,,paul ,,and ,,his ,,interpreters ,a ,,critical ,,history ,,by ,,albert ,,schweitzer ,,privatdozent ,,in ,,new ,,testament ,,studies ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,strassburg ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,quest ,,of ,,the ,,historical ,,jesus0 ,,translated ,,by ,w4 ,,montgomery1 ,,ba41 ,,bd4 ,,london ,,adam ,,and ,,charles ,,black #aiab pg v ,,preface ,,the present work forms the continuation of my ,history of the ,critical ,study of the ,life of ,jesus1 which appeared in #aijf under the title 8,von ,reimarus zu ,wrede407#a7 ,any one who deals with the teaching and the life and work of ,jesus1 and offers any kind of new reading of it1 ought not to stop there1 but must be held under obligation to trace1 from the stand-point at which he has arrived1 the pathway leading to the history of dogma4 ,only in this way can it be clearly shown what his discovery is worth4 ,the great and still undischarged task which confronts those engaged in the historical study of primitive ,christianity is to explain how the teaching of ,jesus developed into the early ,greek theology1 in the form in which it appears in the works of ,ignatius1 ,justin1 ,tertullian and ,irenaeus4 ,how could the doctrinal system of ,paul arise on the basis of the life and work of ,jesus and the beliefs of the primitive community2 and how did the early ,greek theology arise out of ,paulinism8 ,strauss and ,renan recognised the obligation1 and each endeavoured in a series of works to trace the path leading from ,jesus to the history of dogma4 ,since their time no one who has dealt with the life of ,jesus has attempted to follow this course4 ,meanwhile the history of dogma1 on its part1 has come to place the teaching of ,jesus1 as well as that of ,paul1 outside the scope of its investigations and to regard its own task as pg vi beginning at the point where the undisputed and general ,hellenisation of ,christianity sets in4 ,it describes therefore the growth of ,greek theology1 but not of ,christian theology as a whole4 ,and because it leaves the transition from ,jesus to ,paul1 and from ,paul to ,justin and ,ignatius1 unexplained1 and therefore fails to arrive at any intelligible and consistent conception of ,christian dogma as a whole1 the edifice which it erects has no secure basis4 ,any one who knows and admires ,harnack's 8,history of ,dogma0 is aware that the solid mason-work only begins in the ,greek period2 what precedes is not placed on firm foundations but only supported on piles4 ,paulinism is an integral part of the history of dogma2 for the history of dogma begins immediately upon the death of ,jesus4 ,critical theology1 in dividing up the history of the development of thought in primitive ,christianity into the separate departments1 ,life of ,jesus1 ,apostolic ,age1 ,history of ,dogma1 and clinging to this division as if it were something more than a mere convention of the academic syllabus1 makes a confession of incompetence and resigns all hope of putting the history of dogma on a secure basis4 ,moreover1 the separate departments thus left isolated are liable to fall into all kinds of confusions and errors1 and it becomes a necessity of existence to them not to be compelled to follow their theories beyond the cunningly placed boundaries1 or to be prepared to show at any moment how their view accords with the preceding and following stages in the development of thought4 ,this independence and autonomy of the different departments of study begins with the downfall of the edifice constructed by ,baur4 ,he was the last who dared to conceive1 and to deal with1 the history of dogma in the large and general sense as the scientific study of the development of the teaching of ,jesus into the early ,greek theology4 ,after him begins1 with ,ritschl1 the narrower and more convenient conception of the subject1 which resigns its imperial authority over the departments of study dealing with the ,life of ,jesus1 pg vii ,primitive ,christianity and ,paulinism1 and allows these to become independent4 ,in the works of ,ritschl himself this new departure is not clearly apparent1 because he still formally includes the teaching of ,jesus1 of ,paul1 and of primitive ,christianity within the sphere of the history of dogma4 ,but instead of explaining the differences between the various types of belief and doctrine1 he glosses them over in such a way that he practically denies the development of the thoughts1 and makes it impossible for a really scientific study of the teaching of ,jesus and of ,paulinism to fit into the ready-made frame which he provides4 ,ritschl shares with ,baur the presupposition that primitive dogma arose out of the teaching of ,jesus by an organic and logical process4 ,the separate disciplines which began after them have shown that this assumption is false4 ,of a 8development0 in the ordinary sense there can be no question1 because closer investigation has not confirmed the existence of the natural lines of connexion which might priori have been supposed to be self-evident1 but reveals instead unintelligible gaps4 ,this is the real reason why the different departments of study maintain their independence4 ,the system of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles stands over against the teaching of ,jesus as something of an entirely different character1 and does not create the impression of having arisen out of it4 ,but how is such a new creation of ,christian ideas--and that within a bare two or three decades after the death of ,jesus--at all conceivable8 ,from ,paulinism1 again1 there are no visible lines of connexion leading to early ,greek theology4 ,ignatius and ,justin do not take over his ideas1 but create1 in their turn1 something new4 ,according to the assumption which in itself appears most natural1 one would be prepared to see in the teaching of ,jesus a mountain-mass1 continued by the lofty summits of the ,pauline range1 and from these gradually falling away to the lower levels of the early ,catholic theology4 ,in reality the teaching of ,jesus and that of the great ,apostle are like two separate ranges of hills1 lying irregularly disposed in pg viii front of the later 8,gospel40 ,even the relation which each severally bears to primitive ,christianity remains uncertain4 ,this want of connexion must have some explanation4 ,the task of historical science is to understand why these two systems of teaching are necessarily independent1 and at the same time to point out the geological fault and dislocation of the strata1 and enable us to recognise the essential continuity of these formations and the process by which they have taken their present shape4 ,the edifice constructed by ,baur has fallen2 but his large and comprehensive conception of the history of dogma ought not to be given up4 ,it is wholly wrong to ignore the problem at which he laboured and so create the false impression that it has been solved4 ,present day criticism is far from having explained how ,paulinism and ,greek theology have arisen out of the teaching of ,jesus4 ,all it has really done is to have gained some insight into the difficulties1 and to have made it increasingly evident that the question of the ,hellenisation of ,christianity is the fundamental problem of the history of dogma4 ,it could not really hope to find a solution1 because it is still working away with the presuppositions of ,baur1 ,ritschl1 and ,renan1 and has already tried three or four times over all the experiments which are possible on this basis1 without ever attaining to a real insight into the course of the development4 ,it has approached this or that problem differently1 has given a new version--not to say in some cases a perversion--of it2 but it has not succeeded in giving a satisfactory answer to the question when and how the ,gospel was ,hellenised4 ,it has not even attained to clearness in regard to the condition in which the ,gospel existed prior to its ,hellenisation4 ,it has not ventured to mark off with perfect distinctness the two worlds of thought with which the process is concerned1 and to formulate the problem as being that of explaining how the ,gospel1 which was originally purely ,jewish and eschatological1 became ,greek in form and content4 ,that this could really have come about1 it takes to be priori pg ix impossible4 ,it therefore seeks to soften down the antitheses as much as possible1 to find in the teaching of ,jesus thoughts which force their way out of the frame of the ,jewish eschatological conceptions and have the character of universal religion1 and in the teaching of ,paul to discover a 8genuinely ,christian10 and also a ,hellenic element1 alongside of the ,rabbinic material4 ,theological science has in fact been dominated by the desire to minimise as much as possible the element of ,jewish ,apocalyptic in ,jesus and ,paul1 and so far as possible to represent the ,hellenisation of the ,gospel as having been prepared for by them4 ,it thinks it has gained something when in formulating the problem it has done its best to soften down the antitheses to the utmost with a view to providing every facility for conceiving the transition of the ,gospel from one world of thought to the other4 ,in following this method ,baur and ,renan proceed with a simple confidence which is no longer possible to present day theology4 ,but in spite of that it must still continue to follow the same lines1 because it has still to work with the old presuppositions and the weakening down of the problem which they imply4 ,the result is in every respect unsatisfactory4 ,the solution remains as impossible as it was before1 and the simplifications which were supposed to be provided in the statement of the problem have only created new difficulties4 ,the thoroughgoing application of ,jewish eschatology to the interpretation of the teaching and work of ,jesus has created a new fact upon which to base the history of dogma4 ,if the view developed at the close of my 8,quest of the ,historical ,jesus0 is sound1 the teaching of ,jesus does not in any of its aspects go outside the ,jewish world of thought and project itself into a non-,jewish world1 but represents a deeply ethical and perfected version of the contemporary ,apocalyptic4 ,therefore the ,gospel is at its starting-point exclusively ,jewish-eschatological4 ,the sharply antithetic formulation of the problem of the ,hellenisation of ,christianity1 which it was always hoped to avoid1 is proved by the facts recorded in the ,synoptists to be the only admissible one4 ,accordingly1 pg x the history of dogma has to show how what was originally purely ,jewish-eschatological has developed into something that is ,greek4 ,the expedients and evasions hitherto current have been dismissed from circulation4 ,the primary task is to define the position of ,paul4 ,is he the first stage of the ,hellenising process1 or is his system of thought1 like that of primitive ,christianity1 to be conceived as purely ,jewish-eschatological8 ,usually the former is taken for granted1 because he detached ,christianity from ,judaism1 and because otherwise his thoughts do not seem to be easily explicable4 ,besides1 it was feared that if the teaching of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 as well as primitive ,christianity1 were regarded as purely ,jewish-eschatological1 the problem of the ,hellenisation of the ,gospel would become so acute as to make the possibility of solving it more remote than ever4 ,moreover1 the theological study of history is apt1 even though unconsciously1 to give ear to practical considerations4 ,at bottom1 it is guided by the instinct that whatever in the primitive ,gospel is capable of being ,hellenised may also be considered capable of being modernised4 ,it therefore seeks to discern in ,paul's teaching--as also in that of ,jesus--as much as possible that 8transcends ,judaism10 that has the character of 8universal religion0 and 8essential ,christianity40 ,it is haunted by the apprehension that the significance of ,christianity1 and its adaptation to our times1 is dependent on justifying the modernisation of it on the lines hitherto followed and in accordance with the historical views hitherto current4 ,those who have faced the recognition that the teaching of ,jesus is eschatologically conditioned cannot be brought by considerations of this kind1 scientific or unscientific1 to entertain any doubt as to the task which awaits them4 ,that is1 to apply this new view to the explanation of the transition to the history of dogma1 and as the first step in that direction1 to undertake a new formulation of the problem of ,paulinism4 ,they will naturally endeavour to find out how far the exclusively eschatological conception of the pg xi ,gospel manifests its influence in the thoughts of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 and will take into account the possibility that his system1 strange as this may at first sight appear1 may have developed wholly and solely out of that conception4 ,as in the case of the study of the life of ,jesus1 the problem and the way to its solution will be developed by means of a survey of what has hitherto been done4 ,at the same time this method of presentation will serve to promote the knowledge of the past periods of the science4 ,since it is impossible for students1 and indeed for the younger teachers1 to read for themselves all the works of earlier times1 the danger arises that on the one hand the names will remain mere empty names1 and on the other that1 from ignorance1 solutions will be tried over again which have already been advanced and have proved untenable4 ,an attempt has therefore been made in this book to give a sufficient insight into what has been done so far1 and to provide a substitute for the reading of such works as are not either of classical importance or still generally accessible4 ,for practical reasons the method adopted in my former book1 of attaching the statement of the new view to the history of earlier views1 has not been followed here4 ,this view will be developed and defended in a separate work bearing the title 8,the ,pauline ,mysticism0 78,die ,mystik des ,apostels ,paulus071 which will appear at an early date4 ,the ,english and ,american literature of the subject has not been included in this study1 since the works in question were not in all cases accessible to me1 and an insufficient acquaintance with the language raised a barrier4 ,nor have ,i aimed at giving1 even with this limitation1 a complete enumeration of all the studies of ,paul's teaching4 ,i have only desired to cite works which either played a part of some value in the development of ,pauline study1 or were in some way typical4 ,the fact that a work has been left unmentioned does not by any means necessarily imply that it has not been examined4 ,,albert ,,schweitzer4 #aith ,sept4 #aiaa4 pg xiii ,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,scientific ,,method 4 4 4 #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,,baur ,,and ,,his ,,critics 4 4 4 #ab ,,chapter ,,iii ,,from ,,baur ,,to ,,holtzmann 4 4 4 #bb ,,chapter ,,iv ,h4 ,j4 ,,holtzmann 4 4 4 #ajj ,,chapter ,v ,,critical ,,questions ,,and ,,hypotheses 4 4 4 #aag ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,position ,,at ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,twentieth ,,century 4 4 4 #aea ,,chapter ,,vii ,,paulinism ,,and ,,comparative ,,religion 4 4 4 #agi ,,chapter ,,viii ,,summing-,,up ,,and ,,formulation ,,of ,,the ,,problem 4 4 4 #bcg ,,index 4 4 4 #bea ,,endnotes ,,paul ,,and ,,his ,,interpreters pg #jja ,i ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,scientific ,,method ,hugo ,grotius4 ,annotationes in ,novum ,testamentum4 #afda-afdf4 ,johann ,jakob ,rambach4 ,institutiones hermeneuticae sacrae4 #agbc4 ,siegmund ,jakob ,baumgarten4 ,unterricht der ,auslegung der heiligen ,schrift4 7,instructions in the art of ,expounding ,holy ,scripture47 #agdb4 ,johann ,christoph ,wolf4 ,curae philologicae et criticae4 #agda4 ,johann ,august ,ernesti4 ,institutio interpretis ,novi ,testamenti4 #agfb4 7,eng4 ,trans41 ,biblical ,interpretation of the ,new ,testament1 ,edinburgh1 #ahcb-ahcc47 ,johann ,salomo ,semler4 ,vorbereitung zur theologischen ,hermeneutic4 7,introduction to ,theological ,hermeneutic47 #agfj-agfi4 ,abhandlung von freier ,untersuchung des ,canons4 7,essay on the free ,investigation of the ,canon47 #agga-agge4 ,neuer ,versuch die gemeinntzige ,auslegung und ,anwendung des ,neuen ,testaments zu befrdern4 7,a ,new ,attempt to ,promote a ,generally ,profitable ,exposition and ,application of the ,new ,testament47 #aghf4 ,latin ,paraphrases of the ,epistles to the ,romans 7#agfi7 and ,corinthians 7#aggj1 #aggf74 ,johann ,david ,michaelis4 ,einleitung in die gttlichen ,schriften des ,neuen ,bundes4 7,introduction to the ,divine ,scriptures of the ,new ,covenant47 #agej4 7,eng4 ,trans4 by ,h4 ,marsh1 ,cambridge1 #agic47 bersetzung des ,neuen ,testaments4 7,translation of the ,new ,testament47 #agij4 ,anmerkungen fr ,ungelehrte zu seiner bersetzung des ,neuen ,testaments4 7,notes for ,unlearned ,readers on his ,translation of the ,new ,testament47 #agij-agib4 ,friedrich ,ernst ,david ,schleiermacher4 ber den sogenannten ersten ,brief des ,paulus an den ,timotheus4 7,on the so-called ,first ,epistle of ,paul to ,timothy47 #ahjg4 ,johann ,gottfried ,eichhorn4 ,historisch-kritische ,einleitung in das ,neue ,testament4 7,historical and ,critical ,introduction to the ,new ,testament47 #c vols4 #ahad4 pg #jjb ,gottlob ,wilhelm ,meyer4 ,entwicklung des paulinischen ,lehrbegriffs4 7,the ,development of the ,pauline ,system of ,doctrine47 #ahja4 ,leonhard ,usteri4 ,entwicklung des paulinischen ,lehrbegriffs4 7,the ,development of the ,pauline ,system of ,doctrine47 #ahbd4 ,august ,ferdinand ,dhne4 ,entwicklung des paulinischen ,lehrbegriffs4 7,the ,development of the ,pauline ,system of ,doctrine47 #ahce4 ,karl ,schrader4 ,der ,apostel ,paulus4 #ahcj-ahcf4 ,j4 ,a4 ,w4 ,neander4 ,geschichte der ,pflanzung und ,leitung der christlichen ,kirche durch die ,apostel4 7,history of the ,planting and ,guidance of the ,christian ,church by the ,apostles47 #ahcb4 7,eng4 ,trans4 by ,j4 ,e4 ,ryland1 #ahea47 ,w4 ,m4 ,leberecht ,de ,wette4 ,erklrung der ,briefe an die ,rmer1 ,korinther1 ,galater und ,thessalonicher4 7,exposition of the ,epistles to the ,romans 7#bnd ed41 #ahch71 ,corinthians1 etc4 7#ahda747 ,h4 ,e4 ,g4 ,paulus4 ,des ,apostels ,paulus ,lehrbriefe an die ,galater- und ,rmer-,christen4 7,the ,apostle ,paul's ,doctrinal ,epistles to the ,galatian and ,roman ,christians47 #ahca4 ,,the ,reformation fought and conquered in the name of ,paul4 ,consequently the teaching of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles took a prominent place in ,protestant study4 ,nevertheless the labour expended upon it did not1 to begin with1 advance the historical understanding of his system of thought4 ,what men looked for in ,paul's writings was proof-texts for ,lutheran or ,reformed theology2 and that was what they found4 ,reformation exegesis reads its own ideas into ,paul1 in order to receive them back again clothed with ,apostolic authority4 ,before this could be altered1 the spell which dogma had laid upon exegesis needed to be broken4 ,a very promising beginning in this direction was made by ,hugo ,grotius1 who in his ,annotationes in ,novum ,testamentum7#b7 rises superior to the limitations of ecclesiastical dogma4 ,this work appeared in #afda-afdf4 ,the ,pauline ,epistles are treated with especial gusto4 ,the great ,netherlander makes it his business to bring out by patient study the simple literal meaning1 and besides referring to patristic exegesis1 cites parallels from ,greek and ,roman literature4 ,he does not1 however1 show any special insight into the peculiar character of the ,pauline world of thought4 pg #jjc ,in the ensuing period the principle gradually became established that exegesis ought to be independent of dogma4 ,pietism and ,rationalism had an equal interest in promoting this result4 ,the accepted formula was that ,scripture must be interpreted by ,scripture4 ,this thought is common ground to the two famous works on exegesis which belong to the first half of the eighteenth century1 the ,institutiones hermeneuticae sacrae7#c7 of ,johann ,jakob ,rambach1 which is written from the stand-point of a moderate pietism1 and ,siegmund ,jakob ,baumgarten's rationalistically inclined 8,instruction in the art of expounding ,holy ,scripture407#d7 ,on the soil thus prepared by pietism and rationalism it was possible for a philologically sound exegesis to thrive4 ,one of the most important attempts in this direction is ,johann ,christoph ,wolf's ,curae philologicae et criticae47#e7 ,this was regarded as authoritative for several decades1 and even later is frequently drawn on by exegetes1 either with or without acknowledgment4 ,the merit of having gained the widest recognition for the principles of philological exegesis belongs to ,johann ,august ,ernesti1 the reformer of the ,st4 ,thomas's ,school at ,leipzig and the determined opponent of its famous 8,preceptor10 ,johann ,sebastian ,bach4 ,his ,institutio interpretis ,novi ,testamenti appeared in #agfb47f7 ,it is on the plan of the 8,hermeneutics0 of ,rambach and ,baumgarten1 and deals with grammar1 manuscripts1 editions1 translations1 patristic exegesis1 history and geography as sciences ancillary to exegesis4 ,but ,ernesti's work suffices to show that the undogmatic philological method did not in itself lead to any pg #jjd result4 ,its author is in reality by no means free from dogmatic prepossessions1 but he skilfully avoids those questions which would bring him into conflict with ,church doctrine4 ,in fact the use he makes of philology is more or less formal4 ,he does not venture to treat the books of the ,new ,testament without prepossession as witnesses from the literature of a distant period1 and to show the peculiar mould in which ,christian ideas are there cast in comparison with subsequent periods and with the period for which he writes4 ,he did not realise that the undogmatic1 philological method of exegesis must logically lead to a method in which philology is the handmaid of historical criticism4 ,his great contemporary1 ,johann ,salomo ,semler1 ventures to give expression to this truth1 and so becomes the creator of historical theology4 ,in his theoretical works on the ,scriptures and on exegesis--8,introduction to theological ,hermeneutics0 7#agfj-agfi717g7 8,essay on the free ,investigation of the ,canon0 7#agga-agge717h7 8,a new attempt to promote a generally profitable ,exposition and ,application of the ,new ,testament0 7#aghf77i7--the ,halle professor explains again and again what is to be understood by a 8historical0 method of exegesis4 ,he demands that the ,new ,testament shall be regarded as a temporally conditioned expression of ,christian thought1 and examined with an unprejudiced eye4 ,in making this claim he does not speak as a pg #jje disinterested representative of historical science1 but makes it in the name of religion4 ,if religion is to develop progressively and purify itself into an ethical belief1 the special embodiments which it has received in the past must not lay the embargo of a false authority upon its progress4 ,we must acknowledge to ourselves that many conceptions and arguments1 not only of the ,old ,testament but also of the ,new1 have not the same significance for us as they had for the early days of ,christianity4 ,in his work of #aghf1 ,semler even demands that 8for present day ,christians there should be made a generally useful selection from the discourses of ,jesus and the writings of the ,apostles1 in which the local reference to contemporary readers shall be distinguished or eliminated40 ,this theory of historical exegesis is carried out in dealing with the great ,pauline ,epistles4 ,semler points the way to the critical investigation of the ,apostle's thought4 ,he gives paraphrases of the ,epistle to the ,romans and the ,epistles to the ,corinthians1 and attempts to make clear the content and the connection of thought by a paraphrastic and expanded rendering of each individual verse47#aj7 ,exegesis is no longer to be encumbered with a panoply of erudition2 it is no longer to be interpenetrated with homiletic and dogmatic considerations1 and to defer to the authority of the old ,greek expositors1 who1 8when it is a question of historical arguments1 had no better or clearer knowledge than we have ourselves40 ,it must let the ,scriptural pg #jjf phrases say openly and freely what they mean in their literal sense1 and devote itself simply to that dispassionate1 objective study of facts which has hitherto been too much neglected4 ,the importance of the paraphrases does not however consist1 as might be supposed1 in their exhibiting the distinctive character of the ,pauline trains of thought in comparison with the views of the other ,new ,testament writers4 ,by his use of a paraphrastic rendering of the text ,semler puts an obstacle in the way of his gaining an insight into the specifically ,pauline reasoning1 and unconsciously imports his own logic into the ,apostle's arguments4 ,on the other hand1 his brilliant powers of observation enable him to call attention to some fundamental problems of literary criticism4 ,he is the first to point out that we do not possess the ,pauline ,epistles in their original form1 but only in the form in which they were read in the churches4 ,the canonical ,epistle is therefore not1 as a matter of a priori certainty1 identical with the historical letter4 ,it is quite possible1 he argues1 that the letters as read in the churches were produced by joining together1 or working up together1 different letters1 and also that written directions and messages1 which originally existed in a separate form1 were attached in later copies to the ,epistles in order that no part of the heritage left by the ,apostle might be lost4 ,on the basis of considerations of this kind ,semler arrives at the result that the fifteenth and sixteenth chapters of ,romans did not belong to the original ,epistle4 ,the sixteenth is1 in his view1 a series of greetings which ,paul--who1 it is assumed1 was writing from ,ephesus--gave to the bearers of the ,epistle to be conveyed to the churches which they would visit on their way through ,macedonia and ,achaia4 ,in the ninth chapter of #b ,corinthians there is preserved1 he thinks1 a writing intended for another city in ,achaia1 which was only later welded into the ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,from the pg #jjg fourteenth verse of the twelfth chapter of #b ,corinthians to the close of the thirteenth chapter we have to assume the presence of a separate writing1 of later date than the original ,second ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,thus ,semler takes the first steps upon the road of literary hypothesis4 ,theology at first took little notice of these investigations4 ,in the third edition of his 8,new ,testament ,introduction0 7#aggg717aa7 the great ,gttingen philologist and theologian ,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis treats the letters of the ,apostle in a quite uncritical spirit1 and does not enter at all into the literary problems2 in his 8,translation0 and 8,exposition0 of the ,new ,testament7#ab7 he follows the old tracks and makes no attempt to carry out the task which ,semler had assigned to historical exegesis4 ,in general the eighteenth century1 after ,semler1 contributed very little to the investigation of ,paulinism4 ,schleiermacher was the first to take a step forward1 when1 in a letter to ,gass1 he expressed his doubts as to the genuineness of ,i ,timothy47#ac7 ,shortly before the battle of ,jena--so he recounts in the preface--he had communicated his doubts to his friend1 but had not got the length of setting them forth in a reasoned argument4 8,the battle--though indeed it ended all too quickly--the consequent unrest in the town1 and even in the house1 the confused hurrying to and fro1 the sight of the ,french soldiers1 which was interesting in so many ways 4 4 4 the still incomprehensible blow which struck our ,university even before you left1 and the sad sight of the students saying their farewells and taking their departure1--these were certainly not the surroundings pg #jjh in which to set up a critical judgment-seat4 ,although1 on the other hand1 you would perhaps have been more ready then1 when all seemed lost1 to give up a ,new ,testament book1 than you are now40 ,the verbal promise then given but not fulfilled is now discharged in writing4 ,schleiermacher bases his argument against ,i ,timothy upon #b ,timothy and ,titus4 ,while the same general conceptions are present in the longer letter as in the two shorter ones1 they are not there found in the natural connections in which they occur in the others4 ,it makes the impression of being a composite structure1 and in its vocabulary1 too1 shows remarkable differences from the remaining letters taken as a whole4 ,strictly speaking it was not ,schleiermacher the critic1 but ,schleiermacher the aesthete who had come to have doubts about #b ,timothy4 ,the letter does not suit his taste4 ,he fails to perceive that1 so far as the language goes1 the two other letters diverge from the rest of the ,pauline ,epistles in the same way as ,i ,timothy1 and that they also show the same looseness and disconnectedness2 only that1 in consequence of their smaller extent1 it is not so striking4 ,and1 most important of all1 it escapes him that as regards their ideas all three letters agree in diverging from the remainder of the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,schleiermacher's omissions are supplied by ,eichhorn in his well-known ,introduction47#ad7 ,he lays it down that the three ,epistles are all by the same author1 and are all spurious4 ,his criticism deals first with the language and thought of the letters1 which he shows to be un-,pauline2 then he argues that the implied historical situations cannot be fitted into the life of the ,apostle1 as known to us from the remaining letters and the ,acts of the ,apostles2 finally1 he points to the unnaturalness of the relation pg #jji between ,paul and his helpers as it is represented by these ,epistles4 ,the ,apostle1 he points out1 gives them in writing exhortations and directions which on the assumption of a real personal acquaintance and a long period of joint work with them are in any case unnecessary1 and become much more so from the fact that the letters look forward to an early meeting4 ,from this ,eichhorn concludes that 8some one else has put himself in ,paul's place10 and he sees no possibility of the success of any attempt to defend the genuineness of the ,epistles against the arguments which he has brought forward4 ,in particular he gives a warning against the seductive attempt to save the genuineness of #b ,timothy by the assumption of a second imprisonment4 ,no hypothesis1 he declares1 can in any way help the ,pastorals1 since they must be pronounced from internal evidence--because of their divergence from the remaining ,epistles--not to be by the ,apostle4 ,this was a long step forward4 ,the circle of writings which have come down under the name of ,paul had undergone a restriction which made it possible to give an account of his system of thought without being obliged to find a place in it for ideas which already have a quite early-,catholic ring4 ,ten years after ,eichhorn's literary achievement1 in the year #ahbd1 the ,swiss theologian ,leonhard ,usteri1 a pupil of ,schleiermacher's1 published his 8,development of the ,pauline ,system of ,doctrine107#ae7 which is generally regarded as the starting-point of the purely historical study of ,paulinism1 the first attempt to give effect to the demands of ,semler47#af7 ,usteri wishes to show the subjective imprint and pg #jaj enrichment which ordinary ,christianity received at the hands of the ,apostle1 and he sees in the ,epistle to the ,galatians the outline of his whole doctrine4 ,he does not1 however1 venture to give full recognition to the idea of a real antithesis between the ,pauline conceptions and those of the primitive ,apostles1 and consequently is led to soften down the peculiarities of the former so far as possible4 ,the spirit of ,schleiermacher1 which tended to level down everything of a historical character1 influences the book more than the author is aware47#ag7 ,a peculiar interlude in the investigation of ,paulinism was due to the ,heidelberger ,h4 ,e4 ,g4 ,paulus47#ah7 ,he published1 in the year #ahca1 a study of the ,epistles to the ,galatians and ,romans1 which was in reality an essay on the ,apostle's system of doctrine4 ,the work is undertaken entirely in the interests of a rationalism bent on opposing the reaction to orthodoxy4 ,according to the arguments of ,paulus it is not the case that the letters speak of expiatory suffering and imputed righteousness4 ,paul cannot have upheld 8legality0 as against 8morality0 and have maintained an 8unpurified conception of religion40 ,the 8chief sayings10 the characteristic terms1 are to be given a purely moral interpretation4 ,the ,apostle means that 8faith in ,jesus0 must become in us 8the faith of ,jesus10 and the narrower conception of righteousness must be enlarged into the pg #jaa conception of 8the righteousness of ,god40 ,the 8righteousness of ,god0 betokens righteousness such as it exists in ,god1 and is demanded by ,him in man's spirit as its 8true good10 8the only real atonement which brings us into harmony with the ,deity40 ,thus a proper interpretation enables us to discover in these writings 8the agreement between the ,gospel and a rational faith40 ,the book appeared two or three decades too late4 ,the rationalism which it represents had had its day4 ,but there is something imposing in this determined wresting of the ,apostle's views4 ,it is parallel to that which was practised by the ,reformation4 ,the latter interpreted the whole of ,paulinism by the passages on the atoning death1 and ignored the other thoughts in the ,epistles4 ,the ,heidelberg rationalist starts from the conceptions connected with the 8new creature10 which were later to be described as the ethical system of the ,apostle1 and interprets everything else by them4 ,the fact that the two views--the only ones which endeavoured to grasp ,paulinism as a complete1 articulated system--thus stand over against each other antithetically is significant for the future4 ,critical study in the course of its investigations was to come to a point where it would have to recognise both views as justified1 and to point out the existence in ,paul of a twofold system of doctrine--a juridical system based on the idea of justification1 and an ethical system dominated by the conception of sanctification--without at first being able to show how the two are interrelated and together form a unity4 pg #jab ,,ii ,,baur ,,and ,,his ,,critics ,ferdinand ,christian ,baur4 ,die ,christuspartei in der korinthischen ,gemeinde4 7,the ,christ-party in the ,corinthian ,church47 ,appeared in the ,tbinger ,zeitschrift fr ,theologie1 #ahca and #ahcf4 ber ,zweck u4 ,veranlassung des ,rmerbriefs 7,purpose and occasion of ,rom471 ib4 #ahcf4 ,die sogenannten ,pastoralbriefe4 7,the so-called ,pastoral ,epistles47 #ahce4 ,paulus der ,apostel ,jesu ,christi 7#ast ed41 #ahde2 #bnd ed41 #ahff-fg74 7,eng4 ,trans4 by 8,a4 ,p40 and ,a4 ,menzies1 #ahgc-ge47 ,beitrge zu den ,briefen an die ,korinther1 ,thessalonicher und ,rmer4 7,contributions to the elucidation of the ,epistles to the ,corinthians1 ,thessalonians and ,romans47 ,tbinger ,jahrbcher fr ,theologie4 #ahej-eg4 ,vorlesungen ber neutestamentliche ,theologie4 #ahfd4 7,lectures on ,new-,testament ,theology47 ,vorlesungen ber die christliche ,dogmengeschichte4 7,lectures on the ,history of ,dogma47 ,vol4 i41 #ahfe4 ,albert ,schwegler4 ,das nachapostolische ,zeitalter4 #ahdf4 7,the ,post-,apostolic ,age47 ,carl ,wieseler4 ,chronologie des apostolischen ,zeitalters4 #ahdh4 7,the ,chronology of the ,apostolic ,age47 ,on the ,pauline ,epp41 #bbe-bgh4 ,albrecht ,ritschl4 ,die ,entstehung der altkatholischen ,kirche4 7,the ,origin of the ,early ,catholic ,church47 #ast ed41 #ahej2 #bnd ed41 #aheg4 ,gotthard ,viktor ,lechler4 ,das apostolische und nachapostolische ,zeitalter4 7,the ,apostolic and ,post-,apostolic ,age47 #aheb4 7,eng4 ,trans4 by ,a4 ,j4 ,k4 ,davidson1 ,edinburgh1 #ahhf47 ,richard ,adalbert ,lipsius4 ,die paulinische ,rechtfertigungslehre4 7,the ,pauline ,doctrine of ,justification47 #ahec4 ,,in the fourth number of the ,tbinger ,zeitschrift fr ,theologie for the year #ahca1 ,f4 ,c4 ,baur gave to the study of ,paulinism a new direction1 by advancing the opinion that the ,apostle had developed his doctrine in complete opposition to that of the primitive ,christian community1 and that only when this is recognised can we expect to grasp the peculiar character of the ,pauline ideas4 pg #jac ,the great merit of the ,tbingen critic was that he allowed the texts to speak for themselves1 to mean what they said4 ,on the ground of the striking difference between ,acts and ,galatians regarding ,paul's relation to the original ,apostles1 and in view of the divisions and contentions which reveal themselves in the ,epistles to the ,corinthians1 ,baur concludes that in the early days of ,christianity two parties--a ,petrine party or party of the original ,apostles1 and a ,pauline party--stood opposed to one another1 holding divergent views on the subject of the redemption wrought by ,christ4 ,in the gradual adjustment of these differences he sees the development which led up to the formation of the early ,catholic ,church1 and he traces the evidence for this process in the literature4 ,he thinks he can show that the two parties gradually approached each other1 making concessions on the one side and the other1 and finally1 under the pressure of a movement which was equally inimical to both of them--the ,gnosticism of the early part of the second century--they coalesced into a single united ,church4 ,the recognition of the character and significance of ,gnosticism makes it possible for ,baur to introduce a new kind of criticism4 ,before him it was only possible to arrive at the negative result that a writing was not by the author to whom it was traditionally ascribed4 ,now1 according to him1 it is possible to determine to what period it belongs4 ,it is only necessary to show what position it occupies in the process of reconciliation of the two parties1 and1 especially1 whether it deals with speculative error4 ,this ,baur calls 8positive0 criticism4 ,he applies it in the first place to the ,pastoral ,epistles1 and argues that the heretics combated in them do not belong to primitive ,christianity but are representatives of the ,gnostic movement of the second century4 ,by the 8myths and genealogies0 here mentioned are meant the great speculative systems which are known from ,church history4 ,the description given of the heretics is pg #jad intentionally couched in terms which are neither too general nor too special1 in order to sustain the fiction that the false doctrine arising at this later period only revives a movement which had already been attacked and defeated by ,paul4 ,that neither the assumption of a second imprisonment1 nor any other possible or impossible hypothesis1 can restore to the ,pastorals their lost genuineness is as firm a conviction with ,baur as it was with ,eichhorn4 ,in the course of his study of the ,pastoral ,epistles the ,tbingen master had expressed the opinion that the criticism of the ,pauline writings would probably not 8come to a halt0 with these ,epistles4 ,the results of his further study were offered ten years later 7#ahde7 in the brilliantly written work1 8,paul the ,apostle of ,jesus ,christ40 ,he here treats first the life and work1 then the letters1 and lastly the system of doctrine4 ,the result arrived at in his investigation of the documents is that only the ,epistles to the ,galatians1 ,corinthians1 and ,romans can be confidently used as sources4 ,compared with these four1 all the others must be classed as 8anti-legomena10 8which does not at all imply the assertion that they are not genuine1 but only indicates the opposition to which their claim to genuineness is in some cases already exposed1 in others1 may be exposed in the future1 since there is not a single one of the smaller ,pauline epistles against which1 if the four main epistles are taken as the standard1 there cannot be raised some objection or other40 ,there are strong grounds for questioning the ,epistles to the ,ephesians and ,colossians2 those to the ,thessalonians and ,philippians are to be suspected because of the small amount of dogma they contain4 ,baur's reason for taking up such a critical attitude towards the 8smaller epistles0 is that he is bound to see in the heritage which has come down to us from the ,apostle1 writings 8which belong to the history of the party which based itself on his name1 and refer to the relations of the various parties10 and show us how ,gentile ,christianity pg #jae softens down its principles and its peculiarities in order to meet the ,jewish ,christianity1 which on its part was going through a similar process1 in the unity of the early ,catholic ,church4 ,this radical view was attacked on all sides4 ,it gave rise to a kind of reaction even within the sphere of scientific theology1 and led to the calling in question of results which the labours of ,eichhorn had brought into general acceptance4 ,thus ,carl ,wieseler prefaces his detailed study on the date of composition of the ,pauline letters with the remark that he held all the thirteen letters which are attributed to the ,apostle in the ,canon to be authentic4 ,the ,apostle's system of doctrine culminates1 according to ,baur's representation1 in the doctrine of the ,spirit4 ,in the brilliant disquisitions of this section it is not so much the historian who speaks as the pupil of ,hegel4 ,paulinism is in its own way an announcement of the unity of the subjective spirit with the objective spirit4 ,it is only from this point of view that a consciousness of freedom such as is found in the ,apostle of the ,gentiles can exist4 ,his doctrine is concerned with union with ,christ and with ,god by faith1 from which comes ,spirit4 8,righteousness0 is 8the proper relation towards ,god1 to place men in which is the highest duty of all religion40 ,baur does not enter into the details of the ,pauline doctrine of justification4 ,detail is in fact somewhat neglected in his treatment4 ,strictly speaking1 he only includes that which can be in some way or other expressed in ,hegelian thought-forms1 and that in which ,paulinism may be exhibited as representing absolute religion4 ,everything else is thrown into the background1 and receives only a partial appreciation--or depreciation--in a separate chapter entitled 8,a special discussion of some subsidiary dogmatic questions40 ,the characteristic stamp of the ,pauline doctrine is largely obliterated4 ,in particular1 ,paul's views about the 8last things0 and the angels are not allowed to become disturbingly prominent4 ,baur does not1 indeed1 hesitate practically to eliminate pg #jaf them4 ,the angelology he dismisses with the following remark3 8,of the angels the ,apostle says little in the letters which we have here to take into consideration1 and that little not dogmatically1 but only metaphorically and in current popular phraseology40 ,the ,tbingen scholar1 in fact1 uses the language of ,paul in order to set forth an imposing philosophy of religion instinct with ,hegelian influence4 ,he gives no authentic account of the ,apostle's thought4 ,nevertheless this book breathes the spirit of ,paul the prophet of freedom more fully than almost any other which has been devoted to him4 ,that is what gives it its remarkable attractiveness4 ,a year after the appearance of ,baur's 8,paulus0--in #ahdf--;,albert ,schwegler published his work on the post-apostolic age47#ai7 ,the founder of the ,tbingen ,school had hitherto only1 so to speak1 hinted at the phases of development by which the early ,church grew up out of the controversy between the two parties4 ,schwegler undertakes a more detailed description1 and in doing so draws the lines so sharply that1 along with the greatness of the construction1 its faults become obvious4 ,he has no deeper knowledge of ,paulinism to impart4 ,schwegler's work had made it apparent from what side the ,tbingen position was open to attack1 and on this side ,albrecht ,ritschl proceeded to attack it in his well-known work on the origin of the early ,catholic ,church47#bj7 ,the first edition 7#ahej7 is primarily directed against ,schwegler only2 in the second 7#aheg7 he develops his opposition of pg #jag principle to ,baur4 ,he offers proof that the earliest literature is not dominated by the negotiations for a compromise between the two parties which was postulated by the ,tbingen ,school1 and at the same time he attacks the basis of the whole hypothetical construction4 ,baur1 he urges1 must have formed a false conception of ,jewish ,christianity and ,gentile ,christianity1 since1 on his view1 it cannot be explained what was the common element that held the two together4 ,had they only1 as the ,tbingen ,school was obliged to assume1 had the external bond of profession of faith in ,christ1 it would never be possible to explain why both parties felt the need of approaching one another by mutual concessions until finally they coalesced in a single united ,church4 ,the extent of the doctrinal material common to both must1 ,ritschl argues1 have been much greater than ,baur represents4 ,he has not discharged the first duty of a historian of the ,apostolic age1 for this requires 8that the points should be clearly shown in which ,jewish ,christianity and ,paulinism coincide40 ,baur had only given a negative description of the ,apostle's doctrine1 because he never gives any hint 8that ,paul in very essential points held views which were common also to ,jewish ,christianity40 ,the problem regarding the nature of the unity between ,paulinism and primitive ,christianity is thus recognised and formulated4 ,but it was not so easy for ,ritschl to say exactly what constituted the common element of doctrine1 the existence of which he postulated4 ,that is especially evident in the second edition of 8,the ,origin of the ,early ,catholic ,church40 ,he is then only willing to admit an 8opposition of practice0 between ,paul and the original apostles2 the area of this opposition is so restricted that 8the essential agreement in the leading ideas laid down by ,christ will be only the more clearly evident40 ,but since in ,paulinism little enough is to be found of the 8leading pg #jah ideas laid down by ,christ0 the proof of the 8essential agreement0 remains a pious aspiration4 ,the only solid fact which ,ritschl is able to adduce is the expectation of the parousia4 ,he assumes that it formed a very important part of the common doctrinal material1 and inclines to believe that ,paulinism and ,jewish ,christianity agreed in an ideal-real expectation of the ,second ,coming in order to make common cause against ,chiliasm1 though the latter in its coarser form only appeared later4 ,but in thus recognising eschatology ,ritschl did not take the matter very seriously4 ,he uses the eschatology1 in fact1 only in order to score a dialectical point against ,baur1 who had taken too little account of it4 ,in ,ritschl's 8,justification and ,reconciliation10 where he later on had occasion to give a positive description of ,paulinism1 he avoided the faintest hint of any eschatological colouring of the ,apostle's ideas4 ,another work which is occupied with the question of the unity between ,paulinism and primitive ,christianity is ,lechler's 8,apostolic and ,post-,apostolic ,age407#ba7 ,the work is a prize essay in answer to the problem proposed by the ,teylerian ,society in ,holland1 as to what constituted 8the absolute difference between the doctrine and attitude of the ,apostle ,paul and that of the other ,apostles10 by which the 8so-called ,tbingen ,school endeavours to justify its hostile treatment of ,christianity40 ,lechler opposes his teacher1 but is not able to make any advance upon ,ritschl in producing evidence of the common elements in the two doctrinal systems4 pg #jai ,among the works which controverted the ,tbingen view of ,paulinism a prominent place belongs to an early work of ,richard ,adalbert ,lipsius on 8the ,pauline doctrine of justification407#bb7 ,along with his scientific purpose the author also pursues a practical aim4 ,he puts himself at the service of the anti-rationalistic reaction which aimed at restoring the old evangelical ideas to a position of honour1 but in doing so did not grasp hands with the orthodoxy of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 but took as its starting-point the ideas which it finds present in the ,new ,testament4 ,in giving an objective presentation of the central ,pauline doctrine of justification he believes that he is offering to the ,protestantism of his time a view which it can adopt as its own4 ,for the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 he argues1 justification is not a purely legal1 forensic act1 but also an ethical experience4 ,faith is an ethical attitude which produces an inward righteousness4 ,what is really effectual in redemption is the fellowship with ,christ in life and death4 ,it is brought about by the ,spirit of ,god and of ,christ1 who unites himself with the believer and transforms his personality4 ,lipsius is the first to recognise the two trains of thought in ,paulinism1 and to remark that the one is based upon the juridical idea of justification1 while the other has its starting-point in the conception of sanctification--of the real ethical new creation by the ,spirit4 ,he does not1 as had always previously been done1 make everything of the one and nothing of the other1 but aims at showing how they are brought together in the ,apostle's thought4 ,the importance of the eschatological passages does not escape him4 ,he assumes that the thought of the parousia gives an inner unity to the ,apostle's ideas4 ,it is true that ,lipsius did not succeed in fully discharging the task which he laid upon himself4 ,he weakens down one set of ideas in the interests of the other1 pg #jbj and solders the two together externally by the use of skilfully chosen expressions2 but it remains his great merit that he was the first to recognise this duality in ,paul's thought4 ,had he not been pursuing a dogmatic interest alongside of his scientific investigations he would doubtless have come to still closer quarters with the problem4 ,while his critics were at work ,baur had not been idle4 ,from #ahej onwards he published in the ,tbinger ,jahrbcher fr ,theologie1 which had superseded the ,tbinger ,zeitschrift fr ,theologie1 a series of separate investigations of the ,pauline ,epistles47#bc7 ,he had resolved that the final results of his study of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 with which he had begun his work1 and which throughout his whole lifetime had been his favourite study1 should be set forth in a new edition of his ,paulus4 ,this was to be the crown of his work4 ,but it was not to be4 ,death snatched him away from his task when he had only just cast the first part into its new shape4 ,the second and most important1 which was to treat the 8system of doctrine10 he did not reach47#bd7 ,to a certain extent a substitute for what was thus lost was furnished by the 8,lectures on ,new ,testament ,theology10 published by the master's son in #ahfd47be7 ,the chapter on ,paulinism is very striking in its brevity and clearness1 and shows a great advance on the work of #ahde4 ,at that time ,baur had examined and interpreted ,paul's pg #jba teaching by the light of the ,hegelian ,intellectualism4 ,now he tries to grasp his ideas historically and empirically1 and to describe them accordingly4 ,he discusses successively the ,pauline views on sin and flesh2 law and sin2 faith in the death of ,christ2 law and promise2 law and freedom2 the righteousness of faith2 faith and works2 faith and predestination2 ,christology2 baptism and the ,lord's ,supper2 the parousia of ,christ4 ,eschatology1 which in the first edition was quite overlooked1 receives here abundant recognition4 ,baur admits that the ,apostle fully shared the faith of the primitive community in the nearness of the parousia1 and was at one with it in all the conceptions referring to the ,end4 ,the ,pauline theology as thus empirically apprehended has no longer the bold effectiveness of the speculatively constructed system of the year #ahde4 ,it becomes apparent in ,baur1 and increasingly evident in the work of subsequent investigators1 that the self-consistency and logical concatenation of the system become obscured and disturbed in proportion as progress is made in the exact apprehension of the individual concepts and ideas4 pg #jbb ,,iii ,,from ,,baur ,,to ,,holtzmann ,,monographs ,,upon ,,paul ,adolf ,hausrath4 ,der ,apostel ,paulus 7#ahfe1 #agb pp42 biographical4 #bnd ed41 #ahgb1 #ejc pp474 ,ernest ,renan4 ,st4 ,paul 7#ahfi1 #egj pp42 biographical and theological74 ,auguste ,sabatier4 ,l',aptre ,paul 7#ahgj1 theological74 7,e4,t4 by ,a4 ,m4 ,hellier1 #ahia47 ,otto ,pfleiderer4 ,der ,paulinismus 7#ahgc2 #bnd ed41 #ahij2 theological74 7,e4,t4 by ,e4 ,peters1 #ahgg47 ,carl ,holsten4 ,das ,evangelium des ,paulus 7#ast pt41 #ahhj2 #bnd pt41 #ahih74 ,,new ,,testament ,,introductions ,eduard ,reuse4 ,geschichte der heiligen ,schriften ,neuen ,testamentes 7#eth ed41 #ahgd74 7,e4,t4 ,history of the ,sacred ,scriptures of the ,new ,testament1 by ,e4 ,l4 ,houghton4 ,edin4 #ahhd47 ,christian ,karl von ,hofmann4 ,pt1 ix4 of 8,die ,heilige ,schrift40 #ahha4 ,heinrich ,julius ,holtzmann4 ,einleitung in das ,neue ,testament4 #ahhe4 ,bernhard ,weiss4 7,same title47 #ahhf4 7,e4,t4 by ,a4 ,j4 ,k4 ,davidson1 #ahhg74 ,frdric ,godet4 ,introduction au ,nouveau ,testament4 #ahic4 ,adolf ,jlicher4 ,einleitung in das ,neue ,testament4 #ahid4 7,e4,t4 by ,j4 ,p4 ,ward1 #aijd47 ,theodor ,zahn4 7,same title47 #ahig4 7,e4,t4 of #crd ed4 #aiji74 ,,works ,,on ,,new ,,testament ,,theology ,eduard ,reuss4 ,histoire de la thologie chrtienne au sicle apostolique4 #crd ed41 #ahfd4 7,e4,t4 by ,a4 ,harwood1 #ahgb47 ,bernhard ,weiss4 ,lehrbuch der biblischen ,theologie des ,neuen ,testaments4 #ast ed41 #ahfh2 #fth ed41 #ahie4 7,e4,t4 ,edin4 #ahhb47 ,christian ,karl von ,hofmann4 ,pt4 xi4 of 8,die ,heilige ,schrift40 #ahhf4 ,willibald ,beyschlag4 ,neutestamentliche ,theologie4 #ahia4 #bnd ed41 #ahif4 7,e4,t4 ,edin4 #ahie47 pg #jbc ,,general ,,works ,,on ,,primitive ,,christianity ,ernest ,havet4 ,le ,christianisme et ses origines 7#d vols41 #ahhd74 ,karl von ,weizscker4 ,das apostolische ,zeitalter4 #ahhf4 7,e4,t4 ,the ,apostolic ,age1 #ahid47 ,otto ,pfleiderer4 ,das ,urchristentum4 #ahhg4 7,e4,t4 of #bnd4 altered ed41 see later47 ,,studies ,,on ,,special ,,points ,carl ,holsten4 ,zum ,evangelium des ,paulus und ,petrus4 #ahfh4 ,fr4 ,th4 ,l4 ,ernesti4 ,die ,ethik des ,apostels ,paulus4 #ahfh4 ,emmanuel ,friedrich ,kautzsch4 ,de ,veteris ,testamenti locis a ,paulo apostolo allegatis4 #ahfi4 ,franz ,delitzsch4 ,paulus des ,apostels ,brief an die ,rmer in das ,hebrische bersetzt und aus ,talmud und ,midrasch erlutert4 #ahgj4 7,the ,epistle of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,romans translated into ,hebrew and illustrated from ,talmud and ,midrash47 ,hermann ,ldemann4 ,die ,anthropologie des ,apostels ,paulus4 #ahgb4 ,albrecht ,ritschl4 ,die christliche ,lehre von der ,rechtfertigung und ,vershnung1 vol4 ii41 #ahgd4 7,the ,christian ,doctrine of ,justification and ,reconciliation47 7,e4,t4 of vols4 i4 and iii4 only74 ,h4 ,h4 ,wendt4 ,die ,begriffe ,fleisch und ,geist bei ,paulus4 #ahgh4 7,the ,meaning of the ,terms ,flesh and ,spirit in ,paul's ,writings47 ,louis ,eugne ,mngoz4 ,le ,pch et la redemption d'aprs ,st ,paul4 #ahhb4 ,eduard ,grafe4 ,die paulinische ,lehre vom ,gesetz4 #ahhd4 7,the ,pauline ,teaching about the ,law47 ,gustav ,volkmar4 ,paulus von ,damaskus zum ,galaterbrief4 #ahhg4 7,paul1 from ,damascus to ,galatians74 ,a biographical study1 with a critical comparison between the data of ,galatians and ,acts4 ,alfred ,resch4 ,agrapha4 ,ausserkanonische ,evangelienfragmente4 #ahhh4 ,on the ,question whether ,sayings of ,jesus have been preserved in ,paul's ,writings4 ,otto ,everling4 ,die paulinische ,angelologie und ,dmonologie4 #ahhh4 ,johann ,glol4 ,der ,heilige ,geist in der ,heilsverkndigung des ,paulus4 #ahhh4 7,the ,holy ,spirit in ,paul's ,preaching of ,salvation47 ,hermann ,gunkel4 ,die ,wirkungen des ,heiligen ,geistes nach der populren ,anschauung der apostolischen ,zeit und nach der ,lehre des ,apostels ,paulus4 #ahhh4 7,the ,manifestations of the ,holy ,spirit according to the ,popular ,view of the ,apostolic ,age and according to the ,teaching of ,paul47 ,eduard ,grafe4 ,das ,verhltnis der paulinischen ,schriften zur ,sapientia ,salamonis4 #ahib4 7,the ,relation of the ,pauline ,writings to the ,book of ,wisdom47 ,adolf ,deissmann4 ,die neutestamentliche ,formel 8in ,christo ,jesu40 #ahib4 7,the ,new ,testament ,formula 8in ,christ ,jesus407 ,richard ,kabisch4 ,die ,eschatologie des ,paulus in ihren ,zusammenhngen mit dem ,gesamtbegriff des ,paulinismus4 #ahic4 7,paul's ,eschatology in ,relation to his ,general ,system47 pg #jbd ,w4 ,brandt4 ,die evangelische ,geschichte und der ,ursprung des ,christentums4 #ahic4 7,the ,gospel ,history and the ,origin of ,christianity47 ,ernst ,curtius4 ,paulus in ,athen4 #ahid4 ,e4 ,bruston4 ,la ,vie future d'aprs ,st ,paul4 #ahid4 ,hans ,vollmer4 ,die alttestamentlichen ,zitate bei ,paulus4 #ahie4 ,ernst ,teichmann4 ,die paulinischen ,vorstellungen von ,auferstehung und ,gericht und ihre ,beziehung zur jdischen ,apokalyptik4 #ahif4 7,the ,pauline ,views of ,resurrection and ,judgment and their ,relation to the ,jewish ,apocalyptic47 ,theodor ,simon4 ,die ,psychologie des ,apostels ,paulus4 #ahig4 ,paul ,wernle4 ,der ,christ und die ,snde bei ,paulus4 7,the ,christian and ,sin in ,paul's ,writings47 #ahig4 ,,criticism ,,and ,,exegesis ,bruno ,bauer4 ,kritik der paulinischen ,briefe4 #ahej-ahea-aheb4 ,christian ,hermann ,weisse4 ,beitrge zur ,kritik der paulinischen ,briefe4 #ahfg4 7,contributions to the ,criticism of the ,pauline ,epistles47 ,h4 ,j4 ,holtzmann4 ,kritik der ,epheser und ,kolosserbriefe4 #ahgb4 ,die ,pastoralbriefe4 #ahhj4 ,eduard ,reuss4 ,les ptres pauliniennes 78,la ,bible10 pt4 iii474 #ahgh4 ,georg ,heinrici4 ,das erste ,sendschreiben des ,apostels ,paulus an die ,korinther4 #ahhj4 ,das zweite1 etc4 #ahhg4 ,p4 ,w4 ,schmiedel4 ,auslegung der ,briefe an die ,thessalonicher und ,korinther in ,holtzmann's 8,handkommentar40 #ahia4 7,exposition of the ,epistles to the ,thessalonians and ,corinthians in ,holtzmann's 8,handkommentar407 ,r4 ,a4 ,lipsius4 ,auslegung der ,briefe an die ,galater1 ,rmer und ,philipper in ,holtzmann's 8,handkommentar40 #ahia4 ,,works ,,of ,a ,,general ,,character1 ,,or ,,dealing ,,with ,,cognate ,,subjects ,emil ,schrer4 ,neutestamentliche ,zeitgeschichte4 #ahgc4 ,from the #bnd ed4 7#ahhf7 onwards the work bears the title3 ,geschichte des jdischen ,volkes im ,zeitalter ,jesu ,christi4 7,e4,t4 ,history of the ,jewish ,people in the time of ,jesus ,christ4 ,edin4 #ahhe47 ,karl ,siegfried4 ,philo von ,alexandrien als ,ausleger des alten ,testaments an sich selbst und nach seinem geschichtlichen ,einfluss betrachtet4 #ahge4 7,philo of ,alexandria as an ,expositor of the ,old ,testament1 considered both in himself and in regard to his historical influence47 ,ferdinand ,weber4 ,system der altsynagogalen palstinenschen ,theologie4 #ahhj4 ,the second edition 7#ahig7 bears the title ,jdische ,theologie auf ,grund des ,talmud und verwandter ,schriften4 7,jewish ,theology exhibited on the basis of the ,talmud and allied writings47 ,w4 ,gass4 ,geschichte der christlichen ,ethik4 #ahha4 ,theobald ,ziegler4 ,geschichte der christlichen ,ethik4 #ahhf4 pg #jbe ,edwin ,hatch4 ,the ,influence of ,greek ,ideas and ,usages upon the ,christian ,church 7,hibbert ,lectures for #ahhh74 ,theodor ,zahn4 ,der ,stoiker ,epiktet und sein ,verhltnis zum ,christentum4 #ahid4 ,adolf ,harnack4 ,dogmengeschichte1 #crd ed41 #ahid4 7,e4,t4 ,history of ,dogma1 #ahid-ahii74 ,die ,chronologie der altchristlichen ,literatur bis ,eusebius4 ,vol4 i41 #ahig4 ,,problems many and various confronted theological science when it attempted to carry forward ,pauline studies from the position in which they had been left by ,baur4 ,it was needful to clear up once for all the questions of literary criticism1 to examine in detail the individual conceptions and trains of thought1 to make clear the unity and inner connexion of the system1 to show what rle ,paulinism had played in the development of early ,catholic theology1 and how far it was at one with primitive ,christianity1 and to solve the question whether the material employed in its construction was of purely ,jewish1 or in part of ,greek origin4 ,in regard to the literary question a certain measure of agreement was in course of time attained4 ,baur had distinguished three classes of ,epistles4 ,in the first he placed1 as beyond doubt genuine1 ,galatians1 ,corinthians1 and ,romans2 ,ephesians1 ,colossians1 ,philippians1 ,thessalonians1 and ,philemon formed the second class1 being considered uncertain2 the ,pastoral ,epistles formed the third class1 and were regarded as proved to be spurious4 ,the views of the ,tbingen master regarding the first class and the third were adopted by the majority of scholars of the next generation4 ,no doubts were raised against the great ,epistles2 the ,pastoral ,epistles were rejected4 ,holtzmann1 in his work on the ,letters to ,timothy and ,titus17#bf7 supplied a detailed argument in favour of this conclusion4 pg #jbf ,of the letters of the intermediate class1 the first to the ,thessalonians and that to the ,philippians were by many rehabilitated as ,pauline4 ,the second to the ,thessalonians was rejected with increasing confidence4 ,a special problem was presented by the letters to the ,colossians and ,ephesians1 both because of their evident mutual relationship and particularly in regard to certain parts of the ,epistle to the ,colossians which made a strong impression of genuineness4 ,holtzmann offered a solution which gave general satisfaction4 ,he adopted the hypothesis that ,colossians was based upon a genuine ,pauline letter which had been worked over by a later hand47#bg7 ,the redactor he identified with the author of the ,epistle to the ,ephesians4 ,while there was this general consensus in the critical camp1 which was ratified in ,holtzmann's 8,introduction107#bh7 the most diverse opinions on special points are found4 ,some attempts were made to save the pg #jbg genuineness of the second ,epistle to the ,thessalonians4 ,for some1 the ,epistles to the ,colossians and ,ephesians are genuine throughout and represent a later phase of the ,pauline theology4 ,nor were there lacking attempts of all kinds to rehabilitate the ,pastoral ,epistles4 ,those who did not venture to defend them as wholes make a point of retaining at least the 8personal references40 ,the presentation of the ,pauline teaching was1 however1 hardly affected by the literary divergences4 ,not even the most conservative of the critics had the boldness to place all the letters which have come down under the name of ,paul on a footing of equality4 ,even those who regarded the ,epistles to the ,ephesians and ,colossians as genuine did not fuse ideas of these ,epistles with the system extracted from the four main ,epistles1 but presented them separately2 and any who were not converted to the rejection of the ,pastorals at all events took the precaution to give a separate chapter to the ,pauline theology of these writings47#bi7 ,if only the personal references might be saved1 these ,epistles were as completely excluded from the presentation of the ,pauline system as if they had been pronounced wholly spurious4 ,thus it continued to be the case1 as it had been with ,baur1 that1 generally speaking1 only the four main epistles were taken into account in describing the ,pauline system4 ,the only significant change was that the epistle to the ,philippians began to be put on the same footing1 and1 with a few exceptions1 scholars no longer hesitated to regard as ,pauline the conception of the pre-existence of ,christ which is expressed in the section on the incarnation and obedience unto death4 ,it was realised that the main epistles also presuppose this view1 even if they do not state it so explicitly4 ,there were1 of course1 as time went on1 attempts to pg #jbh explain the composition of the four main epistles and ,philippians as arising by the working up together in each single epistle of two or more originals1 but these were not of any real importance for the study of the ,pauline doctrine4 ,it was only a carrying out of the task suggested by ,semler1 when he pointed out that we have not got the letters in their original form but only as prepared for public reading by the early ,church4 ,but the constitution of the ,pauline material is scarcely affected by the attempts to reconstruct these originals4 ,they have a purely literary interest4 ,theology1 so far as it was occupied with the study of the ,pauline system1 did not allow itself to be at all disquieted by the rejection of the whole of the ,epistles proposed by ,bruno ,bauer in his 8,criticism of the ,pauline ,letters407#cj7 ,nor was its confidence shaken by the hypothesis that the letters have been worked over to a very large extent and in a very thoroughgoing fashion4 ,christian ,hermann ,weisse's 8,contributions to the ,criticism of the ,pauline ,epistles107#ca7 which appeared in #ahfg1 where he sets forth the justification and the principles of this method1 scarcely attracted any attention1 as was indeed the case with almost all the theological work of this writer4 ,the elucidation of the details of the ,pauline doctrine is vigorously pursued4 ,an empirical definition is attempted of the terms sin1 law1 conscience1 justification1 redemption1 election1 and freedom4 ,a special interest attaches to the study of the terms flesh and spirit4 ,after ,holsten had endeavoured to trace the significance of the word flesh1 ,ldemann--in a brilliant work published in #ahgb--;endeavoured to arrive at a clear idea of the ,apostle's anthropology and its place in his doctrine of salvation4 ,there are1 so runs his thesis1 two conceptions of pg #jbi 8flesh0 in ,paul4 ,the one agrees with the naive1 simple ,jewish linguistic usage1 and means only the natural being of man4 ,the other is much more precise and belongs to a dualistic system of thought4 ,in it the flesh is defined as the necessary cause of sin and corruption and as the absolute antithesis to spirit4 ,on close examination it appears that not merely two conceptions of 8the flesh0 existing side by side1 but two different doctrines of man's nature1 and consequently two different conceptions of redemption1 are found in ,paul4 ,according to the system which connects itself with the simpler1 broader conception of the flesh1 sin springs from the freedom of the will2 the law is assumed to be inherently possible of fulfilment2 redemption consists in a judgment of acquittal pronounced by ,god which has its ground solely in ,his mercy2 righteousness is imputed2 the act which brings redemption consists in faith4 ,this circle of ideas1 which forms a self-consistent whole1 is described by ,ldemann as the 8,jewish-religious10 the 8juridical-subjective10 doctrine of redemption4 ,it has its source in reflection on the death of ,jesus4 ,the other system of ideas is defined as the 8ethico-dualistic40 ,in contradistinction to the former it makes use of an 8objectively real0 conception of redemption4 ,it presupposes the more precise1 narrower conception of 8the flesh10 and regards sin as proceeding from it by a natural necessity4 ,the law is the ferment of sin2 death the natural outcome of the flesh4 ,redemption can therefore only consist in the abolition of the flesh4 ,it is based on the communication of the ,spirit1 which produces in the man a new creature and a real righteousness4 ,the redemptive act takes place in baptism4 ,the ideas of this second system are based on the ,lord's resurrection4 ,the coexistence of a juridical and an ethical system of thought in ,paul had been held by others before ,ldemann4 ,what he did1 however1 was to follow out each separately into its details1 and to endeavour to prove that all the contradictions and obscurities which are to be observed pg #jcj in the conceptions and statements of the ,pauline theology find their ultimate explanation in the coexistence of two different doctrines of man's nature and two different doctrines of redemption4 ,hitherto the doctrine of redemption which appears alongside of the juridical had been described as 8ethical40 ,he remarks that it is conceived not merely ethically1 but actually physically1 and therefore defines it as ethico-physical4 ,further1 he is of opinion that the two theories are not co-equal in importance4 ,he holds that in the ethico-physical 8the real view of the ,apostle0 is set forth1 which only tolerates the other alongside of it1 and more and more tends to push it aside wherever in the discussion ,paul can count upon a thorough understanding of the real essence of the matter4 ,in the ,epistles the development1 he thinks1 takes the following course4 ,the ,letter to the ,galatians knows only the primitive ,jewish system of thought with reference to ,christ's vicarious suffering and righteousness by faith2 it does not advance to the bolder realistic doctrine of righteousness4 ,in the ,epistles to the ,corinthians1 according to ,ldemann1 the ,apostle does not make much use of dogma4 8,the less advanced position of the church there may have been one cause of this40 ,but the fundamental conceptions of the ethico-physical series of ideas begin to appear in them4 ,later on they attain to 8constitutive importance0 and 8force their way into the leading dogmatic statements40 ,in the