardian and ruler of the universe1 its soul and breath1 the maker and lord of this earthly frame of things1 to whom every name of power is appropriate4 ,if you prefer to call him fate1 you will not be wrong4 ,he it is on whom depend all things1 from whom proceed all causes of causes4 ,if you prefer to call him providence1 you will still be right2 for he it is by whose counsel provision is made for the world that #b it may pursue its orderly course and unfold the drama of its being4 ,if you prefer to call him nature1 you will make no mistake2 for it is he from whom all things derive being1 and by whose breath we live4 ,if you prefer to call him the world1 you will not be in error2 for he is everything that you can see1 he is wholly infused in all his parts1 self-sustained through inherent power4 ,the ,etruscans thought so too4 ,they said bolts were sent by ,jove1 just because nothing is performed except by his power4 ,,xlvi ,but1 you ask1 why does ,jupiter pass over the guilty and strike the innocent8 ,that is too big a question to enter on here2 it shall have its own place and time4 ,meantime ,i insist on this1 that bolts are not sent directly by ,jupiter1 but that all things are so arranged that even what is not done by him is yet not done without some plan1 which plan is his4 ,the force of the bolts is a consequence of his permission4 ,for even though ,jupiter does not make them1 he caused them to be made4 ,he does not superintend every detail2 but to all he gives the signal1 force1 and cause4 ,,xlvii ,there is another division of them made to which ,i cannot agree4 ,they are1 according to the assertion of some1 either constant or limited or deferred4 ,the constant are those whose prognostication extends all over life1 not merely intimating a single occurrence1 but embracing the series of coming events through the whole subsequent life4 ,this is the kind of bolt that occurs first after entrance on an inheritance1 or when an individual or a city has entered on a new phase of existence4 ,limited ones answer exactly to a definite date4 ,deferred are those whose threats may be delayed1 though they cannot be averted and completely avoided4 ,,xlviii ,i will now state my reasons for disagreeing with this division4 ,one #a is that even the bolt which is called constant lasts for a limited period4 ,such bolts correspond no less than others to a definite date4 ,nor do they cease to be limited because the period they signify is a long one4 ,so1 too1 what is thought to be deferred is limited4 ,for by the admission of the advocates of this division the period for which delay can be procured is a definite one4 ,bolts that relate to private matters cannot1 according to them1 be delayed longer than ten years1 those relating to public affairs not more than thirty4 ,so this class1 as well as the first1 is limited1 as it includes the date beyond which the prognostication cannot be deferred4 ,there is thus a fixed period #b for bolts and results of every kind4 ,for of what is uncertain there could be no distinct knowledge4 ,then1 too1 these people talk in too vague and general terms about the points to be noted in lightning4 ,they ought rather to divide them according to the scheme of the philosopher ,attalus1 who had specialised in this department4 ,the inspection should determine where the lightning occurred1 when1 to whom1 in what connection1 of what kind1 of what amount4 ,if ,i were to attempt to arrange and classify all these1 ,i should just be committing myself to an endless task4 ,,xlix ,let me now glance at the names of the lightning adopted by ,caecina1 #a and explain my own opinion of them4 ,he calls one kind imperative1 as it demands the re-establishment of sacrifices neglected or informally offered4 ,admonitory is the second kind1 giving information of what must be guarded against4 ,pestilential is a kind that portends death or exile4 ,deceptive is that which1 under guise of some benefit1 inflicts injury2 for example1 it gives the consulship to some one whose ruin #b the office will prove1 or bestows an estate the profit of which must be compensated by some great loss4 ,the avertible1 again1 bring an appearance of danger without real danger4 ,the destructive remove the threats of previous lightning4 ,the attested signify an agreement with former lightning4 ,the earth-borne occur in a covered place4 ,the overwhelming strike what was previously struck without due atonement having been made4 ,the royal smite either the election ground or the #c government quarter of a free city2 their prognostication threatens a free state with an absolute monarchy4 ,infernal are when fire issues from the ground4 ,hospitable summon or1 to use a more polite word1 invite ,jupiter to share a sacrificial feast with us4 ,if he happen to be angry with his host when he is invited1 then his coming1 ,caecina says1 is fraught with danger to his entertainers4 ,auxiliary come by summons too1 but bring good to the summoner4 ,l ,but how much simpler is the division employed by our distinguished #a ,stoic1 ,attalus1 who combined skill in the ,etruscan lore with all the subtlety of ,greek thought6 ,of the different kinds of lightning1 he says1 one gives intimation of something that concerns us1 another kind intimates either a thing of no importance or something whose meaning does not reach us4 ,of the significant lightning there are several varieties--one is favourable1 one unfavourable1 a third neither one nor other4 ,of the unfavourable there are all these forms--the evils #b portended may be either unavoidable or avoidable1 or such as may be mitigated1 or such as may be delayed4 ,again1 the benefits foretold by the favourable may be either abiding or transient4 ,the mixture of favourable and unfavourable may either consist of half and half1 good and ill2 or ill may be turned by them into good1 or good into ill4 ,the lightning that is neither unfavourable nor favourable gives us intimation of some action by which we need neither be terrified nor elated1 for example1 a journey abroad from which there is nothing either to fear or hope4 ,,li ,let me revert for a moment to the lightning that portends something1 but a something that does not concern us2 for instance1 whether the same kind of lightning as has occurred will again occur in the same year4 ,sometimes lightning contains no indication at all1 or one whose grasp eludes us2 as1 for example1 those manifestations of it that are scattered through the spaces of the sea or in lonely deserts4 ,their indication1 if any1 is lost4 ,,lii ,i have still a few remarks to add in order to show more fully the #a force of lightning in various ways1 for its power is not always displayed in just the same way in every kind of material4 ,for instance1 the stronger bodies are shattered with greater violence on account of their resistance2 it sometimes passes through the yielding ones without doing any damage4 ,with stone and iron and all the hard substances it enters into conflict1 because in its impetuous course it must find a way through them2 so it makes a way by which to escape4 ,the more flexible and thinner substances1 though they seem very suitable material for flames1 it spares1 mitigating its fury when it encounters no obstacle to its passage4 ,and so1 as ,i said at a previous point1 coin is found fused1 while the purse that contained it is untouched2 the extremely thin fire runs through the invisible interstices of the latter4 ,but whatever solidity it meets in a beam it subdues as being refractory4 ,for1 as ,i have just said1 its fury does not always #b take the same form2 the nature of the force in each case is revealed merely by the kind of the damage1 and you can tell the species of the lightning by its effect4 ,again1 the force of the same flash produces many varieties of damage in the same material4 ,for example1 in a tree it scorches any portion that is very dry2 what is firm and hard it bores through and smashes2 the outer bark it scatters1 the inner layers nearer the centre it bursts and cuts up1 the leaves it lashes and strips off4 ,wine is frozen1 iron and copper fused4 ,,liii ,it is a strange fact that when wine that has been thus frozen is used #a after it returns to its liquid state1 it either kills or drives mad those who have drunk of it4 ,when one inquires why this effect should be produced1 the suggestion presents itself that the lightning contains a pestilential force1 some taint of which probably is left in the liquid it has condensed and frozen4 ,indeed1 the substance could never have been solidified had not some bond of cohesion been introduced4 ,moreover1 in oil and every kind of unguent there is a foul smell after lightning has touched them4 ,whence it is manifest that this #b subtle fire1 driven in a direction contrary to its nature1 contains a pestilential power1 for not only its blow but even its mere breath is overwhelming4 ,moreover1 wherever lightning has struck there is sure always to be a smell of sulphur1 a substance which1 being naturally poisonous1 causes delirium if breathed too freely4 ,but we shall return to this point when we are more at leisure4 ,for ,i should like some day to prove the extent to which the world is indebted to philosophy1 the parent of the arts1 for knowledge of all such matters4 ,she it was that first both investigated the causes of things and noted their effects4 ,she performed a service far more valuable than the inspection of lightning in thus comparing results with the principles from which they are derived4 ,,liv ,i will at this point revert to ,posidonius' opinion of the cause of #a thunder4 ,from the earth and its confines are exhaled certain elements1 partly moist1 partly dry and smoke-like4 ,the latter element remains in the sky as material for lightning1 while the former falls in rain4 ,the dry smoky particles that reach the atmosphere will not allow themselves to be enclosed in clouds1 but burst their envelope4 ,thence comes the report which we name thunder4 ,besides this1 anything in the atmosphere itself that is rarefied is at the same time dried and heated up4 ,this also1 if it is enclosed1 seeks an exit with equal eagerness1 and #b causes a report as it escapes4 ,on one occasion it makes a complete burst1 and the thunder is consequently the more violent2 on another it escapes by degrees in small portions4 ,air of this kind1 then1 by either bursting or flying through the clouds1 produces peals of thunder4 ,the rolling of the air enclosed in a cloud is the most potent cause of setting fire to what is struck4 ,,lv ,thunder is1 in short1 simply the report of explosions of dry air1 #a which cannot occur unless there is either friction or a rent in a cloud4 ,posidonius adds that if the clouds merely collide with each other1 the kind of blow needed to produce an explosion is given1 but not completely2 clouds do not meet through their whole extent1 but only part with part4 ,and again1 soft substances do not resound unless knocked against hard ones2 a wave is not heard unless when it beats on the hard shore4 ,but fire1 which is soft1 says an opponent1 when let into water1 also a soft substance1 produces sound in being extinguished4 ,well1 suppose it is so1 it makes for the opposite view #b which ,i urge4 ,for it is not really the fire that makes the sound1 but the air escaping through the water that is quenching it4 ,granted that fire is both produced and extinguished in the cloud1 it arises from air and friction4 ,well then1 it is urged1 may not some of the shooting stars plunge into a cloud and be extinguished8 ,even supposing that such a thing can and sometimes does occur1 it does not remove the difficulty4 ,it is not the occasional chance cause but the natural normal one that we are in search of4 ,suppose ,i admit the truth of your contention that occasionally after thunder fires gleam in the heavens much like shooting and falling stars4 ,yet this does not prove that #c the thunder was caused by them2 it merely shows that the thunder occurred simultaneously with this other phenomenon4 ,clidemus asserts that a lightning flash is an empty reflection1 and not real fire2 for in the same way after nightfall a gleam appears from the motion of oars in water4 ,his illustration is not on all fours with the phenomenon4 ,in the latter case the gleam is seen actually within the water2 in the former1 in the atmosphere1 it bursts and leaps out of its element4 ,,lvi ,heraclitus is of opinion that the flash of lightning is the first #a attempt of a fire to kindle2 just as on earth when the flame is at first unsteady1 now dying down and now darting up again4 ,the ancients used to call this summer lightning4 ,we now say in the plural thunder peals 7tonitrua72 the ancients said either thunder 7tonitruum1 sing47 or merely peal 7noise1 tonus74 ,the foregoing remark ,i #b find in ,caecina1 an eloquent man1 who would have had a considerable reputation as such had he not been overshadowed by ,cicero's towering form4 ,besides1 the ancients had other variants of a similar kind4 ,they employed with the penult short the word that we use with it long2 we say fulgre 7to lighten7 just as we do splendre 7to gleam74 ,but in order to denote this sudden burst of light from the clouds their usage was to shorten the middle syllable so as to make it fulgre4 ,,lvii ,what do ,i think myself about the matter1 you ask4 ,for up to this #a point ,i have been reproducing the opinions of others4 ,well1 ,i will tell you4 ,there is lightning when light bursts out suddenly and widely4 ,this occurs when the atmosphere has been changed1 by the rarefaction of the clouds1 into fire1 which has not gathered strength to issue to any considerable distance4 ,there is1 ,i presume1 no cause for surprise either that movement rarefies air or that rarefaction kindles fire4 ,in the same way a leaden bullet is liquefied when discharged from a sling1 and falls in drops by reason of atmospheric friction just as it would do through fire4 ,bolts of lightning are more numerous in #b summer1 for the reason that there is most heat at that season4 ,fire naturally starts more readily when the friction is in warmer air4 ,a flash of lightning which merely gleams and a bolt which is discharged are produced in exactly the same way4 ,but there is less force in the former case and less fuel4 ,to put my opinion on the point shortly3 a bolt is just lightning in its most intense form4 ,so then1 when a body #c of the nature of heat or smoke is exhaled from the earth and1 meeting with clouds1 is for a long time rolled about in their hollows1 at last it bursts out4 ,since it possesses no strength1 it is merely a flash4 ,but when lightnings have more material and burn with fiercer glow1 they not merely become visible1 but also fall to the earth4 ,,lviii ,some writers are firmly convinced that the lightning bolt always #a returns to the clouds4 ,others hold that the bolt settles in the ground1 at least when its fuel is heavy1 and when it has comparatively little force in its stroke as it glides down4 ,but why1 it may be asked1 does the bolt make its appearance suddenly1 and is there not a continuous trail of fire8 ,it is on account of the extreme rapidity of its motion2 it fires the air at the same moment as it bursts through the cloud4 ,by and by when the motion ceases1 the flame subsides4 ,for the course of the air that forms the bolt is intermittent1 which #b prevents continuity in the fire4 ,as often as the air by its more violent agitation sets itself on fire it conceives an impulse toward flight4 ,when the internal conflict has been ended by its escape1 it is afterwards for the same reason sometimes carried down as far as the earth1 and sometimes1 if urged down with less force1 it is dissipated in air4 ,why1 again1 is the course of the lightning oblique8 ,the reason is that the air current of which it is composed is oblique and tortuous4 ,nature summons fire upward1 violence presses it downward1 #c and so it begins to be zigzag4 ,sometimes1 when neither force gives way to the other1 the fire is at the same moment urged toward the upper and depressed toward the nether regions4 ,why are the peaks of mountains frequently struck by it8 ,because they are exposed to the clouds1 and objects falling from heaven to earth must pass by way of them4 ,,lix ,i know quite well what you have long been anxious to say and what you #a demand4 ,i had rather1 you say1 get rid of fear of thunderbolts than learn all about them4 ,so you may reserve for others your instruction regarding their origin4 ,let me be delivered from fear of them rather than be informed of their nature4 ,well1 ,i will follow your invitation1 for ,i quite allow that some moral should be attached to all studies and all discourse4 ,as we dive into the secrets of nature and treat #b of things in the heavens1 the soul must be delivered from its errors and from time to time reassured4 ,even the learned who devote themselves exclusively to this pursuit require such reassurance2 not in order to escape the arrows of fortune1 for her missiles are hurled on us from every side1 but in order to bear them with resolution and constancy4 ,unvanquished we may be1 unassailed we cannot be1 though meantime the hope sometimes insinuates itself that even this is possible4 ,how8 you exclaim4 ,despise death and then everything that leads to death is #c despised1 be it war or shipwreck1 or the jaws of wild beasts1 or the weight of roofs rushing down with sudden fall4 ,what more can they do than part the body from the soul8 ,and this parting no care can shun1 no good fortune can remove1 no power can prevent4 ,other features in human lot are variously assigned2 to death's call all are alike subject4 #d ,whether heaven is propitious or wrathful1 die we must4 ,let courage be derived from our very despair4 ,the most cowardly of animals which nature has created for flight1 if they find no way of escape open to them1 show fight with their unwarlike body4 ,in fact1 no foe is more deadly than one into whom a tight corner has put courage4 ,far more violent resistance is offered to death through necessity than through valour4 ,a desperate soul shows as much daring as a #e courageous1 probably more4 ,let us assume that1 so far as concerns death1 we are given over to it2 and so we are4 ,the fact is so1 ,lucilius2 we are all destined to death4 ,all this nation that you see1 all the people you can anywhere suppose to exist1 will some day soon be recalled by nature to the grave4 ,there is no question of the fact1 only of the day4 ,sooner or later we must all go to the one place4 ,well1 then1 does not he seem to you the most fearful and silliest of men #f who by great entreaty seeks to delay death8 ,would you not despise a man who was set in a company of those appointed to death if he asked by way of favour to be allowed to be the last to lay his head upon the block8 ,we do the same in setting such store upon a little delay in the time of death4 ,capital punishment is the sentence on all mankind1 and the sentence is most just4 ,we possess what is wont to be regarded as #g the greatest consolation that those sentenced to the extreme penalty could enjoy2 the circumstances of all being the same1 our fate is the same4 ,if handed over by a judge or magistrate to execution1 we should follow and render obedience to our executioner2 what difference does it make whether it is by order of another or of our own accord that we go to death8 ,how foolish you must be1 how forgetful of your feebleness if you are afraid of death every time it thunders6 ,does your abiding safety really depend on this8 ,will life be secure if you escape the lightning8 ,you #h will be a victim of the sword1 of a stone1 of a fever4 ,the lightning is not the most serious of dangers1 it is only the most conspicuous4 ,your fate1 ,i should think1 would not be a bad one if the inconceivable rapidity of your death prevented any sense of it1 if your death was the occasion of sacrificial ceremonies1 if even when you breathe your last1 you are not quite a superfluity1 but remain as a sign of some great event4 ,your fate is surely not bad if you are buried along #i with the bolt of lightning4 ,and yet you are in panic at a crash in the sky1 you tremble at the sound of a hollow cloud2 as often as there is a flash you are ready to give up the ghost4 ,well then1 is it in your judgment more creditable to die of sheer chicken-heartedness than to be killed by lightning8 ,rather1 say ,i1 confront all the more resolutely the threats of the heavens1 and when the universal world is in flames around you1 consider that in such a mighty mass you have nothing to lose4 ,but if you can bring yourself to believe that that wreck of #aj heaven1 that conflict of the stormy winds1 is aimed at you1 if it is on your account that the clouds are piled up and collide and roar1 if it is for your destruction that such a mass of fire is scattered abroad1 then you may surely regard it as some consolation that your death has cost so dear6 ,but there will then be no room for such a reflection4 ,the fate of one struck by lightning removes all fear4 ,among other advantages it includes this1 that it anticipates your expectation2 no man ever was afraid of lightning except one who had escaped it4 ,,book ,,iii ,,which ,,treats ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,forms ,,of ,,water ,,preface ,i am not unaware1 my dear friend ,lucilius1 of the greatness of the #a edifice whose foundations ,i am laying in my old age1 when ,i resolve to survey the universe1 to unearth its motives and secrets1 and to reveal them to the knowledge of others4 ,when shall ,i ever manage to cover such a field1 gather together such widely-spread material1 behold with clear vision such profound secrets8 ,old age presses hard on the rear1 upbraiding me with the years bestowed on vain pursuits4 ,we must ply our task all the more vigorously1 and toil must now make good the loss of a lifetime withdrawn from its true purpose4 ,night must be added to day1 engagements cut short1 care abandoned of property that lies far away #b from its owner4 ,the mind must be wholly set free from other thoughts1 and at least at the moment of its flight from earth must bestow itself in self-contemplation4 ,it shall do so1 and shall urge itself on1 and each day it shall measure the brief span of time left4 ,what has been lost shall be repaired by diligent use of the remainder of life4 ,the surest pledge of virtue is repentance and amendment4 ,i may exclaim in #c the words of an illustrious poet3 ,high is the courage that inspires me1 great the work1 but short ,the time in which to plan4 ,i should say the same were ,i planning it in boyhood or in youth4 ,no period could be anything but narrow in face of such an undertaking4 ,as it is1 when the midday of life is past1 ,i have entered upon a task that is serious1 difficult1 limitless4 ,let me act as people generally do #d in a journey--those that are late in starting make up for the delay by their speed4 ,i must hurry on1 and without further excuse on the score of age proceed to tackle my problem--undoubtedly a vast1 possibly an insuperable1 one4 ,my mind swells with pride when ,i survey the magnitude of my undertaking and reflect how much is unaccomplished of my plan1 though not of my life4 ,some writers have wasted their efforts in narrating the doings of #e foreign kings1 and in telling1 as the case may be1 the sufferings or the cruelties of nations4 ,surely it is wiser to try to end one's own ills than to record for a coming generation the ills of others4 ,how much better to make one's theme the works of the gods than the robberies of ,philip1 or ,alexander1 or the other conquerors who earned their fame by the destruction of mankind6 ,such men were as truly scourges of humanity as a flood by which a whole plain has been inundated1 or a conflagration by which the greater part of its living creatures has been burnt up4 ,the historians tell us how ,hannibal #f crossed the ,alps1 how he suddenly transferred into ,italy a war rendered more formidable by ,roman disasters in ,spain2 how1 when his fortunes were shattered1 more determined still1 even though the fate of ,carthage was sealed1 he wandered through all kingdoms1 offering to be leader against ,rome1 and begging for an army2 how he never ceased even in his old age to seek to rouse up war in every corner of the world4 ,he could1 it was plain1 endure to be without a country1 but not without a foe4 ,how much better is it to inquire what ought to be done than what #g has been done1 and to teach those who have entrusted their state to fortune that nothing she gives is stable1 but that all her gifts are more fickle than the very air6 ,for she cannot rest1 her delight is to match sadness with joy1 and to mingle smiles with tears4 ,therefore in the day of prosperity let no man exult1 in the day of adversity let no man faint3 the successions of fortune alternate4 ,why should you boast yourself8 ,the wave meantime bears you aloft on its crest2 but where #h it may strand you1 you cannot tell4 ,its end will be of its own choice1 not of yours4 ,or why1 again1 do you despond8 ,you have been carried down to the nadir2 now is the chance of rising again4 ,adversity alters for the better1 success for the worse4 ,changes of the kind must be anticipated1 not merely in private families1 which are affected by a slight cause1 but also in sovereign houses4 ,dynasties rising from the gutter have ere now established themselves above the ruling powers1 while ancient empires have fallen when in the very heyday of their #i power4 ,the number cannot be reckoned of the kingdoms that have been overthrown by other kingdoms4 ,god now makes it ,his special aim to exalt some and to overthrow others2 nor does ,he let them gently down1 but dashes them from their pinnacle1 so that no remnant of them is left4 ,a great sight it is2 we think it so only because we are ourselves small4 ,there are many departments in which the standard is not derived from #aj the actual size of the objects1 but from our own littleness4 ,what1 ,i ask1 then1 is the principal thing in human life8 ,not to have filled the seas with fleets1 nor to have planted the standard of the nation on the shores of the ,red ,sea1 nor1 when land has been exhausted1 to have wandered for the injury of others over the ,ocean in quest of the unknown4 ,rather it is to have grasped in mind the whole universe1 and to have gained what is the greatest of all victories1 the mastery over besetting sins4 ,there are hosts of conquerors who have had cities and nations under their power1 but a very few who have subdued self4 ,what is the principal thing8 ,i say again4 ,to raise the soul above the threats and promises of fortune2 to consider nothing as worth hoping for4 ,for what does fortune possess worth setting your heart upon8 #aa ,why1 as often as you lapse from converse with what is divine back to what is human1 your eyes will be blinded just like the eyes of those who have returned from bright sunlight into gross darkness4 ,what is the principal thing8 ,to be able to endure adversity with joyful heart2 to bear whatever betide just as if it were the very thing you desired to happen4 ,for you would have felt it your duty to desire it1 had you known that all things happen by ,god's decree4 ,tears1 complaints1 lamentation1 are rebellion4 ,what is the principal thing8 ,a heart #ab in face of calamity resolute and invincible2 an adversary1 yea1 a sworn foe1 to luxury2 neither anxious to meet nor anxious to shun peril2 a heart that knows how to fashion fortune to its will without waiting for her2 which can go forth to face ill or good dauntless and unembarrassed1 paralysed neither by the tumult of the one nor the glamour of the other4 ,what is the principal thing8 ,not to admit evil #ac counsel into the heart1 and to lift up clean hands to heaven2 to seek for no advantage which some one must give and some one lose in order that it may reach you2 to pray--a prayer that no one will envy--for purity of heart2 as for other blessings which are highly esteemed by the world1 even should some chance bring them to your home1 to regard them as sure to depart by the same door by which they entered4 ,what is the principal thing8 ,to lift one's courage high above all that #ad depends upon chance2 to remember what man is1 so that whether you be fortunate1 you may know that this will not be for long2 or whether you be unfortunate1 you may be sure you are not so if you do not think yourself so4 ,the principal thing is to have life on the very lips1 ready to issue when summoned4 ,this makes a man free1 not by right of ,roman citizenship1 but by right of nature4 ,he is the true freeman who has escaped from bondage to self4 ,that slavery is constant1 from it there is no deliverance2 it presses us day and night alike1 without pause1 without respite4 ,to be a slave to self is the most grievous kind #ae of slavery2 yet its fetters may easily be struck off1 if you will but cease to make large demands upon yourself1 if you will cease to seek a personal reward for your services1 and if you will set clearly before you your nature and your time of life1 even though it be the bloom of youth2 if you will say to yourself1 ,why do ,i rave1 and pant1 and sweat8 ,why do ,i ply the earth8 why do ,i haunt the forum8 ,man needs but little1 nor needs that little long4 ,to this end it will be profitable for us to examine the nature of the universe4 ,in the first place we shall rise above what is base2 in the second1 we shall set the spirit free from the body1 imparting to it that courage and elevation of which it stands in need4 ,besides1 subtlety of thought practised on the hidden mysteries of nature wil #af prove no less efficacious in problems that lie more on the surface4 ,and nothing is more on the surface than these salutary lessons we are taught as safeguards against the prevailing vice and madness--faults we all condemn1 but do not abandon4 ,i ,let us enter then on an investigation of forms of water1 and let us #a trace the causes that produce them2 whether1 as ,ovid says3 ,there was a fountain silvery clear with gleaming wavelets2 or1 as ,virgil says3 ,whence through nine mouths with mighty roar of the mountain ,the sea issues in broken waves1 overspreading the fields with its resounding flood2 or1 as ,i find it in your own poem1 my dear ,lucilius3 ,the stream of ,elis wells up from ,sicilian fountains4 ,let us inquire by what method the waters are supplied2 how it is that day and night unceasingly so many huge rivers roll down their course2 #b why some are swollen by the rain of winter1 some increase in summer when all the other streams fail4 ,meantime let us separate the ,nile from the common crowd2 it is a river of peculiar and unique character4 ,we shall give it its turn by and by4 ,at present we will confine our treatment to the common waters1 cold as well as hot4 ,in regard to the latter we must inquire whether the heat is due to natural or artificial causes4 ,we shall discuss other waters too which are rendered remarkable by taste or some special virtue4 ,some1 for example1 ,i may explain1 alleviate affections of the eyes1 some1 those of the sinews1 #c some effect complete cure of chronic maladies given up by doctors as hopeless4 ,some again heal sores1 some by being drunk ease internal pain and relieve complaints of the lungs and bowels4 ,some staunch the flow of blood2 in fact their individual uses are as varied as their taste4 ,,ii ,all waters are classed as either standing or running2 they are either gathered in one or occupy different channels underground4 ,some of them are sweet1 others have pungent flavours of different kinds1 among them salt1 bitter1 medicinal4 ,belonging to the last class one may name sulphur1 iron1 alum waters4 ,the taste shows the quality4 ,waters of different kinds have many other differences4 ,first there is touch1 hot and cold2 then weight1 light and heavy2 then colour1 pure1 muddy1 dark blue1 yellowish2 then wholesomeness1 wholesome and useful1 or deadly or capable of petrifaction4 ,some waters are thin1 some thick2 some give nourishment1 others pass through the system without benefiting it at all2 the use of some removes barrenness4 ,,iii ,the lie of the ground makes water either stand or run2 on a slope it flows down1 a plain keeps it in1 causing it to stagnate4 ,sometimes under pressure of air it is forced uphill2 it is then driven1 it does not flow4 ,surface water comes from rain2 spring water from a natural fountain4 ,there is1 however1 nothing to prevent surface and spring water in the same spot4 ,this we see in ,lake ,fucinus1 into which the streams drain all the rainfall of the surrounding mountains1 while there are also large springs concealed under the surface of the lake itself4 ,so1 even when the torrents discharge into it in winter1 it preserves its appearance unaltered4 ,,iv ,let us inquire therefore1 in the first place1 how the earth can contain sufficient water to maintain the unbroken flow of the rivers1 and where such a vast quantity of water comes from4 ,we are surprised that the ocean is not sensible of the additional water derived from rivers4 ,it is no less surprising that the earth is not sensible of the loss of all the water that issues from it4 ,what is it that has so filled it up that it can from its hidden recesses furnish such quantities and continually make good the loss as it does8 ,whatever explanation we give regarding a river must apply also to streams and springs4 ,v ,some are of opinion that the earth receives back all the water it has lost4 ,the sea1 therefore1 does not get larger1 because it does not assimilate the water that runs into it1 but forthwith restores it to the earth4 ,for the sea water returns by a secret path1 and is filtered in its passage back4#ej ,being dashed about as it passes through the endless1 winding channels in the ground1 it loses its salinity1 and1 purged of its bitterness in such a variety of ground as it passes through1 it eventually changes into pure1 fresh water4 #ej ,the ordinary text1 as ,koeller saw1 is evidently wrong4 ,it runs3 8,for by a secret path the sea water enters the ground and becomes visible1 and returns stealthily1 and is filtered1 etc40 ,no author can be supposed to have written such a sentence4 ,the restoration must be conjectural4 ,i have adopted what seems simplest and most in keeping with the context4 ,,vi ,some suppose that all the water that the earth drinks in from rain is sent out again into the rivers4 ,they set down by way of proof the fact that there are fewest rivers in the localities where there is least frequent rain4 ,on that account1 they say1 the deserts of ,ethiopia are destitute of streams1 and few springs are found in the interior of ,africa1 because there is always a blazing sky and almost perpetual summer4 ,therefore there are ugly stretches of sandy waste1 without tree and without inhabitant1 sprinkled at rare intervals by showers that they immediately swallow up4 ,on the other hand1 it is well known that there are abundant streams and rivers in ,germany and ,gaul and next to them in ,italy1 because they enjoy a moist climate1 and even the summer is not without rainfall4 ,,vii ,a great deal can obviously be urged in reply to this4 ,first of all1 #a as a diligent digger among my vines1 ,i can affirm from observation that no rain is ever so heavy as to wet the ground to a depth of more than #aj feet4 ,all the moisture is absorbed in the upper layer of earth without getting down to the lower ones4 ,how1 then1 can rain1 which merely damps the surface1 store up a supply sufficient for rivers8 ,the greater part of it is carried off at once into the sea by river-channels4 ,but a small portion is absorbed by the ground1 and even that is not retained4 ,for the ground is either dry and so uses up at #b once the water poured into it2 or else it is saturated and throws off what of the rainfall it does not require4 ,this is the reason why rivers do not rise with the first rainfall2 the thirsty ground absorbs it all4 ,and then1 again1 how are we to explain the fact that some rivers burst out from rocks and mountains8 ,what contribution can be made to them by rains that are carried down over the bare crags and have no earth into which to sink8 ,besides1 wells sunk in the very driest localities #c to a depth of #bjj or #cjj feet reveal rich springs of water at a depth to which rain water does not penetrate4 ,one may be sure there is no rain water there nor any gathering of moisture1 but living 7 spring7 water as it is usually called4 ,the opinion in question is disproved by this other argument1 too2 some springs well up in the very summit of a mountain4 ,it is plain1 therefore1 that the water in them is forced up or forms on the spot1 since all the rain water runs off4 ,,viii ,some writers think there is an exact parallelism between the external and the internal distribution of water in the earth4 ,on the outer surface are huge marshes1 great navigable lakes1 and seas covering immense tracts of earth and pouring over its hollows4 ,so in the interior of the earth there is abundant store of fresh water1 which overflows great spaces no less than the ,ocean and its gulfs above ground2 in fact1 still more extensively1 as the depth of the earth extends farther down than that of the sea4 ,from that supply in the deeps1 therefore1 those rivers of which we have spoken issue4 ,and why should one be surprised that the earth is not sensible of their withdrawal since the sea is not sensible of their addition8 ,,ix ,some approve the following explanation3 ,the earth contains1 they #a assert1 many hollow recesses and a great quantity of air4 ,this air1 under pressure of the gross darkness1 of necessity freezes4 ,then remaining sluggish and unmoved it ceases to circulate and turns into water4 ,just as on earth a change in the density of the atmosphere produces rain1 so beneath the earth the change of density starts a river or a stream4 ,in the former case the air above our heads cannot long remain sluggish and heavy2 for sometimes it is rarefied by the sun's heat1 sometimes expanded by the wind's force4 ,there are1 therefore1 long intervals between falls of rain4 ,but underground #b the forces1 whatever they are1 that turn air into water1 are constant--perpetual darkness1 everlasting cold1 inert density2 they can1 therefore1 supply without a break the sources of fountain or flood4 ,we ,stoics are satisfied that the earth is interchangeable in its elements4 ,so all this air that she has exhaled in her interior1 since it is not taken up by the free atmosphere1 condenses and is forthwith converted into moisture4 ,x ,there you have the first cause of the origin of underground water4 #a ,you may add the more general principle that all elements arise from all3 air comes from water1 water from air2 fire from air1 air from fire4 ,so why should not earth be formed from water1 and conversely water from earth8 ,if the earth is capable of transmutation into other elements1 water must be one of them1 in fact1 the most suitable of them4 ,the two things are cognate2 both are heavy1 condensed1 both driven by nature down to the very confines of the universe4 ,earth is formed from water2 why not water from earth in like manner8 ,but1 you say1 the rivers are too large to be accounted for in this way4 ,well1 after you have considered the size of the rivers1 just look at the size of the reservoir whence they issue4 ,are you surprised that a #b fresh supply of water is always forthcoming for them1 since they flow on for ever1 some even rushing down their channel with impetuous haste8 ,surely you might as well be surprised1 when the winds drive hither and thither the whole atmosphere1 that the supply of air does not fail1 but flows on day and night unceasingly4 ,and the wind1 remember1 is not confined to a definite channel1 as rivers are1 but goes with wide sweep over the broad expanse of heaven4 ,you might well1 too1 be surprised that after so many breakers have spent their force1 any succeeding wave is left4 ,the truth is1 nothing is ever exhausted that returns upon itself 7i4e4 is self-supported74 ,all the four elements #c return alternately upon one another2 what is lost in one is conserved by passing into another4 ,nature1 too1 weighs her parts as if with nice adjustment in the balance1 lest their just proportion should be disturbed and the world topple over into ruin 7 lose its equilibrium74 ,all elements are in all4 ,air not only passes into fire1 but it is never without fire4 ,deprive it of its heat and it will grow stiff1 stagnant1 hard4 ,air passes into moisture1 but nevertheless contains moisture4 ,earth yields both air and water1 and is never at any time devoid #d of water any more than it is of air4 ,the mutual transition is the easier1 because there is already an admixture of the element to which the transition is to be made4 ,so 7#a7ea1 then1 the earth contains moisture1 which it forces out4 7#b7ea ,it contains air1 which the darkness of its wintry cold condenses so as to form moisture4 7#c7ea ,by nature1 too1 it has itself the power of changing into moisture3 this power it habitually exerts4 #ea ,the numerals here have no counterpart in the original4 ,,xi ,you have still a difficulty1 you say4 ,if the causes giving rise to #a rivers and fountains are constant1 why are their waters sometimes dried up8 and why do they sometimes appear in places where they did not exist before8 ,their routes1 ,i should reply1 are often disturbed by earthquakes2 the channel is cut off by a fall of rock or earth1 and the water being held back seeks a fresh exit1 which it forces with a certain measure of violence2 or merely by the earth's vibration the course is shifted from one place to another4 ,on the surface of the earth one may observe that rivers that have lost their channels are first of all dammed back1 but afterwards1 in lieu of the course they have lost1 force a new one4 ,theophrastus affirms that an incident of #b the kind took place in the ,corycian ,mount1#eb where1 after a slight shock of earthquake1 a fountain burst out from a fresh source4 #eb ,in ,cilicia4 ,but some writers are of opinion that other causes too are at work to call up water in other ways1 or to drive or turn it from its course4 ,mount ,haemus was once destitute of water2 but after a tribe of the ,gauls1 being hard pressed by ,cassander1 took refuge there1 and felled the woods1 an immense supply of water appeared4 ,no doubt the woods had attracted it for their nourishment previously4 ,when they were uprooted1 the moisture1 ceasing to be used up by their roots1 overflowed4 ,theophrastus affirms that the same thing happened near ,magnesia4 #c ,but with all respect to ,theophrastus1 this is not a very likely story4 ,everything that is most shady tends most to gather water4 ,but that would not be the case if trees drained off water4 ,roots draw their nourishment from their immediate vicinity2 but the volume of river water flows from recesses far down1 and is derived from a source deeper than roots can penetrate4 ,besides1 when trees are cut down1 more moisture than before is required2 the stumps suck up a supply1 not merely for life1 but for new growth4 ,theophrastus tells us1 too1 that round ,arcadia1 which was a city in #d the island of ,crete1 the wells and lakes disappeared1 because the land ceased to be tilled after the destruction of the city2 but after it had got back its tillers1 it recovered its waters also4 ,he sets down as the cause of the dryness1 that the earth had got hidebound and quite hard1 and not being stirred could not transmit to the underground reservoirs the rain that fell4 ,but if this is true1 how comes it that we see springs in great plenty in the most desert ground8 ,in fact1 one finds #e a great deal more ground that began to be tilled on account of the abundance of water than that began to have an abundant supply of water because it was tilled4 ,you may be quite sure that it is not mere rain water that is carried down in our greatest rivers1 navigable by large vessels from their very source1#ec as is proved by the fact that the flow from the fountain-head is uniform winter and summer4 ,rainfall may cause a torrent1 but it cannot maintain the steady1 constant flow of a full river4 ,rains cannot produce1 they can only enlarge and quicken1 a river4 #ec ,the text seems to be at fault1 but the argument is quite clear4 ,,xii ,let us1 if you please1 go into the matter a little more deeply1 and #a you will soon see that you have no cause to put further questions1 once you reach the true origin of rivers4 ,a river is1 of course1 formed by a supply of water that is always constant4 ,if you ask me1 therefore1 how water is produced1 ,i will ask in my turn how air or earth is produced4 ,if there are four elements in nature1 you are not entitled to ask where water1 one of them1 comes from2 it is the fourth part of nature4 ,why1 therefore1 are you surprised that so great a portion #b of nature can furnish a perpetual supply of liquid from itself8 ,just as the atmosphere1 which is likewise a fourth part of the universe1 is the source of winds and breezes1 so is water1 of streams and rivers4 ,if wind is atmosphere in motion1 so is a river water in motion4 ,i have given it strength enough in saying that it is one of the four elements4 ,you must be aware that what has an element as its source can never run short4 ,,xiii ,water is1 according to ,thales1 the most powerful of the elements4 #a ,he thinks it was the first of them1 and that all the others sprang from it4 ,we ,stoics1 too1 are also of the same opinion2 or perhaps ,i should rather say that we think it is the last4#ed ,for we say that it is fire that lays hold upon the world and changes all things into its own nature4 ,we suppose that fire eventually fades and sinks1 and that1 when the fire is quenched1 nothing is left in nature save moisture1 in which lies the hope of the world that is to come4 ,so fire is the end1 moisture the beginning1 of the world4 ,can you wonder that rivers may always issue from this1 which was before all things1 and from which all things have been formed8 ,in the separation of the elements at the #b beginning the moisture was reduced to a fourth part1 and was placed in such a situation that it could furnish a sufficient supply for rivers1 streams1 and fountains4 ,the next opinion expressed by ,thales is a silly one4 ,the whole earth1 he says1 is upborne by water1 and floats just like a boat2 when it is spoken of as trembling1 it is rolling by the movement of the water4 ,it is no wonder1 then1 that there should be abundance of water to pour forth in rivers1 since the world is itself wholly set in water4 ,you should put out of court such an antiquated1 unscientific idea4 ,there is no ground for believing that the water comes in through the chinks in the earth's sides1 and forms bilge-water in her centre4 #ed ,i4e4 that to which all others may be reduced3 the text seems corrupt1 and the meaning is more or less conjectural4 ,gercke's text reads1 8are also of the same or an analogous opinion40 ,,xiv ,the ,egyptians have recognised four elements also2 and they then form each into two1 male and female4 ,the atmosphere they consider male where it is windy1 female where it is cloudy and sluggish4 ,they call the sea manly water1 every other kind of water they call womanly4 ,fire they call masculine where a flame is burning1 and feminine where there is a glow that is harmless to touch4 ,the firmer kinds of earth1 such as boulders and crags1 they call male1 reserving the term female for the parts that are amenable to cultivation4 ,,xv ,there is but one sea1 which has so existed no doubt from the #a beginning of things4 ,it has sources of its own1 from which its impulses and tides are derived4 ,as with the raging sea1 so with this gentler kind of water1 there is a vast supply#ee in secret1 which no river course can drain dry4 ,the exact explanation of its reserve strength has not yet been discovered4 ,it is only the superfluous portion of it that is released4 ,now1 there are some of these beliefs to which #b we may safely subscribe2 but ,i hold this further opinion4 ,my firm conviction is that the earth is organised by nature much after the plan of our bodies1 in which there are both veins and arteries1 the former blood-vessels1 the latter air-vessels4 ,in the earth likewise #c there are some routes by which water passes1 and some by which air4 ,so exactly alike is the resemblance to our bodies in nature's formation of the earth1 that our ancestors have spoken of veins 7 springs7 of water4 ,again1 in our bodies there is not merely blood1 but many other kinds of moisture1 some essential to life1 others tainted and somewhat thick--brain in the head1 marrow in the bones1 mucus1 saliva1 tears1 and a kind of lubricating substance that suffuses the joints1 and enables them to turn more quickly 7 synovial fluid74 #ee ,all the texts give via way4 ,the obvious correction is vis amount1 supply4 ,gercke confirms this correction4 ,so1 too1 in the earth there are several different kinds of moisture4 ,there are some kinds that grow hard when fully formed4 ,hence arises #d all the metalliferous soil1 from which our avarice seeks gold and silver4 ,then there is the kind which turns from liquid into stone4 ,in some localities the earth and its moisture combine to form a liquid like bitumen and other substances of the same kind4 ,there1 then1 we find the cause of waters produced according to the law and will of nature4 ,but as in our bodies1 so in the earth1 humours often contract #e taints of various kinds4 ,a blow1 or some shock1 or exhaustion of the ground1 or cold or heat injures the natural vigour4 ,a vein of sulphur1 too1 may solidify the moisture1 lasting for a longer or shorter time4 ,therefore1 as in our bodies1 when a vein is cut1 the flow of blood lasts till the blood is exhausted or the incision in the vein has closed up and stopped it1 or until some other cause has staunched the blood2 in like manner in the ground1 when the seams have been loosened and laid bare1 a stream or river rushes forth4 ,the way in which the #f water is used up depends on the extent of the opening in the seam4 ,at one point its flow is checked by some obstacle2 at another it heals up1 so to speak1 into a scar and chokes the path it had made2 at another the power of transmutation1 which we have said the earth possesses1 reaches its limit and cannot longer supply material that may be liquefied3 sometimes the exhausted source is replenished1 now by energy self-recruited1 now by a supply drawn from external sources4 ,for ,i ought to say that often dry objects placed opposite to wet attract the moisture to them4 ,earth itself1 which easily assumes another form1 #g often wastes away1 and is dissolved in moisture4 ,the same phenomenon occurs under the earth as above it in the clouds2 becoming too dense and heavy to retain longer its own character1 solid begets liquid4 ,there is often a gathering of thin1 scattered moisture like dew1 which from many points flows into one spot4 ,the dowsers call it sweat1 because a kind of drop is either squeezed out by the pressure of the ground or raised by the heat4 ,this slender trickle scarce suffices to form a spring4 ,but if the sources are great and the gatherings great1 rivers issue4 ,sometimes they flow gently if the water merely descends by its own weight1 sometimes with violence and loud roar if air be intermingled and eject the water4 ,,xvi ,another peculiarity requires explanation3 some wells are full for #a six hours and dry for six alternately3 why is this so8 ,it is hardly necessary to name the rivers individually which are at certain months broad1 at certain narrow1 and to give separate causes of this1 seeing ,i can give a common explanation that applies to all4 ,an ague returns at the same hour1 gout always keeps its appointment1 the custom of women1 unless interrupted1 observes its stated period1 birth is ready at the proper month4 ,in like manner waters have their intervals of recurrence1 at which to withdraw and at which to return4 ,now1 some intervals are shorter1 and the more striking on that account2 some are longer1 #b but no less certain4 ,and what is strange in that1 when you see that the succession of events1 and all nature1 by decree preserve their appointed order8 ,winter has never mistaken its time4 ,summer has always blazed forth in its season4 ,the changes of spring and autumn have occurred according to their wont4 ,solstice and equinox alike have kept their appointed days4 ,beneath the earth likewise there are laws of nature1 less familiar to us1 but no less fixed4 ,be assured that there exists below everything that you see above4 ,there1 too1 there are antres vast1 immense recesses1 and vacant spaces1 with mountains overhanging on either hand4 ,there are yawning gulfs stretching down into the abyss1 which #c have often swallowed up cities that have fallen into them1 and have buried in their depths their mighty ruins4 ,these retreats are filled with air1 for nowhere is there a vacuum in nature2 through their ample spaces stretch marshes over which darkness ever broods4 ,animals also are produced in them1 but they are slow-paced and shapeless2 the air that conceived them is dark and clammy1 the waters are torpid through inaction4 ,most of these creatures are blind1 such as moles and underground rats1 which have no sense of sight1 since it is unnecessary for them4 ,from these depths fish are1 according to ,theophrastus1 dug up in certain localities4 ,,xvii ,at this point many pleasantries will occur to you to apply to my #a incredible narrative1 which you will politely call a good story4 ,a man will no longer go to fish with net and hook1 but with his mattock6 ,the next thing will be for some one to go out hunting at sea4 ,now what reason is there1 ,i ask1 why fish should not cross the land if we can cross the sea and change our abodes8 ,you are surprised at this happening4 ,how much more incredible are the achievements of luxury as often as it either counterfeits or vanquishes nature8 ,fish are to be found swimming in the dining couch2 one is caught right under the table1 to be transferred immediately to the table4 ,a mullet is not thought fresh enough unless it expires in the hand of the banqueter4 #b ,these fish are handed round enclosed in glass jars1 and their colours are observed while they expire2 death paints many hues on them as they draw their last struggling breath4 ,others are pickled alive and killed in the sauce4 ,these are the people who think one is romancing who asserts that a fish can live underground and instead of being caught can be dug up6 ,how inconceivable it would sound to them to hear that a fish swam in sauce and was killed during dinner1 but not to be served at dinner2 that first it was long admired1 and that the eyes were feasted on it before the gullet was6 ,,xviii ,suffer me here to lay aside my subject1 and to apply the scourge to #a luxury6 ,commend me for a beautiful sight1 says one1 to an expiring mullet4 ,in the death-struggle1 as its life ebbs away1 first a ruddy glow1 then a pallor suffuses it4 ,how symmetrical are the variations as it changes from tint to tint between life and death6 ,our somnolent1 jaded luxury gets a long respite by means of this4#ef ,it was late in waking up to find how cruelly it had been circumscribed in being cheated of such a pleasure6 ,hitherto only fishermen have been able to enjoy this grand and beauteous sight4 ,but why should we at the #b banquet be satisfied with a cooked1 a lifeless fish8 ,let him expire on the very tray4 ,we used to be surprised at the fastidiousness of our epicures in refusing to touch fish unless it had been caught on the same day1 when1 as the saying goes1 it smacked of the briny4 ,it used for that reason to be delivered post haste--way had to be made for the breathless porters as they hurried along shouting4 ,to what #c lengths have refinements now been pushed8 ,a fish killed to-day has come to be considered as already stinking4 8,he was taken out of the water this day1 ,i assure you40 8,i cannot trust you in a matter of such moment4 ,i must have the evidence of my own senses2 let the creature be brought here and breathe out his life before my eyes40 ,such a pitch of fastidiousness has the gourmands' palate reached that they will not taste a fish unless they have seen it swimming and throbbing in the very banqueting room4 #ef ,the passage is almost hopelessly corrupt4 ,the meaning of this sentence seems to be that luxury gets some respite from the fatigues of the table by watching the mullet's death-struggle4 ,ruhkopf suggests an emendation which would give the sense3 ,our somnolent1 jaded luxury has taken a