,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,equal signs 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate bold in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,deprecated spellings have been preserved4 ,typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected4 ,the ,music ,story ,series ,,edited ,,by ,,frederick ,j4 ,,crowest4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,opera ,the ,music ,story ,series4 #c_/f net per ,volume4 ,already published in this ,series4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,oratorio4 ,by ,,annie ,,patterson1 ,b4,a41 ,mus4 ,doc4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,notation4 ,by ,c4 ,f4 ,,abdy ,,williams1 ,m4,a41 ,mus4 ,bac4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,organ4 ,by ,c4 ,f4 ,,abdy ,,williams1 ,m4,a41 ,mus4 ,bac4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,chamber ,,music4 ,by ,n4 ,,kilburn1 ,mus4 ,bac4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,violin4 ,by ,,paul ,,stoeving4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,harp4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,grattan-,,flood1 ,mus4 ,doc4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,organ ,,music4 ,by ,c4 ,f4 ,,abdy ,,williams1 ,m4,a41 ,mus4 ,bac4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,english ,,music 7#afjd-aijd7-- ,,musicians' ,,company ,,lectures4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,minstrelsy4 ,by ,,edmondstoune ,,duncan4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,musical ,,form4 ,by ,,clarence ,,lucas4 ,this ,series1 in superior leather bindings1 may be had on application to the ,publishers4 ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved4 ,illustration3 ,emery ,walker ,ph4 ,sc4 ,sir ,arthur ,sullivan1 ,m4,v4,o41 ,mus4 ,doc4 ,painted by ,sir ,john ,everett ,millais1 ,bart41 ,p4,r4,a4 ,illustration3 ,,mascagni4 ,the ,story of ,opera ,,by ,e4 ,,markham ,,lee ,m4,a42 ,mus4 ,doc41 ,cantab4 ,london ,the ,walter ,scott ,publishing ,co41 ,ltd4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons #aiji ,preface4 ,historie,s of ,opera are not very numerous3 there have been many articles and essays in various magazines1 dictionaries1 and so forth which have presented more or less concise synopses of the gradual development and growth of the ,operatic ,art4 ,some of these1 notably the one in ,grove's ,dictionary1 are excellent1 but a work of such bulk is not for the everyday reader1 nor1 generally speaking1 for the amateur4 ,beyond these magazine and dictionary essays the number of books--at any rate in the ,english language--solely on ,opera is very limited1 and from the nature of the case1 those that exist soon get out of date4 ,in the present work an attempt has been made1 so far as space has allowed1 to give some brief account of every notable ,school of ,opera of which anything is known4 ,it is not claimed that the advance of the ,art will not necessitate constant additions to or alterations of these pages4 ,even in the short space of time that has elapsed since the body of this book on ,opera was written1 such features as the rise in popularity of ,puccini's operas1 or of such modern works as ,debussy's ,pelleas and ,melisande1 the permission of the censor to play ,saint-,sans' ,samson and ,delilah on the ,english stage1 and the slight wane in interest on the part of the ,english public for ,wagner's operas1 have made imperative the rewriting of many paragraphs and the modification of others4 ,every attempt1 however1 has been made to bring the book up to date1 and if in the ,chapters on ,modern ,operas and in the ,appendices there may be omitted names which some may consider should have been included1 it must be borne in mind that in the twentieth century opera composers spring up like mushrooms1 and often disappear from public gaze with equal rapidity4 ,works of bygone generations can be criticized and placed as successes or failures1 but in these days of strenuous output one cannot speak with any certainty as to what is ephemeral and what is enduring4 ,our own times are too close to us1 and must be left for future historians to pronounce judgment upon4 ,hence only the most notable and brilliant successes amongst modern operatic works are1 generally speaking1 recorded4 ,it is hoped that the ,chapters on 8,what is ,opera80 and 8,how to listen to and enjoy ,opera0 may touch to some extent on new ground and may be helpful to the amateur4 ,appendix ,a has entailed an enormous amount of work1 and although it contains1 of course1 nothing that cannot be gathered from other sources1 it is