first four chapters of ,romans the old view still finds expression4 ,from the fifth onwards the new tenets are developed fully and clearly4 ,this second series of ideas is not ,jewish but ,greek4 ,ldemann's view is that ,paul1 8in the attempt to give dogmatic fixity to the doctrine of salvation1 presses on beyond the horizon of the ,old ,testament consciousness and is carried in the direction of ,hellenism407#cb7 ,the latter pg #jca offered him a clearly-thought-out doctrine of man1 in which the dominant idea was the antithesis of flesh and spirit1 and made it necessary for him to think out a physically real doctrine of redemption4 ,pfleiderer7#cc7 also works out the two series of ideas1 separating them scarcely less sharply than ,ldemann does4 ,but he prefers to describe the series which runs parallel to the juridical1 not as physico-ethical1 but as mystico-ethical4 ,moreover1 he does not admit that the ethical series expresses ,paul's view more adequately than the other4 ,he is of opinion also that the two sets of conceptions held an equal place in the consciousness of the ,apostle from the first4 ,by logically thinking out the ,jewish idea of the atoning death1 ,paul was led--according to ,pfleiderer--to the anti-,jewish conclusion that redemption is for all mankind1 and that the law is consequently invalidated4 ,with this view there is united another1 the source of which lies in the ,hellenistic anthropology4 ,this is that redemption consists in the influence exercised by the ,holy ,spirit upon the fleshly creatureliness1 in consequence of which sin and death are abolished4 ,the beginning of this process is to be sought in the resurrection of ,jesus ,christ4 ,in the close connexion of the ,pharisaic and ,hellenistic elements 8lies the characteristic peculiarity of the genuine ,pauline theology1 which can only be rightly understood when these two sides of it both receive equal attention40 ,that in ,paulinism two lines of thought go side by side is recognised by almost all the investigators of this period4 ,but in the importance assigned to each of them great divergences appear4 ,reuss makes the juridical ideas entirely subordinate to the ethical2 in ,mngoz the former are more strongly emphasised than the latter4 ,no one except ,pfleiderer holds them to be on an exactly equal pg #jcb footing4 ,in general the ethical set of ideas is regarded as the original creation of the ,apostle1 and is assumed to represent the deepest stratum in his thought4 ,accordingly1 it is generally also held that the doctrine of the abolition of the flesh by the ,spirit comes to its full development later than the other1 which is based upon the atonement and imputed righteousness4 ,ldemann's theory of a development within the ,pauline doctrine is adopted by the majority1 though only in a less pronounced form4 ,it should be mentioned that the first important attempt to prove the existence of different phases in the thought and life of ,paul was made by ,sabatier47#cd7 ,his work ,l',apotre ,paul appeared in #ahgj1 two years before ,ldemann's study4 ,at first the ,apostle held1 according to the ,french scholar1 a simple doctrine which can be psychologically explained from his rabbinic training and his conversion4 ,at the time of his great controversies he was compelled to work out for himself a philosophy of history which would enable him to prove that the law was only a passing episode in the history of salvation1 and that justification by faith had always lain in the purpose of ,god4 ,this doctrine takes a dominant position in the ,epistles to the ,galatians1 ,corinthians1 and ,romans4 ,in the letters written during his imprisonment the ,apostle advances to a speculative1 gnostic development of his ideas4 ,the coexistence of the juridical and ethical series of ideas does not receive the same prominence in ,sabatier as in the later writers1 who were influenced by ,ldemann and ,pfleiderer4 ,when all is said and done1 there is in the works of this period much assertion and little proof regarding the development within ,paulinism4 ,one almost gets the impression that the assumption of different stages of thought was chiefly useful as a way of escaping the difficulty about the inner unity of the system4 ,this pg #jcc problem is1 however1 rather instinctively felt than clearly grasped4 ,the scholars of this period do not feel it incumbent upon them to trace out the connexion in which these disparate sets of ideas must have stood in the view of ,paul4 ,they show no surprise at his passing so easily from the one to the other and arguing from each alternately1 and they do not ask themselves how he conceived the most general ultimate fact of redemption which underlies both of them4 ,they do not seek to arrive at a really fundamental view of the essence of ,paulinism4 ,their method of procedure in their presentation of the doctrine is itself significant4 ,they do not trace its development from one fundamental conception1 but treat it under dogmatic loci1 as ,baur had done in his ,new ,testament ,theology4 ,the scheme is more or less closely based on that of ,reformation dogmatics4 ,it is therefore assumed a priori that the ,pauline theology can be divided into practically the same individual doctrines as that of ,luther1 ,zwingli1 and ,calvin4 ,really1 however1 a preliminary question arises whether this arrangement of the material does not introduce a wrong grouping and orientation into the ,apostle's system1 and whether it does not destroy the natural order and relative importance of the thoughts1 falsify the perspective1 tear asunder what ought not to be disjoined1 and render impossible the discovery of the fundamental idea in which all the utterances find their point of union4 ,this procedure is innocently supposed to be scientific2 as a matter of fact it leads to the result that the study of the subject continues to be embarrassed by a considerable remnant of the prepossessions with which the interpretation of ,paul's doctrine was approached in the days of the ,reformation4 ,it is not less prejudicial when others1 as for example ,holsten17#ce7 adopt an arrangement of the material suggested by modern dogmatics4 ,as the ,pauline theology has1 if possible1 less affinity with the latter than with the ,reformation theology1 the error is almost more serious4 pg #jcd ,in general these scholars are quite unconscious of the decisive importance which attaches to the arrangement and articulation of the material4 ,it has1 indeed1 always been weakness of theological scholarship to talk much about method and possess little of it4 ,otto ,pfleiderer1 alone1 is not entirely in this state of innocence4 ,he has an inkling that the usual way of approaching the subject is not wholly free from objection4 ,in the first edition of his ,paulinism 7#ahgc77cf7 he raises the question whether the 8genetic method0 is not demanded by the task of tracing out the organic progress of the development of dogma in its ,pauline beginnings4 ,practical considerations1 however1 determine him 8to arrange the matter very much according to the customary dogmatic loci10 while1 however1 at the same time giving as much attention as possible to the position of the dogma in the ,pauline system40 ,he fears that the carrying out of the genetic principle would lead to many repetitions1 and would make it more difficult to get a general view of 8the way in which the separate doctrines were connected with their bases40 ,in order to salve his conscience he gives at the beginning1 8by way of an introductory outline10 a sketch of the 8organic development of the ,pauline gnosis from its single root40 ,this general view--it occupies twenty-seven pages--is the most important part of the whole book4 ,the succeeding chapters treat of sin1 flesh1 character of the law1 aim of the law1 ,christ's atoning death1 ,christ's death as a means of liberation from the dominion of sin1 the resurrection of ,christ1 the ,person of ,jesus ,christ1 the ,son of ,david1 the ,son of ,god and heavenly ,christ1 the appearing of ,christ in the flesh1 faith1 justification1 sonship1 the beginning and the progress of the new life1 the ,christian ,church1 the ,lord's ,supper1 the election of grace1 the parousia1 and the end of the world4 ,ldemann was prevented by the task which he had set himself from adopting the division according to loci4 pg #jce ,his object was only to investigate ,paul's conception of the fleshly man in its relation to his doctrine as a whole4 ,in this way he was led to arrange the ideas in their natural order and1 without strictly intending to do so1 to give a general account of ,paulinism1 which is almost entirely free from the defective arrangement of other works1 permits something of the logical articulation of the ,apostle's circle of ideas to appear1 and certainly penetrates more deeply than the rest into the ,apostle's world of thought4 ,as the works of ,reuss1 ,weiss1 ,pfleiderer1 ,holsten1 ,renan1 ,sabatier1 ,mngoz1 ,weizscker1 do not aim at understanding and showing the development of this doctrine from a single fundamental thought1 there are no real divergences in the general view which they take of the system4 ,the differences of opinion with their predecessors which the authors express in their text and notes relate1 in point of fact1 only to details and minutiae1 surprising as this may at first sight appear4 ,the plan and design of the system are in general everywhere the same2 the differences regard only the mixing and application of the colours1 and the question how far ,greek influences are to be recognised4 ,in going through these works one after another1 one is surprised to observe how great is their fundamental resemblance4 ,at the same time there is something curiously 8elusive0 about them4 ,at a given point one might be inclined to think that one of the authors was formulating a thought more clearly1 or giving it more exclusive importance than the others2 and one is just about to note this as a special characteristic of his view4 ,a few pages later1 however1 or in a following chapter1 one finds additions or reservations which show that he does not really think differently from the rest4 ,the differences lie not so much in the actual conception as in the literary presentation1 and in the manner in which the material1 which is essentially a whole1 is parcelled out among the different loci4 ,there is thus nothing to be pg #jcf gained by analysing the various conceptions one by one and comparing them with one another4 ,since there is no real difference of fundamental view1 the comparison would lose itself in endless and unessential detail4 ,to the general impression of monotony is to be added that of complexity4 ,at the end of each of these works one is inclined to inquire whether the author really means to ask the reader to regard what is here offered as representing a system of thought which once existed in the brain of a man belonging to early ,christianity1 and was capable of being understood by his contemporaries4 ,all the arts of literary presentation are employed to subtilise the conceptions1 to describe the thoughts with exactitude1 and to bring connexion and order into the chaos of ideas4 ,but the result gives no satisfaction4 ,no real elucidation and explanation of ,paulinism is attained4 ,the resulting impression is of something quite artificial4 ,the welcome which these authors' works received from their contemporaries shows that the latter saw in them an advance in the knowledge of ,paulinism4 ,they felt them to be satisfactory4 ,that only means that the readers' presuppositions and requirements lay within the same limitations as those of the authors4 ,what had been the result arrived at8 ,a description of the ,pauline doctrine1 a remarkably detailed description1 but nothing more4 ,that doubtless implied a certain progress4 ,it did not1 however1 extend so far as the authors and their readers assumed4 ,both innocently supposed that in the description they possessed at the same time an explanation--as though the descriptive anatomy of this organism sufficed to explain its physiology4 ,they were unconscious that they had so far only looked at ,pauline thought from without1 and had never gained any insight into the inner essence of the system4 ,in these works the ,apostle's statements are quoted one after another1 and developed in his own words4 ,the authors think they have discharged their task when they pg #jcg have so arranged the course of the investigation that all important passages can be respectably housed4 ,the odd thing is that they write as if they understood what they were writing about4 ,they do not feel compelled to admit that ,paul's statements taken by themselves are unintelligible1 consist of pure paradoxes1 and that the point that calls for examination is how far they are thought of by their author as having a real meaning1 and could be understood in this light by his readers4 ,they never call attention to the fact that the ,apostle always becomes unintelligible just at the moment when he begins to explain something2 never give a hint that while we hear the sound of his words the tune of his logic escapes us4 ,what is his meaning when he asserts that the law is abolished by the death of ,jesus--according to other passages1 by ,his resurrection8 ,how does he represent to himself the process by which1 through union with the death and resurrection of the ,lord a new creaturehood is produced in a man1 in virtue of which he is released from the conditions of fleshly existence1 from sin and death8 ,how far is a union possible between the natural man1 alive in this present world1 and the glorified ,christ who dwells in heaven2 and one1 moreover1 of such a kind that it has a retrospective reference to ,his death8 ,the authors we have named do not raise questions of this kind4 ,they feel no need to trace out the realities which lie behind these paradoxical assertions4 ,they take it for granted that ,paul has himself explained his statements up to a certain point--so far1 in fact1 as this is possible in the world of feeling to which religion belongs4 ,this self-deception is made the more easy for them by the fact that they are accustomed to clothe their own religious views in ,pauline phraseology1 and consequently they come to treat as the authentic logic of ,paul1 arguments which they have unconsciously imported into their account of his teaching4 ,they fail to reckon with the possibility that the original significance of his utterances pg #jch may rest on presuppositions which are not present to our apprehension and conception4 ,for the same reason they all more or less hold the opinion that what they have to do with is mainly a psychological problem4 ,they assume that the ,pauline system has arisen out of a series of reflexions and conclusions1 and would be as a whole clear and intelligible to any one who could succeed in really thinking himself into the psychology of the rabbinic zealot who was overpowered by the vision of ,christ on the road to ,damascus4 ,the writer who goes furthest in this direction is ,holsten4 ,in his work on the 8,gospel of ,paul and of ,peter07#cg7 he describes how ,paul1 while he was persecuting the new faith1 was1 as a ,jewish thinker1 occupied with the thought of the offence of the cross and the alleged resurrection4 ,while still a fanatical zealot 8he constantly carried with him in his consciousness the elements of the ,messianic faith1 even though as negative and negated40 ,by the keenness of his theological dialectic he was compelled to imagine what the alleged facts would really signify if the belief of the disciples were justified4 ,the 8principle of the ,messianic faith0 was1 in him1 8alive in greater definiteness than even in the consciousness of the followers of the ,messiah whom he persecuted40 ,the ,messiahship of ,jesus could not for him take its place as a hope and faith within the ,jewish system of thought and religious life1 pg #jci but necessarily implied the destruction of what he had hitherto held to be true4 ,thus the persecutor had in principle thought out for himself to its ultimate consequences the revolution which would result from the acceptance of the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,and this he translated into word and deed after he had experienced the vision on the ,damascus road4 ,other writers take as the starting-point for their psychological arguments the passage in ,romans vii41 where ,paul depicts the despair of the man who recognises that the law1 although it is spiritual and was given with a view to life1 can only in the fleshly man produce sin1 condemnation1 and death4 ,what we there read concerning the struggle between the natural1 powerful will of the flesh and the law1 is1 they think1 written from the point of view of the pre-,christian consciousness of the ,apostle4 ,he had experienced this agony of soul1 and it was by this that the ,jewish religious attitude had been broken down in him4 ,therefore in his ,gospel he does not desire to retain anything from the faith of his fathers4 ,these two main lines of psychological theory are followed for a longer or shorter distance in all the works of this period4 ,hand in hand with this psychologising goes a tendency to modernisation4 ,the scholars of this period spiritualise ,paul's thought4 ,the transformation varies in extent for the different ideas4 ,the statements about the atonement and imputed righteousness are the least affected by it4 ,what is unintelligible in these is put down to the account of the ,jewish ,rabbinic mode of thought in which ,paul is supposed to be held prisoner4 ,on the other hand1 the conceptions regarding union with ,christ in his death and passion1 and the new life in ,him through the ,spirit1 are subjected to paraphrase and explanation until nothing of the realistic sense is left remaining4 ,the question is not faced why ,paul1 if he wanted to say anything so 8spiritual0 and general as this1 should have adopted so exaggerated1 paradoxical1 and materialistic a method of expression4 pg #jdj ,whatever remains unexplained after the psychologising1 the depotentiation1 and modernisation1 is referred to the peculiar character of the religious experience which the ,apostle is supposed to have undergone in the vision on the ,damascus road4 ,what essential difference there was between this appearance of the ,lord and those experienced by the other disciples is nowhere clearly worked out1 not even by ,holsten1 who makes the most extensive use of this vision4 ,it is simply taken for granted by them all that in the vision itself is to be found the explanation1 not only of ,paul's conversion1 but also in some way or other of his call to be a missionary to the ,gentiles and of the peculiar character of his doctrine4 ,all these accounts of his teaching agree in assuming that ,paul's system of doctrine was in the main a purely personal creation of his own1 and is in some way to be explained by the special character of his religious experience4 ,the question whether in this way his integral connexion with primitive ,christianity is sufficiently preserved receives but little attention4 ,in none of these works is the investigation of the doctrinal material common to ,paul and his opponents seriously taken in hand4 ,the writers are content with the affirmation that both parties took as their starting-point the fact of the death and resurrection of ,jesus1 without entering into any consideration of the question how far ,paul's reasonings1 which they refer back to his inner personal experience1 reproduce generally current ideas of primitive ,christianity and simply carry them out to their logical issue4 ,the question which ,ritschl had formerly forced on the consideration of ,baur has therefore not been faced or solved4 ,it is true the author of 8,justification and ,reconciliation07#ch7 thinks that he has not only raised the question but also answered it4 ,he undertakes to explain all the ,pauline doctrinal passages on the basis of pg #jda ,old ,testament conceptions4 ,in this way he hopes to work out the ,apostle's real conception of the atoning death of ,jesus1 and of 8righteousness10 and believes that these will then1 since they have been gained from the ,old ,testament1 coincide with the primitive ,christian views in all essential points4 ,speaking generally1 ,ritschl's tendency is to make the differences between ,paulinism and primitive ,christianity as small as possible1 and to find them1 as he had already done in the 8,origin of the early ,catholic ,church10 not so much in his doctrine proper as in his attitude to certain practical questions4 ,ritschl employs the dialectical skill with which nature had richly endowed him to transform and shade off the doctrine of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles until it harmonises with the fundamental ,christian teaching which he assumes for the earliest period and finds necessary for his dogmatics4 ,he entirely depotentiates the juridical series of ideas4 ,moreover1 he refuses to admit that ,paulinism constitutes a speculative system4 ,he assumes that the ,apostle moved in a free1 untrammelled fashion among the various sets of ideas and felt no real need to combine them into a unity4 ,in addition to ,ritschl1 ,bernhard ,weiss7#ci7 and ,willibald ,beyschlag17#dj7 in their ,new ,testament ,theologies1 endeavour to make clear the relations between ,paul and primitive ,christianity from the stand-point of critical conservatism4 ,in order to secure a broad basis for the primitive form of apostolic doctrine1 they pronounce ,i ,peter and the ,epistle of ,james to be documents of the pre-,pauline period4 ,the writer who makes things easiest for himself is ,von ,hofmann47#da7 ,for him there is no 8,pauline system pg #jdb of doctrine40 ,the ,apostle never uttered anything that did not belong to the common doctrine of ,christianity1 but 8according to the difference of the occasion0 brought into prominence this or that aspect of the saving acts of ,god or of the condition of salvation1 and what he thus brought forward1 now under one designation now under another1 he sets forth now in this relation and now in that one4 ,therefore this writer1 who was vaunted by the orthodox as a brilliant opponent of ,tbingen errors1 has no scruple in working up together the ,pauline ideas along with those of the other ,new ,testament ,epistles into a single whole1 which he offers as apostolic doctrine4 ,another problem which is hardly apprehended in its full difficulty by the scholars of this period is that of the total neglect in the ,pauline gospel of the proclamation of the kingdom of ,god and ,his righteousness which ,jesus committed to ,his followers4 ,they seem to feel no surprise at the fact that the ,apostle1 even where it would be the most natural thing in the world1 never appeals to the sayings and commands of the ,master4 ,many of them never touch on this question at all4 ,resch1 however1 in his collection of extra-canonical ,gospel-fragments1 even undertakes to show that in the ,pauline letters a whole series of otherwise unrecorded sayings of ,jesus are embodied1 and defends the hypothesis that the ,apostle had taken them from a pre-canonical ,gospel which ranked for him as an authority of equal value with the ,old ,testament4 ,the enigma of the untraced quotation1 8,what eye hath not seen1 neither hath ear heard10 etc41 in ,i ,cor4 ii4 #i ff41 is solved by referring the 8as it is written0 to the written ,gospel on which ,paul draws47#db7 ,it is curious that most of these authors believe that they reduce the acuteness of the problem by pointing pg #jdc out in the ,epistles as many reminiscences of ,synoptic sayings as possible4 ,that1 of course1 only makes the matter more complicated4 ,if so many utterances of ,jesus are hovering before ,paul's mind1 how comes it that he always merely paraphrases them1 instead of quoting them as sayings of ,jesus1 and thus sheltering himself behind their authority8 ,as for those who have some inkling of the problem1 their one thought is to dispose of it as rapidly as possible1 instead of first exposing it in its full extent4 ,among them is ,ritschl1 who here employs all the arts and artifices of his exegesis and dialectic4 ,that ,jesus and ,paul did not at bottom teach the same thing is to this undogmatic dogmatist unthinkable4 ,in general the writers of this period are involved in the most curious confusions regarding the problem of 8,jesus and ,paul40 ,they fail to perceive that these two magnitudes are not directly comparable with one another because they think of ,paul in complete isolation1 and not as a feature of primitive ,christianity4 ,the differences and oppositions which reveal themselves between the teaching of ,jesus and that of ,paul exist also as between the teaching of ,jesus and that of primitive ,christianity itself4 ,the momentous development did not arise first with ,paul1 but earlier1 in the community of the first disciples4 ,their 8religion0 is not identical with the 8teaching of ,jesus10 and did not simply grow out of it2 it is founded upon ,his death and resurrection4 ,the 8new element0 was not brought into ,christianity by ,paul2 he found it there before him1 and what he did was to think it out in its logical implications4 ,the difference of teaching between ,paul and ,jesus is not a difference between individuals1 it is--in almost its whole extent--due to the fact that the ,apostle belongs to primitive ,christianity4 ,in its false statement of the problem of ,jesus and ,paul the scholarship of the period after ,baur shows that it has not yet succeeded in understanding the ,apostle of pg #jdd the ,gentiles as a phenomenon1 an aspect1 of primitive ,christianity4 ,there is frequent mention1 in all these studies1 of the ,jewish roots of the ,pauline thought4 ,they attempt to explain his views1 so far as possible1 from the materials given in the ,law and the ,prophets4 ,some authors had been inclined to assume that in regard to his conception of the ,law he did not stand wholly upon ,old ,testament ground1 in the sense that he sometimes means by it a narrower ceremonial code of temporary validity1 and sometimes a universal ethical law which has not been invalidated by the death of ,christ4 ,these confusions were put an end to by a study of ,edward ,grafe47#dc7 ,he shows that ,paul when he speaks of the law1 alike when he uses the article or does not use it1 always has in mind the whole legal code1 and never varies from the conviction that this has been set aside by the death and resurrection of ,christ4 ,that in ,galatians the ritual aspect of the law1 in ,romans the ethical1 is the more prominent1 does not alter this fact4 ,nor is the consistency of the ,apostle's view annulled by the fact that in many places he formulates the negative judgment quite definitely1 while in others he softens it by an admission of the historical and ethical significance of the law4 ,that ,paul's thinking follows the lines of ,old ,testament conceptions is self-evident4 ,the only question is whether the motive forces which make their appearance in his gospel are derived in some way or other from the ,old ,testament ,scriptures4 ,that is not the case4 ,in working up the primitive ,christian views he does not have recourse to the ideas of the ancient ,judaism4 ,nowhere does ,paul attach himself to these4 ,he takes no ideas from the ,old ,testament with a view to giving them a new development1 pg #jde but uses only what he can take from it ready formed4 ,his new discovery rests on a different basis4 ,the ,law and the ,prophets serve only to supply him with the ,scriptural arguments1 positive and negative1 of which he stands in need4 ,on the essential nature of the distinctively ,pauline world of thought the ,old ,testament therefore throws no light4 ,this negative result is not1 indeed1 everywhere clearly formulated4 ,there are some students of ,paulinism who simply ignore it4 ,heinrici1 in the preface to his study of #b ,corinthians 7#ahhg71 ventures on the assertion that in ,paul the 8spirit of ,old ,testament prophecy0 triumphs over contemporary ,judaism4 ,and he is not the only one who clings to the illusion that much help is to be gained from the ,old ,testament for the understanding of the ,apostle's world of thought4 ,by way of proof they cite every possible parallel1 even the most remote4 ,but the disproportion between the amount of the material offered and the smallness of the result established tells against them4 ,that ,paul is a child of late ,judaism only began to be generally taken into account when its world of thought was made known to theology by ,schrer's 8,history of ,new ,testament ,times107#dd7 and ,weber's 8,system of ,palestinian ,theology in the ,early ,synagogues407#de7 ,but even after this most scholars shared a certain disinclination to recognise a real connexion between the ,apostle's world of thought and that of late ,judaism4 ,heinrici1 who in pg #jdf his study in the ,corinthian ,epistles gives great attention to the question regarding the source of his ideas1 definitely denies that 8the intellectual and religious forces of ,late ,judaism exercised a dominant influence0 on the ,apostle4 ,he holds1 like many others1 that ,paul1 passing over his own time1 grasped hands with the classical ,judaism of the prophets1 and that one source of his strength is to be found in this fact4 ,this prejudice is to be explained by the low estimation in which late ,judaism had always been held by theologians4 ,it was identified1 without examination1 on the one hand with 8fantastic apocalyptic views10 and on the other with a 8soulless ,rabbinism40 ,the admission1 however1 that ,paul in the principles of his exegesis was in agreement with ,rabbinism was made by theologians with comparative readiness4 ,this did not carry with it the surrender of anything that had been much valued1 since the verbal comparison and contrast of passages which he practises1 and the illogical and fantastic reasoning which appears in his arguments1 had always been distasteful to theological science4 ,it was therefore rather welcome to it than otherwise1 to find1 in consequence of the increased knowledge of parallel products of late ,judaism1 an explanation of a weakness which did not properly harmonise with the greatness of this heroic spirit1 in the influences to which he had been subjected by reason of his theological education47#df7 ,along with this was accepted the fact that1 in common with his contemporaries1 he naively treats the ,haggadic embellishments of ,old ,testament stories as on the same footing with the ,scripture itself4 ,his assumption that the ,law was given by the angels 7,gal4 iii4 #ai71 and his reference to the rock that followed the children of ,israel in the wilderness and poured out water 7,i ,cor4 x4 #d71 are to be explained from passages in the ,rabbinic literature4 pg #jdg ,no thoroughgoing investigation was undertaken with a view to determining whether the ,rabbinic principles suffice to explain ,paul's method of scriptural argument4 ,in general the view prevails that his 8typological0 and 8spiritualising0 7pneumatisch7 interpretation goes beyond what can elsewhere be shown in ,palestinian theology4 ,it is true these two methods of exegesis1 going beyond the simple literal sense1 are not wholly unknown1 but they only came to their full development in contemporary ,alexandrian ,biblical scholarship4 ,for this reason it is proposed to assume that ,paul had also received an influence from this side4 ,as examples of ,alexandrian exegesis are quoted the interpretation of ,hagar and ,sarah as representing the earthly and the heavenly ,jerusalem 7,gal4 iv4 #bb f471 that of the water-giving rock as representing ,christ 7,i ,cor4 x4 #d71 and the argument from the threshing oxen to the preachers of the gospel 7,i ,cor4 ix4 #i ff474 ,one of the greatest problems of the ,pauline use of ,scripture is not mentioned in these works4 ,it is assumed that the ,apostle attached special importance to proving the ,messiahship of the crucified ,jesus4 ,how then can we explain the fact that he never makes any use of the passage about the ,suffering ,servant of the ,lord in ,isaiah liii8 ,this fact is the more surprising because it may be taken as certain that the apologetic of the primitive ,christian community gave this passage a most prominent place in its plan of operations4 ,a scientific attempt to adduce from the ,rabbinic literature explanatory parallels to ,pauline thought was made by ,franz ,delitzsch in #ahgj in connexion with his ,hebrew translation of the ,epistle to the ,romans47#dg7 ,the pg #jdh net result is not great4 ,the parallels adduced are so uncharacteristic that they throw no new light on the ,apostle's ideas4 ,no further considerable attempts were made in this direction4 ,nor did ,weber's 8,theology of the ,early ,synagogue0 lead to any other important works being undertaken in that department4 ,on the contrary1 his sketch of the ,rabbinic world of ideas makes it apparent that ,pauline thought does not become any more intelligible by its aid than it is in itself1 even though one parallel or another may be unearthed4 ,moreover1 it is to be remarked that the discovery of such parallels would only become of importance if proof could be given that they really date from the beginning of the first century4 ,such proof is1 however1 quite impossible4 ,of the 8,rabbinism0 of ,paul's day we know practically nothing4 ,even the earliest strata of the literature which is at our disposal were not formed before the beginning of the third century ,a4,d47#dh7 ,it consists of a codification of tradition carried out by the later ,rabbinic scholasticism4 ,how far it offers us a faithful representation of the ideas and character of ,rabbinic thought at the beginning of the first century must remain an open question4 ,even if ,paul1 in virtue of his dialectic and certain external characteristics1 belongs to the world which this literature reveals to us1 in regard to the content of his ideas and his creative force as a thinker he is not to be understood by its aid4 ,to register this fact is1 however1 by no means to deny that he has his roots in the ,jewish theology of his time1 but only to say that he shows no affinity as regards the inner essence of his problems and pg #jdi ideas with what a later age offers us as the ,rabbinism of the first century4 ,it is possible1 indeed it is in the highest degree probable1 that many of his ideas for which no 8,rabbinic0 parallels can be adduced1 nevertheless have their origin in the ,jewish theology of his time4 ,who is to guarantee that the later scholasticism has faithfully preserved for us the ,jewish theology which was contemporary with ,christianity8 ,it may well have been more living in thought and more profound than the men of the after-time could understand1 or their tradition preserve4 ,the picture which they draw for us shows only a sun-scorched plain1 but this yellow1 wilted grass was green and fresh once4 ,what did the meadows look like then8 ,it is to be remembered that the ,apocalypse of ,ezra1 which shows in its own way such depth1 while it is derived from the ,scribal theology of the first century1 is as little to be explained from what on the basis of the later literature we think of as the ,rabbinism of the period as are the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,had this writing not been preserved1 it would never have occurred to anyone that at that time men belonging to the circle of the ,scribes had been tormented in this way by the primary problems of religion1 and had brought the questions arising out of them into such close relations with eschatology4 ,further1 it is to be taken into account that ,palestinian ,scribism1 even though it was an independent entity1 did not1 at the time when it has to be considered in connexion with ,paul1 exist in absolute exclusiveness1 but maintained relations with ,jewish ,hellenism4 ,the latter worked on a basis of ideas which it had in large measure taken over from ,rabbinism and held in common with the latter4 ,this relationship becomes in the case of ,philo clearly apparent4 ,with him one can never tell where the 8,rabbinist0 ends and the ,hellenist begins4 ,but if the theology of the ,scribes stood in any kind of relation with ,jewish ,hellenism1 it cannot have been so poor in ideas and unspiritual as it appears in the later tradition4 pg #jej ,even the discourses of ,jesus1 in spite of the polemical picture which they give of it1 create the impression that ,he had to do with a ,rabbinism which was interested in really religious questions1 even though it showed itself incapable of rising to the height of the simple piety to which ,his preaching of the ,kingdom of ,god and the repentance necessary thereto made its appeal4 ,it seems therefore probable that the ,epistles of ,paul and the ,apocalypse of ,ezra1 along with its satellite the ,apocalypse of ,baruch1 are witnesses to a ,rabbinism1 or a movement within its sphere1 of which the ,rabbinic tradition which later became fixed in written form gives us no information4 ,what should we know of the moving forces of the ,reformation as they manifest themselves in ,luther's works of the year #aeba1 if we were dependent for our information on the ,lutheran scholasticism of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries8 ,how would we think of the ,reformation as a whole if we possessed only these witnesses8 ,with all due respect to the vaunted faithfulness of ,rabbinic tradition1 which after all we are not in a position to check1 was it capable of preserving the record of a period of living thought8 ,is an oral tradition ever capable of doing so8 ,the historical examples in which we are able to test the tradition of later generations by the reality which has subsequently come to light1 are calculated to shake our faith in the assumption that it can do so4 ,what did ,beethoven's time know of the achievements of the period of ,bach8 ,mention is made of the elaborate fugues which had their origin at that time2 but that the eighteenth century had produced choral works of deep feeling and an elevation secure against change of fashion1 was entirely unknown to the second generation after ,bach1 although there had been nothing to interrupt tradition4 ,moreover1 it ought not to be forgotten that we possess the history of ,judaism only in fragments4 ,as regards the political events of the first century we are pg #jea comparatively well informed1 but of the religious movements we know little1 and what does come to our knowledge is so disconnected and self-contradictory that it cannot be combined into a single picture4 ,the ,baptist1 ,jesus1 ,philo1 ,paul1 ,josephus1 and the authors of the ,apocalypses of ,ezra and ,baruch cover together about two generations4 ,they are at first sight as entirely different as if they belonged to widely separated periods4 ,the destruction of ,jerusalem interrupts the continuity of development of the ,jewish people and of its thought4 ,its life is extinguished4 ,hellenism dies out4 ,there arises a ,rabbinism which is no longer borne on the tide of great national and spiritual movements4 ,it becomes ossified1 and confines itself to mere unproductive commentating upon the law4 ,from the past its tradition takes only what lies within the field of its own narrow interests4 ,the problems and ideas which moved the earlier1 many-sided period no longer come into view1 but fall into as complete oblivion as if they had never occupied ,jewish religious thought4 ,the scholarship of the period after ,baur is indeed far enough from embarking on reflexions of this kind4 ,it takes scarcely any notice of what remains of the ,late-,jewish non-,hellenistic literature4 ,even the commentators make scarcely any use of the parallels to ,pauline ideas and conceptions which are found in ,enoch1 the ,apocalypse of ,baruch1 the ,apocalypse of ,ezra1 and here and there in the ,testaments of the ,twelve ,patriarchs4 ,it is nothing less than astonishing that the close affinities with the ,apocalypse of ,ezra do not receive any recognition4 ,in this work there are elaborate discussions of the problems of sin1 the ,fall of our first parents1 ,election1 the wrath1 long-suffering1 and mercy of ,god1 the prerogative of ,israel1 the significance of the law1 the temporal and the eternal ,jerusalem1 of the prospect of dying or surviving to the ,parousia1 the tribulation of the times of the ,end1 and the ,judgment4 ,the close affinity between this writer and ,paul strikes the eye at once4 pg #jeb ,writers on ,paulinism are1 however1 so obsessed by the idea that the teaching of ,paul is a 8personal creation0 that they cannot bring themselves to accept the view that the religious problems which struggle for solution in his letters had also occupied his ,jewish contemporaries or at least a section of them47#di7 ,the claims of ,late ,judaism on ,paul were therefore taken to be discharged when his ,rabbinic dialectic and exegesis1 and to a certain extent his eschatology also1 had been ascribed to it4 ,the chapter on the future-hope which connected ,paul on the one hand with ,judaism and on the other with primitive ,christianity1 is never omitted in any account of his teaching given by the scholars of the post-,baur period4 ,in it is collected all that the ,epistles have to say regarding the parousia1 the resurrection1 the judgment1 and the ,kingdom of the ,last ,times4 ,the treatment1 however1 is by no means thorough4 ,scarcely anywhere is there an attempt to arrange the scattered notices in an orderly way and bring them into relation with one another4 ,it is taken for granted that they are inconsistent with one another1 as a necessary consequence of the fantastic character of the material4 ,that ,paul may have had a clear plan of the events of the ,end in which all his statements can find a place1 is not taken into account4 ,these writers therefore set no limit to the admission of inconsistencies1 and draw a picture which is1 to put it plainly1 meaningless4 ,so far1 it occurs to no one that the want of connexion may perhaps result from the fact that the separate pg #jec statements have not been carefully examined in regard to what they actually mean1 and to their mutual relations4 ,it is taken as quite certain that the 8simple0 eschatology of ,i ,thessalonians is superseded by the more complicated view of the ,corinthian letters2 and these in turn are not the last stage in this 8development0 of the ,apostle's thought4 ,no attempt is made to get a clear idea in what order he thinks of the judgment and the resurrection of the dead1 or as to whether he holds that there is one resurrection and one judgment1 or a resurrection of the 8righteous10 and another besides1 and whether he assumes this to be accompanied by one judgment or two4 ,the authors regard with a certain amount of self-satisfaction the way in which they have emphasised the importance given to the eschatology by ,paul4 ,in the chapter devoted to it they have certainly emphasised again and again1 8with the utmost energy10 the fact that he really 8shared0 the eschatological expectations of his time and admitted them to an important place in his creed4 ,the chapter in question1 however1 only gets its turn after the whole 8system of doctrine0 has been safely housed in the earlier chapters without seeking any aid from the eschatology or even saying a word about it4 ,as in the ,church prayers of to-day1 one catches an echo of it only at the end4 ,this means that1 when all is said and done1 these writers regard it only as a kind of annexe to the main edifice of ,pauline doctrine4 ,that is a fact which their brave words about the importance attributed to it in their account do not alter in the slightest4 ,none of these students of ,paulinism asks himself whether there is an organic connexion between the eschatological expectations and the system as such1 and whether the fundamental conceptions and concatenation of ideas are not somehow or other conditioned by the hope of the final consummation4 ,it is simply taken as self-evident that eschatology can only form an incidental chapter in ,paul's teaching4 pg #jed ,the most natural course to follow in the investigation would have been to begin with the eschatology as the most general and 8primitive-,christian0 element1 and then to have tried to find a path leading from here to the central doctrine of the new life in union with the dying and resurrection of ,christ4 ,this course is nowhere followed4 ,that is the more surprising as it is generally assumed that the 8missionary preaching0 of the ,apostle took an almost purely eschatological form1 and was scarcely distinguishable from the primitive-,christian preaching of repentance1 the judgment1 and the parousia4 ,the point to examine would therefore have been precisely how the 8,pauline theology0 grew out of the eschatology which ,paul shared with primitive ,christianity4 ,instead of that1 these writers begin with the 8doctrinal system10 and attach to that by way of appendix an account of the eschatology4 ,it here first becomes fully apparent what a misfortune it was for ,pauline study in the post-,baur period that it kept to the method of presentation under loci1 and consequently accorded eschatology1 in principle1 no greater importance for ,paulinism than it had had for ,reformation theology4 ,bernard ,weiss1 agreeing in this with ,havet1 lays strong emphasis on the eschatology1 and makes a beginning in the direction of an intelligent presentation of ,paulinism4 ,instead of beginning1 like the others1 with the 8doctrine of man10 or with 8sin and the law10 he first sets forth 8the earliest preaching of ,paul as ,apostle of the ,gentiles10 which he makes to consist of nothing but the proclamation of the judgment and the parousia4 ,but having got this length1 he does not feel any need to point out the paths which lead from here to the 8teaching of the four great doctrinal and polemical epistles40 ,he simply puts the two sections side by side1 and even falls into the inconsistency of devoting another chapter to the eschatology at a later point4 ,the doctrine of ,paul consists therefore for these scholars of a theology of the pg #jee present and a theology of the future which have no inner connexion with one another4 ,it is indeed cited as an achievement on his part that he turned the eye of faith from the exclusive contemplation of the 8hereafter0 to take in the present also4 ,how he came to do so--he alone of this first ,christian generation--to point to present 8blessings of salvation0 in addition to those of the future1 is not explained4 ,the co-existence of the two is simply noted as a fact4 ,how far the scholars of this period were from taking the ,pauline eschatology seriously1 is evident from the fact that they neglected to enquire into its connexion with that of ,late ,judaism4 ,otto ,everling1 who in #ahhh took in hand to give an account of one of its main features1 its angelology and demonology1 was not able to refer to any previous work in this department47#ej7 ,a theologian to whom he spoke of his design answered that 8one ought not to examine the birth-marks of a genius like the ,apostle40 ,everling brings forward the passages which speak of ,satan1 the angels1 and the demons1 one after another1 and adduces parallels from ,enoch1 the ,ascension of ,isaiah1 the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 the ,book of ,jubilees1 the ,testaments of the ,twelve ,patriarchs1 and the ,apocalypse of ,baruch4 ,his review of the material shows in what a step-motherly fashion it had been treated by previous commentators of all shades of opinion4 ,in the result it appears that the ,pauline statements about angelology and demonology have not sprung from his own imagination1 but all have their earlier analogues in the ,late-,jewish theology1 or at any rate can be understood as inferences from the conceptions there laid down4 ,it further appears that his statements stand in systematic connexion and mutually supplement one another4 ,in its main lines the ,pauline doctrine of the angels shows us the following picture4 ,spiritual beings who1 in accordance with the hierarchic arrangement adopted in pg #jef ,late-,jewish theology1 are divided into various classes1 played a prominent part at the giving of the law4 ,from that time forward they acted as overseers of the chosen people1 and also as the real powers behind the gods of the heathen4 ,by the death and resurrection of ,christ their power has been in principle abolished1 although it continues to be still in some way exercised upon those who offer sacrifices to idols or submit themselves to the law4 ,believers in ,christ1 however1 stand over against them as a class of men who are liberated from their sway1 and who possess a wisdom which understands better than their own the great events in which the history of the world is about to close4 ,these angelic existences feel that their domination is threatened1 and fight with all the weapons at their command4 ,it is at their instigation that the attempt is made to corrupt the ,gospel by legalism2 all the difficulties which the ,apostle encounters1 all the corporeal sufferings which he has to bear1 are to be attributed to them4 ,it is on their account that women must be veiled when attending the services of the ,church1 since otherwise they run the risk of becoming the victims of their lust1 as of old their mother ,eve was seduced by the devil4 ,most dangerous of all is their skill in deception3 ,satan can disguise himself as an angel of light4 ,with the appearance of the ,lord begins the decisive struggle which is to lead to the destruction of these powers4 ,they are to be delivered up to judgment1 to receive their sentence at the mouth of the saints1 whom1 until the parousia1 they have still the power to harass with cunning and cruelty1 though not to destroy4 8,in its proper historical surroundings ,christianity shows up in its true majesty10 said ,richard ,rothe once4 ,everling drew from these words1 which he placed at the beginning of his book1 courage to make a thorough investigation of matters which had previously been timidly avoided because of their strangeness4 ,how wide-reaching was the significance of his synthetic pg #jeg study he had hardly realised4 ,his intention was to depict clearly and in vivid colours the imposingly fantastic ,late-,jewish background of ,pauline theology4 ,the theology of his time took the same view4 ,it accepted the offered gift somewhat constrainedly1 but on the whole gratefully enough4 ,if it had the impression that the background as thus restored1 while no doubt 8interesting10 was somewhat too glaring and obtrusive1 it remained confident that the 8doctrinal system0 which it throws into relief is not otherwise affected by it4 ,the appendix-chapter on eschatology grows in size and acquires a certain connectedness4 ,but there seemed no reason to fear that it might grow so vigorously as to overpower those into which the ,pauline theology proper is neatly parcelled out4 ,in reality1 however1 there was quite sufficient reason for anxiety4 ,everling had shown that angelology and demonology were1 as a matter of fact1 component parts of ,paul's cosmology4 ,that they consequently also entered into his fundamental conception of redemption was a point which he had not especially emphasised4 ,but the fact was written in giant characters across his work4 ,from the moment when ,paul's statements regarding ,god1 the devil1 the angels1 and the world are apprehended in their organic connexion1 it becomes abundantly evident that for him redemption1 in its primary and fundamental sense1 consists in a deliverance from the powers which have their abode between heaven and earth4 ,it is therefore essentially a future good1 dependent on a cosmic event of universal scope4 ,it at once becomes evident that the investigation of ,paulinism must take as its starting-point these ideas as being of the most general character1 and endeavour to show how the other statements regarding redemption are derived from them4 ,theological science was thus forced into the road which it had hitherto sedulously avoided4 ,the deceptive character of the division of ,paulinism under loci1 by which it had long been kept in pg #jeh an unhappy state of subservience to ,reformation and modern prejudices1 now became apparent4 ,but for all that theology held to the old way and was determined to cast out anyone who set foot upon the new4 ,that is the explanation of the fate which befel ,richard ,kabisch's 8,eschatology of ,paul407#ea7 ,kabisch had been considering the plan of a work on the ,pauline ,ethic1 and in doing so had become aware that it was to a large extent conditioned by the eschatological expectations4 ,thereupon he resolved to begin with a preliminary study of the eschatology47#eb7 8,salvation10 so runs his argument1 is thought of by ,paul as 8deliverance0 from judgment and destruction4 8,justification0 and 8reconciliation0 are subservient to this deliverance and do not describe a state of salvation independent of it4 ,the spiritual goods which are characterised by many theologians as the object of the ,apostle's wrestling and striving are in reality only the anticipatory first-fruits of the blessedness which the future has in store4 ,this blessedness consists in the believer's being freed at the parousia from the fleshly body in order to put on the heavenly robe of glory4 ,thus eschatology is the foundation both of the dogmatics and ethics of the ,apostle4 ,life and death are for him physical conceptions4 ,spiritual death and spiritual life in the modern religious sense are unknown to him4 ,even where1 as in ,rom4 vi41 he speaks of a dying and rising again which are not accompanied by any change in the outward and visible existence of the individual1 he does not mean a spiritual dying and rising again but1 inconceivable as it may pg #jei appear1 a physical occurrence4 ,everything spiritual goes back to something corporeal4 ,that is true also as regards the ethics4 ,it is not from the consciousness of the 8ideal possession of eternal life0 that he infers the duty of walking in newness of life1 but from the fact that one who shares the death of ,christ must also share ,his resurrection4 ,both events have reference to the present4 ,it is 8a simple logical consequence0 that we should walk in accordance with this physical newness of life in order to show that the fleshly1 sarkic1 body has been put off4 ,the new life of which ,paul speaks as a present spirit is therefore based on the 8repetition0 of ,christ's bodily resurrection1 which is rendered possible by the unio mystica with him4 ,it guarantees to the individual his indestructibility even though the corruptible world1 to which his fleshly corporeity belongs1 falls a prey to destruction4 ,the believer will then have a part in the new world-substance4 ,paul's soul is therefore thrilled with the eager desire for life1 shaken with the dread of destruction4 ,his faith1 hope1 and fear all revolve about one centre--the abolition of corruption and the bestowal of incorruption4 ,his religion is a 8will-to-live0 in a large elemental sense4 ,he yearns for redemption from the creaturehood which is under the sway of ,satan and his powers1 and from the body which they hold in thrall4 ,the moment in which the relative positions of the world of spirits and the world of men are to be reversed1 and a great final renewal of all things is to be brought in--that moment cannot come quickly enough for him4 ,therefore he seeks in some way to antedate it4 ,the future condition of existence is that of 8glory40 ,it is anticipated in the present life by the possession of the 8,spirit0 which belongs essentially to the heavenly light substance4 ,thus ,kabisch endeavours to explain the ,pauline doctrine of the ,spirit purely on the ground of the ,late-,jewish metaphysic4 ,a super-earthly substance enters pg #jfj into the corporeity of those who in virtue of the unio mystica with ,christ have entered into the experience of ,his death and resurrection4 ,it produces in them a new being1 and gives them a claim to the future perfected glory1 and this while their fleshly existence still continues to the outward eye unaltered4 ,the great paradoxes of ,paulinism are here for the first time clearly pointed out and so described that their real eschatological essence appears47#ec7 ,but ,kabisch did not succeed in explaining them4 ,in what sense is a 8repetition0 in the believer of the dying and rising again of ,christ possible8 ,how can it produce a reconstitution of their creaturely being while their fleshly existence continues outwardly as before8 ,to these questions ,kabisch gives no answer4 ,in the account of the eschatological events and their issue it is shown that the blessings and anticipations referred to by ,paul are also present in the ,late-,jewish theology4 ,that the ,apostle expresses his views about the future world in disconnected fragments1 apparently distributed fortuitously through the text1 does not show that it was not clear and consistent in his own mind1 but exactly the opposite4 ,the eschatological remarks come in so naturally and without appearing to need pg #jfa explanation just because this whole set of conceptions was to the ,apostle so long familiar and self-explanatory1 that he can draw on it whenever he wishes as easily as an educated ,european uses the multiplication table4 ,strangely1 however1 ,kabisch does not succeed in giving a clear and simple picture of the order and relation of the final events presupposed in the letters4 ,he gets confused over the various resurrections and judgments1 and finds the sole way of escape in attributing to the ,apostle a resurrection of the righteous only1 and not a general resurrection in addition4 ,in consequence he is forced to the conclusion that the righteous enter the ,kingdom without passing through a judgment1 and that what is meant by the judgment is always the destruction of the wicked at the parousia4 ,that is to make the ,apostle contradict not only ,jewish apocalyptic1 but his own utterances1 since it is certain that the ,epistles frequently make mention of believers appearing at the judgment4 ,the difficulties which ,kabisch here encounters are significant4 ,they show that it is not possible to understand the ,pauline statements simply by the light of the ,late-,jewish eschatology4 ,what for the ,apostle composed a simple picture remains for the writer who endeavours to describe his apocalyptic full of obscurities and contradictions4 ,it is as if one or two conceptions were lacking which would have enabled him to 8get out0 his game of patience satisfactorily4 ,it is true ,kabisch has not done everything possible in order to attain clearness4 ,he has neglected to adduce for comparison the eschatology of the ,baptist and of ,jesus1 and to examine how far the ,pauline simplification of apocalyptic is here prefigured4 ,he thus falls into the universal but none the less unintelligible error of failing to call the two most important witnesses to the ,late-,jewish eschatological expectations4 ,are they the less so because they belong to the ,new ,testament8 ,further1 he neglects1 as do all the other writers1 to consider what pg #jfb are the primary questions which the theory of the events of the ,end had to answer4 ,what happens at the parousia to the non-elect8 ,and what to the elect who have not become believers because the ,gospel message has not reached them8 ,the ultimate fate of these two classes of men can surely not be the same8 ,do those who at the parousia do not enter into glory suffer 8death0 or 8destruction08 ,what is the relation between these two conceptions8 ,according to ,i ,cor4 xv4 #bf1 death is only to be vanquished at the end of the ,messianic kingdom4 ,is a general resurrection before that conceivable8 ,does it follow as a consequence of this triumph over death8 ,since ,kabisch does not raise these and similar questions1 he does not find the path which alone can lead to the understanding of the logic of the events of the ,end4 ,undoubtedly1 in the eschatology of a thinker like ,paul1 all these problems must have been considered and thought out4 ,they form the implicit presuppositions which guarantee and make clear the inner logic of his scattered and seemingly disconnected statements4 ,although he has not explained the paradoxes of the ,pauline mysticism1 nor succeeded in making clear the ground-plan of his eschatology1 ,kabisch's book is one of the most striking achievements1 not only in the department of ,pauline study1 but in historical theology as a whole4 ,for the first time since ,ldemann's investigation of the ,apostle's doctrine of man1 in #ahgb1 the problem of the ,pauline doctrine of redemption receives a new formulation4 ,the two works show a curious analogy4 ,their authors have a consciousness of the fact that the theology of the ,apostle is a living organism1 and are preserved by some good genius from splitting it up into ,reformation or modern loci4 ,they endeavour to grasp the thoughts and connecting links of the doctrine of redemption from a single point of view4 ,ldemann makes the 8anthropology0 his starting-point1 ,kabisch the eschatology4 pg #jfc ,both are led1 almost contrary to their intention1 to give a general account of ,paulinism4 ,both see in the paradoxical statements about the abolition of the flesh in the union with the death and resurrection of ,christ the centre of his doctrine2 both arrive at the result that what is in view is a really physical redemption4 ,in the explanation of the facts which they agree in observing they diverge widely4 ,ldemann claims the ,pauline doctrine of redemption as ,hellenistic2 ,kabisch endeavours to understand it on the basis of ,late ,judaism4 ,theological science cast out the innovator and held to the conviction that the ,apostle's system of thought was ,greek4 ,it was acknowledged that he had made the eschatology of the ,apostle intelligible2 but in the attempt to pass from the eschatology to the centre of the ,apostle's system of doctrine1 contemporary scholarship saw only an extreme onesidedness for which there was no justification in the documents1 which deserved neither examination nor refutation1 but simply rejection4 ,on what lines had theology developed and defended the theory of ,greek elements in ,paulinism8 ,in the first place1 it is to be remarked that in regard to the extent and importance of the influence which is supposed to have been exercised1 various groupings are to be observed among the different writers4 ,pfleiderer1 ,holsten1 ,heinrici17#ed7 ,havet1 and others see in ,paulinism the actual first step in the ,hellenisation of ,christianity4 ,they assume1 as ,baur also had taken for granted before them1 that the ethical series of ideas1 the series dominated by the antithesis of flesh and spirit1 is derived from ,greek influences4 ,schmiedel17#ee7 in his commentaries1 and ,harnack7#ef7 express pg #jfd themselves with more reserve4 ,according to the latter1 ,hellenism1 no doubt1 8had its share0 in ,paul4 ,the ,apostle of the ,gentiles 8prepared the way for the projection of the ,gospel upon the ,graeco-,roman world of thought10 but he never gave to ,greek ideas 8any influence upon his doctrine of salvation40 ,lipsius17#eg7 ,bernhard ,weiss1 and ,weizscker do not take much account of borrowings from ,greek sources1 but are concerned to explain ,paul from and by himself so far as possible4 ,it is not so easy as might be supposed to determine the attitude of the various authors towards the problem of the ,hellenic influence in ,paul4 ,this is partly due to want of accuracy in the terminology4 8,hellenistic0 is used to mean both ,jewish-,hellenistic and ,greek in the strict sense4 ,the authors frequently express themselves in such a way that it is not obvious whether they mean the one1 or the other1 or both together4 ,attempts to establish an accurate terminology1 to confine 8,hellenistic0 to the meaning 8,jewish-,hellenistic10 and to use ,hellenic for ,greek in the full sense1 have not succeeded4 ,but the want of clearness is not wholly to be put down to the account of the language2 it is partly due to the mental attitude of the writers4 ,the problem really includes two questions4 ,first1 ,was ,paul under the influence of ,jewish ,hellenism8 ,secondly1 ,did ,greek thought in itself1 apart from the alliance into which it had entered with ,judaism1 exercise any influence upon his views8 ,instead of keeping these questions separate these writers constantly confuse them1 and assume that they have proved the existence of ,greek ideas in the pg #jfe ,apostle's system of doctrine when they have only discussed his relations with ,jewish-,hellenism4 ,sometimes one actually gets the impression that in this difficult question they intentionally make their discussions a little obscure and inconsistent1 and are more concerned to conceal than to reveal their views1 in order not to lay themselves open to attack4 ,the discovery and the grouping of their opinions is therefore associated with difficulties1 and can never be carried out in a way entirely free from objection4 ,fortunately the discussion and decision of the question does not depend on drawing them up in three divisions1 each under the banner of its particular view1 and so putting them through their facings4 ,it suffices to note the fact that in the study of the subject from ,baur onward the greatly predominating opinion is that ,paul was not only influenced by ,jewish ,hellenism but also derived some of his ideas directly from ,greek thought4 ,it is also safe to assert that of all the writers in question--even though some of them take up an attitude of reserve to ,pfleiderer's more thoroughgoing views1 none of them denies the influence of ,jewish ,hellenism on ,paul4 ,the difference between them consists rather in the fact that some assume in addition to this what may be called 8free0 ,greek influence1 while others are sceptical on this point and think that the facts can be explained without this assumption4 ,it is to be expressly remarked that the latter do not try to arrive at an understanding of the essence of ,paul's thought by a different method1 but only to clothe the usual explanations in different words4 ,this is the case with ,weizscker4 ,the well-known account of ,paulinism in his 8,apostolic ,age07#eh7 neither offers any new idea nor raises any new problem4 ,though he is in some respects more cautious than ,pfleiderer1 because he feels the difficulty of proving ,greek influence more strongly than the latter1 in other pg #jff respects he is less exacting than ,pfleiderer with his logical development of ,baur's ideas1 since he is content with explanations which do not satisfy ,pfleiderer4 ,that ,bernard ,weiss in dealing with ,pauline theology dispenses with the assumption of ,greek influence is due to the fact that his investigation holds strictly to the lines of 8,biblical theology10 and on principle takes no account of anything beyond the borders of the ,canon4 ,it is interesting to note that both ,weiss and ,weizscker deliberately avoid a discussion of ,greek and ,hellenistic influence on ,paul1 and confine themselves to an objective account of ,paul's doctrine4 ,indeed1 it may be remarked that in the study of the subject between ,baur and ,holtzmann the problem is never thoroughly discussed4 ,the question how far the alleged influences are proved or provable may be held over for the present1 and in the first place we may interrogate ,holsten1 ,pfleiderer and their followers as to what their view really means1 and what they think they can explain by means of it4 ,at bottom the question turns on the antithesis of flesh and spirit4 ,in the clearly defined form in which this antithesis presents itself in ,paul1 it is held that it must be regarded as ,greek4 ,this view had been expressed by ,ldemann1 who was the first to develop it clearly4 ,independently of him1 ,holsten7#ei7 and ,pfleiderer brought it into general currency4 ,it is universally taken for granted that the dualism is derived from ,platonism4 ,whether ,paul took it direct from ,greek sources or from ,jewish ,hellenism is not clearly explained4 ,ldemann seems to assume the former1 ,holsten to imply the latter2 ,pfleiderer is doubtless to be understood in the sense that both possibilities have to be taken into account1 separately and in combination4 ,the psychological process is differently conceived by pg #jfg ,holsten and by ,pfleiderer4 ,the former holds that ,greek ideas were already in his pre-,christian period present to the mind of the ,apostle1 who had been in touch with ,jewish ,hellenism1 but they had as yet played no part in his thinking4 ,by his religious experience at the vision of ,christ on the ,damascus road they were called into activity and helped him to give form to his new knowledge4 ,in this way ,holsten thinks it possible to understand ,paulinism as both a personal creation of the ,apostle and at the same time a product of the influence of ,greek ideas4 ,the emphasis lies1 however1 on the personal creation2 the influence of the ,greek ideas is thought of as subsidiary4 ,for ,pfleiderer the process was more largely determined from without4 ,paul's conversion creates as it were a void in his ,jewish consciousness4 ,the thought-forms which he has hitherto used prove incapable of dealing satisfactorily with the implications of his new faith4 ,so the ,apostle is driven to have recourse to another system of ideas4 ,he no longer remains indifferent to the ideas which stream in upon him from ,jewish ,hellenism and ,greek thought4 ,they become significant to him2 he allows them to exercise their influence upon him4 ,in this way there arises a remarkable duality in his thought4 ,pharisaic and ,hellenistic trains of ideas form two streams 8which in ,paulinism meet in one bed without really coalescing40 ,by way of conjecture ,pfleiderer several times advances the suggestion that ,apollos the ,alexandrian may have introduced the ,apostle to the ,alexandrian ,platonism4 ,heinrici1 again1 in his commentaries on the ,corinthian ,epistles suggests that the ,apostle's doctrine is a synthesis of elements taken on the one hand from the ,jewish prophets and on the other from ,greek thought47#fj7 ,paul1 he