long time to discover this new enjoyment4 ,that would certainly be well in keeping with the following sentence4 ,the more skill our jaded luxury has had placed at its disposal1 #d the more refined and elegant the devices that in its frenzy it day by day invents2 it spurns everything that is common4 ,we used to hear the remark1 8,nothing can surpass a mullet caught on the rocks02 but now it runs1 8,nothing equals the beauty of an expiring mullet4 ,let me hold in my own hands the glass vase1 to see him jump and quiver40 ,after long and fulsome praise has been lavished on him1 he is taken #e out of his transparent pond4 ,then each guest shows off his experience of such scenes by pointing out the hues to his fellows4 8,look how the red bursts forth1 deeper than any carmine2 look at the veins he has along his sides3 see1 you would think his belly was covered with blood2 what a gleam of dark blue shot forth just under the brow6 ,now he is stretching himself out1 and sinking to a uniform pallid hue60 ,not one of these selfish fellows would sit by a dying friend's bedside1 none of them can endure the sight of a father's death--a sight they have dearly longed for4 ,how few will attend the funeral of a relative6 ,the #f last hour of brothers and friends is shunned by them2 they are all in a hurry to be in at the death of a mullet6 ,for he has a delicate beauty1 don't you know1 that nothing can surpass4 ,my impatience makes me sometimes exceed the bounds of decency and use words at random4 ,these drivellers are not satisfied to bring teeth1 and palate1 and stomach to the revel2 they make their very eyes partners in the gluttony4 ,,xix ,but to return to my subject4 ,here is a proof ,i have to give you #a that in the underground recesses are concealed great quantities of water which abound in filthy fish4 ,any time that the water bursts out1 it brings in its train a huge crowd of creatures foul to sight1 disgusting and noxious to taste4 ,at any rate1 once1 near the city of ,hydissus in ,caria1 a flood of underground water threw up to the light of day a number of strange fishes1 and all who ate them died4 ,and no wonder4 ,their bodies were full of oil from their long inactivity2 #b they had been fattened in the darkness without exercise1 and deprived of that light whence health is derived4 ,a further proof that fish may be produced in those depths of earth is afforded by the breeding of eels in shady places2 they also are a heavy diet through their want of exercise1 especially if a considerable depth of mud has hidden them quite out of sight4 ,so then the earth contains not only veins of water #c by the union of which rivers may be formed1 but also streams of very great size4 ,in some cases their channel is concealed throughout1 until they are swallowed up in some cavern2 others of them well up in the bottom of some lake4 ,everybody knows that some marshes have no bottom4 ,what is the point of my argument8 ,it shows plainly that mighty rivers have here unending supplies whose limits are incalculable1 just as is the duration of rivers and fountains themselves4 ,,xx ,for the variety of taste in water there are four causes4 ,the first is #a the kind of soil through which it flows4 ,the second also depends on the soil when the water arises from transmutation of it4 ,the third is from air which has been transformed into water4 ,the fourth comes from some taint which water often contracts when injuriously affected by foreign bodies4 ,these causes impart to water1 first1 variety of taste1 then #b medicinal power1 its heavy pestilential smell1 its lightness and heaviness1 its heat and its excessive astringency4 ,it is affected by its passage through ground full of sulphur1 or nitre 7 saltpetre71 or bitumen4 ,if the water is tainted in this way1 the drinking of it endangers life4 ,this is the explanation of a passage in ,ovid3 ,the ,ciconians have a river a draught of whose waters turns into stone4 ,the bowels2 which mantles in marble all that it touches4 ,the river in question has medicinal properties1 its mud being of #c the kind that glues together and hardens the bodies it encounters4 ,just as the dust at ,puteoli becomes stone if it touches water1 so1 contrariwise1 if the water of this river touches a solid body1 it adheres and gets firmly affixed to it4 ,this is the reason why objects thrown into the same lake#eg are constantly found to be turned to stone when they are taken out4 ,this occurs at several places in ,italy2 you may put into the water a twig or bough and a few days after you can take out a stone4 ,the mud surrounds the object and gradually #d coats it over4 ,this will seem the less surprising if you have remarked that the ,albula1 and1 generally speaking1 all water charged with sulphur1 deposit a coating of it on the banks of their channels and streams4 ,some one or other of the foregoing causes accounts for the peculiarities of those lakes1 whereof who tastes with the lips1 in the words of the same poet1 #eg ,the allusion is not quite evident4 ,goes raving mad or endures a sleep of wondrous depth4 ,the effect is like that of strong drink1 only more violent4 ,drunken- #e ness is madness until its effects pass off2 with a weight like lead it bears down its victim into sleep4 ,in the like manner the strong infusion of sulphur in this water contains a sort of poison that is more potent owing to the noxious atmosphere1 and either goads the mind to madness or weighs it down in deep sleep4 ,the river in ,lyncestis likewise possesses this baleful power3 ,for whoso with intemperate lips has drained a draught1 ,staggers as if having drunk deep of wine undiluted4 ,,xxi ,there are certain caves a glance down into which has cost people their life4 ,so swift is their destructive power that it kills in flight the birds that cross them4 ,that is the kind of air and the kind of place from which waters of death escape4 ,if the infection of the air and place is less severe1 the damage is less fatal too1 merely affecting the sinews like men overpowered by intoxication4 ,i am not at all surprised that place and air infect water and render it similar in character to the tract through which and from which it proceeds4 ,similarly1 milk shows the taste of the cow's fodder1 the quality of the wine comes out even in the vinegar it yields4 ,there is1 in fact1 nothing that does not bear marks of its origin in the same way4 ,,xxii ,there is another species of water which we ,stoics are satisfied must be coeval with the world4 ,if the latter has existed from all eternity1 so must it too4 ,if the world has had some beginning1 then the water was assigned its place at the creation4 ,you want to know what kind of water ,i mean8 ,i mean the ,ocean and all its seas that wash the continents of the earth4 ,some philosophers are convinced that the rivers likewise whose nature is inexplicable1 date from the creation of the world2 such are the mighty rivers ,danube and ,nile1 too remarkable to be supposed by any possibility to have the same origin as other rivers4 ,,xxiii ,such is the division of various kinds of water1 as it presents itself to some minds4 ,after that come waters of the sky1 which the clouds pour down from the upper regions4 ,of terrestrial waters1 they say1 there are some that overflow1 so to speak1 and creep along the surface2 others are concealed underground4 ,i have already explained all these4 ,,xxiv ,several explanations are given of the temperature of water4 ,some- #a times it is hot1 sometimes it boils so fiercely that it cannot be used until it has given off its steam in the open1 or is tempered by mixing cold water with it4 ,empedocles is of opinion that as there are fires concealed in many places beneath the earth1 water is heated when they happen to lie beneath the ground through which it has to flow4 ,let me use an illustration4 ,we are in the habit of constructing serpentines1#eh and cylinders1 and vessels of several other designs in which thin copper pipes are laid in descending spiral coils4 ,the object is to make the water meet the same fire over and over again1 and flow through a space sufficient for heating it up2 so1 entering as cold it comes out hot4 ,empedocles supposes something of the same kind to take #b place underground4 ,people who have their baths heated without fire may well believe that he is right4 ,in this case air from the heated furnace is introduced4 ,the air glides along the passages1 warming up the walls and vessels of the bathroom just as if fire had been directly applied4 ,in short1 all the cold water in these instances is changed into hot by merely passing through a heated medium2 and inasmuch as it is conveyed in an enclosure there is no evaporation to impart a flavour to it4#ei ,others1 again1 suppose that the water contracts heat by issuing from or passing through ground charged with sulphur2 the heat is imparted by the properties of the material1 to which also smell and taste bear witness4 ,all substances1 ,i may say in general terms1 tend to reproduce the qualities of the medium by which they have been warmed4 ,if you are surprised at sulphur warming water1 you have only to pour water over quicklime2 it will at once evolve heat4 #eh ,the technical name is 8worm40 #ei ,there is considerable doubt regarding the correct text and meaning4 ,,xxv ,some waters are fatal1 although they give no indication of this #a either by smell or taste4 ,in ,arcadia1 near ,nonacris1 the river called by the people there the ,styx lures strangers to ruin1 as its appearance and smell rouse no suspicion4 ,this is like the drugs of accomplished poisoners1 which cannot be detected save by their fatal effects4 ,the water ,i mentioned a little above brings destruction with amazing swiftness1 and allows no opportunity of applying a remedy4 ,it hardens immediately it is drunk1 and1 much like chalk under the influence ofcccc #b water1 it sets and binds fast the bowels4 ,there is a poisonous water in ,thessaly1 near ,tempe1 shunned by all cattle and wild beasts4 ,it comes out through seams of iron and copper1 and contains the power of softening the very hardest material4 ,it does not nourish any trees either1 and it kills grass4 ,certain rivers possess a peculiar and strange power4 ,some there are whose draught dyes whole flocks of sheep4 ,within a short time those that were black have white fleeces2 in other cases those that came white go away black4 ,this is what two rivers in ,boeotia do1 one of which from its effect is called ,melas 7,blackwater74 ,both the rivers issue from the same lake1 to go on their opposite missions4 ,so1 too1 in ,macedonia1 ,theophrastus asserts there #c is a river to which shepherds who desire to turn their sheep white bring them4 ,if the sheep drink it for any length of time1 their colour changes as if they had been dyed4 ,but if those people want a dark wool1 they have a dyer ready at hand who charges nothing2 they have merely to drive the same flock to the river ,peneus4 ,i have recent authorities for the statement that there is a river in ,galatia that has the same power of changing the colour in all animals1 while in ,cappadocia there is one which if drunk changes the colour of horses but not of any other animal2 their skin is dappled with white spots4 ,it is well known that there are lakes whose waters bear up those #d who cannot swim4 ,there used to be a pool in ,sicily1 there still is one in ,syria1 in which brickbats float1 and no objects thrown in1 however heavy1 will sink4 ,the cause of it is obvious4 ,weigh any object and compare it with water while they are equal bulk for bulk4 ,if the water is the heavier1 it will bear the object that is lighter than itself1 and will raise it above its surface to a height proportionate to its lightness2 objects heavier than the water will sink in it4 ,but if the weight of water and of the object compared with it in #e respect of weight be equal1 the object will neither go to the bottom nor yet will it stick up2 it will just be in equipoise with the water4 ,it will float1 it is true1 but almost submerged and without any part projecting4 ,the differences in weight give the reason why some logs float almost entirely above water1 while some sink to their centre1 and some go down until they are in equipoise with the water4 ,for it always holds good that1 when the weights of the two are equal1 neither yields to the other2 but objects heavier than water sink1 those lighter are upborne4 ,now heavy and light do not refer to our judgment of weight1 but are #f relative to the medium by which an object is to be supported4 ,so when water is heavier than the human body or than a stone1 it does not allow the inferior weight to sink4 ,so it comes to pass that in some lakes even stones will not go to the bottom2 ,i mean hard solid stones4 ,there are many light pumice stones1 of which in ,lydia whole islands that float are composed4 ,theophrastus is my authority for the statement4 ,i have myself seen a floating island in the lake near ,cutiliae4 ,another is carried about in the ,vadimonian ,lake1 another in the lake by ,statonia4 ,the island at ,cutiliae contains trees and grows grass1 and #g yet it is borne up by the water1 and is wafted now in this direction1 now in that1 not merely by wind1 but even by a mere air4 ,so light the breath that moves it that night and day it never remains stationary in one spot4 ,there are two reasons for it3 first1 there is the weight of the water1 which is medicated and therefore heavy2 and then there is the portable material of the island itself1 which contains no solid body1 although it supports trees4 ,perhaps in the first instance the #h thick liquid laid hold upon and made fast light trunks and boughs scattered over the surface of the lake4 ,so also whatever rocks are in the island1 you will find porous and hollow4 ,they resemble those formed of moisture that has hardened especially near the banks of medicinal springs2 in such cases the scourings of the spring coalesce and the foam is solidified4 ,it is necessarily light1 being formed by concretions of windy1 empty material4 ,there are other peculiarities attaching to waters of different kinds1 #i of which no explanation can be offered4 ,for example1 why should ,nile water make women more fruitful8 ,so effective is it in this respect that in some instances wombs shut up in prolonged barrenness have relaxed so as to render conception possible4 ,or why should certain waters in ,lycia prevent miscarriage1 being sought after by ladies who are subject to this frailty8 ,for my own part ,i set these down among vulgar errors4 ,it is firmly believed by people that certain waters1 whether applied outwardly or taken inwardly1 affect the body with scab1 certain with leprosy and foul blotches over the skin4 ,water gathered from dew1 they say1 has this fault4 ,wouldn't any one suppose that water that #aj turns into ice is the heaviest of all8 ,the truth is just the opposite of this4 ,the change takes place in the thinnest water1 which for that very reason is most easily congealed by the cold4 ,the origin of the stone that resembles ice is plain from the very name used for it by the ,greeks4 ,they apply the term crystal 77 equally to the transparent stone and to the ice from which the stone is supposed to be formed4 ,rain water1 which contains very little solid matter1 once it is frozen becomes more and more condensed through the persistence of the longer cold until all the air is expelled1 and it is compressed to the last degree2 then what was once moisture is changed into stone4 ,,xxvi ,some rivers rise in summer like the ,nile1 of which ,i will give an #a account later on4 ,theophrastus makes himself responsible for the statement that in ,pontus likewise certain rivers rise in the summer season4 ,four different causes are assigned for this4 ,first1 the earth is at that period most readily changed into moisture4 ,second1 there are in the remote districts heavier rains1 the water from which1 finding its way by secret channels1 comes unnoticed to swell the volume of the rivers4 ,a third explanation is that the estuary is exposed to more frequent winds1 and is lashed by the sea waves2 the river is checked and seems to increase because it cannot discharge freely4 ,the fourth reason connects itself with the heavenly bodies4 ,these bodies by #b their more severe pressure during certain months drain the rivers2 when they retire to a greater distance1 the waste and drain are less4 ,what was previously lost now accrues by way of increase4 ,certain rivers fall visibly into some grotto or other1 and thus are withdrawn from sight2 some are gradually wasted and disappear4 ,they return1 however1 at some distance off and recover their name and course4 ,the reason is plain enough4 ,there is vacant space underground4 ,all liquid naturally #c is carried to the lower level and to the unoccupied space4 ,the rivers received into these recesses have run their course there in secret4 ,but as soon as any solid obstacle blocks the way1 they burst through the part that offers the slightest obstruction to their escape and regain their channel above ground4 ,so when ,lycus has been swallowed up by the yawning earth1 ,he comes forth far thence1 and is born from another source4 ,so is now drunk up1 now gliding with silent stream1 ,is restored to its ,argolic waves the mighty ,erasinus4 ,in the ,east as well as the ,west this happens4 ,the ,tigris is absorbed #d by the earth and after long absence reappears at a point far removed1 but undoubtedly the same river4 ,some fountains cast out their scourings at a fixed period2 the fountain ,arethuse does so every fifth summer during the ,olympic festival4 ,thence comes the belief that the ,alpheus makes its way right from ,achaia to ,sicily1 stealing under sea by secret sluice1 and reappearing only when it reaches the coast at ,syracuse4 ,on that account1 during the days on which the ,olympic festival is taking place1 the dung of the victims offered in sacrifice being thrown into the stream of the river 7,alpheus7 turns up in quantity away in ,sicily4 ,you have yourself told the story1 my dear ,lucilius1 in your own poem1 #e and so has ,virgil1 who says in his address to ,arethuse3 ,so when thou glid'st beneath ,sicilian seas1 ,never may sea nymph mingle bitter salt waves with thine4 ,in the ,carian ,chersonese there is a fountain of the ,rhodians which at long intervals sends up from its depths certain foul excretions of mud1 until it is set free of them by being cleaned out4 ,at certain places #f wells throw up not merely mud but also leaves1 and bits of crockery and any other filthy things that have accumulated in them4 ,the sea does the same everywhere1 its nature being to drive ashore all filthy impurities4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,messana and ,mylae as it boils and tosses in storms it throws up on the beach something actually like ordure1 which has a vile smell too4 ,whence comes the fable that the oxen of the sun are stalled in that neighbourhood4 ,in certain cases of this kind it is difficult to reach the true explanation1 especially when the time of the occurrence in question has not actually been observed and is therefore doubtful4 ,but though the immediate and #g special cause cannot be discovered1 there is a general one worth mentioning2 all waters when standing and enclosed tend to throw off impurities4 ,in water that has a current the impurities cannot settle1 as they are carried down and expelled by the mere force of the stream4 ,the waters which do not throw off foreign bodies that settle in them always boil more or less4 ,as for the sea1 it drags from its lowest depths dead bodies1 refuse of vegetation1 and all kinds of wreckage1 and purges itself of them1 not merely when its billows rage in a storm but likewise in its calm and peaceful moments4 ,,xxvii ,the occasion reminds me of a wider question4 ,when the fated day of #a deluge comes1 after what fashion will the earth for the most part be overwhelmed by the waves8 ,will it be by the strength of ,ocean and the rise of the outer sea against us8 ,or will the rain descend uninterruptedly1 and will summer be cut out of the year while persistent winter bursts its clouds and pours down endless masses of water8 ,or will earth herself open new reservoirs and shed forth #b rivers more abundantly8 ,or will a single cause be insufficient to produce such a catastrophe1 and all the methods conspire together1 the rains descending and the river floods rising1 and the seas hurrying in hot haste from their place--all agencies in concert bent upon the one aim1 the destruction of the human race8 ,the last is the truth4 ,nature finds no difficulties in compassing her ends1 especially when she hastens to make an end of herself4 ,at the creation of things she economises her efforts1 putting forth her energy in small imperceptible increase3 for destruction she comes with sudden and irresistible might4 ,how long a time is needed to bring the embryo child to the birth6 ,how #c great the toil called for in rearing the tender infant6 ,how careful the nurture through which the frail body is at length brought to manhood6 ,but how insignificant the effort needed to undo it all6 ,cities take centuries to establish3 an hour brings their ruin4 ,ages rear the forest3 a moment turns it to ashes4 ,to its stability and vigour this universe of things calls for great and constant protection2 quickly and suddenly dissolution comes4 ,deviation by nature from her established #d order in the world suffices for the destruction of the race4 ,so when that day of fate comes1 many causes will be at work in fulfilling its decrees2 and as some1 including ,fabianus1 think1 such a change will not come without a shock to the whole universe4 ,in the first instance there will be excessive rainfall1 a dull leaden sky with never a glimpse of the sun4 ,the clouds will be unbroken1 the gathering moisture will cause thick darkness1 and there will be no winds to lick it up4 ,hence the crops will be diseased1 the grain ere it be grown #e will wither without fruit4 ,all tillage of man's hand will be ruined2 marsh grass will spring up over all the plains4 ,presently the stronger plants feel the strain2 their roots are loosened1 and the pollard elms fall forward1 carrying their vines with them4 ,all shrubs lose their hold on the soil1 which has become soft and flabby4 ,soon the ground is so saturated that it can support neither grain nor fruitful pasture4 ,the stress of famine is felt1 and recourse is had to the ancient sustenance of berries4 ,the fruit is shaken from ilex and oak1 and any other tree that has been able to keep its ground by the support of the clefts of the rocks in the mountains4 ,roofs are sodden and rickety2 the rain has penetrated to the depths1 and the foundations sink4 ,the #f ground is all a marsh4 ,it is vain to seek supports to the tottering houses2 every foundation is set on slippery ground1 and in the muddy soil nothing is firm4 ,after the storm-clouds have more and more densely massed1 and the accumulated snows of centuries have melted1 a cataract sweeps down from the lofty mountains carrying before it the woods now insecure in their place1 tearing off boulders from their fastenings1 and whirling them down in fierce career4 ,it washes off the country #g houses1 and takes down with it flocks of sheep among the dbris4 ,the smaller hamlets it carries off as it passes1 but at length it leaves its course and rushes in fury upon the larger homesteads4 ,it draws in its career whole cities1 inhabitants1 and buildings all mixed together3 people know not whether to complain of a catastrophe or a shipwreck4 ,so utterly crushed are they and at the same time submerged by its coming4 ,by and by1 as it advances1 the cataract is swollen by the absorption of other torrents1 and in devastating course roams through the whole plain4 ,finally1 it holds universal sway2 it has earned a title by the widespread destruction of the world which it carries as its burthen4 ,the rivers1 too1 originally large1 have been so hurried down by #h the storms that they have left their channels4 ,the ,rhone1 the ,rhine1 the ,danube1 even when confined within their banks1 have an impetuous torrent4 ,what1 suppose you1 are they now that they have overflowed and made themselves new banks1 and1 cutting through the soil have all wandered from their wonted course8 ,with what headlong rush they roll down6 ,the ,rhine overspreads the plains1 but the wideness of the space causes no slackening of its energy2 it pours its waters in full force over the whole extent as if it were rushing through a gorge4 ,the ,danube no longer washes the base1 or even the middle1 of the mountains2 it #i lashes the very summits1 bearing down with it the mountain sides it has flooded1 the crags it has overturned1 the beetling promontories through whole provinces2 it undermines their foundations1 and carries them far off from the mainland4 ,and1 after all1 the river finds no exit--for it had closed up every passage against itself--but returns in a circuit1 and envelops in one vast whirlpool the huge expanse of lands and cities4 ,meantime the rains continue1 the sky becomes still more threatening1 and thus1 for long1 disaster is heaped upon disaster4 ,what was once cloud is now profound night1 and that1 too1 dread and terrible1 with #aj gleams of lurid light between4 ,for frequent flashes show1 and squalls disturb the sea4 ,then for the first time1 feeling the increase from the rivers1 and too narrow to contain itself1 the main advances its shores4 ,its own bounds cannot contain it1 and yet the torrents from land prevent its escape1 and drive back its waves4 ,still1 the greater part of the torrents detained by their narrow mouth recoil in pools1 reducing the fields to the aspect of a continuous lake4 ,now everything1 far as the eye can reach1 is a waste of waters4 ,every hill is hidden in the abyss1 everywhere is fathomless depth of water4 ,only in the #aa highest mountain tops are there shallows4 ,to these heights men have fled with wives and children1 and have driven up their cattle4 ,all intercourse and communication have been cut off among the wretched survivors2 for all the lower ground has been filled by the waves4 ,the remnants of the human race cling to every lofty peak4 ,brought to the last shift1 they have this one solace1 that apprehension has passed into stupor4 ,astonishment so fills them that there is no room for fear4 ,even grief finds no place2 for it loses its force in one #ab whose wretchedness has passed beyond perception of suffering4 ,so there are only mountain tops that appear like islands above the water1 and increase the number of the scattered ,cyclades1 as that accomplished poet finely says2 with an exaltation of language too in keeping with his theme1 he exclaims3 ,all was sea2 to the sea there was no shore4 ,it is a pity he reduced that burst of genius and his splendid subject to childish twaddle by adding3 ,the wolf has to swim among the sheep1 the wave carries tawny lions4 ,there is too little seriousness in making sport in this way when the #ac earth has been swallowed up4 ,he expressed a fine thought and caught a vivid picture of the utter confusion when he said3 ,through the open plains the rivers wander at their will1 444 ,the towers totter and sink beneath the flood4 ,that was splendid1 if he had not minded what the wolf and the sheep were doing4 ,could anything1 in fact1 swim amid such deluge and destruction8 ,was not every hoof drowned in the same torrent as carried it off8 ,you conceived a worthy image1 ,ovid1 when all the world was overwhelmed1 and the sky itself descended upon earth4 ,keep it up4 ,you will know what it ought to be if you reflect that the whole world was afloat4 ,now we must return to our discussion4 ,,xxviii ,there is a section of philosophers who hold that while the earth may #a be greatly harassed by excessive rains1 it cannot be overwhelmed by them4 ,by a mighty blow this mighty earth must be smitten4 ,rain will spoil the crops1 hail will knock off the fruit2 but the rivers will only be swollen above their banks1 and will subside again4 ,some1 again1 are satisfied that the cause of the widespread destruction will be derived from the movements of the sea4 ,the great shipwreck of the world cannot1 they think1 arise from injury by cataract1 river1 or rain4 ,i am willing to grant that when that day of destruction is at hand1 and #b ,heaven is resolved to create a new race of men1 the rain will pour down incessantly1 and there will be no limit to the floods1 the north and other dry winds will cease to blow2 the south will bring up in plenty clouds and rain and stream4 ,but hitherto only damage has been inflicted4 ,the crops are laid low1 and to the grief of the farmer1 ,all hope of increase is abandoned2 the toil of the long year is wasted and vain4 ,but for our purpose the earth must be more than damaged1 it must be submerged4 ,in fact1 the disasters described are merely the prelude to destruction4 ,after that1 the seas swell far beyond their wonted bounds1 sending out their waves far above the farthest high-water mark of the most violent tempest4 ,the winds will urge them on from the rear1 rolling up huge billows that will break far inland out of #c sight of the highest shore4 ,in course of time the shore will thus be shifted forward1 the deep will be established in a realm that is not its own2 the mischief will come nearer1 and from its new base the tide will issue still from the deepest recesses of the main4 ,for just like atmosphere and ether1 this element1 sea1 has a large reserve1 and in its depth is far more copious than appears to the eye4 ,this reserve1 moved by fate1 not merely by tides--for tides are but the agency of fate--raises and drives before it a gulf of vast extent4 ,then in #d wondrous wise it rears its crest1 and overtops all man's refuges of safety4 ,nor do the waters find this a hard task1 since1 if the heights were calculated1 it would be found that the sea mounts from an elevation equal to that of earth4 ,the surface of the sea is of uniform level2 for the earth itself as a whole is uniformly level4 ,hollows and plains are everywhere below the general level4 ,but the whole globe is as a matter of fact formed into a regular sphere1 while in part of it is the sea1 which unites to form the unity of a single ball4 ,but just as when one looks out across a plain1 the #e ground that sinks gradually deceives the eye1 so we are not aware of the sea's curvatures1 and all that is visible is a plain4 ,but being on a level with the earth1 the sea does not require to raise itself to any great height in order to overflow4 ,in order to overtop what is on a level with it1 it need make only a slight rise4 ,besides1 the flow of it does not proceed from the shore where it is lower1 but from mid ocean where the heap in question stands4 ,therefore1 as the tide at the equinox soon after the conjunction of moon and sun rises to a height #f greater than at any other time of year2 in like manner this one that is sent out to seize upon the earth must exceed in violence the highest of ordinary tides1 and bear a far greater volume of water2 nor does it begin to ebb until it has swollen above the peaks of the mountains that are its objective4 ,some localities have at present a tide that runs up inland for a hundred miles in ordinary course harmlessly4 ,it flows up to its normal limit and then ebbs again4 ,but when the time of deluge comes1 the tide1 freed from all restraint1 will set no limit #g to its advance4 ,in what way8 you say4 ,just in the same way as the great conflagration is destined to take place4 ,both will take place when ,god has seen fit to end the old order1 and bring in a better4 ,fire and water are lords of the earth4 ,from these it took its rise1 and in these it will find its grave4 ,so when a new creation of the world has been resolved upon by ,heaven1 the sea will be let loose on us from above2 or it may be the raging fire1 if another variety of destruction is ,heaven's will4 ,,xxix ,some suppose that in the final catastrophe the earth1 too1 will be #a shaken1 and through clefts in the ground will uncover sources of fresh rivers which will flow forth from their full source in larger volume4 ,berosus1 the translator of the records of ,belus1 affirms that the whole issue is brought about by the course of the planets4 ,so positive is he on the point that he assigns a definite date both for the conflagration and the deluge4 ,all that the earth inherits will1 he assures us1 be consigned to flame when the planets1 which now move in different orbits1 all assemble in ,cancer1 so arranged in one row that a straight line may pass through their spheres4 ,when the same gathering takes place in ,capricorn1 then we are in danger of the deluge4 ,midsummer is at present brought round by the former1 midwinter by the latter4 ,they are zodiacal signs of great power seeing that they are #b the determining influences in the two great changes of the year4 ,i should myself quite admit causes of the kind4 ,the destruction of the world will not be determined by a single reason4 ,but ,i should like to apply in this connection as well1 a principle which we ,stoics adopt in regard to a conflagration of the universe4 ,whether the world is a soul1 or a body under the government of nature1 like trees and crops1 it embraces in its constitution all that it is destined to experience actively or passively from its beginning right on to its end2 it resembles a human being1 all whose capacities are wrapped up in the embryo before birth4 ,ere the child has seen the #c light the principle of beard and grey hairs is innate4 ,albeit small and hidden1 all the features of the whole body and of every succeeding period of life are there4 ,in like manner the creation of the world embraces sun and moon1 stars with their successive phases1 and the birth of all sentient life2 and no less the methods of change in all earthly things4 ,among the latter is flood1 which comes by a law of nature just as winter and summer do4 ,so1 that catastrophe will not be produced simply by rain1 but rain will contribute3 nor by inroads #d of the sea1 but these inroads will contribute3 nor by earthquake1 but earthquake will contribute4 ,all elements will aid nature1 that nature's decrees may be executed4 ,the chief cause of its inundation will be furnished by the earth herself1 which1 as has been already said1 is subject to transmutation1 and may dissolve in moisture4 ,therefore1 there will one day come an end to all human life and #e interests4 ,the elements of the earth must all be dissolved or utterly destroyed in order that they all may be created anew in innocence1 and that no remnant may be left to tutor men in vice4 ,there will be more moisture then than there ever was before4 ,at present the elements are all carefully adjusted to the parts they have to fulfil4 ,to destroy the equipoise in which the balance stands1 there must be some addition to one or other of them4 ,the addition will be to moisture4 ,it has1 at present1 power to surround1 but not to overwhelm the earth4 ,any addition to it must of necessity overflow into ground that does not now belong to it4#fj ,so the earth as the weaker is bound to yield to sea which has gathered unnatural strength4 ,so it will begin to rot1 then to be loosened and converted into moisture1 and to waste away by the #f continuous drain4 ,rivers will then issue forth beneath mountains1 shaking them to the foundations by their fury2 then they will flow on in silence without a breath of air4 ,the soil will everywhere give forth water2 the tops of mountains will pour it out1 just as disease corrupts what is sound1 and an ulcer taints its whole vicinity4 ,the nearer the part is to the soil that is being liquefied1 the more quickly will it be washed off1 dissolved1 and finally carried away4 ,the rock will everywhere gape in fissures1 and the fresh supplies of water will leap down into the gulfs1 and unite in forming one great sea4 ,there will be no ,adriatic any longer1 no strait in the ,sicilian ,sea1 no ,charybdis1 no ,scylla4 ,all the fabulous dangers will be swallowed up in the new sea2 #g the existing ,ocean which surrounds the fringes of the earth will come into the centre4 #fj ,the text is uncertain1 but the meaning fairly obvious4 ,nor will this be all4 ,as if this were not enough1 winter will seize upon months that are not his1 summer will be stopped1 the heat of every heavenly body that dries up earth's moisture will be quenched and cease4 ,all these names will be obliterated--,caspian and ,red ,sea1 ,ambracian and ,cretan ,gulfs1 the ,pontus and the ,propontis4 ,all distinctions will disappear4 ,all will be mixed up which nature has #h now arranged in its several parts4 ,nor will walls and battlements afford protection to any4 ,temples will not save their worshippers1 nor citadels their refugees4 ,the wave will anticipate the fugitives1 and sweep them down from their very stronghold4 ,some enemies will hasten from the west1 others from the east4 ,a single day will see the burial of all mankind4 ,all that the long forbearance of fortune has produced1 all that has been reared to eminence1 all that is famous and all that is beautiful1 great thrones1 great nations--all will descend into the one abyss1 will be overthrown in one hour4 ,,xxx ,nature1 as ,i have said1 finds no task hard1 and especially one #a resolved upon from the beginning1 to which she does not come of a sudden1 but of which long warning has been given4 ,from the world's first morning1 when out of shapeless uniformity it assumed this form it wears1 nature's decree had fixed the day when all earthly things should be overflowed4 ,nay1 from of old the seas have practised their strength for this purpose1 lest at any time destruction as a strange work might be found difficult to compass4 ,do you not see how the breaker dashes against the beach as if it wished to leave its element8 ,do you not see how the tide sometimes crosses its bounds and instals the sea in possession of the land8 ,do you not see how unceasing is the war it #b wages against its barriers8 ,but what special apprehension need there be of the sea1 the place where you see such turmoil1 and of the rivers that burst forth in such fury8 ,where has nature not placed water8 ,she can attack us on all sides the moment she chooses4 ,i can give my own word of honour for it that water meets us as we turn up the soil2 every time our avarice sends us down a mine1 or any other motive induces us to sink a shaft deep in the earth1 the end of the excavation is always a rush of water4 ,remember1 too1 that there are huge lakes hidden deep in the earth1 #c great quantities of sea stored up1 and many rivers that glide through the unseen depths4 ,on all sides1 therefore1 will be causes of deluge2 for some waters flow in beneath the earth and others flow round it4 ,though long restrained they will at last prevail1 and will join stream to stream and pool to marsh4 ,the sea will fill up the mouth of every fountain1 and will open it out to wider extent4 ,just as the bowels drain the body in the draught1 or as the strength goes off into #d perspiration1 so the earth will dissolve1 and though other causes are inactive1 it will find within itself a flood in which to sink4 ,all the great forces will thus1 ,i should suppose1 combine4 ,nor will destruction tarry4 ,the harmony is assailed and broken when once the world has relaxed aught of its needed care4 ,at once1 from all sides1 open and hidden1 above and beneath1 will rush the influx of waters4 ,there is nothing like the letting loose of the sea's full force1 #e for violence and ungovernable fury2 it rises in rebellion and spurns every restraint4 ,it will make full use of its permitted liberty2 as its nature prompts1 what it rends and surrounds it will soon fill up4 ,just as fire that breaks out at different points will speedily unite the flames and make one grand blaze1 so the overflowing seas will join forces in an instant4 ,but the waves will not enjoy their unrestrained liberty for ever4 ,when the destruction of the human race #f is consummated1 and when wild beasts1 whose nature men had come to share1 have been consigned together to a like fate1 the earth will once more drink up the waters4 ,nature will force the sea to stay its course1 and to expend its rage within its wonted bounds4 ,ocean will be banished from our abodes into his own secret dwelling-place4 ,the ancient order of things will be recalled4 ,every living creature will be created #g afresh4 ,the earth will receive a new man ignorant of sin1 born under happier stars4 ,but they1 too1 will retain their innocence only while they are new4 ,vice quickly creeps in2 virtue is difficult to find2 she requires ruler and guide4 ,but vice can be acquired even without a tutor4 ,,book ,,iv ,,containing ,a ,,discussion ,,of ,,snow1 ,,hail1 ,,and ,,rain ,,the ,,nile ,,preface ,you tell me you are delighted1 ,lucilius1 my most esteemed of friends1 #a with your peaceful government of ,sicily4 ,you will continue to be delighted if you are willing to observe the bounds of moderation1 and do not try to turn into an empire what is merely a province4 ,nor do ,i doubt that this will be your choice1 knowing as ,i do that you are a stranger to ambition1 and a friend to a peaceful life of letters4 ,let those who cannot bear their own company1 long for a crowd of affairs and of people6 ,you are on the best of terms with yourself4 ,it is little wonder that few attain such a happy lot4 ,we are always laying #b commands upon ourselves to our own dispeace4 ,we suffer at one moment from love of1 at another from weariness of1 ourselves4 ,our unhappy soul is now inflamed with pride1 now inflated with passion4 ,sometimes we relax it through indulgence1 sometimes we consume it with anxiety4 ,the most pitiable thing of all is that we are never alone with ourselves4 ,so1 where such a crowd of vices have to mess together1 there must becccc #c continual wrangling among them4 ,behave1 therefore1 my dear ,lucilius1 as you are wont to behave4 ,separate yourself as far as possible from the common herd1 and expose no side to the attack of flattery4 ,flatterers are adepts in spreading a net for their betters4 ,however much you are on your guard1 you will be no match for them4 ,if you allow yourself to be caught1 you will be delivering yourself up to betrayal1 take my word for it4 ,flattery has in it the inherent charm1 that even when #d spurned1 it is not unpleasing3 often shut out1 it is at the last taken to the bosom4 ,flattery accepts its rejection as a mark of attention2 even insults cannot subdue it4 ,what ,i am going to tell you may sound incredible1 yet it is the simple truth4 ,every man is most open to danger on the side on which he is #e attacked4 ,perhaps1 indeed1 that is the very reason why he is attacked on that side4 ,you must1 therefore1 lay your account to recognise that1 do what you will1 you cannot manage to be impervious to adulation4 ,when you have closed every loophole1 it will still wound you through your harness4 ,one assailant will employ his flattery secretly and sparingly2 another1 above board1 openly1 with an affectation of honest sincerity1 as if it were straightforward bluntness1 not device4 ,plancus1 the greatest adept in the art before ,vitellius' time1 used to say that secret1 dissembled flattery was not to be employed4 ,advances1 quoth he1 are lost if they are not recognised4 ,the flatterer makes most headway #f when he is detected2 still more1 in fact1 if an open rebuke brings the blush to his cheek4 ,you must assume that a public character like you will encounter many ,plancuses4 ,it is no remedy against the inveterate plague to refuse to be praised4 ,i never knew a man more shrewd in every practical matter than ,crispus ,passienus1 and especially in diagnosing and treating faults of character4 ,he often used to say that we only put-to the door against flattery1 and do not shut it1 much in the same way as in the face of a mistress4 ,if she gives it a shove1 we are pleased1 still more so if she forces it open4 ,i remember hearing that #g distinguished man1 ,demetrius1 remark to a certain powerful freedman that he1 too1 had an easy road to riches on the day that he made up his mind to renounce all virtuous resolutions4 ,nor will ,i grudge any of you1 said he1 the knowledge of the art1 but ,i will teach those who regard gain as the one thing needful how they may attain their object4 ,they need not follow the doubtful fortune of the sea1 nor the competition of buying and selling3 they need not place their faith in the fickle proceeds of the ground1 nor the still more fickle fortunes of the exchange4 ,i will teach them a means of making money not merely easy1 but positively so merry that the victims whom they fleece will share the fun4 ,flattery shall be the means4 ,if you have the stature #h of the pigmy ,thracian matched against ,thracian in the arena1 ,i will swear that you are taller than ,fidus ,annaeus or ,apollonius ,pycta4 ,i will say that no fellow could be more liberal than you1 nor shall ,i lie1 since you may be considered to have bestowed upon all whatever you have not robbed them of4 ,the fact is1 my dear ,junior1 the more open and shameless flattery is1 and the more completely it has brazened its own features and raised the conscious blush in those of others1 the more quickly it storms the citadel4 ,we have now reached such a pitch of madness that he who uses flattery sparingly is considered niggardly4 ,i used to tell you thatccccc #i my brother ,gallio--a man whom even his most ardent admirer cannot love according to the measure of his deserts--was a stranger to other vices1 but this he positively loathed4 ,you might assail him on every side4 ,one began by paying homage to his intellect1 the greatest and worthiest of all1 which one had rather see consecrated to the service of heaven than wasted in weak human effort2 he ran away from one who talked thus4 ,or one began to praise his thrift--he was so indifferent to money that he seemed neither to possess it nor to condemn it--he cut short the very first words of the panegyric4 ,or1 again1 one would admire his bonhomie and unaffected grace #aj of character1 which charms even those it passes unnoticed--a service to every one he meets1 which costs the author nothing4 ,no one in the world1 ,i may tell you1 is such a favourite with his one chosen friend as he is with all4 ,at the same time so great is his natural amiability that it is free from all savour of artifice or pretence4 ,no one1 you would think1 can refuse credit for a goodness in which all share4 ,at this point1 too1 he successfully resisted your blandishments1 leading you to exclaim that you had found a man absolutely impregnable to assaults of the flattery which no one ever refuses to take to his bosom4 ,you were forced to admit that you respected his wisdom and #aa determination in escaping from that unavoidable plague1 all the more that you had hoped that your insinuating words would be received with open ears because they were true4 ,yet all the more he saw that he must resist your wiles4 ,for when truth is attacked by falsehood1 the attack always seeks the aid of some measure of truth4 ,still1 ,i would not have the flatterer who tried his art upon my brother displeased with his success1 as if he had acted his part ill while the other suspected some joke or trick4 ,you had not been detected1 your advances had simply #ab been rejected4 ,now do you1 ,lucilius1 adapt yourself to this model4 ,when any flatterer approaches you1 say to him3 ,do you wish to convey a complimentary message such as passes between magistrates duly installed in office8 ,do you think that ,i am prepared to return the compliment1 and willing1 therefore1 to listen to your long story8 ,neither do ,i wish to dupe1 nor can ,i be duped4 ,i should like well enough to have the praise of people like yourself if you did not praise the bad as well as the good4 ,and yet1 ,lucilius1 why is it necessary for you to come down to their level1 and allow them to attack you at close quarters8 ,keep a long distance between you and them4 ,when you desire to have genuine praise1 why should you be indebted to another for it8 ,yourself commend your own efforts4 ,say thus3 ,though my poverty prompted another kind of career1 and tempted me to devote my talents to a field which promised to #ac application a quick return1 yet ,i gave myself up to liberal pursuits4 ,i turned aside to the unremunerative domains of poetry1 and bestowed myself upon the wholesome study of philosophy4 ,i have showed that seeds of virtue are planted in every breast4 ,i have surmounted the difficulties of birth2 measuring my powers1 not by my lot1 but by my capacity1 ,i have reached a position on a level with the highest4 ,my friendship with ,gaetulicus did not sap my allegiance to the ,emperor ,caius ,caligula4 ,messalina and ,narcissus1 long enemies of the ,state before they became enemies of one another1 were unable to overturn #ad my resolve to be true to others whom it was a crime to love4#fa ,i risked my head for my loyalty4 ,no word was wrung from me that ,i could not utter with a clear conscience4 ,all my fears were for my friends1 none for myself1 except the fear of not proving a true friend4 ,no womanish tears escaped me1 nor did ,i cling as suppliant to the hands of any ruler4 ,i have done nothing unbecoming a man or a good man4 ,rising superior to dangers1 ready to face all they threatened1 ,i #ae thanked fortune for affording opportunity of showing what a price ,i put upon honour4 ,such an issue could not be lightly esteemed in my eyes4 ,the suspense was not of long continuance4 ,the weights in the scale were by no means equal--was it better for me to perish for honour's sake or for honour to perish for my sake8 ,i did not rush headlong to self-destruction1 the refuge of despair1 to rescue myself from the mad rage of the rulers4 ,in ,caius' time ,i saw tortures and fires of persecution4 ,under his reign ,i recognised at one period that the lot of humanity had sunk to such a depth of misery that the loss of one's #af life might be ranked among the deeds of mercy4 ,yet1 ,i did not fall upon my sword1 nor leap open-mouthed into the sea3 ,i would not have it seem that death was the only service ,i could render for honour's sake4 ,add1 now1 that my soul has never stooped to bribes1 amid the eager race for wealth my hand has never reached forth to receive unjust gain4 ,add1 too1 the thriftiness of my mode of life1 the restraint of my speech1 my courtesy toward inferiors1 my respect for superiors4 #fa ,the passage is evidently corrupt2 the facts with which it deals are in part unknown4 ,after these reflections1 ask yourself1 my friend1 whether what you have related of yourself be true or false4 ,if it is true1 you have a most important witness to your character2 if false1 there will be no witness to the derision you have earned4 ,i may myself appear at #ag present to be either seeking to throw my net over you or trying to make you rise to my fly4 ,take either supposition for true1 and begin1 from the example ,i offer1 to fear all flatterers4 ,meditate on ,virgil's words3 ,nowhere is honour safe2 or on ,ovid's3 ,as far as earth extends1 the savage ,fury rules2 ,for crime1 methinks1 all have conspired2 or on this sentiment of ,menander's--for who has not put forth the full strength of his indignation on this topic1 in abhorrence of #ah mankind's agreement in rushing toward vice8 ,all are bad livers1 says the poet1 presenting himself on the stage in the rude character of a raw countryman4 ,he excepts neither greybeard nor youth1 neither man nor woman4 ,he adds to the charge that it is not individuals or small numbers that sin1 but that wickedness is now ingrained in society all through4 ,one must flee from the world and return to oneself1 nay1 rather one must escape from oneself4 ,though you and ,i are separated by the sea1 ,i will endeavour to render you some service3 placing my #ai hand in yours ,i will guide your doubtful steps along the more excellent way4 ,at this distance ,i will mingle my talk with yours1 that you may not feel the loneliness4 ,we shall be united in our noblest part--the spirit4 ,we shall impart mutual counsel1 and1 as you hang upon the lips of your monitor1 ,i will lead you far away from that province of yours4 ,for ,i would not have you put too implicit trust in records of the past1 or become self-satisfied as often as you reflect3 ,i have under my jurisdiction a province here which both maintained and crushed #bj the armies of the mightiest states1 when it was offered as a prize in that colossal war between ,carthage and ,rome4 ,it saw the strength of four ,roman generals1 in other words1 of the whole empire1 massed in one spot2 it raised high the fortunes of ,pompey1 brought ,caesar's to their culmination2 transferred the power of ,lepidus to his rivals1 and contained the fate of all4 ,sicily was an eye-witness of that great spectacle which showed plainly to the world how rapid the descent #ba from highest to lowest could be1 and in how many different ways great power might be overthrown by fortune4 ,for at one and the same time it witnessed the downfall of ,pompey and ,lepidus from the pinnacle of power in opposite ways2 ,pompey had to run from his enemy's army1 ,lepidus from his own4 ,i ,although ,sicily1 then1 has many wonderful sights in and around it1 ,i will meantime withdraw your mind wholly from your own province1 and1 passing by all questions relating to it1 will direct your thoughts to a far different scene4 ,in your society ,i will resume the inquiry postponed in my last book1 why the ,nile overflows in the summer months4 ,now1 let me remark that the philosophers have asserted the similarity of the ,danube to the ,nile1 because its source is unknown and it is larger in summer than in winter4 ,both statements are clearly false4 ,we know for a fact that the ,danube rises in ,germany4 ,again1 though the rise of the ,danube begins in summer1 it is at a period when the ,nile still remains within its ordinary limits3 the heat is then only beginning1 and the stronger sun toward the latter part of spring is softening the snows1 but it has to melt them before the ,nile begins to rise4 ,during the remainder of the summer the ,danube actually falls until it reaches its winter size1 from which in due course it begins its rise again4#fb #fb ,the meaning of the last clause is taken by some to be3 and even falls below it--a somewhat pointless remark4 ,,ii ,but the increase of the ,nile begins in the middle of the hot season1 #a before the rise of the dog-star1 and continues till after the equinox4 ,nature has raised up this noble river before the eyes of the world1 and has so ordered its inundation of the land of ,egypt that it should occur at the very time at which the ground is most parched with heat4 ,the earth thus drinks the more deeply1 and imbibes sufficient to counteract the drought of the whole year4 ,in the part of ,egypt that stretches round ,ethiopia1 you must bear in mind1 there is either no rain at all or it occurs only at long intervals1 and is insufficient to give much relief to a land which ordinarily knows nothing of water from the clouds4 ,it is in the ,nile1 as you are aware1 that ,egypt reposes all #b its hopes4 ,according to the abundance or scantiness of its overflow is the leanness or the fatness of its season4 ,none of its farmers regards the sky1 are the words of your own poem4 ,and why should ,i not crack a joke with my dear poet friend1 and retort with a verse from his favourite ,ovid8#fc who says3 ,nor do the herbs make supplication to the rain-god ,jupiter4 #fc ,the quotation is really from ,tibullus4 ,if one could only ascertain at what point in the course of the river #c the rise begins1 the causes of the rise would also be discovered4 ,as it is1 the river wanders through great deserts1 spreads out into marshes1 among many scattered tribes1 before it is for the first time after its wandering1 mazy course gathered into one near ,philae4 ,philae is a rugged island1 precipitous on all sides2 it is surrounded by the two branches of the river before they unite to form the one river which henceforth bears the designation ,nile4 ,the whole city of ,philae is surrounded by the ,nile1 which after leaving ,ethiopia is a large rather than rapid river4#fd ,next in its course are the sandy deserts through which passes the trade route to the ,red ,sea4#fd ,after that #d the ,nile enters the ,cataracts1 a spot famous for a wonderful sight4 ,the river rises over high crags that are at several points jagged4 ,the opposing rocks break up its course and rouse its utmost force2 