trusted that the information thus compiled and placed under one heading may be of use and of interest to the student of ,opera4 ,the tabulated ,state ,grants in ,appendix ,b will show1 what is perhaps not generally known1 how badly off ,england is in this matter as compared with many other countries4 ,the book is offered in all sincerity to those who care to read it4 ,there are1 possibly1 mistakes and errors4 ,if this be so1 ,i will ask my good friends to point them out to me1 in the hope of my having an opportunity of availing myself of such corrections in a second edition of this work4 ,e4 ,m4 ,l4 ,,woodford ,,green1 ,november #aiji4 ,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,opera8 ,,page ,what is ,opera8--,derivation of term--,a musical work--,an artificial product--,its justification--,emotional effect of music--,hybrid opera--,modern taste demands one medium of expression--,a definition--,music an accessory to opera1 but an important one #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,different ,,schools ,,corresponding ,,with ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,musical ,,art4 ,the centuries see little change in the elements of the drama--,growth of opera concurrent with the progress of the art of music--,points of difference between early operas 7,monteverde1 etc47 and those of ,scarlatti and later writers--,birth of the aria--,england and ,france of the same date--,opera buffa--,musical empiricism--,gluck--,his followers--,varying subjects treated--,italian opera--,abuses by the singers--,wagner and modern opera #g ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,reformers ,,of ,,opera3 ,,monteverde1 ,,gluck1 ,,and ,,wagner4 ,reforms1 and the reasons thereof--,monteverde's influence--,musical innovations--,the stage discards music of the ecclesiastical order--,the beauty of ,scarlatti's arias--,their weakness--,gluck--,gluck's explanation of his reforms--,triumph of his methods--,another retrogression-- ,rossini--,wagner--,the leit-motif--,influence on subsequent composers--,will further reforms become necessary1 and what shape will they take8 #ah ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,opera4 ,early commencement of opera--,the ,bardi enthusiasts--,what they achieved--,peri and ,caccini--,a logical commencement--,its imperfections #cb ,,chapter ,v4 ,,early ,,italian1 ,,french1 ,,german1 ,,and ,,english ,,opera4 ,monteverde--,scarlatti--,cambert--,lull y--,keiser--,purcell--,handel in ,london--,handel's rival1 ,buononcini--,handel's operas now obsolete by reason of their lack of dramatic truth #ci ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,operas ,,of ,,gluck ,,and ,,the ,,great ,,composers4 ,gluck and his masterpieces--,mozart--,beethoven--,webe r and romantic opera--,der ,freischtz--,other operas--,schubert--,opera writing a distinct form of composition--,the small influence of the really great composers upon opera #dh ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,some ,,lesser ,,stars ,,in ,,the ,,operatic ,,firmament4 7a7 ,,the ,,italian ,,school 7,,cimarosa ,,to ,,verdi74 ,the ,italian school--,opera buffa--,the ,neapolitan school--,piccini--,a notable contest--,cimarosa--,rossini3 his ,barber of ,seville--,recitative and its significance--,william ,tell--,bellini and ,donizetti--,verdi3 his early and later operas #fc ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,some ,,lesser ,,stars ,,in ,,the ,,operatic ,,firmament4 7b7 ,,the ,,german ,,school 7,,keiser ,,to ,,nicolai74 ,keiser and his successors--,hiller--,real ,german opera--,spohr--,marschner--,operatic interest not centred in ,germany at this time #gf ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,some ,,lesser ,,stars ,,in ,,the ,,operatic ,,firmament4 7c7 ,,the ,,french ,,school 7,,rameau ,,to ,,ambroise ,,thomas74 ,rameau--,divergence of methods--,the successors of ,gluck and ,piccinni--,mhul--,cherubini and ,spontini--,meyerbeer--,auber--,gounod-- ,bizet--,reasons for the popularity of ,faust and ,carmen--,offenbach--,dlibes and ,lalo--,thomas #ha ,,chapter ,x4 ,,english ,,opera ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,and ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,the ,beggar's ,opera--,arne--,bishop--,balfe--,wallace --,goring ,thomas--,sullivan--,living writers #ia ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,wagner ,,and ,,his ,,operas4 ,wagner's early days--,at ,wrzburg--,at ,knigsberg--,at ,riga--,at ,paris--,rienzi--,dresden--,zurich--,mun ich--,triebschen --,bayreuth--,death--,wagner's methods--,the ,flying ,dutchman --,tannhuser--,lohengrin--,tristan