thinks1 reached back beyond ,late ,judaism to join hands with the ancient prophetism1 and similarly rose pg #jfh superior to ,alexandrianism and drew direct from ,greek thought4 ,in both cases what he seeks is an ethical force4 ,that he possessed the insight and the power to find this in the thought of the ancient world and to apply it to the formation of a ,christian system of thought was a great spiritual achievement1 pregnant with consequences for the future development of ,christianity4 ,one might have expected that these various views would be worked out in detail4 ,that is not the case4 ,in the last resort none of these writers gets beyond the general and simple assertion that the antithesis of flesh and spirit is ,greek4 ,but even this is not further explained by means of parallels from ,greek literature4 ,there is no attempt to show in what sense ,paul's utterances become more intelligible in the light of these analogies than they are in themselves4 8,the ,greek dualism10 writes ,holsten1 8underlies all the decisive elements of his thought1 and makes itself apparent in a series of individual traits40 ,any one who goes through his work in the expectation of finding evidence adduced in support of this statement will be disappointed4 ,it is as though the author had forgotten as he went on writing what he had set out to do4 ,it is also matter for astonishment that no serious attempt is made to extend the range of the ,greek elements beyond the single antithesis of flesh and spirit4 ,the suggestion is no doubt met with that the pessimism1 the longing for death1 and the ethical teaching of the ,apostle1 belong essentially to the tone of thought prevalent in the ,hellenic world4 ,but these remain mere obiter dicta which are not worked out in any way4 ,it is as though these writers one and all had an instinctive feeling that their thesis1 so long as it is kept quite general1 has an admirable air of credibility and admits of being nicely formulated1 but that when any attempt is made to follow it out into detail it yields little in the way of tangible results4 ,paulinism is deceptive4 ,its outward appearance is such that the assertion that pg #jfi here ,greek influences have been at work seems the most self-evident possible1 but when this has to be shown in detail it leaves the investigator whom it has drawn on by its specious appearance completely in the lurch4 ,the curious thing is that ,holsten1 ,pfleiderer1 and their followers do not venture to formulate the unwelcome admission which may be read between their lines1 but keep up the game with one another as if everything was going as well as heart could wish4 ,they overdo their air of unconcern1 as though from an uncomfortable sense that they might in the end lose confidence in their assertion1 and so find themselves unable to explain how ,paul arrived at his dualistic antithesis between flesh and spirit4 ,for this is what it all ultimately comes to4 ,the assertion of ,greek influence is a kind of pillared portico behind which they construct the edifice of ,paulinism as they understand it4 ,the style1 however1 is only maintained as regards the front4 ,what lies behind that is styleless1 neither ,greek nor ,jewish1 without plan1 without character1 without proportion4 ,those writers who wholly or partially dissent from the assumption of ,greek influences carry out the same plan with the same materials1 and with the same unconcern as regards the style4 ,the only difference is that they do not conceal it by building a special faade in front of it1 whether it be that1 like ,harnack1 they have a fuller sense of the difficulties1 or1 like ,weiss and ,weizscker1 persuade themselves that ,paulinism1 according to their construction of it1 looks sufficiently well as it is4 ,there is1 however1 one point on which ,pfleiderer and his followers think that they can point to definite results of the influence of ,greek ideas4 ,they maintain that the ,apostle's eschatological expectations have been transformed by them4 ,this has reference to the passage in #b ,cor4 v4 ,i ff4 in which ,paul gives expression to his desire not to be 8unclothed0 but to be 8clothed upon40 ,the natural interpretation which is given by ,bernard ,weiss and others understands the ,apostle as speaking pg #jgj of his eager desire to experience the parousia while still alive in the body1 in order to share that transformation in which 8what is mortal will be swallowed up by life10 and not to have to pass through a time of waiting in an intermediate state of non-being or death4 ,pfleiderer in his 8,primitive ,christianity0 does not accept this explanation1 but maintains that this passage and two others--,phil4 i4 #ba f4 and iii4 #h f47#fa7--;imply a departure from the ,pharisaic eschatological hope in which the ,apostle's thought elsewhere moves4 ,in this later period of his life1 represented by #b ,corinthians and ,philippians1 he turns away--so runs the theory--from the primitive view of an intermediate state of death1 followed by a subsequent resurrection1 and comes to hold that his soul1 immediately after his departure1 will pass into the presence of ,christ in order to dwell with ,him4 ,and ,paul is more and more driven to adopt this view in proportion as his life is daily exposed to greater danger1 and he has to reckon with the possibility of dying before the parousia takes place4 ,under the pressure of this inward anxiety1 guided by ,platonising ,alexandrianism1 illuminated by the ,greek spirit1 he creates--we are still following ,pfleiderer--a spiritualising hope of future blessedness1 which in the sequel becomes of the utmost value to ,gentile ,christianity by enabling it to reconcile itself to the delay of the parousia4 pg #jga ,pfleiderer believes also that he can show the course of the development by which the new conception was arrived at4 ,in ,i ,thessalonians1 he thinks1 the ,apostle still rested unquestioningly in that notion of a corporeal resurrection which primitive ,christianity shared with ,judaism4 ,but in the explanations in ,i ,cor4 xv4 the influence of the ,greek ideas becomes observable1 while in #b ,corinthians and ,philippians it becomes dominant4 ,this construction of the course of events is defended by ,pfleiderer and his followers--,holsten here stands apart--with fanatical energy1 as though they wished to make noise enough to distract attention from the fact that they have so very little else to point to in the shape of positive evidence of ,greek influence in ,paul4 ,what are the difficulties which are raised by the assumption of ,greek ideas in ,paul's doctrine8 ,they are many and various1 and they grow greater in proportion as the new element in ,paul is more strongly emphasised4 ,take the problem of explaining the dualism of flesh and spirit4 ,it is assumed that this has been done when it has been declared to be ,greek4 ,but in doing so a duality has been introduced into ,paul himself which creates many more difficulties than the dualism it was invoked to solve4 ,the ,apostle is made to think ,judaically with one-half of his mind and ,hellenically with the other1 and nevertheless is supposed to be capable of being conceived as a single integral personality4 ,in the writings of ,ldemann and ,holsten the difficulty does not yet appear in its full magnitude4 ,they understand by the ,jewish element especially the juridical series of ideas referring to the atonement and imputed righteousness4 ,holsten is1 moreover1 in a specially favourable position1 because in the last resort he ascribes the origin of the system not so much to the influence of ,greek ideas as to the inward experience on the ,damascus road1 which of course eludes analysis4 ,if they are thus referred exclusively to the separate but coexistent juridical and mystical sets of pg #jgb ideas1 a ,jewish and a ,greek element can at need be thought of as in some way or other combined in a single consciousness4 ,but for ,pfleiderer the conception of the ,jewish element has become much more comprehensive and vital1 because he appreciates the significance of the eschatological ideas4 ,the result of that is to make the opposition which has to be recognised much more acute4 ,and1 nevertheless1 it must continue to be asserted that ,paul was unconscious of the inconsistencies6 ,if the difficulty could be got over by pointing to an opposition of which the ,apostle was conscious1 and which he had made an effort to reconcile1 the position of the theory would be much more favourable4 ,but for that it would be a necessary condition that he should somewhere have expressed the consciousness that he bore two souls within his breast17#fb7 and that the marks of compromise should appear in his work as they do1 for example1 in that of ,philo4 ,that1 however1 is not the case4 ,he is conscious of no opposition1 and steps unconcernedly from the one world into the other1 turns back again to the first1 and keeps on doing this over and over again4 ,where1 according to ,pfleiderer's view1 he is venturing a leap over the abyss1 he has all the air of putting one foot calmly before the other on a level road4 ,we must1 therefore1 take it to be the case that he had not the slightest inkling of the opposition4 ,this conclusion seems to negate psychology and render a historical comprehension of the ,apostle impossible1 but ,pfleiderer hardens his heart and boldly accepts it4 ,there remains1 he says1 8no alternative but to admit that ,paul kept the two different kinds of conceptions in his consciousness side by side but unrelated1 and jumped from one to the other without being aware of the opposition between them40 ,there is1 however1 a further complication in the pg #jgc question4 ,pfleiderer holds that in #bnd ,corinthians and ,philippians a ,greek spiritualising future-hope has displaced the ,jewish ,pharisaic hope4 ,in the last period of his life1 he maintains1 the ,apostle no longer believes in a corporeal resurrection1 but in a presence of the soul with ,christ which begins immediately after death4 ,but the new conception does not in fact displace the old1 although it is diametrically opposed to it4 ,pfleiderer has to admit that ,paul1 even in the writings of the latest period1 advances without misgiving the doctrine of the 8awakening of the whole man from the sleep of death10 just as if the new doctrine of 8the presence with the ,lord beginning immediately after death0 were not in existence1 although it is the outcome of long years of mental struggle4 ,pfleiderer1 however1 is prepared to accept even this portentous fact also1 and to go on contentedly believing that ,paul lived in a kind of mental twilight which is at once ,jewish-eschatological and ,greek-spiritualistic4 ,he expresses this euphemistically by speaking of the ,pauline eschatology as 8hovering between the ,pharisaic hope of the here and the ,greek hope of the hereafter40 ,the way to a scientific understanding of ,paulinism lies1 therefore1 for ,pfleiderer through a credo quia absurdum4 ,by his assertions about #b ,cor4 v4 ,i ff4 he had brought the assumption of ,hellenistic ideas in ,paul into a dangerous position4 ,previously when a student of the subject had stated it to be his view that the sharp antithesis of flesh and spirit was ,greek1 there was no way in which this belief could be countered4 ,if he was1 further1 convinced that the ,apostle's brain was so organised that he could at the same time think consistently along two separate lines1 ,greek-spiritualistic and ,jewish-eschatological1 without noticing their divergence and without ever mingling the two sets of ideas1 a mind accustomed to work by the methods of historical criticism was similarly powerless against views arrived at as if by revelation4 ,pfleiderer1 however1 makes the mistake of referring pg #jgd to a matter of fact when he asserts that the ,apostle's conception of a life after death became ,hellenised4 ,thereupon controversy about the ,greek element in ,paul rages furiously over #b ,cor4 v4 ,i ff4--it was only now that controversy had become possible4 ,the simple wording of the passage is against ,pfleiderer1 for its subject is not the soul's being 8at home with ,christ10 but the ,apostle's longing for the parousia4 ,pfleiderer himself would never have arrived at his exposition had it not been for the laudable desire to produce at last some tangible example of the influence of ,greek thought upon the ,apostle's ideas4 ,the point which ,pfleiderer raised here was after all only a particular case in relation to the general question whether a ,hellenistic influence is to be recognised in the ,apostle's conceptions of the final state and the times of the ,end4 ,it was in this wider aspect that ,kabisch dealt with the problem in his work on the ,pauline eschatology4 ,his decision is in the negative4 ,the much-discussed 8development0 of the views of ,i ,thessalonians into those of ,i ,corinthians xv41 and of these again into those of #b ,corinthians and ,philippians1 is1 he maintains1 a delusion4 ,the conception of the things of the ,end is a unity1 and remains the same throughout4 ,to oppose this view ,teichmann entered the lists47#fc7 ,in his over-confident zeal he plays the part of ,polos in ,plato's ,gorgias4 ,he goes much further than ,pfleiderer1 and seeks to show that ,greek ideas actually superseded the whole ,jewish ,eschatology of ,paul4 ,in consequence of the pg #jge influx of new thoughts one antinomy after another arises in the ,apostle's conception of the things of the ,end4 ,to trace out and exhibit these in detail is the goal of ,teichmann's endeavour4 ,he arrives at the following conclusions3--,in ,i ,thessalonians ,paul still assumes that ,christians will enter the kingdom of heaven with their earthly bodies4 ,not before ,i ,corinthians xv4 does he introduce the idea of a 8transformation40 ,he is then led to do so by the development of the ,greek doctrine of flesh and spirit4 ,in the second ,epistle to the ,corinthians he carries out this new conception to its logical issue4 8,the compromise which he had attempted in ,i ,cor4 is abandoned1 and the result is that the conception of the resurrection of the dead is set aside40 ,along with the resurrection of the dead the ,apostle also strikes out from his programme of the future the parousia4 8,for the expectation of the descent of ,christ to earth he substitutes the entry of the believer into the heavenly world4 ,a resurrection of the dead1 a descent of ,christ to earth1 was now no longer necessary40 ,not only so1 but the conception of the judgment is also abolished4 ,in the first place1 ,paul draws this inference 8at least so far as ,christians are concerned40 ,that subsequently1 in following out his ideas1 8he should also arrive at the conception of universal blessedness1 can in view of his universalism cause no surprise40 8,as all men were included in ,christ at ,his resurrection1 so all must receive the ,spirit1 they must all be made alive40 ,the ,end does not1 therefore1 mean blessedness for some and destruction for others1 but eternal life for all4 ,but since eternal life depends on the possession of the ,spirit1 it must be assumed that those who are not believers at their death 8come to faith in ,christ in the period between the parousia and the delivery of all authority into the hands of ,god1 and in consequence of this the ,spirit is given to them40 ,teichmann professes to have demonstrated the pg #jgf ,hellenisation of the ,pauline eschatology4 ,what he actually shows is what it would have become if it had really undergone ,greek influence4 ,not one of his 8results0 can be proved from the ,apostle's letters4 ,where is there a single word to suggest that the ,apostle abandoned the conception of the judgment and that of predestination to life or to damnation8 ,where does he ever speak of universal blessedness8 ,where does he hint at the possibility that mankind as a whole is to be converted to belief in ,christ between the parousia and the delivery of all authority into the hands of ,god1 and will thereupon receive the ,spirit8 ,what grounds are there for supposing that he gives up the idea of the parousia as superfluous8 ,in his zeal to discover antinomies and trace developments1 ,teichmann forgets to take account of the most elementary facts4 ,he asserts1 for instance1 that in ,i ,thessalonians those who arise from the dead enter the kingdom of ,god in their earthly bodies4 ,but from the ,jewish ,apocalyptic and from the teaching of ,jesus it clearly appears that the resurrection included within itself a transformation of this creaturely corporeity into a glorified corporeity4 ,it would not do for ,teichmann to remember this4 ,he is bound1 even where he represents the ,apostle as still wholly under the sway of ,jewish conceptions1 to bring him into an inconceivable opposition to these in order that the transformation which is taught in ,i ,corinthians xv4--entirely in accordance with ,jewish eschatology--may be represented as derived from the ,greek doctrine of the ,spirit4 ,without intending it1 he thus supplies the most brilliant refutation of the theory of the ,hellenisation of the ,pauline eschatology4 ,he engaged battle on ground on which ,pfleiderer and his school had incautiously ventured forth in the heat of action1 and he has to find by experience that he is unable to make good a single position4 ,a ,hellenisation of the eschatology is quite impossible to prove4 ,kabisch turns out to have been right4 ,the pg #jgg ,apostle holds on this point too vigorous and too clear a language4 ,but if that be so1 the theory that the doctrine of flesh and spirit is ,greek is itself most seriously imperilled4 ,teichmann felt1 and therein he was more logical and consistent than the rest1 that if there were any ,hellenistic ideas in ,paulinism they must necessarily have attacked and displaced the ,jewish eschatology4 ,pfleiderer's view that the two could have subsisted side by side without--except in the case of #b ,corinthians v4 ,i ff4--influencing and interpenetrating one another is an untenable theoretical hypothesis4 ,from the whole range of the history of thought no analogy could be produced for this harmonious coexistence of two different worlds of thought4 ,a further difficulty of the theory of the ,hellenisation of ,paulinism arises from the fact that the ,apostle's views have to be more and more spiritualised in proportion as the ,greek element is emphasised4 ,ldemann1 overpowered by the impression of the documents1 had expressly characterised the doctrine of redemption which is bound up with the dualism of flesh and spirit as not ethical but physical4 ,holsten and ,pfleiderer do not venture to follow him in that4 ,the ,platonism which they seek to discover in ,paulinism cannot be brought into connexion with a physical doctrine of redemption1 but is thought of as the antithesis of the 8crude ,jewish ideas40 ,the whole of the mystical teaching about dying and rising again with ,christ1 about the new creature and the influence of the ,spirit1 has therefore to be spiritualised4 ,this brings them into conflict with the natural1 literal meaning of the ,apostle's statements1 in which the materialistic character of his conceptions maintains itself against all the arts of exegesis4 ,the interpretation given by ,pfleiderer and his school deprives them of their original meaning to an even greater extent than the modern interpretation in general does4 ,most unfortunately for those who seek to spiritualise ,paul1 his doctrine of the ,spirit in particular shows no pg #jgh trace of ,greek influence4 ,as though from an apprehension that they might be deprived of one of their most indispensable illusions1 for thirty years after ,baur the students of ,paulinism had neglected to deal with this subject4 ,at last in the year #ahhh ,gunkel undertook the task47#fd7 ,he investigates the influence of the ,holy ,spirit as conceived by the popular view of the ,apostolic age1 and according to the doctrine of the ,apostle1 and is obliged to come to the conclusion that a ,greek element in the latter is not to be assumed4 ,the ,apostle1 according to ,gunkel's exposition1 takes over the primitive ,christian view and accepts it in all points4 ,his own doctrine merely represents an elevation1 a development of what he found already present4 ,he introduces--,i ,cor4 xii4-xiv4--an ethical judgment and valuation of spiritual gifts1 which was new to the ,christian community4 ,while the latter had regarded 8speaking with tongues0 as the highest manifestation of supernatural power1 he puts all the charismata on a lower footing than love4 ,he gives a further development to the primitive ,christian doctrine by attributing to the influence of the ,spirit a large number of the characteristics of the ,christian life which were not so regarded by the primitive community4 ,love1 joy1 peace1 long-suffering1 gentleness1 kindness1 faithfulness1 meekness1 chastity are1 according to ,gal4 v4 #bb1 fruits of ,his power4 ,he generalises1 therefore1 in such a way that all ,christian willing1 feeling1 knowledge1 hope1 and action proceed from the pneuma1 which for the common view was only thought of in connexion with revelations and miracles4 pg #jgi ,there is a further point in which1 according to ,gunkel1 ,paul raises to a higher level the view which he took over4 ,by the possession of the ,spirit the primitive ,church was made certain that the end of the present age was at hand and the new age was about to dawn4 ,for the ,apostle the temporal relation becomes an inner one4 ,the ,spirit is for him the earnest of the coming kingdom of ,god4 ,already in the present he calls into being the future life in believers and gives them the certainty1 and to some extent even the reality1 of the life which is about to dawn for them4 ,the ,pauline doctrine of the ,spirit is therefore simply a development of the primitive ,christian doctrine4 ,that it was so long regarded as ,greek is due1 according to ,gunkel1 to the fact that scholars never examined it as a whole1 but always confined themselves to the discussion of the dualism of spirit and flesh4 ,this prevents the relation of the doctrine to the views of the primitive community1 and especially its relation to the doctrine of the future age1 from becoming apparent4 ,one very weighty theoretic objection to the admission of ,greek elements in ,paulinism is passed over by its defenders in complete silence4 ,if the thoughts developed by the ,apostle of the ,gentiles had grown up upon the soil of ,hellenism1 the original apostles and those closely associated with them would certainly have been aware of this and attacked them on that ground4 ,from the records1 however1 as we have them in the letters1 it appears certain that they only reproached him with his attitude towards the law1 and found no other point to object to in his teaching4 ,the primitive ,christian community at ,jerusalem accused him of keeping back something from his churches2 it did not discover anything new and essentially foreign in his thought4 ,in spite of the keenness of the struggle1 it was never made a charge against him that he had 8heathenised0 the ,gospel4 ,that shows how completely out of the question the assumption of ,greek influences was for his pg #jhj opponents4 ,but the fact that his contemporaries discovered nothing of the kind in him forms a strong presumption against any such theory when brought forward in later times4 ,the objection which arises from the side of the history of dogma tends to the same result4 ,those who hold the theory of ,greek elements in ,paul must1 if they are to be consistent1 assert that he pioneered a path for the ,gospel into the ,hellenic world and prepared the way for the early ,greek theology4 ,and they do so most emphatically4 ,pfleiderer explains7#fe7 that the ,greek ,church-theology arose by the expulsion from ,paulinism of its specifically ,jewish elements1 and by the free development of its 8universally intelligible ,hellenistic side40 ,the noble ,platonic idealism had a place in the doctrinal system of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 8and conferred on it its capacity to win the ,graeco-,roman world for ,christianity40 8,the understanding of ,paulinism is therefore a fundamental condition for the understanding of the ,early ,church40 ,and all the adherents of the theory1 whatever their precise shade of opinion1 express themselves to the same effect4 ,but the history of dogma holds a different language4 ,it has to record the fact1 inconceivable as it may appear1 that on the generations in which ,greek dogma was taking shape ,paul exercised no influence whatever4 ,even the external literary influence is very slight4 ,if one sets aside the ,epistles to the ,ephesians and ,colossians it is not even possible to speak of a deutero-,pauline literature4 ,the ,pastoral ,epistles and the second letter to the ,thessalonians profess to be written by the ,apostle1 but contain not a single thought which is characteristic of his teaching4 ,in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 in #a ,clement1 in the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 in the writings of ,ignatius1 in the works of ,justin1 expressions occur which show acquaintance with the ,epistles of ,paul1 and may have pg #jha been influenced by him in respect to their wording2 but beyond that they show no trace of his conceptions or his spirit4 ,the remarkable point1 therefore1 is that the post-,apostolic writers1 though they are acquainted with the works of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 make no real use of them4 ,his ideas remain foreign1 lifeless1 so far as they are concerned4 ,that is also shown by the fact that early ,greek ,church-theology is quite independent of him4 ,it is concerned with the incarnation and resurrection of ,christ and with regeneration2 ,paul's speculations deal with the death and resurrection of the ,lord1 and he never speaks of regeneration4 ,the underlying logic is in the two cases so different that the representatives of ,greek theology1 even if they wished to do so1 could not appeal to the ,apostle4 ,no community of thought between him and ,justin is to be discovered4 ,even ,baur had to learn how little ,greek theology attached itself to ,paul17#ff7 although he wished to derive it from a compromise between the ,pauline and the ,petrine ,gospel4 ,so long as he is carrying out his theory on the lines of the history of the ,church and its literature1 the mistake does not become so apparent1 because the universalism and freedom from the law which gradually establish themselves are set down as ,graeco-,pauline4 ,in treating the history of dogma1 however1 where he is dealing exclusively with the development of the ,greek conception of the ,person of ,christ and of the redemption effected through ,him1 he can1 as a matter of fact1 make nothing of ,paul4 ,he hardly mentions him4 ,what ,baur was unwilling to acknowledge to himself1 ,harnack has irrefutably proved47#fg7 ,according to his pg #jhb showing there is no bridge leading from the ,pauline ,gospel to the doctrine of the ,early ,greek ,church4 ,the 8history of dogma10 strange as it may appear1 only begins after ,paul4 ,the forces which are there at work have not been set in motion by him4 ,the same result is arrived at by ,edwin ,hatch in his work on ,hellenism and ,christianity47#fh7 ,a trained philological scholar possessing great knowledge of and insight into the late ,greek and early ,christian literatures1 he endeavours to describe in detail the process by which ,christianity became ,hellenised4 ,in doing so he does not find it necessary to deal with ,paul4 ,for the points of contact which he finds to exist between the two worlds no examples are to be discovered in the letters of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles4 ,hatch's observations lead him to make the process of ,hellenisation only begin with the second century4 ,the history of dogma cannot1 therefore1 accept the suggestion that ,paul recast the ,gospel in the moulds of ,greek thought4 ,the process began later1 and of its own motion4 ,it did not derive its impulse from a single great personality1 but began gradually and on all sides4 ,it was the ,greek popular mind as represented by the members of the ,gentile churches which ,hellenised the ,gospel for itself4 ,men like ,ignatius and ,justin bring this work to a provisional completeness by combining the current ideas into a primitive but in its own fashion impressively clear and living system1 and creating a connexion between ,christology1 the conception of redemption and the doctrine of the sacraments2 the pg #jhc ,fourth ,evangelist carries this system of doctrine back into the preaching of the historic ,jesus4 ,these men received no kind of impulse from ,paul4 ,of the work which he did they make no use4 ,they know it1 but it seems as if it were impossible for them to use it4 ,the recognition of the true state of the case begins when one gets rid of the seemingly so natural but in reality unjustified assumption that the universalism7#fi7 and freedom from the law for which ,paul fought his battles1 imply a ,hellenisation of ,christianity and form the ,greek element in his doctrine4 ,ritschl and ,harnack1 in opposing this assumption of ,baur and his successors1 went to the other extreme4 ,they maintained that universalism and freedom from the law were purely practical and separable views1 which had1 properly speaking1 nothing to do with the fundamental ideas of the doctrine of redemption4 ,in this way they succeeded1 no doubt1 in liberating the history of dogma from the prejudices of the ,tbingen school2 but they did less justice to the ,apostle's statements than those whom they were attacking1 since on every page of his writings he implies an actual connexion between his doctrines and the practical views which he is defending4 ,it is to be noted that ,ritschl and ,harnack never clearly explain why ,paul holds a different view on these points from that of the primitive community4 ,truth here appears as the synthesis of a thesis and antithesis4 ,universalism and freedom from the law do in fact belong to the history of dogma1 but not in the way ,baur thought4 ,and they are in themselves practical views1 but at the same time they claim to be logically derived from the system of doctrine4 ,the presuppositions on which they are based have nothing to do with ,greek thought2 it was purely by systematically thinking out to its conclusions the primitive ,christian doctrine that ,paul was led to his theories of the universal pg #jhd destination of the ,gospel and of emancipation from the law4 ,these are the facts as they lie clearly before us in the letters4 ,but to register them is not to explain them4 ,how1 exactly1 do these conclusions result from the logic of the primitive ,christian belief as rightly worked out in the ,apostle's mind8 ,that is the form which the question takes as the next stage1 after ,baur1 ,ritschl1 and ,harnack4 ,the negative result that the ,pauline attitude in regard to these points is not ,greek is in any case established4 ,and so too is the other result that the creators of ,greek dogma did not take him as their starting-point1 and cannot therefore have discovered anything ,hellenic in him4 ,they had no consciousness that he had already quarried and shaped the material which they needed for their edifice4 ,but if they did not recognise in him one who had made a beginning in their direction1 it is more than questionable whether modern historical criticism is right in professing to find ,greek elements in him4 ,if so1 it must be supposed to have a better instinct for what is ,hellenic than the men who ,hellenised ,christianity4 ,in any case it has no right to talk at large about the significance of ,paulinism for ,greek ,christianity1 as though the history of dogma was not there to prove the contrary4 ,how do the ,debit and ,credit of the theory stand at this point8 ,for the credit side1 it claims that the dualism of flesh and spirit is of ,greek origin1 but it does not get beyond the general assertion4 ,no serious attempt has been made to demonstrate the existence of ,greek conceptions in the particular aspects of the doctrine1 and to explain the pessimism1 the desire for death1 and the ethical teaching of the ,apostle as derived from the non-,jewish world of thought4 ,that the ,pauline universalism and doctrine of freedom from the law are directly inspired by the ,greek spirit it no longer has the right to assert4 pg #jhe ,in a single instance its defenders venture to point to the influence of ,greek religious thought on the ,apostle's views4 ,they seek to show that his ,jewish1 eschatological conception of the future life and his view of the events of the ,end were in time entirely transformed by it1 if not actually cancelled4 ,but the attempt to prove this from the documents has not been successful4 ,meanwhile the following difficulties appear4 ,the theory is obliged to assume a dualism between ,jewish and ,greek elements in ,paul1 and to assert that on the one hand he never allowed the two systems of thought to coalesce1 while on the other he never became conscious of their disparity2 it has to attribute to him a capacity for combining contradictions1 which allows him to maintain alongside of one another a spiritualistic doctrine of immortality and a crudely materialistic notion of resurrection without becoming aware of their incompatibility2 it is logically forced to the conclusion that he set aside the ,jewish eschatology1 with its conceptions of judgment and condemnation1 in favour of a doctrine of universal blessedness1 whereas there is in the ,epistles not a single hint pointing in this direction2 it is forced1 in order to make his statements appear 8,platonic10 so to spiritualise them that the natural sense of the words disappears2 it must ignore the proved fact that his doctrine of the spirit1 when taken in its full compass and not confined to the antithesis of spirit and flesh1 is most naturally explained as a mere development of the primitive ,christian view2 it must meet the objection--which it never can do--that the original apostles never discovered anything of an essentially foreign1 ,greek character in ,paul's views2 it must1 when confronted with the history of dogma1 bend itself with what grace it may to the admission that ,paulinism exercised no influence upon the formation of early ,greek theology1 and cannot therefore have been felt by the men who were concerned in that process as itself representing a first stage in the ,hellenisation of ,christianity4 pg #jhf ,the theory therefore explains nothing1 but creates difficulty upon difficulty4 ,in view of this relation of its assets to its liabilities it would have no alternative but to declare itself bankrupt1 had it not astutely refrained from keeping any accounts4 ,and so far we have considered the mere for and against4 ,even if the balance had here inclined in favour of the theory1 that would not have proved anything4 ,the ideas in question ought not to be considered as ,greek until it had been shown that they actually were so4 ,but this would require it to be shown that exactly corresponding ideas were to be found in the preceding or contemporary ,greek literature1 and that ,paul betrayed some kind of acquaintance with this literature4 ,the possibility that it was a mere case of analogy would have to be systematically excluded1 so far as that is possible4 ,but such a method of proof has never been seriously contemplated by the adherents of the theory4 ,in going through their works one is astonished to see how lightly they have treated their task4 ,they have never properly collected the material2 it is much if here and there a point is thoroughly considered4 ,the assumption of ,greek elements in ,paulinism appeared something so self-evident1 and indeed1 if one desired to arrive at any understanding of him1 so necessary1 that from the first it came forward with an assurance which secured credit for it everywhere without its needing to produce adequate guarantees4 ,when ,ldemann in the year #ahgb worked out clearly the dualism of flesh and spirit1 he added1 as a thing to be taken for granted1 that it was ,greek in character4 ,his successors show a similar absence of misgiving4 ,in order to bring the question once for all to an issue1 let us gather up and put to the test1 along with the poor fragments of attempted proof1 every consideration that can be cited in favour of the assumption of ,greek elements in ,paulinism4 ,the ,apostle was born and grew up in ,tarsus1 the pg #jhg 8,athens of ,asia ,minor0 as ,ernest ,curtius has called it47#gj7 ,in his native city1 as ,heinrici expresses himself1 8rhetoric and ,stoic philosophy were to be met with in the market-place407#ga7 ,no limits are set to the estimate of what the child of the ,diaspora may have absorbed1 retained1 and laid up in his mind from the intellectual life by which he was surrounded4 ,but just as large a place might be claimed for the contrary argument1 which would lay stress upon the exclusiveness of strictly ,jewish circles of the ,diaspora in regard to the ,greek culture by which they were surrounded4 ,neither argument proves anything4 ,a thousand possibilities on the one side do not produce a certainty any more than on the other4 ,the greater probability1 however1 is on the side of the assumption of exclusiveness4 ,although he lived in the middle of ,hellenism1 it is possible that ,paul absorbed no more of it than a ,catholic parish priest of the twentieth century does of the critical theology1 and knew no more about it than an ,evangelical pastor knows of theosophy4 ,the decision lies solely with his works4 ,the case is similar as regards the argument from his language4 ,it is inconceivable1 so writers like ,heinrici and ,curtius urge1 that a language like ,greek could be familiar to a man like ,paul without causing a flood of ancient conceptions and ideas to stream in upon him4 ,heinrici1 indeed1 is prepared to decide the question on this ground alone1 and concludes his exposition of the ,corinthian ,epistles with a close analysis of their vocabulary4 ,this shows1 he thinks1 that ,greek concepts and expressions far outweigh in number and importance the 8specifically ,christian0 and those which show the influence of the ,old ,testament or the language of the synagogue4 pg #jhh ,but in opposition to this1 ,schmiedel17#gb7 a not less thorough commentator1 expresses himself as follows3 8,we must be on our guard against concluding too hastily from the predominantly ,hellenistic character of ,paul's language to a ,hellenistic mode of thought4 ,with a language of which one learns colloquially the current use1 one does not by any means necessarily assimilate all the thought-forms of which it contains1 so to speak1 the geological record40 ,here too1 therefore1 one argument is balanced by another4 ,a fact which seems to carry us a little further is the ,apostle's exclusive use of the ,greek version of the ,old ,testament4 ,in a detailed study1 of the year #ahfi1 ,kautzsch7#gc7 showed that out of eighty-four quotations which occur in the ,epistles thirty-four agree exactly with the ,septuagint1 thirty-six show small deviations1 and ten depart from it more widely4 ,two others show a considerable difference1 without1 however1 throwing doubt upon the author's acquaintance with the wording of the ordinary translation2 two others1 again1 from ,job1 differ from it entirely4 ,this investigation was carried further by ,hans ,vollmer7#gd7 and brought to a provisional conclusion4 ,according to him the deviations are to be explained by the fact that ,paul did not use a single complete recension of the ,,lxx1 but had recourse to different editions for different books4 ,in ,job he had before him a version which shows affinity with the later ,jewish translations4 ,to explain the remaining peculiarities ,vollmer brings forward a hypothesis4 ,he is inclined to assume that the ,apostle used ,greek ,scriptural anthologies in which pg #jhi separate passages were collocated1 or freely combined with one another4 ,in such collections--their existence is not demonstrable--various versions were1 he thinks1 used promiscuously4 ,perhaps the passage quoted as ,scripture in ,i ,corinthians ii4 #i1 which is not traceable in the ,old ,testament1--8,as it is written1 what eye hath not seen1 nor ear heard1 neither hath it entered into the heart of man1 hath ,god prepared for them that love ,him0--may be derived from an anthology of this kind4 ,it is in any case certain that the ,apostle always makes use of ,greek translations2 and it is further certain that he argues from peculiarities in their wording which for one who knew ,hebrew1 as he also certainly did1 must have been recognisable as mistranslations4 ,he therefore goes so far as to ignore the original4 ,nevertheless these facts do not warrant us in drawing conclusions of a too far-reaching character4 ,if he wrote in ,greek at all he could not do otherwise than use the ,greek translations which were familiar to him1 and in the synagogues of the ,diaspora were regarded as 8authentic10 as the ,vulgate is for the ,latin ,church according to the decrees of the ,council of ,trent4 ,that being so1 it was out of the question for him1 in making quotations1 to introduce renderings of his own from the original4 ,in all historical cases of theological bilingualism the same fact is to be observed4 ,scripture is never 8personally0 translated1 but always cited in accordance with a recognised version47#ge7 ,that ,paul should turn to account the mistakes of the version need not1 in view of his exegetical principles1 cause us any surprise4 ,whether he forces his thought pg #jij directly upon the original1 or gets it expressed by the ,greek version1 comes to much the same thing4 ,the fact that he adopts the errors of the ,,lxx and finds his account in them does not make him a ,greek4 ,it only shows that he belongs to the ,jewish ,diaspora4 ,but does this imply that he has his place in the ,jewish-,hellenistic movement8 ,this assumption is often taken as so self-evident that any examination of it appears superfluous4 ,the defenders of the theory of ,greek influence in ,paul1 therefore1 feel themselves dispensed from this duty and act accordingly4 ,even those who1 like ,harnack1 do not admit a more far-reaching direct influence of ,greek ideas upon the ,apostle1 do not feel any doubt about his relations with ,jewish ,hellenism4 ,but the sceptics of the self-evident1 with whom science can never dispense1 must dare to be tactless enough to put the question here also1 8,what is really proved80 ,as we have to do with a characteristic literature which lies before us with some measure of completeness1 the verdict cannot be difficult to arrive at4 ,pfleiderer and his followers had all along asserted that ,paul in his eschatology and anthropology showed dependence on the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 which doubtless dates from the first century before ,christ4 ,others denied this4 ,in an essay which appeared in #ahib1 ,grafe sought to sift the material and decide the question47#gf7 ,as 8crucial0 instances for the relationship he thinks the following may safely be taken3 ,romans ix4 shows affinity with ,wisdom xii4 and xv4 in regard to what is said of the ,divine omnipotence and mercy2 in their references to heathen idolatry the two authors coincide in a remarkable way2 the views regarding the relationship of body and soul which are implied in #b ,cor4 v4 ,i ff4 find a parallel in ,wisd4 ix4 #ae1 where there is a reference to pg #jia the earthly tabernacle which weighs down the thinking soul4 ,the facts do not1 according to ,grafe1 justify the conclusion that ,paul is dependent on the pseudo-,salamonian ,book of ,wisdom1 but he does regard it as having been made highly probable that the ,apostle knew and had read the book4 ,it is not a clear 8yes0 that one hears in ,grafe's essay4 ,when it is quoted1 however1 by writers on ,paulinism it gets a push towards the positive side which makes it say exactly what ,grafe did not venture to assert4 ,scarcely more productive is ,vollmer's cast of his net into the works of ,philo47#gg7 ,he thinks that1 in view of the affinities pointed out by him1 8the acquaintance of the ,apostle with the works of the ,alexandrian writer will have become less improbable to others besides himself40 ,but that is not the point at all4 ,that ,paul1 a scholar of the ,diaspora1 would have been aware of the existence of so important a work as the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 and would not have been wholly ignorant of its contents1 is really self-evident4 ,and is it likely that none of the writings of his older ,alexandrian contemporary--,philo died probably about the beginning of the forties--would have come to his knowledge8 ,on the contrary1 the most probable assumption is that he was acquainted with the whole of the earlier and later ,hellenistic literature4 ,whether this can be more or less clearly proved by certain real or supposed parallels does not really matter4 ,the important point is that he does not use the ideas which are here offered to him4 ,jewish-,hellenistic theology is so characteristic a product that it can never pg #jib be overlooked even where it is only a subsidiary element4 ,but in ,paul no trace of it can be shown4 ,its problems1 its speculations regarding the ,logos1 ,spirit1 and ,wisdom1 its ethics1 do not interest him2 he makes no use of its theories4 ,on the other hand he is concerned with eschatology and with the person of the ,messiah1 which for it seem to have no existence4 ,the characteristic mark of ,jewish ,hellenism is that it brings the different ideas into an external juxtaposition without effecting their interpenetration4 ,whether it is a question of philosophical or other writings1 of problems of ethics1 or of the doctrine of ,god and the ,divine administration of the world1 the ,greek element always shows up plainly in contrast with the ,jewish1 and can be clearly recognised as ,platonic or ,stoic4 ,it is a case of mosaic work1 better or worse executed as the case may be4 ,any one who proposes to show that ,paul was influenced by ,jewish ,hellenism ought1 therefore1 to begin by recognising that the union of the two worlds of thought which is supposed to have taken place in him is of an entirely different order from that found in other cases1 inasmuch as a real synthesis is effected1 and the problems involved are such as do not elsewhere occupy ,jewish ,hellenism1 while on the other hand those which interest it are here left out of account4 ,how much is left then by way of a common element8 ,paul's attitude towards ,jewish ,hellenism is one of indifference4 ,from his letters1 written as they are in ,greek1 we should never learn that in his time there existed a literature in which the old ,jewish theology1 using the universal language of the period1 entered into discussion with ,greek philosophy and religious thought1 and formed an external combination with them4 ,all the proofs which are offered of his acquaintance with this literature only serve to render more unintelligible the fact that he is not in the slightest degree influenced by it4 ,the phrase-making by which theologians of the pg #jic post-,baur period disposed of ,paul's independence in regard to ,jewish ,hellenism--so far as they became aware of it--is quite inept4 ,heinrici1 as we have seen1 maintained that he had risen superior to ,alexandrianism4 ,it is to be remarked that the theoretic question whether he was never influenced by this movement1 or whether the influence only ceased when he became a ,christian1 must remain open4 ,in the latter case he must have put off along with what was specifically ,jewish also what was ,jewish-,hellenistic4 ,it would then belong to the things which1 according to ,philippians1 were formerly gain to him1 but which now he counted dross1 and had cast aside in order to gain ,christ4 ,this latter view is inherently possible if one is prepared to take literally what the ,apostle says about that radical breach with the past to which we can apply no standard of measurement1 and which we are unable to conceive4 ,but the other alternative--that he had never been influenced by it--is the more probable4 ,practically both come to much the same thing4 ,we know only the ,christian ,paul1 and we find it to be a fact that in his letters no specifically ,jewish-,hellenistic conceptions are to be found4 ,the 8self-evident0 is therefore once more negated by the facts4 ,we may call attention to a curious parallel4 ,a priori the assumption might appear justified that the ,apostle of the ,gentiles would have taken from ,jewish ,hellenism material wherewith to ,hellenise ,christianity4 ,in reality he did not do so4 ,a priori it was to be expected that the creators of ,greek theology would have taken from ,paulinism material for the construction of their doctrines4 ,in reality they did not do so4 ,the three points which it seemed would allow themselves to be joined to form a triangle1 lie1 in reality1 in different planes1 belong to different systems1 and have no natural relation to one another4 ,if ,paul stands solitary1 without receiving or exercising pg #jid influence1 between these two factors in which ,greek characteristics are manifest1 it follows that he does not exhibit their common element4 ,if he did not adopt ,platonism and ,stoicism in the convenient compound which ,jewish ,hellenism had mixed ready for him1 it is antecedently little probable that he made use of the uncompounded substances in the form in which they are to be met with in ,greek life and literature4 ,what are the possibilities of direct influences which have to be taken into account8 ,it is to be remarked that ,paul never gives the slightest hint that he is making use of something which is familiar to and valued by the ,greeks in his churches4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles indeed pictures him as a preacher who in the ,areopagus at ,athens takes as his starting-point an inscription upon an altar1 and quotes from the ,greek poet ,aratus the pantheistic saying that men are of the ,divine race 7,acts xvii4 #bh74 ,but for this ,paul1 the author of ,acts1 must take1 all responsibility47#gh7 ,the ,apostle of the ,gentiles who is made known to us by the ,epistles wears a different aspect4 ,in this sense he never became a ,greek to the ,greeks4 ,we find in him no trace of any high estimation of heathenism and its thought4 ,it is for him idolatry1 nothing less nor more4 ,his estimate is purely negative4 ,he can therefore hardly have intentionally taken over anything from ,greek thought4 ,it is possible1 however1 that he did so unconsciously4 ,the most obvious suggestion is to assume that this was the case in regard to ethics4 ,what he says in ,rom4 ii4 about conscience1 which in the heathen takes the place of the law1 might be based on ideas derived from ,greek rationalism4 ,but on close examination what we find here is not so much a positive valuation of natural ethical feeling1 but rather the creation for dialectic purposes of something to serve as an analogue to the law4 ,paul's pg #jie purpose is to prove that ,jew and ,greek are alike delivered over to sin2 consequently the position in the two cases1 if an injustice on the part of ,god is not to be suggested1 must be made as similar as possible4 ,the assumption of ,greek ideas here is rendered improbable by the fact that ,paul's ethic as a whole is not to be explained as ,hellenic4 ,neither ,gass nor ,ziegler in their works on the history of ,christian ethics have ventured any attempt in this direction47#gi7 ,in general the ,pauline ethic has been little treated by the students of ,paulinism of the post-,baur period4 ,the only monograph dedicated to the subject took a form that was purely biblico-theological and without interest47#hj7 ,it is interesting to note that ,kabisch1 when he planned to work up the ethical material1 found it necessary first to deal with the eschatology4 ,that does not suggest the presence of ,hellenic influences4 ,it has also been maintained with a certain confidence that the pessimism of the ,apostle is ,greek1 because it recalls the view of the world which we find in the writings of ,seneca and ,epictetus4 ,seneca was his contemporary4 ,that the ,apostle knew the works of this writer is not held by any one to be proved47#ha7 ,epictetus worked at the end of the first century1 pg #jif was himself acquainted with ,christianity1 and was doubtless influenced by it1 even if unconsciously47#hb7 ,all that could come into question1 even as a possibility1 is that the ,apostle might have adopted the same generally current ideas of his period which are expressed by these two writers4 ,the expressions which are quoted as parallel have only an external resemblance4 ,they are not really analogous4 ,the roots from which the pessimism springs are entirely different in the two cases4 ,in the philosophers it is purely a result of reflection on the conditions of the present life4 ,existence appears to ,seneca a burden which one may at any time cast off--by suicide4 ,for ,paul the present world is evil because it is sinful1 lies under the dominion of the angel powers1 and is subject to corruption4 ,he judges it1 not in itself1 but with reference to a new and perfect world which is soon to appear4 ,the idea of suicide does not enter into his thoughts1 indeed he dreads that he might be released from the present earthly existence before the parousia occurs4 ,seneca's religion is resignation1 ,paul's is enthusiasm4 ,the two may show verbal similarities1 but no affinity of thought exists between them4 ,further1 the anthropology and psychology7#hc7 of the ,apostle are claimed as ,greek4 ,pfleiderer lays great stress upon this point4 ,he does not1 however1 offer any proofs4 ,what ,paul has to say about man rests in the first place pg #jig on ordinary observation and is of a self-evident character4 ,the special features of his view which go beyond this are to be explained from eschatology and not from ,greek thought4 ,anthropology and psychology1 in the development which he gives them1 have reference not to the natural man but to the redeemed man1 who is risen with ,christ1 endowed with the ,spirit1 and already living in a supernatural condition4 ,his conception of the natural condition of man is determined by reference to its actual abolition1 and therefore has quite a different orientation from that of the ,greek thinkers4 ,how do matters stand in regard to the assertion that his system contains ,platonic elements8 ,what comes into question is not ,platonism proper1 but the religious modification and popularisation of it which later on1 in the third century1 came to completion in ,neo-,platonism4 ,what this philosophy has in common with ,paul is the general desire for deliverance from corporeity4 ,when it is more closely considered1 however1 characteristic differences appear4 ,platonism as a religion has to do with the deliverance of the soul from its imprisonment in the body1 ,paul looks for the deliverance of the whole human personality4 ,in the one case the antithesis is between soul and body1 in the other between the supernatural body and the corruptible flesh4 ,platonic religious feeling desires release from all corporeity1 what ,paul hopes for is a different kind of materiality4 ,he believes in a resurrection1 ,platonism in mere immortality4 ,for him the fate of the individual is so bound up with cosmical1 eschatological events that the new state of existence can only result from a cosmical revolution4 ,platonism knows nothing of a temporally conditioned redemption of this kind1 but represents it as coming to pass immediately after death4 ,the materialism which is implicate in eschatology thus opposes a barrier to the ,platonising of ,paul's religious thought4 ,for his conception of spirit a parallel might be sought pg #jih in ,stoicism1 which teaches that a spiritual substance proceeding from ,god permeates the universe1 including corporeal organisms1 and manifests itself in man as the rational soul4 ,common to this philosophy and to ,paul is the material conception of spirit4 ,but the differences which it exhibits are of such a kind that there can be no question of the ,apostle's dependence upon it4 ,in the ,stoic philosophy the spirit is identical with the rational soul2 in ,paul it is introduced as something new alongside of the latter1 and ends by displacing it4 ,according to the philosophic conception it is active in the world from all eternity2 according to the doctrine of the ,apostle it first appears in the times of the ,end1 and is only bestowed upon a limited section of mankind4 ,the one view is a pantheistic monism1 the other is a theistic dualism4 ,the ,book of ,wisdom and ,philo are ,stoic in their mode of thought1 but ,paul is not so4 ,it is inconceivable how the ,stoic heimarmene can have been brought into connexion with the ,pauline doctrine of predestination4 ,the philosophic conception of fate thinks of the world-process as an unbroken chain of cause and effect in which also the actions of living beings have their place4 ,pauline foreordination is a pure will-act of ,god1 non-rational and non-moral1 and has to do with the ultimate issues of existence1 not with the vicissitudes of life4 ,to see a connexion between the two doctrines of predestination is as unjustifiable as it would be to identify the cosmic conflagration of the ,pauline eschatology with that of the ,stoic theory4 ,paulinism has1 in general1 a different spirit from that of the ,stoa4 ,its author is moved by the fear of death and corruption and yearns for a new being4 ,to the ,stoic such ideas are1 as 8passion10 contemptible4 ,he reckons--as you may read in ,marcus ,aurelius--with the present world as the only one there is1 and with the present life as the only one which he has to live4 pg #jii ,whatever views and conceptions are brought up for comparison1 the result is always the same--that ,paulinism and ,greek thought have nothing1 absolutely nothing1 in common4 ,their relation is not even one of indifference1 they stand opposed to one another4 ,had the ,apostle been influenced by ,hellenism in any shape or form1 he could never have conceived his system in the way he did4 ,nevertheless it is possible to understand how theology came to class his doctrine as ,greek4 ,the mysticism which enters into it bears a certain analogy to that which springs from ,greek religious thought and feeling4 ,since ,judaism1 itself guileless of any mysticism1 produced nothing of the kind1 could not create out of itself anything of the kind1 the only possible alternative seemed to be to explain it as due to ,greek influences1 and to explain the essential character of ,paulinism in accordance with this hypothesis4 ,but this road leads to an impasse4 ,in this way it is possible only to misinterpret the mysticism of the ,apostle1 not to understand it4 ,critical theology is confronted with the at first apparently inexplicable fact that there has arisen on ,jewish-,christian soil a system of thought which externally has all the air of being a twin formation to that of ,greek religious mysticism1 but inwardly has nothing whatever to do with it4 ,the actual result of the study of ,paulinism in the post-,baur period is therefore wholly negative1 and it must become evident that it is so the moment any one attempts to substitute references and proofs for mere assertions4 ,this the scholars of that period avoided doing2 they were prevented from making the attempt by the scientific instinct of self-preservation4 pg #ajj ,,iv ,h4 ,j4 ,,holtzmann ,heinrich ,julius ,holtzmann4 ,lehrbuch der ,neutestamentlichen ,theologie4 #ahig4 ,vol4 ii41 #ecb pp4 ,on ,paulinism1 #a-bbe4 ,william ,wrede4 ber ,aufgabe und ,methode der sogenannten ,neutestamentlichen ,theologie4 7#ahig47 7,on the ,task and the ,method of the so-called ,new ,testament ,theology47 ,,holtzmann',s 8,new ,testament ,theology0 was eagerly awaited on all sides4 ,it was hoped that it would bring about a clearing of ideas such as had been produced in regard to questions of criticism by his 8,introduction40 ,in the new work the author follows the method which seemed to him to have proved its usefulness in the former work4 ,he lets every writer who has dealt with the subject have his say at the appropriate place1 even though he runs the risk of not making his own opinion distinctly heard amid the strife of tongues47#hd7 ,while in the 8,introduction0 the advantages of the method predominate1 in the 8,theology0 its disadvantages are conspicuous4 ,the former work dealt with a series of questions which are already formulated and can be answered with a clear yes or no4 ,there is therefore some sense in taking the suffrages of the writers1 living and dead4 ,it leads up to a verdict which in a certain sense pg #aja may be given forth as the objective result of the period under survey4 ,but when it is a question of the content of thought in the ,new ,testament writings1 the questions are not so clearly formulated4 ,the continual hearing of opinions has not the same usefulness4 ,on the contrary1 the account of the subject becomes thereby only the more complicated and confused4 ,here the result of ,holtzmann's threading his own view through those of others is that neither the one nor the other stands out with any clearness4 ,undoubtedly1 he knows the literature as no one else does1 and has absorbed into his own mind and worked up all that it has to offer4 ,but a clear view of the state of opinion is what he does not in the end succeed in conveying1 since he intentionally omits to give a sketch and criticism of the works cited and contents himself with quoting passages from them4 ,this unfortunate atomistic method does not even allow the individual problems to appear as clearly as would be desirable4 ,in the post-,baur study of ,paulinism1 various questions had come up one after another which1 taken together1 form its fundamental problem4 ,the most natural procedure for one who intended to make critical use of the work already done would have been to sketch these in their full extent and then formulate them more exactly and exhibit their inner connexions4 ,but that is not the kind of treatment which ,holtzmann aims at4 ,he has the feeling that this is no longer necessary1 and agrees with contemporary scholars in thinking that assured results have been attained in sufficient number to admit of a simple positive account of the system4 ,in accordance with this view he feels it to be his duty to act as a critical camera1 focussing the views on his lens and combining them into a picture4 ,one looks1 therefore1 in vain in his work for a fundamental statement and solution of the problems4 ,they are mentioned where they happen to come up1 and are pg #ajb there discussed in a fragmentary fashion4 ,in addition to this the author's peculiarly subtle and delicately shaded method of exposition has to be reckoned with4 ,any one who is not familiar with it runs the risk of passing too lightly over these passages and failing to appreciate the significance which ,holtzmann himself attaches to his remarks4 ,what he intends to give is a ,general-staff map of the results of investigation4 ,the heights and hollows are not shown as such1 but represented by curves which are only later to be carried out in relief4 ,holtzmann does not stand above the post-,baur study of the subject1 but within it4 ,that is immediately evident from the fact that1 speaking generally1 he takes as the plan of his exposition the scheme1 partially 8,reformation10 partially modern1 which the head of the ,tbingen school had used in his theology and left as a legacy to his successors4 ,after dealing with the doctrine of man1 law1 sin1 and corruption1 he describes the 8revolution0 7conversion74 ,then follow ,christology1 the work of redemption1 and the ,divine righteousness4 ,the close is formed by the chapters on the 8ethical0 material1 the 8mystical10 and 8eschatology40 ,the difficulties and errors which are involved in this division of the subject have not been escaped by ,holtzmann any more than by others4 ,at every step it is evident how unnatural is an arrangement of the material which leaves out of account the connexions inherent in the system4 ,how much art is expended on breaking off the thread at a given moment1 in order to take it up again in a later chapter6 ,how many unnecessarily fragmentary representations6 ,how many annoying repetitions6 ,how many references forward and backward6 ,thus1 for example1 what ,paul has to say of redemption is not developed connectedly but split up among a number of chapters4 ,and the same thing happens with regard to the doctrine of the death and resurrection of ,christ4 ,the division which he has taken over leads ,holtzmann pg #ajc to regard the ,pauline teaching on redemption from the stand-point of the ,reformation doctrine4 ,involuntarily he always thinks either of the individual man1 or humanity1 instead of the entity always present to the mind of the ,apostle1 the group of the elect of the last generation1 who have been subjected to the influence of the death and resurrection of ,christ4 ,he quotes the acute remark of ,schmiedel7#he7 that 8the men who had sought 7and found7 in ,jesus before ,his death forgiveness and peace of soul0 are left out of account by the ,apostle1 but he does not go further into the problem which this suggests4 ,the temporally conditioned character and the general point of view of the ,pauline doctrine of redemption is1 owing to the faulty division1 practically overlooked4 ,not less unfortunate is the plan on which the significance of the death and resurrection of ,christ is dealt with4 ,having begun with the psychology of the natural man1 and the man in process of conversion1 ,holtzmann endeavours to explain the facts by which redemption is conditioned from this starting-point4 ,he asks what these two events1 the death and resurrection1 signified for ,jesus and what they signified for the believers4 ,jesus is thereby proved to be the ,messiah2 the influence upon believers is described on the basis of the classical passages in the ,epistles4 ,but the inner connexion of the two effects is not clear1 and it is equally unintelligible wherein the saving significance of the death and resurrection consists4 ,holtzmann is1 in fact1 still straitly confined to the ,reformation and modern point of view1 from which the twofold event of the death and resurrection of ,christ is considered by itself1 in isolation1 and an attempt is made to get behind it by psychologising1 and thus to discover how1 according to the statements of ,paul1 it produced a complete change in ,god and man1 and effected justification and reconciliation4 ,this attempt overlooks the fact that on the ,apostle's view it is primarily a cosmic pg #ajd event which alters the condition of the whole creation and introduces a new ,age1 and that everything else is only a consequence of this fundamental effect4 ,as ,holtzmann1 like his predecessors1 has thus omitted to consider the most fundamental aspect of redemption as conceived by ,paul1 he is not concerned to trace out the most general conception of the effect of the death and resurrection of ,jesus ,christ4 ,that is as much as to say that he1 like the rest1 is condemned to a mere descriptive treatment1 using ,pauline phraseology1 and is practically unable to give any explanation4 ,this unfortunate result becomes apparent in regard to the question of the ,law4 ,he is unable to make it in any way intelligible how ,paul was necessarily led1 as a matter of reasoning1 to the conviction that it was no longer valid4 ,in the last resort he can only appeal to the unique character of the vision on the ,damascus road4 ,he assumes that this 8brought to an issue in the zealous ,pharisee not only a theoretic1 but also an ethical crisis1 terminating that painful condition of inner division which ,paul pictures out of his own inmost consciousness when he speaks of the experiences which are associated with subjection to the law40 8,previously10 he continues1 8the ,pharisee had anxiously sought to conceal from himself1 or to argue away1 the fact that the law was impossible of fulfilment1 and was therefore no way of salvation1 but rather the contrary4 ,there now rose upon this melancholy scene1 strewn with the shattered fragments of attempts to gain righteousness1 a new light streaming from the ,christ1 whom the legalists had delivered to death1 whereas ,his being raised again by ,god guaranteed the actual presence of another way of salvation4 ,not only did his former legal service appear to him a life of sin1 his ,pharisaic rabbinism as foolishness1 his attack upon the ,messianic community as enmity to ,god1 but even in his inmost being a crisis had taken place in consequence of which a tension1 under which he had hitherto groaned1 had suddenly been relaxed40 pg #aje ,how do we know that ,paul when he was still a persecutor of the ,christians was suffering inward distress from his experiences of the powerlessness of the law8 ,how did the vision of ,christ bring about the resolution of this tension8 ,how1 exactly1 did it reveal a way of salvation by which the abolition of the law was implied8 ,in themselves the vision of ,christ1 and the law1 have nothing to do with one another4 ,what ,paul received in that moment was the conviction of the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,while other believers were content simply to adopt this conviction1 he proceeds to draw from it in some way or other the conclusion that the law was henceforth invalidated4 ,whether he did that at the moment or only later1 we do not know4 ,what is certain is only that he does draw this conclusion1 though it is not contemplated either in the thoughts of ,jesus or in those of the primitive community4 ,how he came to draw it is not explained by ,holtzmann1 any more than by the scholars of the post-,baur period generally4 ,the assumption that the ,apostle experienced along with the vision an ethical crisis which set him free from the law1 is a psychological hypothesis about which the letters have nothing whatever to say4 ,it does not even prove what it professes to prove4 ,exactly how the abrogation