as it struggles through the narrows1 swirls show the points where it conquers or is conquered4 ,a smooth channel had hitherto conducted its waters without uproar4 ,here for the first time they are roused1 and the turbulent cataract leaps down through the narrow passage quite unlike its former self4 ,up to that point the stream was thick and muddy4 #e ,but once it enters the craggy gorge it breaks into foam4 ,its colour is no longer the natural one1 but derived from the ground through which it has to force its way4 ,when at length it has struggled through the obstructions1 suddenly deprived of support1 it falls from a vast height with a roar that resounds through all the surrounding regions4 ,the race planted in that savage place was indeed unable to endure the din2 their ears were deafened by the constant crash1 and they were therefore removed from the settlement4 #fd ,the text is very uncertain4 ,among the wonderful sights of the river ,i have been told of a feat of incredible daring performed by the inhabitants4 ,two of them embark in a small boat1 one steering1 the other baling out the water4 ,forthwith they are violently buffeted from side to side by the furious waves of #f the rapid river1 and at length reach the narrowest channels1 through which they thread their way till they escape from the craggy gorge4 ,then they are carried down along with the whole volume of the stream1 guiding all the time by hand the rushing craft4 ,at one moment they seem to stand right on their head2 the spectators are in great alarm2 one gives them up for lost1 and believes they must be sunk and overwhelmed by such a mass of water4 ,but finally they are shot out like an arrow1 and are discovered afloat at a point far below where they had entered the current4 ,the waves in their fall do not swamp them1 but pass them on to smooth water4 ,the first rise of the ,nile is observed near the island ,philae which ,i #g have just mentioned4 ,a short distance from it the river is divided by a rock in the centre1 which the ,greeks call the ,inaccessible 774 ,no foot approaches it save that of the priestly ministers4 ,those cliffs first feel the increase of the river4 ,then along distance below that two crags project1 called by the natives the veins of the ,nile4 ,a great quantity of water is shed out by them1 but yet insufficient to flood the land of ,egypt4 ,when the date of the sacred festival comes round1 the priests throw into these fountains a public offering1 while the magistrates offer gifts of gold4 ,from this point the ,nile1 #h obviously displaying the fresh energy it has gained1 flows onward in a channel of profound depth1 but is restrained by mountain barriers from spreading widely beyond its banks4 ,only when it reaches ,memphis is it released2 and separating into numerous channels1 it roams over the champaign4 ,in order to regulate the supply1 canals are constructed by hand1 and thus the water is distributed over all ,egypt4 ,at first near its bank the stream is simply divided2 by and by the waters extend till they assume the aspect of a wide1 swollen sea at rest4 ,the extent of the country flooded1 which embraces the whole land of ,egypt to right and left1 deprives the current of all its force4 ,the height of the ,nile's #i rise determines the expectation of growth for the year4 ,the farmer is never out in his reckoning2 the fertility of the land answers unfailingly to the measure of the river's increase4 ,it spreads a coating of soil as well as water over the thirsty1 sandy ground4 ,as it comes down swollen1 it deposits all its sediment in the dry1 gaping cracks1 and spreads over the parched soil all the rich mud it has brought down4 ,it thus renders a double service to the land--first1 by overflowing it1 and then by coating it with slime4 ,and so any portion that it does not reach lies waste and unsightly4 ,if the inundation #aj is unduly high1 it does damage4 ,the river possesses this wonderful characteristic3 while all other rivers wash away and exhaust land1 the ,nile1 though so much larger than the rest1 far from eating away or rubbing off soil1 actually adds to its vigour2 it contains very little that injuriously affects the soil1#fe for by the mud it brings down1 it soaks and binds the sands4 ,egypt1 in fact1 owes to the river not merely the fertility of the soil1 but also the soil itself4 ,it is a beautiful sight when the #aa ,nile has spread itself over all the fields4 ,the plains are hidden1 the valleys have disappeared2 only the towns stand out like islands4 ,in the interior of the country there is no communication except by boat4 ,the people are overjoyed the more1 the less they can see of their country4 ,even when the river has resumed its normal course1 it discharges into the sea by seven mouths1 any one of them itself a sea4 ,moreover1 it sends out many less famous arms toward either bank4 #fe ,or1 its least service is that it tempers the soil4 ,and then when we look at the monsters it rears1 they are equal to those of ocean in size1 and no less formidable4 ,one may judge indeed of the #ab greatness of the river from the hugeness of the animals for whose sustenance it provides food in abundance1 and for whose free movements it affords room4 ,balbillus1 a most excellent man who has distinguished himself in every walk of letters1 has recorded that during his own government of ,egypt he himself saw in the largest mouth of the ,nile1 the ,heracleotic1 the strange sight of what may be called a pitched battle between dolphins1 coming up from the sea1 and crocodiles meeting them in front from the river4 ,the crocodiles were in the event #ac vanquished by the inoffensive animals with harmless bite4 ,it happened on this wise3 ,the upper part of the crocodile's body is hard1 and cannot be pierced by the teeth even of larger animals2 but the lower part is soft and tender4 ,the dolphins dived in the fight and wounded the belly of the crocodiles with the projecting spikes they carry on their back2 then driving home the stroke1 they fairly cut up the enemy4 ,when a number of the crocodiles had been opened out in this #ad fashion1 the remainder1 to adopt military language1 wheeled their line and retreated4 ,the battle was not to the strong1 the fleeing creature successfully resisted the daring1 the most daring fled before the timid6 ,nor is it by any peculiar virtue of stock or blood that the islanders from ,tentyra beat the crocodiles1 but merely through pluck and contempt of them4 ,they take the offensive against them1 and as the crocodiles try to escape they lasso them and drag them ashore4 ,at the same time many of the hunters lose their lives through lack of nerve in the chase4 ,theophrastus assures us that the ,nile has at times brought down sea water4 ,it is a well-established fact that for two successive years1 #ae the tenth and eleventh of the reign of ,cleopatra1 there was no rise in the river4 ,people say that this was an intimation of the impending fall of its two rulers4 ,for as a matter of fact1 the rule of ,antony and ,cleopatra did fall4 ,at an earlier period the ,nile did not rise for nine whole years1 according to the statement of ,callimachus4 ,but ,i must now go on to inquire into the explanations of the #af occurrence of the rise of the ,nile in summer2 and ,i will begin with the most ancient of them4 ,anaxagoras asserts that the snow melting on the peaks of ,ethiopia is constantly running down to the ,nile4 ,all antiquity shared the same view1 which is recorded by ,aeschylus1 ,sophocles1 and ,euripides4 ,but many proofs make it plain that it is a mistaken #ag one4 ,first of all1 the blackened complexion of the people shows that ,ethiopia is exceedingly hot4 ,so do the habits of the ,troglodytes 7cave-dwellers71 who for coolness have underground houses4 ,the rocks glow with heat as if a fire had been applied1 and that1 not only at mid-day1 but even toward nightfall4 ,the dusty ground is so hot that no foot of man can endure it4 ,silver is unsoldered4#ff ,the joints of statues are melted4 ,no coating of plated metal will stick on4 ,the south #ah wind1 too1 coming from that tract of country1 is the hottest of all winds4 ,none of the animals that go to earth in winter ever hibernates there4 ,even in midwinter the serpent is seen above ground in the open4 ,at ,alexandria1 too1 which lies far north of this excessive heat1 snow does not fall2 but the upper regions have not even rain4 #ff ,some render--is dissolved and gives off its lead4 ,how then1 ,i ask1 could a district exposed to such broiling heat receive a snowfall sufficient to last through a whole summer8 ,no doubt some of #ai the mountains in ,ethiopia1 as well as elsewhere1 intercept snow2 but there can never be a greater fall than in the ,alps1 or the peaks of ,thrace1 or the ,caucasus4 ,it is in spring1 however1 or early summer1 that the rivers that flow from the ,european mountains are swollen2 subsequently during winter time they decrease4 ,the reason1 of course1 is that the rains in spring wash off so much of the snow1 and the first heat of summer soon scatters the remnants4 ,neither the ,rhine1 nor the ,rhone1 nor the ,danube1 nor yet the ,castrus is liable to the catastrophe of an overflow in winter2 their increase is in summer1 though in those northern peaks where they rise the snow lies very deep4 ,the ,phasis1 too1 and the ,dnieper would swell during summer #bj if snows had the power of raising the rivers high in spite of the heat of that season4 ,besides1 if this were the cause of the flooding of the ,nile1 its stream would be fullest in early summer2 for that is the period when the snow is deepest and least impaired1 and when from its softness the thaw is quickest4 ,the ,nile1 however1 has a regular increase to its stream during four months4 ,if one may believe ,thales1 the ,etesian winds hinder the descent #ba of the ,nile and check its course by driving the sea against its mouths4 ,it is thus beaten back1 and returns upon itself4 ,its rise is not the result of increase3 it simply stops through being prevented from discharging1 and presently1 wherever it can1 it bursts out into forbidden ground4 ,euthymenes of ,marseilles bears corroborative testimony3 ,i have1 he says1 gone a voyage in the ,atlantic ,sea4 ,it causes an increase in the ,nile as long as the ,etesian winds observe their season4 ,for at that period the sea is cast up by pressure of the winds4 ,when the winds have fallen1 the sea is at rest1 and supplies #bb less energy to the ,nile in its descent4 ,further1 the taste of that sea is fresh1 and its denizens resemble those of the ,nile4 ,now1 if the ,etesian winds1 as alleged1 stir up the ,nile1 why1 ,i should like to know1 does its rise begin before them and last after them8 ,moreover1 it does not rise higher in proportion to the violence of their blast4 ,nor does it swell and fall according as they blow furiously or gently4 ,all which would happen if it derived from them the strength of its increase4 ,then1 again1 the ,etesian winds beat on the shore of ,egypt1 #bc and the ,nile comes down in their teeth3 whereas1 if its rise is to be traced to them1 the river ought to come from the same quarter as they do4 ,furthermore1 if it flowed out of the sea1 its waters would be clear and dark blue1 not muddy1 as they are4 ,add to this that ,euthymenes' evidence is refuted by a whole crowd of witnesses4 ,at such a time when foreign parts were all unknown1 there was opportunity for falsehood3 people like ,euthymenes had scope for giving currency to travellers' myths4 ,but nowadays the whole coast of the sea beyond ,gibraltar is visited by trading vessels3 none of the traders tell us that the ,nile rises there1 or that the sea in the ,atlantic tastes differently from what it does elsewhere4 ,the very nature of the sea forbids belief #bd in the story that it is fresh3 the freshest water is always lightest1 and as such attracted by the sun in evaporation3 the residuum1 sea1 must be salt4 ,besides1 why1 on this theory1 does the ,nile not rise in winter8 ,the sea may be raised at that season by storms too1 which are considerably greater than the ,etesians2 the latter are comparatively moderate in their force4 ,besides if the source were derived from the ,atlantic ,ocean1 ,egypt would be flooded all at once2 but1 as a matter of fact1 the increase is very gradual4 ,oenopides of ,chios has another explanation3 he says that in winter #be heat is stored up under the ground2 that is why caves are then warm1 and the water in wells is less cold4 ,the veins of water are dried up by this internal heat1 he thinks4 ,in other countries rivers swell through rain3 but the ,nile1 being aided by no rainfall1 dwindles during the rainy season of winter1 and by and by increases in summer1 a season at which the interior of the earth is cold1 and the frost returns to the springs4 ,now1 if that were true1 rivers in general would #bf increase in summer1 and all wells would then have greater abundance of water4 ,besides1 it is not true that there is an increase in the heat underground in winter4 ,water and caves and wells are warm at that season because they do not admit the frosty air from without4 ,thus1 they do not possess heat1 they merely exclude cold4 ,for the same reason they are chilly in summer1 because the air heated by the sun is drawn off to a distance1 and does not penetrate to them4 ,the next account is that of ,diogenes of ,apollonia4 ,it runs thus3 #bg ,the sun attracts moisture2 the earth drained of it replenishes its supply in part from the sea1 in part from other water4 ,now1 it is impossible that one land should be dry and another overflowing with moisture4 ,the whole earth is full of perforations1 and there are paths of intercommunication from part to part4 ,from time to time the dry parts draw upon the moist4 ,had not the earth some source of supply1 it would ere this have been completely drained of its moisture4 ,well1 then1 the sun attracts the waves4 ,the localities most affected are the southern4#fg ,when the earth is parched1 it draws to it #bh more moisture4 ,just as in a lamp the oil flows to the point where it is consumed1 so the water inclines toward the place to which the overpowering heat of the burning earth draws it4 ,but where1 it may be asked1 is it drawn from8 ,of course1 it must be from those northern regions of eternal winter1 where there is a superabundance of it4 ,this is why a swift current sets from the ,black ,sea toward the ,lower #bi ,sea1 without interruption1 and not1 as in the case of other seas1 with alternate flow and ebb of tide2 there is always a descending flood in the one direction4 ,unless this took place1 and these routes supplied the means whereby what is lacking may be bestowed on each land1 and what is superfluous may be given off1 the whole earth would ere now have been either drained or flooded4 ,now1 one would like to ask ,diogenes1 seeing the deep and all streams are in intercommunication1 #cj why the rivers are not everywhere larger in summer4 ,egypt1 he will perhaps tell me1 is more baked by the sun1 and therefore the ,nile rises higher from the extra supply it draws2 but in the other countries1 too1 the rivers receive some addition4 ,another question--seeing that every land attracts moisture from other regions1 and a greater supply in proportion to its heat1 why is any part of the world without moisture8 ,another--why is the ,nile fresh if its water comes from the sea8 ,no river has a fresher and sweeter taste4 #fg ,the text is uncertain2 the general meaning is1 however1 plain4 ,,iii ,i should be somewhat too bold if ,i were to assure you as on oath that #a hail is formed in the sky much in the way ice is with us1 only that in the former case a whole cloud is frozen4 ,so ,i may regard myself as a witness only in the second degree--one of those who say not that they have actually seen but have been informed4 ,or1 ,i may1 for once1 do as the chroniclers do4 ,after lying at large to their heart's content1 they fix on some one point for which they refuse to vouch1 adding3 ,evidence of this will be found in the authorities4 ,so1 if you do not #b believe me1 ,posidonius will vouchsafe to you his authority both for the statement ,i have made1 and for one that ,i am going to make4 ,he will assure you1 as confidently as if he had witnessed the process of formation1 that hail is formed from a cloud that is charged with rain1 and has already turned into moisture4 ,you can discover without a tutor why the hail is round if you observe that drops of all kinds tend to become globular4 ,this is seen1 for example1 in looking-glasses1 which #c gather moisture from the breath1 as well as in cups1 and any other smooth surface bedewed with it4 ,so1 too1 in the leaves of grass or trees1 any drops that adhere take a circular form4 ,what is harder than rock1 what softer than water8 ,yet the hard rock is hollowed by drops of the soft water2 or1 as another poet tells us3 ,the drip by its fall hollows the stone3 and this hollow is itself round4 ,whence it is evident that its shape #d resembles this drip which hollows it out1 sculpturing the spot to its own form and character4 ,besides1 the hail1 even were it not of this shape1 might be rounded in its fall1 and worn equally on all sides into globular form as it is again and again whirled round in its descent through the space of thick air it traverses4 ,snow1 on the contrary1 cannot be affected thus1 because it is not so solid1 being indeed very much scattered1 and falling from no great height4 ,it has its source in the neighbourhood of the earth1 and its descent is of no great distance through the air1 but starts from a point quite close by4 ,why should ,i not allow myself the same licence as ,anaxagoras in differing #e from my authorities8 ,nowhere can equality of rights be claimed with more propriety than among the philosophers4 ,hail is simply ice held suspended in mid-air2 snow is a floating congealed mass of the nature of hoar-frost4 ,i have already said that the difference between water and dew is reproduced in the difference of hoar-frost and ice1 and1 in like manner1 in that between snow and hail4 ,,iv ,i might take leave of the question here1 holding that ,i had finished #a it4 ,but ,i will give you good measure1 and1 having begun to trouble you with my speculations1 ,i will discuss everything connected with the topic4 ,one of the cognate questions is1 why in winter there is snow but no hail1 while in spring1 after the worst of the cold is over1 there are falls of hail4 ,for let me be deceived for your benefit1 though ,i may say ,i am fully persuaded of the truth of what ,i am about to affirm4 ,i lend always a credulous ear to these trivial falsehoods2 perhaps they deserve to be punished by having one's mouth stopped1 but they #b hardly call for the putting out of one's eyes6 ,in winter the atmosphere is stiff1 and is therefore not as yet capable of being converted into water1 but only into snow1 to which the atmosphere is more akin4 ,but when spring begins1 a greater variation of the atmosphere ensues1 and1 the sky being warmer1 the drops are larger4 ,therefore1 as our poet ,virgil says3 ,when rain-charged spring descends1 there is a more violent change in the atmosphere1 which everywhere opens up and relaxes through the action of the mere warmth4 ,for this reason the clouds that are carried to earth are heavy and large #c rather than lasting4 ,winter rain is thin and persistent4 ,the fall often occurs in the form of small1 fine rain1 with an admixture of snow4 ,we call it a snowy day when the cold is intense and the sky leaden4 ,besides1 when the north wind doth blow1 producing its characteristic sky1 there may be fine rain4 ,with south wind the rain is more persistent1 and the drops heavier4 ,v ,one position held by the philosophers of my sect ,i neither venture #a to adopt on account of its seeming weakness1 nor yet can ,i pass it by without mention4 ,where can be the harm of suggesting even an improbable explanation when one has such an indulgent judge8 ,if we are to apply a test like the pyx to every argument1 we shall soon cease to advance any hypothesis at all and be reduced to dumbness4 ,there are very few statements that pass unchallenged4 ,all the rest have to assert their rights before they can win their case4 ,well1 the assertion of the ,stoics is1 that all the ice-bound region about ,scythia and ,pontus and the northern quarter is released from its chain in spring2 then the frozen rivers resume their course1 then the mountains melt the snows in which they have been buried4 ,it is quite conceivable1 therefore1 that cool airs arise from this and mingle with the atmosphere of spring4 ,they add a proof which ,i have never tested nor have any intention of #b testing4 ,you1 too1 ,i fancy1 however anxious you may be to ascertain the truth1 will be cautious about making such a trial of snow4 ,the feet are said to suffer less pain when one treads on hard1 solid snow than if the snow were slushy and half melted4 ,well1 then1 if the ,stoics do not lie1 all the currents of air wafted from those northern parts1 when the snow has now been dislodged and the ice is breaking up1 condense and bind the atmosphere of the southern region which is already becoming warm and moist4 ,so what was going to be rain becomes1 through the violence done by the cold1 hail instead4 ,,vi ,i cannot refrain from trotting out all the silly fancies of our,stoic #a friends4 ,the assertion in question is that there are some people skilled in observing the clouds who foretell when a hail shower is coming on4 ,they gather this just from experience by marking the colour of the clouds and noting which was on previous occasions followed by hail4 ,it seems incredible that at ,cleonae there were hail-guards 77 appointed by the state to look out for the approach of hail4 ,when they had given the signal that the hail was close at hand1 what do you think8 that people ran off to get their overcoats or cloaks8 ,nay1 they each offered sacrifice as fast as they could1 #b one a lamb1 another a chicken4 ,forthwith1 those clouds after getting a little taste of blood drew off in another direction4 ,you smile6 ,there is something to make you smile more broadly4 ,if one had not a lamb or kid by1 one laid hands upon oneself to an extent that could be done without serious damage4 ,you must not think the clouds greedy or cruel2 one merely pricked one's finger with a well-sharpened style and made atonement with this blood4 ,the hail as invariably turned away from his little plot as from the estate of the man who had prevailed upon it through the offering of greater victims4 ,,vii ,certain writers seek for a rational explanation of this practice4 ,one #a school1 adopting the only line that comports with philosophy1 deny the possibility of making any bargain with hail and buying off storms by paltry presents1 true1 though it be1 that gifts overcome even gods4 ,others affirm their suspicion that blood itself contains a virtue potent enough to avert and repel a cloud4 ,but how1 ,i ask1 should a drop or two of blood possess a virtue to reach on high and influence the clouds8 ,is it not much easier to say1 the whole thing is a parcel of lies8 ,but ,cleonae was strict in dealing with its warders who had #b received charge of looking out beforehand for the storm1 if it happened that through their neglect the vineyards had been beaten down or the crops laid4 ,and among ourselves1 too1 at ,rome the laws of the ,twelve ,tables introduce safeguards against the blighting of a neighbour's crops by charms4 ,antiquity as yet untutored entertained the belief that rain could be attracted or repelled by incantations4 ,the impossibility of such fancies is so evident that one need not enter a school of philosophy in order to be taught how to disprove them4 ,,viii ,i shall add one more remark which you will be very glad1 ,i am sure1 to approve and applaud4 ,it is asserted that snow is formed in the part of the atmosphere near the earth4 ,this layer has more heat than any other1 and that for three reasons4 ,one is that all evaporation from the earth1 containing as it does much dry1 glowing matter1 is always the hotter1 the more recently it has left the ground4 ,the second is that the sun's rays are reflected from the ground and return upon themselves4 ,their reflection heats up the parts next the ground1 which thus have more warmth from getting the sun's heat twice4 ,the third reason is that the upper regions are more subject to wind2 but all places that are sunk are less wind-swept4 ,,ix ,to the foregoing ,democritus' explanation falls to be added4 ,every body receives heat more quickly and retains it longer in proportion to its solidity4 ,for example1 if three vessels1 of copper1 glass1 and silver respectively1 are set in the sun1 the heat will penetrate the copper one soonest and will remain in it longest4 ,the reason why ,democritus is of this opinion may also be added4 ,in the bodies1 he says1 that are harder1 more compact1 and dense1 the openings must of necessity be smaller than in others1 and in each of the openings the film of air must be thinner4 ,it follows that just as smaller baths and smaller cylinders are heated more rapidly than others1 so these concealed apertures1 so small as to elude the eye1 both feel the heat more quickly1 and by reason of this same smallness of calibre give back more slowly the heat they have received4 ,x ,this long preamble leads up to the point we are now examining4 ,all air is the denser the nearer it is to the earth4 ,in water and other liquids the dregs are always at the bottom2 in like manner in the atmosphere the thickest portions settle down to the lowest part nearest the earth4 ,but it has already been proved that all things1 in proportion as they are denser and more compact in their consistency1 guard more faithfully the heat they have received4 ,on the other hand1 the more exalted the air is1 and the farther it is withdrawn from the pollutions of earth1 the less contaminated and the more pure it is2 and so it does not retain the sun's rays1 but transmits them as if through a vacuum2 hence it is less warmed by them4 ,,xi ,but contrariwise1 certain persons assert that mountain peaks ought to #a be warmer in the degree in which they are nearer the sun4 ,such people seem to me1 however1 to be astray in supposing that the ,apennines and the ,alps and other mountains famed for their exceeding height are so greatly elevated that their size should enable them to feel in any special way the sun's proximity4 ,no doubt those are lofty heights so long as the standard of comparison is ourselves4 ,but when one regards the size of the universe1 the lowness of them all becomes evident4 ,compared with one another1 mountains are surpassed or surpass in height4 ,but nothing on earth is elevated so high that even the #b greatest of objects should be any#fh appreciable portion in comparison with the whole universe4 ,were this not so1 we should not be in the habit of saying that the whole earth is a ball4 ,the distinctive mark of a ball is a certain uniform rotundity1 much the same as the uniformity seen in a football or cricket ball4#fi ,the seams and chinks constitute no great objection to the ball being described as symmetrical on all sides4 ,as in a playing ball1 those spaces do not in any way prevent #c the appearance of roundness1 no more1 in the earth at large regarded as a sphere1 do lofty mountains1 whose height is lost in a comparison with the whole world4 ,a person who says that a higher mountain ought to be warmer from receiving the sun's rays at a shorter distance1 may just as well say that a taller man should be heated sooner than a dwarf1 and his head sooner than his feet6 ,but any one who will take the trouble #d to judge the universe by its proper standard1 and who will reflect that this earth occupies but a single point in space1 will not fail to perceive that nothing on earth can be of such eminence as to be more sensible than others of the influence of the heavenly bodies1 as if it had approached their neighbourhood4 ,those mountains at which we gaze up1 their summits weighed down with eternal snows1 are none the less but low and humble4 ,while it is true that a mountain is nearer the sun than is plain or valley1 yet it is in the same sense as javelin is spoken of as thicker than javelin1 tree as larger than tree1 mountain than mountain4 ,accordingly to that mode of speech of yours1 one tree #e must be said to be nearer the sky than another2 which is false1 because among puny objects there cannot exist great differences except while they are compared with one another4 ,when one comes to compare such objects with the mighty frame of things1 it is immaterial how much the one is bigger than the other1 because the very small things1 however great the differences among them1 are quite dwarfed by comparison with the universe4 #fh ,the argument seems to require ulla any1 instead of nulla no4 #fi ,the specific references are not contained in the ,latin words2 the modern counterpart of the ,roman games of ball serves1 however1 to bring out the meaning of the illustration4 ,,xii ,but to return to my main theme2 for the reasons which ,i have detailed1 most authorities are satisfied that snow is formed in the part of the atmosphere which is in the vicinity of the earth4 ,it is less compacted than hail because congealed through less intense cold4 ,for the air near us has at once too much cold to allow its passage into water and rain1 and at the same time too little to get hardened into hail4 ,through this moderate but not too intense cold the water is massed and turns into snow4 ,,xiii ,why1 ,i fancy ,i hear you say1 do you pursue so laboriously those #a frivolous explanations of yours1 by which no one is made either more accomplished or more virtuous8 ,you tell us all about the formation of snow2 it would be far more to the point that we should be told why it is a wrong thing for snow to be bought4#gj ,i see you wish to drag me into a dispute with luxury1 a quarrel of daily occurrence that never leads to any tangible result4 ,let us withal brace ourselves for the struggle2 even if luxury win the day1 it must find us fighting and resisting to the death4 #gj ,i4e4 the moral turpitude of sinking into such debased luxury as to require snow should be set forth rather than mere theories of the formation of snow2 the ethical should take precedence of the physical4 ,well then6 do you suppose that the examination of nature1 irrelevant as it may appear1 makes no contribution to the object you have at heart8 ,when we inquire how snow is formed1 telling that its character #b resembles hoar-frost1 containing more air than water1 do you not think that it is a reproach upon the epicures8 ,if it is a scandalous thing to buy water1 they are still worse1 for they do not get even water but chiefly air for their money4 ,let us1 ,i say1 inquire rather how snow is formed than how it is preserved4 ,the means of preservation have already been discovered2 not content with racking wines of vintage1 arranging them by flavour and age1 we have devised means of compressing snow to overcome the power of summer1 and of protecting it by the coolness of the icehouses from the hotness of the season4 ,and what have we accomplished by all our anxious efforts8 ,the privilege of buying #c water that we might have got for nothing6 ,we are vexed that we cannot buy air and sunlight1 and that the atmosphere all around streams in easily and unbought upon the fastidious and the rich4 ,how badly nature treats us in leaving anything that is common property6 ,upon this other element1 water1 which nature has allowed to flow for the free use of mankind1 and which she has given the whole world to drink1 this that she has shed forth with lavish prodigality for the service alike of man and of beasts and birds and the very laziest of the animal creation--upon this1 luxury1 with ill-conceived ingenuity1 has #d managed to put a price4 ,in fact1 nothing can please luxury unless it is expensive4 ,water was the one thing that used to bring down the rich to the level of the common herd1 in which the wealthy could not surpass the very poorest4 ,those who found their riches a burden have devised a plan whereby water should become a luxury4 ,how it has come about that no running water should be thought cool enough1 ,i will now explain4 ,as long as the stomach is healthy and is able to relish wholesome food1 with which it is satisfied and not overloaded1 it is quite content with the natural stimulants4 ,but when through daily indigestion it suffers from the heat not of the #e season but of its own indulgence1 when habitual drunkenness has taken firm hold on the organs of life1 and turns into bile which parches the intestines1 then it becomes necessary to seek out some means of quenching the internal heat4 ,water merely inflames it1 the disease is aggravated by the remedies4 ,therefore1 for this purpose they use snow for drink1 not only in summer1 but even in the depths of winter4 ,the cause can be no other than the internal complaint4 ,digestion is spoiled through indulgence2 respite is never given it in which to rest4 ,breakfast is heaped upon a supper prolonged till daylight4 ,while the revellers are literally bursting with the lavishness and variety of the courses1 heavy drinking plunges them still deeper in the mire4 ,then the continuous excess causes heartburn from the food previously #f consumed1 and inflames the constant craving for some new stimulant4 ,so1 though they protect the banqueting hall with draperies and windows1 and seek by roaring fires to banish winter's colds1 none the less the languishing appetite1 exhausted by its own heat1 yearns for something new to revive it4 ,just as we sprinkle cold water on people who have lost consciousness through a fainting fit1 in order to bring them back to their senses2 so the internal organs1 numbed through excess1 are past feeling1 unless they are smitten by the parching1 as it were1 of more violent cold4 ,hence it is1 ,i say1 that not content even with #g snow1 they call for ice1 as if the stimulant were the more certain from its solidity1 and melt it with repeated douches of water4 ,the ice1 too1 is not taken from the surface1 but1 that it may have greater virtue and more lasting cold1 it is dug out of the depths of the pile4 ,thus it is not even of uniform price2 but water actually has its hawkers and--alas the day6--a varying price4 ,the ,lacedaemonians once banished the perfumers from their city1 ordering them to quit the country with all speed1 because they were wasting the oil supply4 ,what would they have done1 ,i wonder1 if they had seen cold stores for preserving snow #h and such an army of beasts employed in carting water1 whose colour and flavour are often all spoiled by the straw in which it is kept8 ,good heavens6 how easy a thing it is to quench the thirst of health6 ,but what feeling can jaws retain that are deadened and numbed by scalding food8 ,these epicures can have nothing cold enough1 neither can they have anything hot enough4 ,mushrooms taken from the fire and hastily dipped in their special sauce are crammed down the throat #i almost boiling1 and the heat has to be allayed by draughts chilled in snow4 ,one may see1 ,i tell you1 slender youths1 rigged out in cloaks and mufflers1 pale and sickly1 not merely sipping the snow1 but actually eating it1 throwing little pieces of it into their glasses to prevent them from getting warm during the intervals of drinking4 ,do you call that honest thirst8 ,it is fever1 the more acute too as it cannot be #aj detected by the pulse or the wonted heat that overspreads the skin4 ,the very heart is dried up by that incurable malady1 luxury1 whose habitual weakness and unsteadiness are turned into endurance and obstinacy4 ,don't you know that habit dulls the force of everything8 ,the snow in which you are now1 so to speak1 swimming#ga has through custom and the daily slavery of the stomach come to occupy the place of water4 ,you must now search for something colder still2 for a stimulant that is habitual is no stimulant at all4 #ga ,which you now use in your baths4 ,,book ,v ,,which ,,treats ,,of ,,winds ,,and ,,atmospheric ,,movement ,,in ,,general ,i ,wind is the atmosphere in motion4 ,some have put the definition thus3 #a ,wind is the atmosphere in motion in one direction4 ,the latter seems the more accurate1 because the atmosphere is never so still as not to be in agitation of some kind4 ,in a similar way the sea is called calm when it is only slightly moved and does not set in a particular direction4 ,thus1 if you read the verse3 ,when the winds slumbered and the sea was still1 you must bear in mind that the sea was not actually still1 but heaved gently2 and that it is called calm in a comparative sort of way #b because it receives no distinct impulse to this side or to that4 ,the same opinion is likewise to be adopted in regard to the atmosphere3 it is never absolutely motionless1 even though it be still4 ,this you may gather from the following observation3 ,when the sun pours into any circumscribed space1 one sees minute particles carried through the air in different directions1 some up1 some down1 meeting each other in a great variety of ways4 ,therefore1 if one say3 a wave is #c an agitation of the sea1 one will very imperfectly express what is meant1 because even when at rest the sea is agitated4 ,but one will more than sufficiently safeguard oneself if the definition be3 a wave is an agitation of the sea in one direction4 ,so in the subject which at the moment forms our special topic1 the definition will not be unduly restricted if one is careful to say3 wind is the atmosphere flowing in one direction2 or1 wind is atmosphere flowing through some impulse1 or1 is the force of the atmosphere going in one direction1 or1 is a rush of the atmosphere more forcible than usual in some one direction4 ,i am aware of a criticism that may be made in regard to the first definition4 ,what need is there to add that it is in one #d direction that the atmosphere flows8 ,for surely whatever flows1 flows in one direction4 ,no one says that water flows if there is simply an internal movement of it1 but only if it is borne in a particular direction4 ,so a substance may be in motion and yet not flow2 but1 on the other hand1 it cannot flow except in one direction4 ,well1 if1 on the one hand1 the shorter definition is free from cavil1 let us employ it2 but if1 on the other1 any one is a stickler1 let him not omit the phrase whose addition will serve to preclude all ambiguity4 ,now that we have sufficiently discussed our terms1 let us come to grapple with our problem at closer quarters4 ,,ii ,democritus avers that when there are many particles1 which he calls atoms1 in a small empty space 7i4e4 vacuum71 wind is the outcome4 ,but1 on the contrary1 when the space is large and the particles few1 there is a still peaceful condition of the atmosphere4 ,to illustrate3 in the market square or in a side street as long as there is a sprinkling of people there is no disturbance as one walks along it2 but when a crowd meets in a narrow space1 then they jostle against each other1 and quarrelling arises4 ,similarly in this space which surrounds our earth2 when many bodies have crowded a very small portion1 it is unavoidable that they should jostle one another and be driven back and forward1 and be intertwined and squeezed4 ,hence results wind2 the particles that were struggling have had to give way1 and after being tossed about and remaining in suspense for a long time they at length lean their weight toward one side4 ,but when a few bodies occupy a large roomy place1 they can neither ram each other nor be jostled by one another4 ,,iii ,the falsity of this view may be inferred merely from the fact that #a wind by no means invariably accompanies a cloud-laden atmosphere1 and yet more particles have gathered at that than at any other time in a narrow space1 where they produce condensation and heaviness in the clouds4 ,besides1 in the neighbourhood of rivers and lakes cloud is frequent from the confinement and accumulation of particles1 and yet there is no attendant wind4 ,indeed1 sometimes such a darkness over-spreads the place that the view of objects in the immediate vicinity is cut off2 which would never happen unless numerous particles were massed in a small space4 ,yet no period is more free from #b wind than a period of cloud4 ,add now a consideration of an opposite character3 ,when the sun rarefies at his rising the thick dank morning air1 then a breeze springs up2 the particles have got more room now1 and the thickly packed crowd of them is broken up4 ,,iv ,but how1 you will say1 are winds then formed1 for you won't deny that #a they are formed8 ,not in any single way1 ,i reply4 ,sometimes the earth herself emits a great quantity of air1 which she breathes out of her hidden recesses4 ,at other times a great and long-continued evaporation drives the emissions from the depths up on high1 where the change which the mixed breath undergoes issues in wind4 ,a suggestion has been made which ,i cannot make up my mind to believe1 and yet ,i cannot pass over without mention4 ,in our bodies food produces flatulence1 the emission of which causes great offence to one's nasal susceptibilities2 sometimes a report accompanies the relief of the stomach1 sometimes there is a more polite smothering of it4 ,in like manner it is #b supposed the great frame of things when assimilating its nourishment emits air4 ,it is a lucky thing for us that nature's digestion is good1 else we might apprehend some less agreeable consequences4 ,is it not1 then1 nearer the truth to say that numerous particles are constantly borne up from every part of the world2 and when they are accumulated and subsequently begin to be rarefied by the sun1 wind starts up8 ,it is a general principle that anything contained in a narrow space when it expands tries to get more room4 ,v ,well1 then1 do ,i ask you to believe that evaporation from land and #a water is the sole cause of wind8 ,do ,i affirm that it produces a weight in the atmosphere1 the breaking up of which causes a rush of air8 that at that moment what was previously dense and stationary gets rarefied and strives1 as its nature requires1 to obtain a wider space8 ,i do approve of this as sometimes the explanation4 ,but there is a far truer and more potent one1 to wit1 that the atmosphere by its constitution possesses a native capacity of movement1 this power not being derived from an external source1 but being like others of its powers inherent4 ,for can you suppose that we men have been endued with strength to #b move about1 while the atmosphere has been left sluggish and immovable8 ,water1 too1 has its own motion1 even though the winds are at rest2 otherwise it could not produce animal life4 ,we see also forms of vegetable life like moss produced by water1 and certain kinds of herbage floating on its surface4 ,,vi ,well1 then1 ,i take it1 in water there resides some vital principle4 ,in water1 did ,i say8 ,why1 fire1 the universal destroyer1 has a creative function2 it may not seem a likely thing1 but all the same it is but the truth that some animals are generated by fire4 ,the atmosphere1 then1 possesses some power of this kind2 and that is why it sometimes grows thick1 sometimes expands and throws off impurities1 sometimes contracts1 at others opens up and disperses4 ,there is thus the same difference between air and wind as between lake and river4#gb ,there are occasions when the sun is the sole cause of wind1 as he rarefies the stiff atmosphere and opens it out from its thick contracted state4 #gb ,this remark would have been more apposite in ,chap4 ,i41 above2 possibly that is its correct place4 ,,vii ,having spoken of the winds in general1 let us now proceed to the discussion of individual winds4 ,perchance the discovery of the time and place of their origin will conduce to the discovery of their manner of formation4 ,first1 then1 let us look at breezes before dawn1 which are borne either from rivers or hollow valleys or from some bay4 ,none of these winds lasts long1 but falls when the sun has got stronger2 nor is it carried up out of sight of the earth4 ,this class of wind sets in in spring1 and does not last beyond summer4 ,it comes chiefly from a quarter where there are spaces of water and mountains4 ,plains1 for instance1 may have abundance of water1 and yet they have no breeze2 ,i mean a breeze strong enough to be called wind4 ,,viii ,how1 then1 is a blast of this kind1 which is called by the ,greeks #a a gulf breeze 771 formed8 ,this is the theory of them3 ,all the exhalations of marshes and rivers--and they are abundant and constant--form by day the sun's nourishment4 ,by night1 however1 there is no drain on them1 and they are enclosed by the mountains and accumulate in one quarter4 ,when they have filled up this quarter and can no longer find accommodation in it1 but are squeezed out on one side and move in a particular direction1 then you have the wind4 ,it inclines1 of course1 toward the side to which it is invited by the freer exit1 and by the openness of the place toward which the accumulated elements can rush4 ,a proof of this is that a wind of #b this kind does not blow in the early part of the night4 ,at that time the gathering only begins1 but by daybreak it has reached the full1 and seeks relief by flowing off4 ,it chooses its exit by preference where there is the largest empty space and a great expanse of open4 ,it is stimulated by the rays of the rising sun striking on the chilly air4 ,even before he makes his appearance his light of itself has an influence4 ,the sun does not at that stage1 it is true1 drive away the atmosphere with his beams2 still1 he already attacks and harasses it by #c the shafts of light he sends before him4 ,when he comes out himself in his power1 part of the gathering is carried off to a greater altitude1 part is dissipated by his heat4 ,wherefore power is not granted to these winds to continue longer than the morning4 ,all their strength collapses at sight of the sun4 ,even if their blast is somewhat violent1 yet they begin to subside as mid-day approaches2 in fact1 the breeze#gc never lasts as long as noon4 ,any other variety of the breeze is weaker and shorter in duration2 they vary according as the causes to which they owe their origin are more or less powerful4 #gc ,the precise meaning of this and the following sentence is doubtful2 one would suspect that the latter originally ran--varieties of the breeze are longer or shorter in duration according as1 etc4 ,,ix ,but why1 again1 are winds of this nature stronger in spring and #a summer8 ,for during the remainder of the year they are very light1 never rising sufficiently to fill the sails of a boat4 ,the reason is that spring is a wetter season4 ,there is at that time more evaporation going on1 both from the abundance of water lying about1 and from the saturation of the ground to overflowing through the moist character of the sky4 ,and the reason why this wind is equally prevalent in summer is that the heat of the day remaining after sundown and lasting during a great part of the night draws out exhalations1 and attracts more forcibly any of them that are wont to be given off spontaneously by the ground4 ,but subsequently the heat has not sufficient strength to use up what it drew out4 ,this is the reason1 ,i say1 why the soil and #b its moisture give off for a longer period at certain seasons the particles derived from the earth's wonted emanations and exhalations4 ,the sunrise produces wind by its stroke as well as by its warmth4 ,for1 as ,i have already said1 the light which precedes the sun does not as yet heat up the atmosphere1 but merely smites upon it2 being smitten the air retires to one side4 ,and yet ,i cannot go so far as to admit that the light is quite devoid of heat1 inasmuch as it is derived from heat4 ,probably it does not contain as great an amount as would appear from its effect4 ,still1 it accomplishes its own task by separating and rarefying the dense exhalations4 ,moreover1 places which through some #c disservice of nature are so shut in that they cannot receive the direct rays of the sun1 even they1 ,i say1 are heated somewhat by the dull cloudy light that can pierce to them and are less rigid during the day than by night4 ,furthermore1 all heat naturally dispels cloud and drives it off from itself4 ,therefore the sun likewise has the same effect4 ,for that reason some people suppose that the blast must come from the direction in which the sun lies4 ,but this opinion is manifestly false1 seeing that the breeze sets in any direction1 and one can sometimes sail right toward the sunrise with all canvas set4 ,that could not happen if the wind were always coming from the direction of the sun4 ,x ,the ,etesian winds1 too1 which some drag into the discussion1 do not #a give much support to their contention4 ,first1 ,i will tell you what their opinion is1 and1 secondly1 why it is not mine4 ,the ,etesians1 say they1 do not blow in winter1 because at the season of the shortest days the effect of the sun ceases before the cold is overcome4 ,so1 snow accumulates then and freezes hard4 ,in summer the ,etesian winds begin to blow at the time when the day is lengthened out and the sun's rays come down straight upon us4 ,probably1 therefore1 the snows smitten by the greater heat exhale more moisture4 ,the earth likewise breathes more freely when uncovered and relieved of the snow4 ,so more particles issue from the northern portion of the heavens1 and are wafted toward our #b quarter1 which lies lower and is warmer4 ,from this the ,etesians derive their impulse2 wherefore they begin at the summer solstice1 and do not blow strongly after the rise of the ,dog-star1 because by that time a great part of the cold northern exhalations has been carried down to our regions4 ,but when the sun has changed his course he still directs his beams straight down on our hemisphere2 and one part of the air he attracts1 but another he thrusts before him4#gd ,thus the blast of the ,etesians breaks the force of the summer heat1 protecting us from the full severity of the most broiling months4 #gd ,the meaning is very obscure4 ,the text has been suspected1 not without cause3 the words 8he still 444 hemisphere0 are out of place1 to say the least of it4 ,,xi ,i must now1 as ,i promised1 tell you why the ,etesian winds do not give any assistance to their advocates nor contribute aught to their argument4 ,we have said that the breeze is stirred by the morning light1 but it no less surely subsides when the full sun has touched it4 ,and yet the ,etesians are called by sailors sleepy-headed and dainty1 for the very reason that1 as my brother ,gallio puts it1 they cannot get up in the morning4 ,they begin to show face at the time when even the most persistent morning breeze has fallen4 ,this would not occur if the sun reduced the force of the ,etesians as he does that of the morning breezes4 ,add also that1 if the cause of their rise was the lengthened space of the day1 they would blow even prior to the solstice when the days are at their longest1 and when the thaw of the snow is at its height4 ,by the month of ,july everything is clear of snow1 or1 at any rate1 very few places are still covered with it4 ,,xii ,there are some species of winds which issue from clouds that are rent #a and pour down their contents4 ,they are called by the ,greeks cloud winds 774 ,their method of formation1 as ,i suppose1 is this3 among the particles given off by the earth's vapour and carried aloft there is great inequality and dissimilarity1 some being dry and others moist4 ,when the particles have massed in one body there is great discord and internal strife1 which probably leads to the forming of certain hollow clouds with narrow pipe-shaped spaces left between1 much like a flute in shape4 ,in these gaps there is shut up rarefied air1 which1 being #b buffeted about in the confined space and becoming heated1 strives to get more room4 ,it expands and rends its envelope1 breaking forth in wind1 which1 as a rule1 is squally1 since it descends from above and falls on us with fierce vehemence4 ,it is not diffused1 nor does it come through a wide open space1 but it struggles and opens up its way by main force4 ,as a rule1 it is a brief gust4 ,as it bursts through #c the cloudy receptacle by which it was confined and overleaps the battlements1 it comes in tumultuous energy1 sometimes not unattended with fire and the sound of thunder in the heavens4 ,such winds are much more violent and of longer duration if they have taken up in their course other gusts proceeding from a like cause1 and thus several have conspired to form one4 ,it is just like the flow of torrents of moderate size1 not serious as long as each has its separate course4 ,but when a number of them have combined their streams1 they surpass in #d size regular1 constant rivers4 ,the same thing may probably happen in squalls2 they are short-lived whenever they are alone4 ,but when they have joined forces1 and the air expelled from several parts of the sky at once has all combined in one1 both force and duration are added to them4 ,,xiii ,so1 then1 wind results from the breaking up of a cloud1 which breach #a is effected in several different ways4 ,the accumulation of air is burst sometimes by the internal struggle1 as it seeks to gain an exit2 sometimes by the heat produced either simply by the sun or else by the mutual ramming and friction of the roaming bodies4 ,at this point1 if you have no objection1 one may raise the question why a whirlwind occurs4 ,in rivers1 when their course has been without any obstacle for a long distance1 the channel is a straight1 uniform one4 ,but when they meet some boulder that juts from the bank1 the #b stream is driven back and whirls the waters in a circle without a way of escape1 so that in their revolution they are constantly sucked in toward the centre to form a whirlpool4 ,in like manner the wind pours out in full force as long as no obstacle stands in the way4 ,but when it is reflected from some jutting projection1 or is massed in a quarter which combines to form a thin downward channel1 then it revolves upon its own axis1 and produces an eddy similar to that in which1 as we have just said1 the water revolves4 ,this revolving wind1 which #c always traverses the same spot and is roused to fury by the mere giddy whirling1 is a whirlwind4 ,if it is a very fierce one1 and revolves longer than ordinary1 it ignites and causes what the ,greeks call a fire-wind 771 which is just a fiery whirlwind4 ,the bursting of such winds from the clouds produces almost all the disasters by which herds are carried off and ships lifted1 bodily1 right out of the water4 ,further1 some winds produce different ones by dispersing the air and driving it before them in other directions than that toward which they themselves have bent their course4 ,it occurs to me at the moment to mention a parallel to wind that #d may be drawn from drops of moisture4 ,the single drops may begin to incline downwards and be on the verge of giving way1 but yet do not manage to fall4 ,when1 however1 several have united and the mass has imparted strength1 then they are said to flow and to move4 ,so1 as long as there are slight movements of the atmosphere disturbed at several points1 they do not produce wind4 ,the latter begins only when all those movements are united and concentrated in a single effort4 ,air differs from wind in degree alone4 ,a more violent air is a wind2 air in turn is gently flowing atmosphere4 ,,xiv ,let me now recall a remark that ,i had made early in this book1 #a namely1 that wind issues from cave or inner recess of earth4 ,the whole earth is not of solid compact constitution down to its lowest foundations1 but at many points is hollow1 444 hung over dark retreats4 ,in some places it contains voids that have no moisture4 ,though there is no light there to show the distinctions in the air1 yet ,i venture to assert that cloud and mist settle in that gloom4 ,above ground #b cloud and mist surely do not exist because they are seen2 but1 rather1 they are seen because they exist4 ,well1 there too rivers none the less exist that they are not seen4 ,you must understand that down there rivers flow equal in size to our own4 ,some glide gently1 others resound as they tumble down headlong over the broken ground4 ,so must not you equally allow that there are some lakes underground and some water in pools without an exit8 ,this being so1 it is of necessity that #c the air be charged with moisture1 and that1 being charged1 it lean in one direction1 raising the wind