and ,isolde--,die ,meistersinger--,the ,ring--,parsifal--,wagner's continued development #ih ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,modern ,,opera ,,since ,,wagner',s ,,reforms4 ,wagner's influence--,no mere copying--,modern 8,melos0--,use of the orchestra--,his harmony--,men of a younger generation--,the ,slavs #aaf ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,slavonic ,,opera4 ,early ,russian composers--,glinka--,dargomijsky--,borod in--,csar ,cui--,tchakovsky--,polish opera--,bohemian opera--,dvrk --,other ,european countries #abb ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,opera ,,to-,,day ,,in ,,italy1 ,,germany1 ,,france1 ,,and ,,england4 ,boito--,his interesting personality--,puccini--,mascagni-- ,leoncavallo--,cilea--,german composers--,goldmark and ,humperdinck--,the ,french school--,saint-,sans--,massenet --,bruneau--,english composers--,stanford--,mackenzie-- ,cowen--,corder--,bunning1 etc4 #acj ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,operatic ,,enterprise ,,in ,,england4 ,subsidized opera--,opera an educative factor--,objections to subsidies--,advantages--,english opera--,opera companies --,covent ,garden--,the ,royal ,opera ,syndicate--,history of opera in this country--,travelling companies--,the ,carl ,rosa ,company--,the ,moody-,manners ,company--,the outlook #aej ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,how ,,to ,,listen ,,to ,,and ,,enjoy ,,opera4 ,feelings of disappointment--,expectations--,the language difficulty--,why the story is hard to follow--,what we go to the opera to hear--,some suggestions--,to grasp the story--,to realize the style of the music--,re-hearing necessary--,how to begin to study opera--,what is necessary for its enjoyment #afc ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,chief ,,opera ,,houses ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,covent ,garden--,la ,scala--,san ,carlo--,venice--,rome--,paris and the ,grand ,opera--,vienna--,budapest--,prague--,be rlin--,dresden --,munich--,bayreuth--,russia--,other ,european countries-- ,egypt--,america #agb ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,offshoots ,,and ,,curiosities ,,of ,,opera4 ,operetta--,musical comedy--,ballad opera--,masque--,ballet-- ,objections thereto--,curiosities of construction-- ,pasticcio--,mixed language--,stereotyped casts--,curiosities of stage requirements--,wagner's supernatural requirements --,curiosities of the music--,vocal cadenzas #ahe ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,a ,,chapter ,,of ,,chatter4 ,opera and politics--,lohengrin in ,paris--,opera non-lucrative to the composer--,jenny ,lind's contract--,modern fees-- ,royalties--,librettists--,metastasio and ,scribe-- ,the prima donna--,stories of singers and composers #aii ,,appendix ,a4--,chronological ,list of ,composers of ,opera1 ,great ,singers1 ,conductors1 etc4 #bae ,,appendix ,b4--,financial ,aid ,granted to ,operatic ,schemes from ,state or ,municipal ,funds #bdh ,,appendix ,c4--,glossary of ,terms mainly used in ,opera #bee ,,appendix ,d4--,list of ,instruments used in the ,orchestras of ,composers of ,different ,periods of ,opera #bfj ,,appendix ,e4--,bibliography of ,opera #bfc ,list of ,illustrations4 ,,page ,,sir ,,arthur ,,sullivan ,frontispiece ,photogravure from the ,painting by ,sir ,john ,everett ,millais1 ,p4,r4,a4 ,,alessandro ,,scarlatti #bj ,,richard ,,wagner #bf ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,lully #db ,,domenico ,,cimarosa #fd ,,guiseppe ,,verdi #gb ,,johann ,,adam ,,hiller #gh ,,nicola ,,piccini #hb ,j4 ,,offenbach #hh ,,giacomo ,,puccini #acj ,,pietro ,,mascagni #acb ,,ruggiero ,,leoncavallo #acf ,,sir ,a4 ,c4 ,,mackenzie #adf ,,bayreuth ,,theatre #aha ,,madame ,,melba #bjj ,,chapter ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,opera8 ,what is ,opera8--,derivation of term--,a musical work--,an artificial product--,its justification--,emotional effect of music--,hybrid opera--,modern taste demands one medium of expression--,a definition--,music an accessory to opera1 but an important one4 ,sidenote3 ,what is ,opera8 ,what is ,opera8 ,a question easy to ask1 but one that by no means finds so ready an answer2 the definitions1 8,a drama set to music10 8,a musical play10 and so forth1 being but loose and inaccurate1 and not conveying any real idea as to that which they seek to define4 ,sidenote3 ,derivation of ,term ,the term 8,opera10 derived1 or rather abbreviated from the words 8,opera in ,musica0 7,works in music--i4e41 a musical work71 may be at once seen to be only a convenient title that has found favour by