of the law is supposed to be effected by the death and resurrection of ,christ is not obvious4 ,it is to be remarked1 too1 that ,paul always treats the abolition of the law as a logical conclusion1 not as a psychological experience4 ,in other connexions1 too1 ,holtzmann often has recourse to ,holsten's expedient of taking what is unintelligible in the ,apostle's statements as accounted for by the ,damascus vision4 ,in this way the doctrine of the 8new creature0 is made to go back to a 8personal experience10 and 8a perception so keen as to be apprehended by the senses1 of the destruction of the law of sin in the members40 8,the complex of new ethical powers1 motives1 duties1 pg #ajf and aims 4 4 4 which formed itself in him has as its centre the risen ,christ who had appeared to him in that moment as light1 to be henceforth the vital centre and the guiding star of his individual life4 4 4 4 ,hence the #8new creation4' ,it is a simple generalisation and application of this personal experience to cover all analogous cases1 since now all baptized persons appear as1 on the negative side1 dead to sin1 on the positive side as walking in a #8newness of life' corresponding to the resurrection40 ,so ,holtzmann4 ,paul1 however1 never speaks of his theory of the new creature as if he were expressing by it the generalisation and objectivation of an inner experience1 but represents it as being logically and actually involved in the death and resurrection of the ,lord for those who believe in him1 and regards his own renewal as only a special case of the general law which operates in all the believing elect4 ,that is just the characteristic and unintelligible thing about ,paulinism1 that its creator does not seem to have the faintest consciousness of holding up his personal experiences as something to be imitated1 but presents his whole system as something that immediately and objectively grows out of the facts1 something which can be examined by the higher1 but in its own way logical understanding from which 8gnosis0 is derived4 ,to treat his ,damascus 8experience0 as a source of theoretic knowledge1 as is done by modern theology1 in order to be dispensed from rendering any account to ordinary or philosophic thought1 would have been out of the question for an unsophisticated mind such as his1 and indeed for the mental attitude of antiquity in general4 ,of ,paul's objective statements ,holtzmann always1 in order to be able to interpret them1 makes something subjective4 ,this error in method--which he shares with scholars of the post-,baur period generally--runs through the whole of his undertaking4 ,he frequently takes occasion to point to the element of pg #ajg 8gnosis0 in the ,apostle's doctrine4 ,at bottom1 however1 he is afraid that his doctrine may be too much considered as an intellectual construction4 ,for that reason he provides a special section on 8the religious character of the doctrine40 8,paul's world of thought10 he there tells us1 8is1 to put it in a word1 not merely a product of intellection1 it is antecedently to that a product of experience also2 in this it differs fundamentally from any of the artificially excogitated gospels of ,gnosticism proper4 4 4 4 ,the first condition for any understanding of ,paulinism is that we should not obscure the volcanic character of its origin by any method which implies the gradual addition of one grain of sand to another4 ,the whole system of doctrine means nothing more nor less than the way in which the ,apostle objectified to himself the fundamental decisive experience of his life and theoretically explained its presuppositions and consequences4 ,the doctrine fits the experience with a theory40 ,how1 then1 does ,holtzmann know that ,paul is not after all a ,gnostic pure and simple8 ,the whole character of his system makes him appear so4 ,he himself claims to be one17#hf7 and is quite unaware that his doctrine is nothing more than the form given by the constructive imagination to a personal experience4 ,he knows no distinction between 8gnostic0 and 8religious40 ,what is religious is for him gnostic1 and what is gnostic1 religious4 ,any one who strictly distinguishes the two in him is modernising4 ,his mission to the ,gentiles and his universalism are also1 according to ,holtzmann1 to be explained directly from the vision at his conversion4 ,the ,christ who has won through to triumph by way of death1 so ,holtzmann explains1 implies for the ,apostle the purification of the ,messianic idea from all the carnal elements which in ,judaism still cling to it4 ,in the exalted ,christ he sees pg #ajh also the head of the ,church gathered out from both ,jews and ,gentiles4 ,how1 exactly1 does the vision at the conversion carry with it the elimination of the carnal elements which in ,judaism cleave to the ,messianic idea8 ,paul1 it is true1 sees a glorified ,person2 but the ,jewish ,son-of-,man ,messiah also belongs to the supernatural world4 ,further1 universalism is provided for in the eschatology of ,late ,judaism1 and in that preached by ,jesus1 since it is assumed that among those elected to the ,kingdom of ,god others will be revealed who do not belong to the people of ,israel4 ,universalism is therefore involved in the ,jewish conception of the ,messiah4 ,whereas1 however1 ,late ,judaism and ,jesus only represent it as realised in the coming supernatural ,age1 ,paul antedates it and affirms that distinctions are already abolished in consequence of the death and resurrection of ,jesus1 and infers from this the justification and the duty of preaching to the heathen4 ,the problem has therefore nothing to do with the 8purification of the ,messianic idea10 and consists simply in the fact that the ,apostle assumes this universalism to be already applicable to the present natural era1 just as he also asserts that believers are already in a condition of resurrection life4 ,holtzmann is not much concerned to show the connexion of the ,pauline statements with ,jewish theology and eschatology in order to arrive in this way at a new formulation of the problems4 ,in fact he clearly betrays the tendency to make as little use as possible of eschatology in explaining the ,pauline system of doctrine4 ,kabisch's work is in the highest degree distasteful to him4 ,he refers to it only occasionally1 and with reserve4 ,it is true he cannot avoid acknowledging that1 8with all the exaggerations1 monstrosities1 and inconsistencies which may be pointed out0 in its emphasising of the physical character of the conceptions and ideas associated with the dualism of flesh and spirit1 the work embodies a sound idea4 ,but he never so much as mentions that this pg #aji insistance on the 8physical0 is ultimately due to the fact that all the conceptions and ideas are traced back to eschatology4 ,any one who is not already acquainted with ,kabisch's fundamental idea will not learn it from ,holtzmann4 ,true to the ,baur and post-,baur tradition1 ,holtzmann postpones the chapter on eschatology to the end4 ,that this arrangement does not contribute to a satisfactory treatment of the ethics is not surprising4 ,the eschatological roots of the conception of predestination discussed in this chapter1 or of the designation of believers as 8saints0 are hardly visible4 ,that the most general ethical maxims of the ,apostle are conditioned by the expectation of the nearness of the parousia1 and that the ethical implications of the mystical dying and rising again with ,christ have also in the last resort an eschatological orientation1 is never fairly recognised4 ,holtzmann finds himself1 therefore1 rather helpless when he has to deal with points in which the eschatological character of ,paul's ethic comes most clearly to light4 ,in the directions given in ,i ,corinthians vii4 about married and unmarried persons1 about marrying or remaining single1 he finds a certain 8hesitation40 ,in a quite general way1 he is willing to assume that 8the so closely bounded view of the future explains why in this and other departments there was no complete development of the ethics40 ,this halting estimate of the ethical significance of eschatology shows that ,holtzmann regards the ,pauline ethical teaching from the modern point of view4 ,he is bound to take this course with regard to eschatology because he agrees with ,pfleiderer and the rest in admitting a comprehensive influence of ,greek ideas upon ,paul1 and is well aware that a man cannot serve two masters4 ,even in the ,apostle's doctrine of man he finds a ,hellenistic factor alongside of the ,jewish1 and asserts that the 8emphasis rests on the former40 ,wherever reference is made to the antithesis of flesh and spirit pg #aaj he thinks that the influence of the ,greek element is manifest4 ,by regarding sin as implicate in the empirical nature of man 8,paul abandons in principle the ultimate basis of the ,jewish philosophy and ethic40 ,greek1 or to speak more precisely1 ,alexandrian1 is the metaphysical background of his conception of ,christ4 ,according to ,holtzmann1 ,paul never really goes back expressly to ,daniel or the ,apocalyptic ,messiah4 ,his own special view grew up1 ,holtzmann thinks1 out of speculations allied to those of ,philo about the two accounts of the creation and the heavenly and earthly ,adam4 ,the primary point for him is 8the metaphysical hypothesis of the two classes of mankind0 which stand opposed to each other as the 8psychic0 and the 8pneumatic0 creation4 ,that the 8subjective10 ethical interpretation of the work of redemption is based on ,hellenistic ideas is for ,holtzmann self-evident4 ,it is not less certain for him that the idea of predestination is 8borrowed0 from the ,book of ,wisdom1 and consequently 8in one of the most conspicuous points of the ,pauline world of thought its ,hellenistic origin0 must be regarded as proved4 ,that the idea of predestination is inherent in eschatology1 and that ,jesus ,himself makes use of it1 is not taken into account4 ,the doctrine of baptism 8comes to base itself entirely on the ,hellenistic side of ,paul's theology40 ,in general1 he transformed the two sacred ceremonies of primitive ,christianity after the analogy of the ,greek mystery-cults1 and thus 8opened up for the early ,catholic ,church a way0 into which it was forced by the natural progress of events4 ,holtzmann sees in ,paul's system of thought the first1 but at the same time a far-reaching ,hellenisation of ,christianity4 ,the ,apostle1 so runs his verdict1 8by bringing ,hellenistic forms of thought to bear for the first time upon ,christian conceptions1 prepared the way for the passing over of the latter from the ,semitic to the ,hellenic world1 and beyond this again to the modern world40 pg #aaa ,the influx of ,greek ideas is thought of1 as by ,pfleiderer1 as coming through the intermediary channel of ,jewish ,hellenism4 ,the question whether any literary relationship to the latter can be detected in ,paul is dismissed in a few lines4 ,holtzmann admits that 8no tangible influence0 of ,philo's writings is to be recognised4 ,he is1 however1 of opinion that ,grafe has proved 8with all the greater certainty0 the ,apostle's dependence on the ,alexandrian ,book of ,wisdom4 ,instead of giving a regular proof he confines himself1 as his predecessors had done1 entirely to general considerations1 which he sums up in the following sentences 8,in any case ,paul was by birth and parentage a son of the ,diaspora1 and from his youth up breathed at any rate at times a ,greek atmosphere4 ,his letters show1 in regard to vocabulary and rhetoric1 sometimes even as regards tone of feeling and mental attitude1 not a few surprising affinities with ,greek thought4 ,some kind of communication from this side1 and that not merely occasional or accidental1 one must certainly assume4 ,the only question which remains is in regard to the extent and intensity of this ,hellenistic1 or even it may be ,hellenic1 admixture1 which became amalgamated with his ,jewish scholasticism4 ,this is certainly the point on which depend all the problems which ,pauline study is called on at the present day to face4 4 4 40 ,with this the matter is disposed of--on the third page of the work6 ,gunkel's and ,kabisch's arguments to show that the doctrine of the ,spirit is intelligible apart from ,greek influences1 are left out of account2 that ,hatch in his 8,influence of ,greek ,ideas0 had nothing to say about any ,hellenisation of the ,gospel on the part of ,paul is not mentioned4 ,on the contrary there follows a profession of faith in ,pfleiderer's doctrine that ,paul in the course of his career even advanced to the ,hellenisation of his eschatology4 ,holtzmann cheerfully and courageously defends this theory to its ultimate consequences1 and holds that in ,paul's dread of being found unclothed pg #aab 7#b ,cor4 v4 #c7 his national mode of feeling and a ,greek mode of thought 8are combined in a fashion which no one would have dreamed of inventing40 ,the usually so cautious scholar goes in this case unhesitatingly forward4 ,the difficulties which arise out of the assumed collocation and opposition of ,jewish and ,greek ideas fascinate instead of alarming him4 ,here1 as in some other points1 ,holtzmann betrays ,kantian tendencies and instincts1 and is inclined to exhibit the problems as antinomies4 ,paul's system of teaching1 as it had shaped itself in the course of the study of the subject since ,baur1 appears to him a unique formation1 since in it are combined two worlds of thought and two different sets of religious ideas which are supposed to hold each other in equipoise and mutually interpenetrate one another4 ,he takes it to be his task to lay bare this remarkable construction in its minutest details1 and to show how the most diverse thoughts sometimes conflict1 sometimes stand in a state of tension1 sometimes mutually limit1 and sometimes supplement each other4 ,if he succeeds in making clear the position and relation of the various strata of thought1 the system1 he believes1 will become intelligible4 ,this idea runs through his whole treatment of the subject1 and gives him courage to take over all the contradictions and compromises which scholars from ,baur onwards have discovered1 and even to add new ones in addition4 ,he is especially interested in the questions regarding the juridical and ethical sets of ideas1 the relation of the 8popular0 missionary preaching to the 8system of doctrine10 the antithesis between 8theory0 and 8practice0 in the ethics1 and the inconsistencies of the eschatology4 ,in these discussions there is much penetrating observation4 ,the picture1 however1 does not become clearer1 but rather more confused4 ,his predecessors had done their best in their treatment of the subject to conceal its fragmentary character1 and pg #aac when all was said and done had been content to put in the foreground only a few leading ideas1 which could be brought under a single point of view4 ,they worked with perspective1 light and shade4 ,holtzmann brings all the detail into one line and places it under the same illumination4 ,the fact that the system becomes in this way much more complicated than it had already been made by the scholarship of the period awakes in him no misgivings1 but increases his confidence1 since he sees in it one of those offences which needs must come4 ,even the objection that so complicated a system of doctrine could not have been understood in primitive ,christian times does not alarm him4 ,he anticipates it by declaring that the actual contemporaries and adherents of the ,apostle could neither understand nor imitate him1 even if they had wished to do so4 ,how1 indeed1 could they possibly have done so6 ,the whole of ,paulinism is a 8systematisation of the ,christ-vision0 and a 8generalisation0 of that which the ,apostle had experienced in his own soul1 and consequently ascribed to all who walk in the same way as an experience which they must necessarily undergo4 8,what this man with his unique spiritual endowment had experienced1 felt1 and thought amid influences and surroundings which could only once have arisen1 could never be exactly in the same way experienced1 felt1 and thought by any other man40 ,holtzmann1 therefore1 like ,harnack1 accepts the saying that no one ever understood ,paul1 with the sole exception of ,marcion 4 4 4 who misunderstood him6 ,it is not enough for him to regard the system1 as had been usual among scholars since ,baur1 as a personal creation of the ,apostle2 he goes the whole way with ,holsten in maintaining that the personal creation was nothing else than the interpretation of a unique personal experience4 ,but that is to admit that no connecting links between ,paulinism and primitive ,christianity can be discovered2 and does not that really imply an abandonment of all attempt to explain the ,apostle's doctrine8 ,is it pg #aad understood at all if it is not understood in relation to primitive ,christianity8 ,what right has any one to assert that it was unintelligible to his contemporaries8 ,paul confidently ascribes to them an understanding of it4 ,and how are we to explain the success which is evidenced by the establishment of the ,pauline churches and the victorious struggle for freedom from the law8 ,can the least understood of all early ,christians have exercised the greatest influence8 ,these fundamental questions are not asked by ,holtzmann4 ,his confidence in the results already attained left no room for them4 ,what he aimed at he has successfully accomplished4 ,he has worked up into one great symphony the themes and motifs of the ,pauline scholarship of the post-,baur period1 a symphony such as he alone1 at once critic and artist1 could have written4 ,even one who does not allow himself to be carried away by it will again and again take up the score with its subtle counterpoint and skilful instrumentation1 and always find in it new beauties4 ,never was ,holtzmann so impressive--this was to be observed even in his lectures--as in his treatment of ,paulinism4 ,here he could grip his hearers1 because he wished to do so--he who usually showed a certain dread of allowing the feeling1 the enthusiasm1 which glowed in him1 to become perceptible when he was dealing with matters of scholarship4 ,the system as modelled by him lives because he has breathed his own life into it4 ,but it is not historic4 ,he thinks to sift out and preserve what is of permanent value in the heritage left by ,baur and his pupils1 of whom he was proud to count himself spiritually one4 ,in reality he leads up to a declaration of bankruptcy1 and that especially in the powerful closing chapter entitled 8,retrospect and ,prospect40 ,here he endeavours forcibly to combine into one whole the results of ,pfleiderer1 ,holsten1 and ,harnack4 ,from ,pfleiderer he takes over the view of the pg #aae wide-reaching ,greek influence in ,paulinism1 and from ,holsten he takes the theory that the system had its birth in the unique experience of the vision of ,christ on the way to ,damascus4 ,now these two views might at need be combined1 though it is not quite easy to show--and this difficulty is constantly coming to light in ,holtzmann--how what is in one aspect a purely subjective experience1 never exactly to be repeated by any other1 appears in another aspect1 by a kind of miracle1 as ,greek religious thought1 and thus becomes universally intelligible4 ,but into this synthesis ,holtzmann tries to introduce in addition ,harnack's recognition that ,paulinism had no part in the formation of early ,greek theology4 ,now ,holsten and ,harnack again1 on their part1 might be combined4 ,the ,pauline teaching1 if it is referred to a unique personal experience1 might well remain for the ,apostle's contemporaries and successors a book with seven seals4 ,but ,pfleiderer and ,holsten and ,harnack cannot all be brought together4 ,if ,paulinism was largely ,greek1 it must have had some influence4 ,how is it conceivable that ,greeks should not have recognised and understood the ,greek spirit8 ,the triumvirate planned by ,holtzmann cannot1 therefore1 be brought to pass1 even if ,holtzmann is regarded as the connecting-link between ,harnack and ,pfleiderer4 ,in defiance of all the facts of the history of dogma the last-named must assert an influence of the ,pauline system upon the growth of ,greek dogma1 since he sees in ,paul the first step in the ,hellenisation of ,christianity4 ,any one who shares his premisses must also draw his conclusions1 and ,holtzmann is not bold enough to do that4 ,he agrees with him in asserting the ,hellenic character of ,pauline doctrine1 in other respects he bows to the facts of the history of dogma4 ,but this means that1 however he may wrap it up in qualifying clauses1 he is asserting the impossible1 namely1 that ,christianity pg #aaf as ,hellenised by ,paul remained uninteresting and unintelligible to the ,greeks4 ,the edifice which he constructs1 therefore1 breaks down from within1 even though he may be able for a time to maintain it in outward appearance intact4 ,thus there met in this universal critical spirit1 which examined all things and desired to do justice to all1 ,baur and the history of dogma which took its rise from ,ritschl and was opposed to ,baur1 and held a new settlement of accounts4 ,once more it was made manifest that the question of ,paul's relation to primitive ,christianity on the one hand1 to early ,greek dogma on the other1 had not been solved1 and that his teaching therefore had not been understood4 pg #aag ,v ,,critical ,,questions ,,and ,,hypotheses ,edward ,evanson4 ,the ,dissonance of the four generally received ,evangelists4 7#agib47 ,bruno ,bauer4 ,kritik der ,apostelgeschichte 7#ahej74 ,kritik der paulinischen ,briefe 7,galatians1 #ahej2 ,i ,corinthians1 #ahea2 remaining ,epistles1 #aheb74 ,christus und die ,csaren4 ,der ,ursprung des ,christentums aus dem rmischen ,griechentum 7#ahgg74 7,christ and the ,caesars4 ,how ,christianity arose out of the ,graeco-,roman ,civilisation47 ,albert ,kalthoff4 ,die ,entstehung des ,christentums4 #aijd4 7,e4,t4 by ,j4 ,mc,cabe1 ,the ,rise of ,christianity1 #aijg47 ,allard ,pierson4 ,de ,bergrede en andere synoptische ,fragmenten4 7,the ,sermon on the ,mount and other ,synoptic ,fragments47 #ahgh4 ,a4 ,pierson and ,s4 ,a4 ,naber4 ,verisimilia4 #ahhf4 ,a4 ,d4 ,loman4 ,quaestiones ,paulinae4 7,theol4 ,tijdschrift1 #ahhb2 #ahhc2 #ahhf--written in ,dutch47 ,rudolf ,steck4 ,der ,galaterbrief4 #ahhh4 ,w4 ,c4 van ,manen4 ,paulus1 #c vols4 ,vol4 i4 deals with the ,acts of the ,apostles 7#ahij72 vol4 ii4 with the ,epistle to the ,romans 7#ahia72 vol4 iii4 with the ,epistles to the ,corinthians 7#ahif74 ,the criticism of the ,epistle to the ,romans has been translated into ,german under the title 8,die ,unechtheit des ,rmerbriefs10 by ,g4 ,schlger4 #aijf4 ,m4 ,friedlnder4 ,das ,judentum in der vorchristlichen griechischen ,welt4 7,judaism in the pre-,christian ,greek ,world47 #ahig4 ,j4 ,friedrich 7,maehliss74 ,die ,unechtheit des ,galaterbriefs4 7,the ,spuriousness of the ,epistle to the ,galatians47 #ahia4 ,j4 ,h4 ,scholten4 ,historisch-kritische ,bijdragen4 7,contributions to ,historical ,criticism47 #ahhb4 ,g4 ,heinrici4 ,die ,forschungen ber die paulinischen ,briefe2 ihr gegenwrtiger ,stand und ihre ,aufgaben4 7,the ,critical ,study of the ,pauline ,letters2 its ,present ,position1 and the ,tasks which await it47 #ahhf4 ,j4 ,m4 ,s4 ,baljon4 ,exegetisch-kritische ,verhandeling over den ,brief van ,paulus aan de ,galatirs4 7,exegetic and ,critical ,essay on the ,epistle of ,paul to the ,galatians47 #ahhi4 pg #aah ,wilhelm ,brckner4 ,die chronologische ,reihenfolge1 in welcher die ,briefe des ,neuen ,testaments verfasst sind4 7,the ,chronological ,order in which the ,epistles of the ,new ,testament were written47 #ahij4 ,carl ,clemen4 ,die ,chronologie der paulinischen ,briefe4 #ahic4 ,die ,einheitlichkeit der paulinischen ,briefe4 7,the ,integrity of the ,pauline ,epistles47 #ahid4 ,paulus1 #b vols41 #aijd4 ,christian ,hermann ,weisse4 ,philosophische ,dogmatik 7#c vols41 #ahee2 #ahfj2 #ahfb74 ,beitrge zur ,kritik der paulinischen ,briefe4 7,contributions to the ,criticism of the ,pauline ,epistles47 ,brought out by ,sulze in #ahfg4 ,j4 ,m4 ,s4 ,baljon4 ,de ,text der ,breven van ,paulus4 #ahhd4 ,daniel ,vlter4 ,die ,composition der paulinischen ,hauptbriefe4 7,the ,composition of the chief ,pauline ,epistles47 #ahij4 ,paulus und seine ,briefe4 #aije4 ,friedrich ,spitta4 ,untersuchung ber den ,brief des ,paulus an die ,rmer4 7,examination of the ,epistle of ,paul to the ,romans--in his work1 ,zur ,geschichte und ,literatur des ,urchristentums1 vol4 iii41 #ast half1 #aija47 ,,those critics who reject the ,pauline letters as a whole profess to have derived the impulse thereto from ,ferdinand ,christian ,baur1 to be his true because logically consistent disciples1 and to bear the same relation to him as ,schopenhauer did to ,kant4 ,this profession1 which has always filled the 8legitimate0 ,tbingen school with indignation1 is in many points well founded4 ,baur's criticism was occupied with the ,corpus ,paulinum which remained after the exclusion of the ,pastoral epistles4 ,in the ten remaining ,epistles1 which show a large degree of inner homogeneity1 he professed to discover differences on the basis of which some were to be assigned to the ,apostle1 others to the school which took its rise from him4 ,once the rights of such a criticism are admitted1 nothing can prevent it from working itself out to its limit1 and seeking to explain all the ,epistles as products of a school which went under ,paul's name4 ,the ,tbingen master held that the ,epistles to the ,corinthians and that to the ,ephesians could not both be from the same hand4 ,but the differences between the former and the ,epistle to the ,galatians are in their own way scarcely less great1 if one considers that the violent pg #aai controversy about the law with which the latter is filled is never mentioned in the others4 ,the letters to the ,romans and to the ,galatians1 on the other hand1 deal partly with the same subjects1 since they both treat of sin1 law1 and justification by faith4 ,nevertheless they are far from coinciding4 ,for all their agreement in fundamental views they show remarkable differences in detail4 ,is it1 if this line of argument be followed1 after all so indubitably certain that the four main epistles are from the same pen8 ,is it certain that they are by ,paul8 ,strictly examined1 ,baur's assumption that they are so rests only on tradition1 which in respect of the other letters he impugns4 ,has he then the right to rely on it so confidently as regards the main epistles8 ,in conformity with his own principles he ought to have felt himself obliged to exercise 8positive criticism0 here also1 and would only have had the right to regard them as ,pauline after it had been proved that they really belong to primitive ,christian times and have the historical ,apostle of the ,gentiles as their author4 ,the assumption of the genuineness of the four main epistles is by no means so self-evident as it may seem to us in our simplicity4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles know nothing of any literary activity of ,paul4 ,it is only from ,clement of ,rome1 ,ignatius1 and the ,gnostics that we first hear of his ,epistles4 ,justin and the remainder of early ,christian literature are silent in regard to his writings4 ,supposing that the first ,epistle of ,clement does not belong to the first century1 the earliest evidence for the ,epistles comes from the second century4 ,if the ,ignatian letters are not genuine1 ,marcion1 about the middle of the second century1 is the first witness to an actual ,corpus paulinum6 ,for any one who has to defend the ordinary view1 the position is very far from being favourable4 ,so far as outward evidence goes it is hardly more difficult to defend the theory that the letters originated in an inner circle pg #abj of ,gnosticism and were gradually given out under the name of ,paul4 ,moreover1 ,baur made larger concessions than he realised to the opinion which jeopardised his position1 when he maintained that ,paulinism represents a ,hellenisation of the ,gospel4 ,is it probable that a single individual belonging to the primitive ,christian community1 immediately after the death of ,jesus1 by himself achieved this result8 ,historical analogy is uniformly in favour of the view that developments of that kind have a gradual beginning1 and are only accomplished in the course of two or three generations4 ,it would therefore be inherently much more probable that ,paulinism should be the work of a school which sought to reconcile ,christianity with ,hellenism4 ,in any case a writer who regards it as ,greek ought to face the difficulty of explaining it as at the same time belonging to primitive ,christianity1 and ought not to regard this hypothesis as self-evident1 but as standing in need of proof4 ,these theoretic considerations regarding the basis of the views of ,baur and his successors are so obvious that they were bound to come up sooner or later4 ,the fact was that in one particular point the ,tbingen master had held back from unprejudiced criticism and had foisted upon critical science the traditional belief4 ,in doing so he had obeyed an instinct of caution4 ,those who proceeded further along the path of questioning and investigation arrived1 some with satisfaction and some with dismay1 at the result of declaring all the epistles to be spurious4 ,it was ,bruno ,bauer who about the middle of the nineteenth century opened the ball with his criticism of the ,pauline letters47#hg7 pg #aba ,this work is not on the same level as his criticism of the ,gospels47#hh7 ,the objections which have to be brought against ,f4 ,c4 ,baur's views are not clearly developed nor completely stated4 ,in what sense ,paulinism is to be considered the work of a school with ,greek sympathies within ,christianity is not explained4 ,in addition to this1 ,bruno ,bauer complicates his task by regarding not merely the doctrine of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 but ,christianity in general1 as a creation of the ,greek mind4 ,it was not1 however1 until twenty-five years after the appearance of his criticism of the ,pauline letters that he attempted to prove this in the confused work on 8,christ and the ,caesars407#hi7 ,it was not ,palestine1 according to his thesis1 but ,rome and ,alexandria which cradled ,christianity4 ,palestine merely supplied the background for the picture which the first ,evangelist undertook to create of the beginnings of a movement which really originated with ,seneca and pg #abb his adherents4 ,whether there ever was a ,jesus or a ,paul may be left an open question4 ,it is in any case certain that the one did not utter the sayings which the ,gospels put into his mouth1 and that the other is not to be regarded as the author of the letters4 ,the ,christian 8community0 arose among the oppressed1 the slaves and ,jews1 of the great city4 ,they formed associations and fostered in one another a yearning for the ,end of the ,age1 developed the ,platonico-,stoic thoughts of ,seneca into the sayings of the ,sermon on the ,mount1 and invented for themselves their hero1 ,christ4 ,the spirit of the new creation came from the ,west2 its framework was furnished by ,judaism4 ,judaism brought with it a tendency towards legalism4 ,in the ,flavian period the ,greek ethical philosophy struck up an alliance with the law4 ,this movement was opposed by the freedom-loving ,gnosis4 ,in the last years of ,hadrian and the first half of the reign of ,marcus ,aurelius matters came to an issue4 ,so far as the struggle took a literary form we have the evidences of it in the ,pauline letters and the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,galatians is the last of the letters1 issued at the crisis of the struggle1 and was directed against ,acts1 which appeared at the same time4 8,the figure of this champion of a universal ,church and freedom from the law of ordinances0 must have been already known to the ,church4 ,what was new was the association with his name of an epistolary literature1 the production of which occupied a series of earnest and able men for some forty years4 ,in the ,acts of the ,apostles ,paul is co-ordinated with or subordinated to ,peter1 the representative of the ,judaeo-,roman hierarchic tendency4 ,that reflects the issue of the struggle4 ,the freedom-loving party was defeated2 in the last quarter of the second century ,catholicism became supreme in the ,church4 ,no attention was paid to ,bauer1 and in part he himself was responsible for the neglect4 ,the bitterness and the pg #abc carelessness of his writing1 the contradictions in which he becomes involved1 the fantastic imagination which he allows to run riot1 made it impossible for the few who read him to regard him seriously4 ,nevertheless1 in detached observations1 and in some of the incidental ideas1 he displays a critical acumen which has something great about it4 ,after dismissing him with a few sharp words1 the ,tbingen school and their successors enjoyed a respite of thirty years1 so far as radical scepticism was concerned4 ,at the end of that time ,bauer reappeared1 like a ,nero ,redivivus1 in peaceful ,holland47#ij7 ,in a critical introduction to his study of the ,sermon on the ,mount1 ,allard ,pierson examined the earliest witnesses for the existence of ,christianity1 and in doing so threw out the question whether the historicity of the main ,pauline epistles was so completely raised above all doubt that they could be treated with perfect confidence as archives from the earliest period of the new faith47#ia7 ,in the year #ahhf he published1 in association with the philological scholar1 ,samuel ,adrian ,naber1 the ,verisimilia4 ,the book was not adapted to make a deep impression4 ,it was too much the ingenious essay for that4 ,the two friends combined their efforts in order to show ,new ,testament exegetes how much they had left unexplained in the ,epistles to the ,thessalonians1 ,galatians1 ,corinthians1 and ,romans1 and how many problems1 incoherencies1 and contradictions appear when one reads these writings with an open mind47#ib7 pg #abd ,but instead of making a thorough examination of the problems and laboriously arguing the case with the other students of ,paulinism1 the authors at once proceed to suggest what appears to them a possible solution4 ,they claim to have discovered that the inconsistencies are due in the main to the presence of two strata of thought which have been worked together4 ,the one is of a sharply anti-,jewish character2 the other consists of milder and more conciliatory ideas4 ,if it be assumed1 so runs their argument1 that ,christianity was in its real origin a ,jewish sect which had liberal ideas in regard to the law and directed its expectation towards the ,messiah1 the antinomian sections of the ,epistles represent documents of that period4 ,the present form of the letters is due to the fact that a later 8,churchman0--the authors call him ,paulus episcopus1 and think that he may have served as model for the ,paul of ,acts--worked into them the second1 milder set of ideas4 ,at the time when ,pierson and ,naber launched this hypothesis1 ,a4 ,d4 ,loman had just finished the series of 8,quaestiones ,paulinae0 which he threw out in the pg #abe ,theologisch ,tijdschrift of #ahhb-ahhf47ic7 ,the battle began in earnest4 ,loman confines himself to dealing with the external arguments1 and only proposes to examine how far the assumption that these letters were written by the ,apostle in primitive ,christian times can or cannot be proved from the early witnesses4 ,his decision is negative4 ,but his calmly written yet wonderfully living study shook two other thinkers out of their security1 and compelled them to carry on the work of destruction to a further point4 ,steck7#id7 and van ,manen7#ie7 undertook the task of supplementing the external arguments1 of presenting the internal arguments by means of an analysis of the letters1 and of offering a detailed hypothesis regarding the origin of the ,pauline literature4 pg #abf ,in respect of external arguments the three scholars combine to urge the following considerations3-- ,acts1 they argue1 knows nothing of any literary activity of ,paul2 and it tells us nothing of the conflicts which these letters1 if we are to believe their own evidence1 called forth4 ,when the ,tbingen school set up the axiom that ,acts is less trustworthy than the ,epistles1 they made things easy for themselves4 ,there are weighty arguments to support the opposite opinion4 ,that the moment a mission to the heathen was undertaken the question of the observance of the law must come up is clear4 ,the most natural thing to happen would be that it should come up for discussion on purely practical lines and should take the form3 how much must the ,gentile ,christians take over of the ,commandments in order that the ,jewish believers might have table-fellowship and social intercourse with them8 ,this is the form of the problem which ,acts presupposes1 and it gives us in the account of the so-called ,apostolic ,council a decision in accordance therewith4 ,the ,epistle to the ,galatians1 on the other hand1 asserts that the question of the validity of the law as such was raised at that time1 and that ,paul and the original apostles agreed to divide the spheres of their mission work into ,gentile and ,jewish4 ,about the most pressing need1 the establishment of a modus vivendi in mixed churches1 nothing was done4 ,this representation is much less natural than the other4 ,nor is the case different in regard to the picture of ,paul which these two sources give us4 ,in ,acts everything is clear and simple4 ,the ,apostle appears at first rather as an assistant to ,barnabas1 but afterwards makes himself independent1 and maintains his position in relation to the original apostles by the force of his personality1 in a free but not a hostile fashion4 ,in the letters1 on the other hand1 everything is unintelligible4 ,stress is laid on the fact that the ,apostle of pg #abg the ,gentiles after his conversion has no intercourse with the original apostles and the ,church1 receives nothing whatever of the doctrinal tradition about ,jesus1 and draws his gospel entirely from revelation4 ,the statements regarding the external facts of his life are extremely confused4 ,after his conversion he is said to have first spent three years in 8,arabia0 and then to have gone to ,damascus1 and from there1 three years after his conversion1 to have paid his 8visit of ceremony0 to the ,church at ,jerusalem1 during which1 however1 he says that he saw only ,peter1 and ,james the ,lord's brother4 ,after that he spent fourteen years in ,syria and ,cilicia4 ,who can form a clear picture of the journeys implied in the letters1 or of the relation of ,paul to his churches8 ,who can understand the character here presented8 ,sometimes the ,apostle is radical1 sometimes conservative1 sometimes bold1 sometimes despairing2 in small things firm1 in great things weakly yielding2 now violent1 then again mild2 in all ways full of uncertainties and contradictions4 ,far from arousing belief1 the statements of the letters about the ,apostle create difficulty upon difficulty and doubt upon doubt1 if once one ventures to read them with an open mind4 ,on the one side it seems as if a certain tendency to bring him into opposition with the original apostles made itself felt throughout1 while on the other hand the traits are thrown together without any reference to an integral psychologically intelligible picture4 ,the most natural view is1 therefore1 that ,acts represents what is historically most authentic1 while in the letters an imaginary picture is drawn1 exhibiting throughout the same tendency1 but composed by various hands4 ,the external attestation in the early literature of a ,pauline collection of letters1 which is in any case not too brilliant1 is further reduced by the radicals4 ,the ,ignatian letters are held--as they also are by the ,tbingen pg #abh school--to be spurious2 and they endeavour to bring down the first epistle of ,clement from the time of ,domitian to the middle of the second century47#if7 ,if all this is admitted1 the first attestation of the letters is that of ,marcion4 ,what1 then1 is there to oppose to the view that they had their origin in ,gnostic circles and were only later forced upon the ,church8 ,with this agrees1 too1 the fact that the ,second ,epistle of ,peter1 which alone in the ,new ,testament makes mention of ,paul's literary activity17#ig7 and which itself certainly belongs to the period of the struggle with ,gnosticism1 treats it as something in the nature of a 8gift from the ,greeks407#ih7 ,in any case1 in view of the silence of ,justin1 the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 the ,didache1 and the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 the attestation of the ,pauline letters is no better than that of the ,johannine literature47#ii7 ,great stress is laid on the fact that among the ,gnostics the ,epistles existed in a shorter form than in the ,church1 as appears from the reckoning which ,tertullian holds with ,marcion47#ajj7 ,if this shorter text can be reconstructed pg #abi and proves to be the better1 this would show that the ,epistles passed from the hands of the ,gnostics into that of the ,church1 and underwent in the process an expansion of a certain 8tendency40 ,in the hope of showing this1 van ,manen in the year #ahhg reconstructed the ,marcionite text of the ,epistle to the ,galatians47#aja7 ,in regard to the other ,epistles he does not attempt this1 as ,tertullian's indications are insufficient4 ,the examination of the internal arguments takes the following form4 ,these 8,ultra-,tbingen0 critics analyse the letters and point out all the difficulties which come to light in the course of exegetical study4 ,they triumphantly establish the fact that there are many seams and divisions between the various verses and sections1 that an ethico-mystical doctrine is found alongside of the juridical doctrine of justification1 that the view of the law is subject to remarkable vacillations1 and that it is not possible to weld together the different parts of the ,epistles to the ,romans and ,corinthians1 to determine the proper address of the ,epistle to the ,galatians1 whether to the district or the province1 to decide whether ,romans presupposes ,jewish-,christian or ,gentile-,christian readers1 and various questions of that kind4 ,the next point is to discover1 if possible1 some kind of system in the difficulties1 inconsistencies1 and contradictions4 ,steck and van ,manen profess to be able to show that there is such a system4 ,what the letters tell us regarding the conversion1 the life and work of ,paul is not1 according to them1 to be considered earlier and more authentic than ,acts1 but is pg #acj based on information which either coincides with the reports there given or points to an earlier common source4 ,the material supplied by ,acts is worked up in the letters under the influence of a tendency4 ,the existence of a written ,gospel is also implied4 ,all the passages in the ,epistles which recall sayings of the ,lord1 and what the ,epistles to the ,corinthians in particular have to tell us about the institution of the ,lord's ,supper and the resurrection of ,jesus1 make1 they think1 the impression of having been drawn from ,luke1 or an earlier ,gospel which is one of his sources4 ,steck and van ,manen are even inclined to hold that in ,rom4 ii4 #af and xvi4 #be the words 8my ,gospel0 refer to a written ,gospel1 as indeed the ,church ,fathers also thought4 ,that the four main ,epistles cannot all be from the same hand is1 they think1 manifest from the differences between them4 ,further1 the order in which they were written can1 these writers think1 be recognised4 ,this order does not agree with that generally accepted1 since the ,epistle to the ,galatians is not placed before ,corinthians and ,romans1 but concludes the series4 ,steck endeavours to give a detailed proof that it was written after ,romans and presupposes the latter4 ,wherever in ,galatians there appear gaps and obscurities1 a glance at ,romans always1 he affirms1 gives the desired explanation4 ,the more strongly the opposition to the law comes to expression1 the later is the writing in question to be placed in the series of the ,pauline writings1 in which a development is traceable4 ,another point to which the 8,ultra-,tbingen0 critics attach importance is to discover criteria by which various strata can be distinguished in the main ,epistles themselves4 ,they propose to regard the ,epistles to the ,corinthians as fragments of ,pauline literature which have gradually been worked up together into letters4 ,in regard to the letter to the ,romans1 van ,manen holds that it originally consisted1 roughly speaking1 of chapters pg #aca i4-viii41 and was only gradually extended to its present form47#ajb7 ,it is also1 these critics consider1 certain that a number of hands have been at work on the letters1 and that the increasingly anti-,jewish tendency shows us the direction followed by the efforts of the ,pauline school4 ,steck and van ,manen assume that the teaching represented in the ,epistles is of a ,greek character4 ,they think they can show that the ,pauline school were influenced by ,philo and ,seneca1 and seek to explain ,paulinism as an 8attempt to spiritualise primitive ,christianity40 ,essentially1 they think1 it belongs to ,gnosticism1 since it sets aside the 8authority of tradition0 and derives all knowledge1 without historical mediation1 from the revelation of the ,spirit1 and conceives of this knowledge as a system4 ,the deification of ,jesus ,christ which is represented in the letters is also to be regarded as ,greek and ,gnostic4 ,by these observations ,steck and van ,manen are inevitably led to the decisive consideration regarding 8time and space40 ,could a ,christology of this kind come into being a few years only after the death of the historical ,jesus8 ,is an intense anti-,judaism in primitive ,christian times intelligible8 ,can ,greek1 ,gnostical ideas be assumed to have existed in the first generation8 ,steck and van ,manen deny that this is possible and demand a longer period for the transformation of which the evidence lies before us4 ,therefore the historic ,paul1 pg #acb if there ever was such a man1 as is almost certainly the case1 was not the creator of the ,paulinism represented by the ,epistles4 ,how1 then1 is the origin of the letters and the doctrine to be explained8 ,on the basis of the facts which they observe in the documents1 and the consideration regarding the necessity of time and space1 the 8,ultra-,tbingen0 critics throw out the following hypothesis4 ,christianity1 they hold1 remained at first ,jewish4 ,but as time went on1 and as it spread beyond ,palestine1 two different tendencies manifested themselves within it4 ,one1 as the result of contact with ,gentiles1 and no doubt in consequence of the destruction of the ,jewish ,state1 moved in the direction of attaching less and less importance to the law1 while the other maintained the older stand-point4 ,in general the development1 due to the influence of ,graeco-,roman ideas1 proceeded without a struggle4 ,its goal was a 8catholicism0 such as meets us in ,justin4 ,within this 8,gnostic0 party1 however1 there appeared a school which put the question of the relation to ,judaism and the law in its most trenchant form1 as a question of principle1 and sought to bring it to a decisive issue4 ,somewhere or other--perhaps in the ,roman ,church1 perhaps in several places at the same time--where ,gnostics and representatives of the older view were at odds1 an open conflict broke out4 ,the former party fought with literary weapons1 dating back the controversy by means of an epistolary literature specially created for the purpose into primitive ,christian times4 ,in the course of the struggle the antithesis became more and more acute4 ,the climax is marked by the ,epistle to the ,galatians4 ,here a 8,gnostic0 endeavours1 with the aid of the already existing ,pauline literature1 and depending more particularly on ,romans1 to defend the stand-point of liberal ,gentile ,christianity against a 8,jewish ,christianity0 which1 as it seems1 was 8making pg #acc headway40 8,with all the force of his intellectual superiority0 he scourges the tendencies of a period which was endeavouring to make ,christianity once more ,jewish4 ,the form of a letter to the ,galatians was given to the work1 according to ,steck's hypothesis1 8because the literary genre of ,apostolic letters held an established position2 and since the churches at ,rome and ,corinth already had their ,epistles1 the ,galatian province1 familiar in connexion with the first missionary journey in ,acts1 suggested itself as the appropriate scene of the struggle1 since it was there that the ,apostle had first had to suffer from the persecutions of the ,jews4 ,as the ,epistle to the ,galatians followed on the three other main epistles1 and the ,epistle to the ,romans had already selected as its time and place the last visit of the ,apostle to ,corinth1 shortly before his arrest at ,jerusalem1 the time of the ,roman imprisonment suggested itself as the situation of the writer to be implied in the ,epistle4 ,during his imprisonment ,paul receives news of the threatened1 and in part already accomplished1 falling away of the ,galatian churches from his ,gospel1 and feeling himself about to take leave of the world he directs to the wavering churches this letter as the purest and most intense expression of his heart and mind40 ,the main ,epistles originated about the years #abj-adj4 ,the elements from which they are worked up may be ten or twenty years earlier4 ,a final redaction may have taken place even subsequently to #adj4 ,why1 exactly1 the school of thought which created this literature took ,paul as its patron1 it is1 according to van ,manen1 impossible to explain4 ,he holds that the historic ,apostle had as little to do with ,paulinism as ,john the ,apostle with the theology of the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,steck1 on the other hand1 is inclined to admit the historical justification of this connexion4 ,for him1 it is to be held as certain that ,paul was the first to 8open the door of the ,christian salvation freely to the ,gentiles40 ,the doctrine pg #acd of justification by faith must therefore already in some shape or other have formed part of his preaching4 ,only the strictly systematic and sharply anti-,jewish development of the doctrine was supplied by the later school4 ,steck is therefore here1 as on some other points1 more conservative and less 8critical0 than van ,manen4 ,nevertheless the differences are not very noticeable in comparison with the extent of the views which they share4 ,theology of the post-,baur period generally had ignored ,bruno ,bauer2 it would willingly have treated in the same way those who took up his work again4 ,since this was not possible1 and references to 8wild hypotheses0 and 8rash1 wrong-headed critics0 did not completely suffice to dispose of them1 the authorities great and small had necessarily to undertake a refutation1 which they prudently confined to the most pressing and the easiest points4 ,the discussions were for the most part carried on in periodicals4 ,a work on the other side of an importance at all corresponding to those of ,loman1 ,steck1 and van ,manen was not forthcoming47#ajc7 pg #ace ,how far is it possible to refute their view8 ,in the domain of the external arguments1 the main strength of the revolutionaries1 the position is not so favourable to them as ,loman wished to represent it4 ,the transference of the first ,epistle of ,clement to the middle of the second century is not possible47#ajd7 ,the fact that ,justin knew and used ,paul's writings1 while he does not name him1 is not explained by the hypothesis that they did not rank for him as ,church writings47#aje7 ,the ,marcionite text of ,galatians reconstructed by van ,manen is not better but worse than the canonical text47#ajf7 ,if the ,ignatian letters1 as is now generally held1 are genuine1 the attestation of the ,pauline ,epistles is in much better case than was formerly supposed4 ,that ,acts says nothing about the literary activity of the ,apostle has at most the value of an argumentum e silentio4 ,it is not otherwise in regard to the fact that ,acts has nothing to say of the conflicts between him and his churches4 ,in regard to the question of priority as between its narrative and that of ,galatians there is at least nothing certain to be said4 ,the position of matters is therefore that the ,epistles to the ,romans and ,corinthians are witnessed to by the first ,epistle of ,clement at the end of the first century1 but that neither the legitimate nor the illegitimate pg #acf representatives of the ,tbingen tradition can explain why ,justin and the remaining writers of the beginning of the second century are not under the influence of these ,epistles1 and1 with the exception of ,clement1 do not even mention them4 ,the hypothesis brought forward by ,steck and van ,manen in regard to different strata within the ,epistles and the development which culminates in the antinomianism of the ,epistle to the ,galatians cannot be proved from the texts2 the evidence is read into them by the exercise of great ingenuity4 ,but the negative observation which formed their starting-point holds its ground4 ,ordinary exegesis has not succeeded in getting rid of the illogical transitions and contradictions and making ,paul's arguments really intelligible4 ,the impression of a certain disconnectedness is not to be denied4 ,but ,steck and van ,manen have not succeeded in discovering the law and order which ought to prevail in it1 and showing how the chaos arose in connexion with the creation of this literature4 ,against the hypothesis of the origin of ,paulinism in the second century there lies the objection that it is built on purely arbitrary assumptions4 ,whence do ,steck and van ,manen know anything about anti-,jewish conflicts taking place at that time8 ,there is no evidence of any such thing in the contemporary literature2 and the writings of the apostolic ,fathers make quite in the contrary direction4 ,on the other hand1 the general considerations which led them to adopt this hypothesis have not been in any way invalidated4 ,the illegitimate ,tbingen critics share with the legitimate school the presupposition that ,paulinism signifies a ,hellenisation of the ,gospel2 they are also at one with their adversaries in regarding this unproved and unprovable assumption as proved4 ,the difference is that they do not follow the others in their second exhibition of navet--that of regarding this ,greek religious faith as being coincident with primitive pg #acg ,christianity1 but demand space and time for a development of this character4 ,but the two wrestlers have the same chain about their feet2 whichever of them throws the other into the water must drown along with him4 ,that they are both involved in the same fundamental view of ,paulinism sometimes comes to the consciousness of the post-,baur theology and its radical opponents4 ,in a momentary aberration of this kind ,heinrici ventures to praise ,bruno ,bauer for having discovered the relationship of ,paul to the religious life of the ancient world1 and is prepared to see his weakness only in the inferences which he draws from this discovery47#ajg7 ,steck1 on his part1 praises ,heinrici's commentary on the ,epistles to the ,corinthians1 in which the ,hellenistic element is so excellently traced1 and expresses the hope that the exegete and his party will consider carefully whether the composition of this work 8does not stand in an even much closer relationship to ,hellenism than had previously been supposed40 ,the more the theologians who derive from ,baur emphasise the ,greek element in ,paulinism the more helpless they are against the 8,ultra-,tbingen0 critics4 ,for it is after all merely a matter of clearness and courage of thought whether they venture to raise the question about space and time4 ,the moment they take this step they are lost4 ,nevermore can they find the way which leads back through the green pastures of sound common-sense theology1 but are condemned to wander about with the revolutionaries in the wilderness of flat unreason4 ,wearied with problems1 they come at last1 like ,steck and van ,manen1 to a condition of mind in which the wildest hypothesis appeals to them more than rational knowledge1 if the latter demands the suppression of questioning4 ,how is it conceivable that a man of the primitive ,christian period could1 in consequence of a purely practical controversy regarding the observance or non-observance of the law by ,gentile believers1 go on1 as ,baur and pg #ach his successors represent--to reject the law on principle8 ,how could it be possible that1 at that time1 doctrine should take a frankly ,gnostic shape1 and in deliberate contempt of the tradition of the historic ,jesus1 should1 under the eyes of the men who had been ,his companions1 appeal only to revelation8 ,that is the element of greatness in the 8,ultra-,tbingen0 critics1 that they did not forget the duty of asking questions1 when it had fallen out of fashion among other theologians4 ,to show that their hypothesis is untenable is by no means to get rid of it1 as accredited theology wished to persuade itself4 ,a few squadrons of cavalry which were skirmishing in the open have been cut off2 the fortress has not been taken1 indeed the siege has not even been laid4 ,the chronicle of the discussion between contemporary theology and the revolutionaries is quite without interest4 ,as soon as the refutation on points of detail was finished1 and the fundamental questions regarding time and place came on the scene1 there remained nothing for it to do but to stammer1 with an embarrassed smile1 something about tradition1 intuition1 an unmistakable impression1 the stamp of genuineness1 and the like1 and to break off the conversation as quickly as might be4 ,what it could or could not refute1 and what the other party could or could not prove1 followed necessary from the form which the problem had assumed4 ,the construction of the illegitimate ,tbingen critics answers1 in reverse1 to that of the legitimate school1 like the reflection in a mirror to the object reflected4 ,the presuppositions and the difficulties are the same in the two cases2 the two solutions correspond except that they go in opposite directions4 ,both recognise that not only a conflict of practice1 but one involving theory and principle1 for and against the law1 is fought out in the letters4 ,the legitimate school place it in primitive ,christian times1 but cannot show how it was possible at that period1 and how it could break off so suddenly that in the post-,pauline pg #aci literature there is not an echo of it1 and it seems as though it had never been4 ,the illegitimate school represent the struggle as having occurred in the course of the second century1 but can cite no evidence for this from the remaining literature1 can point to no traces of the gradual growth of the opposition1 or show how a struggle of that kind could break out at that time4 ,both explanations labour in vain at the problem of the inexplicable neglect of ,paulinism in the post-,apostolic literature4 ,both parties assume as a datum that the doctrine of the letters is to be considered as a ,hellenised ,christianity4 ,the one party represents the process which leads to this result as taking place in primitive ,christian times1 without being able to show how such a thing is possible1 or how the ,greek and the ,jewish-eschatological elements mutually tolerated and united with one another4 ,according to the other party1 the ,hellenisation came about in the course of a long development4 ,but they cannot explain why ,paulinism shows an entirely different character from that of the ,greek ,christianity which appears elsewhere in the literature of the second century4 ,they assert that it belongs to ,gnosticism2 and are right in this so far as regards the form of the system4 ,on the other hand they cannot allow themselves to consider seriously the difference between the doctrine of the letters and the fundamental views of the known ,gnostic schools1 or the hypothesis flies in pieces4 ,the ,gnostics were real spiritualists1 opposed to eschatology1 and denying a corporeal resurrection2 ,paul is an eschatologist1 looking for the parousia and the transformation of the body4 ,therefore the 8,ultra-,tbingen0 critics must either explain the ,jewish eschatological element in the system in such a way as to spiritualise it1 or else drop it out of sight4 ,and as a matter of fact the ominous word eschatology is1 one might almost say1 never mentioned in their works4 pg #adj ,the parallel between what the one and the other construction can and cannot make intelligible goes through to the last detail4 ,for both it is true that the ostensible solution in each case introduces openly or otherwise a new problem which arises out of the solution itself4 ,the sum of what is explained and unexplained is the same for both4 ,at first sight the position of the legitimate successors of the ,tbingen school is more favourable than that of the other party4 ,they have tradition and natural impression on their side1 and are able to regard the situation implied in the ,epistles as historic1 whereas their opponents are bound to show that it is fictitious4 ,when subjected to critical examination1 however1 they are no better off1 for they cannot give any proof that the main epistles can belong to primitive ,christianity and to it only4 ,when they declared again and again that the attacks of the radicals had served a useful purpose in inciting them to examine anew their results1 and to make corrections where necessary1 that was the mere cant of criticism4 ,if they had dared to make an effort to understand the objection which ,loman1 ,steck1 and van ,manen constantly repeated1 and to consider whether they could really prove the ,pauline origin of the main epistles1 or whether they did not really by their conception of the doctrine make it improbable1 they would have been bound to perceive that nothing could be done by revising and correcting2 it was a case of mutually exclusive alternatives4 ,as matters stood1 they had to choose between being consistent but irrational1 or rational but inconsistent4 ,they chose the latter form of the dilemma and left the other to the radicals4 ,the ,ultra-,tbingen critics on their part cannot escape the blame of raising the question in a one-sided purely literary form1 and not concerning themselves with the thought contained in the ,epistles1 because they felt that herein lay the weak point of their undertaking4 ,instead of analysing the system1 they made play with the pg #ada catchwords ,greek and ,gnostic1 and thought to have got rid in that way of the question regarding the essential character of ,paulinism4 ,if contemporary theology did not grasp the problem which was presented to it in its full significance1 that was partly due to the pettifogging way in which it was formulated4 ,the representatives of radical criticism were like criminals who cannot rise to the height of their crime6 ,for a time it almost looked as if a modus vivendi had been found between the successors of ,baur's school and the radicals4 ,steck1 who stood on the right wing of the revolutionaries1 refused to give up the belief that the historic ,paul had in some way or other fought a battle for freedom from the law1 and might be indirectly claimed as the starting-point of the theology which reaches its full development in the ,epistles4 ,from this it was only a short step to the hypothesis that the ,epistles were not wholly spurious but combined thoughts of the ,apostle with later views4 ,a criticism based on the distinction of original and interpolated elements did not need to be now for the first time called into being4 ,it already existed1 and had indeed made its appearance contemporaneously with ,bruno ,bauer's4 ,like the latter it had been either talked down or left to die of neglect4 ,in the first volume of his 8,philosophic ,dogmatic0 7#ahee71 when speaking of the documentary sources of our knowledge of ,christianity1 ,christian ,hermann ,weisse defines his attitude towards the ,pauline ,epistles and offers the results of a study extending over many years1 which he had undertaken in opposition to the conservatives on the one side and the ,tbingen school on the other47#ajh7 ,his method he himself describes as criticism based on style4 ,a man like ,paul1 he argues1 has so characteristic a literary style that it will serve one who has made himself pg #adb thoroughly familiar with it as an unfailing criterion of what is genuine and what is not4 ,such a method of criticism must of course be prepared to be accused of arbitrariness and subjectivity4 ,but that is no great matter4 ,the fruits will vouch for the goodness of the tree4 ,the standard of indubitably genuine ,pauline style is furnished1 according to ,weisse1 by the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,it bears in all its parts the stamp of the most complete integrity and genuineness4 ,the eye which has acquired due fineness of perception by the study of this writing discovers that only the ,second ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 the ,first to the ,thessalonians1 and that to ,philemon1 8can boast of preserving in the same purity the original apostolic text40 ,the ,epistles to the ,romans1 ,galatians1 ,philippians1 and ,colossians 8have interwoven in them a regular series of interpolations1 which so far efface the genuine apostolic character of the style in many places as to render it unrecognisable1 and have given rise to that difficulty of disentangling the meaning which has made ,romans especially a crux interpretum1 and by the forced artificiality1 intrinsic falsity1 and unnaturalness of these interpretations has made this ,epistle the bane of theological study2 of which1 in virtue of the character of its fundamental ideas1 it was fitted to be the most precious treasure407#aji7 ,the whole of these interpolations are1 he thinks1 from one and the same hand1 and go back to a time previous to the ecclesiastical use of the writings4 ,the redactor cherished withal the most respectful awe of the ,apostle's words1 and has hardly deleted a single one of them4 ,what remains after the elimination of the secondary stratum in the ,epistles to the ,romans and ,philippians pg #adc does not prove to be an integral whole4 ,the latter consists of two letters to this church1 the second beginning with iii4 #c4 ,with the former there has been worked up a letter to a church in ,asia ,minor1 consisting of ix4-xi4 and xvi4 #a-bj47aaj7 ,weisse did not get the length of publishing the reconstructed text of the ,epistles4 ,when his pupil ,sulze carried it through after his death17#aaa7 the prophecy which the author had put on record in his 8,dogmatics0 regarding his undertaking was fulfilled4 ,it met with 8universal disbelief40 ,in part the cause of this ill-success lay in the one-sidedness of the principle maintained by the author4 ,weisse confines himself entirely to 8stylistic criticism40 ,while he recognises the possibility of a distinction between genuine and spurious based on the contents1 the trains of thought1 of the letters1 he will have nothing to do with it4 ,with the controversy about the genuineness of the main ,epistles there began a new era of 8interpolation criticism40 ,daniel ,vlter1 rendered confident by the professedly 8assured results0 of the criticism of the ,apocalypse in regard to the distinction of sources1 thinks to find in a similar procedure the solution of the ,pauline problem1 and hopes that it will be possible by 8careful criticism0 to separate the genuine from the spurious47#aab7 ,he differs entirely from ,weisse in seeking the criterion for the distinction of what is genuine from what is spurious in the subject-matter4 ,what is simple and 8plain0--the pg #add latter expression recurs again and again--is to be regarded as primitive-,christian and ,pauline1 but anything which has the appearance of being complicated or having the character of a speculative system is to be regarded as of later origin4 ,thus wherever we find a highly developed ,christology1 speculations regarding the ,spirit1 and eschatology1 strongly predestinarian views1 and an advanced estimate of baptism and the ,lord's ,supper1 we are1 according to ,vlter1 in the presence of interpolations4 ,a further mark by which these may be recognised is an advanced antinomianism4 ,the doctrine of the historic ,paul includes1 according to this author1 the following points3 ,the central point in it is the death of ,christ1 regarded as an atoning death appointed by ,god and ratified by the resurrection4 ,man becomes partaker of its fruits by faith1 and thus obtains justification by the forgiveness of sins1 of which he is given assurance by the testimony of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,faith also includes within it1 however1 a 8mystico-ethical partaking in the death of ,christ40 ,therefore in the act of faith there takes place at the same time an inner conversion to a life well-pleasing to ,god1 which causes the believer 8to appear blameless on the day of ,christ and makes him a partaker in the resurrection40 ,as regards the relation of the ,epistle to the ,galatians to ,acts ,vlter takes over the conclusions1 unfavourable to the former1 of the radical critics4 ,consequently this work is spurious throughout4 ,it only reproduces the ideas of the interpolators of the letters to the ,romans and ,corinthians1 and pushes to an extreme the antinomianism there represented4 ,it dates from near the end of the first century4 pg #ade ,in the ,epistles to the ,corinthians--we are still following ,vlter--the interpolations are not very extensive4 ,the most important is the correction applied to the original ,pauline doctrine of resurrection1 in #b ,corinthians #d and #e1 where the redactor has worked in his ,platonico-,stoic doctrine