by its propulsion4 ,we must recognise1 therefore1 that from those subterranean clouds blasts of wind are raised in the dark1 what time they have gathered strength sufficient to remove the obstacles presented by the earth1 or can seize upon some open path for their exit1 and from this cavernous retreat can escape toward the abodes of men4 ,now it is obvious that underground #d there are large quantities of sulphur and other substances no less inflammable4 ,when the air in search of a path of escape works its tortuous way through ground of this nature1 it necessarily kindles fire by the mere friction4 ,by and by1 as the flames spread more widely1 any sluggish air there may be is also rarefied and set in motion2 a way of escape is sought with great roaring and violence4 ,this point ,i will elaborate in more detail when ,i go on to treat of earthquakes4 ,,xv ,you must now allow me to tell you a little story6 ,asclepiodotus #a vouches for the tale4 ,once on a time a large party of miners was sent down by ,philip into an old mine1 long since abandoned1 to ascertain its prospects and condition1 and to see whether ancient avarice had left anything for posterity to glean4 ,down they went with plenty of light to last for days4 ,in due time1 when they were quite tired by the length of the road1 they saw a sight to make their hair stand on end--huge rivers and vast reservoirs of sluggish waters1 equal in size to any above ground1 not pressed down either with a weight of earth above1 but overarched with an open vault4 ,i confess ,i felt lively satisfaction in reading the story4 ,it showed me that the vices from which our age #b suffers are not new2 they have been handed down from ancient days4 ,nor is it in our age that avarice has for the first time ransacked the reefs of soil and stone1 searching in the dark for treasure badly hidden4 ,those ancestors of ours1 whom we are always vaunting1 our declension from whose standard we constantly bemoan1 were also lured by hope to cut down the mountains and stand beneath the ruins to gloat over their filthy lucre4 ,before the time of ,philip of ,macedon there were kings who pursued #c treasure down to its deepest lurking-places2 leaving the free air and light of day behind1 they lowered themselves into those caverns1 which no distinction of night from day could reach4 ,what expectation could lead them on8 ,what necessity caused man1 whose head points to the stars1 to stoop below1 burying him in mines and plunging him in the very bowels of innermost earth to root up gold8 ,the quest for the precious bane is no less perilous than its possession4 ,for this he #d drove shafts and crawled round his dirty1 uncertain booty1 forgetful of day1 forgetful of his better nature1 which he abjured4 ,on no dead man does earth lie so heavily as it lies on those on whom insistent avarice has cast earth's weight1 from whom it has withdrawn the light of day1 whom it has buried in the depths where that noxious poison lurks4 ,they had the hardihood to descend to a region where they found a new order of nature1 forms of overhanging earth and winds raving through the blind void1 where are dread fountains of waters whose streams none drink1 and night reigns deep and unbroken4 ,and then1 after all that has come and gone1 they dread the gods of the nether world6 ,,xvi ,but to return to the matter in hand2 there are four winds1 divided1 #a according to the cardinal points1 into east1 west1 south1 and north4 ,the rest of the winds1 which are called by different names1 are attached to these3 ,eurus has gone toward the dawn and the realms of ,nebaioth ,and ,persia and the peaks that lie beneath the rays of morn4 ,evening and the coasts that are warmed by the setting sun ,are close to ,zephyrus4 ,scythia and the ,great ,bear ,are under the sway of dread ,boreas4 ,the land that faces these ,is bathed in unbroken cloud and rainy ,auster4 ,or1 if you prefer a briefer enumeration1 you may gather them in one #b great storm--a physical impossibility1 by the way3 ,eurus and ,notus 7south7 rush together1 and with squall upon squall ,africus 7south-west74 ,and we may add ,aquilo 7north71 which has no place in the famous battle of the winds to which ,virgil refers4 ,some make the number of the winds twelve4 ,they divide the four quarters of heaven into three parts each1 adding two subsidiary winds to each of the principal ones4 ,on this principle that diligent author1 ,varro1 classifies them4 ,and #c there is good ground for it2 the other method1 which refers them to seasonal changes1 is very unsatisfactory4 ,for instance1 the sun does not always rise or set at the same point4 ,he has one place of rising at the equinox--indeed1 the equinox occurs twice a year--another at the summer1 and still another at the winter1 solstice4 ,the wind which sets in from the direction of sunrise at the equinoxes is with us called ,subsolane 7near the sun72 the ,greeks call it 7from the sun74 ,from sunrise in winter ,eurus comes1 named by our countrymen ,vulturnus 7i4e4 from ,mt4 ,vultur in the ,s4,e474 ,livy also calls it #d by this name1 in connection with that famous battle of ,cannae1 which proved so disastrous to ,rome4 ,hannibal on that occasion managed to get our army with its face to the rising sun and to the wind2 by the aid of the wind and the glare that dazzled the eyes of the enemy he snatched the victory4 ,varro likewise uses the same name4 ,but ,eurus is a name now naturalised1 and has a place in our vocabulary that does not suggest any foreign origin4 ,the wind that is raised by sunrise at the #e summer solstice was called by the ,greeks 2#ge we have no name for it4 ,sunset at the equinox sends us ,favonius1 which even people who cannot speak ,greek will tell you is called the ,zephyr4 ,corus1 which is by some called ,argestes from its clearness1 comes from the sunset at the summer solstice4 ,i do not approve of the identification2 ,corus is a vehement wind1 rushing in one uniform direction1 while ,argestes is1 as a rule1 a gentle wind1 and blows impartially on travellers coming and going along the same road 7i4e4 is constantly #f shifting74 ,from sunset in midwinter comes the rushing furious ,africus 7,african wind71 named by the ,greeks the ,libyan 774 ,in the northern quarter the highest 7i4e4 most easterly7 is ,aquilo1 the central one is ,septemtrio1 the lowest ,thracias1#gf for which there is no corresponding word in ,latin4 ,in the southern region there is ,euronotus1 then ,notus1 or in ,latin ,auster1 then ,libonotus1 which has no ,latin name4 #ge ,no explanation of this name of the nor'-easter is forthcoming4 #gf ,i4e4 the ,thracian2 ,thrace must have been ,n4,w4 of the region in which the name had its origin4 ,,xvii ,we ,stoics hold that there are twelve winds2 not that there are #a everywhere so many 7the slope of the earth i4e4 of the earth's axis excludes some71 but because there are nowhere more than twelve4 ,we speak of six cases in the same way1 not because every noun possesses six1 but because none has more than six4 ,those who assert the number of the winds to be twelve adopt the principle that the number must be the same as the divisions of the heavens4 ,now the heavens are divided into five zones passing through the cardinal points of the world4 ,these are the northern1 the solstitial1 the equinoctial1 the wintry1 #b the one that faces the northern4 ,a sixth is added in the zone which separates the upper part of the world from the lower4 ,as you know1 there is always one-half the world above our head1 and one-half beneath our feet4 ,this line which lies between the visible and the concealed parts of the sky is called by the ,greeks the ,horizon 7 bounding line73 our school call it the ,bounder2 others1 the ,bounding line4 ,to this must be added the meridian circle1 which cuts the horizon #c at right angles4 ,some of these zones run transversely1 intersecting others4 ,now there must necessarily be as many divisions of the heavens as there are parts4 ,so1 then1 the horizon or bounding circle cuts those five zones1 of whose position ,i have just spoken1 making ten parts1 five to east and five to west4 ,the meridian circle which meets the horizon gives two additional divisions4 ,thus the air receives its #d twelve divisions1 and yields a like number of winds4 ,there are some of the winds that are peculiar to certain localities2 they do not carry far1 but reach only the immediate vicinity4 ,they do not derive their impulse from a particular quarter of the world at large4 ,for example1 the wind ,atabulus haunts ,apulia2 the ,iapygian1 ,calabria2 the ,scironian1 ,athens2 ,cataegis1 ,pamphylia2 ,circius1 ,gaul4 ,to the last mentioned1 though it shakes their houses1 the people are very grateful1 believing they are indebted to it for the healthiness of their climate4 ,at any rate1 the late ,emperor ,augustus1 when he was staying in ,gaul1 erected to it a temple he had vowed4 ,my task would never be done if ,i were to attempt to enumerate the individual winds4 ,there is hardly any district that has not some particular wind that arises in it and falls not far from it4 ,,xviii ,wherefore among the other works of ,providence this one must be #a regarded as worthy of all admiration4 ,heaven had many purposes in view in devising the winds and distributing them through all the varied quarters of the earth4 ,the first object was to prevent the atmosphere from becoming gross2 by their constant tossing the winds were meant to render it beneficial1 a source of life to those who were to breathe it4 ,in the second place1 they were to supply the earth with rain1 and at the same time to restrain excess of rain4 ,this they accomplish by #b now gathering1 now scattering the clouds1 so that the rainfall should be fairly distributed over the whole world4 ,the south wind drives it toward ,italy1 the north sends it back to ,africa4 ,the ,etesian winds will not suffer the clouds to settle in our quarter2 but yet the whole of ,india and ,ethiopia are watered with constant rain during the period of their prevalence4 ,moreover1 crops could not be gathered in unless the worthless elements were winnowed by the blast from the good grain with which it is mixed4 ,the breeze is needed1 too1 to rouse the seed and bring to light the latent fruit1 by causing it to burst through its covering1 those wrappings which the farmers call follicles4 ,furthermore1 the wind has established intercommunication among all #c the different nations1 and has united tribes far removed from each other in place4 ,a great service is this that nature here renders1 did not man's madness turn it to his own injury6 ,as it is1 the remark may be applied to the winds which was commonly made regarding ,caesar the ,elder 7,julius71 as recorded by ,titus ,livius 7,livy72 it was doubtful whether his birth was a blessing or a curse to the state4 ,in like manner all the useful and necessary services performed by the winds cannot outweigh the devices which man's madness has through them framed for his own destruction4 ,but they do not cease to be inherently good1 #d even though1 through fault of those who degrade their use1 they are turned to instruments of harm4 ,surely ,providence and ,god1 the great ,disposer of the world1 had a beneficent aim in establishing the winds1 and diffusing them on every side1 to wit1 that the atmosphere might be kept in motion by them1 that no part of the world should become unsightly through inactivity4 ,his object was not that we might man our fleet with armed soldiers to seize every quarter of the main1 and that we might go in search of foes either in or beyond the sea4 ,what frenzy goads us on1 and matches us in strife for our mutual destruction8 ,we spread the sails to the winds to go in quest of war1 and we run #e risks of sea for the sake of meeting risks of battle6 ,we tempt the uncertainty of fortune1 the force of tempests that no human effort can overcome1 death without hope of burial4 ,the prize would not be worth the toil if the voyage conducted us to peace4 ,as it is1 when we have passed so many hidden rocks and hidden shoals of a treacherous sea2 when we have escaped the billows that rise like mountains above us1 into which the raging wind forces all voyagers2 when we have passed through days enveloped in mist1 and nights rendered still more awful #f by cloud and thunder1 and by whirlwinds that rend the frail bark in pieces2 what reward shall we have for all the toil and anxiety8 ,what harbour will give us hospitable shelter1 worn out as we are with so many sufferings8 ,war1 ,i trow1 will meet us1 and an enemy ready prepared on shore and tribes destined to cruel slaughter1 but not without much damage to the conqueror1 and ancient cities in flames4 ,why do we press whole nations into arms8 ,why do we enrol armies to marshal their lines amid the billows8 ,why do we disquiet the seas8 ,the land1 ,i suppose1 #g is not wide enough to compass our death4 ,fortune deals too tenderly with us3 she has given us too hardy bodies1 too sound health4 ,no ravage of plague cuts us off3 each one may comfortably fill up the measure of his years and reach the haven of old age4 ,so let us launch upon the deep and call toward us the loitering fates4 ,poor wretches1 what is it ye seek8 ,death1 which is always too much with us8 ,it will attack you1 even in your couch2 well1 see that the victims it attacks are innocent of crime4 ,it will seize you in your house2 be sure it find you planning no mischief4 ,but what can one call it but plain insanity actually to carry #h destruction in your train1 to rush in anger against men you never saw1 to lay waste without provocation all that comes in your path1 and1 after the fashion of wild beasts1 to kill a man you do not hate8 ,we are worse than beasts1 for they bite only in retaliation or from hunger2 but we1 utterly lavish of our own and others' blood1 harass the seas by the vessels we launch1 entrust our safety to the waves1 and pray for favouring winds1 counting it our good fortune to be borne in safety to the wars6 ,to what lengths have our crimes hurried us criminals8 ,it is not enough to vent one's madness within one's own sphere4 ,your #i stupid ,king of ,persia must cross into ,greece1 filling it with an army with which he has failed to conquer it4 ,your ,alexander1 leaving behind ,bactra and ,india1 must needs seek to learn what lies beyond the great sea1 and will chafe that there is any point beyond which he cannot go4 ,crassus in like manner will fall a prey to the ,parthians through his lust of gold4 ,he will not dread the imprecations of the tribune who calls him back1 nor the storms of the tedious sea1 nor the lightning by ,euphrates that foretold destruction1 nor the resistance of heaven itself4 ,through the wrath of man and ,god alike gold shall be sought4 #aj ,not without good cause1 therefore1 it may be said that nature would have done better by us had she forbidden the winds to blow at all1 had she checked their roaming abroad in their fury1 and ordered each one to abide in his own land4 ,if this had served no other end1 at any rate the mischief of each human life would have been restricted to itself and its own nation4 ,as it is1 the ills of home are too little for us2 we must toil to share those abroad as well4 ,no land is so far removed from neighbours that it cannot send forth in some direction its evil propensities4 ,how do ,i know but that some ruler of a great nation #aa meantime concealed from view1 swollen by fortune's kindness1 may choose not to confine his arms within the boundaries of his own realm1 but with secret design may even now be fitting out his fleet against us8 ,how can ,i tell whether this wind or that shall convey war to me8 ,it would go far to ensure the peace of the world if the seas could be shut up4 ,still1 as ,i said a little ago1 we cannot put the blame on ,god1 our ,author1 if we corrupt ,his blessings and turn them into curses4 ,he gave us the winds to maintain the equable temperature of earth and sky1 #ab to call forth or to repress the waters1 to nourish the produce of field and tree2 the crops are brought to maturity1 among other causes1 by their mere tossing in the wind1 which attracts the nourishment to the top1 and by movement prevents the stagnation of decay4 ,he gave the winds that we might gain acquaintance with foreign lands4 ,man would have been an untutored creature without much experience of the world if circumscribed by the bounds of his native soil4 ,he gave the winds #ac that the blessings of each region might become common to all2 not to convey across the sea regiments of horse and foot1 nor arms for the destruction of mankind4 ,if we simply estimate nature's boons by the degraded uses to which they have been put1 there is nothing that we have not received for our own hurt4 ,who is aught the better of the gift of sight8 or of speech8 ,to whom is life itself not a torment8 ,i defy you to find anything of such undoubted utility that it cannot by misuse be converted into a curse4 ,so it is with the winds3 nature had designed them for a boon2 we have ourselves made them the opposite4 ,they all lead us to some disaster3 one man has not the same motive #ad as his neighbour for putting to sea1 but none has a good one4 ,diverse temptations lead us to essay the way4 ,above all1 we love to go to sea in order to damage some one4 ,plato1 with whose testimony ,i may close1 has observed1 with great aptness1 it is mere trifles that men purchase with their lives4 ,yes1 my dear ,lucilius1 if you estimate aright man's madness1 in other words1 our own--for we all wallow in the same herd--you will be still more amused by the reflection that we amass for life what in the end wears life out4 ,,book ,,vi ,,which ,,treats ,,of ,,earthquakes ,i ,we have just had news1 my esteemed ,lucilius1 that ,pompeii1 the #a celebrated city in ,campania1 has been overwhelmed in an earthquake1 which shook all the surrounding districts as well4 ,the city1 you know1 lies on a beautiful bay1 running far back from the open sea1 and is surrounded by two converging shores1 on the one side that of ,surrentum and ,stabiae1 on the other that of ,herculaneum4 ,the disaster happened in winter1 a period for which our forefathers used to claim immunity from such dangers4 ,on the #eth of ,february1 in the consulship of ,regulus #b and ,virginius1 this shock occurred1 involving widespread destruction over the whole province of ,campania2 the district had never been without risk of such a calamity1 but had been hitherto exempt from it1 having escaped time after time from groundless alarm4 ,the extent of the disaster may be gathered from a few details4 ,part of the town of ,herculaneum fell2 the buildings left standing are very insecure4 ,the colony of ,nuceria had painful experience of the shock1 but sustained no damage4 ,naples was just touched by what might have proved a great disaster to it2 many private houses suffered1 but no public building was destroyed4 ,the villas built on the cliffs #c everywhere shook1 but without damage being done4 ,in addition1 they say1 a flock of six hundred sheep was destroyed1 and statues were split open2 some people were driven out of their minds1 and wandered about in helpless idiotcy4 ,the plan of my present work demands a discussion of the causes of this1 and the disaster itself fits in with our present inquiries 7i4e4 our discussion is opportune in view of the recent disaster74 ,we must seek solace for the anxious and dispel overmastering fear4 ,for what can any one believe quite safe if the world itself is shaken1 and its most solid parts totter to their fall8 ,where1 indeed1 can our fears have limit if the one thing immovably fixed1 which #d upholds all other things in dependence on it1 begins to rock1 and the earth lose its chief characteristic1 stability8 ,what refuge can our weak bodies find8 whither shall anxious ones flee when fear springs from the ground and is drawn up from earth's foundations8 ,if roofs at any time begin to crack and premonitions of fall are given1 there is general panic3 all hurry pell-mell out of doors1 they abandon their household treasures1 and trust for safety to the public street4 ,but if the earth itself stir up destruction1 what refuge or help can #e we look for8 ,if this solid globe1 which upholds and defends us1 upon which our cities are built1 which has been called by some the world's foundation1 stagger and remove1 whither are we to turn8 ,what comfort1 not to say help1 can you gain when fear has destroyed all way of escape8 ,where1 ,i say1 is there any protection you can trust8 what is there that will stand as sure defence either of oneself or of others8 ,an enemy ,i can drive off from my city wall4 ,the mere difficulties of approach to turrets set on the dizzy heights will stop the march even of great armies4 ,from storm the harbour shelters us2 our roofs are #f able to withstand the whole force of clouds let loose1 and the endless deluges of rain4 ,fire cannot pursue us if we run away from it4 ,against heaven's threats in thunder refuges underground and caverns dug out in the depths of the earth are of avail--the fire of heaven does not pierce the ground1 but is beaten back by the tiniest portion of the soil4 ,in time of plague we may change our place of abode4 ,no species of disaster is without some means of escape4 ,lightning has never consumed whole nations4 ,a plague-laden sky has drained cities1 but has never blotted them out4 ,but this calamity of earthquake extends beyond all bounds1 #g inevitable1 insatiable1 the destruction of a whole ,state4 ,nor is it only families or households or single cities that it swallows2 it overthrows whole nations and regions4 ,at one time it hides them in their ruins1 at another consigns them to the deep abyss2 it leaves not a wrack behind to witness that what no longer is1 once was4 ,the bare soil stretches over the site of the most famous cities1 and no trace is left of their former existence4 ,nor are there wanting those who dread most of all this kind of death1 in which they go down alive into the pit1 houses and all1 and are carried off from the number of the living3 as if every form of death did not lead to the one goal4 ,among #h nature's righteous decrees this is the chief1 that when we reach the end of life we are all on a level4 ,it makes no difference1 therefore1 to me whether one stone wound me to death or ,i am crushed beneath a whole mountain2 whether the weight of one house come down on me1 and ,i expire beneath the dust of its humble mound1 or whether the whole world descend upon my head2 whether ,i yield up this breath in the open light of day or in the vast abyss of the yawning earth2 whether ,i am borne down to those depths all alone or along with a great throng of perishing nations4 ,to me it can make no difference how great is the #i turmoil that accompanies my death2 the thing is everywhere just the same4 ,wherefore1 let us raise high our courage against that disaster1 which can neither be shunned nor yet foreseen4 ,let us cease to listen to the people that have bid adieu to ,campania since the time of this disaster1 and have removed to other districts1 vowing they will never set foot in that quarter again6 ,who can guarantee them more solid foundations in whatever soil they choose8 ,all the world is subject to the same #aj fate4 ,if it has not yet suffered from earthquake1 it may2 perchance this spot on which you stand in full security will be rent this night1 or even this day before night4 ,how can one tell whether is better the state of the places on which fortune has already spent her force or of those which are upheld meantime1 but only for some disaster to come8 ,we do greatly err if we suppose any quarter of the world wholly exempt from this danger4 ,all quarters are subject to the same law4 ,nature framed nothing to be immovable4 ,different things will fall at different times4 ,just as in large cities1 now this house and now that leans #aa over and has to be shored up1 so in the world as a whole1 now this part contains a flaw1 now that4 ,tyre was once notorious for a disaster of the kind4 ,the province of ,asia lost at a single stroke twelve of its cities4 ,last year calamity overtook ,achaia and ,macedonia1 now the injury has fallen upon ,campania1 whatever be the nature of that force which thus assails us4 ,fate makes a circuit1 paying a second visit to places she has long passed over4 ,on some places her attacks are more rare1 more frequent on some4 ,nothing is suffered to be quite exempt #ab from injury4 ,not merely we men1 whose life is frail and fleeting1 but cities too1 and the earth's coasts and shores1 yea1 the very sea falls under bondage to fate4 ,and in face of this we promise ourselves permanence in the boons fortune bestows6 we suppose there will be stability and endurance in happiness1 whose fickleness is greatest of all things on earth6 ,while men promise themselves all things #ac in perpetuity1 it never enters their thoughts that the very earth on which we stand is not permanent4 ,the flaws of the ground are to be found everywhere2 they are not peculiar to ,campania or ,tyre or ,achaia4 ,the earth coheres imperfectly1 it suffers breach from many causes2 permanent as a whole1 it is subject to collapse in its parts4 ,,ii ,what am ,i doing8 ,i had promised to offer comfort in face of danger1 #a and lo6 ,i threaten its terrors on all sides4 ,i tell you that there can be no assured peace in what can suffer or cause destruction4 ,but that very fact ,i regard as a solace1 and1 indeed1 the most powerful of all4 ,fear is but folly when there is no escape from it4 ,philosophy delivers the wise from fear2 even the unlearned may derive great confidence from despair4 ,you must1 therefore1 regard the words addressed to those amazed by sudden captivity amid fire and foe as addressed to the whole human race3 ,the one safety of the conquered is to hope for none4 ,if you wish to fear nothing1 think that everything is to be feared2 #b consider by how slight causes our life is dissipated4 ,neither food nor drink1 nor waking nor sleeping1 is healthful1 except in due measure4 ,one may soon realise that we are but puny1 insignificant bodies1 weak and unstable1 that small effort is needed to compass our destruction4 ,the only sufficiency of danger1 doubtless1 would be the earth's trembling1 its sudden dissipation1 the rending of its surface into chasms6 ,surely he sets a high value on his life who dreads only lightning1 #c and earthquakes with their yawning abysses2 won't he allow himself to open his eyes to his frailty and be afraid of choking on his phlegm8 ,such1 forsooth1 is our constitution by birth1 such the powerful frames we have obtained1 such the size we have grown to1 that we cannot perish unless the four quarters of the world are moved1 the heavens thunder1 and the earth subside6 ,why1 a pain in a tiny nail1 not even the whole #d nail1 but a little ragnail at the side1 may finish us6 ,and ,i must fear only the trembling of the world1 when too thick a spittle will choke me6 ,i am to await with dread the removal of the sea from its place1 or the overflowing of an abnormal tide with its excess of water2 why1 some ere now have been strangled by a drink that took a wrong course down the throat6 ,what folly to be afraid of the sea when you know that a single drop may kill you6 ,there is no solace of death greater than #e the very liability to death1 no solace of all the terrors from without equal to the thought that there are countless dangers within our own bosom4 ,what greater madness than to collapse at the sound of thunder1 and through fear of lightning to creep under the ground8 ,what greater folly than to stand in fear of the earth's tottering and the sudden #f fall of mountains1 or inroads of the sea cast up beyond the shore1 when death is everywhere present and meets us on every side8 ,nothing is so small as not to be strong enough to compass the destruction of the human race4 ,great or unusual dangers ought not to unnerve us1 as if they implied more mischief than a common death2 nay1 rather when one must quit the world and at last resign life1 it should be a positive joy to perish by some grand cause4 ,die we must somewhere1 sometime4 #g ,the ground you tread may stand firm1 it may confine itself within its own bounds and not be tossed about by any violence2 yet some day ,i shall be beneath it4 ,does it really matter1 then1 whether ,i place it on myself or itself do8 ,it is rent by the irresistible force of some disaster2 it bursts and draws me into its immense depths4 ,what then8 ,is death easier on the earth's level surface8 ,what reason for complaint have ,i if nature will not have me lie in a place unknown to fame8 or if she lays on me a portion of herself8 ,my friend1 ,vagellius1#gg in #h that famous poem of his1 says finely3 ,if fall ,i must1 ,i should desire to fall from the height of heaven4#gh #gg ,the name is doubtful1 as is1 indeed1 the quotation also4 #gh ,the sense may be3 ,i would have the heavens fall along with me2 this meaning would suit the context better4 ,we may adopt the language4 ,if fall ,i must1 let the earth be shaken at my fall2 not that one ought to pray for a public disaster1 but it is a great solace of death to see that the earth is likewise subject to death4 ,,iii ,it will be useful also to be assured that none of these things is the #a doing of the gods1 and that the moving of heaven or earth is no work of angry deities4 ,those phenomena have causes of their own4 ,it is not by special command that they put forth their rage1 but1 just as in our own bodies1 the disturbance arises from certain inherent imperfections2 at the moment when they seem to inflict injury1 they sustain it4 ,through our ignorance of the truth all these things are terrible1 the more as their infrequency increases our alarm4 ,familiar occurrences seem less #b serious2 the unusual causes greater terror4 ,but why is anything unusual in our estimation8 ,the reason is that we grasp the meaning of nature only superficially1 and not rationally2 we dwell too exclusively on what she has done1 and do not consider what she can do4 ,accordingly1 we pay the penalty of this neglect in our terror of things that we suppose unprecedented1 when they are not really unprecedented1 but merely unusual4 ,for instance1 are not superstitious fears inspired both privately and even for the safety of the ,state1 if either the sun has been seen in eclipse or if the moon1 whose obscuration is more frequent1 has partially or wholly been concealed8 ,and is not this far #c more so in the case of such sights as we have spoken of3 torches driven athwart the heavens1 the sky on fire over the greater part of its extent1 comets1 mock suns1 stars appearing in the daytime1 the sudden passage of stars that mark their trail with a bright light8 ,our wonder at these is in no case free from fear4 ,as the cause of the fear is ignorance1 is it not worth while to gain the knowledge that will dispel it8 ,how much better it would be to inquire into the causes of the alarming sights1 to bend1 in fact1 our whole mind to the task8 ,nothing1 surely1 could be found more deserving than that1 of having the mind's energies not only lent to it1 but devoted to it4 ,,iv ,let us ask ourselves1 therefore1 what it is that stirs the earth to #a its foundation1 what moves a mass of such weight1 what it is that is stronger than the earth1 and that in its violence can shake such a load4 ,let us inquire why at one time the earth trembles1 at another is loosened and sinks1 and again is divided into parts and opens a chasm2 or why on some occasions the intervals of destruction are prolonged1 on others are suddenly cut short4 ,what is the cause why it now consigns to its depths rivers of renowned greatness1 and now causes fresh rivers to issue8 why does it sometimes open up springs of hot water1 sometimes freeze them with cold8 and why at times are fires #b caused to shoot out through some hitherto unknown opening in mountain or crag1 while sometimes well-known fires1 that have been famous for centuries1 are suppressed8 ,the earthquake produces a thousand strange sights1 changing the aspect of the ground1 levelling mountains1 elevating plains1 exalting valleys1 raising new islands in the deep4 ,what are the causes that bring these things to pass8 ,that is a subject well worthy our discussion4 ,what1 you say1 will be the reward of our labour8 ,that reward1 ,i say1 which surpasses all others1 the knowledge of nature4 ,among the many serviceable lessons to be derived from #c such researches1 no feature is more commendable than this1 that man is thereby made to dwell upon the sight of his own grandeur#gi2 the study is pursued1 not in hope of gain1 but from the wonder it excites4 ,let us inquire1 therefore1 what it is that brings about all this4 ,the inquiry is so fascinating to me that although long ago in my youth ,i published a volume on earthquakes1 ,i am anxious to make another trial of my powers1 and to see whether age has added anything to my knowledge1 or1 at any rate1 to my industry4 #gi ,the meaning may rather be--the grandeur of the subject4 ,v ,the cause of earthquakes has been assigned variously by different #a authorities to water1 fire1 air1 and to the earth itself2 some assign it to a combination of several of the causes1 others1 to a union of them all4 ,certain writers have stated that it was plain to them that some one of these causes produced the earthquake1 but it was not plain which4 ,let us look at the various opinions in detail4 ,first of all1 ,i feel bound to say in general terms that the old views are crude and inexact4 ,as yet men were groping their way round truth4 ,everything was new to those who made the first attempt to grasp it2 only later were the subjects accurately investigated4 ,but all subsequent discoveries must nonetheless be set down to the credit of those early thinkers4 ,it was a task demanding great courage to remove the veil that hid #b nature1 and1 not satisfied with a superficial view1 to look beneath the surface and dive into the secrets of the gods4 ,a great contribution to discovery was made by the man who first conceived the hope of its possibility4 ,we must1 therefore1 listen indulgently to the ancients4 ,no subject is perfected while it is but beginning4 ,the truth holds not merely of the subject we are dealing with1 the greatest and most complicated of all1 in which1 however much may be accomplished1 every succeeding age will still find something fresh to accomplish4 ,it holds alike in every other concern2 the first principles have always been a long way off from the completed science4 ,,vi ,water is the first cause alleged3 more authors than one adopt this #a view1 but it is not stated by all in the same terms4 ,thales of ,miletus is convinced that the whole earth floats1 and is upborne by moisture lying beneath it1 which you may call either ,ocean or the great sea1 or still mere elemental water of a different character from the sea1 the simple ingredient1 moisture4 ,in these waves1 in his opinion1 the globe is supported like some huge lumbering vessel in the water which bears it4 ,it is unnecessary for me to reproduce his reasons for supposing #b that the heaviest part of the world cannot be sustained in such a rare and nimble element as air3 for the earth's position is not the question here but its movement4 ,by way of argument1 to prove that water is the cause1 he adduces the fact that in every considerable earthquake1 as a rule1 new springs burst out4 ,so if a boat leans over to one side away from the straight1 the result is that it ships water4 ,and1 generally speaking1 in the case of all objects which water supports1 if they are unduly sunk1 the water either pours over them or at any rate rises to right and left above its ordinary height4 ,now1 no lengthened consideration is needed to prove the falsity of #c this view4 ,why1 if the earth were supported by water1 and from time to time shaken by it1 it would be in perpetual shock2 the wonder would be not that it was tossed about sometimes1 but that it was ever at rest4 ,then1 again1 it would be shaken all over and not at a single point3 we never find only half the ship tossed by the waves4 ,but1 according to present experience1 a shock never occurs over the whole earth simultaneously1 but is always felt at some particular spot4 ,how1 then1 can it be that what is carried as a whole is not shaken as a whole1 if the shock comes from the body by which it is carried8 ,but1 it may be urged1 why do waters burst out at the time of earth- #d quakes8 ,well1 in the first place1 there has often been earthquake without any fresh supply of water appearing4 ,secondly1 if the supposed cause of the water rushing forth were the true one1 it would pour all round the sides of the earth1 as we see happening under similar circumstances in sea and rivers3 when boats sink1 the increase of water shows itself chiefly over the sides4 ,finally1 the outburst of waters which ,thales describes would not be so small as he says1 nor would it ooze in like bilge-water through a chink1 but from the exhaustless reservoir that upbears all creation1 a mighty deluge would ensue4 ,,vii ,some1 who1 like ,thales1 attribute earthquake to the effects of water1 #a give a different explanation of its operation4 ,there are1 they say1 many kinds of waters running over the whole earth4 ,in one place there are constant rivers whose size renders them fit for navigation1 even without the aid of rains4 ,there is the ,nile1 rolling down its huge volume all summer long3 here are the ,danube and the ,rhine separating with their streams the peaceful from the hostile1 the former checking attacks from the ,sarmatians and forming the boundary between ,europe and ,asia1 the latter keeping back the ,germans1 a nation ever keen for war4 ,then there are lakes of very wide extent1 great pools surrounded #b by tribes mutually ignorant of each other1 marshes that no boat can struggle through1 that cannot be passed even by the people that dwell on their borders4 ,add1 then1 the multitude of fountains1 and of river sources that belch out of their recesses full-grown streams4 ,besides1 there are many rushing torrents that gather only for a time1 whose force is as shortlived as it is sudden4 ,now there are waters1 in all this variety of form and character1 within as well as above the #c earth4 ,away there below some are borne along in vast bulk1 and tumble their whole volume down the steep3 others more sluggish are dammed back in shallows1 and flow with gentle1 quiet stream4 ,and can any one deny that within those vast underground hollows waters are formed1 and lie sluggish and inactive in many places8 ,it needs no long proof to show that there must be many waters in the place where all waters are4 ,the earth would not be able to produce so many rivers unless it poured them from a copious reserve4 ,this being so1 sometimes below the earth a river must become swollen1 #d and leaving its banks assail with violence all obstacles that meet it4 ,so there will be a movement of some point on which the river has made an onset1 and which it will keep lashing until its waters fall4 ,or it may happen that the constant wear of a stream may eat away some quarter1 dragging down thereby some mass above1 by whose fall1 in turn1 the surface which rested on it is shaken4 ,now surely a man trusts too #e much to the sight of the eyes and cannot launch out his imagination beyond1 if he does not believe that the depths of earth contain a vast sea with winding shores4 ,i see nothing to prevent or oppose the existence of a beach down there in the obscurity1 or a sea finding its way through the hidden entrances to its appointed place4 ,there1 too1 it occupies as much space as here1 perhaps more1 since the regions up on earth have had to be shared with so many living creatures2 but the hidden regions being desert without inhabitant give freer scope to the waves of the nether ocean4 ,and who is there to hinder the sea from #f swelling there and being tossed by all the winds that every interstice of the earth1 and every species of atmosphere can create8 ,so1 then1 when a storm greater than ordinary has arisen1 it may beat upon some one side of the earth with too great vehemence and move it4 ,for on the surface likewise1 many places which had been far from the sea have felt the violence of its sudden approach3 villas almost out of sight of it have been invaded by the waves which used only to be heard in the distance4 ,the nether sea1 too1 can approach and retire2 neither of which movements can take place without shock to the earth that stands above it4 ,,viii ,i do not1 indeed1 suppose that you will long hesitate to believe that #a there are underground rivers and a hidden sea4 ,from what other cause could the rivers burst out and come to the surface unless the source of the moisture were shut up within the earth8 ,for instance1 when one sees the ,tigris interrupted and dried up in the middle of its course1 not diverted as a whole1 but gradually with imperceptible losses first lessen and then waste away1 where do you suppose it goes to if not to the depths of the earth1 especially as you see it emerge again not less in volume than its former stream8 ,and what are you to say when you #b see the ,alpheus1 so celebrated by the poets1 sink in ,achaia and1 having crossed beneath the sea1 pour forth in ,sicily the pleasant fountain ,arethuse8 ,and don't you know that among the explanations given of the occurrence of the inundation of the ,nile in summer1 one is that it bursts forth from the ground1 and is swollen not by rain from above but by water given out from within the earth8 ,i have myself heard from their own lips the story told by the two #c non-commissioned officers sent to investigate the sources of the ,nile by our good ,emperor ,nero1 a monarch devoted to virtue in every form1 but especially solicitous for the interests of truth4 ,the ,king of ,ethiopia had supplied them with assistance and furnished letters of introduction to the neighbouring kings1 and so they had penetrated into the heart of ,africa and accomplished a long journey4 8,we came #d indeed10 ,i give their own words1 8to huge marshes1 the limit of which even the natives did not know1 and no one else could hope to know2 so completely was the river entangled with vegetable growth1#hj so impassable the waters by foot1 or even by boat1 since the muddy overgrown marsh would bear only a small boat containing one person4 ,there10 my informants went on1 8we saw with our eyes two rocks from which an immense quantity of water issued40 ,now whether that is the real source or only an addition to the river2 whether it rises there #e or merely returns to the surface after its previous course underground2 don't you think that1 whatever it is1 that water comes up from a great lake in the earth8 ,the earth must contain moisture scattered in numerous places and collected at depth in order to be able to belch it out with such violence4 #hj ,the so-called 8sudd40 ,,ix ,fire is the cause assigned by some for earthquakes1 but they are not #a agreed as to its method of action4 ,first among them is ,anaxagoras1 who is of opinion that pretty much the same cause produces concussion in the earth as in the atmosphere4 ,in the nether parts of earth1 air 7gas7 causes explosions of thick atmosphere massed in clouds with the same violence as on earth clouds are wont to be burst4 ,fire is struck out by this collision of clouds and by the rush of the atmosphere that is forced out4 ,this fire in seeking an exit meets obstructions and #b bursts through all obstacles1 until it has either found a way of escape to the light through the narrow passages1 or has made one for itself by violence and destruction4 ,other writers who still believe the cause to lie in fire do not suppose that this is its method of action3 they think the fire presents itself in more than one place and burns away everything in the vicinity4 ,then if the parts eaten away fall in at any time1 a shock follows in the portions which are deprived of their supports2 they first totter and then collapse2 nothing encounters them to support their weight4 ,then chasms and vast gulfs are opened up1 or #c it may be1 after hanging a long time in the balance1 the ground settles down over what is still left standing4 ,we see the same thing happen ordinarily as often as a part of the city suffers from a fire4 ,the joists are burnt through1 or what gave support to the upper part of the buildings is undermined4 ,then the roofs after tossing about for a long time fall in2 their swaying and oscillating continue until they find a resting-place on solid ground4 ,x ,anaximenes affirms that the earth is itself the cause of the earth- #a quake1 and that nothing encounters it from without to give it a shock4 ,within it1 he thinks1 certain parts of its substance fall of themselves1 either loosened by moisture1 or eaten away by fire1 or shaken off by the violence of air4 ,but even in absence of such active cause there is not wanting sufficient to account for the loss or removal of some portion of the earth4 ,in the first place1 all things fall through age1 for nothing is safe from the ravages of time1 which waste even the solidest and strongest edifice4 ,in old buildings parts fall without being knocked off1 merely because they have more weight than strength4 ,so in the earth's body as a whole it comes to pass #b that portions are loosened by age1 and being loosened1 fall1 causing shock to the things above them4 ,this they do primarily while they are leaving their place2 for nothing1 especially if it is large1 can be wrenched off without movement of that to which it adhered4 ,but further1 when the objects have fallen1 they meet the solid earth and rebound like a ball4 ,when a ball falls1 it jumps up and bounces repeatedly1 just as often1 in fact1 as it recoils from the ground for a new flight4 ,if the loosened objects within the earth are carried down into stagnant waters1 this accident of itself causes a shock to the vicinity through the wave cast up by the weight of the objects shot suddenly down from a great height4 ,,xi ,some attribute these earthquakes to fire1 but give different explanations of its action4 ,when fire causes intense heat at various points beneath the earth1 it must roll up a great cloud of vapour1 which can find no exit1 and which dilates the air by its high temperature4 ,if the pressure of the vapour is excessive1 it scatters all obstructions2 but if it is comparatively moderate1 it merely causes movement of the earth4 ,we observe water smoke when fire is applied4 ,what the fire does to this water in a narrow pot1 one may suppose is done on a much greater scale when a violent and wide-spreading fire causes immense extents of water to boil4 ,it then by evaporation from the overflowing waters shakes violently whatever it strikes4 ,,xii ,many of the greatest authorities are persuaded that earthquakes are #a to be attributed to air4 ,archelaus1 who is well versed in the records of antiquity1 speaks thus3 ,winds are carried down into the earth's hollows and recesses4 ,when they are all full1 and the atmosphere is condensed to the utmost extent1 the air1 which continues to come in1 forces and thrusts the former air1 and with frequent blows first compresses and then dislodges it4 ,the air in its endeavour to find #b room forces all the narrow passages and tries to burst its barriers4 ,through the struggle of the air as it seeks for an escape it comes to pass that the earth is moved4 ,this explains why the approach of an earthquake is preceded by still and quiet of the atmosphere2 the force of the air which is wont to rouse the winds is held in check in its nether abode4 ,even on the present occasion of the earthquake in #c ,campania1 although the season was winter1 the atmosphere was perfectly still and calm for several days before it4#ha ,well1 then1 did an earthquake never take place when there was a wind blowing8 ,on very rare occasions have there been two winds blowing simultaneously4 ,still1 such a thing is possible1 and is wont to occur4 ,but if we admit it as an established fact that two winds can be in activity at one and the same time1 why shouldn't it happen that at times one of them agitates the upper air1 the other the nether8#hb #ha ,the text is uncertain1 and the argument down to the end of the chapter rather obscure4 #hb ,the argument seems to be3 ,two winds can blow simultaneously4 ,one may be beneath the earth 7causing or during earthquake71 one above4 ,therefore1 stillness of the upper atmosphere is not a necessary concomitant of earthquake4 ,the fact has at times been otherwise4 ,,xiii ,in this category you may rank ,aristotle and his disciple ,theo- #a phrastus1 a man of pleasant though not of superhuman eloquence1 as the ,greeks considered him1 and of easy1 polished style4 ,let me unfold in more detail what they hold in common3 ,there is always evaporation of some kind going on from the earth1 which is at one time dry1 at another has an admixture of moisture4 ,when this1 rising from the lowest parts of earth1 has been raised to the utmost extent1 and has no place beyond into which to issue1 it is borne back and returns upon itself4 ,the struggle of the air in its ebb and flow tosses to and fro all obstructions it meets1 and1 whether its egress is stopped or whether it escapes through the narrow openings1 it causes movement of the earth and uproar4 ,to the same school of opinion belongs ,strato1 who #b made a special study of this department of science1 and was a diligent student of natural philosophy4 ,his verdict on the matter is this3 ,cold and heat always move away from one another in opposite directions1 and cannot remain in the same place4 ,cold flows into the spot whence the influence of heat has departed2 and1 conversely1 there is heat in the place whence cold has been banished4 ,the statement is beyond doubt1 but the contrariety of the two may become plain to you from the following3 ,in the winter season1 when there is cold on the earth's surface1 the #c wells are warm1 and caves and all underground retreats equally so4 ,the heat1 yielding possession of the upper regions to the cold1 retreats down there4 ,when it reaches the lower regions1 and is accumulated there to the utmost1 the denser it is1 the more powerful is it4 ,to this a further supply is added1 to which what has already gathered1 and is compressed into a narrow space1 of necessity gives way4 ,the same thing happens from the opposite cause when a greater quantity of cold is borne down to these recesses4 ,all the heat that lurks there gives way #d to the cold1 and retires to the narrow passages1 and is driven onward with great impetuosity4 ,the nature of the two1 as ,i have said1 does not allow agreement1 or abode in the same place4 ,in its flight1 then1 and eager haste to escape at all hazards the air pushes back and tosses about all that lies near it4 ,this is why1 previous to an earthquake1 a roaring is usually heard1 through the tumult of the winds in the earth's bowels4 ,for not otherwise1 as our poet ,virgil says1 could #e ,the earth bellow beneath our feet and the lofty peaks be moved1 were not this the work of the winds4 ,in this contest again there are ups and downs4 ,there are cessations in the massing of the heat and1 in turn1 in its emission4 ,then the cold1 too1 is restrained and gives way1 but some day soon it will be more powerful again4 ,while1 therefore1 the alternating forces rush to and fro1 and the air moves hither and thither1 the earth is shaken4 ,,xiv ,there are some who think that1 while air and no other cause produces #a earthquake1 it operates in a different way from that which ,aristotle supposed4 ,listen to what they say3 ,our body is irrigated with blood1 and with air which courses everywhere along its own routes4 ,we have some comparatively narrow vessels through which they cannot do more than pass2 some wider1 in which they accumulate1 and from which they are distributed to the members4 ,so this whole body of the earth at #b large has passages alike for water1 which performs the function of blood1 and for wind1 which might be called simply the breath of its life4 ,these two encounter each other at some points1 at some points they are stationary4 ,while in our bodies good health is enjoyed1 the movement of the veins preserves its rate undisturbed2 but when there is malady the pulse beats more rapidly1 the deep breathing and panting betoken laboured1 wearied effort4 ,in like manner the earth remains unshaken while it maintains its natural position4 ,but if any #c flaw occur in it1 there is a shaking1 just as of a body suffering from disease2 for the air which flowed through it with regularity is violently smitten1 and causes its veins to quiver2 but not1 let me add1 in the way1 described a little above1#hc imagined by those who will have it that the earth is a living creature4 ,in that case the earth1 just as an animal does1 would feel the agitation equally all over4 ,when a fever seizes any of us1 it does not delay for a time its attack upon some parts1 but with uniform regularity spreads over them all4 #hc ,there seems a slight lapse of memory here4 ,cf4 pp4 #abf1 #aif4 ,perhaps you had better assume1 therefore1 that air from the surround- #d ing atmosphere enters the earth4 ,as long as it has free egress1 it glides through it without doing harm2 but if it meet some obstacle to block its way1 then it is1 to begin with1 weighted with the atmosphere that pours in on the rear2 by and by it escapes with difficulty through some chink1 and makes its way with the greater violence the narrower the opening is4 ,that cannot take place without a struggle1 and a struggle involves shaking of the earth4 ,but if the confined air cannot find even a chink by which to issue1 it is massed and #e becomes furious1 and is driven round in this direction and in that1 overthrowing or bursting one thing after another4 ,it is excessively subtle1 and at the same time exceedingly powerful2 it can worm its way into obstructions however great1 splitting and scattering whatever it enters4 ,when this occurs1 then there is a regular tossing of the earth4 ,for the earth either opens to give room to the wind1 or1 after giving room1 is deprived of its foundation and subsides into the very cavern from which it allowed the wind to issue4 ,,xv ,some entertain the following opinion3 ,the earth is porous at many points1 possessing not merely those first shafts which it received as ventilators at its creation1 but many subsequently opened up by various changes4 ,in some places water has washed away the soil that was on the surface2 part has been eaten away by torrents1 while parts have been exposed by the disruptive action of great tides4 ,through the interstices thus produced air enters4 ,if it so happen now that the sea has shut it in and driven it deeper1 and the waves prevent its escape by the same road1 egress and regress being alike closed1 the air rolls about within the earth4 ,its natural tendency is to hurry straight forward1 but as that path is closed1 it presses upward and lashes the earth1 whose weight lies heavy upon it4 ,,xvi ,i must further mention a view held by the majority of writers1 which #a probably ,i shall myself support4 ,the earth does not lack air within2 that everybody knows4 ,i do not mean merely the air which holds it together and unites its parts1 which exists even in stones and dead bodies2 but ,i mean that fresh vital air which supports all life4 ,unless the earth possessed this store of air1 how could she infuse it into so many trees and crops1 which derive their life from this and no other source8 ,how could she nourish all the different roots that sink into #b the soil in one place and another1 some merely attached to the surface1 others sunk deeper1 had she not an abundant supply of the breath of life1 which produces so many varied growths and rears them with its nourishing draught8 ,these are the slighter arguments that ,i hitherto urge4 ,why1 all the heaven we see1 which is shut in by fiery ether1 the highest portion of the universe1 all these stars1 whose number cannot be conceived1 all this concourse of heavenly bodies1 and1 to mention only one more1 this sun1 that urges his course so close to us1 many times larger than the whole circuit of the earth--all these draw their nourishment from materials of earth which they share among them1 and are sustained1 of course1 by nothing else than the breath of the #c earth4 ,this is their nourishment1 this their pasturage4 ,now the earth would be unable to nourish so many bodies of such size1 larger even than itself1 unless it were full of breath1 which it exhales from every part of it day