its brevity and through lack of a better3 translate it and read 8works10 and we may see that it is a meaningless term in all else than that it is something created4 ,and what is this 8something0 that has been created1 that is in people's mouths so often1 and that we designate by the word 8,opera08 ,the least cultured will be able to answer that it is a work for the stage1 in which music plays a prominent part3 that it is this1 and something more1 must be shown as we study its rise and development4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,musical ,work ,let us go a little deeper in our search for a definition4 ,in studying real opera we shall find that not only is it a dramatic production1 and that music plays an important part in it1 but that any spoken dialogue is foreign to its nature4 ,it is therefore a continuous musical work1 uninterrupted by speeches or sentences spoken by the natural voice--sung throughout1 the music being illustrative of the story that is being unfolded1 and accompanied by appropriate gesture and action4 ,evidently1 then1 ,opera is a very artificial production2 for although under some circumstances one may indeed burst forth into spontaneous song1 it is difficult to imagine any considerable number of connected incidents or episodes in one's life which would naturally suggest music1 to which music would be a fitting accompaniment1 or which would demand vocalized words for the adequate expression of the sentiments aroused by them4 ,sidenote3 ,an ,artificial ,product ,fierce rage1 passion1 death agonies1 jealousy1 quarrelling on the one hand1 and wit1 humour1 ordinary dialogue on the other--instances of these are more or less commonly met with in our ordinary experiences1 and as such they are frequently and naturally reproduced on the stage4 ,but feelings or emotions called up by such events are by no means naturally expressed by musical sounds2 and yet in opera we find such emotions1 such conditions frequently constituting some considerable portion of the subject-matter of the piece2 and since all is sung1 it follows that musical expression of these emotions must necessarily be rendered4 ,opera1 then1 must be admitted to be a thing of artificiality4 ,some will say1 8,since the introduction of music into a dramatic work admits an unreal element into that which might otherwise receive a natural interpretation1 how can its existence be justified80 ,sidenote3 ,additional ,emotional ,effect of ,music ,the answer to this is1 that whatever may be the feelings or actions to be expressed by the stage characters1 proper and suitable music will express them with far greater intensity and far greater power than will spoken words or mere gesture4 ,such are the emotional qualities of the art of music that a phrase of quite ordinary significance in words may become1 if wedded to expressive music1 a thing of beauty and life2 an emotional feeling may be roused in the auditor that the mere spoken word could never have touched4 ,in the case of words that may themselves contain beautiful ideas1 their loveliness can be greatly enhanced by the addition of music1 their meaning intensified1 their impressiveness doubled4 ,artificial1 then1 as ,opera is1 and must be1 it can justify its artificiality3 a drama is put upon the stage1 and in order that its situations1 its sentiments1 and its meaning may be more fully expounded1 music is called in to elucidate1 to express1 and to beautify4 ,admitting the possibility of this--which no one who has the least feeling for music1 or who is at all moved emotionally by the art of sweet sounds1 can deny--we find that ,opera justifies its existence1 despite its unreality and its unlikeness to life4 ,sidenote3 ,hybrid ,opera ,but all ,opera is not sung throughout3 there is a large number of musical works under this name having spoken dialogue4 ,justification for these is more difficult1 for it may be readily understood that one form of expression should be used throughout1 and that this modified form of ,opera 7known as ,singspiel71 being neither one thing nor the other1 is a hybrid form1 which really has no right of admission to the title of ,opera at all4 ,the fact that it is often effective and highly popular hardly excuses its violation of art form4 ,of this more anon1 for so many plays of this kind with musical numbers were written at a certain period of the history of the art and were classed as operas1 that their claims cannot be overlooked4 ,but modern taste in opera demands that one medium of expression be made use of throughout1 and thus a return has been made to the early and more artistic form of 