of immortality4 ,the ,epistle to the ,romans has been very extensively interpolated47#aac7 ,the original writing was addressed to ,gentile readers4 ,the interpolator1 on the other hand1 has in view readers 8who occupy an ,old ,testament stand-point40 ,that is connected with the far-reaching development which began at ,rome after the ,neronian persecution4 ,at that time1 as is proved1 ,vlter thinks1 by the ,epistle to the ,hebrews and the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 together with the first ,epistle of ,clement and the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 the ,church at ,rome 8fell back upon a religious stand-point determined by ,old ,testament ideas40 ,it is this 8reduction of ,christianity to ,jewish ,old ,testament religion1 modified by ,christianity10 that the interpolator is concerned to combat4 ,in doing so he is forced to enter upon general speculations regarding the flesh1 sin1 and the law2 in order 8to defend the independence and superiority of ,christianity0 he develops an antinomianism1 according to which the law had as its sole purpose1 8by intensifying the misery of sin1 to prepare men for deliverance from sin and the law1 by the redemption which is in ,jesus ,christ407#aad7 ,vlter's work is one of the adroitest performances in the whole field of ,pauline study4 ,it is not only that it represents what is in its own way a brilliant synthesis between ,weisse and the radicals2 its main significance pg #adf lies in the fact that it breaks off the barren literary-critical logomachy1 and directs attention once more to the subject-matter4 ,steck and van ,manen had failed1 once they went beyond the simple registration of inconcinnities in the text2 ,vlter lets the theological problems have something to say for themselves4 ,he observes more clearly than any one had stated it before exactly wherein the complexity of the question of the law consists1 and rightly refers it to the fact that some passages take for granted its observance by the ,jews as unquestionably right and proper1 and only seek to maintain the freedom of the ,gentiles in regard to it1 whereas others reject it in principle1 in such a way that ,paul would be obliged to maintain also the emancipation of the ,jews 4 4 4 if the rules of logical inference are to be applied4 ,as it is1 however1 there is a want of congruence between the negative theory and the limitation of the practical demand4 ,in an equally thoroughgoing fashion ,vlter deals with the problems of ,christology and of the doctrine of the ,spirit1 and eschatology4 ,his solution is ingenious and elegant4 ,of the hypothesis which places the controversies about the law in the post-apostolic period only so much is taken over as is absolutely necessary4 ,the connexion between ,paulinism and ,gnosticism is made as loose as possible4 ,the eschatology has a certain importance given to it4 ,hellenic elements are not assumed to be present in the primitive doctrine2 on the other hand1 a knowledge of the ,book of ,wisdom1 ,philo1 ,seneca and the ,graeco-,roman philosophy in general is ascribed to the interpolators4 ,the criterion by which to distinguish what is genuine from what is not is ingeniously chosen4 ,it is not particularly difficult to separate in the letters the parts which are mainly plain and practical from those which relate to an antinomian speculative system4 ,the resulting division between original text and interpolations has a pg #adg more natural and simple air than is the case in any of the other attempts to draw the line between them4 ,nevertheless1 it was scarcely possible that this work should contribute anything to the solution of the ,pauline problem4 ,it is built upon sand1 for the argument on which everything is based is unsound4 ,vlter asserts that 8simplicity0 is the mark of what is genuinely apostolic and ,pauline4 ,since when8 ,how does he know this8 ,how1 if it were just the other way round1 and the strange1 the abstruse1 the systematic1 the antinomian1 the predestinarian represented the original element1 and what is simple came in later6 ,what he describes as the doctrine of the historic ,paul has not a very convincing look4 ,it has not the ring of what we find elsewhere in early ,christian literature1 but has a suspicious resemblance to the ,good ,friday and ,easter-day meditations of the ,christliche ,welt47#aae7 ,what does not strike the modern man and his theology as distinctly peculiar is gathered together and receives the stamp of approval as historic ,paulinism6 ,vlter1 like every one else1 has failed to consider1 or to grasp1 that fundamental question as to what is primitive-,christian in the ,apostle's teaching1 which1 since the encounter between ,baur and ,ritschl1 had tacitly dominated the discussion and had been again forced on the theological centre-party by the radicals4 ,otherwise it would have been impossible that he1 after promising a 8cautious criticism10 should have so incautiously decided that what is simple is what is primitive-,christian4 ,apart from ,vlter1 the criticism which claims to distinguish various sources and detect interpolations is of a more innocent and guileless description4 ,it does not plunge into the depths of the ,pauline problems in the attempt to reach the firm ground that has never yet been reached1 but amuses itself by determining what and how many original writings of the ,apostle may have been worked up into the canonical ,epistles to the pg #adh ,corinthians1 ,romans1 and ,philippians4 ,this work1 at which ,semler had already made a beginning1 is in itself necessary and interesting4 ,the results1 however1 prove to be uncertain and contradictory1 because the criteria by which the deletions1 dissections1 and combinations are determined1 are always derived from subjective impression4 ,the one consolation in regard to them is that any importance which attaches to these results concerns almost exclusively the pre-canonical literary history of the ,epistles and does not affect our knowledge of the ,pauline system4 ,the supposed interpolations are of a subsidiary character4 ,the text as a whole is hardly seriously affected by them4 ,the sense is scarcely altered by the dislocations and conflations by which one critic or another restores the original letters and releases the present-day reader from the tutelage of the so inconceivably astute redactor4 ,it remains to remark that most of the scholars who have occupied themselves with this work do not trouble themselves very much about the meaning and the connexion of ,paul's statements1 but are like surgeons who think more of their skill in handling the knife than of being quite sure about the diagnosis which is to direct the incision1 and therefore not seldom fall victims to the temptation of having recourse to an operation in cases where it turns out to have been unnecessary or even injurious47#aaf7 ,as a work which stands much above the average of pg #adi the usual cutting-up hypotheses we may mention ,spitta's work on ,romans47#aag7 ,he distinguishes in the canonical ,epistle two writings1 a longer one consisting of1 in the main--allowing for incidental interpolations--chapters i4-xi4 with fragments from xv4 and xvi41 and a shorter writing which is made up of chapters xii41 xiii4 and xiv41 with fragments of xv4 and xvi4 ,the longer one1 which is the older1 is supposed to have been preserved entire1 the shorter is of later origin1 and it lacks the introduction4 ,the problem of the composite character of the main epistle in connexion with the address and similar questions1 is solved by supposing that it is a working up of an earlier general treatise intended for ,jewish ,christians into a letter addressed to the ,roman ,gentile ,christians4 ,the controversy about the much-discussed series of greetings in ,rom4 xvi4 is disposed of by attaching this to the shorter epistle1 which is held to have been written between the first and second imprisonment4 ,it is true this solution can only find favour with those who have made up their minds to take upon them the burdensome hypothesis of the second imprisonment along with the complete or partial acceptance of the genuineness of the ,pastoral epistles4 ,in working them up1 the redactor is supposed to have followed the method of bringing in the arguments of the second letter in those places in the first where they seemed most appropriate4 ,that he showed no remarkable address in this process is credited to him as a proof of his historical existence4 ,holtzmann has nothing very complimentary to say about the representatives of the dissection and interpolation criticism4 ,in his ,new ,testament ,theology he reproaches them with 8straining out the gnat10 and indulging in critical vivisection1 instead of studying the pg #aej currents and undercurrents of ,jewish and ,hellenistic thought which run side by side through ,paul's work1 and so becoming cured of their mania4 ,in connexion with this1 it is1 however1 curious that he himself1 when he was asked why he never lectured on the ,epistle to the ,romans1 used to say that the composition of ,romans was1 in his opinion1 too problematical for him to venture to deal with the ,epistle1 so long as he was not obliged to do so4 pg #aea ,,vi ,,the ,,position ,,at ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,twentieth ,,century #ahii4 ,paul ,feine4 ,das gesetzesfreie ,evangelium des ,paulus nach seinem ,werdegange dargestellt4 7,paul's ,gospel of ,freedom from the ,law3 a ,study of its ,growth47 ,paul ,wernle4 ,paulus als ,heidenmissionar4 7,paul as a ,missionary to the ,gentiles47 ,heinrich ,weinel4 ,paulus als kirchlicher ,organisator4 7,paul as a ,church ,organiser47 ,hermann ,jakoby4 ,neutestamentliche ,ethik4 7,new ,testament ,ethics47 #aijj4 ,arthur ,titius4 ,der ,paulinismus unter dem ,gesichtspunkt der ,seligkeit4 7,paulinism with ,special ,reference to ,final ,salvation47 ,a4 ,drescher4 ,das ,leben ,jesu bei ,paulus4 7,the ,life of ,jesus in ,paul's ,writings47 ,karl ,dick4 ,der schriftstellerische ,plural bei ,paulus4 7,the ,literary ,use of the ,first ,person ,plural in ,paul's ,writings47 ,adolf ,harnack4 ,das ,wesen des ,christentums4 7,translated under the title 8,what is ,christianity807 #aija4 ,paul ,wernle4 ,die ,anfnge unserer ,religion4 7,translated under the title 8,the ,beginnings of ,christianity407 #aijb4 ,otto ,pfleiderer4 ,das ,urchristentum1 seine ,schriften und ,lehren4 7,primitive ,christianity1 its ,documents and ,doctrines47 ,second1 revised and extended edition4 7,translated1 #d vols41 ,london1 #aijf-aiaa47 ,paul ,feine4 ,jesus ,christus und ,paulus4 ,g4 ,f4 ,heinrici4 ,das ,urchristentum4 7,primitive ,christianity47 #aijc4 ,georg ,hollmann4 ,urchristentum in ,corinth4 7,primitive ,christianity in ,corinth47 ,emil ,sokolowski4 ,die ,begriffe ,geist und ,leben bei ,paulus in ihrer ,beziehung zu einander4 7,the ,conceptions of 8,spirit0 and 8,life0 in ,paul1 in their ,relations to one another47 ,wilhelm ,bousset4 ,die ,religion des ,judentums im neutestamentlichen ,zeitalter4 7,the ,religion of ,judaism in ,new ,testament ,times47 ,die jdische ,apokalyptik1 ihre religionsgeschichtliche ,herkunft und ihre ,bedeutung fr das ,neue ,testament4 7,jewish ,apocalyptic3 its ,origin as indicated by ,comparative ,religion1 and its ,significance for the ,new ,testament47 pg #aeb ,paul ,volz4 ,jdische ,eschatologie von ,daniel bis ,akiba4 7,jewish ,eschatology from ,daniel to ,akiba47 ,w4 ,heitmller4 ,taufe und ,abendmahl bei ,paulus4 7,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper in ,paul's ,teaching47 ,martin ,brckner4 ,die ,entstehung der paulinischen ,christologie4 7,how the ,pauline ,christology arose47 #aijd4 ,heinrich ,weinel4 ,paulus4 7,e4 ,t4 ,st4 ,paul3 ,the ,man and his ,work1 #aijf47 ,ernst von ,dobschtz4 ,die ,probleme des apostolischen ,zeitalters4 7,the ,problems of the ,apostolic ,age47 ,maurice ,goguel4 ,l',aptre ,paul et ,jsus-,christ4 ,alfred ,juncker4 ,die ,ethik des ,apostels ,paulus4 ,william ,wrede4 ,paulus4 7,e4 ,t4 by ,e4 ,lummis1 #aijg47 #aije4 ,hugo ,gressmann4 ,der ,ursprung der israelitisch-jdischen ,eschatologie4 7,the ,origin of the ,israelitish-,jewish ,eschatology47 #aijf4 ,paul ,feine4 ,paulus als ,theologe4 7,paul as a ,theologian47 ,p4 ,klbing4 ,die geistige ,einwirkung der ,person ,jesu auf ,paulus4 7,the ,spiritual ,influence of the ,person of ,jesus upon ,paul47 ,eberhard ,vischer4 ,die ,paulusbriefe4 7,the ,pauline ,epistles47 ,wilhelm ,karl4 ,beitrge zum ,verstndnis der soteriologischen ,erfahrungen und ,spekulationen des ,apostels ,paulus4 7,contributions towards the ,understanding of the ,soteriological ,experiences and ,speculations of the ,apostle ,paul47 ,w4 ,bousset4 ,der ,apostel ,paulus4 #aijg4 ,adolf ,jlicher4 ,paulus und ,jesus4 ,arnold ,meyer4 ,wer hat das ,christentum gegrndet1 ,jesus oder ,paulus8 7,who founded ,christianity1 ,jesus or ,paul87 ,a4 ,schettler4 ,die paulinische ,formel 8,durch ,christus40 7,the ,pauline ,formula 8through ,christ407 ,j4 ,wellhausen4 ,israelitische und jdische ,geschichte 7#fth ed474 #aijh4 ,carl ,munzinger4 ,paulus in ,corinth4 ,hans ,windisch4 ,die ,entsndigung des ,christen nach ,paulus4 7,the ,purification of the ,christian from ,sin in ,paul's ,teaching47 ,reinhold ,seeberg4 ,dogmengeschichte4 7,history of ,dogma47 #bnd edition4 ,wilhelm ,walther4 ,pauli ,christentum1 ,jesu ,evangelium4 #aiji4 ,adolf ,harnack4 ,dogmengeschichte4 #dth edition4 ,martin ,dibelius4 ,die ,geisterwelt im ,glauben des ,paulus4 7,the ,world of ,spirits according to ,paul's ,belief47 ,johannes ,weiss4 ,paulus und ,jesus4 7,e4 ,t4 by ,h4 ,t4 ,chaytor1 #aiji47 ,christus3 ,die ,anfnge des ,dogmas4 7,christ3 ,the ,beginning of ,dogma4 ,e4 ,t4 by ,v4 ,d4 ,davis1 #aiaa47 ,johann ,haussleiter4 ,paulus4 ,r4 ,knopf4 ,paulus4 ,w4 ,olschewski4 ,die ,wurzeln der paulinischen ,christologie4 7,the ,roots of ,pauline ,christologie47 #aiaj4 ,a4 ,schlatter4 ,neutestamentliche ,theologie4 pg #aec ,r4 ,drescher4 ,das ,leben ,jesu bei ,paulus4 ,eberhard ,vischer4 ,der ,apostel ,paulus und sein ,werk4 ,julius ,schniewind4 ,die ,begriffe ,wort und ,evangelium bei ,paulus 7,the ,meaning of the ,terms 8,word0 and 8,gospel0 in ,paul's ,writings47 #aiaa4 ,adolf ,deissmann4 ,paulus1 eine kultur- und religionsgeschichtliche ,skizze4 7,paul1 ,a ,sketch with a ,background of ,ancient ,civilisation and ,religion47 ,johannes ,mller4 ,die ,entstehung des persnlichen ,christentums der paulinischen ,gemeinden4 7,how the personal ,christianity of the ,pauline ,churches arose47 ,,the dawn of the twentieth century found ,pauline scholarship in a peculiar frame of mind4 ,the criticism of the ,ultra-,tbingen critics had not succeeded in disquieting it1 nor ,holtzmann in reassuring it4 ,that the problems by which ,loman1 ,steck1 and van ,manen were tormented were mere cobwebs of the imagination was so completely taken for granted that in dealing with the ,pauline teaching no further attention was paid to them4 ,on the other hand1 however1 the problems previously recognised by critical scholarship had not been so completely solved by ,holtzmann that they could be considered as done with4 ,the disquisitions in which in his 8,new ,testament ,theology0 he resumed the results of the whole study of the subject since ,baur1 did not have the effect which he had expected4 ,they were much discussed and much praised2 the massive learning and wide reading1 the art of the literary treatment and the subtlety of the dialectic compelled admiration4 ,but behind all this chorus of appreciation1 a certain sense of depression made itself felt4 ,people were dismayed to find that ,paulinism was so complicated1 and that the web of ,paul's thought must be so delicately and cautiously handled if it was to be disentangled4 ,was the doctrine of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles really a product of such extremely intricate mental processes as it was here represented to be8 ,the process of disillusionment did not go so far as to lead to the calling in question of the fundamental view there offered4 ,but results were not put forward with pg #aed the same confidence as before2 effort was directed rather to strengthen them by revision and correction4 ,it was in this frame of mind that ,pfleiderer prepared the second edition of his 8,primitive ,christianity407#aah7 ,whereas he had formerly taken for granted the influence of the ,greek world upon ,paul1 as being something self-evident1 he now feels obliged to offer proof of it1 in a newly inserted chapter upon ,hellenism1 ,stoicism1 and ,seneca1 in order to arrive at the result 4 4 4 that his ,greek education was in any case 8a problematical possibility40 ,while he had previously held that the combination of the ,alexandrian ,platonic doctrine of immortality with eschatology was the great work accomplished by the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 he now is inclined to see a spiritualisation of the future-hope already prepared for in ,judaism1 and quotes the ,apocalypse of ,ezra and ,jewish ,hellenistic literature in testimony of this47#aai7 ,fate willed that about the same time theology should be seized by the impulse of popularisation1 and now found itself in the position of being obliged to offer assured1 absolutely assured1 results in reference to ,paulinism4 ,the most important works of this character are ,paul ,wernle's 8,beginnings of ,christianity0 and ,heinrich ,weinel's 8,paul407#abj7 pg #aee ,the efforts of these writers are directed to bring the author and his thoughts into close relations with our time4 ,it is not his theology in its subtleties and its contradictions that they seek to grasp and to portray1 but his religion--what lies behind the system and the formula4 ,in this way they hope to escape many difficulties over which ,holtzmann had laboured1 and to be able to bring out the fundamental and intelligible elements which in him had been rather to seek4 ,wernle makes ,paul discourse in the character of the great missionary apologist2 ,weinel draws him as the preacher of the religion of inwardness1 who as 8,pharisee10 8,seeker after ,god10 8prophet10 8apostle10 8founder of the ,church10 8theologian10 and 8man10 was all things in one4 ,the lively portraiture1 quite different from the conventional works on the subject1 found a ready welcome1 and incited others to imitation4 ,in consistently emphasising the apologetic aspect of ,paul's teaching ,wernle brought up many ingenious ideas for discussion4 ,weinel1 on his part1 brought again to the consciousness of both theologians and laymen the poetic and emotional element in the ,apostle's world of ideas4 ,but they found no new way of grasping and understanding him4 ,they walk in a shady path which runs parallel to the main road4 ,but its pleasantness is associated with certain dangers1 which they themselves1 and those who followed them1 have not always escaped4 ,when earlier writers on the subject modernised1 they did so unconsciously4 ,wernle and ,weinel1 however1 do pg #aef so on principle1 and have no scruple about throwing light on what is obscure in ,paulinism by the use of more or less appropriate catchwords of the most modern theology4 ,not seldom they imagine they are explaining something when they are in reality only talking round the subject4 ,in this way there enters into their treatment a kind of forced ingenuity1 one might almost say flimsiness4 ,their love of graphic description also sometimes becomes a temptation to them4 ,they do not always remember to keep it within bounds1 and sometimes allow themselves to fall into a kind of artificial navet4 ,wernle in particular delights to wield a pre-,raphaelite brush4 ,he pictures the ,apostle1 for instance1 in the evening at his inn1 receiving visitors1 exhorting and consoling them1 weaving tent-cloth1 busy with a letter1 all at the same time4 8,sometimes stones would come flying into the room as he was dictating--the ,jews had set on the city mob to attack him4 ,many an abrupt transition in his letters may have had its origin in a violent interruption of this kind407#aba7 ,feine and ,titius begin with a critical examination of previous views4 ,they are not in this wholly disinterested1 being in search of a ,paulinism which has more to offer to modern religion1 as they apprehend it1 than the one-sidedly historical post-,baur liberalism4 ,the result is that while they show themselves free from many of the presuppositions and prejudices which are common to the others1 they are at the same time not in a position to put ,paulinism on a new historical basis4 ,they agree pg #aeg in opposing the separation of ,paulinism from ,primitive ,christianity which is practised by ,holsten and ,holtzmann4 ,they refuse to be converted to the unsatisfactory view that ,paulinism1 as being a so unique personal creation1 must have remained unintelligible even to ,paul's contemporaries4 ,before making up their minds to derive the whole of ,paul's doctrine from the vision at his conversion and the influence of ,greek ideas1 they propose to examine it in reference to the conceptions which connect it with ,jesus1 with primitive ,christianity1 and with ,judaism4 ,consequently they are loth to admit ,greek elements and the resulting duality in the ,apostle's thought4 ,feine maintains that in the ,apostle's mind before his conversion1 ,greek ideas were only present in so far as they had already been adopted by ,pharisaism4 ,titius 8will not deny that there is a touch of ,hellenism in the great ,apostle10 but is far from seeking to explain the doctrine of flesh and spirit and the mysticism connected with the 8new creation0 purely from this point of view4 ,on the other hand both of them assign a large part in the formation of ,paul's doctrine to his ,jewish consciousness1 and consequently are led to a comprehensive recognition of eschatology4 ,in his examination of the individual views ,titius always takes the future-hope as his starting-point--indeed his book begins with chapters on ,god and eschatology4 ,he shows that redemption1 in the most general conception of it1 is a liberation from the present evil world and a deliverance looking to the world which is to come1 and that justification was originally bound up with the thought of the judgment at the parousia4 ,instead1 however1 of systematically carrying out the analysis in this fashion1 he breaks off and begins to work up the historical material which he has brought to light on the lines of the problems1 definitions1 and distinctions of modern theology1 because1 as the very title of his book shows1 he undertakes his investigation with a view pg #aeh to showing the significance of ,new ,testament teaching for the present day4 ,in order to portray the 8religious life0 he makes it a principle 8not to hesitate to turn aside from the highway1 to which the technical terms serve as sign-posts40 ,thus he comes finally to discover everywhere that ,paul clarified the doctrines which he took over and transformed them into ethico-religious teaching and subjective experience4 ,from 8the edifice of eschatologico-enthusiastic thought1 most closely connected with it but unmistakable in its distinctive character10 he sees1 to his satisfaction1 8the spiritual life of the new religion0 showing forth4 ,here also1 therefore1 as with ,wernle and ,weinel1 there is conscious and intentional modernisation1 in order to discover the religion of ,paul behind his theology4 ,one difference there is1 however4 ,the others brought to this undertaking a certain navet and enthusiasm which enabled them to see the modern and the historical the one in the other4 ,titius is an observer with a keen eye for the really historical4 ,he holds past and present side by side but separate1 and must apply a mighty effort of will and understanding and do violence to his feelings in order to bring them into connexion4 ,out of these inner pangs a book has come to the birth which in matters of detail is full of just and suggestive remarks1 but as a whole is unsatisfactory4 ,the problem of the relation of ,paul to ,jesus stands for ,titius and ,feine as the foreground of the interest4 ,both hold the view that the connexion is a much closer one than criticism had hitherto been prepared to admit4 ,the indifference which the ,apostle professes regarding 8,christ after the flesh0 is not to be understood in the sense that he had no concern with ,his teaching4 ,in his detailed monograph ,feine endeavours to prove that ,paul shows himself familiar with the words and thoughts of the historic ,jesus1 and in his eschatology1 doctrine of redemption1 ethics1 attitude towards the law1 and conception of baptism and the ,lord's ,supper1 only carries to a further pg #aei point of development what is already present or fore-shadowed in the teaching of ,jesus4 ,titius set himself the same task1 and believes himself to have proved 8to how great an extent the ,apostle bases his views on the thoughts of ,jesus1 attaches himself to them1 and further develops them407#abb7 ,this result is opposed by ,maurice ,goguel17#abc7 who offers a thoroughgoing defence of the usual view4 ,he is prepared to admit that ,paul knew more of the life and teaching of ,jesus than his ,epistles show2 but a fundamental difference in doctrine is1 he thinks1 not to be denied1 and he finds that it consists in the fact that the one preaches 8salvation10 the other the way of obtaining it4 ,in his utterances about redemption through the death and resurrection of ,christ1 the parousia1 ,christology1 ,church and sacraments1 ,paul expresses1 according to ,goguel1 views which go much beyond the horizon of the historical ,jesus4 ,a point of contact is only to be found in the simple ethical teaching4 ,in reference to the law1 ,jesus prepared the way for what the ,apostle of the ,gentiles accomplished1 without fully measuring the far-reaching consequences of his attitude4 ,the problem which theology since the time of ,baur had always avoided now therefore came at last to discussion4 ,goguel's essay did not indeed greatly elucidate the matter4 ,that the thesis of ,feine and ,titius goes far beyond what the material warrants was not difficult to prove4 ,on the other hand1 it had1 in justice1 to be conceded to them that they had shown that there was pg #afj something in common between the fundamental conceptions of ,jesus and ,paul on which sufficient stress had not previously been laid4 ,goguel's sharp antitheses are at first sight more convincing than the somewhat involved argument of ,feine1 because he has the direct evidence of the text on his side4 ,the difficulty1 however1 immediately makes itself felt when he endeavours to make it intelligible exactly why ,paul was forced to create new conceptions4 ,he cannot point to any objective factors to account for this development1 and is consequently reduced to explaining everything psychologically4 ,from this exceedingly complicated controversy one thing results with certainty1 namely1 that the problem1 in the form in which it is stated1 is an unreal one4 ,the statement of the problem which is here presupposed leaves out of account the middle term1 primitive ,christianity4 ,the credit of having expressed this clearly1 and thus put an end to the unprofitable wrangling about 8,jesus and ,paul0 and 8,jesus or ,paul10 belongs to ,harnack47#abd7 ,if1 he writes in the #aiji edition of his 8,history of ,dogma10 even in the first generation the religion of ,jesus underwent a change1 it must be said that it was not ,paul who was responsible for this but the primitive ,christian community4 ,he is not1 however1 able to explain why the ,apostle of the ,gentiles goes still further than the primitive community4 ,the question of the peculiarly inconsistent attitude of the ,apostle towards the law is not elucidated by ,titius and ,feine4 ,the ethics are treated in monographs by ,jakoby and ,juncker47#abe7 ,the former gives a detailed description4 pg #afa ,the latter tries to discover the fundamental principle1 and naturally finds himself obliged to deal with the whole doctrine of redemption4 ,in the method which he applies he recalls ,titius4 ,with historical insight he recognises1 in his fine chapter upon the origin of the new life1 that all the ethical conceptions of ,paul are in one way or another of an eschatological and 8physical0 character4 ,later on he falls a victim to the temptation to modernise4 ,thus he tries1 for instance1 to show that ,paul did not think of the influence of the ,spirit in man as analogous to a physical process1 but1 on the contrary1 8regarded the feeling of thankful love towards ,god and ,christ as the subjective root of the new way of life40 ,so that we find here1 too1 the dread of recognising anything objective in the ,apostle's views and the tendency1 not indeed to fall into the 8one-sidedly intellectual view10 but to bring into the foreground the 8specifically religious estimate of the ,apostle's person and gospel40 ,it is no accident that the scholars of this period are so anxious to distinguish between theology and religion4 ,this expedient covers dismay and apprehension4 ,meanwhile the study of ,late ,judaism had been going its own way4 ,the further it advanced the more evident it became that this was the soil on which the theology of ,paul had grown up4 ,holtzmann's ,new ,testament ,theology had not availed to render theological science proof against the assaults which it was to experience in the next few years from this direction4 ,the impression was too strong to be escaped4 ,and when the results pg #afb of the study were presented1 with a certain provisional completeness1 in ,bousset's powerful book on 8,jewish ,religious ,life in ,new ,testament ,times10 it became certain that the apprehension had not been unfounded47#abf7 ,the nave spiritualisation of the theology as practised by ,holsten1 ,pfleiderer1 and ,holtzmann--by the latter no longer quite navely1--was over and done with47#abg7 ,the recognition of a 8physical07#abh7 aspect in ,paul's expectations of the future was no longer sufficient4 ,it had to be pg #afc admitted that his doctrine of redemption as a whole bore this character1 and that the fundamental strain in his mysticism was not ethical but physical1 as ,ldemann had declared as long ago as #ahgb without suspecting the far-reaching consequences of his observation4 ,the only question now was how much had to be conceded to this alien system of thought which was endeavouring to draw ,paul within its borders1 and how much could be saved from it4 ,in this quandary theologians had recourse to the expedient of applying the distinction between 8theoretical0 7theological7 and 8religious0 to the doctrine of the ,apostle1 as ,holtzmann had already tried to do when he could no longer refuse to recognise its ,gnostic1 intellectualistic character4 ,the position became especially critical in view of the concessions which had to be made regarding the ,pauline conception of baptism and the ,lord's ,supper4 ,up to this time1 that chapter had given little trouble to theological science4 ,it had been taken for granted that at bottom it could only be a question of symbolism4 ,the doctrine of redemption on its ethical side found1 it was thought1 in the sacred ceremonies its cultual expression4 ,holtzmann1 too1 in the section on 8,mystical ,conceptions07#abi7 7,mysterises7 had still to all intents and purposes taken the same ground4 ,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper are1 he explains1 in the first place1 acts of confession by which the death of the ,lord is proclaimed4 ,to this has to be added1 in the case of the ,lord's ,supper1 the significance of a communion meal1 and in the case of baptism the value of a symbolic act4 ,it creates1 according to ,romans vi41 a mystical fellowship with the buried and risen ,christ4 8,the outward symbol of complete immersion signifies and represents the disappearance of the old1 fleshly man1 the coming forth out of the water represents the forthgoing of a new1 spiritual man40 ,paul1 ,holtzmann thinks1 puts the content of his pg #afd 8experience0 into this ceremonial act1 and thereby cuts it loose from the earlier view which had arisen from its connexion with ,john the ,baptist4 ,strictly speaking1 he transforms both the cultus-acts1 by bringing his new conception of ,christianity into connexion with them in order to give it cultual expression4 ,probably--we are still following ,holtzmann--he did this under the guidance of analogies which he found in the ,mystery-religions of the period4 ,the expressions which he uses at any rate remind us sometimes of the language which is associated with them4 ,this1 then1 was the point from which the later transformation began4 8,it was1 in fact1 ,paul who from an outlying1 one might almost say a remote point of his system of thought1 opened up for the early ,catholic ,church a road which it would1 indeed1 most probably have followed even without this precedent1 which was given1 as it were1 merely incidentally and casually40 ,it is interesting to observe precisely what views are intended to be excluded by these guarded explanations4 ,holtzmann is concerned to emphasise the view that baptism and the ,lord's ,supper have in the ,apostle's doctrine a rather subordinate importance1 and that they are not real sacraments but quasi-sacramental acts4 ,he deliberately avoids the plain issue1 on which after all everything really depends1 whether baptism and the ,supper effect redemption or only represent it4 ,but those who came after him were obliged to raise this question1 and so far as they were willing to respect the documents were obliged to answer that the sacraments not only represent but effect redemption4 ,wernle remarks regretfully that the cultus-acts have in ,paul a much greater importance than one would be inclined to expect1 and that in certain passages he tolerates or even suggests 8pagan0 views4 ,weinel is obliged to admit that alongside of the religion of inwardness which he has discovered in the ,apostle's teaching1 a sacramental religion1 which is inherently opposed to it1 from time to pg #afe time appears4 8,sometimes10 he writes1 8it is faith that brings the ,spirit1 sometimes baptism1 sometimes it is faith that unites with ,christ1 sometimes the ,lord's ,supper40 ,titius feels himself obliged to give up the symbolical interpretation of ,romans vi41 which for ,holtzmann still forms a fixed datum1 and admits that the atmosphere of this chapter is 8supranaturalistic10 and that the baptism there referred to is a real baptism into the death of ,christ and an equally real partaking in ,his resurrection4 ,feine1 in ,jesus ,christus and ,paulus1 insists that the sacramental character of the cultus-acts described by ,paul should be universally acknowledged4 ,heitmller1 in his work on 8,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper in ,paul's ,writings107#acj7 gives the old and the new view side by side1 and shows that it is the latter which alone is justified by the documents4 ,the mystical connexion which in baptism and the ,lord's ,supper is set up between the believer and ,christ is a 8physico-hyperphysical one10 and has as its consequence that the believer shares realiter in the death and resurrection of ,christ4 ,for the liberal conception of ,paulinism this was a blow at the heart4 ,if redemption is effected through the sacraments1 these are no longer an 8outlying point0 in the ,apostle's doctrine1 but lie at its centre4 ,and at the same time the distinction between 8theoretical0 7theological7 and 8religious0 is rendered impossible4 ,a doctrine of redemption which is thus bound up with ,mysteries which work in a physico-hyperphysical way is in its essence purely supernaturalistic47#aca7 pg #aff ,the courage of theological thinkers was put to a severe test4 ,when ,baur and his followers made their profession of faith in unbiassed free investigation they could have had no inkling that it would become so difficult for a later generation to remain true to this principle4 ,to give up the distinction between 8theoretical0 and religious and to follow a purely historical method meant1 as things stood at the beginning of the twentieth century1 to be left with an entirely temporally conditioned ,paulinism1 of which modern ways of thought could make nothing1 and to trace out a system which for our religion is dead4 ,at this crisis theology encountered in ,william ,wrede a candid friend who sought to keep it in the path of sincerity4 ,his ,paulus1 short and written in such a way as to be universally intelligible1 appeared in the year #aijd47acb7 ,the 8theology10 he writes1 is in ,paul not to be separated from the 8religion40 ,his religion is through and through theological2 his theology is his religion4 ,the theory which ,holtzmann introduced in his 8,new ,testament ,theology10 and which ,wernle1 ,weinel1 ,heitmller1 ,titius1 and the rest had developed1 thus came to an untimely end before it had left its nonage4 ,it survived only seven years4 ,and then the second expedient--that ,paul had thought out no system1 but just put down his thoughts in any kind of fortuitous order--is set aside4 ,the framework of the doctrine of redemption1 ,wrede declares1 is very closely articulated4 ,further1 it is not really complicated1 but is at bottom quite simple1 if once we take account of the thought-material out of which it is constructed and take the most general conceptions as the starting-point4 ,redemption--this is1 according to ,wrede1 ,paul's train pg #afg of thought--is not something which takes place in the individual as such1 as the later ,christian view was1 but signifies a universal event in which the individual has a part4 ,it consists in the deliverance of mankind from the dominion of the powers which hold sway over this world4 ,these powers have been destroyed by the death and resurrection of ,jesus1 as will become manifest at the parousia4 ,thus redemption is essentially an insurance for this future4 ,but it is even in the present real1 though not visible4 ,christ is the representative of the human race4 ,what happened to ,him1 happened to all4 8,all men are therefore from the moment of ,his death set free1 as ,he is ,himself1 from the hostile powers2 and all are by ,his resurrection transferred into a condition of indestructible life40 ,the proof of this change is given by the ,spirit4 ,he represents in the redeemed the super-earthly life1 as a 8gift of the last times in which the powers of the world to come already exercise an influence upon the present existence40 ,this wholly 8objective0 conception of redemption is1 ,wrede admits1 for our modern modes of thought rather impersonal and cold4 8,it takes place in a way which is wholly external to the individual man1 and the events seem1 as it were1 to be only enacted in ,christ40 ,redemption is effected in the sacraments4 8,the #8physical' transformation is effected by physical processes40 ,paul's thought moves1 therefore1 among crude1 unsubtilised conceptions4 ,his statements about justification by faith and about the law are based upon this fundamental view1 and represent merely the 8controversial teaching0 to which he was forced in order to maintain the cause of freedom from the law4 ,the material of his world of thought was1 therefore1 ,jewish4 ,what was the transformation by which it became ,christian8 pg #afh ,paul's conception of the ,christ7#acc7 was fully formed before he came to believe in ,jesus4 ,at his conversion1 by the vision on the road to ,damascus1 the only new element that he took up into his conception was that this heavenly being had temporarily assumed a human form of existence in order by ,his death and resurrection to redeem mankind and to bring in the new order of things4 ,an influence of the teaching of ,jesus upon the theology of the ,apostle to the ,gentiles is not to be recognised4 ,wrede makes the gap between the two as wide as possible1 and insists that ,paul's gospel must be considered as independent of1 and essentially different in character from1 that of ,jesus4 ,the ,apostle's adoption of the view that the end of the law had come1 is1 according to ,wrede1 partly due to his experiences at his conversion1 partly to the exigencies of the mission to the ,gentiles4 ,of the value and the remarkable literary beauty of the book it is impossible to say too much4 ,it belongs1 not to theology1 but to the literature of the world4 ,but one must not1 in one's admiration1 forget justice4 ,what is here set forth is not absolutely new4 ,a view of a similar character1 and more closely reasoned1 had been put forward by ,kabisch--,kabisch17#acd7 whom theologians had passed over in complete silence1 because they did not know what to make of him4 ,wrede does nothing else than to give to the presentation of the latter's discoveries the advantage of his literary skill1 while at the same time showing that the separation of 8theory0 7theology7 and 8religion0 which had barred the way to their acceptance is not tenable4 ,there is one thing which is to be regretted in ,wrede's book1 and that is that the terse popular method of presentation forbids any detailed discussion of the problems4 ,if the author had worked pg #afi out his arguments thoroughly1 and replied to his opponents and predecessors1 he would have been obliged to face many questions which1 as it was1 did not force themselves upon him4 ,what are the points that remain obscure8 ,wrede proposes to conceive the possibility of redemption in such a way that 8mankind10 in view of ,christ's solidarity with the race by virtue of ,his earthly life1 has a part in ,his death and resurrection4 ,this view is1 in this form1 untenable4 ,in ,paul1 salvation has not reference to mankind as a whole1 but only to the elect4 ,it is also questionable whether the idea of racial solidarity suffices to explain how the death and resurrection of ,jesus can realise themselves in other men4 ,what is the basis of the mystical union with ,christ8 ,to this question ,wrede has given no answer4 ,then1 too1 the inconsistent attitude of ,paul towards the law was not explained by him4 ,he does not even succeed in showing how the ,apostle arrived at the idea that the law was no longer valid4 ,the suggestion that it was in part through his experience at his conversion1 in part through the exigencies of the mission to the ,gentiles1 is a mere expedient4 ,unless it is possible to explain ,paul's attitude1 with all its inner contradictions1 as a logical and necessary conclusion from his system as a whole1 it remains for us practically unexplained47#ace7 ,again1 ,wrede gives no scheme of the events of the ,end1 although such a scheme obviously belongs to the 8system40 ,it is not explained1 either1 how the death of ,jesus can be interpreted at the same time as taking place for the forgiveness of sins4 ,in general1 the relation between the essential theology1 as laid down in the mystical doctrine of redemption1 and the 8controversial doctrines0 is not clear4 pg #agj ,in regard to the question of the relation of ,paul to ,jesus1 ,wrede holds that they lived in two wholly different worlds of thought4 ,this is connected with his view that the ,galilaean ,master made no claim to the ,messiahship1 but was first raised to ,messianic dignity after ,his death1 and that this claim was then projected back into the ,gospels in the form that ,jesus had made ,his rank known to ,his disciples only1 and had enjoined upon them to keep silence until after ,his death47#acf7 ,his preaching was1 above all things1 ethical4 ,so far as concerns eschatology and the meaning to be attached to ,his death1 the ,apostle of the ,gentiles received no impulse of a theological character from ,him4 ,paul1 therefore1 created something essentially new1 which has1 one might almost say1 nothing to do with the thought of ,jesus1 and also goes far beyond the conceptions of primitive ,christianity47#acg7 ,thus for ,wrede1 as for ,holsten and ,holtzmann1 the doctrine of ,paul is an isolated entity without connexion in the past or influence upon the future4 ,and he1 too1 finds himself unable to explain why the system thus remained without influence4 ,that the 8controversial theology10 with its insistence on the atoning death1 lost its significance when the question of the law ceased to be actual may appear plausible4 ,but why did the mystical doctrine of redemption get pushed aside instead of being further developed8 ,its presuppositions--if ,wrede's account of pg #aga matters is correct--could hardly have been much altered in the next generation4 ,a valuable supplement in many respects to ,wrede's views is offered by ,martin ,brckner's study of the origin of the ,pauline ,christology47#ach7 ,the author offers a detailed proof that the ,pauline ,christology arose by the insertion of the earthly episode of the incarnation1 dying and rising again into the already present conception of a pre-existent heavenly ,personality47#aci7 ,incidentally he gives an admirably clear account of the ,jewish eschatology and its formation47#adj7 ,he shows that the ,jewish eschatology itself1 in the ,apocalypses of ,ezra and ,baruch1 distinguished between the temporally limited ,messianic ,kingdom and the subsequent complete renewal of the world1 and that1 in conformity with this1 two resurrections have to be recognised4 ,one1 in which only a limited number have a part1 takes place at the appearance of the ,messiah2 the other1 the general resurrection1 only follows at the end of the intervening ,kingdom4 ,the scene of the latter was pictured1 he thinks1 by ,paul1 as by his ,jewish predecessors1 as the land of ,palestine1 with the ,new ,jerusalem as its centre4 ,it is interesting to notice how ,wrede and ,brckner1 without themselves remarking it1 have refuted one of the weightiest objections of the ,ultra-,tbingen critics4 pg #agb ,the latter had asserted that it was impossible that the process of deification of the ,person of ,jesus could have reached its completion within a few years1 and had claimed for it at least two generations4 ,now1 however1 it is shown that it is not this process at all1 but another1 which could take place in a moment1 which has to be considered1 since it is only a question of the taking up of the episode of the incarnation1 death1 and resurrection into the already present and living conception of the ,messiah4 ,the immediate effect of ,wrede's presentation of matters was that writers ventured more confidently to accept the 8physical0 view of the ,pauline doctrine of redemption1 and that the distinction between 8theory0 7theology7 and religion1 where writers could not make up their minds to do without it1 was applied with moderation47#ada7 pg #agc ,but he did not succeed in forcing on a thorough revision of previous views4 ,harnack1 for instance1 in the #aiji edition of the 8,history of ,dogma0 stands by his account of #ahic1 unshaken47#adb7 ,reinhold ,seeberg7#adc7 undertook in #aijh a very interesting attempt to walk in new paths1 but does not deal with ,wrede and his problems4 ,he holds to the view that the ,apostle did not create 8a unified system10 but that his thought moved amid a number of different sets of ideas1 which for him were held together by 8religion as an experience40 ,this neglect of ,wrede's work does not mean anything2 it was simply that the history of dogma could make nothing of his view4 ,it is significant1 however1 that among those who accepted his view in substance1 no one made the attempt to carry it to victory by a comprehensive presentation of it on an adequate scale4 ,the cause of this lies in the peculiar difficulties which lie concealed in the scheme which he sketched out4 ,the fact is that the 8physical0 element which is to be recognised in ,paul's doctrine is neither all of one piece nor wholly to be explained from ,late ,judaism4 ,strictly pg #agd speaking1 it takes three different forms1 of which one is peculiar to the eschatology1 another to the mystical doctrine of redemption1 and the third to the sacraments4 ,the 8materialism0 of the conception of redemption which is directed towards the future has to do with super-earthly powers1 with judgment1 bodily resurrection and transformation4 ,somewhat different is the 8realism0 of the mystical doctrine of the new creation1 which asserts that believers here and now experience death and resurrection in fellowship with ,christ1 and so put on1 beneath the earthly exterior which conceals it1 a nature essentially immune from corruption4 ,different from this conception again is the sacramental1 inasmuch as it represents in some inexplicable fashion an externalisation of it4 ,what1 according to the mystical doctrine1 seemed to take place by itself without being connected with an external act1 is here to be thought of as the effect of eating and drinking1 and cleansing with water4 ,the sacramental conception is a magical conception4 ,of these three varieties of the 8physical10 only the first can be immediately explained from ,late ,judaism4 ,for the two others it offers no analogy4 ,late ,judaism remained true to its ,judaic character in knowing nothing of either mysticism or sacraments4 ,on the other hand1 these three varieties of the 8physical0 in ,paul's doctrine of redemption do not stand side by side unrelated1 but seem to be somehow connected in such a way that the eschatological element dominates and supplies the basis of the other two4 ,the most obvious procedure would have been to attempt to derive the mystical and sacramental conceptions from the eschatological1 as being the root-conception4 ,a beginning in this direction had been made by ,kabisch when he attempted to exhibit the connexion between eschatology and the mystical doctrine of the real dying and rising again with ,christ47#add7 pg #age ,but in doing so he did not take into account the sacraments4 ,it was just these1 however1 which seemed to make it a priori impossible to explain ,paulinism exclusively on the basis of ,late ,judaism4 ,therefore ,wrede and his followers seek other sources4 ,they try to explain the system1 not solely from the side of eschatology1 but from that of 8,comparative ,religion10 and hold that it betrays the influence not only of ,late-,jewish but also of ,oriental ideas generally1 such as are found in the ,mystery-religions4 ,no doubt the first question which here arises is whether the methods of ,comparative ,religion are essentially applicable to the explanation of ,paulinism4 ,to apply the methods of ,comparative ,religion means to study the individual religions1 not in isolation1 but with the purpose of investigating the mutual influences which they have openly or covertly exercised on one another4 ,at bottom1 therefore1 it is a necessary outcome of the application of scientific methods generally1 and it only received a special name because theological scholarship so long shut its doors against it4 ,under this distinctive name the method attained to influence and honour in connexion with the critical study of the ,old ,testament and the ,graeco-,oriental cults4 ,in the former department of study it made an end of the prepossession that ,judaism had developed entirely by its own inner impulses1 and showed how much material of a generally ,oriental character it had adopted4 ,in particular it showed that ,late-,jewish ,apocalyptic is full of conceptions from the ,babylonian and the ,irano-,zarathustrian religions1 and represents a combination of universal cosmological speculations with the future-hope of the ancient ,jewish prophetism47#ade7 ,in the comparative study of the heathen religions it became apparent that the ,mystery-religions1 which pg #agf entered on their conquering progress westwards about the same time as ,christian ,gnosticism1 combined ,greek religious feeling and a ,greek cosmogony with ,oriental cultus-ideas4 ,in both these cases it is a question of contacts and influences which were due to political and cultural relations1 and produced their effect in the course of extended periods of time and under favourable historical circumstances4 ,the method cannot simply be applied without more ado to the explanation of the ideas of an individual man1 since most of its presuppositions would not here be valid4 ,in the case of religions1 syncretism can work its way in and develop2 in the case of individuals it can only be recognised in a very limited degree4 ,the taking over and remoulding of foreign conceptions is a process requiring numbers and time4 ,the individual comes into question only so far as he is organically united with a community which is active in this way1 and allows its instincts to influence him4 ,paul belongs to ,late ,judaism4 ,whatever he received in the way of influences such as ,comparative ,religion takes account of came to him mainly through this channel4 ,the suggestion that apart from this he might be personally and directly affected by 8,oriental0 influences calls for very cautious consideration4 ,in particular we ought to be very careful to guard against raising this possibility to a certainty by general considerations regarding all that the child of the ,diaspora might have seen1 heard1 and read4 ,the question can only be decided by what we actually find in the ,epistles4 ,it is further to be remarked that ,late ,judaism was no longer in his time so open to external influences that any and every kind of religious conception which was floating about anywhere in the ,orient could necessarily impose itself on ,paul's mind through this medium4 ,the period of assimilation was1 speaking generally1 at an end4 ,the new material had been--before ,paul's day--worked up along with the old into a set of ,apocalyptic conceptions1 pg #agg which1 in spite of the elbow-room which the heterogeneous ideas necessarily claimed for themselves1 did form a system1 and appeared from without as relatively complete and self-sufficing4 ,the ,oriental material has been poured into ,jewish moulds and received a ,jewish impress4 ,a still further point is that any one whose thought moves in the ,apocalyptic system created by the books of ,daniel and ,enoch is not so much exposed to1 as withdrawn from1 the action of free ,oriental influence4 ,he is already saturated with those elements in regard to receptivity which the ,jewish mind possesses and the tendency to assimilation1 and possesses it not as something foreign to himself but as ,jewish4 ,apocalyptic tends to produce in him immunisation as against further syncretistic infection4 ,this assertion is susceptible of historical proof4 ,late ,judaism stands1 even before the beginning of our era1 apart from the ,oriental religious movements4 ,and it continues unaffected by them4 ,not one of its representatives was concerned in the syncretistic movement4 ,philo seeks to rationalise ,judaism by the aid of ,platonico-,stoic philosophy1 but he gives no place to the religious and cultural ideas by which he was surrounded in ,egypt4 ,it is as though they had no existence for him4 ,to apply the comparative method to ,paul would1 therefore1 generally speaking1 mean nothing more or less than to explain him on the basis of ,late ,judaism4 ,those who give due weight to the eschatological character of his doctrine and to the problems and ideas which connect it with works like the ,apocalypse of ,ezra are the true exponents of 8,comparative ,religion10 even though they may make no claim to this title4 ,any one who goes beyond this and tries to bring ,paul into direct connexion with the ,orient as such commits himself to the perilous path of scientific adventure4 ,considerations of that kind were not taken into account by ,wrede and his followers4 ,but even if they had become conscious of the difficulties in the way of the application of the method to ,paul1 they could not have acted otherwise4 pg #agh ,in spite of all theoretical warnings this path had to be followed4 ,if once the mystical doctrine of the dying and rising again with ,christ is recognised to be 8physical10 and the view of baptism and the ,supper to be sacramental1 and if it is a further datum of the question that ,late ,judaism knows nothing of mysticism or sacraments2 and if one is not content to assume that the ,apostle has created or invented this non-,jewish element out of his inner consciousness2 there is at first sight no alternative but to make the attempt to explain it from conceptions and suggestions which are supposed to have come into it from without1 from some form or other of ,oriental syncretism4 pg #agi ,,vii ,,paulinism ,,and ,,comparative ,,religion ,gustav ,anrich4 ,das antike ,mysterienwesen in seinem ,einfluss auf das ,christentum4 7,the ,ancient ,mysteries in their ,influence on ,christianity47 #ahid4 ,martin ,brckner4 ,der sterbende und auferstehende ,gottheiland in den orientalischen ,religionen und ihr ,verhltnis zum ,christentum4 7,the ,saviour-,god who dies and rises again in the ,oriental ,religions2 and their ,relation to ,christianity47 #aijh4 ,karl ,clemen4 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,erklrung des ,neuen ,testaments4 7,an ,explanation of the ,new ,testament on the basis of ,comparative ,religion47 #aiji4 ,franz ,cumont4 ,les ,mystres de ,mithra4 #ahii4 7,e4 ,t4 by ,t4 ,j4 ,mc,cormack1 #aijc47 ,les ,religions orientales dans le paganisme romain4 #aijf4 ,adolf ,deissmann4 ,licht vom ,osten4 #aijh4 7,e4 ,t4 by ,l4 ,r4 ,m4 ,strachan1 8,light from the ,ancient ,east10 #aiaj47 ,die ,urgeschichte des ,christentums im ,lichte der ,sprachforschung4 7,the ,early ,history of ,christianity in the ,light of ,linguistic ,research47 #aiaj4 ,albrecht ,dieterich4 ,abraxas4 #ahia4 ,nekyia4 #ahic4 ,eine ,mithrasliturgie4 #aijc4 ,arthur ,drews4 ,die ,christusmythe4 #aiji4 7,e4 ,t4 by ,c4 ,d4 ,burns47 ,albert ,eichhorn4 ,das ,abendmahl im ,neuen ,testament4 7,the ,lord's ,supper in the ,new ,testament47 #ahih4 ,johannes ,geffken4 ,aus der ,werdezeit des ,christentums4 7,from the ,formative ,period of ,christianity71 #bnd ed41 #aiji4 ,p4 ,gennrich4 ,die ,lehre von der ,wiedergeburt 4 4 in der dogmengeschichtlichen und religionsgeschichtlichen ,betrachtung4 7,the ,doctrine of ,regeneration 4 4 4 from the point of view of the ,history of ,dogma and of ,comparative ,religion47 #aijg4 ,otto ,gruppe4 ,die griechischen ,kulte und ,mythen in ihrer ,beziehung zu den orientalischen ,religionen4 7,the ,greek ,cults and ,myths in their ,relation to the ,oriental ,religions71 vol4 i41 #ahhg4 ,griechische ,mythologie und ,religionsgeschichte4 7,greek ,mythology and ,comparative ,religion71 #b vols41 #aijf4 ,hermann ,gunkel4 ,zum religionsgeschichtlichen ,verstndnis des ,neuen ,testaments4 7,contributions to the ,understanding of the ,new ,testament from the point of view of ,comparative ,religion47 #aijc4 pg #ahj ,adolf ,harnack4 ,mission und ,ausbreitung des ,christentums in den ersten drei ,jahrhunderten1 vol4 i41 #aijf4 7,e4 ,t4 by ,j4 ,moffatt1 8,the ,mission and ,expansion of ,christianity in the ,first ,three ,centuries10 #bnd ed41 #aijh47 ,hugo ,hepding4 ,attis1 seine ,mythen und sein ,kult4 7,attis1 his ,myths and ,cultus47 #aijc4 ,w4 ,heitmller4 ,taufe und ,abendmahl bei ,paulus4 7,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper in ,paul's ,teaching47 #aijc4 ,im ,namen ,jesu4 ,eine sprach- und religionsgeschichtliche ,untersuchung zum neuen ,testament1 speziell zur altchristlichen ,taufe4 #aijc4 7,in the ,name of ,jesus4 ,a ,study of the ,new ,testament from the point of view of the ,history of ,language and of ,comparative ,religion1 with ,special ,reference to ,early ,christian ,baptism47 ,adolf ,jacoby4 ,die antiken ,mysterienreligionen und das ,christentum4 7,the ,ancient ,mystery-religions and ,christianity47 #aiaj4 ,georg ,mau4 ,die ,religionsphilosophie ,kaiser ,julians in seinen ,reden auf ,knig ,helios und die ,gttermutter4 7,the ,emperor ,julian's ,philosophy of ,religion as shown in his ,orations on ,king ,helios and the ,dea ,mater47 #aijh4 ,max ,maurenbrecher4 ,von ,jerusalem nach ,rom4 7,from ,jerusalem to ,rome47 #aiaj4 ,salomon ,reinach4 ,cultes1 mythes et religions4 7#aije-aijf-aijh47 ,richard ,reitzenstein4 ,poimandres4 #aijd4 ,die hellenistischen ,mysterienreligionen4 ,ihre ,grundgedanken und ,wirkungen4 7,the ,hellenistic ,mystery-,religions4 ,their fundamental ,ideas and their ,influence47 #aiaj4 ,e4 ,rohde4 ,psyche4 #ahid4 #crd ed4 #aijc1 #b vols4 ,h4 ,r4 ,roscher4 ,lexikon der griechisch-rmischen ,mythologie4 7,lexicon of ,graeco-,roman ,mythology47 #c vols4 #ahhd-aiji4 ,ernst ,eduard ,schwartz4 ,paulus4 ,charakterkpfe aus der antiken ,literatur4 7,character ,sketches from ,ancient ,literature47 #aiaj4 ,w4 ,b4 ,smith4 ,der vorchristliche ,jesus nebst weiteren ,vorstudien zur ,entstehungsgeschichte des ,urchristentums4 7,the pre-,christian ,jesus1 with other ,preliminary ,studies for a ,history of the ,origin and ,growth of ,christianity47 ,wilhelm ,soltau4 ,das ,fortleben des ,heidentums in der altchristlichen ,kirche4 7,the ,survival of ,paganism in the ,early ,christian ,church47 #aijf4 ,hermann ,usener4 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,untersuchungen4 7,studies in ,comparative ,religion47 #ahhi2 #ahii4 ,paul ,wendland4 ,die hellenistisch-rmische ,kultur in ihren ,beziehungen zu ,judentum und ,christentum4 7,hellenistic-,roman ,civilisation in ,relation to ,judaism and ,christianity47 #aijg4 ,paul ,wernle4 ,die ,anfnge unserer ,religion4 #aija4 7,e4 ,t4 by ,g4 ,a4 ,bienemann1 8,the ,beginnings of ,christianity10 #aijc47 ,georg ,wobbermin4 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,studien zur ,frage der ,beeinflussung des ,urchristentums durch das antike ,mysterienwesen4 7,studies in ,comparative ,religion with reference to the ,question of the ,influence of the ,ancient ,mysteries on ,primitive ,christianity47 #ahif4 pg #aha ,,to the ,bonn philologist ,hermann ,usener belongs the credit of having been the first to bring the ,comparative ,study of the pagan religions as they existed at the beginning of the ,christian era into contact with theological science47#adf7 ,in ,e4 ,rohde's ,psyche the ,greek and late-,greek conceptions regarding ghost-worship and immortality were introduced to a wider circle of readers4 ,a generally intelligible survey of the cults which come into question is offered by ,franz ,cumont in his work on the ,oriental religions in ,roman paganism47#adg7 ,it was ,phrygia in ,asia ,minor which gave to the world the worship of ,attis and the ,dea ,mater2 from ,egypt came that of ,isis and ,serapis2 ,syria supplied the great sun-god whom ,heliogabalus and ,aurelian1 for reasons of pg #ahb state1 proclaimed as the supreme divinity4 ,the religion of ,mithra is of ,persian origin4 ,of these cults1 ancient literature1 both pagan and ,christian1 has preserved some records1 but it is only since discoveries of inscriptions and papyri have supplemented this information7#adh7 that any real understanding of the character and history of these religions has become possible4 ,the myth on which the worship of ,cybele and ,attis is based has been handed down in various and conflicting versions4 ,so much1 however1 is certain1 that ,attis1 the beloved of the ,dea ,mater1 was represented as having been killed by a boar sent by ,zeus1 or by the jealous goddess herself4 ,every year in the spring-time there took place at ,pessinus the great orgiastic lamentation for him1 which1 however1 ended with a joyful festival4 ,it seems1 therefore1 as if a resurrection of the slain ,attis was assumed to have taken place1 although the myth had nothing to say about that1 but only in some of the versions related that he was changed into an evergreen fir tree4 ,at bottom it is a form of nature-worship1 which shows a close relationship with that of the ,thracian ,dionysus-,sabazios and with that of ,adonis as worshipped at ,byblos in ,syria1 and it has in some respects undergone modification due to contact with these4 ,the primary idea underlying both myth and cultus is the decay and revival of vegetable life4 ,the worship of ,cybele and ,attis penetrated to ,rome as early as the year #bjd ,b4,c4 ,in the previous year the ,sibylline books had given the oracle that ,hannibal would not be driven out of ,italy until the sacred stone from ,pessinus was brought to ,rome4 ,this was done2 pg #ahc and the ,carthaginians vacated the country4 ,the foreign divinities had a temple assigned to them on the ,palatine4 ,but when the ,senate came to know of the orgiastic feast which was associated with their worship1 it forbade the citizens to take part in it and placed the cult under strict control4 ,thus1 in spite of its official recognition1 it led a somewhat obscure existence until ,claudius1 by the public festival which he established for it--which lasted from the #aeth to the #bgth ,march--gave it a high position in public esteem4 ,in the deepening of its religious character which it underwent in becoming associated with ,greek religious feeling of the decadence period1 the worship of ,attis was brought into connexion with the thought of immortality4 ,in the 8,agape10 in which the partakers were handed food in the 8tympanon0 and drink in the 8cymbalon10 they were initiated as 8mystae0 of ,attis and thereby became partakers of a higher life4 ,mysteries were also celebrated in which a dying and rising again was symbolised2 and there were others based upon the thought of a union with the divinity in the bridal chamber4 ,from the middle of the second century onward the 8taurobolium0 appears in connexion with the service of ,cybele and ,attis4 ,this is a kind of blood-baptism4 ,the 8mystes0 lies down in a pit1 which is covered with boards4 ,through the interstices there trickles down on him the blood of a bull offered in sacrifice4 ,the lamentation for the dead ,attis sounds forth2 the 8mystes0 applies it to himself4 ,then when the hymn of jubilation follows1 he rises out of the grave as one who is now initiate and deified47#adi7 ,the process by which the worship of ,attis was transformed into a mystery-religion which gave guarantees of immortality remains for the most part shrouded in obscurity4 ,in view of the scantiness of our information pg #ahd we are thrown back upon hypothetical reconstruction for the details of the development and the significance of the mysteries47#aej7 ,the worship of ,serapis was a creation of ,ptolemy ,soter1 who desired to unite the ,greek and ,egyptian populations of his empire by the bond of a common worship4 ,the derivation of the word ,serapis is uncertain4 ,whether it arose from ,osiris-,apis or from the ,chaldaean ,sar-,aps is a debated point4 ,the cultus language was ,greek4 ,serapis was doubled with ,osiris4 ,the new cult went forth into the world as the religion of ,serapis and ,isis4 ,in ,rome it was vehemently opposed as being immoral2 the temples of ,isis1 who was identified with ,venus1 justified this reputation4 ,it was not officially recognised until the time of ,caligula4 ,by this time it was1 however1 widely diffused wherever the ,greek language was spoken4 ,its adherents were found chiefly among the slaves and freedmen4 ,from the third century onwards it is over-shadowed by the worship of ,mithra4 ,the myth1 which was represented annually1 makes the mourning ,isis seek out the scattered fragments of the corpse of ,osiris and raise a lament over it4 ,then the limbs are laid together and wound round with bandages1 whereupon ,thoth and ,horus raise the slain ,osiris to life again1 and this is announced amid jubilant outcries4 ,in the service of ,osiris-,serapis the worshipper gains assurance of eternal life4 ,therein consisted the attraction of this religion4 ,the early ,egyptian doctrine was simple enough4 ,after his resurrection ,osiris became lord of the world pg #ahe and at the same time judge of the dead4 ,those who at their trial before him are not approved fall a prey to destruction2 others have eternal life with him in a realm below the earth4 ,life--and this was the tremendously serious feature of this religion--was therefore regarded as a preparation for death4 ,this is the thought reflected in the mysteries1 no doubt modelled on those of ,eleusis17#aea7 which were attached to the ,egyptian cultus after the worship of ,serapis-,osiris had been ordained by authority4 ,they represent the esoteric element4 ,by means of the tests which he undergoes in the ,serapeum1 of the ecstasy which he experiences and the ceremonies of initiation in which he takes part the believer wins his way1 along with ,osiris1 from death to life1 and acquires the assurance of eternal being4 ,distinct from these mysteries is the exoteric religion with its daily acts of worship4 ,these consist in the unveiling1 awaking1 clothing1 and feeding of the statues of the gods4 ,the 8liturgy10 which was everywhere punctiliously followed1 is derived from the primitive ,egyptian religion4 ,speaking generally1 the exoteric form of the worship of ,osiris could come to terms with any1 even the lowest1 forms of paganism4 ,the ,syrian ,baal-cults had no doubt from the second century onwards become widely diffused1 and in the third century enjoyed the favour of the ,emperors4 ,for the development of popular religion1 however1 they were of less significance than the religions of ,attis and ,osiris1 because they were not capable of becoming ennobled and deepened by the religious yearnings of the ,greek spirit4 ,mithra was the father of the sun-god47#aeb7 ,the origin of pg #ahf the cult is obscure4 ,it first became known through the pirates who were taken prisoners by ,pompey4 ,it spread through the ,roman armies which in the first century advanced towards the ,euphrates2 they took it over from their opponents4 ,thus ,mithra was primarily a soldiers' god4 ,with the legions he penetrated to the utmost bounds of the ,roman ,empire4 ,he therefore passed direct from the barbarians into the ,roman world without previously becoming at home in the ,greek world4 ,from the middle of the third century onwards the new cult spread so vigorously that it was regarded as the strongest rival of ,christianity4 ,in the intervening period1 from the first century onward1 it adopted in growing measure elements from all the other cults1 and in this way became the universal 8worship40 ,regarding the myth1 little is known2 and in the cultus it played no special part4 ,as the 8slayer of the bull0 ,mithra doubtless belongs to the class of star-gods1 and represents the supreme sun-god4 ,the characteristic feature of this religion