and night4 ,for there must be a large reserve of that from which so much is sought and taken2 in fact1 the supply to be drawn from it is created for the occasion4 ,the earth would not possess a #d perennial supply of air sufficient for the wants of so many heavenly bodies1 unless the elements issued and returned alternately and were transmutable into one another4 ,but apart from this1 it is necessary that the earth be abundantly filled with it1 and be able to draw it forth from her hidden store4 ,there is no doubt then that a great quantity of air lurks in the interstices of the earth1 and a widely diffused atmosphere occupies the hidden spaces underground4 ,if that is true1 of necessity the earth must often be moved1 since it is full of a most movable substance4 ,no one1 ,i suppose1 can doubt that there is nothing so restless1 so capricious1 so fond of disturbance as air4 ,,xvii ,it follows1 therefore1 that air should obey the law of its being2 #a what is wont to be moved will sometimes move other things4 ,and when8 ,whenever its free course is checked4 ,as long as it is not hindered it flows quietly along4 ,when it is opposed and held back it becomes furious1 bursting all obstacles just like that ,araxes that ever spurned a bridge4 ,as long as the river has a free easy channel it rolls down its waters #b in due and regular succession4 ,but if through chance or by human agency rocks are placed in its way to check its course1 then it gathers fresh strength from the barrier1 and the more numerous the obstacles opposed to it1 the greater the force that it musters to overcome them4 ,for all the water that accumulates behind1 constantly increases1 and being at last unable to bear its own weight manifests its violence through the havoc it works in its descent1 and escapes headlong down its channel1 bearing the very obstacles that blocked its path4 ,the same thing occurs with air1 only that1 in proportion to its greater strength #c and mobility1 it is the more rapidly carried onward1 and bursts the more violently all that encloses it4 ,from this1 of course1 there is a disturbance in the part of the ground under which the struggle has occurred4 ,the truth of this assertion may be proved from the consideration that often when an earthquake has taken place1 involving a breach of only some part of the earth1 wind has issued from it for several days4 ,this is recorded to have taken place in the earthquake #d in which ,chalcis suffered1 as you will find in ,asclepiodotus1 ,posidonius' pupil1 in his discussion of my own topic of ,physical ,inquiries4 ,in other authors1 too1 you will find it stated that after a chasm had opened up at one spot1 in no long time wind issued from it1 having no doubt made for itself the way along which it travelled4 ,,xviii ,the chief cause of earthquake1 therefore1 is air1 an element #a naturally swift and shifting from place to place4 ,as long as it is not stirred1 but lurks in a vacant space1 it reposes innocently1 giving no trouble to objects round it4 ,but when any cause coming upon it from without rouses it1 or compresses it1 and drives it into a narrow space1 in the first instance1 to be sure1 it merely retires and roams about its enclosure4 ,but when opportunity of escape is cut off1 and resistance meets it on all hands1 then 444 ,with deep murmur of the mountain ,it roars around the barriers2444 which1 after long battering1 it dislodges and tosses on high1 growing the more fierce1 the stronger the obstacle with which it has #b contended4 ,by and by1 when it has traversed the whole space in which it was enclosed1 and has failed to find a way of escape1 it recoils from the side on which its impact was greatest4 ,it is then either distributed through the secret openings which the earthquake of itself causes here and there1 or escapes through a new rent4 ,so uncontrollable is this mighty power4 ,no bolt can imprison wind2 it loosens every bond1 bears with it every weight1 and insinuating itself into the smallest crannies wins its release2 for by the invincible power of nature it is free1 especially when roused1 and asserts its right for itself4 ,air is #c a thing no man can tame2 nothing will be found which1 ,when the winds struggle and the tempests roar1 ,can restrain them by its sway and rein them by bonds and prison4 ,doubtless the poets wished the place in which the winds lay pent up underground to be considered a prison4 ,but they did not perceive either that what was shut up is no longer wind1 or that what is wind can no longer be shut up4 ,what is shut up is at rest1 and the atmosphere is at a standstill2 whereas all wind is in flight4 ,besides these arguments1 there is a consideration by which it becomes manifest that motion #d is brought about by air1 namely1 that our bodies never tremble except when some cause produces disturbance of the internal air1#hd which is contracted by fear1 grows sluggish in old age1 languishes when the veins are numbed1 is checked with cold1 or after some attack of fever is quite driven from its wonted course4 ,as long as it flows unimpeded1 and moves in its wonted fashion1 there is no quivering of the body4 ,when anything intervenes to prevent its functioning1 then being no longer able to maintain what it upheld by its vigour1 it fails1 causing a collapse of everything that it had sustained when unimpaired4 #hd ,or spirit3 there is almost a play upon the ambiguous meaning of the term4 ,,xix ,we must now hear what ,metrodorus of ,chios desires to urge by way of #a opinion4 ,i do not allow myself the liberty of passing over unnoticed even opinions that ,i disapprove2 it is better to have the largest possible variety of views1 and to condemn rather than omit what we do not approve4 ,well1 then1 what has ,metrodorus to say8 ,he compares the #b subterranean disturbances to the voice of a person who puts his head into a barrel and begins to sing out4 ,in that case there is a kind of quavering as the voice extends and resounds through the whole hollow space2 slight as the movement is1 it passes all round the vessel in which it is enclosed1 grazing its sides and causing disturbance all through4 ,in the same way the vast empty caverns that stretch down beneath the earth have atmosphere of their own1 on which other air coming from above falls with violence4 ,the agitation produced differs in no wise from that of the empty vessels which ,i have just mentioned1 when they resound through shouting into them4 ,,xx ,let us now go on to consider the authors who have alleged as causes #a all the different factors mentioned1 or1 at any rate1 several of them4 ,democritus is one of those who think that several are concerned4 ,he asserts that the earthquake is produced sometimes by air1 sometimes by water1 sometimes by both4 ,he pursues the argument in the following way3 ,some portion of the earth is hollow1 in which a large quantity of water has gathered4 ,part of this water is thinner and less dense than the rest4 ,when it is driven back by a heavy mass descending upon it from above1 it comes violently against the earth1 causing a commotion of it4 ,the fluctuating movement of the water cannot take place without corresponding movement of the body on which it impinges4 ,besides1 what we said a little above regarding air must be repeated in regard #b water4 ,when it is accumulated at one place1 which becomes too small to contain it1 it inclines in some particular direction1 and opens up a passage for itself1 at first by its mere weight1 afterwards by the gathering force of its current4 ,being long shut up it cannot escape except down an incline1 and it cannot drop straight down with any gentleness1 or without violent shaking of the parts through which and on which it falls4 ,now1 if after it has begun its rapid downward #c movement it is checked at any point1 and the force of the current is thrown back upon itself1 it is driven back on the earth which encounters it1 and attacks the earth at the point where it is most insecure4 ,moreover1 the ground is sometimes so saturated with the moisture it has received into its heart that it subsides to a lower level and its very foundation is destroyed4 ,the pressure is then exerted on the part toward which the weight of the descending waters most inclines4 ,air1 too1 sometimes urges the water4 ,if it presses with some degree of violence1 it naturally moves the part of the earth toward which it has urged the gathering of the waters4 ,sometimes1 again1 the air is driven into passages through the earth1 and in its #d search for a way of escape causes a general movement4 ,the earth1 as we know1 is pervious to wind2 air is too subtle to be excluded1 too violent to be resisted when excited to rapid movement4 ,turning from ,democritus to ,epicurus1 we find the latter to assert that all the foregoing may be causes of earthquake1 but he tries to introduce some additional ones4 ,he criticises other authors for affirming too positively that some particular one of the causes is responsible1 as it is difficult to pronounce anything as certain in matters in which conjecture must be resorted to4 ,as he says1 then1 #e water is capable of producing earthquake by washing and rubbing off certain portions1 the weakening of which removes the support of what was upborne by them when unimpaired4 ,the force of air is also capable of moving the earth4 ,perhaps the air within the earth is set in violent agitation by other air entering from without4 ,or1 perchance1 it may be that the earth receives an internal blow from the sudden fall of some portion of it1 and derives thence the shock4 ,or1 perchance1 some portion of the earth is upheld1 as it were1 by certain pillars and stakes1 the injury or withdrawal of which causes a tremor to run through the mass they support4 ,or1 perchance1 a quantity of hot air #f turning to fire and assuming the character of lightning courses along to the widespread destruction of all obstacles it encounters4 ,or1 perchance1 some wind stirs the sluggish marshy waters1 whose stroke in consequence shakes the earth2 or the tossing of the air1 increasing to violence through the mere movement1 is carried from the lowest depths right up to the surface of the earth4 ,still1 ,epicurus is satisfied that there is no more potent cause of earthquake than air4 ,,xxi ,we ,stoics also are convinced that it is only air that can attempt #a such a feat as the production of an earthquake1 for than it nothing in the whole realm of nature is more powerful1 more energetic2 in absence of it even the elements that are most violent lose their force4 ,it is by air that fire is kindled2 if you withdraw wind1 water is sluggish4 ,water becomes impetuous only when the blast tosses it with violence4 ,this force it is that has power to scatter vast spaces of earth1 to raise from the depths new mountains1 and to set in mid-ocean islands hitherto unseen4 ,can any one doubt that ,there and ,therasia and this #b island which in our days under our very eyes rose out of the ,aegean ,sea1 were carried up to the light by the force of air8 ,posidonius will have it that there are two different varieties in the movements of the earth1 each with its distinctive name4 ,the one is a quaking when the earth is shaken and moves up and down2 the other is a tilting when1 like a ship1 it leans over to one or other side4 ,i am of opinion that there is still a third variety1 which we have a #c special term to denote4 ,our forefathers had good reason for speaking of a trembling of the earth1 for it is unlike either of the other kinds of movement4 ,on such an occasion things are neither all shaken nor all tilted1 but they quiver4 ,in a case of this kind no great damage is usually done2 while1 on the other hand1 a tilting is far more destructive than a shock2 for unless a contrary movement set in very quickly from the other side to restore the level1 downfall follows of necessity4 ,,xxii ,these movements being dissimilar1 their causes are likewise #a different4 ,let us deal first with the shaking movement4 ,if great loads are being conveyed by a row of many waggons1 and the wheels1 under the unusual strain1 fall into the ruts of the road1 one feels the earth shaken4 ,asclepiodotus has put it on record that on one occasion the fall of a rock that was torn off from the mountain-side caused by the tremor the collapse of some houses in its vicinity4 ,just the same thing may occur beneath the earth2 parts of the overhanging crags may be loosened and fall with great weight and noise upon the floor of the cavern beneath1 and with a violence proportionate to the weight of the mass and the height of the fall4 ,the whole roof of the subterranean valley is disturbed by an occurrence of this kind4 ,it is conceivable1 too1 that rocks are not always wrenched off by their own weight2 #b when rivers roll over them1 the constant moisture weakens the joints of the stone1 and day by day bears away part of its fastening1 causing abrasion1 so to speak1 of the skin in which the stone is enclosed4 ,the long waste of ages1 through constant daily rubbing1 by and by so weakens the fastenings that they cease to be able to sustain their burden4 ,then blocks of vast size fall down1 then the crag hurled #c headlong will not suffer anything to stand that it strikes in the rebound from its fall1 but ,comes away with a roar2 and all things seem suddenly to rush headlong1 as our countryman ,virgil says4 ,such must be the cause of the earthquake that shakes the ground beneath4 ,now ,i must pass on to the second kind4 ,,xxiii ,the earth is naturally full of cavities1 containing much empty #a space4 ,through these cavities air roams4 ,when an excessive quantity has entered and cannot escape it shakes the earth4 ,this explanation is approved by others1 too1 as mentioned a little above4 ,perhaps the crowd of witnesses will impress you4 ,the view has the adhesion of ,callisthenes1 and he is a man not lightly to be set aside4 ,he was endowed with a lofty intellect1 and he dared to brave the wrath of a king4 ,his death is an eternal blot on the memory of ,alexander1 which no valour and no success in war can ever remove4 ,as often as it is said1 ,alexander slew many thousands of the ,persians1 the retort will #b be1 ,and ,callisthenes too4 ,as often as it is said1 ,he slew ,darius1 in whose hands there was then a mighty kingdom1 the retort will be1 ,yes1 and ,callisthenes too4 ,as often as it is said1 ,he conquered all lands right up to the ,ocean1 the ,ocean likewise he essayed with fleets strange to its waters1 from a corner of ,thrace he extended his empire to the bounds of the ,east2 it will also be said1 ,yes1 but he slew ,callisthenes4 ,granted that he surpassed all former precedents of #c generals and kings1 yet of all that he did1 nothing will match his guilt in slaying ,callisthenes4 ,well1 this ,callisthenes1 in the treatise in which he gives details of the sinking of ,helice and ,buris1 and discusses the disaster which sent them into the sea1 or the sea into them1 says what ,i have said at a previous point4 ,air1 he says1 enters the earth by hidden openings under the sea1 just as everywhere else4 ,by and by1 when the path is #d blocked by which it had descended1 and the resistance of the water in the rear has cut off its retreat1 it is borne hither and thither1 and encountering itself in its course it undermines the earth4 ,that is the reason why land over against the sea is most frequently harassed by earthquakes2 and hence it is that ,neptune has been assigned this power of moving the earth4#he ,any one who has learned the elements of ,greek knows that he is called among the ,greeks ,earthshaker 774 #he ,the usual reading1 maris sea1 contradicts the argument2 it cannot surely be right4 ,,xxiv ,i shall be ready to allow that air is the cause of this form of #a destructive earthquake4 ,but ,i shall have some criticism to offer as to the method by which it enters the ground4 ,does it enter by fine openings that the eye cannot detect1 or by larger and more evident ones8 ,does it come from the depths of the earth1 or does it pass through the surface too8 ,the last-mentioned view seems inconceivable4 ,in our bodies the skin keeps out air1 which finds no entrance except that through which it is inhaled4 ,and even when taken in by us1 it cannot settle except in the looser portion of the body4 ,it does not remain among the sinews or muscle1 but in the bowels and the open #b vessels of our internal organs4 ,the same arrangement may be suspected in regard to the earth's interior from the very fact that the movement in an earthquake is not on the surface of the earth or about the surface1 but beneath in the lowest parts4 ,a proof of this is that seas of immense depth are tossed up1 no doubt from the movement of the ground over which they spread4 ,it is therefore probable that the earth #c is moved in its depths1 and that the air is formed there in the immense caverns4 ,nay1 says some critic1 but just as when we shiver from cold a trembling follows1 so1 too1 the earth is shaken by air affecting it from without4 ,this ,i deny can by any possibility occur4 ,why1 the earth must get a chill in order to have the same happen to it as to us1 whom an external affection drives into a shuddering fit4 ,i should quite allow that the earth shows symptoms of much the same kind as #d we do1 but the cause is wholly different4 ,an injury of a deeper kind1 more toward its centre1 must affect it1 the very strongest proof of which may be found in the fact that when through violent earthquake the soil is laid open in wide destruction1 the chasm sometimes takes in and buries whole cities4 ,thucydides tells us that1 about the time of the #e ,peloponnesian ,war1 the island of ,atalanta1 either wholly1 or1 at any rate1 for the most part1 was swallowed up4 ,you may take ,posidonius for witness that the same thing happened to ,sidon4 ,but we do not require evidence of this4 ,within our own memory the earth has been torn by internal movement1 adjoining places have been rent asunder1 whole plains have disappeared4 ,i will now explain how ,i suppose this sort of thing to occur4 ,,xxv ,when air has completely filled a large vacant space within the earth1 #a and has begun to struggle and meditate escape1 it lashes again and again the sides of the enclosure within which it lurks1 and right over which1 as it happens1 cities are sometimes situated4 ,the shaking is at times so violent that buildings standing above the area of disturbance are thrown down4 ,sometimes it goes to such lengths that the walls by which the whole roof of the cavern is supported fall right down into that vacant underground space1 and cities sink entire into the unfathomed depths4 ,long ago1 if one may believe the story1 ,ossa and #b ,olympus were united2 subsequently they were separated by an earthquake1 and the one great mountain was split into two4 ,then the ,peneus made its escape1 draining the marshes with which ,thessaly was overspread1 and drawing off the waters1 which from want of exit had hitherto formed a lake4 ,it was an earthquake that let loose ,ladon1 the river which flows between ,elis and ,magalenopolis4 ,what1 it is asked1 do these facts go to prove8 ,simply that air gathers in the spacious caves--for what #c other name can ,i apply to the empty places under the earth8 ,were this not so1#hf great spaces of the earth would be convulsed1 and many of them would totter to ruin at one and the same time4 ,as it is1 only small portions suffer1 nor does a shock ever extend as much as two hundred miles4 ,look at the recent one1 the marvellous tales of which have filled the whole world2 it did not pass beyond ,campania4 ,need ,i say that when ,chalcis felt the earthquake shock ,thebes did not fall8 #d when ,aegium suffered1 ,patras1 which is quite close by1 only learned by report about the earthquake8 ,that mighty shock1 which swallowed up the two cities ,helice and ,buris1 stopped short of ,aegium4 ,plainly1 then1 the movement extends only such distance as the empty space underground stretches4 #hf ,i4e4 were the air distributed all through the earth4 ,,xxvi ,to prove my point ,i might have used1 somewhat unfairly perhaps1 the #a authority of the great writers who relate that ,egypt never experienced an earthquake shock1 the reason they allege for it being that it is all composed of mud4 ,if one may believe ,homer1 ,pharos used to be as far from the mainland as a ship under full sail could reach in a day's voyage2 but it has now become attached to the mainland4 ,the ,nile's swollen stream brings down great quantities of mud1 and by adding it from time to time to the existing land it has by an annual increase constantly carried forward the coast of ,egypt4 ,the country thus is #b composed of rich loamy soil without interstices1 as it has become solid just by the drying up of the mud4 ,the composition of the mud was close and firm1 the particles of it being stuck together2 no vacant space could intervene1 since the solid was always being added to by the liquid and soft slime4 ,but ,egypt is1 as a matter of fact1 subject to earthquake2 and ,delos1 too1 though ,virgil bade it stand fast1 ,and granted that it should be a settled land of tillage1 and should laugh the winds to scorn4 ,the philosophers1 too1 a credulous set of people1 relying on ,pindar's authority1 said that it did not experience movement4 ,thucydides asserts that in former times it was unshaken1 but sustained a shock about the time of the ,peloponnesian ,war4 ,callisthenes asserts that the same thing happened on another occasion also4 ,among the numerous portents--these #c are his words--by which warning was given of the overthrow of the two cities ,helice and ,buris1 the most remarkable were the appearance of a huge pillar of fire and the earthquake shock in ,delos4 ,yet he will have it that the island is comparatively firm for the reason that it is placed on the sea and has hollow crags and porous rocks1 which afford a way of escape to air imprisoned in them4 ,for this reason1 too1 islands have1 he thinks1 a firmer soil1 and cities are safer in proportion #d to their proximity to the sea4 ,the falsity of such an opinion surely ,pompeii and ,herculaneum learned to their cost4 ,add now the fact that every sea-coast is particularly subject to earthquakes4 ,paphos1 for instance1 was more than once ruined1 and the famous ,nicopolis is already intimately acquainted with this mischief4 ,cyprus is surrounded by a deep sea1 but is subject to shocks4 ,tyre is as regularly shaken by earthquake as it is washed by the waves4 ,such1 then1 are for the most part the explanations that have been suggested for the trembling of the earth4 ,,xxvii ,we must now essay an explanation of certain peculiar features which #a are said to have occurred in the recent ,campanian earthquake4 ,a flock of six hundred sheep is asserted to have been killed in the district near ,pompeii1 and there is no reason to suppose that this happened to the sheep through fright4 ,we have said that after great earthquakes it is usual for a pestilence to occur4 ,and no wonder1 since in the depths of earth many deadly poisons lurk4 ,in fact1 the very atmosphere there1 #b being stagnant through some fault in the earth or the sluggish movement and the everlasting darkness that prevails1 is dangerous to breathe4 ,or being poisoned by the fumes of the internal fires1 when it is released from its long inactivity1 it taints and pollutes this pure clear air above1 and brings new forms of disease to those who inhale the unwonted draught4 ,you remember1 too1 that we found the water lurking in the secret depths to be useless and even pestilential1 since activity never stirs it1 and the free breath of heaven never ruffles it4 ,being therefore thick and covered beneath gross eternal darkness #c it contains only elements that are pestilential and injurious to our bodies4 ,so1 too1 the atmosphere1 which mingles with it and lies amid these marshes1 scatters far and wide its poison when it issues out1 and kills those who breathe it4 ,the flocks1 which the pestilence is wont to attack1 feel the poisonous effects more readily1 because they are more greedy in feeding4 ,they live for the most part in the open1 and they drink a great deal of water1 which is chiefly responsible for the pestilence4 ,sheep are of rather delicate constitution1 and1 as #d they keep their heads close to the earth1 ,i am not surprised at their being attacked by the infection2 they receive the blasts of tainted air just as it issues from the ground4 ,if it had issued in greater volume1 it would have injured man too4 ,but the abundant supply of pure air counteracted it before it could rise high enough to be breathed by any human being4 ,,xxviii ,now you may infer that the earth contains many deadly elements from #a the mere fact that so many poisons grow of themselves without being sown2 the soil no doubt contains seeds of evil as well as of good4 ,is it not the case that1 earthquakes apart1 in several places in ,italy a pestilential steam is emitted through certain openings1 which it is not safe for either man or beast to breathe8 ,even birds1 if they meet it before it is neutralised by the purer breath of heaven1 fall in mid-flight2 their bodies become livid1 and their jaws swell just as if they had been strangled4 ,as long as this air is contained in the #b earth and escapes by a narrow opening1 it has no greater power than to kill creatures that look down into1 or voluntarily approach too near1 it4 ,but when for centuries darkness has brooded over it1 and the gloom of the place has increased the infection1 it becomes more dangerous through mere lapse of time2 the more sluggish it is1 all the more deadly does it become4 ,then when it has gained an exit it lets loose all that mischief conceived in the cold shades through endless ages of nether darkness1 tainting with it the atmosphere of our realms of earth4 ,the better is ever conquered by the worse4 ,even that purer #c air of heaven then changes to pestilential4 ,thence come sudden and continuous deaths1 and portentous forms of disease that spring from unexampled causes4 ,the disaster is long or short lived1 according to the strength of the sources of infection4 ,nor does the plague cease until the freedom of heaven and the tossing of the winds have banished#hg that fatal air4 #hg ,or purified4 ,,xxix ,through fear some people have run about as if distracted or mad4 ,for #a fear1 even when in moderation and confined to individuals1 shatters the mind's powers4 ,but when there is public alarm through fall of cities1 burying of whole nations1 and shaking of earth's foundations1 what wonder that minds in the distraction of suffering and terror should have wandered forth bereft of sense8 ,it is no easy matter in the midst of overmastering evils not to lose one's reason4 ,so it is1 as a rule1 the feeblest souls that reach such a pitch of dread as to become unhinged4 ,no one1 indeed1 has suffered extreme terror without #b some loss of sanity2 one who is afraid is much like a madman4 ,but some quickly recovering from the alarm regain self-possession4 ,others it more violently disturbs and reduces to sheer madness4 ,hence during times of war lunatics are to be met wandering about4 ,on no occasion will one find more instances of raving prophets than when mingled terror and superstition have struck men's hearts4 ,i am not surprised that a statue is split by an earthquake1 after ,i have recounted that mountains have been separated from mountains and the ground itself burst asunder down to its depths4 ,these places1 once convulsed by the force of vast ruin-- #c ,such the power of change in the lapse of lengthened ages6 ,leaped asunder1 they tell us1 whereas hitherto both lands ,were one2 into their midst rushed the deep with its mighty billows1 ,cutting off the ,italian from the ,sicilian side2 fields and cities ,were parted in sea-line and washed by the narrow tide that flowed between4 ,one sees whole regions torn from their place1 and what was once contiguous1 now lying beyond the sea4 ,one sees a separation of cities and nations when a part of nature is roused by internal motion1 or the sea or fire or air has assailed some point2 for their force is marvellous1 since it has a boundless reserve from which to draw4 ,though its rage is vented at but one point1 yet it has the world's whole #d strength to reinforce its wrath4 ,thus it was that the sea tore away ,spain from the mainland of ,africa4 ,thus it was by the flood1 which the greatest of poets have celebrated1 that ,sicily was cut away from ,italy4 ,the movements that proceed from depth have much more force4 ,they are more energetic1 as their effort is concentrated upon a narrow area4 ,enough has now been said to show what mighty deeds these earthquakes have wrought and what wondrous sights they have displayed4 ,,xxx ,why1 then1 should one be amazed that the bronze of a single statue #a is burst1 and that1 not even solid1 but hollow and thin8 as likely as not air in seeking an escape has got enclosed in it4 ,and does not every one know that buildings are sometimes observed in time of earthquake to split at the corners and be united again8 ,other things badly set upon their base1 and loosely and carelessly put together by the workmen1 have been known to be welded firmly together by the repeated shaking of the earthquake4 ,if it splits whole walls and whole houses1 and rends #b the sides of great towers1 which are constructed of solid masonry1 and scatters the piles that support the foundations of great works1 why should one think it worthy of remark that a statue had been cut equally into two from base to summit8 ,but why1 it may be asked1 did the shock last for several days8 ,for ,campania went on trembling continuously1 #c more gently it is true1 but still causing great damage1 because what it shook was already shaken and crushed4 ,things stood so insecurely as to require only a slight shake1 but not a push1 to bring them down4 ,the explanation of the prolonged shaking is no doubt that all the air had not yet escaped1 but though the greater part was discharged1 a remnant was still roaming about here and there4 ,,xxxi ,there is yet a further proof that you may unhesitatingly add to the #a others that go to show that all these phenomena are the outcome of air4 ,after the most violent shock that cities and provinces can experience has spent itself1 another of like violence cannot immediately follow2 after the crisis there are only slight shocks1 just because the most violent one has opened a way of escape for the struggling winds4 ,the remains of the air that is left have not the same power1 nor do they require to struggle2 they have now found a way of escape1 and follow the path by which the first and greatest shock issued4 ,i am of opinion1 too1 that the observations of a certain learned and #b grave philosopher of my acquaintance deserve to be put on record2 he happened to be taking a bath when the earthquake occurred4 ,he asserted that he saw the tiles with which the floor of the bathroom was paved1 separate one from another and unite again4 ,at one moment1 when the pavement opened1 the water was taken in through the joints1 the next1 when the pavement closed1 it was forced out all bubbling4 ,i have heard the same learned man relate that he had seen soft materials undergo more frequent but more gentle shocks than materials naturally hard4 ,,xxxii ,so much1 my esteemed ,lucilius1 with respect to the mere causes of #a earthquakes4 ,now we must adduce some considerations that will tend to reassure us in face of the perils of earthquakes4 ,after all1 it concerns us more closely to acquire resolution of mind than erudition1 and yet the former cannot be had without the latter4 ,assurance comes to the mind from no source but elevating studies and the contemplation of nature4 ,is there any one1 ,i say1 that reflects upon causes1 who will not be reassured and emboldened by this late catastrophe in ,campania to face disasters of all kinds8 ,why should ,i fear man or beast1 bow or #b lance8 ,far greater perils are ever lurking for me4 ,lightning and earth shock1 and all the great forces of nature1 aim their blows at us4 ,death must therefore be resolutely#hh challenged whether its attack be with vast#hh overpowering onset or by ordinary means of daily occurrence4 ,it is of no moment how threatening its approach1 or how great the engine it brings up against us4 ,the life it asks of us is a very little thing4 ,it will be taken from us by old age1 or by a little pain in #c the ear1 or by a superabundance of tainted moisture within1 by food that the stomach cannot assimilate1 or by a slight injury to one's toe4 ,man's life is a paltry affair1 but a mighty affair is the contempt of life4 ,he who can despise life may look unmoved upon the tossing of the sea1 even though all the winds have roused it1 even though by some upheaval of the world the tide has turned the whole ,ocean bodily upon the land4 ,unmoved he will behold the fierce forbidding aspect of the #d thundering heavens1 yes1 though heaven itself be crushed and unite its fires for the destruction of mankind and of itself first of all4 ,unmoved he will behold earth's framework rent and earth's foundations yawning beneath4 ,though the realms of the nether world be uncovered1 he will stand over the abyss still dauntless1 and into the pit into which he is doomed to fall he will perhaps leap4 ,what is it to me how great the powers by which ,i perish8 ,to perish is itself no great matter4 #hh ,it would seem that ingenti and aequo have by some means got transposed in the ordinary texts4 ,gercke reads saevo for aequo4 ,wherefore1 if we desire to be happy1 to be harassed by no fear #e either of men1 or gods1 or circumstance1 to despise fortune with her superfluous promises and her contemptible threats1 if we desire to live the peaceful life1 and to vie with the very gods in happiness1 then we must carry our life in our right hand4 ,whether snares or diseases attack it1 the swords of foes or the crash of falling tenements1 or the downfall of earth itself1 or the violence of widespread fire enveloping city and field in common disaster1 let who will take it4 ,what more do ,i owe life than to encourage it on its journey1 and to despatch it #f with good wishes8 ,go resolutely1 go prosperously6 ,there must be no hesitation in rendering back life4 ,it is merely a question of time1 not of fact4 ,what you are doing must be done some day4 ,beseech not nor fear1 nor draw back as if starting to face some peril4 ,nature1 who bore you1 waits your coming to a place better and safer than earth4 ,there is no earthquake there1 friend1 no winds clashing with loud noise of #g cloudy sky1 no fires to waste province and city1 no fear of shipwreck swallowing up whole fleets1 no armies arrayed with opposing banners1 or common fury of hosts prepared for mutual destruction1 no plague1 no pyres lit up around the promiscuous resting-place of slaughtered nations4 ,if death is a light affair1 why fear it8 ,if it is heavy1 then rather let it fall once for all than be always hanging over us4 ,should ,i fear to perish when earth must perish before me1 when the powers #h that shake are shaken1 when they hasten to our destruction only through their own8 ,the sea received ,helice and ,buris entire2 shall ,i fear for one poor body8 ,ships sail over the site of two towns1 aye1 towns that we know well1 that the record preserved by letters has brought to our intimate knowledge4 ,how many others have been sunk in other places8 how many nations has either earth or sea engulfed8 ,shall ,i rebel against my end when ,i know that ,i am not endless8 nay1 when ,i am fully assured #i that all things come to an end1 shall ,i fear my latest sigh8 ,wherefore steel yourself1 ,lucilius1 with all your might against fear of death4 ,this fear it is that drags us down2 this it is that torments and destroys the life it tries to preserve4 ,it magnifies all those dangers1 earthquakes and lightnings1 and the rest4 ,you will be able to bear them all resolutely if you but reflect that short and long in life make no difference4 ,it is but hours we lose4 ,but suppose it is days1 #aj or months1 or years1 what we lose is1 surely1 bound to perish4 ,what difference1 pray1 is it whether ,i manage to reach them or not8 ,time flows on2 it leaves behind those most eager to seize it4 ,neither what is to be is mine1 nor what was4 ,i am poised upon a point of fleeting time2 it is a great thing to have been moderate in one's ambitions4 ,laelius the ,wise made a neat retort once to a person who said1 ,i am sixty years old3 you mean1 said he1 the sixty you no longer #aa are4#hi ,we show our failure to grasp the terms of this elusive life of ours1 and the conditions of time that is never our own1 in reckoning up as ours years that are now lost4 ,let us fix this in our minds1 and constantly remind ourselves1 ,i must die4 ,when8 ,what matter is that to you8 ,death is a law of nature2 death is a tribute and a duty imposed on mortals2 it is the remedy of all ills4 ,whoever now fears it will one day long for it4 ,giving up all else1 ,lucilius1 make this your one meditation1 not to dread the name death4 ,by long reflection make death an intimate friend1 that1 if so required1 you may be able even to go forth to welcome it4 #hi ,it is almost impossible to express in ,english the play on habeo have2 ,french is more amenable4 8,j'ai soixante ans6 ,parlez-vous des soixante ans que vous n'avez plus80--,,nisard4 ,,book ,,vii ,,which ,,treats ,,of ,,comets ,i ,no man is so utterly dull and obtuse1 with head so bent on earth1 #a as never to lift himself up and rise with all his soul to the contemplation of the starry heavens1 especially when some fresh wonder shows a beacon-light in the sky4 ,as long as the ordinary course of heaven runs on1 custom robs it of its real size4 ,such is our constitution that objects of daily occurrence pass us unnoticed even when most worthy of our admiration4 ,on the other hand1 the sight even of trifling things is attractive if their appearance is unusual4 ,so this concourse of stars1 which paints with beauty the spacious #b firmament on high1 gathers no concourse of the nation4 ,but when there is any change in the wonted order1 then all eyes are turned to the sky4 ,the sun has no observer unless he is in eclipse4 ,no one watches the moon unless she suffer obscuration4 ,but then whole cities cry out1 groundless superstition drives every one into panic4 ,and yet how much greater are the ordinary movements of the sun6 ,he takes1 so to speak1 #c as many steps as there are days1 completing the year in his circuit4 ,from the summer solstice he turns back to the lessening days1 from the solstice he slopes his rays1#ij and gives more room to the nights2 he occults the planets2 though so much larger than the earth he does not burn it up1 but cheers it by his heat1 which he so regulates as to make it alternately more intense and more subdued4 ,he never fills up with light1 nor yet obscures1 the moon1 except when she is right opposite #d to him4 ,all this we allow to pass unnoticed as long as the usual order is preserved4 ,but if there is any disturbance or any extraordinary light displayed in the sky1 we gaze at it1 ask questions1 and point it out to our neighbours4 ,so natural is it to admire what is strange rather than what is great4 #ij ,there is some corruption in the text1 but no probable restoration has been suggested4 ,from the ,latin words it would appear that this clause is merely an explanation of the previous one1 inserted by some officious copyist and therefore spurious4 ,the same thing holds in regard to comets4 ,if one of these infrequent fires of unusual shape have made its appearance1 everybody is eager to know what it is4 ,blind to all the other celestial bodies1 each asks about the newcomer2 one is not quite sure whether to admire or to #e fear it4 ,persons there are who seek to inspire terror by forecasting its grave import4 ,and so people keep asking and wishing to know whether it is a portent or a star4 ,but1 by my honour1 no one could embark on a more exalted study1 or master a more useful branch of knowledge than that which treats of the nature of the stars and planets4 ,are they a concentration of flame as our vision avers1 and as the very light that streams from them1#ia and the heat that descends from them suggest8 #f ,or are their orbs not of flame1 but1 as it were1 solid bodies of earth that glide through tracts of fire1 and having no light of their own draw thence their brightness and heat8 ,that is an opinion that has been held by great men who have believed the stars to be compact of hard material1 and to be nourished by fire that is not their own4 ,flame by itself1 they argue1 would be dissipated and would have nothing to hold or to be held by4 ,if it were merely massed and not attached to a solid body1 the universe would assuredly long since have scattered it in its impetuous whirl4 #ia ,the common reading1 aliis others1 seems an error for illis them4 ,,ii ,in view of this inquiry it will be well to ask whether comets are #a wholly analogous to stars and planets4 ,they seem to have certain elements in common with them--for example1 rising and setting--as well as their general form1 although comets are more scattered1 and end in a longer tail4 ,they are alike1 too1 in their fiery bright appearance4 ,so1 if all the stars are earthy bodies1 comets must share the same lot4 ,but if the stars are pure fire and nothing else1 remaining for #b six months at a time unbroken by the rapid whirl of the universe1 then comets1 too1 may consist of some rarefied material1 which is not broken up by the constant revolution of the sky4 ,it will also tend to clear up this point if we endeavour to ascertain whether the earth stands still while the universe revolves round it1 or whether the converse is the truth1 the universe standing still while the earth revolves4 ,there have been persons who made bold to say that it is we that all unwitting are borne round by the frame of things1 that risings and settings are not produced by a movement of the heavens1 but that we ourselves rise and set4 ,the subject well deserves our study1 if we are to know where we #c really stand1 whether the abode we have obtained as ours is the most sluggish or the swiftest of motion1 whether ,god causes all things to revolve round us or causes us to revolve4 ,now1 for this it is essential that we have a record of all the appearances of comets in former times4 ,for1 on account of their infrequency1 their orbit cannot as yet be discovered or examined in detail1 to see whether they observe periodic laws1 and whether some fixed order causes their reappearance at the appointed day4 ,such a development of astronomy is recent1 having been lately introduced into ,greece4 ,,iii ,democritus1 the most acute of all the ancient philosophers1 says he #a suspects there are several stars whose orbits are erratic4 ,but he has given neither their number nor their names1 as the motions of the five planets were not in his time understood4 ,eudoxus was1 in fact1 the first to import from ,egypt into ,greece the knowledge of these motions1 though he says nothing about comets4 ,from this it becomes plain that1 even among the ,egyptians1 the people that bestowed most care on observation of the sky1 the portion of astronomy that relates to comets had not been worked out4 ,subsequently ,conon1 who was himself a #b careful investigator1 made a record of the sun's eclipses that had been observed by the ,egyptians2 but he made no mention of comets1 though he would certainly not have omitted anything definite on the subject that he had learned in ,egypt4 ,so much is certain2 two authors1 ,epigenes and ,apollonius of ,myndus1 the latter highly skilled in casting horoscopes1 who say that they studied among the ,chaldaeans1 are at variance in their accounts4 ,the latter asserts that comets are placed by the #c ,chaldaeans among the number of the wandering stars 7i4e4 planets71 and that their orbits have been determined4 ,epigenes1 on the contrary1 asserts that the ,chaldaeans have ascertained nothing regarding comets1 which are thought by them to be fires produced by a kind of eddy of violently rotating air4 ,,iv ,in the first place1 if it like you1 let us set down the views of the #a last-mentioned author and refute them4 ,he supposes that the planet ,saturn has most influence in determining all motions of the heavenly bodies4 ,when it presses upon the constellations next ,mars1 or crosses to the neighbourhood of the moon1 or encounters the rays of the sun1 being naturally cold and windy1 it contracts and masses the atmosphere at more than one place4 ,by and by1 if ,saturn absorb all the sun's rays1 there is thunder and lightning4 ,if he has ,mars in agreement1 the #b lightning is forked4 ,moreover1 he continues1 forked and sheet lightning contain different materials4 ,evaporation from water or other moisture produces only gleams that threaten but stop short of striking4 ,the hotter and drier exhalation of the earth forges the bolts of forked lightning4 ,beam meteors and torches1 which differ from one another #c only in size1 are produced in this same way4 ,when any ball of air--what we call a whirlwind--encloses moist earthy matter1 wherever it rushes it presents the appearance of an extended line of fire1 which lasts just so long as the mass of air remains1 which carries within it the supply of moist earthy matter4 ,v ,this account of ,epigenes is a tissue of falsehoods4 ,to begin with the #a nearest one1 the last1 it is not true that torch and beam meteors are due to the violent action of a whirlwind4 ,the whirlwind is formed in the neighbourhood of the earth1 and there it runs its course4 ,this is the reason why it tears up trees by the roots1 and wherever it swoops down it lays bare the soil1 carrying off in the meanwhile woods and roofs of houses2 as a rule1 it is lower than the clouds1 and assuredly never higher4 ,but1 on the contrary1 it is the more exalted part of heaven that displays beam meteors1 and so they never intervene between us and the clouds4 ,besides1 a whirlwind is borne along more swiftly than any cloud1 and rotates as on a pivot4 ,and in addition to this1 it #b ceases all of a sudden1 bursting by its own force4 8,beams10 on the contrary1 do not run or fly across1 like torches1 but remain shining for some time in the same quarter of the sky4 ,charimander1 too1 in the book he wrote on comets1 asserts that a great and unusual light in the sky of the size of a large beam was once seen by ,anaxagoras1 and continued to shine for a long period4 ,callisthenes puts it on record that a similar appearance of a trail of fire was observed before the sea swallowed up ,buris and ,helice4 ,aristotle says it was not a 8beam10 #c but a comet2 the characteristic dispersion of the fire was not seen at first on account of its excessive brightness1 but1 in process of time1 when the glare began to die down1 it recovered the distinctive appearance of a comet4 ,in this fiery phenomenon there were many points worthy of remark1 none more so than this1 that1 immediately it shone in the sky1 the sea came over ,buris and ,helice4 ,did ,aristotle1 then1 one #d may ask1 believe that not merely that beam but all beams are comets8 ,surely not1 for there is this difference1 that beams have their fire continuous1 while in the other bodies it is dispersed4 ,beams have a regular flame1 not interrupted or dull at any point1 while in the end parts it is condensed1 just like what ,callisthenes describes the one to have been1 to which ,i referred a moment ago4 ,,vi ,there are1 ,epigenes goes on to say1 two classes of comets4 ,one kind #a sheds its light on all sides without changing its position2 the other extends a loose kind of fire in one direction1 after the fashion of hair1 and passes through among the stars2 of the latter kind were the two seen in our own days4 ,the former variety1 with hair on all sides1 that do not move1 are usually low down1 and arise from the same causes as beams and torches1 that is1 from a distempered thick atmosphere that carries in it many of the earth's exhalations1 both dry and moist4 ,air driven out through narrow apertures is capable of setting on fire #b the atmosphere situated over it1 which is full of elements suitable for feeding a fire2 and it is able after that to drive it forward from the clear space1 lest from any cause it should fall back and relax its force4 ,after that1 it can rise again on the next and following days and set fire to the same spot4 ,as presumptive proof of this1 we see winds return during several days at their set time4 ,rain1 too1 and storms in other forms recur according to appointment4 ,his opinion may be briefly expressed by saying that he supposes comets to be formed #c pretty much in the same way as fires excited by whirlwind4 ,there is this one difference1 that those whirlwinds are pressed down to earth from a higher region1 while these others are raised from earth to the upper regions4 ,,vii ,a great deal can be urged against this view4 ,first of all1 if wind #a were responsible1 a comet would never make its appearance without wind4 ,as a matter of fact1 it appears when the air is perfectly still4 ,in the next place1 if it were due to wind1 it would fall with the wind2 and if it began through wind1 would increase with increase of wind1 and would be the brighter the more furious the wind was4 ,this point1 too1 has to be added to the foregoing3 while the wind impels many parts of the atmosphere1 a comet appears in one spot4 ,the wind does not mount up high1 but comets are seen higher up than the winds are permitted to go4 ,epigenes afterwards goes on to speak of the comets that1 he #b says1 have a more definite resemblance to stars1 traversing an orbit and passing through the zodiacal signs4 ,he attributes their origin to the same causes as produce those that he called lower comets1 the only difference being that the earth's exhalations in this case contain many dry elements1 and therefore seek the higher region1 and are driven by the north wind toward the more exalted portions of the heavens4 ,but1 surely1 if the north wind urged them1 they would always be borne toward the south1 whither this wind urges its course4 ,and yet1 as a fact1 they #c have had different movements1 some to east1 others to west1 all in a curved path1 a direction which the wind could not impart4 ,besides1 if the impulse which produced the comet carried up on high those north winds from the earth1 comets would not arise when other winds blew2 yet they do arise4 ,,viii ,let us now refute this other explanation of ,epigenes1 for he employs #a two4 ,he believes that when all the moist and dry exhalations of the earth unite1 the mere discord of the different bodies turns the air into whirlwind4 ,then the force of that wind as it revolves sets fire by its rapid motion to all that it embraces in itself1 and raises it on high4 ,the gleam of the fire that is thus extracted remains as long as there is sufficient nutriment2 when the fuel fails1 the fire subsides too4 ,now1 one who talks thus pays no attention to the nature of the #b course of whirlwinds as compared with that of comets4 ,the career of the former is swift and violent1 more rapid than the winds themselves4 ,but a comet's movement is so gradual as to render imperceptible the space traversed during a day and a night4 ,besides1 whirlwinds have an erratic1 disorderly1 and1 to use a word of ,sallust's1 eddying1 motion4 ,comets have a regular course1 which observes the appointed track4 ,surely none of us will believe that either the moon or the five planets are carried by the wind or spun round by the whirlwind4 ,i trow not4 ,and why8 ,just because they have not an irregular and #c unrestrained motion4 ,let us apply the principle to comets4 ,they do not move in confusion or irregularity so as to justify the belief that they are impelled by unruly and fickle forces4 ,besides1 even if those eddies could enclose moist earthy elements1 and had power to raise them from the depths to the heights1 still they could not carry them up higher than the moon4 ,all their force is spent when they reach the region of clouds4 ,but as for the comets1 we see them sailing through the upper regions1 mingling with the very stars4 ,it is1 therefore1 improbable that a whirlwind could persist over such a long distance1 for the greater it is1 the more rapidly is it spent4 ,,ix ,let ,epigenes1 therefore1 make his choice of the two alternatives3 #a if the force is small1 it cannot reach so high2 if it is great and violent1 it will the more quickly break up4 ,but further1 according to the opinion of people like ,epigenes1 these lower comets do not mount higher because they have too much earthiness in them4 ,their weight keeps them in the neighbourhood of earth4 ,and yet these other comets1 which are higher and last longer1 must have a more abundant material4 ,for they could not last so long were their supplies not replenished from a larger stock4 ,i said a moment ago that the whirlwind's eddy #b could not long endure1 nor could it mount higher than the moon1 or as far as the place of stars4 ,of course1 the whirlwind is caused by the mutual struggle of several winds1 and the contest cannot be kept up for any long time4 ,when the wandering uncertain air assumes a rotatory form1 in the last instance the force of all the winds yields to the single strongest one4 ,no hurricane lasts long4 ,the more strength #c squalls have1 the shorter their duration4 ,when winds reach their maximum1 they quickly abate all their violence4 ,by that headlong speed they must needs hasten to their own destruction4 ,so no one has ever seen a whirlwind last a whole day1 or even an hour4 ,its velocity is astonishing1 its brevity no less astonishing4 ,moreover1 on the earth and near it1 its rotation is swifter and more violent2 the higher it #d is1 the less condensed and compact is it1 and that is the reason of its more rapid dissipation4 ,add the fact1 too1 that even if it reached the highest region where the stars' path lies1 it would most certainly be broken up by the motion which causes the universe to revolve4 ,for what can compare in rapidity with the revolution of the world8 ,thereby the strength of all the winds combined in one would be shattered1 aye1 and the strong solid chain that binds the earth1 not to say a wisp of whirling air4 ,x ,again1 a fire carried along by a whirlwind cannot remain on high #a unless the whirlwind also remain4 ,but then what is so inconceivable as any prolonged duration in a whirlwind8 ,above all1 the whirlwind motion is neutralised by the opposite motion of the heavens4 ,that region on high to which it is alleged to mount has an eddying motion of its own1 which carries onward the sky1 ,and drags the lofty stars1 and turns them in rapid whirl4 ,and even though one grant some duration to whirlwinds1 which is quite contrary to the fact1 yet what is to be said of the comets that have continued in sight for six months8 ,then1 as hinted above1 there #b must be two motions in the same spot--one that constant motion of the heaven1 accomplishing its task without intermission1 the other a strange new motion conveyed by the whirlwind4 ,the one must inevitably obstruct the other4 ,and yet that motion we see of the moon in her orbit1 and of the other heavenly bodies that pass above the moon1 is irrevocable4 ,it nowhere falters or stops1 nor does it convey to us the slightest suggestion of an obstacle being ever placed in its way4 ,it is utterly beyond belief that a whirlwind1 the most violent and #c unruly species of storm1 should reach the very centre of the ranks of the stars1 and should find a sphere for its boisterous activity in that ordered peace of heaven4 ,supposing that the revolution of a whirlwind kindles fire1 which is shot up to the heights1 furnishing apparent ground for the belief that what we see is a trail of fire2 yet surely the shape of the fire ought to be something like that which produces it4 ,now a whirlwind is round in appearance2 it remains in the same #d track1 and revolves after the fashion of a rotating pillar4 ,the fire1 therefore1 that is enclosed ought to resemble it in shape4 ,but in reality it is a trail of scattered fire1 and resembles anything rather than fire gathered into a ball4 ,,xi ,let us now say good-bye to ,epigenes1 and proceed to examine the #a opinions of other writers4 ,but before beginning to set them forth1 ,i must first1 by way of preface1 remark that comets are not observed only in one part of the sky1 nor merely in the zodiac1 but in the east as well as in the west1 more frequently1 however1 toward the north4 ,nor is #b their shape