8,opera in ,musica0--the true form1 of which the ,singspiel is only an offshoot4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,definition ,we may answer our question1 then1 8,what is opera80 in some such manner as this3 ,an opera is a play designed for the stage1 with scenery1 costumes1 and action used as accessories as in all stage plays1 but with the additional use of music to intensify the meanings of the lines which are uttered by the characters1 to generally heighten the effect produced by the other combined arts1 and to add an emotional element that might otherwise be lacking4 ,sidenote3 ,music an ,accessory1 but an ,important ,one ,let us notice that music is only an accessory to the play3 an important one1 it may be granted1 but yet only an accessory4 ,it has been through failure to recognize this limited position of music in opera that accounts for thousands of operas never being heard now4 ,the exaltation of the music at the expense of plot1 action1 and dramatic fitness has caused the downfall of many a promising operatic composer4 ,public taste has been to blame1 but in the long run it has always veered round to a proper appreciation of the truly artistic2 it has made many mistakes1 but sooner or later1 guided by some master mind1 it has discarded the false and taken to the true and real form of opera1 with the result that most operas written to-day are consistent wholes1 dominated by one general idea1 and written upon one fixed governing principle4 ,opera1 then1 generally speaking1 is an ,art form1 in which a stage play is presented with all usual accessories1 but with the important addition of continuous music3 this is a general definition1 but one of which there are so many modifications that we must turn aside for a moment to trace how it happens that so many forms and varieties of opera as there seem to be have sprung into existence4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,different ,,schools ,,corresponding ,,with ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,musical ,,art4 ,the centuries see little change in the elements of the drama--,growth of opera concurrent with the progress of the art of music--,points of difference between early operas 7,monteverde1 etc47 and those of ,scarlatti and later writers--,birth of the aria--,england and ,france of the same date--,opera buffa--,musical empiricism--,gluck--,his followers--,varying subjects treated--,italian opera --,abuses by the singers--,wagner and modern opera4 ,sidenote3 ,little change in the ,drama ,the changes that have taken place in opera during the short three hundred years which constitute the life of modern music are far more prominent and important than those that have been undergone by the ordinary dramatic work3 the arts of elocution1 gesture1 and stage action are very old ones1 and have seen little radical change for many centuries4 ,great progress has been made through the use of modern mechanical devices and inventions in the mounting of all stage pieces--i4e41 in the scenery employed1 the lighting1 and stage effects generally3 these all appeal to the eye2 but the appeal to the ear is not1 in an ordinary dramatic work1 more powerfully made than it was in the days of the ,greek dramatist4 ,but when music is added1 then appeal to the ear of a most powerful kind takes place1 and during the whole life of the youngest of the ,arts the improvements and growth in musical technique and expression have been grafted upon opera with continuously progressive power and effect4 ,sidenote3 ,growth concurrent with the progress of the ,art of ,music ,now1 since opera has demanded for its representation an art that has been in a state of continuous growth1 it will follow that the different classes of opera will closely correspond with the different styles and schools of music3 we shall find therefore that the earliest operas were only able to employ crude and undeveloped music1 none better being available2 that as musical skill and knowledge grew1 as additional instruments were added to the orchestra1 as knowledge of forms developed1 so all these improvements found their way into operatic music1 with the result that the difference between say a seventeenth and an eighteenth century opera is a very wide one1 while a vaster difference still may be seen between one of the eighteenth and one of the late nineteenth century4 ,we may briefly examine the causes of these differences1 taking the dawn of all modern music 7about #afjj ,a4,d47 as the starting-point4 ,sidenote3 ,points of difference ,if we take the operas of the first few years of the seventeenth century1 