is its dualism4 ,mithra1 as the supreme1 good god1 is opposed by the powers of the evil under-world4 ,hence the earnest character of its ethic1 which is not contemplative as in the ,osiris cult1 but active4 ,the secret of the power of this new faith lies indeed mainly in the impulse to action which essentially belongs to it1 and in the large and simple ethical life to which this conception of the divinity gives rise4 ,the ,mithra-religion1 differing in this from the ,egyptian cults1 places the scene of eternal life in an upper realm of light and not in the under-world4 ,the supreme divinity himself guides the souls of departed believers through the seven planetary spheres to the land of the blessed1 and thus becomes their 8,redeemer40 ,as ,mysteries there are observed here1 as in other cults1 sacred meals and baptismal rites4 ,above these again there was1 according to ,dieterich1 a supreme initiation1 pg #ahg which represented a progress to the throne of ,mithra4 ,the actions and the formulae used in this ceremony are1 he thinks1 preserved almost complete in the great ,parisian 8magic0 papyrus4 ,dieterich1 who is opposed on this point by ,cumont and ,reitzenstein1 denominates this document a 8,mithra-liturgy10 and supposes the prayers to be used in the course of the ascent which conducts the 8mystes0 from the world of the four elements through the stars to the realm of the gods1 where1 under the guidance of the sun-god1 he passes through the heaven of the fixed stars and attains to the presence of the highest god47#aec7 ,this process he conceives as having been represented1 as part of the cultus1 in the ,mithra-grottos1 which is rendered not improbable by the discoveries of objects which might have to do with a mise en scne corresponding to this conception4 ,in any case there was some sacramental representation of the heavenward journey of the soul towards the attainment of immortality4 ,it remains questionable whether1 as the supreme mystery which the religion possessed1 it was 8experienced0 by the believers only once1 or had its regular place in the cultus4 ,the prayers extol in lofty language re-birth from the mortal to the immortal life4 ,the invocation with which the 8mystes0 approaches ,mithra is highly impressive4 8,hail to thee1 lord1 ruler of the water2 hail to thee1 stablisher of the earth2 hail to thee1 disposer of the spirit4 ,lord1 ,i that am born again take my departure1 being exalted on high1 and since ,i am exalted1 ,i die2 born by the birth which engenders life1 ,i am redeemed unto death1 pg #ahh and go the way which thou hast appointed1 as thou hast made for a law and created the sacrament 4 4 407#aed7 ,here the text breaks off4 ,perhaps later on the return of the initiate to earth was described4 ,dieterich1 however1 thinks this improbable4 ,according to ,dieterich the liturgy arose in the second century1 and belongs to the ,graeco-,egyptian ,mithra-cult2 about #bjj ,a4,d4 it was annexed by the 8magians0 and from that time forward was preserved among them2 about #cjj it was embodied in the ,paris manuscript which has come down to us4 ,a valuable insight into the feelings and impressions associated with the ,mysteries is given by the ,hermetic writings1 preserved mainly in 8,poimandres407#aee7 ,they profess to be derived from ,hermes1 who in the thought of later times became the god of revelation1 and in the prominence which they give to the philosophico-religious element they mark a stage in the development of ,greek religious thought from the ,mystery-religions to ,neo-,platonism4 ,in their present form the documents of this later ,hermetic religion1 which is marked by a certain profundity1 doubtless belong to about the third century2 but the original form dates1 perhaps1 from before the beginning of the second century4 ,these are the cults and religions which have to be taken into account4 ,they are parallel to ,christianity in so far that they1 like it--though in general doubtless somewhat later--make their appearance in the ancient world as religions of redemption4 ,certain analogies are not to be denied4 ,the only question is how far these go1 and how far the ,mystery-religions really exercised an influence upon the views and the pg #ahi cultus-forms of the early1 and especially of the primitive1 church47#aef7 ,the first to examine the facts with any closeness was ,anrich in his work1 8,the ,ancient ,mysteries and their ,influence on ,christianity407#aeg7 ,he comes to the conclusion that both the ,pauline and the ,johannine views of ,christianity 8are to be understood as in the main original creations of the ,christian spirit on the basis of genuine ,judaism10 and if they show the influence of ,greek thought1 it is at most in a secondary fashion4 ,there is1 he asserts1 8no apparent reason to refer the views on baptism and the communion-meal which meet us in the two cases to influences of the latter character40 ,it is only at a later time that a real influence comes into question4 pg #aij ,this negative conclusion has since been much disputed4 ,that the author1 in accordance with the position of ,pauline scholarship at that period1 did not sufficiently take into account the 8physical0 element in the mystical doctrine of redemption and in the conception of baptism and the ,lord's ,supper1 and consequently does not give sufficient weight to the analogy between the religion of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles and that of the ,mysteries1 is certain4 ,but it ought to be recognised as equally certain that to many points he has given the prominence which they deserved1 and that the students of ,comparative ,religion would have in many respects done better if they had allowed their bold advance to be somewhat checked by his prudent warnings1 and had learned something from him in regard to the formulation of the problems4 ,a point which ought to be more clearly grasped than it has hitherto been1 in the investigation of ,paul's relation to the ,mystery-religions1 is that for purposes of comparison ,paulinism must be regarded as a distinct entity2 very often ,paul's doctrine has been included in the 8,religion of the ,new ,testament0 or taken together with the ,johannine and the ,early ,greek theology4 ,on this method only false results can be looked for4 ,paulinism1 and therein lies the special problem which it offers to scholarship1 is an original phenomenon which is wholly distinct from ,greek theology4 ,this implies1 too1 that only the literal sense of the language of the ,epistles must be considered1 and that it is not permissible to interpret it through the ,johannine theology1 as is almost always done4 ,it is nothing less than incredible that1 to take the most flagrant example1 philologists like ,dieterich and others in discussing ,paulinism1 always calmly talk about 8,re-birth10 although in the ,epistles which rank as certainly genuine1 this word and the corresponding verb never occur47#aeh7 ,that pg #aia many theologians fall into the same confusion is no excuse47#aei7 ,the surprising thing is precisely that ,paul1 when he is speaking of the transformation of the man into a new creature1 always makes use of the two words death and resurrection1 and describes the new thing that comes about as an already experienced resurrection1 without ever introducing the conception of re-birth which seems to lie so near at hand4 ,in this limitation lies his as yet unexplained peculiarity1 and therewith the problem of his relation to ,greek theology and1 in general1 to everything that can be called ,greek religious life4 ,the ,johannine doctrine1 that of the earlier ,greek ,fathers1 and the ,mystery-religions1 have this in common1 that they make use of the conception of re-birth4 ,in that1 they show themselves to be growths of the same soil1 and stand together over against ,paulinism4 ,any one who interprets the language of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles in accordance with the conception of re-birth1 has1 by the aid of the ,johannine theology1 first conformed it to the ,mystery-religions1 and has himself introduced the conception which forms the common basis4 ,the same procedure has been followed in regard to other points also4 ,the ,paulinism which the students of ,comparative ,religion have in view is mainly an artificial product which has been previously treated with the acids and reagents of ,greek theology4 ,another point which calls for close attention is the chronological question in connexion with the history of the ,mystery-religions4 ,it is from the beginning of the pg #aib second century onwards that these cults become widely extended in the ,roman empire4 ,it is only at this period--the worship of ,serapis as an artificial ,graeco-,egyptian creation is perhaps an exception--that they come under the influence of late ,greek religious thought and feeling1 which developed with the decline of the ,stoa1 and become transformed from imported cults into universal ,mystery-religions4 ,the dates and the inner course of this development are for us obscure4 ,so much1 however1 is certain1 that ,paul cannot have known the mystery-religions in the form in which they are known to us1 because in this fully-developed form they did not yet exist4 ,assuming the most favourable case1 that from his youth up he had had open eyes and ears for the heathen religions by which he was surrounded1 he can only have known the cults as they were in their uncompounded state1 not as what they passed into when they became filled with the ,greek yearning for redemption1 and mutually influenced one another4 ,considerations of this kind lead an authority like ,cumont to insist again and again upon the difficulties which stand in the way of assuming an influence of the ,mystery-cults on the earliest ,christianity47#afj7 ,especially does he hold it to be quite impossible that the ,mithra-religion should have had any point of contact with ,paul4 ,another point which should be mentioned is that those who are engaged in making these comparisons are rather apt to give the ,mystery-religions a greater definiteness and articulation of thought than they really possess1 and do not always give sufficient prominence to the distinction between their own hypothetical reconstruction and the medley of statements on which it is based4 ,almost all the popular writings fall into this kind of inaccuracy4 ,they manufacture out of the various fragments of information a kind of universal pg #aic ,mystery-religion which never actually existed1 least of all in ,paul's day47#afa7 ,in particular1 these works aim at getting hold of the idea of a 8,greek ,redeemer-god0 who might serve as an analogue to ,jesus ,christ4 ,no figure deserving of this designation occurs in any myth or in any ,mystery-religion2 it is created by a process of generalisation1 abstraction1 and reconstruction4 ,before using the phrase ,redeemer-,god1 one should remember that it means a ,god who for the sake of men came into the world1 died and rose again4 ,having realised that1 one may then try how far the ,mystery-religions supply anything corresponding to this--the only adequate--definition47#afb7 pg #aid ,it is also to be remarked that1 on the other hand1 there is no 8,redeemer-god0 in ,primitive ,christianity4 ,jesus is1 it cannot be sufficiently emphasised1 not thought of as a god1 but only as a heavenly being1 who is entrusted with the mission of bringing in the new world4 ,it was only later in the ,greek and ,gnostic theology that ,he was deified4 ,for ,paul he is 8,son of ,god0 in the simple1 ,old-,testament and ,apocalyptic sense4 ,we may further recall ,cumont's warning that analogies do not necessarily imply dependence4 8,resemblances10 he writes in the preface to his ,religions orientales1 8do not always imply imitation1 and the resemblance of views or usages must often be explained by community of origin1 not by any kind of borrowing40 ,in the same essay he points out that analogies are sometimes exaggerated1 if not actually created1 by the use of language chosen by the critic4 ,and ,dieterich expresses himself in the following terms against this mania for finding analogies4 8,it is10 he writes1 in his edition of the 8,mithra-liturgy10 8one of the worst faults of the science of ,comparative ,religion1 which is at present becoming constantly less cautious1 to overlook the most natural explanations1 not to say ignore and avoid them1 in order to have recourse to the most far-fetched1 and1 by the most eccentric methods1 to drag out analogies which1 to the unsophisticated eye1 are absolutely invisible40 ,these are the principles by which it has to be decided1 whether ,comparative ,religion has hunted down its game according to fair forest-law1 or whether its 8bag0 is poached4 ,the chief point to which research was at first directed was the discovery of relationships between the two sets of sacramental views4 ,it seemed so easy to discover common conceptions pg #aie here1 in view of the fact that in both cases cultus-meals and lustrations played a part and had a sacramental value4 ,but1 on closer examination1 it appears that it is very difficult to get beyond the simple fact of resemblance of a very general character4 ,dieterich1 in his commentary on the 8,mithra-liturgy10 is obliged to admit that we have very little exact knowledge regarding the sacred meals of the ,mystery-religions47#afc7 ,that they were supposed to convey supernatural powers is about the only thing that can be said with safety4 ,regarding the special conceptions and actions which made this eating and drinking sacramental no information has been preserved4 ,a comparison--not to speak of the establishment of a relation of dependence--is therefore impossible4 ,as soon as the students of ,comparative ,religion attempt to bring forward concrete facts1 they are obliged to leave the domain of the mystery-religions and draw their material from the primitive ,nature-religions4 ,here they find the primary conception--a man believes that he unites himself with the divinity by eating portions of him1 or--this is a secondary stage of the conception--by consuming some substance which has been marked out for this purpose as representative of the divinity and has had his name attached to it4 ,the following series of examples recurs in all the books3-- ,the dead ,pharaoh1 when he enters heaven1 causes his servants to seize1 bind1 and slay the gods1 and then devours them in order thus to absorb into himself their strength and wisdom1 and to become the strongest of all4 ,in ,egypt anyone who wishes to become truthful swallows a small image of the goddess of truth4 ,in the ,thracian orgiastic worship of ,dionysos ,sabazios pg #aif the sacrificial ox is torn to pieces by the participants while yet alive1 and swallowed raw4 ,a ,bedouin tribe in the ,sinai peninsula slaughters1 amid chanting1 a camel bound upon the altar1 and then eagerly drinks its blood and immediately devours the still bloody flesh half raw4 ,the ,aztecs1 before sacrificing and eating their prisoners of war1 give them the name of the deity to whom the sacrifice is offered4 ,now1 by the round-about way of this primitive conception the connexion between ,paul's cultus-feast and that of the ,mystery-religions--which cannot be directly shown--is supposed to be established4 ,it is suggested that this primitive conception of union with the god in the cultus1 by an act of eating performed with this special purpose1 after it had in the normal development of the various religions been transformed or completely laid aside1 came to life again in the mysticism of the ,mystery-religions and of ,paulinism4 ,mysticism1 according to ,dieterich's view1 draws its nourishment from the lowest strata of religious ideas4 ,the belief in the union of ,god and man which1 among the cultured classes1 was no longer anything but a metaphor1 rises up again from below with irrepressible power4 8,rising from below1 the old ideas acquire new power in the history of religion4 ,the revolution from beneath creates new religious life within the primeval1 indestructible forms407#afd7 ,that we have here a combination of two still unproved hypotheses is not sufficiently emphasised4 ,in the ,mystery-religions ancient cults certainly enter into direct union with higher religious conceptions1 so that the general presupposition on which this hypothesis of ,comparative ,religion is based is to a certain extent admissible4 ,but whether precisely this primitive conception of the mystic fellowship created by eating and drinking the god awakened to new life in them1 must remain an open question1 since our information does not suffice to prove pg #aig it4 ,of an eating of the god there is nowhere any mention4 ,and the primitive ,mysteries were not founded on this idea4 ,rather1 they consist essentially in the representation of the actions performed by the divinity1 and rest on the thought that the reproduction of these events will create in the participant some kind of corresponding reality4 ,it is a symbolism which is charged with a certain energy1 a drama which becomes real4 ,this being so1 the significance of the cultus-meal comes much less into view than that of the pattern actions which had to be further developed and interpreted4 ,if we possess so few typical statements about the ,mystery-feasts1 is it not partly because they had no very remarkable features and did not take a very exalted position in the hierarchy of cultus-acts8 ,if in the ,paris ,magic-papyrus we really possess a ,mithra-liturgy1 and if the inferences and explanations which ,dieterich has attached to it are sound1 then we have proof that in this developed cultus of the second century the highest sacrament was a pictorial mystery in which the 8mystes0 believed that he in some way experienced the heavenly journey of the soul which he1 along with others1 enacted4 ,in any case1 the assertion that in the ,mystery-religions the ancient cultus-conception of a union with the divinity effected by a meal1 came to life again1 goes far beyond what can be proved4 ,that union is1 even in its secondary forms1 always closely connected with a sacrificial feast1 and cannot properly be detached from it4 ,the sacrificial feast1 however1 is not a feature in the ,mystery-religions1 and so far as we can get a glimpse of their beginnings never had any supreme importance in them4 ,the interpretation of these cults on the analogy of the primitive religions of various races1 ancient or modern1 who devoured oxen1 camels1 or prisoners of war as substitutes for the divinity1 cannot therefore be established4 ,the vestiges of this ancient conception are to be found1 not in the ,mystery-religions1 but in the ordinary heathen sacrificial worship1 in cases where the sacrificial pg #aih feast has been retained in connexion with it4 ,here there certainly exists in some form or other the conception of a fellowship with the god set up by eating4 ,it is to be noted that ,paul in ,i ,cor4 x4 draws a parallel between the ,lord's ,supper1 which unites us to ,christ1 and these feasts4 ,how expositors have arrived at the idea of making him refer here to the cultus-meal of the ,mystery-religions is quite inexplicable4 ,the hypothesis that the earliest ,christian conception of the ,lord's ,supper in some way represented the surviving influence of an ancient cultus idea1 is at first sight much more plausible than the corresponding hypothesis in the case of the ,mystery-religions4 ,at any rate the existence of the desiderated fact is here proved4 ,the conception of the sacramental eating stands in the centre of the belief2 by this act1 fellowship with a divine ,being who has died and risen again is maintained2 and what is eaten and drunk is brought into relation to the person of ,christ1 inasmuch as it is called1 in some sense or other1 ,his body and blood4 ,nevertheless in the decisive point the alleged facts break down4 ,paul knows nothing of an eating and drinking of the body and blood of the ,lord4 ,when ,dieterich gives it as the ,apostle's view that 8,christ is eaten and drunk by the believers and is thereby in them10 and adds that nothing further need be said about the matter1 what he has done is1 instead of taking ,paul's words as they stand1 to interpret ,paul through ,john--and through a misunderstanding of ,john at that4 ,it is not of an eating and drinking the body and blood of ,christ that ,paul speaks in the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians2 he always speaks only of eating and drinking the bread and the cup4 ,he assumes1 no doubt1 that this somehow or other maintains a communion with the body and blood of ,christ 7,i ,cor4 x4 #af-ag71 and that anyone who partakes unworthily sins against the body and blood of the ,lord 7,i ,cor4 xi4 #bg74 ,he quotes1 too1 the words pg #aii in which the ,lord1 on the historic night1 after the ,supper1 speaks of bread and wine as ,his body and ,his blood4 ,but the conception which seems inevitably to arise out of this1 that the participant partakes of the body and blood of the ,lord1 is not found in him4 ,the recognition of this fact does not make his sacramental doctrine any clearer4 ,it is a question of fulfilling the demand of sound scholarship that we should respect the text1 and not interpret it on the basis of inferences which the ,apostle neither drew nor could draw4 ,his fundamental view that the feast effects or maintains fellowship with the exalted ,christ is perfectly clear4 ,what is not clear is how he brought this view into relation with the historic words of ,jesus about the bread and wine as being ,his body and blood1 and interpreted it in accordance therewith4 ,did it arise out of these words1 or did he receive it from some other quarter and afterwards make use of it for the interpretation of the historic words8 ,the difficulty lies in the fact that for ,paul the body and blood of the historic ,christ no longer exist1 and that1 on the other hand1 while the glorified ,christ has1 indeed1 a body1 it is not a body through which blood flows and which is capable of being consumed on earth4 ,to speak of the body and blood of ,christ is1 from the stand-point of the ,apostle's doctrine1 an absurdity4 ,he cannot in his doctrine of the ,supper bring the historic words into harmony with his ,christology1 and yet is obliged to do so4 ,the compromise remains for us obscure4 ,it is certain1 however1 that neither he nor the primitive ,christian community held that the body and blood of ,christ was partaken of in the ,supper4 ,that is evident from the fact that the historic words of ,jesus did not form part of the service1 and this is the case down to a later date4 ,no kind of consecration of the elements as the body and blood of the ,lord occurred in the liturgy4 ,if there is anything which may be considered as a definite result of recent research1 it is that the view of primitive and early ,christianity regarding the ,lord's pg #bjj ,supper was not arrived at by way of inference from the words of ,jesus about bread and wine and flesh and blood1 but1 strange as it may appear1 arose from a different quarter4 ,the ,church's celebration was not shaped by the 8words of institution0 at the historic ,supper2 it was the latter1 on the contrary1 which were explained in accordance with the significance of the celebration4 ,it is a no less serious error when ,dieterich asserts that the ,gospel of ,john in chapter vi4 proclaims the ,pauline doctrine 8only in a still more corporeal fashion40 ,in the ,evangelist1 bread and wine are--as is evident to anyone who will take the trouble to acquaint himself with his presuppositions in the spiritually related works of ,ignatius1 ,justin1 and ,tertullian--not the body and blood of ,christ1 but the flesh and blood of the ,son of ,man4 ,in this change in the expression lies the logic of the thought4 ,the elements of the ,lord's ,supper perpetuate the appearance of the ,son of ,man in the world inasmuch as they1 as being the flesh and blood of that historic ,personality1 possess the capacity of being vehicles of the ,spirit4 ,as a combination of matter and ,spirit which can be communicated to the corporeity of men1 they execute judgment4 ,the elect can in the sacrament become partakers of that spiritual substance1 and can thus be prepared for the resurrection2 others who are not from above1 and are not capable of receiving the ,spirit1 receive simply earthly food and drink1 and fall a prey to corruption4 ,therefore the ,evangelist makes the ,lord close ,his discourse about the eating and drinking of the flesh and blood of the ,son of ,man with the words1 8,it is the spirit that giveth life40 ,this is the language of the early ,greek theology1 which explains the working of the sacraments by the combination of the ,spirit with matter which takes place therein4 ,the ,fourth ,evangelist projects this later view back into the discourses of the historic ,jesus1 and makes ,him prophetically announce that after ,his exaltation a time will come when the ,spirit which is now in ,him will unite itself pg #bja with the bread which1 by the miracle of the loaves1 has just been raised in a significant way out of the category of simple earthly elements1 and will subsequently manifest its power in preparing men for the resurrection4 ,in this sense1 as vehicles of the ,spirit1 the elements carry on the manifestation of the ,son of ,man2 in this sense it is possible to speak of eating and drinking ,his flesh and blood1 and to regard this as necessary to life4 ,but all this is not thought of 8corporeally0 in the nave sense of an eating and drinking of the body and blood of ,jesus1 but can only be understood on the basis of the doctrine of the working of the ,spirit in the sacraments4 ,apart from the ,spirit1 there is in the ,supper no body and no blood of ,christ4 ,that is for the ,fourth ,evangelist so much a fixed datum that he is obliged to omit the account of the historic ,last ,supper of ,jesus with ,his disciples4 ,that the ,lord could have so designated the bread which was eaten and the wine which was drunk on that occasion1 is for him unthinkable4 ,as long as ,he ,himself is alive there is certainly no ,spirit2 it is only on ,his exaltation that the ,spirit is liberated from the historic personality of the ,son of ,man and becomes separated from the ,logos as the ,holy ,spirit1 in order in the sacraments to lead a new existence--and this time an existence capable of being communicated to others4 ,from this moment onwards bread and wine become1 in the ,church's celebration of the sacrament1 the flesh and blood of the ,son of ,man in the sense explained above4 ,previously this had by no means been the case1 any more than there had been a ,christian baptism which effected regeneration4 ,the ,spirit who associates ,himself with the water and produces this effect1 did not as yet exist in this form of being4 ,jesus cannot1 therefore1 on this view1 have baptized1 any more than ,he can celebrate the ,supper with ,his disciples4 ,therefore1 the ,fourth ,evangelist1 in order to guard against possible misunderstandings1 definitely asserts that even if the disciples did baptize--a mere baptism with water pg #bjb which is incapable of working regeneration--the ,master ,himself made no use of water in this fashion47#afe7 ,his task consisted only in marking out water for this use by the miracle at ,cana of ,galilee1 and1 by ,his discourses about the water of life and regeneration by water and the ,spirit1 pointing men's minds to the thought that in the future1 water1 in association with the ,spirit1 would be necessary to life and blessedness4 ,in that day 8out of his body shall flow rivers of living water0 because the ,spirit will be present 7,john vii4 #cg-ci74 ,the students of ,comparative ,religion are so far in the right as against ordinary theology that they make an end of the unintelligent spiritualising of the ,johannine doctrine1 and try to give due weight to the 8physical0 element in its conception of redemption4 ,they are mistaken1 however1 in regarding this 8physical0 element as something primitive1 and in thinking to explain it by analogies drawn from the primitive nature-religions4 ,the ,fourth ,gospel represents the views of a speculative religious materialism which concerns itself with the problem of matter and spirit1 and the permeation of matter by ,spirit1 and endeavours to interpret the manifestation and the personality of ,jesus1 the action of the sacraments and the possibility of the resurrection of the elect1 all on the basis of one and the same fundamental conception4 ,according to this theory1 ,christ came into the world in order to accomplish in ,his own ,person the as yet non-existent union of the ,spirit with the fleshly substance of humanity4 ,in consequence of this act the elect among mankind can in the future become partakers of the ,spirit4 ,jesus ,himself1 however1 cannot as yet impart this to them either as the ,spirit of knowledge--that is why the disciples are portrayed as so 8unintelligent0--or as the ,spirit of life4 ,the ,spirit always needs1 in the world of sense1 to pg #bjc be connected with material vehicles4 ,he cannot work directly1 in the sense of communicating ,himself from ,jesus to believers4 ,he must1 therefore1 in order to enter into the elect1 be received by them in combination with some material element4 ,the material media chosen for this purpose are made known by ,jesus by means of miracles and by references to the future4 ,the nave--and unhistorical--conception that ,jesus instituted the sacraments is not recognised by the ,johannine gnosis4 ,according to it ,he did not establish them1 but created and predicted them4 ,by ,his incarnation the possibility of the union of humanity and ,spirit upon which the working of the sacraments depends1 is provided4 ,by ,his action in regard to the food and wine and the words ,he spoke in connexion therewith1 ,he pointed to a mystery which was to be revealed in connexion with these substances2 by ,his death1 resurrection1 and exaltation ,he abolished ,his earthly mode of existence and set the ,spirit free for the new method of working1 in virtue of which ,he was able to prepare men for the resurrection4 ,jesus1 according to this view1 came into the world to introduce the era of effectual sacraments4 ,it was thus that ,he became the ,redeemer4 ,the teaching of the ,johannine theology1 therefore1 rests upon the two principles1 that the ,spirit can only work upon men in combination with matter1 and that it only becomes present in this state as a consequence of the exaltation of the ,lord4 ,anyone who has once recognised these presuppositions will give up once for all the search for a primitive element which is to be explained from the nature-religions4 ,on the other hand1 it is certain that ,christianity here presents itself as the most highly developed ,greek ,mystery-religion which it is possible to conceive4 ,now for ,paul again4 ,anyone who ascribes to him the conception of a sacramental eating and drinking of the body and blood of ,christ does violence to his words4 pg #bjd ,but admitting that he really thought in this way1 that would prove nothing4 ,it would first need to be shown that it really was a cultus-conception drawn from the primitive nature-religions which came to life again in him4 ,now1 for the ,mystery-religions the necessary presuppositions might appear to be present1 since they arise out of ancient cults which sprouted and grew up again in later times4 ,paul1 however1 is a ,jew1 and even as a believer in ,christ he stands1 in spite of his polemic against the law1 wholly and solely on the basis of the absolute1 transcendent ,jewish conception of ,god4 ,any relation on his part to the nature-cults cannot be proved and ought not to be assumed4 ,by what wind were the seeds of this primitive conception wafted to his mind8 ,and how could they suddenly sprout and grow in the stony soil of a ,jewish heart8 ,the ,apostle would certainly be the first and the only ,jewish theologian to fall under the spell of the primitive conception of eating the god6 ,and where was such a conception at that time to be found8 ,but what matter such prosaic considerations when it is a question of great ideas1 of ideas1 moreover1 fathered by ,comparative ,religion8 ,when ,heitmller in the spring of #aijc appeared before the members of the ,clergy ,theological ,society7#aff7 in ,hanover to give them the latest information about baptism and the ,lord's ,supper1 he led them abroad1 after an introduction on the 8physico-hyperphysical0 in ,paul1 first to the ,aztecs1 then in the clouds of night1 by the torch's gleam1 to the ,thracian mountain sides1 and thence to ,sinai47#afg7 ,and when they had assisted at the slaughtering and devouring of the prisoners of war1 the ox1 and the camel1 he expressed himself to the following effect3 8,little as the of ,paul might seem to have in common with these 4 4 4 proceedings1 and pg #bje loth as we at first are even to name the ,lord's ,supper in the same breath with them1 as little is it to me a matter of doubt that1 when looked at from the point of view of ,comparative ,religion1 the ,lord's ,supper of primitive ,christianity has the closest connexion with them4 ,those pictures supply the background from which the ,lord's ,supper stands out2 they show us the world of ideas to which the ,lord's ,supper belongs in its most primitive1 and therefore perspicuous1 form40 ,entering more into detail1 this 8,hylic07#afh7 of the ,comparative method explains that the primeval concrete and sensuous conception of the communio established by partaking of the flesh and blood of the animal in which the divinity itself dwelt1 comes to light again in the primitive ,christian ,lord's ,supper1 at the highest stage of the development of religion1 and under this new form acquires a new life47#afi7 ,it would be precarious1 he further observes1 in view of the fragmentary condition of the sources to attempt to prove a direct dependence on definite phenomena--on the cultus feast of the ,mithra-mysteries1 for example3 8,it will be safer to point to the general characteristics of the time1 which abounded with ideas of that kind4 ,the infant ,christianity lived in an atmosphere which1 if ,i may be allowed the expression1 was impregnated with ,mystery-bacilli1 and grew up on a soil which had been fertilised and made friable by the decay and intermixture of the most various religions1 and pg #bjf was specially adapted to favour the upgrowth of seeds and spores which had been long in the ground40 ,now1 there is no such thing as an atmosphere impregnated with bacteria4 ,medical science has long since shown that this conception rests on an error1 the air being practically free from germs4 ,in theology it is more difficult to get rid of fantastic imaginations1 since historical proofs are only available for those who are capable of thinking historically4 ,it must not be overlooked that the eating and drinking which establishes communion with ,christ is only one side of the ,pauline conception of the ,supper4 ,alongside of it there exists the other1 which sees in the feast a confession of faith in the death and the parousia of the ,lord1 and is quite as significant as the former4 ,it is--in ,i ,cor4 xi4--developed in connexion with the repetition of the historic words of ,jesus2 on it is based the argument that a careless partaking is a transgression against the body of the ,lord4 ,and on the basis of this conception1 cases of illness and death in the church are to be understood as a warning chastisement pointing to the ,last ,judgment4 ,this conception must be somehow or other eschatologically conditioned4 ,the communion which is established in the ,lord's ,supper is a communion of the eagerly-waiting man with the coming ,lord of ,glory4 ,the only thing which remains obscure is how this is brought about4 ,the confession of faith in the death and parousia which is combined with the act of eating and drinking does not suffice to explain this further effect4 ,further1 it remains inherently obscure how by eating and drinking the dying and return of the ,lord can be shown forth1 especially as the ,early ,christian celebration consisted only in a common meal1 and in no way reproduced1 as present-day celebrations do1 the actions and words of ,jesus at the ,last ,supper4 ,what are the results to which the students of ,comparative ,religion have to point in regard to the ,lord's ,supper8 ,they are obliged at the outset to give up the pg #bjg attempt to explain it from the ,mystery-religions1 or even to point out in the latter any very close analogies4 ,in place of this they attempt to make intelligible both the meal which formed part of the mystery-cults1 and that of ,pauline ,christianity1 as growths which1 from scattered seeds of ancient conceptions of the cultus-eating of the divinity1 spring up from the soil of syncretism in two different places at the same time4 ,neither in the one case nor the other1 however1 can they render this even approximately probable4 ,up to the present1 therefore1 neither a direct nor an indirect connexion between the cultus-meal of ,paul and those of the ,mystery-religions has been shown4 ,the only thing which is certain is that in both cases a cultus-meal existed4 ,about that of the ,mysteries we know almost nothing2 about that which ,paul presupposes we have more information1 but not such as to enable us at once to understand it4 ,the question regarding baptism took from the first a simpler form1 since the hypothesis of a renascence of primitive cultus-conceptions has not to be considered4 ,both ,paul and the ,mystery-religions attach a religious significance to washings4 ,that1 however1 does not suffice to establish a peculiarity which would connect them together1 since the attachment of this significance to lustration is bound up with the elemental symbolism of cleansing and is found more or less in all religions4 ,the real question is whether ,paulinism and the ,mystery-religions1 when they go beyond the most general notions1 and advance from the symbolic to the effectively sacramental1 follow the same lines and present the same views4 ,once again1 ,paul's view is the more fully1 that of the ,mystery-religions the less fully known4 ,developed baptismal doctrines and rites seem only to have been present in the ,egyptian cults4 ,these distinguish between the bath of purification and baptism1 the latter consisting pg #bjh in a sprinkling with a few drops of a consecrated and consecrating fluid47#agj7 ,the advance beyond the idea of purification1 where it is to be observed1 moves in the direction of the idea of ,re-birth1 ,regeneration4 ,a clear formulation of this developed view--comparable in definiteness with the ,early ,christian reference to the 8bath of regeneration0 7#aga7 --does not occur4 ,the thought remains hovering between purification and renewal4 ,that is as much as to say that1 so far as our information goes1 no typical points of contact with ,paulinism present themselves4 ,the ,apostle implies a baptism in the name of a divine person4 ,of a baptism performed in the name of ,osiris1 ,attis1 or ,mithra we know nothing1 though no doubt the assumption naturally suggests itself that the lustrations and baptisms practised in these cults were considered to be at the same time acts of confession of faith in the divinity with whose worship they were associated4 ,but this character was by no means so distinctly stamped on them as was the case in ,christian baptism--as is1 indeed1 readily intelligible4 ,in the ,mystery-religions the confession of the god is naturally implied2 in ,christianity there is the special confession of faith in the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,to this there was nothing analogous4 ,as regards the utterance of the name of the divinity and the magical efficacy attaching thereto according to ancient conceptions1 many illustrations can be adduced from ,comparative ,religion4 ,but the really important point1 the association of the utterance of the name with a baptismal rite1 cannot be directly shown to have existed in the ,mystery-religions47#agb7 pg #bji ,in order to arrive at his sacramental view ,paul does not follow the natural method of advancing by way of the thought of purification to that of renewal by regeneration1 but follows a different route1 which leads him to an estimate of it that has nothing to do with the fundamental conception of purification1 and therefore remains without analogy in the ,mystery-religions4 ,this is a fact of great significance4 ,the ,mystery-religions speak1 as ,paul also does1 of the pneuma and its workings1 but the possession of the pneuma is never represented as an immediate and inevitable consequence of baptism4 ,with the ,mystery-religions are associated speculations about the renewal of man's being1 represented as taking place in regeneration1 which they bring into some kind of relation1 closer or more remote1 with baptism4 ,but when ,paul speaks of the new creature which comes into being in the sacrament1 the thought of regeneration does not for him come into view1 for he makes no use of it at all4 ,instead of that he asserts in ,rom4 vi4 that in baptism there is an experience of death and resurrection in fellowship with ,christ1 from which results newness of life and the new ethic associated therewith4 ,how the act and the result are logically connected he does not explain4 ,he is content to place them side by side4 pg #baj ,so far as we know1 there exists in the ,mystery-religions no analogue to this dying and rising again effected solely by the use of water4 ,to interpret ,rom4 vi41 as ,dieterich does1 as referring to a spiritual death and 8new birth0 is not permissible1 since the text says not a word about that4 ,the post-,pauline theology1 that is the ,johannine and ,early ,greek theology1 explain baptism as regeneration1 and seek to find a logical basis for this effect in the doctrine that the ,spirit unites with the water as the generating power4 ,paul has nothing of all this4 ,nor does he show any knowledge of the idea that ,christian baptism arose out of the baptism of ,jesus as an imitative reproduction of it4 ,he never1 in fact1 mentions the baptism of ,jesus4 ,nowhere does he suggest that in baptism the new man1 the 8,child of ,god10 is born in the believer1 as ,jesus was in this act raised to ,his ,messianic office4 ,there is in fact no evidence from the earlier literature which suggests the existence of views of that kind regarding the origin and significance of ,christian baptism4 ,in early ,christianity it is as far from being an imitative reproduction of the baptism of ,jesus as the ,church's ,lord's ,supper was from being an imitative reproduction of the historic ,last ,supper4 ,the conception of an 8imitative reproduction0 was first introduced by modern theology4 ,to cite the taurobolium as an analogue of ,paul's baptism1 with the death and resurrection which it effects1 is not admissible4 ,in the first place1 the taurobolium is a baptism of blood2 in the next place it is closely connected with a sacrifice2 in the third place1 the burial and rising again are actually represented4 ,the sacramental significance is thus derived from the many-sided symbolism4 ,in ,paul there is no trace of all this4 8,plain water0 effects everything4 ,one point in regard to which great hopes had been placed on the ,mystery-religions was the solution of the enigma of ,i ,cor4 xv4 #bi4 ,wernle regarded it as self-evident that the ,apostle in permitting and approving pg #baa baptism for the dead had allowed himself to become infected by the heathen superstition of his ,corinthian converts1 and took him to task for this lapse in his book on the 8,beginnings of ,christianity40 ,in his zeal he forgot to enquire whether the heathen had any superstition of the kind47#agc7 ,those who tried to supply this omission did not meet with much success4 ,the heathen showed themselves better than their reputation and less 8superstitious0 than the ,christians6 ,of a baptism for the dead1 or anything at all of this nature1 they show no trace4 ,failing more relevant evidence1 some have quoted ,plato1 who in the ,republic 7ii4 #cfd-e7 makes ,adeimantos say1 appealing in confirmation to the ,orphic writings1 that by means of offerings and festivals1 atonement and purification for past misdeeds is effected for whole towns as well as for single individuals1 for the living and also for the dead4 ,this passage1 however1 does not refer at all to personal dedications with a view to 8renewal10 such as the baptism practised in the ,mystery-religions and in ,christianity1 but to expiatory sacrifices in the ancient ,greek sense47#agd7 ,in the ,taurobolia1 representation of one living person by another is supposed to have been possible1 but there is no mention of a representation of the dead47#age7 pg #bab ,the baptism of the dead which is attested by a papyrus is not a baptism for the dead47#agf7 ,that living persons went through the ceremonies of initiation for the dead is not known4 ,thus baptism for the dead has not1 so far at least1 proved susceptible of explanation from heathen sources1 but must be regarded as a peculiarity of ,christianity6 ,the outcome of the study of the sacraments from the point of view of ,comparative ,religion is a very curious one4 ,the ,apostle thinks sacramentally2 in fact his doctrine is much more 8mysterious0 than that of the ,mystery-religions4 ,but the nature of the sacramental conception is quite different in him from what it is in them2 it is as if they had grown up on different soils4 ,the difference relates both to the conception of the supernatural working of the sacraments1 and also to the position which the sacramental element takes in the doctrine as a whole4 ,in the ,mystery-religions the sacramental idea arises by way of an intensification and materialisation of the symbolic4 ,the act effects what it represents4 ,the result can in a sense be logically understood when once the thought is grasped that the world of appearance and the world of reality stand in mysterious connexion with one another4 ,in ,paul we have an unmediated and naked notion of sacrament such as is nowhere else to be met with4 ,symbolism is no doubt involved in the most general significance of the act4 ,in this sense baptism is a 8cleansing0 and a 8consecration107#agg7 and the sacred feast establishes pg #bac fellowship among the partakers4 ,but the assertions which go beyond this show not the faintest connexion with the outward significance of the rite4 ,contact with the water is supposed to effect a dying and rising again with ,christ1 a partaking in ,his mystical body1 and the possession of the ,spirit4 ,the eating and drinking at the ,lord's ,supper is a confession of faith in the death and the parousia of ,christ1 and is also fellowship with ,him4 ,the sacramental is therefore non-rational4 ,the act and its effect are not bound together by religious logic1 but laid one upon the other and nailed together4 ,with that is connected the fact that in ,paul we find the most prosaic conception imaginable of the opus operatum4 ,in the ,mystery-religions there is a mysterious procedure surrounded by imposing accessories4 ,the impressive appeal of symbolism is brought to bear in every part4 ,every detail is significant1 and lays hold upon the attention4 ,in ,paul everything is flat and colourless4 ,while some of his references might suggest the impression that his conception of ,christianity bore some kind of analogy to the ,mystery-religions1 yet as a whole it entirely lacks the corresponding atmosphere4 ,there is nothing of the effective mise en scne characteristic of the ,greek sacramental beliefs4 ,how lacking in solemnity must have been the method of celebrating the ,lord's ,supper1 when it could degenerate into an ugly and disorderly exhibition of gluttony6 ,how little does the ,apostle think of the external act of baptism1 when he founds a church in ,corinth and himself performs the rite only in the case of one or two individuals67#agh7 ,he preaches sacraments1 but does not feel himself to be a mystagogue2 rather1 he retains the simplicity in regard to forms of worship which belongs to the ,jewish spirit4 ,there were no long preparations for the cultus ceremonies1 and nothing is known of a distinction between higher and lower grades of initiation1 such as form an pg #bad essential part of the ,mystery-religions4 ,the first ceremony of initiation confers at once final perfection4 ,among those who are admitted there prevails the most complete equality4 ,the conception of the 8mystes0 does not exist4 ,in the ,mystery-religions everything centres in the sacred ceremonies4 ,they dominate thought1 feeling1 and will4 ,if they are removed the whole religion collapses4 ,in ,paulinism it is otherwise4 ,the doctrine of redemption is no doubt closely connected with the sacraments1 but the latter are not its be-all and end-all4 ,if baptism and the ,lord's ,supper are taken away the doctrine is not destroyed1 but stands unmoved4 ,it looks as though the weight of the building rested upon these two pillars1 but in reality it does not totter even if these supports are withdrawn4 ,the ,johannine and the early ,greek doctrine are conceived as real ,mystery-religions4 ,the ,fourth ,evangelist and ,ignatius know no other redemption than that which is bound up with the sacraments4 ,in ,paul the redemption can be thought of apart from them1 since the whole mystical doctrine of fellowship with ,christ rests upon the single conception of faith4 ,nevertheless he allows it to be closely bound up with the external ceremonies1 and seems to have no consciousness of the fact that this connexion is unnecessary and illogical4 ,the remarkable duality in ,paulinism lies1 therefore1 in the fact that the sacramental idea is intensified to an extreme and unintelligible degree1 while at the same time the necessity of the sacred ceremonies does not logically result from the system as a whole1 as this would lead us to expect4 ,the sacramental views of the ,apostle have thus nothing primitive about them1 but are rather of a 8theological0 character4 ,paul connects his mystical doctrine of redemption with ceremonies which are not specially designed with reference to it4 ,it is from that fact1 and not from a specially deep love for ,mysteries1 pg #bae that the exaggeratedly sacramental character of his view of baptism and the ,lord's ,supper results4 ,it is in the last resort a question of externalisation1 not of intensification4 ,it is therefore useless to ransack the history of religions for analogies to his conceptions4 ,it has none to offer1 for the case is unique4 ,the problem lies wholly within the sphere of early ,christian history1 and represents only a particular aspect of the question of ,paul's relation to primitive ,christianity4 ,the fact is1 he did not introduce the sacramental view into the sacred ceremonies1 but found already existing a baptism and a ,lord's ,supper which guaranteed salvation on grounds which were intelligible from early ,christian doctrine4 ,he1 however1 transformed the primitive view of salvation into the mystical doctrine of the dying and rising again in fellowship with ,christ4 ,since the connexion between redemption and the sacraments was given a priori1 he draws the inference that the sacraments effect precisely that wherein1 according to his gnosis1 the inner essence of redemption consists4 ,how far they are appropriate to the effect which1 on the ground of his mystical doctrine1 he holds to take place1 does not for him come into question4 ,in the sacraments the believer becomes partaker in salvation4 ,therefore1 he concludes1 in them that happens which constitutes redemption1 namely1 the dying and rising again with ,christ4 ,paul therefore takes the sacraments by storm4 ,he does not theorise about the ceremony1 but ascribes to it without more ado the postulated effect4 ,that is not a procedure which could have been followed either by a ,greek or by a modern mind4 ,paulinism is thus a theological system with sacraments1 but not a ,mystery-religion4 ,this may be confirmed by a further observation4 ,the ,apostle occupies a strongly predestinarian stand-point4 ,those who are 8called0 inevitably receive salvation2 those who are not1 can never in any way obtain it4 ,there pg #baf is no analogue to this in the ,mystery-religions4 ,they can only conceive of election in the sense and to the extent of holding that there is a calling and predestination to the receiving of the initiation which confers immortality4 ,and there are actually some beginnings of such a conception47#agi7 ,but ,pauline predestination is quite different4 ,it is absolute1 and seems inevitably to abolish the necessity and meaning of the sacraments4 ,anyone who belongs to the number of the elect becomes ipso facto partaker of the resurrection4 ,at the end of all things a great company from the generations of long-past times will arise to life without ever having received baptism or partaken of the ,lord's ,supper4 ,that being so1 what becomes of the sacraments8 ,in what respect are they necessary8 ,a good deal of energy has been expended in seeking analogies from other religions for the ,corinthian baptism for the dead2 it would really have been much more to the point to enquire why baptism for the dead was considered desirable4 ,if the dead are among the elect1 they have no need of it2 if not1 they could not have inherited life1 even if they had received the sacrament during their sojourn on earth4 ,to what end1 then1 is this baptism for the dead8 ,the most important point to notice is that everywhere in the ,pauline sacraments the eschatological interest breaks through4 ,they effect1 not re-birth1 but resurrection4 ,that which in the near future is to become visible reality1 they make in the present invisibly real by anticipation4 ,the ,greek ,mysteries are timeless4 ,they reach back to primitive antiquity1 and they profess to be able to manifest their power in all generations4 ,in ,paul the sacraments have temporal boundaries4 ,their power is derived from the events of the last times4 ,they put believers in the same position as the ,lord1 in that they pg #bag cause them to experience a resurrection a few world-moments before the time1 even though this does not in any way become manifest4 ,it is a precursory phenomenon of the approaching end of the world4 ,separated from the eschatology1 the ,pauline sacraments would become meaningless and ineffectual4 ,they are confined to the time between the resurrection of ,jesus and ,his parousia1 when the dead shall arise4 ,their power depends on the present1 and also on the future1 fact4 ,in this sense they are 8historically0 conditioned4 ,while therefore in the ,mystery-religions and in the ,johannine theology the sacraments work of themselves1 in ,paul they draw their energy from a universal world-event1 from which it is1 as it were1 transmitted4 ,it now becomes clear why the ,apostle cannot describe as a 8,re-birth0 the condition brought about by baptism4 ,the renewal consists in the fact that the coming resurrection-life is1 for the short period which remains of the present course of the world1 received by anticipation4 ,re-birth1 on the other hand1 implies an uneschatological system of thought in which the individual reckons more or less on a normal span of life1 for which he seeks an inner divine being which shall subsist alongside of or above the earthly4 ,it is only at a period when eschatology is falling into the background that the ,greek conception of re-birth1 such as is associated with the ,mysteries1 can supersede the old mystico-eschatological conception of the proleptic resurrection4 ,accordingly it presently appears in ,justin and the ,fourth ,evangelist4 ,from that point onwards baptism brings re-birth4 ,in ,paul it produced only an antedated dying and rising again4 ,the sacramental conception of the ,apostle is therefore derived from an entirely different world of thought from that of the ,mystery-religions4 ,it is a different question1 however1 in what relation his 8physical07#ahj7 mysticism in itself1 apart from the pg #bah sacraments1 bears to the world of ideas associated with the ,greek ,mystery-religions4 ,to this question ,reitzenstein1 the 8pneumatic07#aha7 among the students of ,comparative ,religion1 devotes a careful study4 ,he avoids conventional catchwords and rash conclusions1 and endeavours to discover the conceptions and ideas which are common to both1 and to follow them out in detail4 ,with this purpose he brings together everything which he can find in the language of the ,mysteries and the ,hermetic literature relating to such ideas as 8service0 and 8military service0 of ,god1 8justification10 8pre-existence10 8gnosis10 8spirit10 8revelation10 8pneumatic10 8heavenly garment10 and 8transformation40 ,for the first time the material for a study of ,paul from the point of view of ,comparative ,religion is brought together with a certain completeness1 and the impression which it makes is very powerful4 ,the theologian who reads these passages with an open mind will be lifted out of the ruts of conventional interpretation4 ,it is as if a flood of new thought had streamed into the channels of ordinary exegesis1 whether critical or otherwise1 and swept away the accumulations of rubble4 ,whether all the explanations are sound1 and whether many expressions1 such as e4g4 8servant0 and 8prisoner0 of ,christ1 and imagery--for example1 that taken from the military life--could not be just as well explained directly as by the roundabout way of their use in the ,mystery-religions1 may be left an open question4 ,what is certain is1 that ,reitzenstein has made an end of the cut-and-dried conception that ,paul simply translated his theology from ,jewish thought into ,greek language1 and proves that pg #bai he knows the scope and exact application of the words of the religious vocabulary1 and along with the terms and expressions has taken over suggestions for the presentation of his ideas4 ,without the possibilities and presuppositions supplied by the religious language of the ,greek ,orient it would have been more difficult for him to create his mysticism4 ,he found in existence a tone-system in which the modulations necessary for the development of his theme offered themselves for his disposal47#ahb7 ,reitzenstein remarks with much justice that particular words and phrases do not of themselves prove very much1 but that what is really of importance is the connexion of the passages4 ,are there sets of ideas in ,paul which are allied with those of the ,mystery-religions8 ,what realities stand in the two cases behind the references to the mystical doctrine of the miraculous new creation of the man while in his living body8 ,the description and paraphrasing which commentaries and ,new ,testament theologies bestow upon the ,apostle's assertions do not suffice for ,reitzenstein4 ,he wants to understand and come to grips with the thought1 and to arouse in others the same discontent4 ,the possibility that the ,pauline mysticism might be capable of being explained from within appears to him excluded4 ,with all the reserve which he imposes upon himself he nevertheless believes himself to have proved that the central conception of 8the deification and pg #bbj transfiguration of the living man is derived from the ,mysteries40 ,the conviction of a miracle of transformation taking place in his own person1 is1 he pronounces1 not ,jewish4 ,therefore he thinks that ,paul represents a kind of ancient ,jewish prophetism modified by the influence of the ,hellenistic ,mystery beliefs4 ,the 8history of the development0 of ,paul's thought he conceives as follows3 ,the influence of ,greek mysticism1 with which he had already a literary acquaintance1 helped to prepare the way for that momentous inner experience which eventually caused a rupture between the ,apostle and his ancestral religion4 8,this influence10 he thinks1 8increased in the two years of solitary struggle for the working out of a new religion40 ,a renewed study of ,greek religious literature became necessary 8from the moment when the ,apostle dedicated himself to1 and began to prepare for1 his mission to the 40 ,by the method which he applies1 ,reitzenstein is necessarily driven to adopt this far-reaching view4 ,he makes no effort to take into the field of his argument the ,late-,jewish eschatology1 as preserved in the post-,danielic literature1 in the discourses of ,jesus1 and the ,apocalypses of ,baruch and ,ezra4 ,whatever is not self-explanatory1 and cannot be explained from the ,old ,testament1 is1 according to him1 derived from the world of thought associated with the ,mystery-religions4 ,the proper procedure would really have been to examine the conceptions drawn from apocalyptic thought and those from the ,mystery-religions independently1 and then to decide which of them rendered possible the better explanation4 ,the best way would have been for ,reitzenstein to discuss the matter step by step with ,kabisch1 who had sought to derive the fundamental conceptions of the ,pauline mysticism from eschatology4 ,the total neglect of eschatology forces him to some curious conclusions4 ,after showing1 in opposition to a canonised confusion of thought1 that there is not the slightest connexion between ,paul's doctrine of the first pg #bba and second ,adam in ,i ,cor4 xv4 #de-di and ,philo's theory about the two accounts of the creation in ,genesis1 since in that case the pneumatic heavenly man would be the first1 and the psychic earthly man the second17#ahc7 he comes to the conclusion that the view set forth in ,i ,corinthians must have underlying it 8the belief in a god #8,anthropos1'0 who came to be identified with ,christ4 ,this hypothesis naturally suggests itself to ,reitzenstein1 because in ,poimandres he believes himself to have discovered a myth about ,anthropos47#ahd7 ,but is this1 even if it were held to be proved1 of such a character that the ,pauline conception of the first and second ,adam could without more ado be derived from it8 ,is the complicated hypothesis necessary8 ,paul's conception can be explained without the least difficulty on eschatological grounds4 ,the first ,adam brought mankind under the dominion of death4 ,christ is the ,second ,adam because ,he by ,his resurrection becomes the founder of a new race1 which in virtue of that which has taken place in ,him becomes partaker of an imperishable life1 and acquires a claim to the future possession of the pneumatic heavenly body which ,he already bears4 ,the ,second ,man comes from heaven because the pre-existent ,christ1 in order to become the founder of the 8humanity of the resurrection10 must appear upon earth and assume fleshly corporeity4 ,he is 8life-giving spirit0 because the pneuma which goes forth from ,him as the glorified ,christ1 works in believers as the power of the resurrection4 ,this being so1 what purpose is served by bringing in the very doubtful myths about the god ,anthropos1 especially as ,paul1 though he certainly thinks of his ,second ,adam as a heavenly being1 never anywhere speaks of ,him as ,god4 pg #bbb ,this is typical of a series of similar cases47#ahe7 ,on the other hand1 it is just this one-sidedness which makes the charm and the significance of the book4 ,reitzenstein shows1 both positively and negatively1 how far the analogies from the ,mystery-religions will take us4 ,ordinary theologians--since ,kabisch had remained without influence--had simply designated as ,greek everything which they could not understand from ,late ,judaism1 and described as ,late-,jewish whatever they could not understand as ,greek4 ,reitzenstein1 the--unconscious8--antipodes of ,kabisch1 would like to make an end of this simple game and compel people to choose one horn or other of the dilemma4 ,instead of entering on theoretic discussions1 full of 8not only1 but also10 and 8either 4 4 4 or10 he goes straight forward as far as he thinks he can feel firm ground under his feet1 and has thus contributed1 to an extraordinary degree1 to the clearing up of the situation4 ,contrary to his intention and conviction1 however1 the outcome is not positive but negative4 ,like ,dieterich and others1 ,reitzenstein takes it for granted that ,paulinism makes use of the conception of ,re-birth1 and he feels that that is in itself a sufficient reason for not regarding it as a product of ,judaism47#ahf7 ,the assumption being unsound1 all the discussions and arguments based on it fall to the ground4 ,in particular1 the fine parallels from the ,hermetic literature must be given up4 ,further1 it is not legitimate to treat the pg #bbc mysticism of the ,mystery-religions and that of ,paul as directly corresponding to one another4 ,the former is a ,god-mysticism1 the latter a ,christ-mysticism4 ,the resulting differences are greater than at first sight appears4 ,in the ,graeco-,oriental conception1 what is in view is the 8deification0 of the individual man4 ,as the divinity of the particular ,mystery which is being celebrated is always thought of as the highest divinity1 the mortal enters into union with the being of ,god as such4 ,the ,pauline ,christ1 however1 even though ,he is called the ,son of ,god1 is not ,god1 but only a heavenly ,being4 ,the renewal which is effected by fellowship with ,him is not a deification--the word never occurs in the ,apostle's writings--but only a transference into a state of super-sensuous corporeity1 which has to do with a coming new condition of the world4 ,greek thought is concerned with the simple antithesis of the divine world and the earthly world4 ,paulinism makes out of this duality a triplicity4 ,it divides the super-earthly factor into two1 distinguishing between ,god and the divine super-earthly1 which is personified in ,christ and made present in ,him4 ,god1 and therein speaks the voice of ,judaism1 is purely transcendent4 ,a ,god-mysticism does not exist for the ,apostle--or1 at least1 does not yet exist4 ,a time will come no doubt in the future1 after the termination of the ,messianic ,kingdom1 when ,god will be 8all in all0 7,i ,cor4 xv4 #bh74 ,until then there is only a ,christ-mysticism1 which has to do with the anticipation of the super-earthly life of the ,messianic ,kingdom4 ,to treat ,graeco-,oriental and ,pauline mysticism as corresponding factors1 is to perform a piece in two-four time and a piece in three-four time together1 and to imagine that one hears an identical rhythm in both4 ,another point of difference is that ,graeco-,oriental mysticism works with permanent factors2 the ,pauline with temporal and changing ones4 ,the ,messianic-,divine drives out the super-earthly angelic powers which pg #bbd previously occupied a place between ,god and the world4 ,it is in the very act of coming4 ,but in proportion as it advances1 there passes away not only the super-sensuous angelic element1 but also the earthly and sensuous4 ,christ-mysticism depends upon the movement of these two worlds1 one of them moving towards being1 the other towards not-being1 and it continues only so long as they are in touch with one another as they move past in opposite directions4 ,the beginning of this contact is marked by the resurrection of the ,lord1 the end by ,his parousia4 ,before the former it is not yet possible to pass from one to the other1 after the latter it is no longer possible4 ,a mysticism which is thus bound up with temporal conditions can hardly be derived from the ,greek timeless conceptions4 ,the act1 moreover1 by which the individual becomes partaker in the new being is in the two cases quite different4 ,the ,mystery-religions represent the 8transfiguration0 of the living being as effected by his receiving into himself a divine essence1 by means of the gnosis and the vision of ,god4 ,it is thus a subjective act4 ,according to ,paul's teaching the 8transfiguration0 is not brought about by the gnosis and vision of ,god4 ,these are rather the consequence of the renewal1 the efficient cause of which is found1 not in the act of the individual1 and not in the inherent efficacy of the sacrament1 but in a world-process4 ,so soon as the individual enters by faith and baptism into this new cosmic process he is immediately renewed in harmony therewith1 and now receives spirit1 ecstasy1 gnosis1 and everything that these imply4 ,what according to the ,greek view is the cause1 is for ,paul the consequence4 ,thus1 even though the conceptions show a certain similarity1 they do not correspond1 because they are connected with the central event of the mysticism in each case by chains which run in opposite directions4 ,a figure which exactly illustrates one's meaning may claim pardon even for somewhat doubtful taste4 ,in the ,mystery-religions1 individuals climb up a staircase step pg #bbe by step towards deification2 in ,paulinism they spring in a body into a lift which is already in motion and which carries them into a new world4 ,the staircase is open to all2 the lift can only be used by those for whom it is especially provided4 ,so far as ,comparative ,religion is concerned1 therefore1 the case is exactly the same in regard to the 8physical0 element in the mystical doctrine of redemption as it was in regard to that of the sacramental doctrine4 ,on close examination the historico-eschatological character of the ,pauline conception is in both cases so all-pervading that it invalidates any parallel with the ,mystery-religions1 and leaves them with nothing in common but the linguistic expression4 ,the mystical and sacramental aspects of the 8physical0 element in redemption do not for him stand on the same footing with the eschatological1 which is immediately given with the conceptions of transformation and resurrection1 but must be in some way capable of being derived from it4 ,only when that is done will the ,pauline doctrine of redemption be explained4 ,it is to be noted that ,reitzenstein tries in vain to render intelligible either the connexion of the soteriological mysticism with the facts of the death and resurrection1 or the fellowship which is therein presupposed between the believer and the ,lord4 ,in his exposition of ,rom4 vi4 the parallels with the ,mystery-religions force him into a wrong line1 and compel him to think of the objective process as a subjective one4 ,he assumes