uniform4 ,the ,greeks1 indeed1 distinguished three classes of them3 those from which the flame hangs down1 after the fashion of a beard2 those that shoot out what looks like hair round them on all sides2 and those which have a scattered kind of fire1 which1 however1 stretches toward an apex4#ib ,but all the classes have a common characteristic1 and are rightly called comets 7i4e4 long-haired74 ,as the different shapes present themselves only at long intervals1 it is difficult to compare them with one another4 ,even at the time of their appearance spectators are not agreed as to their shape4 ,according #c as one's eyesight is keener or duller1 one asserts that the comet is brighter or redder1 and that its hair is compressed toward the interior of the star1 or spread out toward its sides4 ,but whether or not there are any differences in comets1 they must all be produced by the same method4 ,the one fact about which there ought to be agreement is1 that #d a star of strange unwonted appearance is beheld which drags along with it scattered fire4 ,some of the ancients are convinced of the truth of this explanation3 ,when one of the planets has come into conjunction with another1 the light of the two blends in one1 producing the appearance of a more elongated star4 ,this happens not merely when star touches star1 but even when one approaches another4 ,the space between the two is in that case lit up by both1 and seems aflame1 producing the trail of fire4 #ib ,i4e4 are cone-shaped4 ,,xii ,our first answer to this theory is that the number of moving stars #a 7planets7 is fixed4 ,it is quite usual for them and comets to appear at the same time2 whence it is manifest that the comet is not due to the conjunction of planets1 but is a distinctive independent star4 ,besides1 it is a matter of frequent occurrence for a star to come under the orbit of a more elevated star4 ,saturn1 for example1 is sometimes above ,jupiter2 ,mars looks down in a straight line on ,venus or ,mercury4 ,but yet no comet is formed from this movement whereby the one planet #b approaches the other4 ,were it otherwise1 there would be a comet every year1 for every year there are planets in the same constellation4 ,again1 if the approach of star to star produced a comet1 the latter would cease to be in a moment4 ,the transit of stars takes place with the utmost rapidity1 thence all eclipse of heavenly bodies is of brief duration2 by the same motion they are as swiftly separated as they were brought together4 ,the sun and the moon1 as we see1 part company #c within a brief space after the eclipse has begun4 ,how much swifter must be the separation of stars1 which are so much smaller8 ,yet comets last for six months at a time1 which would not happen if they sprang from the union of two stars4 ,the stars cannot stick to one another for any long time1 and the law of their swift motion must ever drive them asunder4 ,besides1 those stars appear to us to be close to one #d another1 but in reality are separated by immense distances4 ,how1 then1 could the one star transmit fire to the other so that the two should seem in union1 when they are thus parted by an immense tract8 ,the light of the two stars1 it is replied1 mixes1 furnishing the appearance of one4 ,i suppose this means that the phenomenon is much the same as when a cloud takes a ruddy colouring from the rays of the sun striking on it1 or as when there is the golden glow of evening or morning1 or as when the bow is painted in its varied hues1 but only in sunshine4 ,well1 my first criticism is that all the instances mentioned are the #e result of great force4 ,it is the sun that lights them up4 ,the stars do not possess anything like the same power4 ,my second remark is that none of the phenomena arises except below the moon in the vicinity of the earth4 ,the upper regions are pure and spotless1 always retaining their own colour4 ,i remark further1 that if anything of the kind did occur1 it would not last but would speedily disappear1 as halos which surround the sun or moon fade in a very brief space of time4 ,even the rainbow #f does not long remain4 ,if there was anything of the kind supposed1 to unite the space between the two stars1 it would disappear with equal rapidity4 ,in any case it would not remain as long as comets are in the habit of doing4 ,the planets have their orbits within the zodiac1 they lie near this circle2 but comets are seen in all parts of the sky4 ,their time of appearance is no more certain than the limits of the space which they may not exceed4 ,,xiii ,in reply to arguments like mine it is urged by ,artemidorus that the #a five planets are not the only stars with erratic courses1 but merely the only ones of the class that have been observed4 ,but innumerable others revolve in secret1 unknown to us either by reason of the faintness of their light1 or the situation of their orbit being such that they become visible only when they reach its extremities4 ,it is thus1 he says1 that certain new stars enter our field of vision1 #b mingling their light with the fixed stars1 but displaying a brightness greater than is usual in stars4 ,this is the least serious of his lies3 his account of the universe is from end to end a shameless tissue of lies4 ,for instance1 if we are to believe him1 the upper regions of heaven are perfectly solid--a lofty thick vault1 as hard as the roof of a house1 formed by the accumulation of masses of atoms4 ,the surface immediately above it is of fire so compact that it cannot be broken up or altered4 ,nevertheless1 it has certain ventilators1 and1 as #c it were1 windows through which portions of the fire stream from the outer part of the universe1 but not so large as to cause commotion in the inner2 and again the fires pass from the world back into the outer spaces4 ,these extraordinary appearances1 therefore1 ,artemidorus supposes1 have streamed in from that mass of matter which lies outside the world4 ,to set about disproving such a theory is nothing short of beating the air for the sake of exercising the muscles6 ,,xiv ,still1 ,i will descend to the task4 ,let the man who has placed such a #a solid roof on the world tell me what reason there is for believing his statement that the heavens have such a thickness4 ,what was it that took all these solid bodies up there and kept them there8 ,then1 a firmament of such thickness must necessarily be of immense weight too4 ,how is it that heavy bodies remain aloft8 ,how is it that the huge mass does not come down and smash itself by its own weight8 ,it is1 ,i imagine1 a #b physical impossibility that such a vast weight as ,artemidorus has brought to the support of the heavens should hang suspended1 or be supported by a slight foundation4 ,nor can it be alleged that there are stays#ic of some kind outside by which it is prevented from falling4 ,nor again can there be any support in the centre#id to receive and prop up the threatening mass4 ,and again1 no one will venture to assert that the universe is being constantly carried down through the immensities of space1 falling all the time1 though it is not evident that it falls1 because its headlong course is to all eternity1 having no final obstacle with which to collide4 ,this is indeed a statement people have made about the earth1 when they could discover no #c explanation for a mass standing poised in air4 ,it is borne down1 say they1 for ever2 but it is not evident that it falls because the space into which it falls is endless4 #ic ,the word is usually applied to a flexible fastening1 hawser1 cable1 or the like4 #id ,or1 between the earth and it4 ,well1 what argument#ie then justifies the assertion that it is not merely the five planets that move1 but that there are many such in many quarters of the universe8 ,or if there is no probable proof of this1 one may rejoin3 ,what is there to prevent one from saying either that all the stars move or that none of them does8 ,besides1 your argument #d is in no way helped by that crowd of stars which you assume to be everywhere roaming about6 ,for the more there are of them1 the oftener will they meet with others2 whereas comets are rare1 and for that reason marvellous4 ,and will not every age give evidence against you by noting and recording for the use of posterity the emergence of such stars8 #ie ,the argument is resumed from the beginning of ,,xiii4 after the digression about the 8firmament40 ,,xv ,after the death of ,demetrius1 king of ,syria1 whose kingdom was #a divided by his sons ,demetrius and ,antiochus1 a little before the ,achaean ,war1 a comet blazed forth not inferior to the sun in size4 ,its orb was at first fiery red1 and emitted a bright light sufficient to dispel the darkness of night4 ,by and by its size was gradually reduced and its brightness waned4 ,finally it went completely out4 ,how many stars1 suppose you1 would require to combine to make up such a huge mass8 ,you might collect in one a thousand of them without ever #b matching the size of the sun4 ,in the reign of ,attalus a comet appeared1 moderately small in size to begin with4 ,by and by it mounted up and spread out and moved as far as the equator1 equalling in the extent of its immense length the whole quarter of the sky which we call the ,milky ,way4 ,how many planets must have combined to occupy with an unbroken line of fire such a long tract of the sky8 ,,xvi ,i have refuted the argument2 ,i must now discredit its authors4 ,it #a requires no great effort to strip ,ephorus of his authority2 he is a mere chronicler4 ,some of his class seek to recommend their narrative by incredible stories1 and by their marvels try to interest the reader1 who would probably soon find some other occupation if he were called on to wade through their tedious narrative of ordinary events4 ,some1 again1 are too credulous1 some too careless1 some are deluded1 some delighted1 by falsehood4 ,the former do not shun it1 the latter go in quest of it4 ,the whole clan of them have this in common2 they fancy #b their work cannot merit approval1 and become popular unless they freely interlard it with lies4 ,ephorus is not a person of any scrupulous honour2 he is often duped1 often he tries to dupe4 ,for example1 he asserts that the great comet which1 by its rising1 sank ,helice and ,buris1 which was carefully watched by the eyes of the whole world since it drew issues of great moment in its train1 split up into two stars2 but nobody besides him has recorded it4 ,who1 ,i wonder1 could observe the moment at which the comet broke up and was resolved into two #c parts8 ,and if there is any one who saw it split up into two1 how is it that no one saw it first formed out of the two8 ,and why did ,ephorus not add the names of the two stars into which it was broken up1 since they must have been some of the five planets8 ,,xvii ,apollonius of ,myndus differs in his view from ,epigenes4 ,he asserts #a that a comet is not one star made up of many planets1 but that many comets are planetary4 ,a comet1 he goes on1 is not an illusion nor a trail of fire produced on the borders of two stars1 but is a distinctive heavenly body1 just as the sun or the moon is4 ,its shape is not limited to the round1 but is somewhat extended and produced lengthwise4 ,on the other hand its orbit is not visible4 ,it cuts #b 7intersects7 the upper part of the universe1 but only emerges when at length it reaches the lowest portion of its course4 ,there is no reason to suppose that the same comet reappears2 for instance that the one seen in the reign of ,claudius was the same as the one we saw in the reign of ,augustus2 or that the recent one which appeared during the reign of ,nero ,caesar--which has redeemed comets from their bad character--was similar to the one which burst out after the death of the late ,emperor ,julius ,caesar1 about sunset on the day of the games to ,venus ,genetrix4 ,comets are as varied as they are numerous4 ,they are #c unequal in size1 unlike in colour4 ,some are ruddy without any light2 others are bright with a pure clear light2 others are flame-coloured1 but the flame is not a pure thin flame1 but is enveloped in a mass of smoky fire4 ,some are blood-stained and threatening1 bringing prognostication of bloodshed to follow in their train4 ,they wax and wane like other planets4 ,they are brighter when they come down toward us1 and show larger from a nearer point1 smaller when they depart from us1 and dimmer when they retire to a greater distance4 ,,xviii ,the reply is ready to this last statement1 that the same thing does #a not happen in comets as in the other stars4 ,some comets attain their maximum on the very first day of their appearance4 ,but1 according to the argument1 they ought to increase the nearer they approach4 ,as it is1 their first aspect remains until they begin to fade4 ,besides1 what has been said in reply to former authorities applies here too3 ,if the comet had an erratic orbit1 and were a true planet1 it would move within the limits of the zodiac1 within which all the planets confine their orbits4 ,again1 a star is never seen through another star4 #b ,our sight cannot pierce through the centre of a planet so as to view through it what lies beyond4 ,but through a comet the further regions are discerned as through a cloud4 ,whence it is evident that it is no planet but an insubstantial1 irregular fire4 ,,xix ,the following is the opinion of our ,stoic sage ,zeno4 ,he is convinced #a that the stars act in concert1 and unite their rays with one another--a partnership in light which creates the image of a more elongated star4 ,therefore some persons suppose that comets have no real existence1 and that it is only the appearance of them that is reproduced through the reflection of neighbouring stars or the union of stars that stick #b together4 ,some1 again1 say that comets are true stars1 but with orbits of their own1 and that after certain periods they come out into the view of mankind4 ,some allow their existence but refuse them the title of stars1 because they glide out of sight without long duration1 and within a brief space are scattered to the winds4 ,,xx ,most of our ,stoic brethren entertain another view1 which they do not #a regard as inconsistent with fact4 ,let me explain it4 ,we observe many species of fire engendered on high1 now the heavens ablaze1 now ,long glistening trains of flame behind1 now huge torches of fire being hurried along4 ,the lightning itself1 whose velocity is so marvellous that it at once blinds1 and at the same instant restores1 the sight1 is fire arising from the friction of air that suffers more violent internal pressure than usual4 ,that is why it does not remain long1 but glides off once it issues from #b the cloud1 forthwith perishing4 ,but other fiery appearances remain for a considerable time1 and do not break up until all the fuel on which they fed has been used up4 ,here belong the strange sights recorded by ,posidonius--pillars and shields all ablaze1 and other flames of marvellous strangeness4 ,they would attract no attention if they ran their course after customary laws2 but now the sight of them sends all men agape4 ,they bring down sudden fire from the heights of heaven1 #c sometimes producing a flash which is gone in a moment1 sometimes compressing the air1 which is forced into a glow2 it is a miracle all the same4 ,yes1 and is not sometimes a gulf opened in the ether1 which seems to retire on all sides1 with a great glare of light in the hollow centre8 ,you are ready to cry out4 ,what is this8 444 ,i see the very centre of heaven open1 ,and the stars wandering in the sky4444 ,these stars sometimes do not wait for night to show their light1 but burst out in the full light of day4 ,the reason1 however1 for the stars showing at a time not their own is different from that alleged2 it #d is well known that they are there all the time1 though hidden4 ,many comets1 too1 we cannot see because they are obscured by the sun's rays4 ,posidonius1 in fact1 tells us that during an eclipse of the sun a comet once appeared which the sun's proximity had hitherto concealed4 ,often1 when the sun has just set1 straggling fires#if are seen close to him4 ,no doubt the nucleus of the comet is bathed in sunlight1 and therefore cannot be discerned2 but the tail escapes the effect of the sun's rays4 #if ,i4e4 the tail of a comet4 ,,xxi ,our ,stoic friends1 therefore1 are satisfied that1 like trumpet meteors #a and beams1 and other portents of the sky1 comets are formed by dense air4 ,they appear in greatest number toward the north1 because there is most of the sluggish air there4 ,why1 then1 you naturally ask1 does the comet not remain stationary1 but advance in the sky from day to day8 ,let me explain4 ,the comet1 according to this account1 pursues its fuel just as fires do4 ,although its tendency is to rise to the upper regions1 still1 if material fail it1 it retrogrades and sinks4 ,in the air1 too1 it does not pursue a direct path to right or left4 ,it has no particular route assigned to it2 wherever the supply #b of its fuel leads it1 thither it crawls2 it does not advance in its orbit as a star1 but feeds as a fire4 ,why1 then1 does it appear for a long period1 and why is it not quickly extinguished8 ,for the recent one which we saw during this joyous reign of ,nero displayed itself to view for six months1 revolving in the opposite direction to the former one in ,claudius' time4 ,that one rising from the north up toward the zenith made for the east1 always growing dimmer4 ,this one began in the same quarter1 but making toward the west1 turned finally toward the south1 where it withdrew from view4 ,no doubt the former found moister elements1 more suitable for its fire1 and pursued them2 the latter #c in turn chose a richer and more substantial district4 ,so they descend toward the direction in which they are invited by their material1 and not by a definite path1 which in the two we have seen was different1 since the one moved off toward the right and the other toward the left4 ,now all stars#ig have their orbit in one direction1 namely1 contrary to the motion of the universe4 ,the latter moves from east to west1 the stars go from west to east4 ,for this reason they have a double motion1--one1 their own proper motion2 the other1 which carries them round along with the heavens4 #ig ,planets may be specially referred to2 the ,latin word is the generic one1 stella4 ,,xxii ,i do not agree with my school here1 for ,i cannot think a comet is a #a sudden fire1 but ,i rank it among ,nature's permanent creations4 ,first of all1 everything that the atmosphere creates is short-lived2 such things arise in an element that is fugitive and changeable4 ,how can anything continue the same for long in the air1 which itself never remains the same8 ,it is always in a state of flux1 and its quiet is short-lived4 ,it changes within a brief moment to another condition from that in which it had been4 ,it is now rainy1 now clear1 now alternates from one to #b the other4 ,the clouds1 so intimately connected with it1 into which it collects and from which it is released again1 now gather1 now disperse1 but never remain at rest4 ,fire cannot possibly abide securely in a volatile body1 nor can it keep its place so persistently as does a fire that ,nature has fixed never to be dislodged4 ,further1 if the fire stuck close to its fuel1 it would always sink4 ,for the air is the thicker1 #c the nearer it is to the earth4 ,but a comet is never depressed to the lowest strata of the atmosphere1 nor does it ever approach the ground4 ,besides1 fire either goes in the direction its nature prompts1 that is1 upwards1 or else in the direction in which it is drawn by the material on which it has fastened1 and on which it feeds4 ,,xxiii ,in none of the ordinary fires in the sky is the route curved2 it #a is distinctive of a star 7planet7 that it describes a curve in its orbit4 ,whether other comets had this circular orbit ,i cannot say4 ,the two in our own age at any rate had4 ,again1 everything kindled by a temporary cause quickly gives out4 ,thus torches gleam only while they flit across the sky2 thus lightning has strength for just one stroke2 thus so-called shooting and falling stars fly past1 cutting through the air4 ,no fires have any considerable duration unless #b their strength is inherent4 ,i mean the divine fires which the universe maintains eternally1 because they are its parts and works4 ,these1 ,i say1 are always active2 they have an orbit the even tenor of which they preserve1 and they are uniform4 ,they would on alternate days be larger or smaller if the fire was merely casual1 the sudden outcome of some accidental cause4 ,such a fire would be greater or less according as it was fed more abundantly or more scantily4 ,i said a moment ago that no fire could be lasting which arose from some defect in the atmosphere4 ,i have now to add further1 that it can by no means be fixed and steady4 #c ,both torch and lightning and shooting star1 and any other kind of fire forced out of the air by pressure1 are in flight2 none of them is visible save in the course of its fall4 ,but a comet has its own settled position4 ,for that reason it is not expelled in haste1 but steadily traverses its course2 it is not snuffed out1 but takes its departure4 ,if it were a wandering star 7i4e4 planet71 says some one1 it would be in the zodiac4 ,who1 say ,i1 ever thinks of placing a single bound to the stars8 or of cooping up the divine into narrow space8 ,these very #d stars1 which you suppose to be the only ones that move1 have1 as every one knows1 orbits differing one from another4 ,why1 then1 should there not be some stars that have a separate distinctive orbit far removed from them8 ,what reason is there why there should not be passages into the heavens at some part of them8#ih ,but if you are convinced that every star 7planet7 cannot but touch the zodiac1 then ,i say the comet might have such a wide orbit that at some point it may coincide with the zodiac4 ,this is not necessary1 but it is possible4 #ih ,the meaning seems to be1 there may be passages--inlets and outlets--by which occasional visitants like comets may temporarily enter the heavens as we know them1 and subsequently pass out of them4 ,the text is doubtful4 ,,xxiv ,consider whether it is not more in keeping with the size of the #a universe that it be supposed to be divided into many routes1 and do not keep this one beaten track while every other portion is a waste4 ,do you suppose that in this great and fair creation1 among the countless stars that adorn the night with varied beauty1 never suffering the atmosphere to become empty and sluggish1 there are only five stars that are allowed to move freely1 while all the rest stand still1 a fixed1 immovable crowd8 ,should any one here ask me3 ,why1 then1 has their #b course not been observed like that of the five planets8 my answer to him shall be3 ,there are many things whose existence we allow1 but whose character we are still in ignorance of4 ,we shall all admit that we have a mind1 by whose behest we are urged forward and called back2 but what that mind is which directs and rules us1 no one can explain any more than he can tell where it resides4 ,one will say that it is breath2 another1 a kind of harmony2 another1 a divine force and part of ,god2 another1 subtlest air2 another1 disembodied power4 ,some will even be found to call it blood1 or heat4 ,so far is the mind from being clear on all other subjects that it is still in search of itself4 ,,xxv ,why should we be surprised1 then1 that comets1 so rare a sight in the #a universe1 are not embraced under definite laws1 or that their beginning and end are not known1 seeing that their return is at long intervals8 ,it is not yet fifteen hundred years since ,greece ,counted the number of the stars and named them every one4 ,and there are many nations at the present hour who merely know the #b face of the sky and do not yet understand why the moon is obscured in an eclipse4 ,it is but recently indeed that science brought home to ourselves certain knowledge on the subject4 ,the day will yet come when the progress of research through long ages will reveal to sight the mysteries of nature that are now concealed4 ,a single lifetime1 though it were wholly devoted to the study of the sky1 does not suffice for the investigation of problems of such complexity4 ,and then we never make a fair division of the few brief years of life as between study and vice4 ,it must1 therefore1 require long successive ages to unfold all4 ,the day will yet come when posterity will be amazed that we #c remained ignorant of things that will to them seem so plain4 ,the five planets are constantly thrusting themselves on our notice2 they meet us in all the different quarters of the sky with a positive challenge to our curiosity4 ,yet it is but lately we have begun to understand their motions1 to realise what their morning and evening settings mean1 what their turnings when they move straight toward us1 why they are driven back from us4 ,we have learned but a few years ago whether ,jupiter would rise or set1 or whether he would retrograde--the term that has been applied to his retirement from us4 ,people have been found bold enough #d to say to us3 ,you are mistaken in thinking that any star ever stops or wheels in its course4 ,the heavenly bodies may not stand or turn away4 ,all advance2 once the signal is given they start on their race4 ,their career will end only with their existence4 ,this eternal creation has motions that suffer no recall4 ,should they once be arrested1 they will encounter obstacles in front which are meantime held in place by the ordered1 regular march of the universe4 ,,xxvi ,what then is the reason1 you may ask1 for the apparent retrogression #a of some heavenly bodies8 ,the appearance of slowness in their motion is caused by their encountering the sun1 as well as by the character of their paths and the position of their orbits1 which are at certain periods calculated to deceive the eye4 ,ships in the same way moving under full sail seem withal to be stationary4 ,men will some day be able to demonstrate in what regions comets have their paths1 why their course is so far removed from the other stars1 what is their size and constitution4 ,let us be satisfied with what we have discovered1 and leave a little truth for our descendants to find out4 ,we cannot1 ,apollonius says1 see through the stars what is beyond1 but sight passes easily through the comets4 ,well1 in the first place1 if #b that is the case1 it is not so in the part of the body which consists of dense solid fire1 but only where the dispersed glow extends as it breaks up into the appearance of hair4 ,one can see through the gaps in the fire and not through the fire itself4 ,stars again1 it is said1 are all round1 comets extended2 whence it is plain that they are not true stars4 ,but who1 pray1 will allow that comets are long8 ,their tendency like that of other stars is to a globe shape1 only the light from them is prolonged4 ,the sun shoots out his rays far and wide1 but has himself a shape different from that of the light that streams from him4 ,so in comets1 the body is rounded1 but the glow from them presents the appearance of being longer than that of the other stars4 ,,xxvii ,why is this so1 you ask4 ,do you tell me first why the light the #a moon receives is wholly unlike the sun although she receives it from the sun4 ,why is it now ruddy1 now pale8 why is her colour ashen or black when she is cut off from the sun's view8 ,or tell me why all the stars have aspects to some extent dissimilar to one another and all as different as possible from the sun4 ,it is no hindrance to their being true stars that they are not all alike2 so there is nothing to prevent comets from being permanent through all time1 sharing the same destiny as the other stars1 even though they have not an appearance like theirs4 ,besides1 is not the universe1 if you will only examine it #b carefully1 made up of contrarieties8 ,why is it that the sun should be always blazing hot in ,leo1 scorching the ground with his fierce glow1 while in ,aquarius he brings winter's chain and closes the rivers with ice8 ,the one constellation is subject to the same law as the other1 though its characteristics and influence are so different4 ,aries again rises in a moment1 ,libra lifts its scales very slowly2 yet the one sign is of the same nature as the other1 though that one mounts in a brief space1 this comes forth very deliberately4 ,do you not see1 too1 how contrary the elements are to one another8 ,they are heavy and #c light1 cold and hot1 moist and dry4 ,the whole concord of the universe is a harmony of discords4 ,you say a comet is not a star1 because its form does not correspond to the type1 but is unlike other stars4 ,you can see1 no doubt1 how very like that star that returns to its place after thirty years is to this which revisits its haunt within the year6 ,nature does not turn out her work according to a single pattern2 she prides herself upon her power of variation4 ,she has made some #d things larger1 some swifter than others2 some stronger1 some more limited in power2 some she has separated from the crowd1 that their splendid isolation might render their progress conspicuous2 some she has consigned to a place in the common herd4 ,he has little conception of nature's power who thinks that she may not do exceptionally what she does not do repeatedly4 ,she does not often display comets2 she has assigned them a different place1 different periods from the other stars1 and motions unlike theirs4 ,she wished to enhance the greatness of her work by these strange visitants whose form is too beautiful to be thought accidental1 whether you consider their vastness or their brightness that surpasses in size and brilliance all other stars4 ,their appearance has1 in truth1 an exceptional distinction2 they are not cribbed and cabined within narrow bonds1 but let loose to roam freely1 to range over the region of many stars4 ,,xxviii ,according to ,aristotle1 comets give indications of storm and disturb- #a ances that bring wind and rain4 ,well1 then1 are you of opinion it is not a star because it foretells what is coming8 ,true the comet is not a sign of storm in the same way as it is a sign of coming rain when ,the oil splutters1 and rotten fungus covers the wick2 or in the same way as it is a forecast of a raging sea--if the sea ,coots#ii sport on land2 her haunts in the marshes ,are deserted by the heron1 and she soars above the heights of cloud3 #ii ,perhaps cormorants3 the identity of the bird is difficult to determine4 but in the same way as the equinox is a sign of the turn of the year #b toward cold or heat1 or as the predictions of the ,chaldaean soothsayers who tell what sorrow or joy is determined at birth by the natal star1 are indications of coming events4 ,to convince you of the truth of this1 ,i must warn you that the rising of a comet does not convey a threat of wind and rain in the immediate future1 as ,aristotle says1 but casts suspicion over the whole year4 ,hence it is plain that the comet has not derived prognostications from its immediate surroundings to reveal for the immediate future1 but that it has them stored up and buried deep within by the laws of the universe4 ,the comet which appeared in the consulship of ,paterculus and ,vopiscus fulfilled the anticipations of this kind entertained by ,aristotle1 and for that matter by ,theophrastus2 for there were everywhere severe and prolonged storms1 #c while in ,achaia and ,macedonia cities were overturned by earthquakes4 ,the slowness of the comets' motion1 ,aristotle says1 is a proof that they are rather heavy1 containing much earthy matter4 ,so are their orbits too1 for they are usually confined to the neighbourhood of the poles4 ,,xxix ,both statements are false4 ,let me take them in their order4 ,well1 it #a is asserted1 is it1 that all bodies are heavy that move more slowly8 ,what6 is the planet ,saturn1 which accomplishes its circuit most slowly of all the planets1 heavy8 ,it has1 in fact1 a proof of lightness in being higher than all the rest4 ,but1 you say1 it takes a wider sweep1 and does not go more slowly than the others1 but only a longer distance4 ,let me suggest that ,i can make the same statement of the comets2 even if their course is more sluggish1 they have farther to go4 ,but it is a falsehood to assert that they move more slowly4 ,for this #b last comet traversed within six months half the span of heaven2 the previous one withdrew from sight in a shorter period4 ,but again1 it is urged1 on account of their weight1 they are borne down lower4 ,well1 in the first place1 a comet is not borne down1 but round4 ,in the second1 this recent one began its motion in the north1 and passing by way of the west1 reached the southern quarters1 and was elevating its orbit when it faded from sight4 ,that other one1 in ,claudius' reign1 also #c first appeared in the north1 and continued without intermission to rise straight up to a higher elevation until it disappeared4 ,such are the matters relating to comets which have had weight with others and with myself4 ,whether they are true or not1 those who attain knowledge of the truth must decide4 ,we are permitted only to conjecture and grope in the dark1 with no assurance of discovery1 and yet not without hope4 ,,xxx ,aristotle has finely said that we should never be more reverent #a than when we are treating of the gods4 ,we enter a temple with all due gravity1 we lower our eyes1 draw up our toga1 and assume every token of modesty when we approach the sacrifice4 ,how much more is all this due when we discuss the heavenly bodies1 the stars1 the nature of the gods1 lest in ignorance we make any assertion regarding them that is hasty1 or disrespectful2 or lest we wittingly lie4 ,let us not #b be surprised that what is buried so deeply should be unearthed so slowly4 ,panaetius and others1 who will have it that a comet is not an ordinary star but the mere counterfeit of a star1 have bestowed careful treatment on the question whether all seasons of the year are equally fitted to produce comets1 and whether all quarters of the sky are equally suitable for their creation4 ,they have inquired1 too1 whether they can be formed in all regions through which they can pass1 and have discussed other points of a like kind4 ,but all these questions are foreclosed by my statement that they are not accidental fires1 but inwoven in the texture of the universe1 directed by it in secret1 but not often revealed4 ,and how many bodies besides revolve in secret1 #c never dawning upon human eyes8 ,nor is it for man that ,god has made all things4#ajj ,how small a portion of ,his mighty work is entrusted to us8 ,but ,he who directs them all1 who established and laid the foundations of all this world1 who has clothed ,himself with creation1 and is the greater and better part of ,his work1 ,he is hidden from our eyes1 ,he can be perceived only by thought4 #ajj ,another reading runs3 ,nor has ,god revealed all things to man4 ,,xxxi ,many things1 moreover1 akin to highest deity or holding power near #a it1 are still obscure4 ,or1 perhaps1 one may be still more surprised to find that they at once fill and elude our sight4 ,either their subtlety is too great for human vision to grasp1 or such exalted majesty conceals itself in the holier sanctuary1 and rules its kingdom1 which is itself1 without permitting access to any power except the spirit4 ,what that is1 without which nothing is1 we cannot know3 and when ,god1 the greatest part of the universe1 is an unknown ,god1 we are surprised1 are we1 that there are some specks of fire we do not fully understand8 ,how many animals we have come to know for the first time in our own #b days6 ,many1 too1 that are unknown to us1 the people of a coming day will know4 ,many discoveries are reserved for the ages still to be1 when our memory shall have perished4 ,the world is a poor affair if it do not contain matter for investigation for the whole world in every age4 ,some of the sacred rites are not revealed to worshippers all at once4 ,eleusis retains some of its mysteries to show to votaries on their second visit4 ,nature does not reveal all her secrets at once4 ,we imagine we are initiated in her mysteries3 we are1 as yet1 but hanging around her outer courts4 ,those secrets of hers are not opened #c to all indiscriminately4 ,they are withdrawn and shut up in the inner shrine4 ,of one of them this age will catch a glimpse1 of another1 the age that will come after4 ,when1 then1 it may be asked1 will all these things come to our full knowledge8 ,great schemes mature slowly1 especially if effort is relaxed4 ,there is one object we are bent on1 heart and soul1--to be as wicked as possible--and we have not yet attained perfection4 ,vice is still making progress4 ,luxury is constantly discovering some new #d outlet for its madness1 indecency some new form of insult on itself4 ,dissolute effeminacy and corruption are constantly discovering some more refined and delicate means of self-destruction4 ,we have not yet wholly cast off our vigour4 ,we are still doing our best to extinguish any spark of virtue that is left4 ,by the smoothness and polish of our bodies we men have outdone the refinements of women2 we have adopted the colours of harlots1 that even an honest woman would not put on4 ,with delicate mincing step we check our gait2 we do not walk1 with #e measured pace we go4 ,we adorn our fingers with rings4 ,a precious stone sparkles on every joint4 ,day by day we devise means of wronging and degrading our manhood1 vexed that we cannot strip it off4 ,one becomes a eunuch1 another assumes the scandalous part of a gladiator1 and1 hired for death1 arms for disgrace4 ,the very pauper selects a victim on whom to sate his morbid lust4 ,,xxxii ,do you wonder that wisdom has not yet attained her perfect work8 ,why1 #a vice has not wholly revealed itself4 ,it is still in its infancy1 and yet on it we bestow all our efforts2 our eyes and our hands are its slaves4 ,who attends the school of wisdom now8 ,who thinks it worth while to have more than a bowing acquaintance with her8 ,who has regard for philosophy or any liberal pursuit1 except when a rainy day comes round to interrupt the games1 and it may be wasted without loss8 ,and so the many sects of philosophers are all dying out for lack of successors4 #b ,the ,academy1 both old and new1 has left no disciple4 ,who is there to hand down the precepts of ,pyrrho8 ,that famous school of ,pythagoras1 despised of the rabble1 can find no master4 ,the new sect of the ,sextii1 which contained the vigour of ,rome1 started with great enthusiasm1 but on the very threshold of its career is also dead4 ,but what anxious care we bestow that the name of no actor may be #c lost6 ,the house of ,pylades and ,bathyllus stands in a long line of successors4 ,for arts of that kind there are plenty of pupils and plenty of teachers4 ,the actor's platform resounds in every private house in the whole city4 ,on it men and women alike practise the ballet step4 ,husbands and wives vie in paying court to actors4 ,by and by1 when the brow is rubbed smooth by long wearing of the mask1 the transition to the brothel is easy and natural4 ,philosophy gets never #d a thought4 ,and so it comes to pass that1 far from advance being made toward the discovery of what the older generations left insufficiently investigated1 many of their discoveries are being lost4 ,but yet1 on my soul of honour1 if we urged on this task with all our powers1 if our youth in sobriety braced themselves to it1 if the elder taught it and the younger learned it1 even then scarce should we reach the bottom of the well in which truth lies4 ,as it is1 we search for her on the surface1 and with a slack hand4 ,,notes ,,on ,,seneca',s 8,,quaestiones ,,naturales0 ,by ,sir ,,archibald ,,geikie1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,pres4,r4,s4 ,the treatise of which the present volume is a translation possesses a twofold interest4 ,in the first place1 it is probably the last literary work of a man who filled a large space in the ,roman world of his day4 ,after a varied career as philosopher1 barrister1 politician1 statesman1 courtier1 and man of letters1 he at last incurred the implacable enmity of ,nero1 to whom he had been tutor4 ,having in his youth paid some attention to physical inquiries1 he had then been led to prepare and publish a book on earthquakes4 ,but in subsequent years the absorbing cares of ,state probably left him little leisure to continue these studies1 for which1 however1 he had retained his taste4 ,hence1 when in his last days he sought in retirement to devote himself to philosophical pursuits1 he naturally turned to some of the physical problems that had interested him in earlier life4 ,the earthquake which on #eth ,february ,a4,d4 #fc had done much damage to the towns of ,campania1 revived his youthful enthusiasm for the investigation of such phenomena1 and may possibly have suggested to him the preparation of another volume dealing with this and other scientific matter4 ,we know at least from the book itself that he wrote a part1 if not the whole1 of it after that date 7#bba1 #bcj71aja and that he took pains to collect information about the catastrophe4 ,as he was in the habit of sojourning on the shores of the ,bay of ,naples1 he probably visited the scene of destruction himself for the purpose of his book4 ,we learn from ,tacitus that it was immediately after his return from ,campania to his villa near ,rome1 bringing with him1 we may suppose1 his nearly completed manuscript1 that ,seneca received the ,emperor's order to commit suicide4 #aja ,the numbers within parentheses throughout these ,notes refer to the pages of the ,translation4 ,in the second place1 ,seneca's work on ,natural ,questions stands out as one of the few treatises on physical science which have come down to us from antiquity4 ,it is interesting alike for the quotations it contains from the works of previous authors1 some of which have not survived1 and for the criticisms and opinions which he himself expresses on the various subjects of which he treats4 ,it can hardly1 however1 be regarded as an original contribution to science4 ,its author's life had been spent in other and widely different pursuits1 which led him far away from scientific inquiry4 ,but as a summary of the general state of knowledge in his day1 made by a man of strong intellect1 who had been trained in the legal and philosophical schools of the time1 and had read widely and reflected much on these matters1 the book may be taken to afford a fair presentation of the manner in which a number of questions in astronomy1 meteorology1 and physical geography were regarded by thoughtful minds in the first century of our era4 ,in judging of the intrinsic merit of such a work as the present1 the modern reader finds a difficulty in realising from the broad platform of natural knowledge which1 after the labours of the intervening centuries1 has now been laid1 how exceedingly narrow was the circle of ascertained fact available to the student two thousand years ago4 ,the spirit of scientific observation and experiment had not then been developed1 yet the familiar phenomena of everyday life pressed1 as they still do1 for explanation4 ,man's knowledge of nature was then too limited to furnish a basis for distinguishing what was fact from what was mere guesswork4 ,in the infancy of our race1 as in the childhood of the individual1 the tendency of the human mind is to perceive resemblances rather than differences4 ,analogies are readily observed and1 in default of knowledge of the facts involved1 are mistaken for identical sequences of cause and effect4 ,throughout the interpretations of natural phenomena given by the philosophers of antiquity1 it is remarkable to what a large extent the meaning of one appearance is explained by comparing it with another to which in reality it may bear no resemblance4 ,seneca's volume abounds in examples of this use of analogy4 ,the authority of great names exercised a wonderful fascination on the minds of the early investigators of nature4 ,generation after generation of writers were led to accept with little or no modification the dicta of eminent philosophers who had preceded them4 ,an observer might sometimes recognise the erroneousness of the opinion of a predecessor1 and yet lack the means of detecting the falsity of his own1 which nevertheless he propounded with full assurance of its truth4 ,in such circumstances criticism had no secure foundation1 while credulity1 rampant in the world outside1 could hardly fail to show itself in philosophic circles4 ,even the most cautious and truth-seeking inquirer might easily and almost inevitably be led to accept statements which did not seem to him unreasonable1 and which no previous experience of his own or others warranted him to disbelieve or even to suspect4 ,it behoves us1 therefore1 to be on our guard lest1 from our much higher standard of knowledge1 we may be tempted to look with amused contempt on the puerile conceptions of nature to be met with in the writings of the ancients--the grave assertion of absurdities as actual facts1 the inept analogies1 the confident explanations which are no explanations at all1 and the complete absence of any attempt to test by examination or experiment the validity of statements which with but little trouble could have been disproved4 ,these evidences of the exceedingly imperfect knowledge of his time are fully illustrated in ,seneca's chapters4 ,he quotes some two dozen of previous writers who had dealt with the same or cognate subjects4 ,it is needless to say that they were ,greeks1 no place having yet been found in ,latin literature for treatises on ,science4 ,the author most frequently cited by him is ,aristotle1 whose ,meteorologica he had evidently studied with care4 ,he gives frequent quotations from that work1 but even where he does not specifically quote1 his views generally accord with those of the great philosopher and naturalist4#ajb ,almost the only quotations from the works of his own countrymen are verses from some of the poets1 especially from ,virgil and ,ovid4 ,it is remarkable that he makes only one quotation from ,lucretius1 although he would have found in that poet's noble work many passages more apposite to his subject than those which he has taken from the ,aeneid1 the ,georgics1 and the ,metamorphoses4 ,we may suppose that these works were favourites with him1 and that he knew much of them by heart1 but that he was less familiar with the ,de ,rerum ,natura4 #ajb ,seneca's indebtedness to ,aristotle is emphatically expressed by ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire in the ,dissertation prefixed to his translation of the ,meteorologica 7,mtorologie d',aristote1 #ahfc1 pp4 lxix-lxx74 ,it is manifest from the present volume that its author1 like ,lucretius before him1 had a lofty conception of the dignity and moral influence of the study of nature4 ,this pursuit seemed to him to raise us above the sordid things of life and to withdraw the mind from the body--a dissociation so eminently beneficial to our higher aspirations4 ,he believed that in the study of the hidden phenomena of the universe a mental alacrity is developed which will be found to be not without practical utility in the conduct of affairs that lie nearer the surface 7#aac74 ,with this clear recognition of the importance of his theme he resolved in his old age to enter upon a task which other less worthy pursuits had hindered him from pursuing4 ,he would now attempt to survey the universe1 unravel its secrets1 and give the results of his studies to the world 7#aji74 ,it was not1 however1 his aim to compose a systematic treatise on ,natural ,philosophy1 but rather to take up some special subjects and deal with them in the light of what had already been written upon them1 and of what his own reflections suggested4 ,his undertaking assumed the form of a series of epistolary essays addressed to his friend ,lucilius ,junior1 procurator of ,sicily4 ,the literary shape thus selected allowed the use of an unconstrained1 almost colloquial1 style which would not have been suitable to a more ambitious work4 ,had ,seneca designed to prepare a formal or methodical treatise1 he would doubtless have planned it to include the three sections which he regarded as comprising every inquiry that can arise as to the nature and constitution of the ,universe 7,universum7--celestial1 atmospheric1 and terrestrial 7,caelestia1 ,sublimia1 ,terrena1 #ea74 ,the world 7,mundus7 in his view comprehends all things that come or can come within our cognisance 7#ed74 ,instead of entering upon a full discussion of any one of his three sections1 he selected from them a few topics which had probably more particularly engaged his attention4 ,most of these belong to the second or atmospheric division of his scheme of arrangement1 to which he devotes six of his seven books1 the remaining one being given to the discussion of some celestial phenomena4 ,certain subjects which we should naturally range in the terrestrial series1 such as the source and flow of rivers and the nature and origin of earthquakes1 he explicitly includes among his atmospheric phenomena 7#ea74 ,it appears to be probable that ,seneca had neither finished nor revised his manuscript at the time of his death4 ,parts of the work are obviously incomplete1 though some of these gaps may be due to defects of transcription or to the subsequent loss of parts of the text4 ,the obscurities of language1 which are not infrequent1 may likewise have partly arisen from lack of the author's revision of his original copy4 ,his discussion of the problem of the rise of the ,nile suddenly breaks off in such an abrupt manner as to suggest the loss of a portion of the original volume4 ,one of the most important omissions is the absence of any account of the phenomena of volcanoes4 ,the author does indeed refer in several places to this subject1 but with ,aetna before him1 of which so many ,greek and ,latin poets had sung1 and which had so often been referred to in the writings of the philosophers1 he could hardly have meant to offer no commentary on so notable a feature in the geography and history of his own country4 ,we know indeed that he was keenly interested in this mountain1 and that he wrote to ,lucilius to ascend the volcano and send him particulars about it4 ,in the letter conveying this request he alludes to some of the ,roman poets who had sung of its wonders1 and urges that a description of ,aetna should form part of a poem on which his correspondent appears to have been then engaged4#ajc ,another important subject in physical geography finds no place in ,seneca's volume--the ,sea4 ,of the outer ocean it was not to be expected that he could have had much to say1 but we can hardly suppose that he would have considered his essay complete without some discussion of the various phenomena presented by the ,mediterranean ,sea4 #ajc ,seneca1 ,epist4 lxxix4 ,a century before ,seneca's prime1 the immortal ,de ,rerum ,natura of ,lucretius had appeared at ,rome1 wherein the origin and constitution of the world were sung with the intense earnestness1 brilliant imagination1 and resounding cadence of a great poet and with the grasp and penetration of a great philosopher4 ,in this splendid work some of the problems discussed by ,seneca were considered1 and explanations were given of them with the usual undoubting confidence of olden time4 ,in literary quality the two writers stand far apart1 yet it is not uninteresting to compare their respective views of nature4 ,the vivid and often majestic diction of the one is not more diverse from the somewhat familiar and conversational tone of the other than are their respective creeds4 ,lucretius was a convinced and enthusiastic ,epicurean1 and in accordance with the teachings of his master denied the existence of any divine co-operation in the plan and government of the ,universe1 nequaquam nobis divinitus esse paratam naturam rerum1#ajd #ajd ,de ,rerum ,natura1 v4 #aih4 although no writer either of ancient or modern time has had a more overpowering sense of the beauty1 majesty1 and order of this world4 ,it was his earnest purpose to show men how1 by a contemplation of the face and ordered scheme of nature1 they could free themselves from the bond of religious superstition and the fear of death4#aje #aje rursus in antiquas referuntur religiones et dominos acres adsciscunt1 omnia posse quos miseri credunt1 ignari quid queat esse1 quid nequeat1 finita potestas denique cuique quanam sit ratione atque alte terminus haerens4--,op4 cit4 v4 #hf4 hunc igitur terrorem animi tenebrasque necessest non radii solis neque lucida tela diei discutiant1 sed naturae species ratioque4--i4 #adf4 ,seneca1 on the other hand1 held the ,stoic belief in an all-wise and omnipotent ,creator4 ,in an eloquent exordium to his volume1 and in a peroration near its end1 he affirms his conviction that this ,divine ,being is all in all1 at once within and without his works2 ,he has clothed himself with creation1 but is hidden from our eyes and can be perceived only by thought 7#c1 #g1 #cje74 ,our philosopher could not conceive of anything more beautiful1 more orderly1 and more consistent everywhere in plan than the world around us4 ,that such a world should have resulted from the tumult of chaos1 by the mere chance collocation of atoms1 appeared to him the madness of vulgar error4 ,yet it was only too true1 though it might be thought hardly credible1 that even philosophers had been tainted with this pernicious doctrine4 ,hence it would be in the author's judgment a profitable task to inquire into the truth concerning these matters4 ,to explore this world1 he remarks1 is far more than enough for a single lifetime4 ,whether what we may be led to believe regarding it shall be true must be decided by those who may attain the knowledge of the truth2 we can but examine and conjecture1 with no certain assurance of discovery1 yet not without hope 7#cjd74 ,it behoves us to be ever watchful against forming conclusions rashly1 disrespectfully1 or ignorantly1 and of being knowingly untrue4 ,in this quest after knowledge1 while much may be found out which will be of practical usefulness1 we are encouraged to advance1 not by any hope of gain1 but by the wonder with which the inquiry fills the soul4 ,to obtain a knowledge of ,nature is the highest reward to which the mind of man can aspire 7#bcj1 #cjd74 ,seneca's practical conclusion was thus much the same as that of ,lucretius4 ,he does not1 however1 attempt in this volume to enforce it with the solemn earnestness shown by the poet1 though he loses no opportunity of inveighing against the follies and vices of his time4 ,in discussing natural phenomena his first desire is to explain them1 and in so doing to animadvert on the explanations of previous writers1 with perhaps a not unnatural wish to show his own ability as a critic and expositor4 ,it was in due accordance with the principles of his school1 as well as with his own natural temperament1 that ,seneca should continually be led to draw ethical lessons from the physical phenomena which he discussed4 ,the interpolation of some of these reflections may occasionally seem to a modern reader rather irrelevant and far-fetched1 but there can be no question as to the spirit of reverence with which he approached his subject4 ,like other philosophers who had preceded him1 he maintained this spirit1 while at the same time he had discarded the crowded and confused polytheism of the prevalent mythology4 ,but he here keeps this antagonism in due restraint1 only occasionally expressing his dissent from the popular creed4 ,he would not admit that even the old philosophers could have been so foolish as to credit the gods with some of the acts which had been popularly attributed to them4 ,he refused to believe that the guardian and ruler of the ,universe hurled thunderbolts with his own hand4 ,still less could he suppose that the gods had lighter bolts with which they amused themselves in play4 ,his expression 7fulminibus lusoriis1 #ia7 recalls the bitter irony of ,lucretius and the sarcasm of his question whether1 when the gods aim at lonely places or at the sea1 they are only at practice to strengthen their arms4#ajf ,but ,seneca held with ,lucretius that in the contemplation of nature we obtain the courage and elevation of mind which fit us for the trials of life and the coming of death 7#aac74 #ajf an tum bracchia consuescunt firmantque lacertos8--vi4 #cig4 ,in the treatment of scientific problems ,seneca displays the same unhesitating assurance of the truth of his opinions1 which was characteristic of the philosophers of antiquity4 ,these writers had hardly a glimmering conception of nature's infinite complexity1 of the extreme diversity and intricacy of natural processes1 of the unbroken and endlessly ramifying relations of cause and effect1 of the long and patient investigation by which alone these relations could be unravelled1 and of the caution and diffidence with which conclusions regarding them should at least for a time be formulated4 ,seneca frequently passes caustic criticisms on the views expressed by his predecessors4 ,he styles the philosophers1 as a body1 8a credulous folk40 ,some of them he even goes so far as to accuse of perpetrating deliberate falsehoods 7#bgf1 #bhf1 #bhi74 ,nor does he hesitate to banter his brethren of the ,stoic ,school1 whose 8absurdities10 as he calls them1 he cannot refrain from quoting4 ,yet when his own opinions are examined in the light of the present day1 they are found to be in many cases no nearer the truth than those which he rejected with contempt4 ,it is1 indeed1 sometimes difficult to realise the mental position of a man who could adopt and propound them4 ,in many cases he accounts for a phenomenon by the analogy of another to which it has no real affinity1 as where he explains halos by the circular undulations produced on a surface of water into which a stone is thrown 7#ac74 ,he sometimes suggests an experiment to prove the truth of his assertion1 but if he had made the experiment he would have found how completely it failed to support him1 as1 for instance1 when he states that a large pond of water reflects only one image of the sun1 but that1 if it is divided into several smaller ponds by the insertion of partitions1 it will show as many images as there are divisions 7#ah74 ,striking also and numerous are the examples of his credulous acceptance of statements which1 had it occurred to him to test them by actual examination1 he could easily have found to be erroneous4 ,he affirms1 for instance1 more than once1 that while lightning melts metals1 it freezes wine1 and he gravely alleges that when the wine is thawed and imbibed1 it either kills or drives mad those who partake of it 7#gi1 #ig74 ,he asserts that the waters of certain rivers have the power of dyeing whole flocks of sheep1 black fleeces being changed into white1 and white into black 7#acg71 that some waters are so dense that even the heaviest objects will not sink in them 7#ach72 that the heat of the sun in the ,nile valley is so great as to melt silver and the joints of statues 7#agc74 ,when he proceeds to explain the reason of such abnormalities he expresses no hesitation1 but delivers his opinion with the assurance of a professor who has obtained the experimental demonstration in his laboratory4 ,it is remarkable that although some progress had been made in astronomy1 especially by ,greek philosophers1 before the beginning of the ,christian era1 the conclusions arrived at by these observers regarding the relations of the earth to the other heavenly bodies met with but little acceptance for many centuries1 even among reflecting minds4 ,lucretius1 for example1 still believed the earth to be the centre of the ,universe to which all the heavier materials had converged1 while the fire-laden ether escaped to the outer boundaries of space1 sun1 moon1 and stars occupying an intermediate place4 ,he did not think that the sun can be much larger than it looks to be to our senses1 nor was he quite sure whether it is the same sun which1 passing under the earth1 reappears in the morning1 or if at the close of each day the sun is extinguished and a new collection of fires makes a fresh sun in the morning4 ,he was quite aware of the different views of ,chaldaean sages and astronomers1 but in such questions he could see no reason why one theory should be better than another4#ajg #ajg ,de ,rer4 ,nat4 v4 #efd1 #fej1 #fhj1 #gbg4 ,seneca1 however1 had1 on the whole1 a more advanced appreciation of the relations of the earth to the heavenly bodies4 ,he believed the sun to be larger than our globe1 and that a thousand stars might be put together without equalling his mass 7#bhd1 #bhh74 ,he thought the heavens to be so vast as to afford space for the swiftest of the planets to rush along with uninterrupted speed during full thirty years 7#g74 ,he showed his enlightened outlook upon astronomical possibilities when he surmised that comets may have orbits that carry them far beyond the ,zodiac1 and when he conjectured that other planets than those then known remained to be discovered 7#bif-bii74 ,and yet1 sharing these more enlarged conceptions1 he clung with curious pertinacity to some of the old childish faith which was natural in the infancy of mankind4 ,he knew that some philosophers held that it is the earth which revolves and not the heavens1 and though he does not deliberately reject this opinion1 it is evident that he still held that the heavens circle round the earth4#ajh ,again and again he expresses his conviction that the force which sustains the energy of the sun and the stars consists of the exhalations that arise from the surface of the earth4 ,these exhalations1 he says1 are the pasturage of the heavenly bodies1 the breath of the world4 ,it would be impossible1 he asserts1 for the earth to furnish so ample a store of nourishment to bodies larger than itself unless it were full of breath which is passing off from every part of its surface both by day and night4 ,to the obvious objection that the supply of this energy would soon become exhausted1 he has the reply that this exhaustion would certainly take place were it not that the elements are in a condition of continual transformation1 issuing in one form1 passing into each other1 and returning to their original positions1 thence to begin their cycle anew 7#ee1 #aih1 #bdd-e74 ,in this universal transmutation water passes into air1 air into water2 air likewise is changed into fire1 fire into air1 while earth is formed from water1 and water from earth 7#abj74 #ajh ,see postea1 ,notes on ,book ,,vii4 ,in his general conception of the universe1 ,seneca1 as a ,stoic philosopher1 recognised a principle of evolution4 ,he believed that the world embraces in its constitution everything that it is destined to experience from its beginning to its end4 ,as a human embryo contains the germ of the future man1 so at the first creation of the universe1 sun and moon1 the changes of the stars1 and the birth of living things were all embraced4 ,and there were likewise included the forces whereby the earth is affected1 and which will ultimately lead to the final destruction of the globe 7#aea74aji #aji ,lucretius1 too1 had his views on evolution1 which are well expressed in four lines of verse3 mutat enim mundi naturam totius aetas1 ex alioque alius status excipere omnia debet1 nec manet ulla sui similis res3 omnia migrant1 omnia commutat natura et vertere cogit4 --,de ,rer4 ,nat4 v4 #hbh4 ,with regard to the earth itself1 whether it is to be regarded as a soul or as an organised body1 ,seneca announced his conviction that it has been constructed much after the plan of our human bodies4 ,as in these bodies1 veins and arteries are provided for the reception of blood and breath1 so in the earth there are passages1 some for the transport of water1 others for the flow of air 7#abf74 ,he was sure1 also1 that everything on the surface of the earth has its counterpart beneath--caves1 mountains1 lakes1 and rivers4 ,,book ,i ,in this part of his ,essay the author has grouped together a variety of phenomena1 some of which are meteorological 7in the modern sense of that word71 and belong therefore to his class of ,sublimia1 while others are astronomical1 and would be properly placed among his ,caelestia4 ,they all have reference to light in some form1 and doubtless for that reason were considered as a series4 ,seneca1 largely swayed by the opinions expressed in ,aristotle's ,meteorologica1 agrees with that philosopher in the belief that the earth gives forth various kinds of exhalations1 among which some contain the seeds of fire4 ,he thought that high up in the air1 among dry and hot elements1 these fires may be kindled by the sun's rays1 and further1 that when the atmosphere becomes violently disturbed its friction may give rise to fires 7#i1 #aj1 #ci74 ,with these ideas1 which he held as established truths1 it is easy to understand that he should have regarded as extremely foolish the notion that any of the lights which move rapidly across the sky are of celestial origin4 ,had such been their source1 he felt sure that by this time there would have been none left in the firmament2 yet although no night passes when some of them may not be seen1 each star in the sky is found to maintain its place and its size4 ,hence he confidently concluded that the meteors1 which are seen at night1 and sometimes even by day1 have their birth far below the stars1 and are soon extinguished in their course because they have no solid and abiding resting-place4 ,single aerolites and even showers of stones had been recorded in ,roman literature as having fallen from heaven1 but it had not yet occurred to any observer to connect them with the shooting stars which gleam across the nocturnal sky1 and are now recognised to be due to meteorites of different sizes1 entering our atmosphere with planetary velocity1 there breaking up with varying luminosity1 and remaining visible for shorter or longer intervals of time4 ,the author appears to have regarded as akin to these meteors the star-like balls of light1 which in stormy weather are sometimes seen on the masts of vessels at sea1 and which before his time had been observed on the points of the spears of an army in the field4 ,this luminous appearance1 regarded by the ,romans as a sign of the friendly presence of ,castor and ,pollux1 is entirely atmospheric1 and has no connection with shooting stars4 ,it is now known as ,st4 ,elmo's ,fire1 and has been shown to be a gentle continuous electric discharge from the earth towards a cloud4 ,seneca next describes in some detail a series of optical appearances connected with the sun and moon4 ,until the laws of the reflection and refraction of light had been discovered1 it was obviously impossible to account for these phenomena4 ,there is1 therefore1 much interest in following the lines of thought by which the old philosophers attempted to explain them4 ,seneca clearly perceived that the halos and coronae seen round the sun and moon in certain states of the atmosphere do not belong to these luminaries1 but to our own air1 and may furnish indications of coming weather4 ,he remarks shrewdly enough that appearances akin to those seen in the sky may sometimes be observed in the thick moist air of a bathroom4 ,but when he confidently proceeds to explain the meteorological phenomena he betakes himself to analogy1 as he is so fond of doing4 ,he remarks that when a stone is thrown into a pond a succession of circles is produced on the surface of the water1 which continually widen from the point of impact until they lessen and disappear4 ,in like manner he believes that when the light of the sun or moon strikes the cloudy air it produces a similar effect1 for as every kind of light is round in shape1 the air is thus driven into a circular form4 ,his love of analogy generally1 as in this instance1 leads him far away from the truth1 and prevents him from seeing the palpable flaws in his reasoning4 ,but the apparent similarity of appearances1 which are in reality entirely dissimilar1 contents him with his explanations4 ,his discussion of the rainbow 7#af-cc7 is one of the most detailed and vivacious in the whole volume4 ,it takes the form of a sustained argument1 in which the author cites various authorities1 and replies to objections brought by a supposed opponent to his thesis1 which is that the rainbow is unquestionably an image of the sun received in a very moist cloud which has the shape of a round concave mirror 7#bj1 #bg74 ,he quotes with apparent approbation the opinion that in a shower of rain each falling drop is a mirror reflecting an image of the sun1 and that when an observer stands directly between the sun and the shower he sees the reflections of the countless drops blended into one continuous semicircle4 ,but as the discussion proceeds the writer denies that the cloud consists of separate rain-drops1 and he maintains that even if it did they would not unite to give one unbroken image4 ,in proof of his contention he urges the fallacious assertion that if a number of mirrors are joined together and a man is placed before them1 each gives its own reflection1 and thus a single man becomes multiplied into a crowd4 ,if he had ever tried the experiment or had visited the shop of a mender of mirrors1 he would have seen that the separate pieces1 if strictly arranged on the same plane1 reflect a single image4 ,his imaginary antagonist asks for an explanation of the rainbow-like colours displayed by the spray from a burst water-pipe1 or the splash from an oar1 which are1 of course1 cases strictly parallel to the falling shower of rain 7#bd74 ,the resemblance is at once granted1 but is explained away on the ground that the drops fall so quickly that they cannot form reflections of the sun1 and that to produce such reflections the medium must be at rest4 ,the objector once more strikes in with a reference to the rainbow colours to be seen in a glass rod which is placed obliquely in the path of the sun's rays 7#cj74 ,these prismatic tints1 as has long been known1 are due to the same decomposition of white light1 as in the rainbow4 ,but ,seneca claims the illustration as furnishing additional arguments in his favour4 ,he maintains that no colour is really produced in the rod1 but only a false appearance of colour1 his idea being apparently that unless the colour is inherent in an object apart from direct sunlight1 it is only apparent and not real4 ,the glass1 he says1 tries to reproduce the sun's image1 but fails because of its unsymmetrical form1 the reflections being crowded together and confused into the appearance of a single band of colour4 ,in regard to the falling drops of rain in a shower he contends that they receive the colour but not the image of the sun1 and he is led away by the false analogy of the varying tints of a peacock's neck as the bird tosses its head 7#be74 ,at one part of the discussion he affirms that the colours of the rainbow come partly from the sun and partly from the moist cloud 7#ba74 ,further on1 however1 he agrees that they proceed from the sun1 but are only apparent1 for if another cloud comes across the face of the luminary they at once vanish 7#bi74 ,the greater diameter of the rainbow compared with that of the sun as seen by us he accounts for by the analogy of a concave mirror1 which greatly enlarges the objects reflected from it4 ,at the conclusion of the discussion he repeats his belief that the rainbow and the corona or halo have no definite material inherent in them1 but are like a mirror which reveals only a deception1 the mere phantoms and empty imitations of real bodies1 which certainly do not exist in the mirror1 and therefore cannot come out of it 7#da74 ,in ,chapters ,,xvi4 and ,,xvii4 the author indulges in one of his favourite moralising episodes1 suggested by the topics he has been discussing in the previous pages4 ,he takes the existence of reflecting surfaces as his text1 and from the calm surface of still water passes on to artificial mirrors1 contrasting the manners and morals of early mankind1 who had only pools and lakes in which to see their faces1 with the luxury and vice of later ages1 when the use of metals led to the invention of metallic mirrors4 ,in this retrospect1 however1 he places the discovery of the use of iron before that of the other metals4 ,the priority of bronze and the reason for it are accurately stated by ,lucretius3 et prior aeris erat quam ferri cognitus usus1 quo facilis magis est natura et copia maior4#aaj #aaj ,de ,rer4 ,nat4 v4 #abhg4 ,,book ,,ii ,in this division of his work the author discusses various aspects of the atmosphere and offers an explanation of the phenomena which he describes4 ,he distinguishes between the very bright ether on high1 and the moist1 denser atmosphere which underlies it1 but thinks that they must pass insensibly into each other 7#ff74 ,the atmosphere he regards as a continuous non-composite body1 capable of great range in tension1 and forming the vehicle through which the exhalations from the earth pass outwards to the sky4 ,it does not everywhere possess the same qualities4 ,in its lower parts next the earth it is dense and misty1 owing to the terrestrial exhalations1 and is there warmed by the earth's breath1 by the reflection of the sun's rays from the ground1 and from the fires1 artificial and subterranean1 as well as from the warmth communicated by living animals and plants1 for life cannot exist without heat4 ,the highest portions of the atmosphere are exceedingly dry1 hot1 and attenuated1 owing to their nearness to the eternal fires and the heat of the heavenly bodies4 ,the middle parts1 on the contrary1 are intermediate in character1 but colder than what lies above and below them 7#fj1 #fa74 ,it is the lower portions that are subject to the greatest changes1 for they receive the earthly elements which involve such constant turmoil4 ,the instability of the air arises also in part from the motions of the earth and from those of the sun1 moon1 and stars1 to which cold1 rain1 and other atmospheric disturbances are due 7#ef1 #fa74 ,seneca1 in passing on to discuss the nature and origin of thunder and lightning1 divides the phenomena into three kinds--lightning-flashes1 thunderbolts1 and thunderings 7#fb74 ,after citing and commenting on the opinions of various philosophers he proceeds to give his own views regarding these appearances4 ,the lightning flash 7fulguratio7 he looks upon as fire widely spread out1 the thunderbolt 7fulmen7 as fire condensed and hurled with violence 7#ff74 ,the difference between the two is in force rather than character2 a flash is a bolt without strength enough to reach the earth1 while a thunderbolt is lightning in its most intense form 7#fi74 ,with regard to the origin of the fire he points out that fire may be artificially produced in two ways3 either by percussion1 as when stones are struck2 or by friction1 as when two bits of wood are rubbed against each other4 ,he thinks that probably in both of these ways clouds may emit fire1 and that in the violence of storms a source of energy is supplied whereby the warm or smoky exhalations from the earth may be kindled and fall with a fierce glow to the earth 7#gj1 #aja74 ,these exhalations contain dry and moist bodies1 to which heavier elements may be added4 ,a combination of such materials will form a thicker and more solid cloud than one of pure air1 and such a cloud may burst with a loud report 7#gh74 ,there can be no peal of thunder unless the hollow clouds are broken up with great violence 7#gf74 ,the characteristic path of the thunderbolt is determined by the oblique current of air in which1 while the natural tendency of the fire is upward1 the violence of its discharge presses it downwards and compels it to take up a zig-zag course4 ,the peculiar ozone odour noticed during thunderstorms1 and long popularly known as the smell of sulphur1 is alluded to by ,seneca 7#fi1 #ig7 and by ,lucretius4#aaa #aaa ,similar views on thunder and lightning are expressed in the ,de ,rerum ,natura3 semina quod nubes ipsas permulta necessust ignis habere4--vi4 #bjf4 post ubi conminuit vis eius et impetus acer1 tum perterricrepo sonitu dat scissa fragorem4--,ibid4 #abh4 444 notaeque gravis halantis sulpuris auras4--,ibid4 #bba4 ,the discussion of these subjects leads on to a disquisition on the portents that may be drawn from different kinds of thunder and various forms of lightning4 ,seneca infers from the effects produced by it that lightning possesses an inherent divine power4 ,among these effects he enumerates some in which he seems to have thoroughly believed1 such1 for instance1 as the smashing of a wine jar already quoted1 and the freezing of the wine for the space of three days thereafter4 ,he is thus disposed to attach credit to the opinion that future events are foretold by both lightning and thunder4 ,yet he cannot change his ,stoic faith that fate1 that is1 the necessity for the happening of all things and all actions1 can be set aside by no force1 can be altered by no portents1 nor averted by any prayer or sacrifice4 ,though he admits that vows and supplications may be useful to the worshippers1 he knows that even these also are included in the decrees of fate4 ,these reflections lead the philosopher to a characteristic peroration on the moral lessons to be derived from the subjects he has been discussing4 ,from the dangers incident to thunderstorms he passes to the enforcement of the ,stoic doctrine that death must be despised1 and everything which leads to death will then cease to have any terror4 ,,book ,,iii ,the subjects comprised in this section of the treatise have reference chiefly to the springs and rivers which appear on the surface of the earth or flow underneath it4 ,the ,book begins with a preface1 which may have been originally designed to stand at the beginning of the volume4 ,it bears internal evidence of having probably been written at the time of the author's resolve to take up the discussion of physical problems1 as it speaks of old age pressing upon him and leaving him but a short while to cover the immense field which he wished to survey4 ,the years lost among vain pursuits must be repaired by diligence in the task now undertaken2 night must be added to day1 and every social or business care which can possibly be set aside must be abandoned4 ,the contemplation of the work before him then leads the philosopher into his moralising mood1 wherein he inquires what should be the principal object of human life1 concluding with the reflection that the best thing a man can set before himself1 among the ups and downs of this world1 is courage to accept them calmly and to be ready to meet death boldly whenever summoned4 ,to the acquisition of such a courage a contemplation of nature will greatly conduce4 ,seneca begins his discussion of the various forms of water by grouping them into two chief classes1 standing in collected sheets1 as in lakes1 or running in channels1 as rivers above ground and springs underneath4 ,after a brief enumeration of various qualities of water1 he inquires whence the vast volume of water comes that is carried down by rivers to the sea1 and how it happens that neither is the earth sensible of this daily loss1 nor does the ocean show any perceptible gain4 ,he merely notices the opinion which some philosophers had expressed that the sea does not get larger because it restores to the earth as much water as it receives1 allowing its own saline water to sink through endless subterranean winding passages wherein it is purged of its saltness and rises on the land as pure fresh water4#aab ,another view1 that most of the water supplied by rain eventually finds its way into the rivers1 is approximately that at which modern research has arrived1 but it meets with our philosopher's strong opposition4 ,his first objection is derived from his own observation4 ,he tells us that1 as a diligent digger among his vines1 he can confidently affirm that even the heaviest rain does not penetrate to a depth of more than ten feet from the surface4 ,what is not absorbed by the upper crust of the ground runs at once into river channels1 and thence into the sea4 ,he next asks how rain1 which immediately flows off the surface of naked rocks1 can possibly be the source of the springs and rivers that issue from bare crags1 or how springs that appear on the very summit of mountains can be due to rain4 ,though he could not but be aware of the close connection everywhere observable between evaporation1 rainfall1 and the volume of springs and rivers1 he does not seem to have reflected on its meaning--how in seasons of drought the surface waters fail first1 how by degrees the springs begin to lessen and even to cease1 how the rivers dwindle until in many cases their beds become almost or quite dry1 and yet how1 when welcome rains set in1 the springs and rivers gradually resume the bulk they had before the dry weather impoverished them4 ,he had made no study of the way in which rain percolates through the soil1 subsoil1 and rocks underneath1 though there are places1 such as his vineyard may have been1 where1 from some impervious material1 only a feeble or inappreciable flow of moisture descends beyond a few feet from the surface4 ,nor was he aware of the innumerable lines of joint by which the most solid rocks are traversed1 and which serve as passages for the descent and ascent of water4 ,had he climbed many mountains1 he would have failed to find a spring on the summit of any one of them1 unless there had been a sufficient area of higher ground at hand to serve for the supply of the water4 #aab ,this is the view expressed by ,lucretius3 444 ut in mare de terris venit umor aquai1 in terras itidem manare ex aequore salso2 percolatur enim virus1 retroque remanat materies umoris et ad caput amnibus omnis confluit1 inde super terras redit agmine dulci4 --,de ,rer4 ,nat4 vi4 #fcc4 ,the origin of underground water is regarded by ,seneca as due to three causes4 ,the earth itself contains moisture which it forces out at the surface2 it includes also air which in the darkness of the subterranean wintry cold is condensed into moisture2 by the principle of interchangeability1 whereby one element passes into another1 the earth in its interior resolves itself into moisture4 ,if it be urged that the rivers are too vast to draw their supplies from these sources1 the ready answer comes that the internal reservoir is quite spacious enough for the purpose1 and that it might as well be matter of surprise that1 with all the winds that constantly blow1 the supply of air does not fail1 or that a single wave of the sea should be left to follow so many breakers4 ,if the questioner1 still unsatisfied1 should demand to know how water is produced1 he is met with the query how air is produced on earth4 ,there are in nature four elements1 and he is not entitled to ask where one of them comes from4 ,each is a fourth part of nature1 and it is obvious that what has an element as its source cannot fail4 ,hence the philosopher in pronouncing water to be an element has given it enough1 and more than enough1 of strength4 ,in short1 rain may give rise to a torrent1 but not a river flowing steadily between its banks4 ,heavy rains will swell such a river1 but cannot produce it4 ,having1 as he believed1 cleared the ground in this way1 ,seneca proceeds to consider the distribution of water within the earth4 ,he opines that as in our body1 so in the earth1 there are channels by which both air and liquids flow4 ,he states his conviction that the earth contains not only veins of water1 but also large streams1 and in a later part of the volume he speaks of both underground rivers1 huge lakes1 and a hidden sea from which rivers at the surface are supplied 7#aed1 #bcc1 #bce74 ,he is aware that some of these subterranean reservoirs contain fish1 about which he has some incredible tales to tell4 ,he makes mention of rivers that sink underground and reappear1 as if a matter for great astonishment4 ,but examples of it may be found in many limestone districts1 where the solution of the rock by underground water has given rise to tunnels1 passages1 and caverns into which1 when their roofs give way1 surface streams may be engulfed1 to break out again from other openings at lower levels 7#ada74 ,the author concludes this part of his argument by asking if anybody is ignorant that there are some standing waters which have no bottom1 whence1 he contends1 it is shown that this water is the perpetual source of large rivers4 ,the various kinds of taste possessed by natural waters are then discussed1 and some marvellous illustrations are given of their effects4 ,allusion is made to medicinal springs1 to petrifying waters1 to some with extraordinary dyeing properties1 and to others with neither taste nor smell1 but rapidly fatal to the drinker by immediately hardening and binding the intestines4 ,reference is also included to certain kinds of springs1 of which the volcanic tracts of ,italy supply good examples4 ,such were those which killed visitors who peered down into the caverns where their waters lurk1 and suffocated birds that flew over them4 ,doubtless many tales were told of the effects of such emanations of carbonic acid gas1 like that of the ,grotto del ,cane which1 near ,naples1 still preserves their classic reputation 7#acd1 #bfa74 ,again1 the same volcanic districts furnished instances of warm1 sometimes even boiling1 springs1 and in alluding to them the author quotes the opinion of ,empedocles1 who was doubtless familiar with them in ,sicily4 ,to complete his record of marvels1 the author cites some lakes on which islands float to and fro1 of which good illustrations1 due to a matted growth of vegetation1 were then well known in the ,vadimonian ,lake 7,lago di ,bassano71#aac and he mentions other lakes in which he had equal faith1 with water so heavy that brickbats would float upon it1 and nothing1 however heavy1 not even hard solid stones1 would go to the bottom4 #aac ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ii4 #if4 ,pliny the ,younger1 ,epist4 viii4 #bj4 ,seneca is inclined to agree with some philosophers that certain rivers of peculiar and inexplicable character were created along with the world1 and he specially cites the ,danube and ,nile as examples1 these vast streams being too remarkable to have had the same origin as other rivers4 ,accordingly he reserves the ,nile for consideration in a later part of his volume 7#aff74 ,there is another kind of water which1 with his ,stoic brethren1 he places at the beginning of the world--the great ocean and every sea that flows from it between the lands4 ,yet he found no place in any part of the treatise for a discussion of the phenomena of the ocean4 ,the ,book closes with a vivid description of the probable catastrophe by which the end of the world will be brought about4 ,that the present condition of things will be swept away to make room for another and better race of men he assumes as a matter of certainty1 and he tries to picture by what physical means the destruction will probably be effected4 ,he is certain that it will be by no one agency1 but that all the energies of the world will be called forth to compass the destruction of the human race1 nothing being difficult to nature1 especially when she is hurrying towards her end4 ,the picture which is given of the progress of the great deluge forms by far the most striking piece of writing in the volume4 ,it ends somewhat inartistically in some gibing criticism of a quotation from ,ovid4 ,but the poetic afflatus had not been quite quenched4 ,the author immediately returns to the subject in the succeeding and final chapters1 and after enumerating the different agencies that may be called out to effect the destruction of the world1 he draws a lurid scene when a single day will see the burial of the whole human race4#aad ,after this act of divine wrath has been accomplished1 the waters will disappear below ground1 the sea will retire to its own abode1 and on the renovated earth every animal will be created afresh1 and a new race of men will be installed1 ignorant of sin and born under better auspices4 #aad ,so ,lucretius3 444 maria ac terras caelumque-- una dies dabit exitio4 --,de ,rer4 ,nat4 v4 #ib1 #id4 ,,book ,,iv ,this section of the treatise begins with a denunciation of flattery and ends with another against luxury4 ,neither the preface nor the concluding chapter have any obvious connection with the text between them4 ,it is curious to note that while ,seneca here warns his friend ,lucilius against flatterers1 and inculcates how their approaches are to be met1 he himself in this very volume perpetrates four pieces of flattery to the despicable but all-powerful ,nero4 ,he quotes a prosaic line from a poem of the emperor's1 which he characterises as 8most elegant0 7disertissime1 #be74 ,he refers to ,nero as most devoted to truth as well as to the other virtues 7#bce72 he refers to the advent of a comet which appearing in ,nero's reign had redeemed these heavenly bodies from their evil repute 7#bij71 and he describes that reign as 8most joyous0 7laetissimus1 #bid74 ,the old courtier1 so long habituated to the language of flattery1 was perhaps hardly conscious that he was here making use of it1 or he may naturally have reflected that at a time when the emperor had ceased to bear him any good will1 the absence of the customary adulation might cause as much offence as if a direct insult were intended4 ,when from his ethical lecture he turns to resume his physical disquisitions1 it is the mysterious ,nile to which he devotes attention4 ,after a brief contradiction of the statement of some philosophers that the ,nile and the ,danube are similar in their characters1 he enumerates some of the well-known peculiarities of the river of ,egypt4 ,a problem which greatly exercised the minds of the philosophers of antiquity1 and which has only been finally solved in our own day1 was the cause of the annual rise of the ,nile on which the fertility of ,egypt depended4 ,seneca says with justice that if the point of the river could be ascertained where the rise begins the question would be settled4 ,he does not appear to have known much about the river1 for he believed that the water is for the first time collected into a single channel at ,philae4 ,in his account of that place and of the cataract there 7#afh1 #afi71 he speaks of the river's egress from ,ethiopia1 and of deserts which are crossed by the trade route to the ,red ,sea4 ,in a subsequent part of the treatise he gives the interesting and important information that he had himself seen and conversed with two centurions who had been despatched by ,nero to discover the source of the ,nile 7#bce74 ,from them he learnt that they had penetrated far into the heart of ,africa1 and had reached a region of illimitable marshes where the river was so covered and impeded with vegetation that neither on foot nor by boat could it be ascended4 ,there can be no doubt that these enterprising explorers had come to the sudd1 which in recent years has been found so serious an impediment to navigation4 ,they informed ,seneca that in the marsh region they had seen with their own eyes 8two rocks from which an enormous body of the river came out40 ,there are apparently no rocks along the course of the ,nile in the present marsh region1 which is a vast flat1 and it is therefore difficult to conjecture to what the two military surveyors allude4 ,possibly they saw the mouth of some affluent of the main stream such as the ,khor ,adar1 or the sudd may have extended further north than it does now4 ,seneca's account of the ,nile derived from travellers and previous writers gives a clear summary of what was then known about the river1 but of more interest is his discussion of the opinions that had been propounded before his time as to the cause of the annual rise4 ,he first quotes the view of ,anaxagoras1 shared by the ,greek tragedians and widely accepted1 that this rise was due to the melting of snow on the uplands of ,ethiopia4 ,this idea he cogently combats by adducing various kinds of evidence of the great warmth of the climate in those southern regions4 ,some of these proofs1 indeed1 are exaggerations1 as where he affirms that silver is unsoldered or melted4 ,but one of his proofs1 drawn from the habits of the animals of the country1 is worthy of notice4 ,he remarks that no hibernating creature is found there1 and that even in midwinter the serpent is seen above ground4 ,he argues that in ,africa1 as in ,europe1 melting snow would swell the rivers in spring and early summer1 whereas the ,nile flood continues to rise later during four months4 ,in a subsequent part of this treatise 7#bce7 allusion is made to an explanation which had been given of the rise of the ,nile1 that it is due not to the fall of rain from above but to the outflow of water from within the earth1 and it is in connection with this opinion that he cites the experience of ,nero's two centurions above referred to1 as if he were disposed to believe that what these explorers saw was really a vast body of water issuing from underground4 ,the opinion of ,thales is next criticised that the ,etesian or northerly winds drive the waters of the ,mediterranean against the mouths of the ,nile and consequently pond back the waters of the river4 ,this view was of course entirely erroneous1 but though ,seneca rejects it1 he does not seem to have quite understood it1 for he argues that1 coming from the same quarter as the winds1 the ,nile water should not have been turbid1 but clear and blue1 like that of the sea4 ,in commenting upon the futile support given by ,euthymenes of ,marseilles to the idea of ,thales1 ,seneca throws light on the wide extent to which the coasts of the outer sea had then been made known by trading vessels4 ,in rejecting another explanation proposed by ,oenopides of ,chios1 the author shows that he is aware of the fact that caves and wells are warm in winter and cool in summer1 and that he has partly divined the reason1 when he states that in winter they are warm since they do not admit the frosty air from without and in summer they feel cold because the warm air from outside has not penetrated into their recesses4 ,he returns to this subject in ,book ,,vi4 7#bda74aae #aae ,the various ancient interpretations of the cause of the ,nile's annual rise are succinctly given by ,lucretius 7,de ,rer4 ,nat4 vi4 #gab-cg71 but he does not indicate a preference for any one in particular1 though he devotes most space to the influence of the ,etesian winds4 ,after mentioning and dismissing a grotesque suggestion of ,diogenes of ,apollonia1 ,seneca suddenly drops the discussion of the ,nile and passes on to the subject of hail4 ,it is obvious that there is here a serious gap in the text4 ,it is not probable that he meant to leave off his examination into the probable sources of the ,nile without stating his own view of a matter which had been so long the subject of wonder and debate4 ,either1 therefore1 he never completed this section of his treatise1 or a portion of the work has been lost4 ,the remainder of ,book ,,iv4 is taken up with a desultory discussion of the subjects of hail and snow1 written when the author must have been in a somewhat frivolous mood4 ,he begins by telling ,lucilius that if he were to assert that hail is produced as ice is with us1 a whole cloud being frozen1 he would be rather audacious4 ,so he will imitate the chroniclers1 who after they have told a great many lies1 refuse to be responsible for some one statement1 and refer for its truth to the authorities4 ,if1 therefore1 his friend doubts his word1 he will call in ,posidonius1 who will tell him that hail is formed from a watery cloud just turned into liquid4 ,no teacher is needed to explain why pellets of hail are round1 for all drops take that shape4 ,hail is nothing else than suspended ice1 and snow is suspended hoar-frost4 ,in this light vein ,seneca thinks he has finished the subject and might dismiss it1 but he cannot resist the temptation to continue the persiflage a little further4 ,he quotes in a bantering style some of the opinions of his brother ,stoics1 and after this long preamble begins an inquiry into the distribution of density and temperature in the atmosphere4 ,it would have been interesting had he seriously and fully stated what was known or surmised on this last topic1 but he dismisses it in three short chapters4 ,we learn from these that he regarded the air to be densest next the earth1 and that as all things retain heat better the denser and more compact they are1 so the air becomes less warm in proportion to its height 7#ahd74aaf ,the opinion of some persons1 that the air on mountain summits ought to be warmer because they are nearer the sun1 is sagaciously controverted1 and the insignificance of all inequalities on the surface of the earth in comparison with the distance from the earth to the sun is forcibly expressed and illustrated4 #aaf ,this view hardly agrees with what is expressed in ,book ,,ii4 7#fj1 #fa71 but it more accurately expresses the fact4 ,the subject of snow and hail is briefly reintroduced at the end of the ,book1 probably for the purpose of affording a convenient introduction to the invective against luxury which fills the concluding chapter4 ,the preservation of snow in ice-houses1 and its use in the reparation of jaded appetites by cooling drinks1 calls forth a denunciation of the young rakes of his day1 which closes the discussion4 ,,book ,v ,the movements of the atmosphere form the subject of discussion in this part of the treatise4 ,in the first chapter the author seeks for an exact definition of the term 8,wind0 7ventus71 and ends by adopting one which is obviously inaccurate--8wind is air flowing in one direction10--for as he afterwards speaks of whirlwinds he was well aware that the movement may be in every direction1 or vorticose4 ,dismissing the opinion of ,democritus as to the origin of wind1 he states that in his judgment wind may arise from four different causes4 ,first2 ,the earth itself breathes forth a vast amount of air from its interior1 where there are large rivers and lakes1 and where the moist air naturally gives rise to blasts of wind4 ,second2 ,long-continued evaporation carries the terrestrial emanations aloft1 where the intermingling of the breath results in wind4 ,third2 ,much more important is the fact that the air in its very constitution possesses an innate power of motion2 we cannot imagine that while we ourselves are endowed with a capacity of movement--and water has this power also--the atmosphere should be left inert and immovable 7#aig74 ,fourth2 ,sometimes the sun is itself the cause of wind1 when he loosens and expands the thick air 7#aih74 ,in this enumeration allusion is made to one or two features of natural history which the author appears to accept as fact4 ,he thinks there must be some vital force in water1 otherwise it could not bring forth animals and plants1 as we know it does4 ,but not only water2 fire1 too1 which devours everything1 possesses this generative capacity1 for1 unlikely as it might be thought1 it is nevertheless true that fire gives birth to some animals4 ,the air1 too1 has some vital energy1 as it alternately thickens1 contracts1 and expands1 and rids itself of its impurities4 ,the portion of it contained within the earth is asserted in a later part of the volume to be the source of the life of the vegetation at the surface 7#bdd74 ,the local winds1 now known as 8land and sea breezes10 are next discussed 7#aih74 ,instead of the simple explanation which in our own day has shown these aerial currents to be beautiful examples of the results of diurnal variations of atmospheric pressure1 the ancient theory represented that during the day the exhalations from the land are borne on high to supply the sun with nourishment1 while at night1 as they are not needed for that purpose1 they accumulate until they have filled up a given space enclosed by mountains4 ,when in such a space there is no more room1 they move towards the quarter to which they can most easily escape2 hence the wind4 ,it is curious1 however1 to note that ,seneca only describes the land breeze1 which falls away as the morning advances4 ,he does not specially refer to the equally characteristic sea breeze1 which springs up after the other dies down1 and continues during the day1 until in the evening it is again replaced by the land breeze4 ,the important ,etesian or northerly winds1 with all their important local modifications in the ,mediterranean basin1 must have been a subject of constant observation to the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,there was a general belief that as these winds reappeared regularly in summer1 they were in some way connected with the position of the sun in the firmament4 ,seneca1 after briefly stating this opinion1 dissents from it on the ground that1 as the sun reduces the strength of the morning or land breeze1 it cannot be through his influence that the ,etesian winds then begin to blow4 ,but he does not explain how he would himself account for their occurrence4 ,they are now known to be further illustrations of the influence of atmospheric pressure4 ,in summer1 when the hot region of the ,sahara becomes a vast area of low pressure1 the air streams into it from the north across the ,mediterranean basin4 ,the account given of cloud winds 7#bjc7 is an excellent illustration of the utter ignorance of the philosophers of antiquity of the very rudiments of meteorology1 and1 at the same time1 of the confidence with which they offered their explanations of the phenomena of the atmosphere4 ,even now1 after prolonged investigation1 the laws that regulate the production of furious winds and gusts connected with clouds are far from being fully understood4 ,the boldest meteorologist of to-day1 with all his detailed experience1 would hesitate to express his opinion as dogmatically as is done in the text4 ,the idea that air accumulating either above ground or below acquires a vast disruptive force1 obtained wide credence in early times4 ,it was this pent-up accumulation which was supposed to burst clouds asunder and produce thunder-storms1 while the same energy in caverns under ground led to earthquakes and the eruptions of volcanoes4 ,the occurrence of whirlwinds is explained by ,seneca from the analogy of eddies in a river4 ,as the water meets with impediments in its flow1 it is driven back and made to whirl round before it can continue the onward current1 so the wind1 as long as it meets with no obstacle1 sweeps on1 but when it is thrown back by any projection in its course1 or is collected together into a highly inclined narrow pipe1 it whirls round upon itself like the eddies of a river4 ,but the cause of the vorticose movement where there is no visible impediment is1 of course1 left unaccounted for4 ,in the fifteenth chapter of this ,book a story is told of ,philip of ,macedon1 who sent down a party of miners to examine an old mine4 ,the men brought back to daylight a wonderful tale of vast caverns with high over-arching roofs1 and filled with huge rivers and vast lakes4 ,if the author's intention was to connect the spaciousness of these underground chambers with the operations of ancient miners1 he was sadly mistaken1 since at no time has metal-mining led to the excavation of huge caverns2 on the contrary1 it has always been pursued in narrow shafts and passages4 ,if the report brought back to the king was veracious1 his emissaries had only come upon a series of natural grottos and tunnels1 such as are of common occurrence in limestone districts1 and which have no connection whatever with mining4#aag ,but the narrative served ,seneca's purpose1 since it furnished him with the occasion for a diatribe against the cursed love of gold1 which had apparently been rampant in days long before those of ,philip1 and allowed him to supply from his own imagination some additional lurid horrors of the underground world4 #aag ,it is possible that these ancient mines were driven in search of metal seams or veins traversing limestone1 like those of lead among the caverned limestones of ,derbyshire4 ,when he gets back to his subject1 he enters upon an enumeration of the various winds known to the ancients4 ,he himself thinks that as the heavens are divided into twelve sections1 so there are twelve distinct winds1 not all felt everywhere1 but never exceeding that number4 ,he does not attempt1 however1 to account for them4 ,in his reference to the names given to the various winds1 he gives a quotation from ,ovid's ,metamorphoses1 in which the more conspicuous winds from the different quarters are mentioned4 ,to this quotation he adds a line from ,virgil's graphic picture of the storm in the first book of the ,aeneid1 where ,aeolus opens his cave and the south-east1 south1 and south-west winds rush out in fury upon the sea4 ,seneca remarks1 in passing1 that such a collocation of winds as ,virgil enumerates could never have happened in a single tempest4 ,the poet1 however1 has made no mistake4 ,in a great cyclonic storm the wind veers round with the compass from south-east by south to south-west4 ,and even if ,virgil had added the north wind1 which the philosopher says he left out1 he would only have followed the invariable course of the winds in the cyclones of the northern hemisphere1 which circle round towards the north as the storm area is passing eastward4 ,in conclusion1 the author points out the teleological significance of the winds1 and is thence led to repeat the time-honoured reproach against human iniquity which turns the winds from their beneficent intention to purposes of war4 ,,book ,,vi ,this is1 perhaps1 the most valuable part of the volume1 for it contains more of the author's own observations than the rest of the work4 ,it deals more particularly with the great earthquake of #eth ,february ,a4,d4 #fc1 which occurred in his own country1 and about which he could collect information at first hand4 ,as already mentioned1 the subject of earthquakes had long fascinated him1 and he had published1 in his youth1 a volume about it4 ,the calamity which brought so much injury to the towns of ,campania was more especially likely to enlist his vivid interest1 for the region that had been convulsed was with him a well-known and favourite part of ,italy1 where he often came to spend1 on the shores of the ,bay of ,naples1 such leisure as the life in ,rome allowed him4 ,besides1 it was the native district of ,lucilius1 to whom the volume was addressed1 and whose town of ,pompeii had suffered from the shock4#aah ,hence he here plunges at once into details of the damage caused by this particular earthquake4 ,as a prelude to his inquiry into the whole question of the origin of such catastrophes1 he indulges in reflections on their appalling nature4 ,some of the unfortunate residents in the convulsed district had fled from it1 vowing never to return4 ,but where1 the writer asks1 can they be sure of safety1 seeing that no quarter of the world is exempt from this form of danger8 ,he urges that it is at least some consolation to be assured that such calamities are not the work of angry gods1 as was popularly believed1 but are traceable to their own special causes in the processes of nature 7#bbh74 #aah ,in ,seneca's letters1 frequent reference is made to his visits to the district4 ,he seems generally to have taken a villa at ,baiae1 or some adjacent place on that western part of the coast4 ,he appears to have been a poor sailor1 glad to make for the nearest landing-place between ,baiae and ,naples1 so as to escape from the pangs of sea-sickness4 ,on one of his excursions he revisited ,pompeii1 and was set into a reverie of his youth there4 ,see his ,letters1 #di1 #ea1 #ec1 #ee1 #eg1 #gj1 #gg4 ,he then considers the various opinions entertained on this subject by earlier writers1 which1 on the whole1 he regards as crude and inexact4 ,the cause of earthquakes had been found in water1 fire1 air1 and the earth itself1 or in a combination of several of these agencies1 or even in the co-operation of the whole of them4 ,as regards the action of water1 he dismisses the opinion of ,thales 7#bca71 but in the statements of other authors1 who maintain the power of internal water in causing earthquakes1 he sees a greater probability of truth4 ,he fully admits the existence of large rivers and extensive lakes inside the earth1 and that in these dark uninhabited regions flooded rivers undermining their banks1 and a swollen sea lashed into fury by the subterranean winds1 may communicate shocks to the surface of the earth 7#bcd74 ,that fire is the origin of earthquakes had been held by various philosophers1 who1 however1 differed as to the manner in which the fire acts4 ,anaxagoras thought it was by explosions caused from the collision of underground clouds 7#bcf72 others held that the immense mass of vapour produced by the subterranean conflagrations as it accumulates may exert such a pressure as to disrupt all obstructions2 or when the pressure is less may cause no more than a heaving of the surface4 ,the idea that the shock of an earthquake results from the removal of material underneath1 whereby the stability of the overlying portion is undermined1 and a collapse of the ground ensues1 was held in various forms4 ,some thought that this destruction arose from extensive combustion within the earth4 ,anaximenes supposed that just as at the surface1 rocks and old buildings yield to the ravages of time and fall down1 so in the interior of the earth similar landslips may occur and cause shocks to the districts above them 7#bcg74aai #aai ,the collapse of the roofs or sides of underground caverns may undoubtedly be in some instances the cause of local earthquakes4 ,this origin is enforced by ,lucretius3 terra superne tremit magnis concussa ruinis1 subter ubi ingentes speluncas subruit aetas4 --,de ,rer4 ,nat4 vi4 #edd4 ,but the favourite opinion of antiquity regarded earthquakes as primarily due to the violent commotion of air4 ,seneca comments on the views of various philosophers1 and more especially ,aristotle's1 as to the way in which the air acts1 and he then proceeds to deliver his own judgment4 ,he has no doubt that1 though some of the other agencies may co-operate1 the chief motive force in earthquakes is air4 ,by no part of nature1 he affirms1 is such violent energy displayed as by air2 it kindles fire1 tosses the surface of the waters into waves1 destroys large tracts of the earth1 uplifts new mountains1 and raises in the midst of the sea islands never seen before4 ,not only does air exist above ground1 but it also fills the hollows and interstices of the interior of the earth1 into which it freely enters from the surface4 ,nothing in nature is so restless as air1 and the earth cannot but be affected by the movements of the air included in its inside4 ,the author agrees with the general opinion that when the air begins to be agitated in a subterranean cavern which it has filled1 pressed by that which is still entering1 it struggles to escape1 and1 when it does so1 emerges with a violence proportionate to the narrowness of the passage for its exit4 ,but if unable to make its way out1 it becomes furious1 acts like a swollen impetuous river1 and that overthrows everything in its path4#abj #abj ,lucretius gives a picturesque recital of these views 7,de ,rer4 ,nat4 vi4 #ece-fjg74 ,it is not difficult to realise how this explanation should have been accepted in antiquity1 and should have held its ground down even into modern times4 ,the violence of the commotions of the atmosphere was a familiar feature on the surface of the earth1 although its physical causes1 variously guessed at1 were utterly unknown4 ,to minds that had no conception of the very rudiments of meteorology1 there seemed to be no reason why air inside the earth should not be affected by as violent hurricanes as the air outside4 ,and as such hurricanes were the most powerful natural agencies known1 their action was not unreasonably invoked to account for the phenomena of earthquakes4 ,assuming that the air in a large subterranean cavern would behave as the free open atmosphere does1 the old philosophers did not find themselves under the necessity of explaining what was to set the air in motion within the subterranean recesses and lash it into fury there1 any more than they had to account for tempests above ground4 ,obviously1 if the air found its way from the outside into the internal parts of the earth1 it must have had equal facilities for egress4 ,and in the convulsions of an earthquake it might be supposed to issue with violence through some of the previous openings or from the rents made at the time4 ,in corroboration of the truth of the prevalent opinion1 it was asserted that after an earthquake air was found to issue from the ground1 but no account appears to have been preserved of any violent outrush of air4 ,as a further evidence that it is to the force of air that all these internal disturbances are