what do we find8 ,that the form of tonality in use was the mode and not the scale2 that time 7i4e41 measured music71 as we now know it1 did not exist2 that harmony1 as we now know it1 did not exist2 and that the instruments of the orchestra 7although some have survived71 were in the main instruments which have fallen into disuse1 many of them having no modern counterparts4 ,it needs little pointing out that this form of opera must have sounded very different to its successors4 ,sidenote3 ,monteverde's innovations ,the next important innovations1 generally accredited to ,monteverde1 include the dramatic effects of pizzicato and tremolo passages for the stringed instruments--devices which have been used with the happiest results by all composers of subsequent date4 ,such devices1 unknown in church music anterior to this time1 or even in the music written for instruments only without voices in the church style1 are most effectively employed for the illustration of certain situations on the stage3 the mere introduction of these alone is sufficient to separate this school of opera from that which preceded it4 ,sidenote3 ,use of ,orchestra ,but ,monteverde's inventions or adoptions did not stop here1 for it was he who first added many instruments to the orchestra2 not only did he employ additional instruments1 but he used them in such a way as to wed certain characters or situations to music in which certain sets of instruments were employed1 thus anticipating the much later ,wagnerian device of accompanying certain ideas by a fixed theme1 or by particular combinations in the orchestra4 ,sidenote3 ,adoption of ,melody ,so far the music of the opera was confined to recitative3 that is1 to the musical rendering of the dialogue without regular rhythm or melody4 ,another period of opera opened out altogether1 when composers began to adapt portions of the dialogue to regular formal melody of a rhythmic nature1 and in the diatonic scale1 much as we now know it4 ,credit for this is generally given to ,cavalli1 and his example was followed by a well-known early opera writer1 ,alessandro ,scarlatti4 ,the recitative of the latter took1 too1 a richer shape and form1 inasmuch as it was now often accompanied by the whole of the orchestra1 instead of merely by the continuous bass1 completed by harpsichord harmonies4 ,sidenote3 ,birth of the ,aria ,scarlatti1 however1 may claim a more still important innovation1 the adoption of set forms3 his ideas were often cast into lyrical shapes1 his solos were often arias of definite mould1 and above all1 he deliberately adopted the ,da ,capo ,aria in the majority of his works4 ,this ,da ,capo ,aria would be described by a student of modern form as a 8,ternary0 movement1 in so far as its first part was entirely repeated after the performance of a contrasted middle section4 ,that ,scarlatti's invention killed itself by its own popularity is a matter to be spoken of elsewhere3 suffice it to notice that the introduction of the 8,da ,capo0 ,aria brought into existence a new form of opera1 different to all that had gone before4 ,sidenote3 ,england and ,france ,meanwhile opera was progressing in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england1 each school having certain distinguishing characteristics4 ,purcell's work in ,england was unlike that of any ,continental opera composer1 and his melodies have a boldness1 freedom1 and ring about them quite their own3 ,english music of the period was a reflex of the national character1 straightforward1 honest1 and vigorous4 ,at the same time1 ,lully in ,france was developing quite another side of opera1 by the introduction of the ballet1 a form that has been retained till within quite recent times by the ,french4 ,sidenote3 ,opera ,buffa ,handel1 although the success of his operas killed1 for the time being1 all ,english-born ideas1 added little or nothing to the forms of ,scarlatti2 he practically left opera where he found it1 nor were his works as widely known on the ,continent as in ,england4 ,more importance may be attached to the rise1 on the ,continent1 of a lighter form of opera1 entitled 8,opera ,buffa10 in contradistinction to which opera proper received the title of 8,opera ,seria40 ,this delightful type had its rise in the intermezzo played between the acts of a dramatic piece1 and only gradually obtained a separate existence3 from the early attempts of ,pergolesi and others there sprung an entirely new class of work1 which had great influence on the history of opera generally4 ,another step towards the now universally known form of opera was made when ,logroscino invented