that everything becomes clear and simple if once the ,apostle is understood to speak of a voluntary dying1 which is neither purely physical nor merely metaphysical1 but is based upon the thought that we must not sin any more because we have taken upon us ,christ's person and lot1 and have crucified our natural man4 ,but in ,paul it is not a question of an act which the believer accomplishes in himself2 what happens is that in the moment when he receives baptism1 the dying and pg #bbf rising again of ,christ takes place in him without any cooperation1 or exercise of will or thought1 on his part4 ,it is like a mechanical process which is set in motion by pressing a spring4 ,the minute force employed in pressing the spring bears no relation to that which thereon comes into play2 only serves to release a set of forces already in existence4 ,in the ,mystery-religions the thought is3 ,we desire not to sin any more1 therefore we will undergo initiation4 ,paul's logic is the converse of this1 and takes the objective form3 ,christ's death and resurrection is effectually present in us2 therefore1 we are no longer natural men and cannot sin any more4 ,the whole distinction lies in the fact that the mysticism of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles is based on historico-eschatological events1 whereas the ,mystery-religions are in their nature non-historical4 ,where they make use of myths they use them in the last resort merely as pictures of that which the 8mystes0 performs or undergoes1 not as events charged with a real energy1 as the death and resurrection of ,jesus are for ,paul4 ,but the fact of the far-reaching outward and inward resemblances of language between the ,graeco-,oriental and the ,pauline mysticism are not affected by that4 ,as though by a pre-established harmony in the history of religion1 it came about that the mysticism which developed out of eschatology was able to find complete representation in the language of the ,mystery-religions1 and found there ready to its hand conceptions and expressions which facilitated1 suggested1 and in some cases were even indispensable to its fuller development4 ,reitzenstein's merit is that of having determined exactly and unmistakably the meaning of ,paul's language1 and having at the same time shown that ,jewish ,hellenism and ,greek philosophy had practically no part in him4 ,of course1 it is not possible to decide how much of this pg #bbg religious language ,paul found already in existence1 and how much he created for his purpose4 ,it must not be forgotten that the ,oriental ,mystery-religions did not receive their complete development under ,greek influence until a considerable time after the appearance of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles4 ,perhaps it would be more correct to say that he and they found in existence the same ,greek religious vocabulary1 laid hold of it1 and perfected it4 ,one error of the students of ,comparative ,religion deserves particular mention1 for it is typical4 ,in consequence of the parallelism which they maintain between the ,mystery-religions and ,paulinism1 they come to ascribe to the ,apostle the creation of a 8religion407#ahg7 ,nothing of the kind ever entered into his purpose4 ,for him there was only one religion3 that of ,judaism4 ,it was concerned with ,god1 faith1 promise1 hope and law4 ,in consequence of the coming1 the death1 and the resurrection of ,jesus ,christ1 it became its duty to adjust its teachings and demands to the new era thus introduced1 and in the process many things were moved from the shadow into the light and others from the light into the shadow4 8,christianity0 is for ,paul no new religion1 but simply ,judaism with the centre of gravity shifted in consequence of the new era4 ,his own system of thought is certainly for him no new religion4 ,it is his belief1 as fully known and worked out in its implications1 and it professes to be nothing else than the true ,jewish religion1 in accord both with the time and with the ,scriptures4 ,another remark that has to be made is that the students of ,comparative ,religion are inclined to make an illegitimate use of the word eschatology when it suits their purpose4 ,they think themselves justified in applying it wherever in the ,mystery-religions there is mention of death1 judgment1 and life after death1 but they forget that in doing so they are using it in a much more general sense than that which we have to reckon with in the ,pauline pg #bbh doctrine4 ,the term eschatology ought only to be applied when reference is made to the end of the world as expected in the immediate future1 and the events1 hopes1 and fears connected therewith4 ,the use of the word to designate the subjective future end of individuals1 in connexion with which no imminent catastrophe affecting all mankind is in question1 can only be misleading1 since it creates the false impression--exempla docent--that the ,pauline eschatology can be paralleled and compared with an eschatology belonging to the ,mystery-religions4 ,of eschatology in the late ,jewish or early ,christian sense there is not a single trace to be found in any ,graeco-,oriental doctrine47#ahh7 ,therefore1 the ,mystery-religions and ,paulinism cannot in the last resort be compared at all1 as is indeed confirmed by the fact that the real analogies both in the mysticism and the sacramental doctrine are so surprisingly few4 ,reitzenstein's attempt has not succeeded in altering this result1 but only in confirming it4 ,what remains of his material when the circle of ideas connected with the thought of 8re-birth0 is eliminated1 and the all-pervading eschatological character of the fundamental ideas and underlying logic of ,paulinism are duly considered in making the comparison8 ,finally1 the question may be permitted1 ,what would have been the bearing of the result if ,dieterich and ,reitzenstein had really proved the dependence of the ,apostle's doctrine upon the ,mystery-religions8 ,the simple declaration of the result would have been only pg #bbi the beginning of things1 for immediately the problem whether1 understood in this way1 the ,apostle's doctrine could still have belonged to primitive ,christianity would have arisen and called aloud for solution4 ,the theory that ,paul personally transformed the ,gospel on the analogy of the ,graeco-,oriental ,mystery-religions is menaced by the same difficulties which previously brought about the downfall of the theory held by the ,baur and post-,baur theology1 that he ,hellenised the ,gospel4 ,the hypothesis advanced by the students of ,comparative ,religion is only a special form of that general theory1 and can do nothing to minimise the a priori difficulties1 or those raised by the history of dogma in connexion with it4 ,how does ,paulinism as understood by ,dieterich and ,reitzenstein fit into the history of the development of ,christianity8 ,if the ,apostle during the first generation had introduced such a tremendous innovation as the ,greek 8physical0 mysticism of redemption and the sacraments into primitive ,jewish ,christianity1 could the latter have permitted this and continued to keep him in its midst8 ,how was it possible for it to admit without a struggle1 indeed unnoticed1 something so entirely alien1 and to raise no objections either to the ,christology or to the mysticism or to the sacramental doctrine of the ,apostle1 but simply and solely to his attitude towards the law8 ,and how1 on the other hand1 could the later ,hellenising theology pass over in silence the man who had been its precursor in uniting the conceptions of ,graeco-,oriental religion with the ,gospel8 ,the inexplicable fact that ,paulinism played no part in the subsequent development1 but is left to lie unused and uncomprehended1 becomes still more inexplicable if ,dieterich and ,reitzenstein are right4 ,they assert that the ,hellenising force did not issue from philosophy but from the ,graeco-,oriental religious movement1 and found expression in ,paul not less than in the ,johannine and early ,greek theology4 pg #bcj ,why1 then1 are the results so different in the two cases that they have no kind of outer or inner relation to one another8 ,if the same force is applied at different times to the same object and in the same line1 can the resultant movement vary so much in direction8 ,how is it possible that ,paul represents a ,hellenisation of ,christianity which is so unique in character and so unnoticed by others8 ,how could two different types of ,greek transformation of the ,gospel come into existence1 and in such a way1 moreover1 that the second discovered nothing ,hellenic in the first8 ,according to the theory of ,dieterich and ,reitzenstein1 ,paulinism ought to be detached from early ,christianity and closely connected with ,greek theology4 ,the contrary is the case4 ,it stands in undisturbed connexion with the former1 whereas it shows no connexion whatever with the latter4 ,any one who thinks of the ,apostle's doctrine as in any sense a ,hellenisation of the ,gospel1 whether he owes allegiance to ordinary theology or to ,comparative ,religion1 has gone over to the radicalism of the ,ultra-,tbingen party1 and must1 like it1 go forth with his ,paul out of primitive ,christianity into a later period1 unless1 indeed1 as the ,comparative method admits1 he is prepared to consider the faith of the early ,church as ,graeco-,oriental1 or ,paul as the founder of ,christianity4 ,in any case the hypothesis of a ,hellenising of the ,gospel in early ,christianity carried out by ,paul as an individual is a historic impossibility4 ,from the dilemma1 either early ,christian or ,greek1 there is no escape1 however one may twist and turn4 ,if the students of ,comparative ,religion had been better acquainted with the attempt of the ,ultra-,tbingen critics1 and had had a more accurate understanding of the difference between ,paulinism and the ,johannine and early ,greek theology1 they could hardly have retained the open-mindedness necessary to the commencement of their undertaking2 for in that case they would have been pg #bca forced to reflect on the inconvenient consequences of their possible victory4 ,since they did not enter on such considerations it was difficult for them to do justice to ,harnack4 ,here and there they took occasion to accuse him of being behind the times and reproach him with having given too much importance to the influence of philosophy in relation to the ,hellenising of ,christianity1 and too little to that of the ,mystery-religions4 ,they are not wholly wrong in this4 ,he does not give sufficient recognition to the 8physical0 and sacramental elements in ,paulinism1 and does not work out sufficiently fully the parallel between the ,mystery-religions and the ,johannine and early ,greek theology4 ,in laying the foundations of his history of dogma he is too exclusively interested in the development of the ,christology1 instead of starting from the curious complex of ,christology1 soteriology1 and sacramental doctrine which is characteristic of the ,pauline as well as of the ,johannine and early ,greek theology1 and determines the course of the history of dogma4 ,but this somewhat one-sided view of primitive and early ,christianity is far from affording the complete explanation of his attitude of reserve in regard to the results arrived at by the students of ,comparative ,religion4 ,if he forms a low estimate of the influence of the ,mystery-religions upon ,paul and the earliest period of ,christianity1 he is led to that result by pressing considerations from the history of dogma1 by which the consequences of the theory put forward by the students of ,comparative ,religion are made clear to him4 ,like ,anrich1 he recognised from the beginning the weaknesses of the theory1 which remained hidden from the champions of the method4 ,it is not possible for any one who holds that ,paulinism shows the influence of the ,mystery-religions to stop half-way2 he has to carry his conclusion back into primitive ,christianity in general and to explain even the genesis of the new faith as due to syncretism4 ,the latter pg #bcb stand-point is taken up by ,hermann ,gunkel7#ahi7 and ,max ,maurenbrecher47#aij7 ,they hold that the belief in a redeemer-god1 such as was present in ,jewish ,messianism1 was also widely current in the ,graeco-,oriental religions1 and that subsequently1 in consequence of the historic coming of ,jesus1 these two worlds of thought came into a contact which generated a creative energy4 ,from the process thus set in motion primitive ,christianity arose4 ,this account of its genesis also explains1 they think1 why it goes much beyond the 8teaching of ,jesus0 and the religious ideas which formed the content of ,late ,judaism1 and includes mystical and sacramental beliefs4 ,the historic ,jesus did not1 according to ,gunkel and ,maurenbrecher1 hold ,himself to be the 8,redeemer40 ,therefore1 the real origin of ,christianity does not lie with ,him but with the disciples4 ,they1 having been laid hold of by the power of ,his personality1 and finding themselves compelled to seek a solution of the problem of ,his death1 referred to ,him the already existing myth of the ,saviour-,god1 and thereby gave to the set of ideas which had hitherto only existed as such a point of historical attachment1 both for ,orientals and ,jews4 ,from this time forward the religious ideas which attached themselves in the one case and the other to the conception of a redeemer-god flowed into a common bed and formed the stream which1 as ,christianity1 overflowed the world4 ,maurenbrecher1 who seeks to work out the hypothesis in rather fuller detail1 holds that in ,galilee1 which in view of its history had certainly not always been a purely ,jewish country1 the ,messianic idea and the non-,jewish belief in redemption were already present and had to some extent intermingled1 and that it was1 therefore1 no accident that the new religion which after the death of ,jesus took pg #bcc its rise in the revelation made to ,peter should have gone forth from ,galilee4 ,the advantage1 he goes on to explain1 which the young ,christianity possessed among a purely heathen population in comparison with the other competing ,oriental religions1 arises from the ,jewish element1 8which in consequence of the peculiar intermixture of which ,christianity was the outcome had entered into the universal ,oriental religion of redemption40 8,conversely1 however1 it was precisely the non-,jewish element in the ,christian faith which for the ,jews made this new religion a really new and higher stage of their religious life40 ,this hypothesis is unable to recognise any unique character in ,paul4 ,what ,dieterich and ,reitzenstein claim for him1 it finds already completely realised in the primitive community4 ,the result is that ,maurenbrecher hardly knows what to make of him1 and emphasises his ,jewish side much more strongly than his ,graeco-,oriental aspect4 ,the solution of the problem worked out by ,gunkel and ,maurenbrecher is not based purely on ,comparative ,religion1 but1 as the latter writer justly points out1 is a kind of synthesis between the views of liberal theology and that of its opponents4 ,the fundamental idea comes from the latter2 but in agreement with the former the existence of a historical ,jesus is retained4 ,the retention of this remnant of critical history is1 however1 unnecessary and illogical4 ,if the origin of ,christianity essentially depends on the intermixture of an ,oriental belief in a redeemer with the ,jewish expectation of the ,messiah1 and1 given a contact and interpenetration between the two1 must necessarily have arisen1 it is not obvious why the rle of a historical ,jesus should be--or whether it can be--retained in connexion with it4 ,in ,gunkel and ,maurenbrecher it is only a stop-gap1 which is brought into a wholly external connexion with the growth of the new religion4 ,they retain ,his coming as the phenomenon by which the contact of the two religious worlds is set up1 but not as a fructifying element4 pg #bcd ,there is no obvious reason for continuing to take into account this by no means indispensable auxiliary force4 ,if the ,oriental belief in a redeemer and the ,jewish ,messianic hope were inherently adapted to one another1 and destined to produce by their fruitful union a new religion1 then1 after all1 any kind of impulse1 even a mere train of thought1 might have set the process in motion4 ,the assumption of the existence and the death of the ,galilaean ,rabbi becomes superfluous if once it ceases to supply the efficient cause for the arising of ,christianity4 ,since ,comparative ,religion finds the latter in the mutual interpenetration of ,jewish and ,graeco-,oriental elements1 it can get along just as well with myth as with the questionable history of the ,synoptists4 ,such is the teaching of ,william ,benjamin ,smith17#aia7 and ,arthur ,drews4 ,both these writers make a rather extravagant use of the privilege of standing outside the ranks of scientific theology4 ,their imagination leaps with playful elegance over obstacles of fact and enables them to discover everywhere the pre-,christian ,jesus whom their soul desires1 even in places where an ordinary intelligence can find no trace of him4 ,smith takes it for granted that the 8,naasenes1 whose origin goes back to the most remote antiquity1 worshipped a ,jesus as a divinity40 ,how ,christianity grew out of this cult he does not tell us1 but consoles us with the promise of later revelations4 ,in the preface he betrays the fact that he is now only publishing 8the first quarter of the evidence which he has collected10 and intends to go on quietly collecting and arranging his material 8until pg #bce the whole irresistible host can take the field together10 and further1 that it is not the--inevitable--victory which is his main concern1 but the stimulus imparted to others4 ,drews7#aib7 does not play the amateur quite so completely1 but endeavours on the basis of his belief in the pre-,christian ,jesus to present a coherent picture of the way in which ,christianity arose2 and he makes ,paul its creator4 8,the ,jesus-faith10 so runs his thesis1 8had long existed in numerous ,mandaean sects in ,western ,asia1 in many respects distinct from one another1 before the belief in the ,jesus-religion acquired a fixed form and its adherents became conscious of their religious differentia and their independence of the official ,jewish religion40 ,this ancient faith first meets us as a new religion in the letters ascribed to ,paul4 ,the citizen of ,tarsus1 trained as a ,pharisee1 heard of a sect-god named ,jesus1 and brought this conception into connexion with the belief in the death and resurrection of ,adonis and the thought of the suffering 8servant of the ,lord0 in ,isaiah liii41 and thus arrived at the idea that a god had appeared in human form1 and had by his death and resurrection become the ,redeemer1 and had enabled men 8to become ,god40 ,this was the birth-hour of ,christianity4 ,for a historic personality1 8to serve1 so to speak1 as the living model for the ,god-man10 there was no need in order to produce this ,jesus-religion1 which then entered on its world-wide career of victory4 ,drews' thesis is not merely a curiosity2 it indicates the natural limit at which the hypothesis advanced by the advocates of ,comparative ,religion1 when left to its own momentum1 finally comes to rest4 ,paulinism1 in the judgment of the adherents of this much-vaunted method1 is to be regarded as a synthesis between primitive ,christianity and the conceptions current in the ,mystery-religions4 ,if this be taken as the starting-point1 it is necessary to proceed to the conclusion--since the synthesis cannot be conceived as pg #bcf accomplished by an individual--that ,christianity itself is a product of syncretism4 ,and if the constitutive factor in the new faith is seen in the combination of the ,jewish ,messianic expectation with a ,graeco-,oriental belief in a redeemer-god who dies and rises again1 the assumption of the existence of a historic ,jesus who was not ,himself touched by ,hellenic ideas becomes a worthless subsidiary hypothesis4 ,it becomes quite a natural step to leave it on one side and to regard the synthesis as either developing gradually1 by an impersonal process1 or as coming to birth in the brain of the author of the ,pauline ,epistles1 who thus becomes the creator of early ,christianity4 ,drews is justified in appealing to ,gunkel1 and asserting that he is only offering his ideas with a logically necessary correction4 ,of course1 every further logical step in this direction involves further sacrifice of historical understanding and an increasing necessity to indulge in imaginary constructions4 ,but all these consequences are already present in germ in the mere assertion that ,paul is to be understood from the ,mystery-religions1 even though those who maintain this view do not want to proceed any further than the facts which have to be explained seem to them to warrant4 ,as between the students of ,comparative ,religion and ,drews the relation is similar to that between the legitimate and illegitimate ,tbingen schools4 ,here1 too1 the alternative lies between 8scientific and inconsistent1 and consistent and unscientific40 ,that means that an absolute antinomy appears between the logic of the attempted solution and that of the data of fact2 which is as much as to say that the problem has been wrongly grasped1 and that this way1 whether it be followed for a certain distance only1 or right to the end1 can never lead to the goal of a satisfactory solution4 pg #bcg ,,viii ,,summing-,,up ,,and ,,formulation ,,of ,,the ,,problem ,,the study of ,paulinism has nothing very brilliant to show for itself in the way of scientific achievement4 ,learning has been lavishly expended upon it1 but thought and reflection have been to seek4 ,writers went to work with an almost inconceivable absence of plan1 and wanted to offer solutions before they had made clear to themselves the scope of the problem4 ,instead of seeking a definite diagnosis1 they treated the symptoms separately1 with whatever means happened to come to hand4 ,it was inevitable1 therefore1 that the study of the subject should move along intricate and continually recrossing paths1 and engage in long and devious wanderings1 only1 in some cases1 to arrive back again at the point from which it started4 ,that ,paul's doctrine of redemption was thought out on the lines of a physical nature-process had been asserted by ,ldemann as long ago as the year #ahgb4 ,nevertheless1 theology hit on the plan of 8spiritualising0 it1 and took very nearly thirty years to get back to this discovery4 ,the account which we have given of the history of the subject has revealed the structure of the problem and given it room to develop itself4 ,the inner connexion of the questions determines in advance what the individual solutions can and cannot effect1 and at the same time pg #bch shows what must be provided for in any solution which professes to offer a really historical explanation4 ,to neglect this structure1 this schematism of the problem is not permissible4 ,it has not been independently invented and imposed from without upon the past history of research1 but represents its actual results1 and points the way for all subsequent attempts at a solution4 ,the problem consists in the two great questions3 what ,paul's doctrine has in common with primitive ,christianity1 and what it has in common with ,greek ideas4 ,it is complicated by the fact that our only information about the beliefs of the primitive ,church comes from ,paul4 ,his writings are the first--and indeed the only--witnesses which we possess upon the point1 since the ,first ,epistle of ,peter and the ,epistle of ,james give us information at best about a non-,pauline1 certainly not about a pre-,pauline ,christianity4 ,the standard by which the primitiveness of ,paul's ,christianity has to be measured and tested has1 therefore1 in the first place to be arrived at by the method of arguing backward from itself4 ,nevertheless1 the difficulty is not so great as it appears when thus theoretically stated4 ,the most general features of the earliest dogma can be found without difficulty in the ,epistles4 ,these consisted in the belief in the ,messiahship of the ,jesus who had died and risen again1 and in the expectation of ,his parousia in the immediate future4 ,moreover1 the problem as a whole is simplified by the fact that the second of the fundamental questions has been clearly answered by the history of ,pauline study4 ,the answer is this3 ,paulinism and ,hellenism have in common their religious terminology1 but1 in respect of ideas1 nothing4 ,the ,apostle did not ,hellenise ,christianity4 ,his conceptions are equally distinct from those of ,greek philosophy and from those of the ,mystery-religions4 ,the affinities and analogies which have been alleged cannot stand an examination which takes account of their real essence and of the different way in which the ideas pg #bci are conditioned in the two cases4 ,neither ,baur nor the theology which owes allegiance to him1 nor the students of ,comparative ,religion1 have succeeded in proving their assertions4 ,it is also interesting to observe that those who undertake to explain ,paul by the aid of the ,graeco-,oriental ,mystery-religions1 entirely deny the philosophic ,hellenism which a more conventional theological opinion has found in him2 so that it is a case of ,satan's being driven out by ,beelzebub4 ,on the other hand1 the ,comparative study of ,paulinism has the merit of having made an end of the 8spiritualising0 and 8psychologising0 which were practised for a whole generation4 ,the impossibility of anything in the nature of a ,hellenic gospel being present in ,paul appears from the fact1 that every view of this kind when thought out in its logical implications must arrive at a point where it has to do violence to historical tradition4 ,it became apparent that it is impossible for a ,hellenised ,paulinism to subsist alongside of a primitive ,christianity which shared the ,jewish eschatological expectations4 ,one must either1 as the ,ultra-,tbingen critics did1 transplant the ,epistles and the doctrine from the primitive period to the second century1 or1 as some of the votaries of ,comparative ,religion have endeavoured to do1 explain primitive ,christianity as a product of ,graeco-,oriental syncretism4 ,that only a very few investigators have drawn these inferences is not due to the fact that they are not justified4 ,it was want of courage1 of logical consistency1 and of the necessary contempt for the rest of the facts which prevented them from making the venture4 ,so they offered compromises1 imposingly dressed out in words but inwardly untenable1 and talked themselves and others into believing the impossible1 namely1 that a ,hellenisation of the primitive ,christian belief effected by ,paul as an individual is really conceivable4 ,the half-and-half theories which represent ,paulinism as consisting partly of ,greek1 partly of ,jewish ideas1 are pg #bdj in a still worse case than those which more or less neglect the former element4 ,encumbered with all the difficulties of the ,hellenising theory they become involved in the jungle of antinomies which they discover or imagine1 and there perish miserably4 ,the solution must1 therefore1 consist in leaving out of the question ,greek influence in every form and in every combination1 and venturing on the 8one-sidedness0 of endeavouring to understand the doctrine of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles entirely on the basis of ,jewish primitive ,christianity4 ,that implies1 in the first place1 that the ,pauline eschatology must be maintained in its full compass1 as required by the utterances of the letters4 ,but merely to emphasise it is not everything4 ,the next point is to explain it4 ,what was the scheme of the events of the ,end1 and what answer was given by eschatological expectation to the fundamental questions which could not be avoided8 ,are there two resurrections or one2 one judgment or two8 ,who are to rise again at the parousia8 ,does a judgment take place then8 ,on whom is it held8 ,what are its standards and its subject8 ,wherein do reward and punishment consist8 ,what happens to the men of the surviving generation who are not destined to the ,messianic kingdom8 ,what is the relation between judgment and election8 ,what is the fate of believers who are elect and baptised but who have fallen from grace by unworthy conduct8 ,can they lose their final blessedness1 or are they only excluded from the ,messianic kingdom8 ,does ,paul recognise a general resurrection8 ,if so1 when does it take place8 ,is it accompanied by a judgment1 or do only the elect rise again8 ,when does the judgment take place at which the elect judge the angels8 ,not until ,pauline eschatology gives an answer to all the 8idle0 questions of this kind which can be asked will it be really understood and explained4 ,and it must be somehow possible1 by the discovery of its inner logic1 to reconstruct it from the scattered statements in the documents4 pg #bda ,we have no right to assume that for ,paul there existed in his expectation manifest obscurities1 much less that he had overlooked contradictions in it4 ,is there1 then1 any possibility of explaining the mystical doctrine of redemption and the sacramental teaching on the basis of the ,jewish eschatological element8 ,the attempt is by no means so hopeless as it might seem in view of the general consideration that ,judaism knew neither mysticism nor sacraments4 ,it is not really a question of ,judaism as such1 but of apocalyptic thought1 which is a separate and independent phenomenon arising within ,judaism1 and has special presuppositions which are entirely peculiar to it4 ,we saw in analysing the 8physical0 element in the doctrine of redemption and the sacraments that the conceptions connected therewith are conditioned by the underlying eschatology which everywhere shows through47#aic7 ,it needs no special learning to make this discovery4 ,any one who ventures to read the documents with an open mind and pays attention to the primary links of connexion will soon arrive at this conclusion4 ,that ,paul's mystical doctrine of redemption and his doctrine of the sacraments belong to eschatology is plain to be seen4 ,the only question is in what way1 exactly1 they have arisen out of it4 ,the future-hope1 raised to the highest degree of intensity1 must somehow or other have possessed the power of producing them4 ,if the impulse1 the pressing need to which they were the response1 is once recognised1 then ,paulinism is understood1 since in its essence it can be nothing else than an eschatological mysticism1 expressing itself by the aid of the ,greek religious terminology4 ,theoretically1 too1 it is possible to form an approximate idea how the intensified expectation of the future might take a mystical form4 ,in apocalyptic thought sensuous and super-sensuous converge1 in such a manner that the former is thought of as passing away into the latter4 ,thus pg #bdb there is present in it the most general presupposition of all mysticism1 since it is the object of the latter to abolish the earthly in the super-earthly4 ,the peculiarity of the mysticism which arises out of ,apocalyptic is that it does not bring the two worlds into contact in the mind of the individual man1 as ,greek and medieval mysticism did1 but dovetails one into the other1 and thus creates for the moment at which the one passes over into the other an objective1 temporally conditioned mysticism4 ,this1 however1 is only available for those who by their destiny belong to both worlds4 ,eschatological mysticism is predestinarian4 ,that a mysticism of this kind existed before ,paul is not known4 ,it may be conjectured that the conditions under which it could develop were not present until after the death and resurrection of ,jesus4 ,but sacramental tendencies already make their appearance in the future-hope which was to lead up to ,christianity4 ,the usual view is to the effect that ,paul was the first to introduce the mystical element into baptism and the ,lord's ,supper4 ,there is nothing to prove that4 ,how can we possibly tell that these ceremonies were previously purely symbolic acts8 ,any one who reads with an open mind the ,synoptic accounts of ,john's baptism must recognise that it was not only a symbol of purification on repentance1 but is thought of as in some way or other guaranteeing salvation47#aid7 ,a transaction1 however1 which itself gives and effects such a result is to be regarded as a sacrament4 ,the manner in which ,paul speaks of early ,christian baptism and of the ,lord's ,supper does not make the impression that he is asserting for the first time the effectual working of the ceremony2 it is rather as if he took it for granted as something given and self-evident4 ,this would agree with the observation noted above that the baptism of ,john1 from which primitive ,christian pg #bdc baptism was derived1 was already thought of as a sacrament4 ,whether the ,lord's ,supper in the intention of ,jesus ,himself directly conveyed something to the partakers1 or whether it only became a sacrament in primitive ,christian times1 must be left undecided4 ,that the intensified eschatological expectation should go so far as to produce sacramental conceptions is in itself intelligible4 ,those who stood on the threshold of the coming glory must have been eagerly anxious to gain an assurance that they themselves would be partakers therein and to obtain tangible guarantees of 8deliverance0 from the coming judgment4 ,the conception of 8marking out0 and 8sealing0 plays in apocalyptic thought a very important part4 ,similar provisions are a characteristic product of any intense expectation of the future4 ,it is1 therefore1 highly probable that the ,baptist1 and primitive ,christianity1 created eschatological sacraments which1 as already established and accredited1 ,paul had only to take over4 ,the bearing of these statements and considerations must be shown from the ,epistles4 ,how far it is possible to trace the genesis of the mysticism and the sacramental doctrine from the eschatological beliefs of the ,apostle cannot be determined a priori4 ,the one thing certain is that no other way of explanation is possible than that which leads from the circumference of his future-hope to the central idea of his 8theology40 ,all other interpretations hang in the air4 ,theology has heretofore found itself rather helpless in presence of the votaries of ,comparative ,religion4 ,it could not accept their results as correct1 but on the other hand it was not in a position to explain ,paul's sacramental views1 because it had never taken into consideration the possibility that they might have arisen out of the ,jewish and primitive ,christian future-hope4 ,there was thus no course open to it but to engage in an inglorious guerilla warfare with the new science and skirmish with pg #bdd it over particular passages and statements4 ,it is only the acceptance of the fact that the ,apostle's doctrine is integrally1 simply and exclusively eschatological1 which puts it in a position to assume the offensive in a systematic way and with good prospect of success4 ,the ,apostle's most general views must be taken as the starting point from which to explain how he arrives at the paradox that the believer is united with ,christ1 experiences along with ,him death and resurrection1 and becomes a new creature1 emancipated from fleshly corporeity4 ,the assertion that these statements are meant in a 8physical0 sense does not carry us very far4 ,the reason which explains their 8reality0 must be shown4 ,simply in and by themselves they are not explicable4 ,what has been advanced regarding the solidarity of ,jesus with the human race is far from sufficing to make it in any degree intelligible1 especially as ,paul has not in view ,christ and humanity1 but ,christ and the elect4 ,the mistake in the attempts at explanation hitherto made consists in the fact that they seek to argue from the facts of the death and resurrection of ,jesus1 simply as such1 directly to that which takes place in the believer4 ,in reality1 it can only be a question of a general event1 which in the time immediately preceding the ,end brings about this dying and rising again in ,jesus and believers as together forming a single category of mankind1 and thus antedates the future into the present4 ,for that which happens both to the ,lord and to the elect it must be possible to find some kind of common-denominator which exactly contains the factors1 the forces which are at work in the two cases4 ,since those which produce their effect in ,christ are the first to become manifest1 ,paul can cast his theory into the form that the believers have died and risen again with ,him4 ,the general fact which comes into question must result from the condition of the world between the death of ,jesus and ,his parousia4 ,the ,apostle asserts an overlapping of the still natural1 and the already supernatural1 pg #bde condition of the world1 which becomes real in the case of ,christ and believers in the form of an open or hidden working of the forces of death and resurrection--and becomes real in them only4 ,the doctrine of the death and resurrection of ,jesus and the mystical doctrine of redemption are alike cosmically conditioned4 ,it is not sufficient1 however1 to explain the mystical doctrine and the sacramental doctrine which is bound up with it4 ,to the problem of ,paulinism belong other distinct questions which have not yet found a solution4 ,the primary questions are the relation of the ,apostle to the historical ,jesus1 his attitude towards universalism7#aie7 and towards the law1 and the nature of his compromise between predestinarian and sacramental doctrine4 ,will his views on these points1 which it has hitherto been impossible to grasp clearly1 similarly admit of explanation on the basis of the unique cosmic conditions obtaining between the death of ,christ and the parousia8 ,it is to be noticed that the ,apostle does not advance his assertions with reference either to earlier or to subsequent times1 but simply and solely for this short intervening period4 ,their explanation is therefore doubtless to be looked for here4 ,paul must have had more knowledge about ,jesus than he uses in his teachings and polemics4 ,his procedure is deliberate4 ,he does not appeal to the ,master even where it might seem inevitable to do so1 as in regard to the ethics and the doctrine of the significance of ,his death and resurrection2 and in fact declares that as a matter of principle he desires no longer to 8know ,christ after the flesh40 ,psychological considerations are quite inadequate to explain these facts4 ,it is as though he held that between the present world-period and that in which ,jesus lived and taught there exists no link of connexion1 and was convinced that since the death and resurrection of the ,lord conditions were present which pg #bdf were so wholly new that they made ,his teaching inapplicable1 and rendered necessary a new basis for ethics and a deeper knowledge respecting ,his death and resurrection4 ,the case lies similarly in regard to the ,apostle's views about universalism and the law4 ,it was not by his experiences among the ,gentiles that he was led to universalism4 ,and the thought is not simply that mission work among the heathen ought to be permitted4 ,he maintains the view that there is a pressing necessity to carry the ,gospel abroad4 ,it is under the impulsion of this thought that he becomes the ,apostle of the ,greeks4 ,the sole and sufficient reason for this view he finds in the peculiar condition of the world between the death and the parousia of ,christ4 ,to it are due the conditions in consequence of which a share in the privileges of ,israel is open to the ,gentiles without their being obliged1 by taking upon them the law and its sign1 to enter into union with ,israel4 ,in saying this it is not the ,apostle's meaning that they merely do not need to do so2 they must not do so1 on pain of losing their salvation4 ,since ,ritschl1 the representatives of the history of dogma have been concerned to obscure the problem of the law in ,paul and to turn theology into paths of easiness4 ,they assert that it was a purely practical question1 which did not touch doctrine in the strict sense4 ,this was the expedient by which they escaped from the difficulty when it was raised by ,baur4 ,it is time that it should be given up4 ,when ,paul proclaims that the ,greeks do not need to submit to the law1 he is not led to do so by the experience that this was reasonable and practical4 ,he declares them free because the logical implications of his doctrine compel him to do so4 ,what ,jesus thought about the matter is just as indifferent to him as ,his opinion regarding the legitimacy of preaching to the ,gentiles4 ,the peculiar conditions of the time between ,his death and pg #bdg ,his parousia forbid any extension of the law to believers outside of ,israel4 ,on the other hand1 these conditions require that believers belonging to the ,chosen ,people must continue to practise it as before4 ,the assertion of the non-validity of the law is never intended by ,paul in a sense which would justify the inference of its total abolition for all believers4 ,it has received its death-blow1 but retains its position outwardly up to the time of the parousia4 ,for this limited period the watchword is3 he who is under the law shall continue to observe it2 he who is free from it shall on no account place himself under it4 ,from one and the same fact two diametrically opposite conclusions are drawn2 for so the unique character of the time demands4 ,what is the relation between predestination and the sacraments8 ,why do the elect of the final generation need a provision which was not made for those of earlier generations8 ,this too must result from the unique character of the time4 ,the only logical assumption is that to this special provision corresponds a special blessedness1 going beyond the ordinary blessedness involved in election as such1 which is reserved for the final generation and cannot be obtained otherwise than through baptism and the ,lord's ,supper4 ,but wherein does it consist8 ,all these questions are1 like the mystical doctrine1 to be answered by reference to the special conditions of the period between the death of ,jesus and the parousia4 ,it must be possible to refer back the whole of the teachings to one and the same fundamental fact4 ,it follows that there must be no more talking about the 8uniqueness of the event at ,damascus0 and psychologising about ,paul's 8religious experience10 no more spiritualising and modernising1 no making play with the distinction between religion and theology1 or with the discovery or concealment of contradictions and antinomies1 or other similar exercises of ingenuity4 ,all explanations which represent the system of doctrine pg #bdh as something arising subjectively in the ,apostle's mind may be assumed a priori to be false4 ,only those which seek to derive it objectively from the fundamental facts of the primitive eschatological belief are to be taken into consideration4 ,the only kind of interpretation which can be considered historical is one which makes it clear how a man who believed in the death and resurrection of ,jesus and ,his imminent parousia was1 in virtue of that belief1 in a position to understand the thoughts of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles and to follow his arguments1 and was logically obliged to accept them4 ,and1 finally1 the solution must explain the enigmatic attitude which subsequent generations take up in regard to the ,apostle of the ,gentiles4 ,they know him1 but they owe no allegiance to him4 ,he created no school4 ,the theology of an ,ignatius or a ,justin does not attach itself to him4 ,there is something more in this than a simple oversight4 ,if these theologians do not turn to him for aid1 though he stands like a giant among them1 that must be due to the fact that it is impossible to do so1 and that in the course of the natural development of things they have been led to follow quite other paths4 ,for some reason or other1 the conditions under which he created his system must be for them unimaginable4 ,it is true they are still in the period between the death and the parousia of ,jesus1 but they can no longer interpret it in the same way as the ,apostle did4 ,why are they no longer able to bring into play the forces which he assumes to be in operation when he refers everything to the dying and rising again of ,christ and the believer8 ,which of his presuppositions is for them lacking8 ,may it be that the intensity of the eschatological expectation has so declined that the mysticism associated therewith can no longer maintain its ground8 ,the ,ultra-,tbingen critics demanded of theology proof that the canonical ,paul and his ,epistles belonged to early ,christianity2 and the demand was justified4 ,the question is not to be decided in the domain of pg #bdi literary history1 since the only thing we have to deal with is the self-witness of the ,epistles1 which can neither be strengthened nor shaken by indications drawn from elsewhere4 ,argument and counter-argument must be drawn from the contents4 ,the theological scholarship which had to meet the attacks of ,steck and van ,manen had no solid arguments to oppose to them4 ,its ,paulinism was so complicated1 ,hellenised and modernised1 that it could at need find a place in theological text-books1 but not in primitive ,christianity4 ,on the other hand1 an explanation which shows that the ,apostle's system is based on the most primitive eschatological premises1 and at the same time makes it intelligible why subsequent generations could not continue to follow the road on which he started1 thereby demonstrates his primitive ,christianity and1 to this extent1 also the genuineness of his chief ,epistles4 ,the possibility that they might be primitive-,christian1 and yet not written by the historic ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 hardly calls for serious consideration4 ,any one who works out this solution is the true pupil of ,baur1 however widely he may diverge from him in his views and results4 ,by unequivocally determining the date of the writings in question on internal grounds and excluding all other possibilities he is exercising 8positive criticism0 in the sense intended by the ,tbingen master1 and justifies him in the face of the adversaries against whom he can no longer defend himself4 ,it may no doubt prove to be the case that this 8positive0 criticism will appear distressingly negative to those who look for results which can be immediately coined into dogmatic and homiletic currency4 ,their opinion1 however1 is of small importance4 ,it is the fate of the 8,little-faiths0 of truth that they1 true followers of ,peter1 whether they be of the ,roman or the ,protestant observance1 cry out and sink in the sea of ideas1 where the followers of ,paul1 believing in the ,spirit1 walk secure and undismayed4 pg #bea ,,index ,ammon1 ,c4 ,f4 von1 #c n4 ,anrich1 ,gustav1 #agi1 #ahi1 #bca ,aratus1 #id ,aubertin1 ,charles1 #ie n4 ,augustine1 #ie n4 ,aurelian1 #aha ,baljon1 ,j4 ,m4 ,s41 #aag1 #aah1 #abe1 #adh n4 ,bauer1 ,bruno1 #bd1 #bh1 #aag1 #abj ff4 ,baumgarten1 ,michael1 #if n4 ,baumgarten1 ,s4 ,j41 #a1 #c ,baur1 ,f4 ,c41 #ab ff41 #bj f41 #be1 #cc1 #ha1 #aah f4 ,baur1 ,f4 ,f41 #bj n4 ,beyschlag1 ,willibald1 #bb1 #bf1 #da ,bousset1 ,w41 #dh n41 #aea1 #aeb1 #afb ,brandt1 ,w41 #bd1 #fj n4 ,brckner1 ,martin1 #aeb1 #aga1 #agi1 #aic n4 ,brckner1 ,wilhelm1 #aah1 #acd n4 ,bruston1 ,e41 #bd1 #gd n4 ,caligula1 #ahd ,calvin1 #cc ,claudius1 #ahc ,clemen1 ,karl1 #aah1 #agi1 #ahi n4 ,clement of ,rome1 #aai1 #abh1 #ace ,cumont1 ,franz1 #agi1 #aha1 #ahc n41 #ahe n41 #aib ,curtius1 ,ernst1 #bd1 #hg1 #id n4 ,dhne1 ,a4 ,f41 #b1 #aj n4 ,deissmann1 ,adolf1 #bc1 #fj n41 #aec1 #agb n41 #agi1 #ahi n4 ,de ,jong1 ,h4 ,e41 #aha ,delitzsch1 ,franz1 #bc1 #dg ,de ,wette1 ,w4 ,m4 ,l41 #b1 #aj n4 ,dibelius1 ,martin1 #aeb1 #afb n4 ,dick1 ,karl1 #aea1 #aee n4 ,dieterich1 ,albrecht1 #agi1 #ahf ff41 #aij1 #aic n41 #aid1 #aie1 #bbh n41 #bcj ,dobschtz1 ,ernst von1 #aeb1 #afi ,domitian1 #abh ,drescher1 ,a41 #aea1 #aec1 #aei n4 ,drews1 ,arthur1 #agi1 #bcd f4 ,eichhorn1 ,albert1 #agi1 #bje ,eichhorn1 ,j4 ,g41 #a1 #h f41 #ae ,epictetus1 #ie ,ernesti1 ,fr4 ,th4 ,l41 #bc1 #ie n4 ,ernesti1 ,j4 ,a41 #a1 #c f4 ,evanson1 ,e41 #aag1 #aba n4 ,everling1 ,otto1 #bc1 #ee f4 ,feine1 ,paul1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aef ff41 #afe ,fleury1 ,amde1 #ie n4 ,friedlnder1 ,m41 #aag1 #abd n4 ,friedrich 7,maehliss71 #aag1 #ace n4 ,gass1 ,j4 ,c41 #g ,gass1 ,w41 #bd1 #ie n4 ,geffken1 ,j41 #agi1 #ahi n4 ,gennrich1 ,p41 #agi1 #aia n4 ,glol1 ,j41 #bc1 #gh n4 ,godet1 ,f41 #bb1 #bf n4 ,goguel1 ,m41 #aeb1 #aei f4 ,grafe1 ,e41 #bc1 #dd1 #ij f41 #aaa ,gressmann1 ,h41 #aeb1 #afb n4 ,grotius1 ,hugo1 #a1 #b ,gruppe1 ,otto1 #agi1 #aha n41 #aic n4 ,gunkel1 ,h41 #bc1 #gh f41 #aaa1 #agi1 #ahi n41 #bcb f41 #bcf ,hadrian1 #abb ,harnack1 ,adolf1 vi1 #be1 #fc1 #fi1 #ha f41 #hc1 #hd1 #ij1 #aac1 #aad f41 #aea1 #aeb1 #afj1 #agc1 #ahj1 #ahi n41 #bca ,hatch1 ,edwin1 #be1 #hb ,hausrath1 ,adolf1 #bb ,haussleiter1 ,j41 #aeb1 #agb ,havet1 ,e41 #bc1 #ed1 #fc ,hegel1 #ae1 #af1 #ba ,heinrici1 ,g4 ,f41 #bd1 #de1 #fc n41 #fg1 #hj n41 #hg1 #ic1 #aag1 #aea1 #afb n4 ,heitmller1 ,w41 #aeb1 #afe1 #ahj1 #bjd ff41 #bjh n4 ,heliogabalus1 #aha ,hepding1 ,h41 #ahj1 #ahb1 #ahd ,hilgenfeld1 ,a41 #abi ,hofmann1 ,c4 ,k4 von1 #bb1 #da ,hollmann1 ,g41 #aea1 #baa n4 pg #beb ,holsten1 ,k41 #bb1 #bc1 #ce1 #ch f41 #fc1 #ff ff41 #aje1 #aac1 #aad f4 ,holtzmann1 ,h4 ,j41 #bb1 #bd1 #be f41 #ajj1 #aaf1 #adi f41 #aec1 #afc f41 #bba n4 ,ignatius1 v1 vi1 vii1 #hj1 #hb1 #aai1 #abg1 #ace1 #bjj1 #bdh ,jacoby1 ,adolf1 #ahj1 #aic n4 ,jakoby1 ,hermann1 #aea1 #afj f4 ,jerome1 #ie n4 ,josephus1 #ea ,julian1 #aha n4 ,jlicher1 ,adolf1 #bb1 #aeb1 #agj n4 ,juncker1 ,alfred1 #aeb1 #afj f4 ,justin ,martyr1 v1 vi1 vii1 #hj1 #hb1 #aai1 #abh1 #acb1 #ace1 #acf1 #bjj1 #bag1 #bdh ,kabisch1 ,r41 #bc1 #eh ff41 #gd1 #gf1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #afh1 #agd1bbb ,kalthoff1 ,a41 #aag1 #abc n4 ,kant1 #aab1 #aah ,karl1 ,w41 #ha n41 #aeb ,kautzsch1 ,e4 ,f41 #bc1 #hh ,knopf1 ,r41 #aeb1 #agb ff4 ,klbing1 ,p41 #aeb1 #agj ff4 ,kreyer1 ,j41 #ie n4 ,lechler1 ,g4 ,v41 #ab1 #ah ,lightfoot1 ,john1 #dh n4 ,lipsius1 ,r4 ,a41 #ab1 #ai f41 #bd1 #fd n4 ,loman1 ,a4 ,d41 #aag1 #abd f41 #adj1 #aec ,loofs1 ,f41 #fc n41 #agc n4 ,ldemann1 ,h41 #bc1 #bh ff41 #cd f41 #fb f41 #ff1 #ga1 #hf1 #afc ,luther1 #cc1 #ej ,manen1 ,w4 ,c4 van1 #aag1 #abe1 #abi ff41 #adj1 #aec ,marcion1 #aac1 #abh f4 ,marcus ,aurelius1 #if n41 #ih1 #abb ,mau1 ,georg1 #ahj1 #aha n4 ,maurenbrecher1 ,max1 #ahj1 #bcb f4 ,mehlhorn1 ,karl1 #ch n4 ,mngoz1 ,l4 ,e41 #bc1 #ca1 #ce ,meuschen1 ,j4 ,g41 #dh n4 ,meyer1 ,arnold1 #aeb1 #agj n4 ,meyer1 ,g4 ,w41 #b1 #i n4 ,michaelis1 ,j4 ,d41 #a1 #e n41 #g ,mller1 ,iwan1 #aha n4 ,mller1 ,j41 #aec1 #agb n4 ,munzinger1 ,karl1 #aeb1 #aed n4 ,naber1 ,s4 ,a41 #abc ,neander1 ,j4 ,a4 ,w41 #b1 #aj n4 ,nork1 ,j41 #dh n4 ,olschewski1 ,w41 #aeb1 #aga n4 ,paulus1 ,h4 ,e4 ,g41 #b1 #aj f4 ,pfleiderer1 ,otto1 #bb1 #bc1 #ca1 #cd1 #ce1 #fc1 #ff ff41 #gf1 #hj1 #ij1 #aaa1 #aad f41 #aea1 #aed ,philo1 #ea1 #ia1 #ih1 #aaj ,pierson1 ,allard1 #aag1 #abc ,plato1 #baa ,preuschen1 ,e41 #hb n4 ,ptolemy ,soter1 #ahd ,rambach1 ,j4 ,j41 #a1 #c ,reinach1 ,s41 #ahj1 #aha n4 ,reitzenstein1 ,r41 #ahj1 #ahh n41 #bjh n41 #bab n41 #baf n41 #bah ff41 #bbe1 #bcj ,renan1 ,ernest1 #bb1 #ce ,resch1 ,a41 #bc1 #db n4 ,reuss1 ,e41 #bb1 #bd1 #ca1 #ce ,ritschl1 ,albrecht1 #ab1 #af f41 #bc1 #dj f41 #dc1 #hc1 #hd ,rohde1 ,e41 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahe n4 ,roscher1 ,h4 ,r41 #ahj ,rothe1 ,r41 #ef ,sabatier1 ,a41 #bb1 #cb1 #ce ,schettler1 ,a41 #aeb1 #agb n4 ,schlger1 ,g41 #aag ,schlatter1 ,a41 #aeb ,schleiermacher1 ,f4 ,e4 ,d41 #a1 #g f4 ,schmidt1 ,ernst1 #ahb n4 ,schmiedel1 ,p4 ,w41 #bd1 #fc1 #hh1 #ajc ,schnedermann1 ,g41 #de n4 ,schniewind1 ,j41 #aec1 #agb n4 ,scholten1 ,j4 ,h41 #aag1 #acd n4 ,schopenhauer1 #aah ,schttgen1 ,c41 #dh n4 ,schrader1 ,karl1 #b1 #aj n4 ,schrer1 ,emil1 #bd1 #de ,schwartz1 ,e4 ,e41 #ahj1 #bai ,schwegler1 ,a41 #ab1 #af ,schweitzer1 ,a41 #agj ,seeberg1 ,r41 #aeb1 #agc ,semler1 ,j4 ,s41 #a1 #d f41 #adh ,seneca1 #ie f41 #abb ,siegfried1 ,k41 #bd1 #ia n4 ,simon1 ,theodor1 #bd1 #if n4 ,smith1 ,w4 ,b41 #ahj1 #bcd f4 ,sokolowski1 ,e41 #aea1 #afj n4 ,soltau1 ,w41 #ahj1 #ahi n4 ,spiegelberg1 ,w41 #bab n4 ,spitta1 ,f41 #eb n41 #aah1 #adi ,steck1 ,rudolf1 #aag1 #abe1 #abh n41 #abi ff41 #adj1 #ada1 #aec ,sulze1 ,e41 #aah1 #adc ,surenhus 7,surenhuys71 ,w41 #dh n4 ,teichmann1 ,ernst1 #bd1 #gd ff4 ,tertullian1 v1 #ie1 #abh1 #abi1 #bjj ,titius1 ,arthur1 #aea1 #aef ff41 #afe pg #bec ,usener1 ,h41 #ahj1 #aha ,usteri1 ,l41 #b1 #i f4 ,vischer1 ,e41 #aeb1 #aec1 #agb n4 ,volck1 ,w41 #bf n41 #da n4 ,volkmar1 ,g41 #bc ,vollmer1 ,h41 #bd1 #dh n41 #hh1 #ia ,vlter1 ,daniel1 #aah1 #adc ff4 ,volz1 ,paul1 #aeb1 #afb n4 ,walther1 ,w41 #aeb1 #agj n4 ,weber1 ,f41 #bd1 #de ,weinel1 ,heinrich1 #aea1 #aed f41 #afe n4 ,weiss1 ,bernhard1 #bb1 #bg n41 #ce1 #da1 #ed1 #fd1 #ff1 #fi ,weiss1 ,johannes1 #aeb1 #agj n4 ,weisse1 ,c4 ,h41 #bd1 #bh1 #aah1 #ada f4 ,weizscker1 ,karl von1 #bc1 #ce1 #fd1 #fe f41 #fi1 #abh n4 ,wellhausen1 ,j41 #df n41 #aeb1 #aei n4 ,wendland1 ,p41 #ahj1 #ahi n4 ,wendt1 ,h4 ,h41 #bc1 #cj n4 ,wernle1 ,p41 #bd1 #fj n41 #aea1 #aed f41 #ahj1 #baj f4 ,wieseler1 ,k41 #ab1 #ae ,windisch1 ,h41 #aeb1 #afa n4 ,wobbermin1 ,g41 #ahj ,wolf1 ,j4 ,c41 #a1 #c ,wrede1 ,william1 #ajj1 #aeb1 #aff ff41 #agg ,wnsch1 ,r41 #ahg n4 ,zahn1 ,theodor1 #bb1 #be1 #if n4 ,zeller1 ,e41 #bj n4 ,ziegler1 ,theobald1 #bd1 #ie n4 ,zwingli1 #cc ,,the ,,end ,printed by ,r4 ,r4 ,clark1 ,limited1 ,edinburgh4 ,,footnotes ,,notes ,,for ,,preface #a ,sub-title3 8,eine ,geschichte der ,leben-,jesu-,forschung40 ,english translation 8,the ,quest of the ,historical ,jesus40 ,london1 ,a4 ,c4 ,black1 #aiaj1 #bnd ed4 #aiaa4 ,,notes ,,for ,,chapter ,i #b ,in the ,amsterdam edition of the whole in #afgi1 the ,annotationes on the ,pauline ,epistles 7#ajji pp471 with those on the other ,epistles and the ,apocalypse1 form vol4 iii4 #c #agbc1 #hbb pp4 #d #ast ed4 #agdb2 #bnd1 #agde1 #bcb pp4 7,for title see head of chapter47 #e ,ble1 #agda4 ,five vols41 covering the whole of the ,new ,testament4 ,the ,pauline ,epistles are treated in the #crd 7#hbj pp47 and #dth 7#hcg pp474 ,the full title is3 ,curae philologicae et criticae 4 4 4 quibus integritati contextus ,graeci consulitur1 sensus verborum ex praesidiis philologicis illustratur1 diversae ,interpretum ,sententiae summatim enarrantur et modesto examini subjectae vel approbantur vel repelluntur4 #f #ace pp4 ,later editions #agfe1 #aggd1 #agib1 #ahji4 ,the last two were brought out under the care of ,ammon4 #g ,four parts4 ,parts i4 and ii4 form the first volume 7#dbd pp471 part iii4 vol4 ii4 7#cif pp471 part iv4 vol4 iii4 7#cif pp474 ,part i4 is occupied with the general principles of exegesis1 part ii4 with the text of the ,old ,testament1 parts iii4 and iv4 with that of the ,new ,testament4 #h ,four volumes4 ,the first 7in the reprint of #aggf1 #ccc pp473 ,on the natural conception of ,scripture4 ,the second 7in the first edition1 #aggb1 #fjh pp473 ,on ,inspiration and the ,canon1 ,answers to criticisms and attacks4 ,third 7#ast ed41 #aggc1 #efg pp473 ,on the ,history of the ,canon1 ,answers to criticisms and attacks4 ,the fourth 7#agge1 #dfj pp47 is wholly occupied by an answer to the work of a certain ,dr4 ,schubert4 ,this often mentioned but little read work does not therefore present exactly the appearance that might be expected from its title4 ,the polemical replies occupy a much larger space than the original arguments4 #i #bih pp4 ,a striking and brilliantly written work4 #aj ,paraphrasis ,epistolae ad ,romanos 4 4 4 cum ,dissertatione de ,appendice1 capp4 xv4 et xvi41 #agfi1 #caa pp4 7,dedicated to ,johann ,august ,ernesti47 ,paraphrasis in ,primam ,pauli ad ,corinthios ,epistolam1 #aggj1 #edj pp4 7,dedicated to ,johann ,david ,michaelis47 ,paraphrasis ,,ii4 ,epistolae ad ,corinthios1 #aggf1 #chh pp4 ,each of these works contains a preface of some length on the principles of historical exegesis4 ,as a specimen of the paraphrase we may quote that of ,rom4 vi4 ,i3 ,jam si haec est ,evangelii tam exoptata hominibusque cunctis tam frugifera doctrina1 num audebimus statuere1 perseverare nos tamen posse in ista peccandi consuetudine1 ut quasi eo fiat amplior gratiae divinae locus8 #aa ,johann ,david ,michaelis1 ,einleitung in die ,schriften des ,neuen ,bundes1 #ast ed41 #agej4 ,in its successive editions this work dominates the theology of all the latter half of the eighteenth century2 at the beginning of the nineteenth it is superseded by ,eichhorn's ,introduction4 ,the third edition 7#aggg7 contains #acef pp4 ,the ,pauline ,epistles occupy pp4 #ajja-aabh4 #ab bersetzung des ,neuen ,testaments1 #agij1 #eff pp4 ,anmerkungen fr ,ungelehrte zu seiner bersetzung des ,neuen ,testaments1 #d vols41 #agij-ib4 ,the ,pauline ,epistles are treated in vols4 iii4 and iv4 #ac ,friedrich ,ernst ,david ,schleiermacher1 ber den sogenannten ersten ,brief des ,paulus an den ,timotheus4 ,ein kritisches ,sendschreiben an ,joachim ,christian ,gass1 #ahjg4 ,in his complete works this is to be found in the second volume of the first division1 #ahcf1 pp4 #bbc-cbj4 #ad ,johann ,gottfried ,eichhorn1 ,historisch-kritische ,einleitung in das ,neue ,testament1 #ast ed41 vol4 iii41 second half 7#ahad71 pp4 #cae-daj4 ,eichhorn points out that he had recognised the spuriousness of the three ,pastoral ,epistles1 and had expressed his conviction in his ,university lectures before ,schleiermacher published his criticisms of the ,first ,epistle of ,timothy4 #ae ,leonhard ,usteri1 ,die ,entwicklung des paulinischen ,lehrbegriffs1 #ahbd1 #aia pp4 ,the editions of #ahbi1 #ahcj1 and #ahcb were revised by the author1 who died in #ahcc4 ,after his death two more appeared 7#ahcd1 #ahea74 ,reference may be made also to ,usteri's 8,commentary on the ,epistle to the ,galatians10 #ahcc1 #beb pp4 #af ,the first work which undertook to give an account of the ,apostle's system of thought as such is ,gottlob ,wilhelm ,meyer's ,entwicklung des paulinischen ,lehrbegriffs1 #ahja1 #chj pp4 ,the author has collected the material well1 but does not know in what direction ,paul's peculiarity lies4 #ag ,of the works which criticise ,usteri and mark an advance in ,pauline study the following may be named3-- ,karl ,schrader1 ,der ,apostel ,paulus2 vols4 i41 #ahcj 7#bfd pp471 and ii41 #ahcb 7#cgc pp471 deal with the life of the ,apostle ,paul2 vol4 iii41 #ahcc 7#cca pp471 with the doctrine2 vols4 iv41 #ahce 7#dij pp471 and v41 #ahcf 7#egd pp471 contain the exposition of the ,epistles4 ,august ,ferdinand ,dhne1 ,entwicklung des paulinischen ,lehrbegriffs1 #ahce1 #baa pp4 ,mention may also be made of the chapter on ,paulinism in ,j4 ,a4 ,w4 ,neander's ,geschichte der ,pflanzung und ,leitung der christlichen ,kirche durch die ,apostel1 #ast ed41 #ahcb2 #bnd ed41 #ast vol41 #ahch 7#dcc pp474 ,paul is treated in pp4 #ajb-dcc2 #dth ed41 #ahdg2 #eth1 #ahfb4 ,as typical of the exegesis of the period prior to ,baur may be mentioned the ,commentaries of ,w4 ,m4 ,l4 de ,wette on ,romans 7#bnd ed471 #ahch2 #a and #b ,corinthians1 #ahda2 ,galatians and ,thessalonians1 #ahda4 #ah ,h4 ,e4 ,g4 ,paulus1 ,des ,apostels ,paulus ,lehrbriefe an die ,galater- und ,rmer-,christen1 #ahca1 #cfh pp4 ,,notes ,,for ,,chapter ,,ii ,,baur ,,and ,,his ,,critics #ai ,albert ,schwegler1 ,das nachapostolische ,zeitalter in den ,hauptmomenten seiner ,entwicklung 78,the ,post-,apostolic ,age in the main ,features of its ,development071 #ahdf1 vol4 i4 #ebb pp41 vol4 ii4 #cib pp4 ,in the writings which mark the course of the development of ,paulinism three groups are distinguished4 ,to the first1 the apologetic group1 belongs the ,first ,epistle of ,peter2 to the second1 the conciliatory writings1 are to be reckoned the ,gospel of ,luke1 the ,acts of the ,apostles1 the ,first ,epistle of ,clement1 and the ,epistle to the ,philippians2 the third is represented by the catholicising writings1 the ,pastorals1 the ,letter of ,polycarp1 and the ,ignatian ,letters4 #bj ,albrecht ,ritschl1 ,die ,entstehung der altkatholischen ,kirche1 eine kirchen- und dogmengeschichtliche ,monographie1 #ahej1 #fbb pp42 #bnd ed41 #aheg1 #fje pp4 #ba ,gotthard ,viktor ,lechler1 ,das apostolische und das nachapostolische ,zeitalter mit ,rcksicht auf ,unterschied und ,einheit in ,lehre und ,leben 7 4 4 4 with special reference to their difference and unity in life and doctrine71 #ast ed41 #aheb2 #bnd ed41 #aheg1 #ecf pp4 ,the portion dealing with ,paul is pp4 #cc-aed2 in the #crd ed41 #ahhe 7#fce pp47 ,paul is treated on pp4 #bfi-djg4 ,in the first two editions the whole of the ,pauline epistles are regarded as genuine2 in the third the author no longer ventures to treat the ,pastorals as on the same footing with the other ,epistles4 ,the very clearly and comprehensively stated problem is printed at the beginning4 #bb ,die paulinische ,rechtfertigungslehre1 #ahec1 #bai pp4 #bc ,in #ahej1 ,beitrge zur ,erklrung der ,korinthesbriefe1 pp4 #aci-ahe4 ,continued in #aheb1 pp4 #a-dj and #ece-egd4 ,in #ahee1 ,die beiden ,briefe an die ,thessalonicher2 ihre ,achtheit und ,bedeutung fr die ,lehre der ,parusie ,christi1 pp4 #ada-afh 7 4 4 4 their genuineness and their significance for the doctrine of the parousia of ,christ74 ,in #aheg1 ber ,zweck und ,gedankengang des ,rmerbriefs nebst der ,errterung einiger paulinischen ,begriffe1 pp4 #fj-ajh and #ahd-bji 78,on the ,purpose and the ,argument of ,romans1 with a ,discussion of certain ,pauline ,conceptions407 #bd ,paulus der ,apostel ,jesu ,christi1 #bnd ed41 edited by ,zeller1 #ahff-ahfg1 vol4 i4 #dfi pp41 revised by ,baur2 vol4 ii4 #cgf pp4 contains a reprint of the chapter on ,paul's doctrine from the first edition4 #be ,vorlesungen ber neutestamentliche ,theologie4 ,published by ,ferdinand ,friedrich ,baur1 #ahfd1 #djg pp4 ,pages #abh-bjg deal with the doctrinal system of ,paul4 ,,notes ,,for ,,chapter ,,iii ,,from ,,baur ,,to ,,holtzmann #bf ,die ,pastoralbriefe kritisch und exegetisch behandelt1 #ahhj1 #ejd pp4 ,adolf ,harnack 7in ,die ,chronologie der altchristlichen ,literatur bis ,eusebius1 vol4 i41 #ahig1 #gcb pp4--on ,paul1 #bcc-bci7 is disposed to regard the personal notices of the ,pastorals as genuine with the aid of the hypothesis of the second imprisonment4 #bg ,kritik der ,epheser- und ,kolosserbriefe1 #ahgb1 #cch pp4 #bh ,einleitung in das ,neue ,testament1 #ahhe2 #bnd ed41 #ahhf2 #crd ed41 #ahib4 ,second ,thessalonians1 ,ephesians1 and the ,pastoral ,epistles1 spurious2 ,colossians1 worked over4 ,a similar critical stand-point is occupied by ,adolf ,jlicher1 ,einleitung in das ,neue ,testament1 #ahid1 #djd pp4 ,the ,pauline ,epistles are treated in pp4 #ai-abh4 ,a mediating position is taken up by ,e4 ,reuss1 ,geschichte der heiligen ,schriften ,neuen ,testaments 7#eth ed41 #ahgd1 #ceb pp42 #fth ed41 #ahhg74 ,all that can be said in favour of the genuineness of the ,pastorals and #b ,thessalonians is set forth with the greatest completeness1 since the author is very reluctant to give up these writings4 ,see the same author's ,histoire de la thologie chrtienne au sicle apostolique 7#aheb2 #bnd ed41 #ahfj1 #b vols41 i4 #dhi pp41 ii4 #fbi pp4 ,paulinism is treated in vol4 ii41 #c-bfb2 #crd ed41 #ahfd74 ,mild polemic against ,baur4 ,another mediating work is ,willibald ,beyschlag's ,neutestamentliche ,theologie1 #ahia2 #bnd ed41 #ahif4 ,only the ,pastorals spurious4 ,a conservative stand-point is occupied by ,bernhard ,weiss1 ,einleitung in das ,neue ,testament1 #ahhf1 #feb pp4 ,paul and his ,epistles occupy pp4 #aab-ccb4 ,the ,pastoral ,epistles are saved by the hypothesis of the second imprisonment4 #b ,thessalonians and ,ephesians are held to be genuine 7#crd ed41 #ahig1 #fag pp474 ,conservative also is ,theodor ,zahn1 ,einleitung in das ,neue ,testament1 #ast ed41 #ahig1 vol4 i41 #dhi pp4 ,pauline ,epistles1 pp4 #aji-dhi4 ,ch4 ,k4 v4 ,hofmann in his ,einleitung 7pt4 ix4 of 8,die ,heilige ,schrift10 edited by ,volck1 #ahha1 #daa pp4 ,pauline ,epistles1 #a-bjj7 proposes by means of the hypothesis of a liberation of the ,apostle from his first imprisonment to make not only the ,pastorals1 but also the ,epistle to the ,hebrews genuine4 ,that #b ,thessalonians and ,ephesians are genuine is for him self-evident4 ,frdric ,godet too 7,introduction au ,nouveau ,testament1 #ahic1 #gcg pp47 regards all thirteen ,epistles as genuine4 #bi ,typical in this respect is the procedure of ,bernhard ,weiss in his ,neutestamentliche ,theologie 7#ahfh74 ,he treats the doctrine of the ,epistles of the imprisonment and that of the ,pastorals by themselves after he has developed that of the main ,epistles1 although he regards them all as ,pauline4 #cj ,kritik der paulinischen ,briefe1 #c pts41 #ahej1 #gd pp42 #ahea1 #gf pp42 #aheb1 #abi pp42 ,christus und die ,csaren1 #ahgg1 #chg pp4 #ca ,beitrge zur ,kritik der paulinischen ,briefe an die ,galater1 ,rmer ,philipper und ,kolosser4 ,edited by ,e4 ,sulze1 #ahfg1 #fe pp4 #cb ,ldemann was opposed by ,h4 ,h4 ,wendt in his work ,die ,begriffe ,fleisch und ,geist im biblischen ,sprachgebrauch1 #ahgh1 #bai pp4 ,at the suggestion of ,ritschl he undertook to prove that the meaning of these two words confined itself 8within the boundaries set by ,old ,testament usage10 and that therefore the assumption of ,greek influence was unnecessary4 #cc ,otto ,pfleiderer1 ,das ,urchristentum1 #ahhg4 #cd ,auguste ,sabatier1 ,l',aptre ,paul1 esquisse d'une histoire de sa pense1 #ahgj1 #bif pp4 7#bnd ed41 #ahha2 #crd ed41 #ahig74 #ce ,das ,evangelium des ,paulus1 pt4 #b 7edited by ,mehlhorn71 #ahih1 #agb pp4 #cf ,p4 #ca4 #cg ,zum ,evangelium des ,paulus und des ,petrus1 #ahfh1 #ddg pp4 ,in this work the author collects some of his earlier and later essays4 ,the following are its component parts1 8,paul's ,vision of ,christ0 7#ahfa71 8,peter's ,vision of the ,messiah0 7#ahfh71 8,contents and ,argument of the ,epistle to the ,galatians0 7#ahei71 8,the ,significance of the word 7flesh7 in ,paul's ,system of ,doctrine0 7#ahee74 ,the collection is dedicated to ,f4 ,c4 ,baur1 8who though dead yet lives40 ,in the first part of the work ,das ,evangelium des ,paulus1 #ahhj1 #dih pp41 ,holsten deals with the ,epistle to the ,galatians and the ,first to the ,corinthians4 ,the second part was intended to give an exposition of ,romans and #b ,corinthians and to close with a systematic account of the ,pauline theology4 ,at ,holsten's death only the closing section was found to be ready for printing4 ,it was published in #ahih under the editorship of ,carl ,mehlhorn1 and bears the title 8,carl ,holsten1 ,das ,evangelium des ,paulus1 part ii41 ,paulinische ,theologie10 #agc pp4 ,what was thus published is based on a manuscript prepared for his lectures in the winter session of #ahic-ahid1 and on students' notes4 #ch ,albrecht ,ritschl1 ,die christliche ,lehre von der ,rechtfertigung und ,vershnung1 #ahgd1 vol4 ii4 #cgg pp4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #bae-bei and #cjj-cfi4 #ci ,lehrbuch der biblischen ,theologie des ,neuen ,testaments1 #ast ed4 #ahfh1 #gef pp4 ,on ,paulinism1 pp4 #baf-ejg2 #fth ed4 #ahie1 #fgg pp4 ,on ,paulinism1 #bja-dfc4 #dj ,neutestamentliche ,theologie1 #ast ed4 #ahia2 #bnd ed4 #ahif1 vol4 ii4 #eeb pp4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #a-bhe4 #da ,ch4 ,k4 v4 ,hofmann1 ,biblische ,theologie 7vol4 xi4 of 8,die heilige ,schrift ,neuen ,testaments02 edited by ,volck71 #ahhf1 #cbh pp4 #db ,texte und ,untersuchungen zur ,geschichte der altchristlichen ,kirche1 vol4 v41 #ahhh1 part iv4 ,alfred ,resch1 8,agrapha4 ,ausserkanonische ,evangelienfragmente gesammelt und untersucht10 #dhj pp4 ,the 8logia0 numbered #ac-df he holds1 on the evidence of echoes in the letters1 to have been known to ,paul4 ,see pp4 #aeb-bdc4 #dc ,die paulinische ,lehre vom ,gesetz 78,the ,pauline ,doctrine of the ,law074 ,based on the four main ,epistles1 #ahhd1 #bf pp4 ,the second edition 7#ahic1 #cc pp47 is a revision of the first1 but in the results arrived at both agree4 #dd ,neutestamentliche ,zeitgeschichte4 ,in the second edition the work bears the title ,geschichte des jdischen ,volkes im ,zeitalter ,jesu ,christi 7,english ,translation3 8,history of the ,jewish ,people in the ,time of ,jesus ,christ10 ,edinburgh1 #ahhe74 ,the second volume deals with the literature and the various currents of thought4 ,there have since appeared a third and fourth edition4 #de ,system der altsynagogalen palstinensischen ,theologie aus ,targum1 ,midrasch und ,talmud dargestellt1 #cii pp4 7,edited after the author's death by ,delitzsch and ,schnedermann47 ,the second edition 7#ahig1 #dbg pp47 bears the title ,jdische ,theologie auf ,grund des ,talmud und verwandter ,schriften 78,jewish ,theology described on the ,basis of the ,talmud and cognate ,writings074 ,the earlier literature is referred to in ,hans ,vollmer's ,die alttestamentlichen ,zitate bei ,paulus 7#ahie71 #ha pp4 #df ,a typical utterance is that of ,j4 ,wellhausen 7,israelitische und jdische ,geschichte1 #fth ed4 #aijg1 #chf pp471 8,paul has not been able to free himself from the ,rabbinic methods of exegesis4 ,he employs it in his arguments1 especially in connexion with justification by faith4 ,but the inner essence of his religious conviction was not affected by it40 #dg ,paulus des ,apostels ,brief an die ,rmer in das ,hebrische bersetzt1 und aus ,talmud und ,midrasch erlutert1 #ahgj1 #abb pp4 ,at the beginning the author gives an interesting review of previous ,hebrew translations of the whole ,new ,testament or of single books4 ,he also refers to the ,rabbinic reasoning in the apostle's arguments4 ,the illustrations from the ,rabbinic literature1 pp4 #gc-ajj1 follow the translation4 ,he expects as a result of this translation that it will bring into prominence the ,old ,testament1 ,rabbinic1 and ,hellenistic elements in the early ,christian modes of thought and expression4 ,earlier