due1 the author remarks that after a violent earthquake another shock of equal violence cannot occur1 because the first has opened a passage for the struggling winds4 ,the progress of investigation has1 in modern times1 thrown a flood of light on the phenomena of earthquakes1 though there still remain many problems in the subject which await solution4 ,it is needless to say that no foundation whatever has been found for the ancient faith that the air plays the chief part in these subterranean commotions4 ,seneca discusses the nature of earthquake motion4 ,he recognises three kinds of movement--quaking 7succussio71 tilting 7inclinatio71 and trembling 7vibratio7--and he gives illustrations of the kind of causes to which they may be referred 7#beb74 ,he believes that the extent of country convulsed by an earthquake depends upon the area of the subterranean cavern in which the wind performs its exploits1 and as these internal cavities do not continuously underlie vast tracts of the earth's surface1 no large spaces of that surface are simultaneously shaken4 ,in his day there appears to have been no record of a shock affecting the whole basin of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,he thinks that no earthquake ever extends as much as two hundred miles4 ,he cites the recent calamity in ,campania1 which did not pass beyond that district1 though marvellous tales about it had spread far and near1 and he gives other examples of the markedly local character of the phenomena1 so far as then known4 ,he affirms that maritime districts are those most frequently shaken 7#bee1 #beg71 in proof of which he gives various instances1 including the late disaster to ,pompeii and ,herculaneum in a region which had never been known to be shaken before4 ,he had received information about the ,campanian shock1 and the narrative in which he embodies it has the interest of being the most detailed account of an earthquake that has come down to us from antiquity4 ,first of all1 as already mentioned1 he states that the movement was confined to the district of ,campania1 no mention being made of its having been felt even so near as ,rome4 ,he notices the injury done to ,herculaneum and to ,naples by the damage of public and private buildings2 bronze statues were split open and some people were driven out of their minds4 ,he records that ,campania continued to tremble for some days after the great shock4 ,he had heard that a flock of six hundred sheep was said to have been killed near ,pompeii4 ,accepting the report as true1 he sees no reason to suppose that the animals died of fright1 but thinks it not unlikely that they were poisoned by the ascent of pestilential vapours from the ground4 ,this conjecture of his receives perhaps some support from the fact that in this volcanic district1 after an eruption of ,vesuvius1 so much carbonic acid gas has been said to escape from the ground as to suffocate hundreds of hares1 pheasants1 and partridges4 ,but the most vivid experience of the earthquake which he narrates is that of a grave philosophic friend who1 when in his bath1 saw the tiles of the floor separate from each other1 allowing the water to sink through the opened joints1 while the next moment1 as the pavement closed again1 the water was forced out all bubbling4 ,a better illustration of the transit of a wave of shock could not be desired4 ,seneca was prepared to believe that great changes had been wrought by earthquakes on the face of the land4 ,he cites in support of this view some remarkable examples which had occurred within the times of human history1 such as the sinking of the towns of ,buris and ,helice1 the disappearance wholly or partially of the island of ,atalanta1 and the subsidence of ,sidon 7#bef74 ,he refers also to various striking features of landscape in different regions which had been popularly assigned to the work of earthquakes1 such as the separation of ,ossa and ,olympus1 the disruption of ,sicily from the ,italian shore1 and the severance of ,spain from the continent of ,africa 7#bfc74 ,that the phenomena of earthquakes are closely connected with those of volcanoes was the general belief in antiquity1 and continued to be accepted up to the middle of last century4 ,it was believed in early days that just as the collision of clouds during storms produces the fire seen in lightning1 so during the tempestuous agitation of the air within the earth1 such heat is generated as to set fire to beds of sulphur or other combustible materials1 and thus that rocks are melted and are forced up to the surface by the vast energy of the escaping air4#aba ,it is to be regretted that ,seneca has not left an account of his own opinions on this subject1 but from the allusions in the present treatise he may be inferred to have held the prevalent opinion4 ,he alludes in various passages to volcanic eruptions that had taken place in his own time1 or not long before1 in the ,mediterranean basin4 ,an eruption of ,etna is briefly noticed1 when the mountain was in violent eruption1 ejecting such a quantity of fine burning sand and dust as to turn day into night1 accompanied with much thunder and lightning 7#gg74 ,this may have been the eruption alluded to in similar language by ,cicero1 who adds that for two days nobody could see his neighbour4#abb ,seneca further cites two eruptions in the ,aegean ,sea1 one of which had taken place in his own time1 when a new island was upraised 8by the force of air40 ,he alludes to ,thera and ,therasia1 and the interesting account given by ,posidonius of the uprise of an island in the same sea1 with attendant circumstances closely resembling those of the eruptions at ,santorin in modern times 7#gc1 #beb74 ,according to ,asclepiodotus1 the fire1 after overcoming the resistance of the thick mass of sea1 shot up above sea-level to a height of two hundred paces4 #aba ,this view of the nature of volcanic energy is graphically expressed by ,lucretius 7op4 cit4 vi4 #fci-gjb74 #abb ,de ,nat4 ,deor4 ii4 #ch4 ,see also ,lucretius 7ib4 vi4 #fda71 who describes the more conspicuous features of an eruption1 and concludes with the line ne dubites quin haec animai turbida sit vis 7#fic74 ,from a consideration of the causes of earthquakes the author is led by his accustomed train of thought to draw the ethical lessons which the subject suggested to him4 ,he repeats his belief that against the perils of earthquakes1 as against all the other dangers and fears of life1 the only assurance is to be obtained from elevating studies and a contemplation of nature 7#bfe74 ,it matters not when or in what form we shall quit life1 whether from some trifle or from a world-wide catastrophe4 ,to be happy without fear of anything that may befall us1 we must carry our life in our hands1 steeling ourselves against fear1 and prepared even to welcome death as the advent of a friend4 ,,book ,,vii ,after a brief introduction1 marked by no little elegance and literary skill1 the author introduces the subject of the heavenly bodies1 and more especially of ,comets which he is to discuss in this ,book4 ,he proposes at the outset to endeavour to ascertain whether the earth stands still while the universe revolves round it1 or if it is the universe that remains at rest while the earth revolves4 ,but he is led on from one topic to another1 without having arrived at a definite solution of this problem when the volume comes to an end4 ,from various expressions1 however1 it may be inferred that he adhered to the primitive belief that it is the universe which goes round the earth4 ,thus in ,chapter ,,ix4 he speaks of the movement that drags the universe along and asks what is swifter than that revolution 7#bha74 ,the heavenly bodies may not stand or turn aside1 they all move onward with the irrevocable movement of this eternal creation 7#bii74 ,the opinions of various philosophers on comets are quoted and criticised4 ,he is especially severe in his comments on ,epigenes1 who thought that comets are produced somewhat as fires are excited by whirlwinds4 ,the ,greek threefold classification of comets is cited1 and then ,artemidorus comes in for his share of vituperation2 to disprove his theory of the firmament being a solid roof to the world would be1 in the author's opinion1 nothing but beating the air4 ,ephorus fares no better1 being briefly dismissed as often deceiving and often deceived4 ,apollonius of ,myndus held that many comets are distinct planetary bodies1 which wax and wane like the planets1 being brightest when they are nearest us and growing dimmer as they recede to a greater distance4 ,but ,seneca refuses to admit that they have the character of true planets2 in his view they are insubstantial irregular fire 7#bia74 ,but he does not agree with his ,stoic brethren in regarding them as generated in dense air and pursuing their course according to where they can find fuel to sustain them 7#bib-d74 ,he conceives that they are not mere sudden and transient fires1 but belong to the eternal works of nature4 ,they steadily traverse their course1 and he can understand that they may have such wide orbits as to carry them far beyond the limits of the ,zodiac 7#bif74 ,he can see no reason why the five planets then known should be the only stars that move across the sky1 though others had not yet been discovered4 ,astronomy1 he remarks1 is in its infancy1 many mysteries of nature remain still to be discovered1 and the day will come when posterity will marvel at our ignorance of things which will then appear to be so evident4 ,some future observer will demonstrate the paths of the comets1 why they wander so far from the other stars1 and what is their size and constitution4 ,we may be content with what we have found out1 and leave something for posterity to discover4 ,in a tone of sad pessimism he brings his volume to a close4 ,from a contemplation of the glories that might be achieved by mankind in searching out the marvels of creation he turns to his own age and his own country1 only to see on every side proofs of decadence4 ,no one now cared for the pursuit of wisdom4 ,philosophy and every liberal study were neglected4 ,the schools of philosophy were dying4 ,if his countrymen even now would set themselves with all their energy to the task1 if the young would give their sober attention and the elders would teach them1 they would scarcely succeed in reaching the bottom of the well in which truth lies4 ,meanwhile they were searching merely on the surface of the ground and with but a slack hand4 ,,notes ,,by ,,translator 8,,air0 ,the word 8air0 occurs in the text over #bjj times1 but not always as a translation of the same ,latin word4 ,with a term so elastic and so ambiguous it would have been mere pedantry to attempt a uniform rendering2 and indeed such uniform rendering would have been more misleading than the course adopted of rendering according to the context1 which the idiom of our language seemed to demand4 ,seneca has two main terms for air--ar and spiritus4 ,ar means1 generally speaking1 either air generically1 or the atmosphere specifically4 ,spiritus1 on the other hand1 denotes air under certain conditions of tension1 or strain1 or pressure1 when it is capable of exerting force or violence2 to its influence are attributed many effects due in reality to gases1 or other causes4 ,on p4 #eb1 l4 #a1 we have the definition 8air 7spiritus7 is the atmosphere 7ar7 in violent motion02 and on p4 #bje the concluding words of ,v4 xiii4 are 8air differs from wind in degree alone4 ,a more violent air is a wind2 air in turn is gently flowing atmosphere10 where again spiritus is 8air0 and ar 8atmosphere40 ,again1 in the ,aetna1 l4 #bab1 we read1 8,the winds when inflated are called spirit2 when in subsidence1 air0 7,professor ,ellis's translation71 where the same terms spiritus and ar are employed4#abc #abc ,for a discussion of the meaning of the term spiritus and the parallelisms in its use by ,seneca and the author of the ,aetna1 see ,professor ,ellis's edition of that poem1 ,prolegomena1 pp4 xl-xliii4 ,now if our author had been consistent in the use of the words1 there would have been a strong case for a uniform adoption of 8air0 and 8atmosphere10 whenever they occurred4 ,but numerous passages might be cited to show that he interchanges the words without apparent motive1 just as we do 8air0 and 8atmosphere40 ,for example1 on p4 #fi1 l4 #b1 8,so fire will pass into air 7spiritus710 while on p4 #ga1 l4 #i1 8the air 7ar71 which is interchangeable with fire40 ,again1 on p4 #ge1 l4 #f1 8,when the clouds have enclosed air0 7spiritus72 l4 #bf1 8atmosphere 7ar7 shut up in a hollow cloud40 ,a still more conclusive case1 though the passage is probably in other respects corrupt1 occurs in the last sentence of c4 xxix4 p4 #gg1 where the first 8air0 is spiritus1 the second1 a mere synonym or variant1 is ar4 ,cf4 p4 #ahg1 l4 #bg1 and the passages cited below from pp4 #bde1 #bdi1 #bea1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,the translator has little choice4 ,he must follow his author1 and1 where the latter makes a distinction1 must endeavour to reproduce it2 otherwise he must1 as the author did1 observe the idiom of his own language4 ,in accordance with this principle ar is usually translated 8atmosphere10 and spiritus 8air02 but circumstances have rendered unavoidable a considerable number of exceptions4 ,the discussion of phenomena in which air plays a part is contained chiefly in ,books ,,ii4 and ,,vi41 and here the distinction of terms in ,english has been1 so far as practicable1 maintained4 ,in ,book ,,ii4 8air0 is a translation of ar about a dozen of times out of a total of over fifty times that 8air0 occurs1 and in ,book ,,vi4 about half a dozen out of a total of nearly seventy4 ,the following is a list of the places in which 8air0 translates ar3-- ,book ,i4 throughout4 ,book ,,ii4 pp4 #ef1 ll4 #bj1 #ba2 #eg1 ll4 #ag1 #bb2 #eh1 l4 #c2 #ei1 l4 #bf2 #fa1 l4 #ah2 #ff1 l4 #ab2 #ga1 l4 #i2 #gb1 l4 #bb2 #gg1 #a4 #ag2 #ih1 l4 #bf2 #aja1 l4 #bh4 ,book ,,iii4 pp4 #abj1 ll4 #h1 #i 7four times72 #aba1 ll4 #aa-bj 7five times72 #abc1 l4 #bh2 #abi1 l4 #c2 #acd1 ll4 #bf1 #bh2 #ace1 l4 #a2 #adj1 l4 #bi4 ,book ,,iv4 pp4 #agf1 ll4 #f1 #i2 #ahd1 l4 #b2 #ahf1 l4 #af4 ,book ,v4 pp4 #aie1 l4 #cb2 #aif1 l4 #g2 #aih1 l4 #c2 #aii1 l4 #af2 #bjb1 l4 #f2 #bje1 l4 #aa2 #bjf1 l4 #c2 #baa1 ll4 #ad1 #bj4 ,book ,,vi4 pp4 #bde1 l4 #bh2 #bdi1 l4 #aj2 #bea1 ll4 #h1 #i2 #bei1 l4 #g2 #bfj1 ll4 #bf1 #bi4 ,book ,,vii4 throughout1 with three exceptions1 viz4 pp4 #bgg1 l4 #bf2 #bgi1 l4 #af2 #bha1 l4 #d4 ,in a few cases 8air0 occurs as a more explicit representation of a pronoun or an adjective which implies it3 in these instances the context is generally a sufficient guide4 ,spiritus1 too1 has sometimes quite a different rendering1 e4g4 breath4 ,on pp4 #aaa1 #aci1 #aeb1 8air0 is used of a very slight breeze1 the very gentlest breath of wind1 and represents aura--a good illustration of the ambiguity of language4 ,,quotations ,seneca is fond of illustrating his subject by passages from the poets4 ,his favourites are ,virgil and ,ovid1 and only once does he quote ,lucretius1 whose work was much more analogous to his own4 ,the quotations are apparently from memory and betray occasional inaccuracies1 as even the best memories will4 ,the following is a list of the references3-- ,book ,i4 ,pref41 #h 7p4 #f74 ,virg4 ,aen4 iv4 #djd4 i4 #d 7#aj74 ,virg4 ,aen4 v4 #ebh4 iii1 #d 7#ag74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 vi4 #fe4 #g4 v4 #f 7#be74 ,nero in an unknown poem3 one or two other tags of that versatile tyrant have been preserved4 vi4 #a 7#bh74 ,virg4 ,georg4 i4 #chj4 #a4 xi4 #b 7#ce74 ,virg4 ,georg4 ii4 #ie4 #f4 xiv4 #b 7#ch74 ,virg4 ,georg4 i4 #cfg4 7cf4 ,,vii4 xx4 #a74 xvii4 #e 7#de74 ,virg4 ,eclog4 ii4 #be4 #f4 ,book ,,ii4 i4 #b 7#ea74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 i4 #ee4 xliv4 #a 7#ia74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 iii4 #cje-g4 ,book ,,iii4 ,pref41 #c 7#aji74 ,origin unknown3 a somewhat similar sentiment occurs in ,aetna1 #bd4 i4 #a 7#aad74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 iii4 #djg4 i4 #a 7#aad74 ,virg4 ,aen4 i4 #bde4 #f4 i4 #a 7#aad74 ,lucilius1 to whom the ,q4,n4 was addressed4 ,if he was the author of ,aetna1 as seems not improbable1 he may have written other poems on ,sicilian topography4 xx4 #b 7#acc74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 xv4 #cac4 #d 7cf4 ,ibid4 xi4 #c sqq474 xx4 #d 7#acd74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 xv4 #cba4 xx4 #e 7#acd74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 xv4 #ccj4 #a4 xxvi4 #c 7#adb74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 xv4 #bgc-f4 xxvi4 #e 7#adb74 ,virg4 ,eclog4 x4 #d4 #e4 xxvii4 #ab 7#adg74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 i4 #bib4 xxvii4 #ab 7#adg74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 i4 #cjd4 xxvii4 #ac 7#adh74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 i4 #bhe4 #bij4 xxviii4 #b 7#adh74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 i4 #bgb4 ,book ,,iv4 ,pref41 #ag 7#afe74 ,virg4 ,aen4 iv4 #cgc4 ,pref41 #ag 7#afe74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 i4 #bda4 #b4 ii4 #b 7#afh74 ,tib4 ,eleg4 ,i4 vii4 #bf4 iii4 #c 7#agh74 ,ovid1 ,ars ,amat4 i4 #dge4 #f4 iii4 #c 7#agh74 ,lucret4 ,de ,rerum ,nat4 i4 #cac4 iv4 #b 7#agi74 ,virg4 ,georg4 i4 #cac4 ,book ,v4 i4 #a 7#aic74 ,virg4 ,eclog4 ii4 #bf4 xiv4 #a 7#bjf74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 i4 #chh4 xvi4 #a 7#bjh74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 i4 #fa-f4 xvi4 #b 7#bji74 ,virg4 ,aen4 i4 #he4 ,book ,,vi4 ii4 #a 7#bbe74 ,virg4 ,aen4 ii4 #ced4 ii4 #h 7#bbg74 ,both quotation and author are doubtful3 another reading attributes the poem to ,a4 ,gellius4 xiii4 #e 7#bda74 ,virg4 ,aen4 vi4 #bef4 xvii4 #a 7#bdf74 ,virg4 ,aen4 viii4 #gbh4 xviii4 #a 7#bdg74 ,virg4 ,aen4 i4 #ee4 #f4 xviii4 #c 7#bdh74 ,virg4 ,aen4 i4 #ec4 #d4 xxii4 #c 7#bec74 ,virg4 ,aen4 viii4 #ebe4 xxvi4 #b 7#beh74 ,virg4 ,aen4 iii4 #gg4 xxix4 #c 7#bfb74 ,virg4 ,aen4 iii4 #dad-i4 ,book ,,vii4 x4 #a 7#bhb74 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 ii4 #ga4 xx4 #a 7#bib74 ,virg4 ,georg4 i4 #cfg 7cf4 ,i4 xiv4 #b74 xx4 #c 7#bic74 ,virg4 ,aen4 ix4 #bj4 #a4 xxv4 #a 7#bih74 ,virg4 ,georg4 i4 #acg4 xxviii4 #a 7#cjb74 ,virg4 ,georg4 i4 #cib4 xxviii4 #a 7#cjb74 ,virg4 ,georg4 i4 #cfb4 ,,some ,,of ,,gercke',s ,,readings ,rendering in the ,text4 ,translation of ,gercke's ,text4 ,i4 p4 #e1 #g1 the ,strymon4 the ,danube and the ,balkans4 #h1 #a1 the explanation 444 my opinion4 ,philosophy4 #i1 #b1 such as 444 answer which each knows the other me4 cannot answer4 #bj1 #aj1 an oar 444 water4 an oar is covered with shallow water and presents a broken appearance4 #cg1 #a1 ,bothynae 7cave- putei 7well-like44474 like44474 #dj1 #c1 one has seen 444 what is struck by them we 7 star-struck74 call smitten with a flash1 that is1 struck without lightning-bolt1 what the ,greeks call 7 star-struck74 #dj1 #d1 of which more anon4 of which we have spoken4 #da1 #g1 ,for we judge 444 ,but we judge that it is the foreign body4 deceptive appearance of a mirror1 which merely gives a counterfeit repre- sentation of a foreign body4 ,,ii4 #ea1 #b1 ,after 8rain1 snow10 add 8winds1 earthquakes1 lightnings40 #ef1 #b1 hold together as one be subject to tension4 body4 #fc1 #d1 on account of 444 when it has accumulated1 clouds4 is thrust violently upward by the massing of the clouds4 #ge1 #b1 and it might 444 and which might with bladder4 greater accuracy be called harsh1 because it emits a sound like that heard when a bladder4 #ie1 #b1 a third neither4 a third mixed1 a fourth neither4 #ih1 #a1 7c4 lv47 dry air4 air in rapid motion4 ,,iii4 #abb1 #c1 when trees are cut when trees are full of sap down4 and not cut down4 #abc1 #a1 air is produced4 ,gercke places c4 xiv4 immediately after this4 #acb1 #c1 concealed throughout1 after 8throughout0 insert until4 8in others they run above ground for some distance40 #adb1 #e1 you have yourself 444 you1 my dear ,lucilius1 believe ,virgil4 the story as 7,i said7 in the first part of my book1 and so does ,virgil4 #adi1 #d1 nor do the waters1 nor do the waters find this etc4 a hard task since the sea mounts from an elevation equal to that of the earth 7or land74 ,if the heights be calculated 7or if the average be taken over the heights71 it will appear that the surface of the sea is of uniform level4 ,,iv4 #afa1 #h1 the stature 444 the text and meaning are arena4 somewhat conjectural4 ,gercke reads 8the stature of an ape matched against a ,thracian in the arena40 ,for 8,apollonius ,pycta0 he reads 8,a4 the boxer40 #agc1 #ai1 nor yet the ,castrus nor the ,castrus which lies 444 deep4 beneath ,mount ,tmolus increases in summer1 and yet deep snow lies there constantly as is natural in those northern regions4 8,tmolo0 is an ingenious and probable emendation4 ,,iv4 #ahf1 #a1 no one 444 virtuous4 by which one may become only more lettered and not more virtuous4 ,,vi4 #bcb1 #b1 and1 generally if the boats are unduly speaking 444 sunk1 the water uses the whole force of the burthens it upbears1 in order either to pour over them1 or at any rate to rise to an unwonted height to right and left4 #bdd1 7c4 xv47 to hurry to blow where it lists4 straight forward4 #beh1 #b1 philosophers4 scholars1 or philologists4 #bfe1 #b1 7c4 xxxi47 soft mate- walls undergo more frequent rials 444 hard4 but more gentle shocks than the nature of hard material allows4 ,,vii4 #bif1 #d1 every star cannot but no star can traverse its the zodiac1 then ,i say a comet may have a different kind of orbit and yet some point in it may coincide with the zodiac4 ,,index ,,to ,,the 8,,quaestiones ,,naturales0 a prefixed to a name indicates authorities used by ,seneca4 a ,academy1 #cjg4 ,school and followers of ,plato4 ,achaia1 #adb1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bce1 #bhh 7adj471 #cjc4 ,district in ,n4,w4 of southern part of ,greece 7,morea74 ,actors1 regard for1 #cjg4 ,adriatic1 #aec4 ,adversity1 to be faced with joy1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,aegean 7,sea71 #gc1 #beb4 ,eastern part of the ,mediterranean4 ,aegium1 #beg 7#b74 ,a leading town in ,achaia on the ,gulf of ,corinth4 a ,aeschylus1 #agb4 ,africa1 #aag1 #bab1 #bcf1 #bfc4 ,africus 7,wind71 #baj4 ,air1 tension of1 #eh2 wide diffusion of1 #fj2 transformed into water1 #aai1 #aba2 transformed into fire1 #abj1 #aba1 #bje2 kindled by friction1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bgg2 kindled within the earth1 #bcf1 #bea2 the cause of earthquakes1 #bci-dh1 #bea1 #bed1 #bee2 enters interior of earth1 #bed1 #bee4 ,albula1 #acd4 ,small stream flowing into the ,arno near ,tibur 7,tivoli7 some #af miles ,e4 of ,rome4 ,alexander 7the ,great71 #aaj1 #bae1 #bed 7#b74 ,alexandria1 #bgc4 ,alphes1 #adb 7#b71 #bce4 ,river in ,elis in ,southern ,greece4 ,alps1 #aaj1 #agc1 #ahd4 ,ambracian 7,gulf71 #aec4 ,on ,w4 of ,greece 7,gulf of ,arta74 ,ammon2 see ,jupiter4 ,amphitheatre1 jets of water in1 #ei4 a ,anaxagoras1 #fc1 #fh1 #agb1 #agh1 #bcf1 #bgf4 ,celebrated ,ionian philosopher1 #ejj-dbh ,b4,c4 a ,anaximander1 #fg4 ,ionian philosopher1 #faj-edg ,b4,c4 a ,anaximenes1 #fg1 #bcg4 ,ionian philosopher about #ejj ,b4,c4 ,animals1 blind in subterranean waters1 #abi4 ,animals1 new forms of1 discovered in ,seneca's time1 #cje2 many still to be found out1 #cje4 ,antiochus1 #bhh4 ,king of ,syria1 #acg-abh ,b4,c4 ,antony 7,mark71 #agb4 ,ants1 mankind compared to1 #f4 ,apennines1 #ahd4 ,apollonia1 #ab1 #fh1 #agf4 ,town in ,illyria4 a ,apollonius 7of ,myndus71 #bgd1 #bij1 #cjj4 ,said to have flourished about the time of ,alexander the ,great 7#ccj ,b4,c474 ,there may be some confusion in the text between him and the celebrated ,pythagorean philosopher1 ,a4 of ,tyana1 who was born shortly before the ,christian era4 ,apollonius ,pycta 7or pyctes the boxer71 #afa4 ,unknown otherwise2 apparently a gladiator4 ,apulia1 #baa4 ,district in ,s4,e4 of ,italy4 ,aquarius 7sign of the ,zodiac71 #cja4 ,aquilo 7,wind71 #bji4 a ,aratus1 #cg4 ,of ,cilicia1 astronomical poet1 flourished #bgj ,b4,c4 ,araxes1 #bdf4 ,river in ,armenia 7,aras74 ,arcadia1 #abb1 #acg4 ,district in centre of ,southern ,greece4 a ,archelaus1 #bci4 ,philosopher1 flourished about #dej ,b4,c4 ,pupil and partly disciple of ,anaxagoras4 ,arethusa1 #adb 7#b71 #bce4 ,celebrated fountain in ,syracuse in ,sicily4 ,argestes 7,wind71 #baj4 ,argolic1 #adb4 ,argolis is a district in ,n4,e4 of ,southern ,greece4 a ,aristotle1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #ai 7#b71 #cc1 #fc1 #bdj1 #bdb1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #cjb 7#b71 #cjc 7#b71 #cjd4 ,see ,introduction4 a ,artemidorus 7of ,parium71 #bb1 #bhf 7#b71 #bhg4 ,not otherwise known4 a ,asclepiodotus1 #gd1 #gg1 #bjg1 #bdf1 #bec4 ,not otherwise known4 ,asia1 #bbd1 #bcc4 ,province on the ,w4 coast of ,asia ,minor1 or generic name for area ,e4 and ,n4,e4 of ,europe4 ,astronomy 7,caelestia71 scope of1 #ea2 of ,egyptians1 #bgd2 of ,chaldaeans1 #bge2 of ,greeks1 #bih4 ,atabulus 7,wind71 #baa4 ,atalanta1 #bef4 ,small island between ,euboea and mainland of ,greece4 ,the channel now bears the name ,talanta1 which is likewise that of a neighbouring town4 ,athens1 #baa4 a ,attalus1 #id1 #ie4 ,stoic philosopher1 one of ,seneca's teachers4 ,attalus1 #bhh4 ,king of ,pergamus1 #bda-aig ,b4,c4 ,atlantic ,ocean1 #agd1 #age 7#b74 ,atlantic ,ocean1 growth of trade to ports on shores of1 #age4 ,atmosphere1 friction of1 produces fires1 #i1 #ci2 upper portion dry and hot1 #ci1 #fj1 #fe1 #gh2 possesses unity or continuity1 #eb1 #eg2 place of1 in universe1 #ed2 earthy elements of1 #ef1 #fj2 tension of1 #ef2 lowest portion dense and dark1 #fj1 #ahd2 and warmer than the rest1 #ahc2 distribution of temperature in1 #fj1 #ahd2 causes of movements of1 #fa2 relation of1 to the ether1 #fe1 #ff2 adapted to transmit sound1 #gg2 rarefied1 kindles fire1 #ajj1 #bje2 by violent movement sets itself on fire1 #ajb2 proof that it is never absolutely motionless1 #aic2 possesses a native capacity of movement1 #aig4 ,atoms1 the world a fortuitous concourse of1 #g4 ,augury1 kinds of1 #gi1 #hj1 #hb4 ,augustus1 #i1 #ab1 #db1 #baa1 #bij4 ,auster 7,wind71 #baj4 a ,authorities 7various1 not specified by name1 but spoken of as 8certain10 8some10 etc471 #ah1 #ca1 #ce1 #eg1 #fc1 #fg1 #gc1 #ge1 #ic1 #aja1 #aaj1 #aaf1 #aah1 #aai1 #abb1 #ace1 #adh 7#b71 #aej1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #bcj1 #bcc1 #bcf1 #bch1 #bci1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bhc4 ,avarice1 denounced1 #bjg4 ,bactra1 #bae4 ,in ,central ,asia 7,balkh74 a ,balbillus1 #aga4 ,governor of ,egypt in ,nero's reign1 #ec4 ,balkan ,mountains2 see ,haemus4 ,baths1 heating of water of1 #acf2 effect of ,campanian earthquake on tiled floor of1 #bfd4 ,bathyllus1 #cjg4 ,a native of ,alexandria1 freedman at ,rome during reign of ,augustus2 perfected a pantomimic or ballet dance4 ,bear 7,great71 #bjh4 ,belus1 #aea4 ,babylonian deity4 a ,berosus1 #aea4 ,priest of ,belus1 about #bej ,b4,c4 ,black ,sea2 see ,pontus4 ,boeotia1 #acg4 ,district in ,central ,greece4 ,boreas 7,wind71 #bjh4 ,bothynae 7meteors71 #cg4 ,breezes1 morning1 #aie1 #aih4 ,buris2 see ,helice4 a ,caecina1 #hf1 #id1 #ie1 #ajj4 ,a friend and correspondent of ,cicero1 about #dh ,b4,c4 ,caesar 7,julius71 #aff1 #bac1 #bij4 ,caius 7,emperor ,caligula71 #afc1 #afd4 ,calabria1 #baa4 ,district in extreme ,s4,e4 of ,italy4 a ,callimachus1 #agb4 ,grammarian and poet2 chief librarian of ,alexandrine library1 #bfj-bdj ,b4,c4 a ,callisthenes1 #bed 7#f71 #beh1 #bgf1 #bgg4 ,relative and pupil of ,aristotle1 friend and victim of ,alexander the ,great4 ,cambyses1 #gh4 ,king of ,persia1 #ebi-ebb ,b4,c4 ,campania1 #bba 7#b71 #bbd 7#b71 #bbe1 #bci1 #beg1 #bei 7adj471 #bfd1 #bfe4 ,district in ,italy containing ,capua1 ,naples1 etc4 ,cancer 7sign of the ,zodiac71 #aea4 ,cannae1 #bji4 ,in ,apulia4 ,cannon1 ancient types of1 #fg4 ,capitol1 #ia4 ,cappadocia1 #ach4 ,centre of ,asia ,minor4 ,capricorn 7sign of the ,zodiac71 #aea4 ,caria1 #acb1 #adb 7adj474 ,s4,w4 of ,asia ,minor4 ,carthage1 #aaj1 #aff4 ,caspian1 #aec4 ,cassander1 #abb4 ,son of ,antipater1 regent of ,macedonia2 eventually king of ,macedonia2 died #big ,b4,c4 ,castor and ,pollux1 #aa4 ,constellation and sign of the ,zodiac 7,gemini74 ,cataegis 7,wind71 #baa4 ,cataracts 7,nile71 #afh4 ,caucasus1 #agc4 ,caves with noxious air1 #acd2 felt to be warmer in winter than in summer1 #agf1 #bda4 ,castrus 7or ,caster71 #agc4 ,river in ,w4 of ,asia ,minor flowing into the sea near ,ephesus4 ,chalcis1 #bdf1 #beg4 ,chief town of ,euboea on ,strait at narrowest point4 a ,chaldaeans1 #ha1 #bge 7#c71 #cjb4 a ,charimander 7or ,charmander71 #bgf4 ,otherwise unknown4 ,charms1 laws against1 #ahb4 ,charybdis1 #aec4 ,whirlpool in ,strait of ,messina4 ,chasmata 7meteors71 #ch4 ,chersonese 7 peninsula71 #adb4 ,carian or ,rhodian on ,s4,w4 of ,asia ,minor4 ,chios1 #age4 ,island and town 7,scio7 off coast of ,asia ,minor4 a ,cicero1 #ajj4 ,ciconians1 #acc4 ,tribe in ,thrace4 ,circius 7,wind71 #baa4 ,claudius 7,emperor71 #bij1 #bid1 #cjd4 ,cleonae1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,town in ,argolis4 ,cleopatra1 #agb 7#b74 ,antony's celebrated partner4 a ,clidemus1 #ii4 ,a philosopher anterior in date to ,aristotle4 ,clouds1 as sources of lightning and thunder1 #aj1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #ge1 #bjc2 invisible when we are within them1 #bd2 composition of1 #bd2 compression of1 causes thunder1 #fg2 produce fire1 #gj1 #gd1 #ajj2 must be burst before they emit sound1 #gf1 #ih2 not necessarily connected with wind1 #aie2 as sources of wind1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,cloud-winds1 #bjc4 ,colours 7in rainbow71 origin of1 #ba1 #be1 #cj1 #ca4 ,comets1 infrequency of1 #bgb1 #bhh1 #cja2 what are they8 #bgb2 points of resemblance of1 to planets1 #bgc2 resemblance to meteors1 #bge1 #bgf2 classes of1 #bgf1 #bij2 not due to wind1 #bgh1 #bgi-bhb2 curved path of1 #bgi2 long visibility of1 #bhb2 distribution and shape of1 #bhc2 ,greek classification of1 #bhc2 different from the planets1 #bhd2 examples of1 #bhh1 #bij2 vast orbits of1 #bij1 #big1 #cjb2 vary in apparent size as they advance or retreat1 #bia2 transparency of1 #bia1 #cjj2 ,stoic opinions regarding1 #bia-bid2 directions of1 #bid1 #cjc1 #cjd2 ,seneca's opinion1 #bie1 #cje2 form of1 #cjj2 portents from1 #cjb4 a ,conon1 #bgd4 ,astronomer2 born at ,samos2 lived at ,alexandria about #bej ,b4,c4 ,said to have been a friend of ,archimedes4 ,constellations1 #cja4 ,contentment1 duty of1 #aab4 ,continuity or unity1 defined1 #ec4 ,corus 7,wind71 #baj4 ,corycian 7,mt471 #abb4 ,the district round ,corycus in ,cilicia was famous for saffron4 ,crassus1 #bae4 ,celebrated ,roman1 slain in battle in ,mesopotamia1 #ec ,b4,c4 ,crete1 #abc1 #aec 7adj474 ,crispus ,passienus1 #afj4 ,stepfather of ,nero4 ,consul in #db4 ,crocodiles and dolphins1 fight between1 #aga2 chase of1 #agb4 ,cutiliae1 #aci 7#b74 ,in the ,sabine country1 ,n4,e4 of ,rome4 ,cyclades1 #adg4 ,group of islands in ,grecian ,archipelago4 ,cyclopes1 #ia4 ,jove's fabled armourers with workshops beneath ,etna1 ,stromboli1 etc4 ,cyprus1 #bei4 ,dacian1 #e4 ,danube1 as a political boundary1 #e1 #bcc2 alleged remarkable character of1 #ace2 floods of1 #adf2 contrasted with the ,nile1 #aff2 not swollen in winter1 #agc4 ,darius1 #bed4 ,king of ,persia1 #eba-dhe ,b4,c4 ,death1 to be faced without fear1 #ajc1 #bbc1 #bbf1 #bfe-bfh2 equalises mankind1 #bbc2 the introduction to a better place than earth1 #bfg4 ,delos1 #beh1 #bei4 ,perhaps the most famous of 8the isles of ,greece40 ,deluge1 that is to destroy the earth1 #adc4 a ,demetrius1 #afa4 ,cynic philosopher1 contemporary of ,seneca4 ,demetrius 7father and son71 #bhh4 ,kings of ,syria between #afb and #abe ,b4,c4 a ,democritus1 #ahc 7#b71 #aid1 #bdi1 #bej1 #bgf4 ,the optimist or 8laughing philosopher0 of ,abdera in ,thrace2 said to have lived #dfj-cfa ,b4,c4 a ,diogenes 7of ,apollonia in ,crete71 #fh1 #agf1 #agg4 ,pupil of ,anaximenes1 lived in fifth century ,b4,c4 ,dnieper 7,borysthenes71 #agd4 ,dog-star1 #bjb4 ,dolphins and crocodiles1 fight between1 #aga4 ,doris1 translated 8sea nymph0 in the quotation from ,virgil1 #adb4 ,dowsers1 #abg4 ,drops1 globular form of1 #agh4 ,drunkenness1 #acd1 #ahh4 ,earth1 material of1 formed from water1 #abj1 #aba4 ,earth as a whole1 place of the1 in universe1 #ee2 formed after the plan of our bodies1 #abf1 #aea1 #bdb1 #bee2 final destruction of1 #adc2 itself the cause of earthquakes1 #bcg2 whether it or the universe revolves1 #bgc4 ,earth's interior1 water supply in1 #aai1 #bjf1 #bcc1 #bcd2 cold temperature of1 #aai1 #aba2 like surface above ground1 #abh1 #bjf2 blind animals in waters of1 #abi2 origin of wind within1 #bjf1 #bci1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bed2 landslips in1 #bch1 #bdi1 #bea2 store of vital air in1 #bdd1 #bde4 ,earthquakes1 causes of1 #ea1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bcf1 #bdi2 effects of1 #aba1 #bba1 #bbi1 #beg1 #bei1 #bfb1 #bfc2 ,campanian 7of ,a4,d4 #fc71 #bba1 #beg1 #bei1 #bfb1 #bfd2 influence of1 on the human mind1 #bbb1 #bfb2 widespread destruction produced by1 #bbc2 not the work of angry gods1 #bbh2 ,seneca's youthful work on1 #bcj2 water as the origin of1 #bca2 fire as the origin of1 #bcf1 #bch2 air as the origin of1 #bci-bdh1 #bea1 #bee1 #bef1 #bfd2 mixed sources of1 #bdi2 varieties of movement in 7inclinatio1 succussio1 tremor71 #beb2 most frequent near the sea1 #bee2 cause of local extent of1 #beg2 features of the ,campanian1 #bei-bfd2 the first shock of1 the most violent1 #bfd4 ,eclipses1 #ce1 #bgd1 #bhd1 #bic4 ,egypt1 #f1 #afg-agg 7passim72 great heat in1 #agc2 said not to be visited by earthquakes1 #beh4 a ,egyptians1 ideas of1 as to the elements1 #abe2 astronomy of1 #bgd4 ,elements1 interchangeability of1 #abj1 #aba1 #bde2 four in number1 #abc2 contrariety of1 #cja4 ,eleusis1 #cjf4 ,in ,attica1 ,n4,w4 of ,athens about #ab miles2 scene of the great ,eleusinian mysteries4 ,elis1 #aad1 #beg4 ,district in ,s4,w4 of ,southern ,greece4 ,emanations1 terrestrial1 feed the sun and stars1 #ee1 #aih1 #bdd2 cause thunder1 lightning1 and commotion of the air1 #fc1 #bge2 dry and moist1 #fc1 #gh4 a ,empedocles1 #acf 7#b74 ,philosopher of ,agrigentum in ,sicily1 flourished about #ddd ,b4,c4 a ,ephorus1 #bhi 7#c74 ,greek historian of some repute about #cdj ,b4,c4 a ,epicurus1 #bej4 ,born #cdb1 died #bgj ,b4,c4 a ,epigenes1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #bhj 7#b71 #bhc4 ,a ,greek astronomer of ,byzantium of uncertain date4 ,erasinus1 #adb4 ,river of ,argolis4 ,etesian 7,winds71 #agd 7#d71 #age1 #bja 7#d71 #bjb 7#d71 #bab4 ,ether1 characters of the1 #fe2 descent of force from the1 #fh4 ,ethiopia1 #f1 #aag1 #afg1 #afh1 #agb1 #agc1 #bab1 #bce4 ,term was applied very loosely to all the hinterland of ,africa1 only the ,mediterranean coast and a portion of the ,nile basin being known to the ,greeks4 ,etna1 #gg4 a ,etruscans 7or ,tuscans71 #gi1 #hh1 #ib1 #ie 7sing474 ,etruria lay immediately ,n4 of the ,tiber4 a ,eudoxus1 #bgd4 ,astronomer of ,cnidus in ,caria1 pupil of ,plato1 flourished about #cff ,b4,c4 ,euphrates1 #e1 #bae4 a ,euripides1 #agc4 ,euronotus 7,wind71 #baj4 ,europe1 #agc 7adj471 #bcc4 ,eurus 7,wind71 #bjh1 #bji4 a ,euthymenes 7of ,marseilles71 #agd1 #age 7#b74 ,geographer1 probably about #aej ,b4,c4 ,evaporation from the earth1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bdj4 ,expiation1 the reason for1 #hc1 #hd4 ,eyesight swifter than hearing1 #fd4 a ,fabianus 7,papirius71 #add4 ,distinguished ,stoic1 one of ,seneca's teachers4 ,falernian 7wine71 #ce4 ,district famous for wine in ,n4 of ,campania4 ,fate1 unalterable1 #hc2 nature of1 #hd1 #ia2 uncertainty of visitations of1 #bbe4 ,favonius 7,wind71 #baj4 ,fear1 how to be combated1 #ajc1 #bbe1 #bbi1 #bfe1 #bff1 #bfg2 arises from ignorance1 #bbi2 leads to loss of reason1 #bfb4 ,fidus ,annaeus1 #afa4 ,apparently a gladiator of gigantic stature4 ,fire1 kindled in atmosphere1 #ci1 #fb1 #fd1 #gj1 #ajj1 #ajb2 passes into air1 #abj2 artificial modes of producing1 by percussion or friction1 #gj2 naturally rises1 #ga1 #ajb2 endowed with the power of producing some animals1 #aig2 as the cause of earthquakes1 #bcf1 #bch2 produced in the earth's interior1 #bea2 kindled by air1 #bea4 ,fires1 celestial1 #h1 #ci1 #bid1 #bie1 #bif4 ,fish in underground waters1 #abi1 #acb4 ,flattery1 counsel against1 #aei4 ,floods1 the earth to be finally destroyed by1 #adc1 #add4 ,fortune1 vicissitudes of1 #aaa4 ,fountains1 discharges from1 #adb4 ,fucinus1 #aaf4 ,large lake in ,sabine country ,e4 of ,rome4 ,gaetulicus1 #afc4 ,cn4 ,cornelius ,lentulus ,g41 put to death by ,caligula #ci4 ,galatia1 #ach4 ,gallic1 #f4 ,gallio1 #afa1 #bjb4 ,see ,introduction4 ,gaul1 #aag1 #abb 7pl471 #baa4 ,geography 7,terrena71 scope of1 #ea1 #eb4 ,germanicus1 #i4 ,nero ,claudius ,drusus1 brother of the ,emperor ,tiberius1 died #aj ,b4,c4 ,germans1 #bcc4 ,germany1 #e1 #aag1 #aff4 ,gibraltar1 #age4 ,glass1 globe of1 filled with water magnifies objects1 #bi2 cause of iridescence in1 #cj4 ,god1 nature of1 #c1 #d1 #g1 #h1 #ia1 #cje2 sends portents1 #hj2 unchangeable1 #hd2 to ,him everything is present1 #hd2 ,his design in creating the winds1 #bac1 #baf4 ,gods1 dread of infernal1 #bjh2 do not disturb heaven or earth1 #bbh2 not to be feared1 #bff4 ,gold1 lust for1 denounced1 #e1 #bjh1 #bae4 ,greece1 #bae1 #bgd 7#b71 #bih4 ,greek1 #eh1 #ie1 #baj1 #bee4 a ,greeks1 #ab1 #ac1 #ae1 #cd1 #ci1 #dj1 #adj1 #afi1 #aih1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bji 7#b71 #baj1 #baa1 #bdj1 #bee1 #bhc4 ,gusts of wind1 origin of1 #bjc4 ,gylippus1 #ab4 ,spartan commander against ,athenians at ,syracuse1 #dad ,b4,c4 ,haemus 7,balkan ,mountains71 #abb4 ,hail1 #agg1 #aha2 falls more in summer than winter1 #agi2 prognostications of1 #aha4 ,halos 7crowns71 round sun and moon1 #ab1 #ad1 #cd1 #da4 ,hannibal1 #aaj1 #bji4 ,famous ,carthaginian general in ,second ,punic ,war1 #bai-bja ,b4,c4 ,happiness1 how to be gained1 #e1 #bff4 ,heavenly bodies1 influence of1 on rivers1 #ada2 on weather1 #bge2 apparent retrogression of some1 #bii4 ,heavens1 extent of the1 #g2 contemplation of the starry1 #bga2 divisions of the1 #baj2 supposed by ,artemidorus to be a solid vault1 #bhf4 ,helice and ,buris 7or ,bura71 #bed1 #beg1 #bei1 #bfg1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bhi4 ,towns in ,achaia swallowed by earthquake #cgc ,b4,c4 ,heracleotic 7mouth of the ,nile71 #aga4 ,most westerly and largest1 not far from ,alexandria4 a ,heraclitus1 #ajj4 ,ancient representative of pessimism1 8the weeping philosopher10 of ,ephesus1 toward end of sixth century ,b4,c4 ,herculaneum1 #bba 7#b71 #bei4 a ,homer1 #beh4 ,horizon1 #baa4 ,hostius ,quadra1 #db4 ,unknown save for ,seneca's unfortunate mention of him4 ,hydissus1 #acb4 ,orthography of this ,carian town is uncertain2 ,gercke reads ,idumus4 ,hydraulic organs1 #ef4 ,iapygian 7,wind71 #baa4 ,ice1 #adj4 ,india1 #g1 #bab1 #bae4 ,intermittent action1 #abh4 ,iron1 discovery of1 #de2 money made of1 #df4 ,islands1 floating1 #aci4 ,ister 7or ,hister71 a name of the ,danube1 which see4 ,italy1 #aaj1 #aag1 #acc1 #bab1 #bfa1 #bfb 7adj471 #bfc4 ,junior1 see ,lucilius1 #afh4 ,jupiter 7,jove71 temple of1 in ,african desert 7,ammon71 #gh2 his thunderbolts1 #hh1 #hi1 #ia1 #ib2 affords lessons to earthly rulers1 #ij2 other names for1 #ia1 #ib4 ,jupiter1 the planet1 #bhd1 #bii4 ,lacedaemonians1 #ahi4 ,lacedaemon1 or ,sparta1 was in ,laconia1 the district in the ,s4,e4 of ,southern ,greece4 ,ladon1 #beg4 ,river in ,arcadia1 tributary of ,alpheus4 ,laelius1 #bfh4 ,friend of the younger ,scipio ,africanus1 consul #adj ,b4,c4 ,chief interlocutor in ,cicero's ,dialogue on ,friendship4 ,lakes1 with dense water1 #ach1 #aci2 underground1 #aed2 wide extent of some1 #bcc4 ,land and sea breezes1 #aih4 ,landslips1 #bch1 #bdi1 #bea2 effects of1 #bec4 ,latin1 #baj 7#b74 ,leo 7sign of the ,zodiac71 #cja4 ,lepidus1 #aff 7#c74 ,formed with ,augustus and ,antony the ,second ,triumvirate after ,caesar's assassination in #dd ,b4,c4 ,libonotus 7,wind71 #baj4 ,libyan 7,wind71 #baj4 ,life1 the proper conduct in1 #aab1 #aei1 #bff2 uncertainty of1 #bbf2 to be carried in our hand if we desire to live happy and without fear1 #bff4 ,lightning1 #fb1 #ff1 #fi1 #hf1 #hg1 #ajj2 effects of1 #gh1 #hg1 #hh1 #if2 portents indicated by1 #gi1 #ha1 #hb1 #hf1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #bae2 possible pestilential power in1 #ig2 cause of zigzag course of1 #ajb2 moral lessons to be derived from a consideration of1 #ajd2 safe retreats from1 #bbc2 blinding effects of1 #bib2 connected with the planets1 #bge4 a ,livy 7,titus ,livius71 #bji1 #bac4 ,roman historian1 #ei ,b4,c4-#ag4 ,lower ,sea2 see ,propontis4 ,lucilius ,junior1 #a1 #ajc1 #aji1 #aad1 #adb1 #aei 7#b71 #afa1 #afb1 #afc1 #bag1 #bba1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #bfh4 ,see ,introduction4 ,luxury1 introduction of1 #de1 #df2 growth of1 #dg1 #ahh2 illustrations of1 #abi1 #ahg2 denunciation of1 #acj1 #ahg1 #cjf4 ,lycia1 #adj4 ,district ,s4,w4 of ,asia ,minor4 ,lycus1 #adb4 ,river1 probably of ,phrygia in ,asia ,minor1 flowing into the ,maeander4 ,lydia1 #aci4 ,district in ,w4 of ,asia ,minor4 ,lyncestis1 #acd4 ,macedonia1 #ach1 #bjg1 #bbd1 #cjc4 ,magnesia1 #abb4 ,town of ,lydia4 ,mankind1 compared to ants1 #f2 early ages of1 #de1 #df2 final destruction of1 #adg1 #aeb2 re-creation of1 after the deluge1 #aee2 world not made only for1 #cje4 ,marmora or ,marmara 7,sea of72 see ,propontis4 ,mars1 the planet1 #aj1 #bge1 #bhd4 ,marseilles1 #agd4 ,marshes1 #bcc2 of the ,nile1 #bcf4 ,magalenopolis 7or ,megalepolis or ,megalopolis71 #beg4 ,town in ,arcadia4 ,melas1 #acg4 ,river of ,boeotia in ,central ,greece4 ,memphis1 #agj4 ,great ,egyptian city a little above ,cairo4 a ,menander1 #afe4 ,athenian comic poet1 #cdb-bia ,b4,c4 ,mercury1 the planet1 #bhd4 ,messalina1 #afc4 ,third wife of ,emperor ,claudius2 put to death by ,narcissus1 #dh4 ,messana 7,messina71 #adb4 ,metalliferous veins1 #abf4 ,metals1 melted by lightning1 #gh1 #if2 denunciation of the search for the precious1 #bjg1 #bae4 ,meteorology 7,sublimia71 scope of1 #ea4 ,meteors1 #h-aa1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bib1 #bic1 #bif4 a ,metrodorus 7of ,chios71 #bdh 7#b74 ,philosopher who flourished about #ccj ,b4,c4 8,sceptic40 ,disciple of ,democritus1 perhaps4 ,milky ,way1 #bhi4 ,mind1 the human1 its nature and seat unknown1 #big4 ,mines1 water in1 #aed2 ancient1 explored by ,philip of ,macedon1 #bjg4 ,mirrors1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #bg1 #da1 #db1 #dd1 #de1 #dg4 ,mock-suns1 #ce4 ,moon1 eclipse of1 #bih2 varying colour of1 #cjj4 ,moral reflections1 ,seneca's1 #a-h1 #db1 #dd-dg1 #ajb-aje1 #aji-aad1 #acj-acb1 #adc-aef1 #aei-aff1 #ahf-aij1 #bjg1 #bac-bag1 #bbb-bbi1 #bed1 #bfe-bfh4 ,mountains1 insignificance of height of1 compared with the whole mass of the earth1 #ahd4 ,mushrooms1 #ahi4 ,mylae1 #adb4 ,town on ,n4 coast of ,sicily1 near ,messina4 ,myndus1 #bgd1 #bij4 ,town in ,caria4 ,naples1 partly damaged by earthquake of ,a4,d4 #fc1 #bba4 ,narcissus1 #afd4 ,freedman of ,claudius1 put to death by ,agrippina1 #ed4 ,natural ,philosophy1 #c1 #h4 ,nature1 influence of1 #c2 origin of1 #g2 as a synonym for ,god1 #ib2 advantage of the study of1 #aac1 #bfe2 finds no task hard1 #add1 #aed2 inadequate conceptions of1 #bbh2 study of1 the highest pursuit1 #bcj2 power of variation in1 #cja2 inexhaustibility of1 #cjf2 still most imperfectly known1 #cjf4 ,naval wars denounced1 #bac4 ,nebaioth1 #bjh4 ,an ,arabian people1 put for ,east in general4 ,latin form is ,nabataei4 ,neptune 7,earthshaker71 #bee4 a ,nero ,caesar1 #be1 #bce1 #bij1 #bid2 probably referred to1 though not named1 #ij 7last two sentences74 ,nicopolis1 #bei4 ,city in ,w4 of ,greece at entrance to ,ambracian ,gulf4 ,the word means 8city of victory10 something like our oft-recurrent 8,victoria40 ,nile1 unusual character of1 #aad1 #ace1 #aff2 physiological effect of water of1 #adj2 rise of1 #ada1 #afg1 #afi1 #agb2 course of1 #afh1 #agj1 #bcc2 cataracts of1 #afh2 mode of descent of1 #afi2 delta of1 #agj1 #aga2 canalisation of1 #agj2 deposit of1 #agj1 #beh2 inundation of1 #aga2 supposed underground supply of1 #bce2 ,nero's expedition to the1 #bce2 transport of sediment by1 #beh4 ,nonacris1 #acg4 ,town in ,arcadia4 ,notus 7,wind71 #bji4 ,nuceria1 #bba4 ,town in ,campania4 ,ocean1 #f 7#b71 #aab1 #aai1 #ace1 #adc1 #aec1 #aee1 #bca1 #bed 7#b71 #bff4 a ,oenopides 7of ,chios71 #age4 ,mathematician and astronomer1 probably contemporary of ,anaxagoras1 fifth century ,b4,c4 ,olympic1 #adb 7#b74 ,olympia was in ,elis4 ,olympus1 #beg4 ,high mountain in ,thessaly1 ,northern ,greece4 ,omens1 arranged by ,providence1 #hj2 from lightning1 #hb4 ,organs 7hydraulic71 #ef4 ,ossa1 #beg4 ,mountain in ,thessaly1 ,northern ,greece4 ,ostia1 #da4 ,town at mouth of ,tiber2 port of ,rome4 a ,ovid1 #aad1 #acc1 #adh1 #afe1 #afh4 ,latin poet1 #dc ,b4,c4-#ah4 ,parhelia1 #ce4 ,pamphylia1 #baa4 ,district on ,s4 of ,asia ,minor4 a ,panaetius1 #cjd4 ,stoic philosopher of ,rhodes1 friend of ,laelius and the younger ,scipio ,africanus2 died #aaa ,b4,c4 ,paphos1 #bei4 ,town on ,w4 of ,cyprus4 ,parium1 #bb4 ,town in ,mysia on ,n4,w4 of ,asia ,minor4 ,parthians1 #e1 #bae4 ,paterculus1 #cjc4 ,his consulship is said to have been in the year #fj4 ,patras1 #beg4 ,town at entrance of ,gulf of ,corinth4 ,paulus1 #i4 ,l4 ,aemilius ,p41 consul #aha and #afh ,b4,c4 ,peacock1 analogy from colours of1 #be4 ,peloponnesian 7,war71 #bef1 #beh4 ,lasted #dca-djd ,b4,c4 between ,athens and ,sparta4 ,penes1 #ach1 #beg4 ,great river draining the plain of ,thessaly and flowing through vale of ,tempe between ,olympus and ,ossa2 now called ,salambria4 ,perseus1 #i4 ,last king of ,macedonia1 #agh-afh ,b4,c4 ,persia1 #bjh1 #bae4 ,persians1 #bed4 ,pestilential vapours emitted from the ground1 #bfj1 #bfa4 ,pharos1 #beh4 ,island off ,alexandria with famous lighthouse1 united to mainland by ,alexander the ,great4 ,phasis1 #agd4 ,river of ,colchis at ,e4 of ,black ,sea4 ,philae1 #afh 7#c71 #afi4 ,island in the ,nile1 just below ,first ,cataract4 ,seneca seems to confuse it with the so-called island of ,mero1 at the junction of the ,blue ,nile and ,atbara4 ,philip1 #aaj1 #bjg 7#b74 ,father of ,alexander the ,great2 king of ,macedonia #cei-ccf ,b4,c4 ,philosophers1 debt due to the early1 #bcj2 credulous folk1 #beh2 severe criticisms of1 #abe1 #age1 #bhh1 #bhi4 ,philosophy1 divisions of1 #c2 pleasures of1 #d1 #e2 benefits conferred by1 #ig2 delivers its votaries from fear1 #bbe2 rewards of1 #bbi2 decadence of1 #cjg1 #cjh4 a ,pindar1 #beh4 ,greek poet1 #ebb-ddb ,b4,c4 ,pithitae1 or pithiae 7meteors71 #ch1 #dj4 ,plancus1 #afj4 ,l4 ,munatius ,p41 a prominent actor in the civil wars1 #dh-ca ,b4,c4 ,planets1 colours of1 #aj2 enumerated1 #bge2 fixed number of1 #bhd2 orbits of1 #bhe2 motions of1 #bhh2 possibly greater number of1 #big2 conspicuous movements of1 #bih4 a ,plato1 #baf4 ,pollux1 #aa2 see ,castor4 ,pompeii1 #bba1 #bei 7#b74 ,pompey1 #aff 7#c74 ,defeated by ,caesar #dh ,b4,c41 and assassinated shortly after4 ,pontus 7district in ,n4,e4 of ,asia ,minor71 #ada4 ,pontus 7,black ,sea71 #aec1 #agf1 #ahj 7874 ,portents from meteors1 #i1 #bbh1 #bei2 lightning1 #gi1 #hf1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #bae2 eclipses1 #bbh2 comets1 #bgb1 #bij1 #cjb4 a ,posidonius1 #bf1 #bg1 #gc1 #gd1 #ih 7#b71 #agg1 #bdf1 #beb1 #bef1 #bib1 #bic4 ,a very distinguished ,stoic philosopher1 president of that school4 ,instructor for a time and friend of ,cicero4 ,prosecuted physical investigations with great success4 ,native of ,syria4 ,lived #ace-ea ,b4,c4 ,posterity1 great increase of knowledge to be attained by1 #bih4 ,predestination1 #he4 ,prognostications2 see ,portents4 ,propontis 7,sea of ,marmora71 #aec1 #agf 7,lower ,sea74 ,providence1 #ib1 #bac4 ,puteoli1 #acc4 ,on coast of ,campania4 ,pylades1 #cjg4 ,a ,cilician2 a dancer like ,bathyllus4 ,pyrenees1 #e4 a ,pyrrho1 #cjg4 ,founder of the sect of the ,sceptics1 native of ,elis2 flourished about fourth century ,b4,c4 a ,pythagoras1 #cjg4 ,flourished in second half of sixth century ,b4,c4 ,pyx1 trial of1 #ahj4 ,rain1 ,seneca's observation on descent of1 into soil1 #aag2 share of1 in final destruction of the world1 #adc1 #add1 #adi2 seasonal variations of1 #agi2 supposed to be influenced by incantations1 #ahb4 ,rainbow1 #af-cc4 ,rainless countries1 #afg1 #agc4 ,red ,sea1 #aab1 #aec1 #afh4 ,regulus1 #bba4 ,consul #fc4 ,reverence1 duty of1 #cjd4 ,rhaetian1 #ce4 ,the reference is to wine grown in the ,n4 of ,italy 7,cisalpine ,gaul74 ,rhine1 #adf 7#b71 #agc1 #bcc4 ,rhodians1 #adb4 ,island of ,rhodes was at ,s4,w4 of ,asia ,minor4 ,rhone1 #adf1 #agc4 ,rivers as political boundaries1 #e1 #bcc2 sources of supply of1 #aaf2 underground1 #acb1 #ada1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bcc1 #bce2 summer rise of1 #ada1 #agc4 ,roman1 #e1 #ab1 #df1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aff4 ,rome1 #aaj1 #aff1 #ahb1 #bji1 #cjg4 ,roots1 disruptive force of1 #eg4 ,rulers1 counsel to1 #ij4 ,sacrifice cannot alter fate1 #hd2 to keep off hail1 #aha4 ,st4 ,elmo's ,fire1 #aa1 #cg4 a ,sallust1 #bgi4 ,roman historian1 #hf-cd ,b4,c4 ,sarmatian1 #e1 #bcc 7pl474 ,roughly speaking1 the ,s4 part of ,russia4 ,saturn1 the planet1 #bge 7#b71 #bhd1 #cjc4 ,scipio1 #df 7#b74 ,the elder ,sc4 ,africanus1 victor of ,hannibal at ,zama1 #bjb ,b4,c4 ,scironian 7,wind71 #baa4 ,scylla1 #aec2 see ,charybdis4 ,scythia1 #ahj1 #bjh4 ,term used very loosely of region in ,central and ,northern ,asia1 but at times extending to ,europe1 as far west as the ,danube4 ,sarmatia of one age was part of ,scythia of another4 ,sea1 unity of the1 #abe2 coeval with the world1 #ace2 throws ashore ill-smelling deposits1 #adb2 share of1 in final destruction of the earth1 #adc1 #aej2 current of1 from ,black ,sea1 #agf2 subterranean1 #bcd4 ,sea and land breezes1 #aih4 ,seafaring1 condemned1 #baf4 ,sea-water1 purged of its salt within the earth1 #aaf4 ,sejanus1 #i4 ,notorious instrument of ,tiberius2 put to death #ca4 ,sela 7gleams in the sky71 #ci4 ,self1 bondage of slavery to1 #aac4 ,septemtrio 7,wind71 #baj4 a ,sextii1 #cjg4 ,father and son in the time of ,augustus and ,nero respectively2 taught a combination of ,stoic and ,pythagorean doctrines4 ,sheep1 destruction of1 during ,campanian earthquake of ,a4,d4 #fc1 #bei4 ,sicily and ,sicilian1 #aad1 #ach1 #adb 7#b71 #aec1 #aei1 #aff 7#b71 #bce1 #bfb1 #bfc4 ,sidon1 #bef4 ,snow1 melting in ,ethiopia erroneously supposed to be the cause of the annual rise of the ,nile1 #agc2 supplies some ,european rivers1 #agc2 on ,european mountains1 #agc2 origin of1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahb1 #ahf2 said to feel colder to the feet when dry and hard than when slushy and half melted1 #ahj2 artificial use of1 #ahg4 a ,sophocles1 #agb4 ,soul1 divine origin of1 #f2 to be rescued from error and fear of death1 #ajc4 ,sound less rapid than light1 #fd4 ,spain and ,spanish1 #f1 #g1 #aaj1 #bfc4 ,springs1 #aah1 #aba1 #abg1 #acf1 #adb4 ,squalls1 origin of1 #bjd2 short duration of1 #bha4 ,stabiae1 #bba4 ,small town on coast of ,campania4 ,stars1 fed by emanations from the earth1 #ee1 #aih1 #bdd2 influence of1 in human affairs1 #ha2 nature of1 #bgc2 transits of1 #bhd2 supposed small size of1 #bhh2 place of1 in sky1 #big2 varying colours of1 #cjj4 ,stars1 falling1 #aj1 #aa1 #cg1 #ii1 #bif4 ,statonia1 #aci4 ,town in ,etruria1 about #ae miles from the coast4 ,stoics1 #cb1 #dj1 #eh1 #ff1 #ie1 #aai1 #abd1 #ace1 #aea1 #ahj1 #aha 7#b71 #baj1 #bea1 #bia1 #bib1 #bic1 #bie 7my school74 a ,strato1 #bdj4 ,succeeded ,theophrastus as head of the ,peripatetic school in #bhh ,b4,c4 ,native of ,lampsacus in ,mysia on the ,hellespont4 ,streaks in the sky1 #cc4 ,strymon1 #e4 ,river of ,thrace and ,macedonia 7,struma74 ,the text of the passage is very doubtful4 ,styx1 #acg4 ,river in ,arcadia4 ,submergence of ,helice and ,buris1 #bed1 #beg1 #bei1 #bfg1 #bgf1 #bhi2 of ,atalanta1 #bef2 of ,sidon1 #bef2 of other cities and nations1 #bfg4 ,subsolane 7,wind71 #bji4 ,sudd1 #bcf n4 ,sulphur1 baneful effects of1 in water1 #acd2 supposed to warm water1 #acf2 exists in large quantity underground1 #bjf4 8,sulphur smell0 produced by lightning1 #fi1 #ig4 ,sun1 size of1 #bj1 #bhh2 eclipse of1 #ce1 #bgd1 #bhd1 #bic2 draws his sustenance from the earth1 #ee1 #aih1 #bdd2 movements of1 #bga2 among the constellations1 #cja4 ,superstition1 #bga4 ,surrentum1 #bba4 ,town on promontory in ,campania4 ,syracuse1 #ab1 #adb4 ,syria1 #ach1 #bhh4 ,tempe1 #acg4 ,vale or gorge in ,thessaly2 see ,penes4 ,temperature of atmosphere1 #fj1 #ahc1 #ahd2 of various waters1 #acf4 ,tension1 effects of1 #ef1 #eh4 ,tentyra1 #agb4 ,island in the ,nile 7,denderah71 not far from ,thebes4 a ,thales1 #abd1 #abe1 #agd1 #bcc4 ,of ,miletus2 may be considered the father of ,greek philosophy1 #fcf-edf ,b4,c4 ,thebes1 #beg4 ,capital of ,boeotia4 ,there was a more ancient city of the same name in ,upper ,egypt on whose site are the modern ,luxor1 ,karnak1 etc4 a ,theophrastus #abb 7#c71 #abi1 #ach1 #aci1 #ada1 #agb1 #bdj1 #cjc4 ,of ,lesbos1 favourite pupil and successor of ,aristotle1 head of ,peripatetic school1 #cbb-bhg ,b4,c4 ,therasia and ,there 7,thera71 #beb4 ,small volcanic islands in the group called ,sporades1 ,s4 of ,cyclades4 ,thessaly1 #acg1 #beg4 ,thrace and ,thracians1 #e1 #afa1 #agc1 #bed4 a ,thucydides1 #bef1 #beh4 ,thunderings1 #fb1 #fg2 different kinds of1 #ge2 causes of1 #ih4 ,tiberius ,caesar1 #da4 ,tigris1 #adb1 #bce4 ,time1 wasting influence of1 #bch1 #bec2 fleetingness of1 #bfh4 ,trade to ,atlantic ports1 #age4 ,transmutation of the elements1 #abj1 #aba4 ,troglodytes1 #agc4 ,cave-dwellers1 specially applied to tribes on ,w4 of ,red ,sea4 ,tuscans2 see ,etruscans4 ,tyre and ,tyrian1 #bg1 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,unity or continuity1 defined1 #ec4 ,universe1 defined1 #ed2 impetuous whirl of1 #bgc2 ceaseless revolution of1 #bha1 #bid1 #bii2 a harmony of discords1 #cja4 ,vacuum1 non-existent in nature1 #abh4 ,vadimonian 7,lake71 #aci4 ,in ,etruria1 not far from the ,tiber1 the ,lago di ,bassano1 now dried up4 a ,vagellius1 #bbg4 ,name unknown1 probably corrupt4 ,valerius ,asiaticus1 #gd4 ,consul1 for the second time1 in #df4 a ,varro1 #bji 7#b74 ,famous grammarian1 antiquarian1 etc41 #aaf-bh ,b4,c4 ,venus1 the planet1 #bhd4 ,vice1 conquest of1 leads to highest happiness1 #e2 continued progress of1 #df1 #ahg1 #cjf1 #cjg4 a ,virgil1 #bh1 #ce1 #aad1 #adb1 #afe1 #bji1 #bda1 #bec1 #beh4 ,virginius1 #bba4 ,consul #fc4 ,vitellius1 #afj4 ,name doubtful2 may refer to father of ,emperor ,vitellius1 who flourished under ,caligula and ,claudius1 being consul in #cd4 ,volcanic eruptions1 #gc1 #gd1 #gg1 #beb4 ,vopiscus1 #cjc4 ,consul #fj4 ,vultur1 #bji4 ,mountain on borders of ,apulia4 ,vulturnus 7,wind71 #bji4 ,wars1 denunciation of1 #bac1 #bad4 ,water1 forms of1 #aad1 #aae1 #bcc2 transformed into air1 #abj2 formed from earth1 #abj2 as one of the four elements1 #abd2 ,thales' opinions on1 #abd1 #bca2 underground sources of1 #abf1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce2 various tastes of1 #acc2 petrifying powers of1 #acc2 varying temperatures of1 #acf2 artificial heating of1 #acf2 baneful kinds of1 #acg2 dyeing properties of some kinds of1 #acg2 varying densities of1 #ach2 supposed physiological effects of some1 #adj2 in mines1 #aed2 produces animal and plant life1 #aig2 as the cause of earthquakes1 #bca1 #bcc1 #bcd4 ,watergalls and sun-dogs1 #cc4 ,weather indications1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #bh1 #cg1 #ci1 #ge1 #aha1 #bge1 #cjb1 #cjc4 ,wells and their water-supply1 #aah1 #abc1 #abh2 warm winter temperature of1 #agf1 #bda4 ,whirlwinds1 #bjd1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhb4 ,will1 freedom of the1 #he1 #hf4 ,wind1 definition of1 #aic2 ,democritus' view of origin of1 #aid2 origin of1 #aif1 #bjj1 #bjc1 #bjd2 within the earth1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bci1 #bdc1 #bdd2 number and names of the winds1 #bjh-bab2 teleological design of1 #bab1 #baf2 misuse of1 by man1 #baf2 beneficial influences of1 #baf2 disruptive energy of1 #beb4 ,winds1 #bjh-baa4 ,the following are specified3 ,africus1 ,aquilo1 ,argestes1 ,atabulus1 ,auster1 7 ,subsolane71 ,boreas1 ,cataegis1 ,circius1 ,corus1 ,etesian1 ,euronotus1 ,eurus1 ,favonius1 ,iapygian1 1 ,libonotus1 ,libyan1 ,notus1 ,scironian1 ,septemtrio1 ,subsolane1 ,thracias1 ,vulturnus1 ,zephyrus4 ,wine1 frozen by lightning1 #gi1 #ig4 ,world1 revolution of1 #bj4 a ,zeno1 #bia4 ,native of ,cyprus1 founder of the ,stoic philosophy1 lived between middle of fourth and third centuries ,b4,c4 ,zephyrus 7,wind71 #bjh4 ,zodiac1 #bhe1 #bia1 #bif4 ,,the ,,end ,printed by ,r4 ,r4 ,,clark1 ,,limited1 ,edinburgh4