attempts to point out ,rabbinic parallels to ,pauline ideas were made by ,lightfoot1 ,surenhus1 ,schttgen1 ,meuschen1 and ,nork4 ,information about this literature will be found in ,hans ,vollmer's work 7,die alttestamentlichen ,zitate bei ,paulus1 #ahie1 pp4 #hj1 #ha74 #dh ,a good general idea of the ,rabbinic literature as a whole is given by ,bousset in his work ,die ,religion des ,judentums im neutestamentlichen ,zeitalter1 #aijc1 #bnd ed41 #aijf1 pp4 #de-ec4 #di ,among the few scholars who stem the tide of conventional stupidity ,frederick ,spitta deserves a foremost place4 ,in his printed works1 no doubt--those in question are ,der zweite ,brief des ,petrus und der ,brief des ,judas 7#ahhe1 #edd pp47 and the studies ,zur ,geschichte und ,literatur des ,urchristentums 7vol4 i4 #ahic2 vol4 ii4 #ahif7--;he is chiefly engaged in maintaining the general thesis that the earliest ,christian literature shows much more dependence on the ,late-,jewish than is generally admitted4 ,a detailed proof of this kind for the ,pauline letters has only been given in his exegetical lectures1 which have not been published4 ,the stimulus which he gave to others is clearly apparent in the literature of the nineties4 ,kabisch's study of the eschatology of ,paul 7#ahic7 is partly based on the foundation which he had prepared4 #ej ,die paulinische ,angelologie und ,dmonologie1 #ahhh1 #abf pp4 #ea ,die ,eschatologie des ,paulus in ihren ,zusammenhngen mit dem ,gesamtbegriff des ,paulinismus 7 444 in its relations with the general conception of ,paulinism71 #ahic1 #cch pp4 ,the work is dedicated to ,friedrich ,spitta4 ,after a historical introduction1 the principal passages which come into question are examined4 ,after that the eschatology is developed according to its contents and motives1 and in the process its relations with the various doctrines of the ,pauline theology come up for discussion4 #eb ,he did not1 unfortunately1 follow it up with the work on the ,ethics4 #ec ,the eschatological character of the ,pauline mysticism is also pointed out by ,paul ,wernle in his suggestive study ,der ,christ und die ,snde bei ,paulus 7#ahig1 #ach pp471 but he does not follow out the idea in all its consequences4 ,a certain recognition of the 8physical0 character of the doctrine of redemption is also arrived at by ,adolf ,deissmann4 ,in his study1 ,die neutestamentliche ,formel 8in ,christo ,jesu0 7#ahib1 #acf pp47 he comes to the conviction that ,paul had created the formula on the analogy of a linguistic usage already obtaining in non-biblical ,greek1 and intended in using it to indicate the relation to ,christ as an existence within the pneumatic ,christ which was to be locally conceived4 ,he does not1 however1 think of explaining it from eschatology4 ,the old psychologising and spiritualising methods are in no way departed from by ,w4 ,brandt4 ,in his work1 ,die evangelische ,geschichte und der ,ursprung des ,christentums 78,the ,gospel ,history and the ,origin of ,christianity10 #ahic1 #eia pp42 on ,paul1 pp4 #eae-ebd71 he maintains that it was the visions of the disciples which first made ,jesus into the ,messiah4 ,paul1 he thinks1 8in his profound reflexion over his conversion1 came to think of this revolution in his life as a dying and rising again of his inner man40 #ed ,georg ,heinrici1 ,auslegung der ,korintherbriefe 7,i ,cor41 #ahhj1 #egd pp42 #b ,cor41 #ahhg1 #fjf pp474 #ee ,p4 ,w4 ,schmiedel1 8,auslegung der ,briefe an die ,thessalonicher und ,korinther10 in ,holtzmann's ,handkommentar1 vol4 ii4 section i42 #ast ed41 #ahia2 #bnd ed41 #ahib4 #ef ,dogmengeschichte1 #crd ed41 #ahid1 vol4 i4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #hc-ie4 ,friedrich ,loofs in his ,dogmengeschichte 7#ahij1 #ddc pp47 takes up no definite attitude towards the ,pauline problem4 ,reinhold ,seeberg1 too 7,dogmengeschichte1 first half1 #ahie1 #ccb pp471 does not go into the doctrine of the ,apostle4 #eg ,r4 ,a4 ,lipsius1 8,auslegung der ,briefe an die ,galater1 ,rmer und ,philipper10 in ,holtzmann's ,handkommentar1 vol4 ii4 section i4 #ast ed41 #ahia2 #bnd ed41 #ahib4 ,this commentator's position is indicated by the following remarks3 8,the great antithesis between flesh and spirit gradually forces out the ,jewish conceptions one after another1 though it is not right to say that ,hebrew ideas are driven out by ,hellenic ones4 ,when ,paul goes outside the circle of ,old ,testament views he does so in consequence of a deeper ethical grasp of the originally ,hebrew antithesis between flesh and spirit1 not by a borrowing of ,greek ideas40 #eh ,das apostolische ,zeitalter1 #ahhf1 pp4 #aje-aea4 #ei ,it is most clearly developed by ,holsten on pp4 #cg and #ch of the second part of his ,evangelium des ,paulus1 #ahif4 #fj ,vol4 i41 #ahhj2 vol4 ii41 #ahhg4 ,see especially the ,introduction and the ,epilogue to vol4 ii4 #fa ,in ,phil4 i4 #ba f4 the reference is to an inner struggle which the ,apostle experiences4 ,he desires to depart and be with ,christ1 which1 indeed1 would be much better1 but he knows that to remain in the flesh is more needful for the sake of his churches4 ,from this conviction he draws the confident conclusion that he will remain with them for their progress and joy in the faith4 ,in ,phil4 iii4 #h he declares that he has counted all things but loss in order to win ,christ and be found in ,him1 to know ,him and the power of ,his resurrection and the fellowship of ,his sufferings1 to be conformed unto ,his death1 if so be that he might attain 787 to the resurrection of the dead4 ,both passages are certainly obscure1 and do not to a literal interpretation yield any satisfactory meaning4 ,one feels that the logic of these close-packed assertions is not self-evident1 but must somehow depend on presuppositions of which the basis is not here given4 ,it cannot1 however1 be maintained that the assumption of a spiritualising hope regarding the future makes all clear4 #fb ,an allusion to the passage in ,faust1 8,zwei ,seelen wohnen1 ach1 in meiner ,brust40--,,translator4 #fc ,ernst ,teichmann1 ,die paulinischen ,vorstellungen von ,auferstehung und ,gericht und ihre ,beziehung zur jdischen ,apokalyptik 78,the ,pauline ,conceptions of ,resurrection and ,judgment and their relation to ,jewish ,apocalyptic071 #ahif1 #abe pp4 ,akin to ,teichmann's study is that of ,c4 ,bruston1 8,la ,vie future d'aprs ,st ,paul0 in the ,revue de ,thologie et de ,philosophie 7,lausanne71 #ahid1 pp4 #ejf-ecj4 ,the author maintains that ,paul had never really held the conceptions connected with the resurrection of the dead at the parousia1 but had always thought 8spiritually0 and assumed a passing into glory immediately after death4 ,but while in his earlier writings he still used certain expressions borrowed from the 8,rabbinic eschatology10 later he quite abandoned these4 #fd ,hermann ,gunkel1 ,die ,wirkungen des ,heiligen ,geistes nach der populren ,anschauung der apostolischen ,zeit und nach der ,lehre des ,apostels ,paulus 78,the ,manifestations of the ,holy ,spirit according to the ,popular ,view of the ,apostolic ,age and according to the ,doctrine of the ,apostle ,paul071 #ahhh1 #aaj pp4 ,shortly before that appeared the purely biblico-theological treatment of it by ,johannes ,glol1 ,der ,heilige ,geist in der ,heilsverkndigung des ,paulus 78,the ,holy ,spirit in ,paul's ,preaching of ,salvation071 #ahhh1 #djb pp4 ,it keeps entirely to description and does not enter into the question regarding the origin and innermost essence of the ,pauline doctrine4 ,pfleiderer's view is1 however1 called in question4 #fe ,urchristentum1 #ahhg4 ,similarly ,heinrici in his commentary on #b ,corinthians4 #ff ,f4 ,c4 ,baur1 ,vorlesungen ber die christliche ,dogmengeschichte 78,lectures on the ,history of ,dogma071 vol4 i4 ,from the apostolic period to the synod of ,nicaea1 #ahfe 7edited by ,ferdinand ,friedrich ,baur74 #fg ,dogmengeschichte1 #ahhe1 vol4 i42 #crd ed41 #ahid2 #dth ed41 #aiji4 ,wilhelm ,karl1 too1 in his ,beitrge zum ,verstndnis der soteriologischen ,erfahrungen und ,spekulationen des ,apostels ,paulus 78,contributions to the ,understanding of the ,soteriological ,experiences and ,speculations of the ,apostle ,paul10 #ahii1 #aaf pp471 does not feel obliged to have recourse to ,greek thought in order to explain the ,apostle's doctrine4 ,he offers a thorough and independent analysis of the system which in many points is much superior to the ordinary view4 #fh ,edwin ,hatch1 ,hibbert ,lectures on 8,the ,influence of ,greek ,ideas and ,usages upon the ,christian ,church40 ,the work was translated into ,german by ,erwin ,preuschen in #ahib4 ,its divisions are3 7i47 ,introductory1 7ii47 ,greek culture1 7iii47 ,greek and ,christian ,exegesis1 7iv47 ,rhetoric1 7v47 ,philosophy1 7vi47 ,ethics1 7vii4-ix47 ,theology1 7x47 ,mysteries1 7xi47 ,corpus doctrinae1 7xii47 ,the ,transformation of the basis of ,christian ,unity3 ,doctrine in the ,place of ,conduct4 #fi i4e4 as used in this connexion1 here and later1 the belief in the universal destination of the ,gospel1 not in universal salvation4 #gj ,paulus in ,athen4 ,collected ,essays1 vol4 ii41 #ahid1 pp4 #ebg-edc ,in this essay the author seeks to exhibit with some fulness the view1 which seems to him self-evident1 that the ,apostle was filled with the ,hellenic spirit4 #ga ,preface to his ,exposition of #b ,corinthians1 #ahhg4 #gb ,holtzmann's ,handkommentar1 #bnd ed4 ,the ,epistles to the ,corinthians1 p4 #ib4 #gc ,emil ,friedrich ,kautzsch1 ,de veteris ,testamenti locis a ,paulo ,apostolo allegatis1 #ahfi1 #aaj pp4 #gd ,hans ,vollmer1 ,die alttestamentlichen ,zitate bei ,paulus 4 4 4 nebst einem ,anhang ber das ,verhltnis des ,apostels zu ,philo1 #ahie1 #ajc pp4 78,the ,old ,testament quotations in ,paul 4 4 4 with an ,appendix on the ,apostle's relation to ,philo074 #ge ,the author has had occasion to observe this in ,alsatian theologians and in himself4 ,one who is equally familiar with ,french and ,german will never1 either in preaching or in conversation1 give his own version of ,biblical passages1 but will without exception keep to the traditional form in the language which he is using1 and this even where he would be capable of giving a more exact rendering4 ,and in preaching he will turn to account the peculiarities of the wording of the version1 if it lends itself to his thought1 and will even perhaps use an argument which goes against the sense of the original1 which he is supposed to be acquainted with--exactly as ,paul does4 #gf ,eduard ,grafe1 ,das ,verhltnis der paulinischen ,schriften zur ,sapientia ,salamonis 78,the ,relation of the ,pauline ,writings to the ,book of ,wisdom071 in the ,theological ,essays dedicated to ,carl von ,weizscker on his seventieth birthday1 #ahib1 pp4 #bea-bhf4 #gg ber das ,verhltnis des ,apostels zu ,philo1 an appendix to his work on ,die alttestamentlichen ,zitate bei ,paulus1 #ahie1 pp4 #hj-ih4 ,see also ,carl ,siegfried1 ,philo von ,alexandria als ,ausleger des alten ,testaments an sich selbst und nach seinem geschichtlichen ,einfluss betrachtet 78,philo of ,alexandria as an ,expositor of ,scripture1 considered both in ,himself and in ,regard to his ,historical ,influence071 #ahge1 #dah pp4 ,in pp4 #cjd-aj thoughts and passages are cited from ,paul which are supposed to show affinity with ,philo4 ,the resemblance is1 however1 so general and colourless that it cannot be considered as proving anything4 ,the author quotes the passages without drawing any conclusion4 #gh ,ernst ,curtius in the essay cited above defends the historicity of ,acts xvii4 #gi ,w4 ,gass1 ,geschichte der christlichen ,ethik1 #ahha1 vol4 i4 #deg pp4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #cd-ch4 ,theobald ,ziegler1 ,geschichte der christlichen ,ethik1 #ahhf1 #eic pp4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #gb-ij4 #hj ,fr4 ,th4 ,l4 ,ernesti1 ,die ,ethik des ,apostels ,paulus1 #ahfh1 #aee pp42 #crd ed41 #ahhj4 #ha ,the ,christian character of ,seneca's thought was remarked as early as ,tertullian1 who in de ,anima1 xx41 when he quotes a phrase from him1 describes him as 8saepe noster40 ,augustine and ,jerome know of a correspondence between ,seneca and the ,apostle4 ,from the literature we may mention the following works3 ,amde ,fleury1 ,saint ,paul et ,snque4 ,recherches sur les rapports du philosophe avec l'aptre et sur l'infiltration du ,christianisme naissant travers le paganisme1 #b vols41 #ahec1 #djd and #chc pp4 ,seneca is supposed to have drawn on ,paul4 ,at the end of the second part the correspondence between them is printed4 ,the work is uncritical in character4 ,johann ,kreyher1 ,l4 ,annaeus ,seneca und seine ,beziehungen zur ,urchristentum 7 4 4 4 and his relations with early ,christianity71 #ahhg1 #aih pp4 ,seneca is supposed to have had some relations with ,christianity in ,rome even before the ,apostle's coming1 and thenceforward to have entered into a close relationship with him4 ,charles ,aubertin1 tude critique sur les rapports supposs entre ,snque et ,st ,paul1 #aheg1 #ddb pp4 ,all connexion between ,seneca and ,christianity is denied4 ,in the work of ,michael ,baumgarten1 ,lucius ,annaeus ,seneca und das ,christentum 7#ahie1 #cfh pp47 no connexion between ,seneca and ,paul is admitted4 #hb ,see ,theodor ,zahn1 ,der ,stoiker ,epiktet und sein ,verhltnis zum ,christentum4 ,a ,rectorial address at ,erlangen1 #ahid1 #bg pp4 ,the lecture offers proof that in spite of many resemblances of expression and in spite of his acquaintance with ,christianity1 the teaching of ,epictetus contains nothing which really connects it with the new religion4 ,inconceivable as it may appear1 even the ,meditations of ,marcus ,aurelius--of the second half of the second century--have been sometimes cited to prove the ,greek character of ,paul's religious thought4 #hc ,theodor ,simon1 ,die ,psychologie des ,apostels ,paulus1 #ahig1 #aah pp4 ,a leisurely analysis of the material4 ,,notes ,,for ,,chapter ,,iv ,h4 ,j4 ,,holtzmann #hd ,in connexion with the following remarks on questions of principle1 see also ,w4 ,wrede1 ber ,aufgabe und ,methode der sogenannten ,neutestamentlichen ,theologie1 #ahig1 #hj pp4 ,the essay discusses the plan and arrangement of ,holtzmann's work4 ,on p4 #cb ,wrede remarks3 8,the treatment is far too much influenced by the desire to include all kinds of opinions from other writers4 ,to a large extent my objections have to do with these methodological questions40 #he ,holtzmann1 p4 #aaa4 #hf ,cf4 #b ,cor4 xi4 #f1 where ,paul speaks of himself as 8inexpert in speech1 but not in knowledge0 7 74 ,see also ,i ,cor4 i4 #e1 viii4 ,i2 ,phil4 i4 #i1 etc4 8,gnostic0 is used above in the general sense of one who lays stress on theoretic religious knowledge4--,,translator4 ,,notes ,,for ,,chapter ,v ,,critical ,,questions ,,and ,,hypotheses #hg ,die ,apostelgeschichte1 #ahej1 #adc pp4 ,acts1 it is argued1 is a work of 8free reflexion0 in which various hands have had a part4 ,kritik der paulinischen ,briefe1 part i41 ,the ,origin of ,galatians 7#ahej1 #gd pp472 part ii41 ,the ,origin of ,i ,corinthians 7#ahea1 #gf pp472 part iii41 #b ,corinthians1 ,romans1 the ,pastoral ,epistles1 ,thessalonians1 ,ephesians1 ,colossians1 and ,philippians 7#aheb1 #abi pp474 ,the greater part of the epistles were not written until after ,acts4 ,certainly ,galatians is later4 ,i ,corinthians is earlier than ,acts1 and is doubtless drawn from common sources4 ,the first to venture an attack on one of the main ,epistles was ,edward ,evanson1 ,the ,dissonance of the four generally received ,evangelists1 and the evidence of their respective authenticity examined 7translated into ,dutch1 #agif71 who holds ,romans1 as well as ,hebrews1 ,colossians1 and ,ephesians1 to be spurious4 ,further information regarding this1 as it seems1 rather rare book would be desirable4 ,whether any great critical importance is to be attached to it remains questionable4 ,evanson 7#agca-ahje71 a ,cambridge graduate1 vicar of ,tewkesbury1 adopted ,unitarian views1 and resigned his living in #aggh4 ,his grounds for rejecting ,romans are1 the difficulty about the existence of a church at ,rome prior to ,paul's visit1 the number of greetings in chapter xvi41 and supposed references to the destruction of ,jerusalem in xi4 #ab1 #ae1 #ba1 #bb4 ,the treatment of the ,epistles is much slighter than that of the ,gospels1 where he shows some insight into the difficulties of what is now known as the ,synoptic problem4 ,the ,dissonance made some stir1 and was answered by ,joseph ,priestley in ,letters to a ,young ,man1 #agib-ic1 and by ,t4 ,falconer1 ,bampton ,lecture1 #ahaj4--,,translator4 #hh ,see ,a4 ,schweitzer1 ,von ,reimarus zu ,wrede1 pp4 #acg-aei 7,eng4 trans41 ,the ,quest of the ,historical ,jesus1 pp4 #acg-afj74 #hi ,christus und die ,csaren1 #ahgg1 #chg pp4 ,what the diffusely told story of the ,roman court has to do with the origin of ,christianity has certainly never been quite clear to any reader4 ,in attempting to describe its contents one is never quite certain whether the author's meaning has been rightly represented4 #ij ,a spiritual descendant of ,bauer's who writes on popular lines is ,albert ,kalthoff 7,die ,entstehung des ,christentums1 #aijd1 #aee pp474 ,but neither as regards the problem nor its solution has he contributed anything to ,pauline scholarship4 #ia ,allard ,pierson1 ,de ,bergrede en andere synoptische ,fragmenten1 #ahgh1 #bfj pp42 on ,paul1 #ih-aab4 ,with his doubt of the ,epistles the author associates a doubt of the ,gospels1 and asks whether ,christianity as they represent it can have been founded by a historical ,jesus4 #ib ,a4 ,pierson and ,s4 ,a4 ,naber1 ,verisimilia4 ,laceram conditionem ,novi ,testamenti exemplis illustrarunt et ab origine repetierunt1 #ahhf1 #bie pp4 ,the work gives a running analysis of the letters in the course of which very interesting questions are thrown out4 ,why is nothing said about the earthly life of ,jesus8 ,why is no trace of the influence of this ,paul's thought to be found in history8 ,do the various characteristics and actions of his which are recorded show us a character which is at all intelligible8 ,the authors assume that the ,jewish movement which led up to 8,christianity0 at first had only to do with the ,messianic belief in general4 ,only later1 through the blending of ,greek myths with ,isaiah liii41 did the belief arise that the expected ,messiah had already come and had passed through death and resurrection4 ,the analysis of the ,pauline ,epistles is followed by essays upon the ,paul of ,acts and some chapters on the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,the close is formed by an essay on the gradual origin of the conception of ,christ in the ,new ,testament4 ,the theory that ,christianity developed out of an already existing ,jewish movement is maintained also by ,m4 ,friedlnder in his popular and unimportant work1 ,das ,judentum in der vorchristlichen griechischen ,welt1 a contribution towards explaining the origin of ,christianity 7#ahig1 #gd pp474 ,the opposition between a conservative and a freer tendency as regards the law1 which appear in the primitive ,church1 are here held to have appeared previously in the ,judaism from which ,christianity originated4 #ic ,a4 ,d4 ,loman1 8,quaestiones ,paulinae10 ,theol4 ,tijdschrift1 #ahhb1 pp4 #ada-ahe1 #cjb-cbh1 #deb-dhg2 #ahhc1 pp4 #ad-ea4 #ahhf1 #db-aac 7,dutch74 ,in the prologue he tells us about the first impression which ,bauer's criticism of the ,pauline epistles made upon him3 8,with an ,apage ,satana6 ,i took leave of this antipathetic critic1 firmly resolved to take no further notice of him40 ,the order followed is to treat first the relation of ,acts to ,galatians1 then to discuss the 8necessary proofs0 of the genuineness of this work1 while the witnesses from the literature1 and the history of the ,canon1 are examined later1 in the second part1 #ahhf4 #id ,rudolf ,steck1 ,der ,galaterbrief nach seiner ,echtheit untersucht nebst kritischen ,bemerkungen zu den paulinischen ,hauptbriefen 78,the ,epistle to the ,galatians examined with ,reference to its ,genuineness1 with critical ,remarks on the main ,pauline ,epistles071 #ahhh1 #chf pp4 ,the examination of ,galatians goes only as far as p4 #aea2 the remaining chapters deal with the order of the main ,epistles1 the relation of ,paul to the ,gospels1 the quotations from the ,old ,testament found in the ,epistles1 the affinities with ,philo and ,seneca1 the marks of later authorship1 the external evidences from the ,new ,testament and from early ,christian literature4 ,in conclusion1 a hypothesis of the origin and development of ,paulinism is sketched4 ,the author tells in the preface the story of his conversion to the ,dutch heresy4 ,at first he dissented from ,loman1 but in the course of repeatedly treating the ,epistle to the ,galatians in his lectures he found to his dismay that he was gradually arriving at the theory of its spuriousness4 ,the views of ,pierson1 ,loman1 and ,steck are critically examined by ,j4 ,m4 ,s4 ,baljon in his ,exegetisch-kritische ,verhandeling over den ,brief van ,paulus an de ,galatirs1 #ahii1 #dbd pp4 #ie ,w4 ,c4 van ,manen1 ,paulus1 #c vols4 7see head of chapter for particulars74 ,the author describes on pp4 #i-aa how he came to reject the ,pauline ,epistles4 #if ,the first epistle of ,clement mentions 7xlvii4 ,i7 8the letter of the blessed ,paul0 to the ,corinthians1 has a direct borrowing from ,romans 7xxxv4 #e the catalogue of vices in ,rom4 i4 #bi-cb71 and in other respects also frequently shows dependence on the main epistles4 ,for the detailed attempt to place it at a later date see ,steck1 #bid-caj4 #ig #b ,peter iii4 #ae-ag1 8,and count the long-suffering of the ,lord as salvation1 as also our beloved brother ,paul1 according to the wisdom given to him1 wrote to you1 as in all his ,epistles when he mentions these things1 in which no doubt occur some things which are difficult to understand1 which the unlearned and unstedfast wrest1 as they do also the other ,scriptures1 to their own destruction40 7,the ,german follows ,weizscker's rendering47 #ih ,as in the present context this phrase might possibly be misleading1 it may be worth pointing out that it is simply an allusion to the famous 8timeo ,danaos et dona ferentes10 ,aen4 ii4 #di4--,,translator4 #ii ,the puzzle in the case of ,justin is that he uses ,pauline phrases1 and therefore seems to know the ,epistles1 but never mentions their author4 ,according to ,steck the explanation of this silence lies in the fact that the ,epistles are1 for the author of the ,apology and the ,dialogue1 mere literary works and not as yet ,church books4 ,the ,didache1 the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 and the ,epistle of ,barnabas show no certain evidence of acquaintance with the ,pauline ,epistles4 #ajj ,tertullian adversus ,marcionem1 bk4 v41 goes through the ,epistles of ,paul as used by ,marcion in those 8,antitheses0 which are now lost to us4 #aja ,theologisch ,tijdschrift1 #ahhg1 pp4 #chb-ecc4 8,marcions ,brief van ,paulus aan de ,galatirs40 ,the text thus arrived at is given on pp4 #ebh-ecc4 ,van ,manen is also inclined to hold that early ,church witnesses may be found for a shorter recension of ,romans4 ,see ,die ,unechtheit des ,rmerbriefs1 #id-ajj4 ,a reconstruction of the ,marcionite text of ,galatians had already been undertaken by ,adolf ,hilgenfeld1 ,der ,galaterbrief1 #aheb1 #bci pp41 pp4 #bah-bcd4 ,he holds that it was not the original but a mutilated form4 #ajb ,even the letter consisting of chapters i4-viii4 is not1 according to van ,manen1 all of a piece1 as is evident1 he thinks1 from the complicated opening salutation1 the vacillating use of 8,jesus ,christ0 and 8,christ ,jesus10 and other peculiarities of detail4 ,one or more treatises--on justification by faith1 on the equal importance of the ,gospel for ,jews and ,gentiles1 on the significance of the law1 on the sense in which believers are entitled to call ,abraham their father even if they are not by birth of his posterity--may have formed the basis of the longer writing4 ,its close was probably formed by ,rom4 xv4 #ad-cc4 ,later on1 the essays which we have in chapters ix4-xi41 xii4-xiv4 and xv4-xvi4 were worked in4 ,the ,epistle is supposed to have undergone several successive redactions4 #ajc ,steck in the introduction to his work gives references to the articles which had appeared up to #ahhh4 ,the chronicles of the following years appear in van ,manen4 ,at the head of the counter-movement among critics in ,holland stood ,j4 ,h4 ,scholten4 ,his work1 ,historisch-critische ,bijdragen naar ,aanleiding van de nieuweste ,hypothese aangaande ,jesus en den ,paulus der vier ,hoofdbrieven 78,contributions to ,historical ,criticism with ,reference to the latest ,hypotheses regarding ,jesus and the ,paul of the four main ,epistles071 #ahhb1 #aah pp41 is directed against ,loman's arguments4 ,from the ,german literature we may cite ,g4 ,heinrici1 ,die ,forschungen ber die paulinischen ,briefe3 ihr gegenwrtiger ,stand und ihre ,aufgaben 78,the ,study of the ,pauline ,letters2 its present ,position1 and ,task074 ,lectures given before the theological conference at ,giessen1 #ahhf1 pp4 #fi-abj4 ,wilhelm ,brckner1 ,die chronologische ,reihenfolge1 in welcher die ,briefe des ,neuen ,testaments verfasst sind 78,the ,chronological ,order in which the ,epistles of the ,new ,testament were written071 #ahij1 #cjf pp4 7,an essay which received the prize offered for the treatment of this question by the ,teylerian ,society of ,haarlem47 8,on the ,chronological ,order of the ,four main ,epistles1 pp4 #agd-bjc4 ,carl ,clemen1 ,die ,chronologie der paulinischen ,briefe1 #ahic1 #bib pp4 ,by the same writer1 ,die ,einheitlichkeit der paulinischen ,briefe 78,the ,integrity of the ,pauline ,epistles071 #ahid1 #ahc pp4 ,in these writings ,clemen makes some concessions to the ,ultra-,tbingen critics4 ,thus1 for example1 he is prepared to put ,galatians after ,romans and ,corinthians4 ,the mediating views here offered1 though sometimes interesting1 need nevertheless no longer occupy us1 as ,clemen has in the meantime completely recovered his confidence and has contradicted himself4 ,in the first volume of his ,paulus 7#aijd1 #daf pp41 examination of the sources7 he pronounces that the four main epistles are to be regarded as entirely genuine1 if only we may divide the second ,epistle to the ,corinthians into four4 ,in addition to ,i ,thessalonians and ,philippians1 even ,colossians and #b ,thessalonians are to be regarded as from the ,apostle's pen4 ,in the preface the author begs that he may not be held accountable for his views prior to his ,damascus4 ,the second volume of the work1 ,paulus4 ,sein ,leben und ,werken1 #aijd1 #cci pp41 is in biographical form1 and does not enter further into the problems of the doctrine4 ,a writer who takes the 8,ultra-,tbingen0 side is ,j4 ,friedrich 7,maehliss74 ,in his work entitled ,die ,unechtheit des ,galaterbriefs 78,the ,spuriousness of ,galatians071 #ahia1 #fg pp41 he defends both the rights of radical criticism and of a 8simplified orthography40 #ajd ,see p4 #abh1 sup4 #aje ,see p4 #abh1 sup4 #ajf ,see p4 #abi1 sup4 #ajg ,see pp4 #aad and #aae of the work cited above1 p4 #acd4 #ajh ,christian ,hermann ,weisse1 ,philosophische ,dogmatik oder ,philosophie des ,christentums1 #c vols41 #ahee1 #fj1 #fb2 vol4 i41 #gab pp4 ,on the ,pauline ,epistles1 pp4 #add-adg4 #aji ,on ,romans see also vol4 iii4 of the ,philosophische ,dogmatik 7#ahfb1 #gcf pp471 pp4 #bfc1 #bfd4 ,the ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 the ,second to the ,corinthians1 and the ,first to ,timothy1 ,weisse holds to be 8entirely unapostolic02 in the ,epistle to ,titus and the ,second to ,timothy he is prepared to recognise as a possibility the genuineness of the personal notices4 #aaj ,in #b ,corinthians1 which shows no evidence of interpolation1 three different letters to this church are worked up together4 #aaa ,christian ,hermann ,weisse1 ,beitrge zur ,kritik der paulinischen ,briefe an die ,galater1 ,rmer1 ,philipper und ,kolosser 78,contributions to the ,criticism of the ,pauline ,epistles to the ,galatians1 ,romans1 ,philippians1 and ,colossians074 ,edited by ,e4 ,sulze1 #ahfg1 #fe pp4 ,by way of introduction the pupil prefixes an essay on the principles of his master's 8stylistic criticism40 ,in the reconstructed texts it is apparent that the author had spent on them1 as he says in his ,dogmatic1 the 8diligent work of many years40 ,it is a piece of really skilled workmanship4 #aab ,daniel ,vlter1 ,die ,entstehung der ,apokalypse1 #ahhb1 #gb pp4 ,die ,komposition der paulinischen ,hauptbriefe1 #ahij1 #agd pp4 ,the ,epistles examined are those to the ,romans and ,galatians4 ,paulus und seine ,briefe4 ,kritische ,untersuchungen zu einer neuen ,grundlegung der paulinischen ,briefliteratur und ihrer ,theologie1 #aije1 #cca pp4 ,here he deals with ,corinthians1 ,romans1 ,galatians1 and ,philippians4 ,the results arrived at in the previous book are1 as a rule1 taken over4 ,vlter rejects the genuineness of #a ,thessalonians1 and sees in the letters to the ,colossians and ,ephesians1 and in the ,pastorals1 new 8phases in the development0 of ,paulinism4 #aac ,in its original form it consisted1 ,vlter thinks1 of the following sections3 i4 ,i1 #e;b-#g1 #h-ag2 v4 ,i-#ab1 #ae-ai1 #ba2 vi4 ,i-#ac1 #f3af-bc2 chapters xii4 and xiii42 xiv4 ,i-xv4 #f2 xv4 #ad-af1 #bc;b-#cc1 xvi #ba-bd4 #aad ,vlter is also able to indicate additions which have taken place subsequently to this redaction4 ,the interpolations in ,philippians relate1 according to him1 chiefly to ,christology and eschatology4 ,the author of these additions had before him ,romans and ,corinthians in their interpolated form1 and was also doubtless acquainted with ,galatians4 #aae ,the well-known ,german religious journal4 #aaf ,the labour of making an inventory of what has been done in this kind of criticism up to the year #ahid was undertaken by ,c4 ,clemen in his work1 ,die ,einheitlichkeit der paulinischen ,briefe an der ,hand der bisher mit ,bezug auf sie aufgestellten ,interpolations- und ,kompilationshypothesen 78,the ,integrity of the ,pauline ,epistles1 with ,reference to the ,hypotheses of ,interpolation or ,compilation which have been applied to them071 #ahid1 #ahc pp4 ,he takes account also of all contributions to the journals4 ,this gives a special value to this laborious and unselfish work4 ,a survey of previous work in conjectural criticism is given by ,j4 ,m4 ,s4 ,baljon in ,de ,tekst der ,brieven van ,paulus aan de ,romeinen1 de ,corinthirs en de ,galatirs1 #ahhd1 #ahi pp4 #aag ,friedrich ,spitta1 ,untersuchungen ber den ,brief des ,paulus an die ,rmer 78,a ,study of the ,epistle to the ,romans071 #aija1 #aic pp4 ,in the work ,zur ,geschichte und ,literatur des ,urchristentums1 vol4 iii4 part i4 ,,notes ,,for ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,position ,,at ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,twentieth ,,century #aah ,otto ,pfleiderer1 ,das ,urchristentum1 seine ,schriften und ,lehren1 #bnd ed41 #aijb1 vol4 i4 #fif pp4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #bd-cce4 7,eng4 trans4 8,primitive ,christianity10 vol4 i4 pp4 #cc-dga47 #aai ,on this point ,pfleiderer follows suggestions given by ,teichmann in his work1 ,die paulinischen ,vorstellungen von ,auferstehung und ,gericht 78,the ,pauline ,conceptions of ,resurrection and ,judgment071 #ahif1 #abe pp4 ,as a matter of fact he cannot any more than his predecessors give any proof of this evolution4 #abj ,paul ,wernle1 ,die ,anfnge unserer ,religion1 #ast ed41 #aija1 #daj pp4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #ie-bbj4 ,by the same author1 ,paulus als ,heidenmissionar 78,paul as a ,missionary to the ,gentiles071 ,lecture1 #ahii1 #cf pp4 ,heinrich ,weinel1 ,paulus1 #aijd1 #caf pp4 ,the book grew out of essays which the author published in the ,christliche ,welt4 ,by the same author1 ,paulus als kirchlicher ,organisator4 7,inaugural ,lecture47 #ahii1 #cj pp4 ,other works from this popular literature are3 ,adolf ,harnack1 ,das ,wesen des ,christentums1 #aijj1 #ahi pp4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #aaj-aah4 ,georg ,hollmann1 ,urchristentum in ,corinth1 #aijc1 #cb pp4 ,paul ,feine1 ,paulus als ,theologe1 #aijf1 #hj pp4 ,carl ,munzinger1 ,paulus in ,corinth4 ,neue ,wege zum ,verstndnis des ,urchristentums 78,paul in ,corinth4 ,new ,ways of arriving at an ,understanding of ,early ,christianity407 #aijh1 #bjh pp4 ,the author pictures the work of the ,apostle in the ,greek city in the light of analogies offered by modern missionary practice4 ,whether the new way really leads to a better understanding of primitive ,christianity remains open to question4 ,as a special investigation of a point of detail at this date we may mention ,karl ,dick's work1 ,der schriftstellerische ,plural bei ,paulus 78,the ,author's #8,we' in ,paul's ,writings407 #aijj1 #afi pp4 ,there are not many of these studies at this period since the tendency among theologians has been more to popularisation than to scientific research4 #aba ,paulus als ,heidenmissionar1 p4 #cf4 ,ernst von ,dobschtz calls attention to the dangers of this method1 which easily becomes unscientific in ,probleme des apostolischen ,zeitalters4 7,five ,lectures1 #aijd1 #ach pp4 ,see p4 #fa47 ,paul ,feine1 ,das gesetzesfreie ,evangelium des ,paulus nach seinem ,werdegange dargestellt1 #ahii1 #bcb pp4 ,jesus ,christus und ,paulus1 #aijb1 #cji pp4 ,arthur ,titius1 ,der ,paulinismus unter dem ,gesichtspunkt der ,seligkeit 7#bnd ,part of the work ,die neutestamentliche ,lehre von der ,seligkeit und ihre ,bedeutung fr die ,gegenwart--8,the ,new ,testament ,doctrine of ,final ,blessedness and its ,significance for the present ,time071 #aijj1 #bij pp4 ,a4 ,schlatter1 in his ,n,tle4 ,theologie 7,pt4 ii4 ,the doctrine of the ,apostles1 #aiaj1 #eib pp4 ,on ,paul1 #aii-djg71 follows a conservative biblico-theological method like that of ,b4 ,weiss4 #abb ,r4 ,drescher1 too 8,das ,leben ,jesu bei ,paulus0 in ,festgruss an ,stade1 #aijj1 pp4 #aja-afa1 is of opinion that the letters1 rightly understood1 offer us 8an imposing amount of material0 on the life of ,jesus4 ,the author thinks that wherever possible ,paul referred to the teaching of ,jesus2 and he fought his battle for freedom from the law with such confidence 8because he knew that he had ,jesus on his side40 ,it should be mentioned that ,j4 ,wellhausen takes up a similar stand-point4 ,he gives it as his opinion1 ,israelitische und jdische ,geschichte 7#fth ed41 #aijg1 #chf pp471 that ,paul 8was really the man who best understood the ,master and carried on ,his work40 #abc ,l',aptre ,paul et ,jsus-,christ1 #aijd1 #cic pp4 #abd ,adolf ,harnack1 ,lehrbuch der ,dogmengeschichte1 #dth ed41 #aiji1 vol4 i41 #hbf pp4 ,see p4 #ajg4 ,to the same effect1 ,adolf ,jlicher1 ,paulus und ,jesus1 #aijg1 #gb pp4 ,see p4 #cd4 #abe ,hermann ,jakoby4 ,neutestamentliche ,ethik1 #ahii1 #dhj pp4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #bdc-djf4 ,alfred ,juncker1 ,die ,ethik des ,apostels ,paulus1 part i41 #aijd1 #bhh pp4 ,among other monographs we have to notice ,emil ,sokolowski's ,die ,begriffe ,geist und ,leben bei ,paulus in ihrer ,beziehung zu einander1 #aijc1 #bhd pp4 ,the author ascribes little importance to ,greek influence in comparison with ,jewish1 and tries to explain what is peculiar and vital in the ,apostle's views as due to his individual experience1 especially the vision on the ,damascus road4 ,hans ,windisch1 ,die ,entsndigung des ,christen nach ,paulus1 #aijh1 #acb pp4 ,the difficulties raised for ,paul by his mysticism are pointed out4 ,it is shown that this1 strictly speaking1 makes it impossible for him to admit sin in the case of baptized persons4 ,the eschatological character of the sacramental-mystical theory of deliverance from sin is strongly brought out4 ,the author continues the investigation which ,paul ,wernle1 in his work ,der ,christ und die ,snde bei ,paulus 7#ahig1 #ach pp471 was the first to undertake4 ,see p4 #fj of the present work4 #abf ,wilhelm ,bousset1 ,die ,religion des ,judentums im neutestamentlichen ,zeitalter1 #aijc1 #eab pp4 ,simultaneously appeared the same writer's work1 ,die jdische ,apokalyptik1 ihre religionsgeschichtliche ,herkunft und ihre ,bedeutung fr das neue ,testament 78,jewish ,apocalyptic1 its ,origin in the ,light of ,comparative ,religion and its ,significance for the ,new ,testament40 ,a ,lecture1 #aijc47 ,eschatology receives special attention in the fine work of ,hugo ,gressmann1 ,der ,ursprung der israelitisch jdischen ,eschatologie 78,the ,origin of the ,israelitish and ,jewish ,eschatology071 #aije1 #cgh pp4 ,the author takes up an attitude of some reserve in regard to the 8religious-historical method10 and seeks to determine in the case of every statement whether it can have arisen in ,israel or must be regarded as having been introduced from without4 ,paul ,volz1 ,jdische ,eschatologie von ,daniel bis ,akiba1 #aijc1 #dab pp41 endeavours1 somewhat unconvincingly1 to give a sketch of ,jewish conceptions of the future age4 ,everling's investigations are continued1 on modern lines1 by a study of ,martin ,dibelius1 ,die ,geisterwelt im ,glauben des ,paulus1 #aiji1 #bdi pp4 78,the ,world of ,spirits as conceived in ,paul's ,belief074 ,in addition to the ,late ,jewish passages the author cites also the ,rabbinical and those suggested by the ,comparative ,study of ,religion4 ,the excursuses on the linguistic history of the subject are very instructive 7pp4 #bji-bcb74 ,on ,everling1 see pp4 #ee-eg of the present work4 #abg ,g4 ,f4 ,heinrici's work1 ,das ,urchristentum1 #aijb1 #adb pp41 still occupies the old stand-point4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #ga-aja4 ,for what he has to say against the 8physical0 in the doctrine of redemption1 see pp4 #ie1 #if4 ,w4 ,bousset1 ,der ,apostel ,paulus1 #aijf1 holds that we shall never completely understand the ,apostle's doctrine4 ,we must make up our minds to the fact 4 4 that in his letters we have before us only fragments of his spiritual life1 the full wealth of which we can only vaguely imagine4 ,the individual arguments of ,paul look to us like erratic boulders2 only toilsomely and partially can we reconstruct the connexion of thought4 #abh ,rendering naturhaft4 ,dr4 ,schweitzer has favoured me with the following note on this difficult concept1 which from this point becomes prominent in the discussions4 ,after consultation with him1 the word has been rendered 8physical10 but placed in quotation marks to indicate the special use4--,,translator4 8,in the special sense in which it is here used naturhaft is intended to convey that it is not a question of a purely spiritual redemption1 but that the whole physical and hyperphysical being of the man is thereby translated into a new condition4 ,body and soul are redeemed together2 and in such a way that not only the elect portion of mankind1 but the whole world is completely transformed in a great catastrophic event40 #abi ,neutestamentliche ,theologie1 vol4 ii41 #ahig1 pp4 #age-ahg4 #acj ,w4 ,heitmller1 ,taufe und ,abendmahl bei ,paulus1 #aijc1 #ef pp4 #aca ,how unwilling theology was to draw this inevitable inference is to be seen from the works of ,weinel and ,heitmller4 ,they refuse to go beyond the statement that the sacraments stand in sharp opposition to the real 8religion0 of ,paul1 and think that they have solved the problem by asserting that the ,apostle of the ,gentiles did not notice the contradiction4 ,weinel remarks1 8,paul himself is quite unconscious of the problem raised by the collision of the #8physical' doctrine of redemption of the ,mysteries with the ethical doctrine of ,christianity40 ,heitmller says1 8,these views of baptism and the ,lord's ,supper stand in unreconciled and unreconcilable opposition with the central significance of faith for ,pauline ,christianity1 that is to say1 with the purely spiritual1 personal view of the religious relation which stands in the foreground of ,pauline religious life and religious thought40 #acb ,william ,wrede1 ,paulus1 #aijd1 #aac pp4 7,in the series entitled 8,religionsgeschichtliche ,volksbcher407 #acc ,in the sense of the ,messiah4--,,translator4 #acd ,how far ,wrede was consciously influenced by ,kabisch1 and how far he has the sense of creating something new1 is not quite evident4 ,he reckons the book among the 8very important studies on special points10 to which he refers in the bibliography1 but he does not quote it4 #ace ,c4 von ,dobschtz1 ,probleme des apostolischen ,zeitalters 78,problems of the ,apostolic ,age10 #aijd1 #ach pp471 does not enter in detail into the question regarding the genesis of the ,pauline view of the law1 although he treats ,jewish ,christianity and ,gentile ,christianity with some fulness4 #acf ,see the present writer's ,von ,reimarus zu ,wrede1 eine ,geschichte der ,leben-,jesu-,forschung 7#aijf1 #dah pp474 ,on ,wrede1 pp4 #cbg-cdg4 7,english translation1 8,the ,quest of the ,historical ,jesus40 ,a4 and ,c4 ,black1 ,london1 #bnd ed41 #aiaa4 ,on ,wrede1 pp4 #cbh-cdh47 #acg ,this thesis of ,wrede's called into being a new literature upon ,paul and ,jesus which attacked ,wrede chiefly on the score of his one-sidedness4 ,p4 ,klbing1 ,die geistige ,einwirkung der ,person ,jesu auf ,paulus1 #aijf 78,the ,spiritual ,influence of the ,person of ,jesus on ,paul074 ,adolf ,jlicher1 ,paulus und ,jesus1 #aijg1 #gb pp4 ,arnold ,meyer1 ,wer hat das ,christentum begrndet1 ,jesus oder ,paulus8 #aijg1 #ajd pp4 78,who founded ,christianity1 ,jesus or ,paul807 ,wilhelm ,walther1 ,pauli ,christentum1 ,jesu ,evangelium1 #aijh1 #ea pp4 ,johannes ,weiss1 ,paulus und ,jesus1 #aiji1 #gb pp4 ,christus3 ,die ,anfnge des ,dogmas1 #aiji1 #hh pp4 78,christ3 ,the ,beginnings of ,dogma074 #ach ,martin ,brckner1 ,die ,entstehung der paulinischen ,christologie1 #aijc1 #bcg pp4 ,the work appeared some months before ,wrede's ,paulus1 but the author1 who had the opportunity of personal intercourse and the interchange of ideas with him1 was acquainted with his method and fundamental views4 ,as he is also an independent thinker1 his work represents not only a supplement but a real advance4 #aci ,viz4 the ,jewish conception of the ,messiah4--,,translator4 #adj ,william ,olschewski replies to ,wrede and ,brckner in his thoughtful but obscure and heavily written dissertation1 ,die ,wurzeln der paulinischen ,christologie 7#aiji1 #agj pp47 78,the ,roots of the ,pauline ,eschatology074 ,he thinks that the origin of ,christianity which they suggest does not explain the 8characteristic and peculiar connexion of ,christology with ,pneumatology10 and insists that in the ,damascus vision is to be found the sufficient reason for 8the intimately organic fusion0 of the conception of ,christ with that of the ,spirit which operates through ,him4 ,in any case he holds it to be 8false in principle and method to try to derive the roots of the ,pauline ,christology from the ,jewish ,apocalyptic ,christology40 #ada ,from the literature we may mention ,a4 ,schettler1 ,die paulinische ,formel 8,durch ,christus0 78,the ,pauline ,formula ,through ,christ071 #aijg1 #hb pp4 ,j4 ,haussleiter1 ,paulus1 #aiji1 #if pp4 7,lectures1 popular47 ,r4 ,knopf1 ,paulus1 #aiji1 #abc pp4 ,eberhard ,vischer1 ,der ,apostel ,paulus und sein ,werk1 #aiaj1 #adc pp4 ,by the same author1 ,die ,paulusbriefe1 #aijf1 #hj pp4 ,a remarkably good1 clearly and simply written guide to questions of 8,introduction40 ,julius ,schniewind1 ,die ,begriffe ,wort und ,evangelium bei ,paulus 78,the ,meaning of the ,terms #8,word' and #8,gospel' in ,paul's ,writings071 #aiaj1 #abj pp4 ,johannes ,mller1 ,die ,entstehung des persnlichen ,christentums der paulinischen ,gemeinden1 #aiaa1 #cjf pp4 ,a good analysis of the general contents of ,paul's gospel4 ,the theological system and the mysticism of the ,apostle are not explained4 ,the book is the second edition of a study which appeared in #ahih under the title ,das persnliche ,christentum der paulinischen ,gemeinden nach seiner ,entstehung untersucht 78,an ,investigation of the ,origin of the ,personal ,christianity of the ,pauline ,churches074 ,adolf ,deissmann1 ,paulus1 #aiaa1 #bjb pp4 ,the book grew out of lectures4 ,the author is opposed to the method of investigation which aims at understanding the 8,system of ,pauline ,theology10 and thinks that in following these 8doctrinaire interests0 it would go further and further astray4 ,for him ,paul is primarily 8a hero of the religious life0 for whom 8theology is a secondary matter40 ,he holds that the ,apostle was more a man of prayer and testimony1 a confessor and a prophet1 than a learned exegete and laborious dogmatist4 ,his aim is1 with the aid of reminiscences of two journeys to the ,east1 to 8place the man of ,tarsus in the sunlight of his ,anatolian home1 and in the clear air of the ancient ,mediterranean lands10 and he believes that when this is done 8what previously tired our eyes1 like a set of faded and rubbed pencil sketches1 becomes at once plastic and living in its light and shadow40 ,this hope is by no means realised in his work4 ,it appears here1 as was also noticeable in the writer's earlier ,licht vom ,osten 78,light from the ,east071 that he has a high appreciation of local colour and the memorials of ancient civilisation1 but when it comes really to explaining the ideas he is not able to draw nearly so much profit from them as he expected4 ,and his contempt for 8doctrinaire interests0 revenges itself upon his treatment4 ,it is obscure and confused1 and does not get at the essence of the thoughts4 ,in regard to ,paul's mysticism ,deissmann has applied new catchwords to old psychological considerations1 but in nowise contributes to the explanation of it4 ,after ,wrede's ,paulus1 his book seems a kind of anachronism4 ,it is1 besides1 not fitting that what professes to be a new view should be presented in the inadequate form of a collection of lectures4 #adb ,adolf ,harnack1 ,lehrbuch der ,dogmengeschichte1 #dth ed41 vol4 i41 #aiji1 #hbf pp4 ,on ,paul1 pp4 #if-ajg 7#crd ed41 #ahic74 #adc ,reinhold ,seeberg1 ,lehrbuch der ,dogmengeschichte1 #bnd ed41 vol i41 #aijh1 #egj pp4 ,on ,paul1 #fh-gh4 ,the first circle of ideas embraces the thoughts regarding flesh and spirit1 the power of grace and the strength of sin1 ,christ and the new creation2 the second consists of the formulas which were created in opposition to ,jewish ,christianity2 the third has to do with the mystical body of ,christ1 in which the natural distinctions between men are abolished4 ,on points of detail there are many discriminating observations4 ,the first edition1 of #ahie1 did not even contain any section on ,paul4 ,the #dth ed4 of ,loofs' ,dogmengeschichte 7#aijf1 vol4 i41 #egf pp47 does not deal with the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 any more than the preceding editions4 #add ,on ,kabisch see above1 pp4 #eh-fc4 #ade ,a sifting and a survey of results is offered in the closing chapter1 8,das religionsgeschichtliche ,problem0 7#ddh-dic7 in ,bousset's book1 ,die ,religion des ,judentums im neutestamentlichen ,zeitalter1 #aijc 78,the ,religion of ,judaism in ,new ,testament ,times074 ,,notes ,,for ,,chapter ,,vii ,,paulinism ,,and ,,comparative ,,religion #adf ,hermann ,usener1 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,untersuchungen3 8,das ,weihnachtsfest0 7#ahhi1 #ccg pp472 8,die ,sintflutsagen0 7#ahii1 #bgf pp47 78,studies in ,comparative ,religion1 #8,christmas1' #ahhi4 #8,the ,flood-legends1' #ahii074 ,other works which played an important part in creating the new horizon were ,albrecht ,dieterich's works on ,comparative ,religion1 ,abraxas 7#ahia1 #bba pp4 ,on a ,hellenistic myth of the ,creation1 and ,judaeo-,orphico-,gnostic cults7 and ,nekyia1 contributions to the explanation of the 8,apocalypse of ,peter0 7#ahic1 #bch pp474 ,the description of the torments of hell in the ,akhmim fragment is based1 he thinks1 not on ,jewish eschatology1 but on conceptions which are found in the ,orphic literature4 #adg ,les ,religions orientales dans le paganisme romain1 #ast ed41 #aijf2 #bnd ed41 #aiji1 #dbg pp4 ,based on ,lectures delivered in the year #aije in the ,collge de ,france4 ,we may note also some of the essays in ,salomon ,reinach's ,cultes1 mythes et religions1 #c vols41 #aije-aijf-aijh 7#dff1 #dff1 and #ecg pp474 ,otto ,gruppe1 ,die griechischen ,kulte und ,mythen in ihrer ,beziehung zu den orientalischen ,religionen 78,greek cults and ,myths in their relation to the ,oriental ,religions071 vol4 i41 #ahhg1 #gjf pp42 and ,griechische ,mythologie und ,religionsgeschichte 78,greek ,mythology and the ,history of ,greek ,religions074 ,in ,iwan ,mller's ,handbuch der klassischen ,altertumswissenschaft 78,handbook of ,classical ,antiquities071 #aijf1 #b vols41 embracing #aibc pp4 ,georg ,mau4 ,die ,religionsphilosophie ,kaiser ,julians in seinen ,reden auf ,knig ,helios und die ,gttermutter 78,the ,emperor ,julian's ,philosophy of ,religion in his ,orations on ,king ,helios and the ,dea ,mater071 #aijh1 #afi pp4 ,in the appendix there is a ,german translation of both discourses4 ,of a popular and unscientific character is ,h4 ,e4 de ,jong's ,das antike ,mysterienwesen in religionsgeschichtlicher1 ethnologischer und psychologischer ,beleuchtung 78,the ,ancient ,mystery-religions in the ,light of ,comparative ,religion1 ,ethnology1 and ,psychology071 #aiji4 #cfb pp4 ,the author is disposed to cite the modern occult 8manifestations0 in relation to the astral body in order to explain certain 8appearances0 in the ceremonies of initiation to the mysteries4 #adh ,on what follows see ,hugo ,hepding1 ,attis1 seine ,mythen und sein ,kult1 #aijc1 #bbd pp4 ,first volume of the series of 8,religionsgeschichtliche ,versuche und ,vorarbeiten10 edited by ,dieterich and ,wnsch4 ,cf4 also ,ernst ,schmidt1 ,kultbertragungen 7,cultus-,transferences3 8,magna ,mater10 8,asklepios10 8,sarapis074 ,in the same series vol4 viii41 #aiji4 #adi ,on the original significance of the ,taurobolium see ,cumont1 ,les ,religions orientales1 pp4 #aja-ajc4 #aej ,note the admission of ,hugo ,hepding at the close of his chapter on the ,mysteries 7p4 #aii73--8;,i am well aware that this account of the ,phrygian ,mysteries is in its details mainly hypothetical4 ,in view of the paucity of the information which has come down to us1 nothing else is possible4 ,in particular the association of the blood baptism with the ,march festival cannot be shown from our documentary material444440 ,he wants to distinguish between an earlier and a later form of the taurobolium4 ,the earlier form is not a ceremony of initiation but a sacrifice4 ,it was only the later which had in view the initiation of the individual4 8,the first person whom we know by literary evidence to have undergone the ceremony of the taurobolium is ,heliogabalus40 #aea ,on the ,eleusinian ,mysteries see ,rohde1 ,psyche 7#crd ed41 #aiji7 pp4 #bgh-cjj4 ,from his account it clearly appears how little we know about these ceremonies of initiation4 ,in any case they were quite different from those of the later ,mystery-religions4 ,they belong to early ,greek religion4 #aeb ,franz ,cumont1 ,les ,mystres de ,mithra 7#ast ed41 #ahii2 #bnd ed41 #aijb74 #aec ,albrecht ,dieterich1 ,eine ,mithrasliturgie1 #ast ed41 #aijc2 #bnd ed41 #aiaj 7edited after the author's death by ,richard ,wnsch71 #bdh pp4 ,the excursuses1 pp4 #ib-bab1 really give a sketch of the fundamental ideas of the ,mystery-religions in general4 ,cumont refuses to regard the document as a fragment belonging to a ,mithras-liturgy because he cannot find in it the specific characteristics of the ,persian eschatology and conception of heaven4 ,on this controversy see the #bnd edition of the ,mithras-liturgy1 pp4 #bbe-bbh4 ,it would certainly have been better if ,dieterich had not given the book the unnecessary and contentious title4 #aed ,from ,dieterich1 p4 #ae4 #aee ,richard ,reitzenstein1 ,poimandres4 ,studies in ,graeco-,egyptian and ,early ,christian literature1 #aijd1 #chb pp4 ,the ,poimandres 8community0 ,gemeinde1 the word is in quotation marks in the ,german1 perhaps to recall its frequent use in speaking of the ,early ,christian ,church is supposed to have been founded in ,egypt about the time of the birth of ,christ4 ,its main characteristic is the mystical basis of the doctrine4 ,later on1 in the course of the third century 787 the ,poimandres community was gradually merged in the general ,hermetic communities4 #aef ,from the literature we may note3 ,hermann ,gunkel1 ,zum religionsgeschichtlichen ,verstndnis des ,neuen ,testaments 78,contributions to the ,understanding of the ,new ,testament on the ,basis of ,comparative ,religion071 #aijc1 #if pp4 ,paul ,wendland1 ,die hellenistisch-rmische ,kultur in ihren ,beziehungen zu ,judentum und ,christentum 78,the ,hellenistic-,roman ,civilisation in ,relation to ,judaism and ,christianity071 #aijg1 #aij pp4 ,adolf ,deissmann1 ,licht vom ,osten 78,light from the ,ancient ,east071 #aijh1 #cfd pp4 ,this book1 which is rather rhetorically written1 treats mainly the general literary side of the matter without entering specially into the religious problems and the ideas of the ,mystery-religions4 ,the same author has published a lecture1 ,die ,urgeschichte des ,christentums im ,lichte der ,sprachforschung 78,the ,history of ,primitive ,christianity in the ,light of ,linguistic ,research071 #aiaj1 #dh pp4 ,karl ,clemen1 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,erklrung des ,neuen ,testaments 78,interpretation of the ,new ,testament on the ,basis of ,comparative ,religion071 #aiji1 #cja pp4 ,works which to a large extent deal with the same class of subject are3 ,wilhelm ,soltau1 ,das ,fortleben des ,heidentums in der altchristlichen ,kirche 78,the ,survival of ,paganism within the ,early ,christian ,church071 #aijf1 #cjg pp4 ,adolf ,harnack1 ,mission und ,ausbreitung des ,christentums in den ersten drei ,jahrhunderten 78,mission and ,expansion of ,christianity in the first three ,centuries071 vol4 i41 #aijf1 #dba pp4 #aeg ,gustav ,anrich1 ,das antike ,mysterienwesen in seinem ,einfluss auf das ,christentum1 #ahid1 #bcg pp4 ,from the same stand-point1 and in some respects supplementing ,anrich's work1 is ,georg ,wobbermin's ,religionsgeschichtliche ,studien zur ,frage der ,beeinflussung des ,urchristentums durch das antike ,mysterienwesen 78,studies from the ,point of ,view of ,comparative ,religion on the ,question of the ,influence of the ancient ,mysteries upon ,christianity071 #ahif1 #aij pp4 ,johannes ,geffken in his popular work1 ,aus der ,werdezeit des ,christentums1 #bnd ed41 #aiji1 #abf pp4 78,from the ,formative ,period of ,christianity071 does not hold that any very deep influence was exercised by the ,graeco-,roman ,syncretism on early ,christianity4 ,he is1 however1 of opinion that ,paul 8adopted all kinds of oriental views40 #aeh ,see e4g4 ,dieterich1 ,mithrasliturgie1 #bnd ed41 p4 #aaj4 ,typical also are pp4 #agf1 #agg1 where he continually speaks of the 8death and re-birth0 of believers as taught by ,paul4 ,wiedergeburt has been translated 8re-birth0 when the general sense implied in the comparison with other religions is in view2 8regeneration0 when the reference is primarily to the specific ,christian doctrine as such4 #aei ,p4 ,gennrich in his book1 ,die ,lehre von der ,wiedergeburt 4 4 in dogmengeschichtlicher und religionsgeschichtlicher ,beleuchtung 78,the ,doctrine of ,regeneration 444 in the ,light of the ,history of ,dogma1 and of ,comparative ,religion071 #aijg1 #cfc pp41 notes that ,paul speaks only of the 8new creature0 and not of regeneration2 but he does not investigate the cause of this peculiarity1 but hastens to give a psychological explanation of his utterances as a 8precipitate from his personal experience40 #afj ,see the introduction to ,les ,religions orientales dans le paganisme romain1 #bnd ed41 #aiji4 #afa ,typical in this respect is the work of ,martin ,brckner1 ,der sterbende und auferstehende ,gottheiland in den orientalischen ,religionen und ihr ,verhltnis zum ,christentum 78,the divine ,saviour who dies and rises again in the ,oriental ,religions2 and their ,relation to ,christianity074 ,in the series of ,religionsgeschichtliche ,volksbcher1 #aijh1 #dh pp4 8,as in ,christianity1 so in many ,oriental religions1 a belief in the death and resurrection of a ,redeemer-,god1 who was subordinated to the ,supreme ,god 7sometimes as ,his ,son7 occupied a central place in the worship and cultus40 ,what manipulation the myths and rites of the cults in question must have undergone before this general statement could become possible6 ,where is there anything about dying and resurrection in ,mithra8 ,it is instructive to see how the author on p4 #cj argues away the effect of this admission6 ,a popular treatment which is kept within due bounds is ,adolf ,jacoby's work1 ,die antiken ,mysterienreligionen und das ,christentum 78,the ancient ,mystery-religions and ,christianity071 #aiaj1 #dd pp41 in the series of ,religionsgeschichtliche ,volksbcher4 ,the author deserves special credit for offering his readers typical texts from which they can form their own impression4 ,dieterich remarks with great justice in the ,mithrasliturgie 7#bnd ed41 #bjg7 how necessary it is to get beyond the catchword 8,syncretistic10 and point out in every case the source of particular mythological statements and ideas4 #afb ,o4 ,gruppe1 too1 is obliged to admit that the late ,greek religious thought never really had the conception of a 8world-redeemer0 7,griechische ,mythologie und ,religionsgeschichte71 vol4 ii41 pp4 #adhh-adhi4 ,it cannot1 in fact1 be otherwise4 ,the 8world-redeemer0 of ,jewish and ,christian apocalyptic thought corresponds to the 8new world0 which he is in some supernatural fashion to bring in1 in order to reign in it along with the elect4 ,graeco-oriental religions did not look for a kingdom of that kind1 and therefore the idea of the ruler of such a kingdom was also undiscoverable and unattainable for them4 ,the ,messiah is the ,world-redeemer or ,lord of the coming age4 ,he does not make atonement for the guilt of mankind nor for that of individuals1 but suffers and dies vicariously for the elect1 and in order to set the events of the ,end in motion4 ,his earthly fate is nothing in itself1 but falls wholly under the conception of the 8,messianic woes0 which are thought of as the tribulation of the ,times of the ,end4 ,how can it be proposed to find an analogue to a figure of this kind in myths1 the scene of which is laid in the dawn of the world1 and which have no sort of relation to its ultimate fate4 #afc ,p4 #ajb ff4 ,he has at this point a detailed discussion of the relations between the cultus-meal in ,paul and that of the ,mystery-religions4 ,on the sacraments see also ,k4 ,clemen1 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,erklrung des ,neuen ,testaments1 #aiji1 #cja pp4 ,baptism and the ,supper1 #afe-bjg4 #afd ,mithrasliturgie1 #bnd ed4 pp4 #ajg1 #ajh4 #afe ,therefore the statement that ,jesus baptized in the ,judaean country 7,jn iii4 #bb7 is corrected to the effect that ,he ,himself did not baptize1 but only the disciples 7,jn iv4 #b74 #aff ,der wissenschaftliche ,predigerverein4 #afg ,w4 ,heitmller1 ,taufe und ,abendmahl bei ,paulus 78,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper in ,paul's teaching074 ,a description and an investigation in the light of ,comparative ,religion1 #aijc1 #ef pp4 ,these journeyings on pp4 #dj-db4 #afh i4e4 ,materialist in his explanation1 in contrast1 as appears later1 with ,reitzenstein1 who is described as the 8,pneumatic0 of the science4 #afi ,albert ,eichhorn1 ,das ,abendmahl im ,neuen ,testament 78,the ,lord's ,supper in the ,new ,testament10 #ahih1 #ca pp471 similarly holds that in ,paul we have before us a sacramental eating and drinking of the body and blood of ,christ which can only be explained as based on ,oriental ,gnostic presuppositions4 ,he is1 however1 constrained to admit that we have no knowledge of a 8sacramental meal which could have served as the model for the ,lord's ,supper40 ,but this does not shake his faith in his theory4 ,he thinks that proof is only wanting because there is here a gap in our historical knowledge4 ,he has calculated out the position of the planet2 the mere fact that it cannot be discovered with the telescope is wholly due to the inadequacy of the instrument4 #agj ,see on this ,r4 ,reitzenstein1 ,die hellenistischen ,mysterienreligionen 78,the ,hellenistic ,mystery ,religions071 p4 #ch4 #aga ,tit4 iii4 #e 7,r4 ,v4 marg43 laver of regeneration74 #agb ,wilhelm ,heitmller1 ,im ,namen ,jesu4 ,eine ,sprach- und religionsgeschichtliche ,untersuchung zum ,neuen ,testament1 speciell zur altchristlichen ,taufe 78,in the ,name of ,jesus4 ,a ,new ,testament ,study based on ,linguistics and ,comparative ,religion1 with special ,reference to ,early ,christian baptism071 #aijc1 #cdg pp4 ,in this thorough and extremely interesting study the author arrives at the result that in the employment of the name of ,jesus it is taken for granted that the name in some way or other represents a power4 ,the ,christian 8belief in the name10 he holds1 stands on the same footing as ,jewish and heathen beliefs4 8,the solemn pronouncement of the name of ,jesus at baptism is not a merely symbolic form1 having to do1 for example1 with the confession of the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 but is thought of as associated with real mystical1 mysterious effects2 the effects must1 however1 be similar1 mutatis mutandis1 to those which are ascribed to the use of the name in other cases3 a being actually taken possession of by the power which is designated by the #8name' of ,jesus1 the expulsion of all hostile powers1 consecration and inspiration40 8,baptism in the name of ,jesus represents1 therefore1 the combination of two sacramental factors--water and the name40 ,unfortunately1 ,heitmller has not emphasised the fact that the ,mystery-religions offer no typical analogies to this double sacrament4 ,it is also open to question whether the power of the name and of water suffice1 as he thinks1 to explain the ,pauline view of baptism4 #agc ,paul ,wernle1 ,die ,anfnge unserer ,religion1 #aija1 p4 #abi4 #agd ,in order to preclude this misuse of it the passage may be quoted here in full3-- 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 8,and they persuade1 not only individuals1 but whole cities that sacrifices and pleasureable amusements afford absolution and purification from crimes committed1 both for the living and also for the dead2 these they call ,mysteries 7initiations71 and they free us from the torments of the other world1 whereas terrible things await those who neglect to offer sacrifice40 ,on expiation see ,rohde1 ,psyche1 i4 7#aijc71 #bei ff4 #age ,regarding the evidence which has a more remote bearing on the question1 see ,hollmann1 ,urchristentum in ,korinth 78,primitive ,christianity in ,corinth071 #aijc1 #cb pp41 pp4 #bb-bd4 #agf ,r4 ,reitzenstein1 ,die hellenistischen ,mysterienreligionen1 p4 #hd4 ,the dead man is1 according to ,spiegelberg1 represented as standing between two gods1 who sprinkle the sacred fluid upon his head4 #agg ,in ,i ,cor4 vi4 #aa1 after saying that thieves1 adulterers1 slanderers1 and robbers cannot inherit the ,kingdom of ,god1 the ,apostle proceeds1 8,and such were some of you4 ,but ye were cleansed1 ye were consecrated1 ye were justified40 ,the passage is no doubt intended sarcastically1 ironically1 with reference to the fact that1 in spite of their baptism1 according to present appearances they have not changed much4 ,in regard to self-delusion on the ground of baptism see also ,i ,cor4 x4 #agh ,i ,cor4 i4 #ad-af4 #agi ,see ,reitzenstein1 ,die hellenistischen ,mysterienreligionen 7#aiaj71 pp4 #ii1 #ajj4 #ahj ,see above1 p4 #afb1 note #c4 #aha ,in contrast with ,heitmller1 who was described above as the 8hylic10 materialist 7see p4 #bje74 ,r4 ,reitzenstein1 ,die hellenistischen ,mysterienreligionen4 ,ihre ,grundgedanken und ,wirkungen 78,the ,hellenistic ,mystery-religions4 ,their fundamental ,ideas and ,influence071 #aiaj1 #bag pp4 ,the work is composed out of a lecture delivered in the ,clerical ,theological ,society of ,alsace-,lorraine 7pp4 #a-fj71 along with extensive notes and excursuses 7pp4 #fc-bad74 #ahb ,especially impressive are the investigations regarding the pneuma4 ,reitzenstein believes himself to be able to show that all the passages in ,paul's writings which refer to this subject 8are explicable from ,hellenistic usage10 and leaves open the question whether they 8are all equally easy to understand on the basis of the ,hebraic use of ruach or nephesh1 or the ,,lxx4 use of 40 ,a detailed discussion is given of the following passages1 ,rom4 vi4 #a-ad1 xii4 ,i ff42 ,i ,cor4 ii41 xiii41 xv4 #cd ff42 #b ,cor4 iii4 #ah1 v4#a ff41 v4 #f ff41 x4-xiii41 and some interesting light is thrown on the ,epistle to ,philemon 7pp4 #ha1 #hb74 ,it may also be mentioned that ,eduard ,schwartz in his essay 8,paulus0 7,charakterkpfe aus der antiken ,literatur1 #aiaj1 #acf pp4 pp4 #ajg-acf7 estimates very highly the indirect influence of the ,hellenistic surroundings and language4 ,in the second edition 7#aiaa1 #adb pp47 he goes a little more fully into the individual problems of the doctrine4 #ahc ,even ,holtzmann shares this confusion4 8,the ,pauline doctrine10 he pronounces in his ,new ,testament ,theology 7ii4 p4 #ef71 8is not exactly ,philonian1 but doubtless1 like the closely allied ,philonian doctrines and the more widely divergent later views1 grew out of the same stock of ,jewish reflection on the ,creation-narratives4 4 4 40 #ahd ,poimandres1 p4 #ha ff4 #ahe ,reitzenstein takes much pains to render intelligible1 by a series of examples from ancient and modern times1 the 8dual personality0 which often seems to manifest itself in ,paul 7pp4 #ec-eg4 #bjg1 #bjh74 ,he overlooks the fact that in the form in which it occurs in ,paul it is taken for granted by eschatology1 and appears in ,jesus and the disciples4 ,it is much more primitive than anything found in ,hellenistic mysticism or in any form of romanticism1 since the distinction of outer appearance and inner being which occurs in ,paul1 depends upon the contrast of the two worlds which are struggling together for existence4 ,the dual self-consciousness of ,paul is1 in contradistinction to all other cases1 not subjectively but objectively conditioned4 ,besides1 it depends on the temporal opposition of 8then0 and 8now10 as naturally results from the ardent eschatological expectation4 ,on the 8doubling0 of one's own personality1 such as is possible for ,greek sensibility1 see ,rohde1 ,psyche1 vol4 ii4 7#aiji71 pp4 #dac1 #dad4 #ahf ,see pp4 #eg1 #eh4 #ahg ,see e4g4 ,reitzenstein1 p4 #bji4 #ahh ,that ,greek 8eschatology0 and early ,christian are mutually exclusive appears clearly in ,albrecht ,dieterich's ,nekyia 7#ahic1 #bch pp474 ,the fantastic torments of hell as portrayed in the ,apocalypse of ,peter have nothing to do with the ,jewish and primitive ,christian eschatology1 since the latter are concerned with the in-coming of the new world1 and not with the special punishment of individuals4 ,dieterich is quite right when he explains this detailed description of torment as due to influences from the ,orphic literature4 ,greek religious feeling was concerned with the fate of individuals after death4 ,the thought of a coming world which dominates ,jewish and primitive ,christian eschatology is alien to it1 because its 8eschatology0 was not created1 like the former1 by the historico-ethical conceptions and aspirations of successive generations of prophets4 #ahi ,hermann ,gunkel1 ,zum religionsgeschichtlichen ,verstndnis des ,neuen ,testaments1 #aijc1 #if pp4 #aij ,max ,maurenbrecher1 ,von ,jerusalem nach ,rom1 #aiaj1 #bhh pp4 ,this work is the continuation of ,von ,nazareth nach ,golgatha1 #aiji1 #bgd pp4 #aia ,w4 ,b4 ,smith1 ,der vorchristliche ,jesus1 nebst weiteren ,vorstudien zur ,entstehungsgeschichte des ,urchristentums1 #bdc pp4 ,it was issued in ,german in #aijf with a preface by ,p4 ,w4 ,schmiedel4 ,the author is ,professor of ,mathematics in ,tulane ,university1 ,new ,orleans4 ,the book consists of five somewhat disconnected essays3 i4 8,the ,pre-,christian ,jesus02 ii4 8,the ,significance of the ,nick-name1 ,the ,nazarene02 iii4 8,anastasis02 iv4 8,the ,sower sows the ,logos02 v4 8,saeculi silentium40 7,behind this title masquerades a study of the external arguments for the historicity of the ,pauline ,epistles1 in which ,smith stammers out confusedly what ,steck and van ,manen had clearly expressed before him47 #aib ,arthur ,drews1 ,die ,christusmythe1 #aiji1 #aij pp4 ,,notes ,,for ,,chapter ,,viii ,,summing-,,up ,,and ,,formulation ,,of ,,the ,,problem #aic ,see above1 p4 #agc f4 #aid ,hence ,john's indignation at seeing the 8viper's brood0 approaching to take advantage of it8--,,translator4 #aie ,for the sense of the term here1 see above1 p4 #hc1 note4 --,,translator4 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,this book is the first edition of the translation4 ,no second edition was published until #aidh which contained only a few minor changes anyway4 ,consequently there are a lot of errors_/inconsistencies in the spelling and hyphenation4 ,i have left almost all of these as is1 except for a few cases where line-end hyphens needed to be corrected 7line #bdif on p4 #fe3 thoroughgoing_/thorough-going2 line #gdib on p4 #bag3 ,rebirth_/,re-,birth74 ,the special case of #8primitive-,christian' - #8primitive ,christian' was examined in detail4 ,in only six cases does it seem that #8primitive-,christian' is used as a compound word4 ,all the others seem to be legitimate as separate words4 ,the inconsistent uses of naive 7#a71 nave 7#c71 naively 7#a71 navely 7#a71 navet 7#c7 were left as is4 ,so was a priori 7#g71 priori 7#b7 and ,l',aptre 7#d71 ,l',apotre 7#a74 ,two un-paired quotation marks were also left as is3 up-paired p4 #cd line #aebh 7wrong but left in7 un-paired n4 #ajc p4 #acd line #ifch 7wrong but left in7 ,because of the use of ,english1 ,german1 ,dutch1 and ,latin there were many different spellings of words flagged as errors which were due to the same word being spelled differently in different languages4