the ,concerted ,finale1 bringing several of his characters on to the stage at the same time1 and giving them a simultaneous share in the music4 ,sidenote3 ,musical ,empiricism ,let us notice that all these improvements effected in the music gradually led composers away from the true object of its use in opera1 namely1 that of enhancing the general effect produced2 the music began to be looked upon as so important and so interesting on its own account that all dramatic considerations were allowed to lapse4 ,meanwhile the personalities of the singers1 as opposed to that of the characters they were personating1 and their vocal abilities were thrust forward to the exclusion of almost all else4 ,sidenote3 ,gluck ,this brought about an entire change of method1 the dramatic and far-seeing composer ,gluck remodelling opera entirely1 and endeavouring to bring it1 with the added resources made possible by the improvements in musical technique1 into line with the consistent ideas of the ,florentine amateurs1 who endeavoured to reproduce opera on the model of the ancient ,greeks4 ,sidenote3 ,gluck's ,followers ,gluck's reforms had a very wide influence upon the history of opera1 which will be more fully dwelt upon in another place2 an influence that may be traced in the magnificent efforts of the group of ,german masters that followed in the general lines laid down by him in their adherence to dramatic truth and fitness4 ,moreover1 these composers1 the greatest that the world has ever known1 were developing the resources of music of all kinds1 and their achievements in the field of composition generally were reflected in their writings for the stage4 ,consequently1 we find in the operas of ,mozart1 ,beethoven1 ,weber1 and ,schubert an advance in musical technique corresponding with the rapid strides which the art of music as a whole was then making4 ,sidenote3 ,varying ,subjects ,treated ,and again1 their varied and diverse temperaments led them into widely different directions in their search for libretti1 a point in which they were followed by ,spohr1 ,marschner1 ,cherubini1 ,spontini1 and others4 ,the whole range of the field of opera was widening out1 and the subjects selected for treatment were no longer solely classical or cast into classic mould1 but included the romantic1 the chivalrous1 the supernatural1 the plebeian1 and other types of plot and character2 these wide differences were of course reflected in the music4 ,another point to be noticed about this period of opera is that the orchestra employed began to settle down into definite shape1 the constituent instruments being those which form what we now call the classical orchestra4 ,these instruments are such as are to be found 7with one or two exceptions7 in the orchestra of to-day1 and such operas therefore admit of reproduction at the present time1 because1 although other instruments have been added to those which form the ordinary classical orchestra1 no radical changes in methods of scoring have taken place since the time of ,mozart1 ,beethoven1 and ,weber4 ,sidenote3 ,italian ,opera ,opera had now become so many-sided an art form that it will be impossible in this brief resum of its history to follow it through all its varieties2 the principal of these were the 8,opera ,comique0 of the ,french1 the ,ballad ,opera of the ,english1 and the melodic and tuneful form of ,italian opera1 which claims ,rossini as its shining light1 and which1 by its other sons1 ,donizetti and ,bellini1 attracted and riveted public attention in ,europe for so long4 ,sidenote3 ,abuses by the ,singers ,in the ,italian form of opera1 the aggressive and encroaching qualities of the prime donne threw certain portions of the music 7i4e41 their own arias and songs7 into such prominence as to dwarf all else4 ,abuses were again to the fore2 the solo singers1 male as well as female1 made the opera2 plot1 action1 suitability1 dramatic fitness--all mattered little so long as there were plenty of flourishes1 vocal cadenzas1 and roulades4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner ,as in the days of ,gluck1 a strong man arose to revolutionize the whole trend of things1 to turn the music back into its proper channel1 to stop its overwhelmingly preponderant importance1 and to restore harmony among the arts employed for the proper rendering of musical drama4 ,this man was ,wagner1 beyond whose achievements opera has as yet moved no step4 ,his methods of orchestration1 his additions to the ordinary orchestra1 his devices of guiding themes1 and of the continual employment of song-like 7although unrhythmic7 melody1 known as ,melos1 constitute so many new features in the history of opera4 ,modern opera1 since his time1 has presented us with nothing sufficiently fresh to justify for itself the claim to have had any radical influence in operatic development4 ,the resources of the technique of the art1 the increased freedom with which remote discords and far-fetched modulations are attacked1 the greater facility exhibited by composers in welding various themes together1 and in their use of the orchestra1 are only a following of the principles and practices of ,wagner4 ,since his mighty operas were produced there is no epoch-making event to chronicle4 ,thus1 side by side with the development and progress of the composition and practice of music1 opera has developed and progressed1 from the days of the simple monodic school1 to the complex polyphony of the twentieth century4 ,this has been briefly1 and without detail1 demonstrated above2 and we now turn to a more analytical examination of the various phases of opera4 ,before doing this1 however1 it will be as well to examine a little more deeply into the causes of the somewhat frequent checks in its history1 which we have cursorily mentioned1 and of the reforms and uprootings of the abuses which have constantly hindered its growth3 a brief enquiry into those abuses will help us more clearly to understand what opera really should be1 and also how much is due to those stalwart heroes of opera who have defied the whole of the civilized world in their efforts to establish1 or to re-establish1 it upon a proper basis4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,reformers ,,of ,,opera3 ,,monteverde1 ,,gluck1 ,,and ,,wagner4 ,reforms1 and the reasons thereof--,monteverde's influence--,musical innovations--,the stage discards music of the ecclesiastical order--,the beauty of ,scarlatti's arias--,their weakness--,gluck--,gluck's explanation of his reforms--,triumph of his methods--,another retrogression--,rossini--,wagner--,the leit-motif--,influence on subsequent composers--,will further reforms become necessary1 and what shape will they take8 ,sidenote3 ,reforms ,the word reformer is here used in its original sense1 for each of the composers named in the heading to this chapter had very considerable influence in the reconstitution and re-casting of the structure of opera in his day4 ,these were the men who1 perhaps more than all others1 were not content to leave opera in the groove in which they found it3 for at the respective periods in which they lived opera had drifted into grooves1 and it was the influence of these composers that arrested its progress in the various wrong directions in which they found it drifting2 they set themselves first of all to stem the currents that were carrying opera astray1 and then constructed new works as examples of what could and should be done4 ,hence we call them the reformers1 and may now examine into the achievements of each of them in turn1 noticing the condition of things that prevailed when they first entered the field1 their influence upon it1 and the result of their work4 ,sidenote3 ,monteverde's ,influence ,first of all1 ,monteverde4 ,so many innovations are connected with his name1 that he would appear to have been a reformer of music in general2 it is not certain1 however1 that all that history credits him with is really his due4 ,but this is certain1 that opera before his time was a very different thing to opera subsequent to that period4 ,the efforts of the early ,florentine amateurs1 the ,palazzo ,bardi enthusiasts1 of whom more anon1 had been towards the production of opera on the lines of the ancient ,greek play4 ,this was opera as ,monteverde found it4 ,he1 original thinker and worker that he was1 applied the same daring innovations to his operatic music which he had employed in his compositions for the church4 ,these consisted mainly in an utter disregard for the principles of strict counterpoint1 and a free use of unprepared discords4 ,sidenote3 ,musical ,innovations ,now these discords1 harsh and ill-sounding1 when performed by a number of voices without accompaniment in the church1 made a very different effect in the opera-house3 the effect of a solo voice1 accompanied by instruments1 was very different to that of a chorus2 and discordant passages1 which violated both the spirit and the meaning of sacred words1 were quite in their place--nay1 more1 they frequently heightened the dramatic intensity of the situation when used in opera4 ,so great was ,monteverde's success1 so dramatic and expressive his music1 that all composers since his day have followed in his footsteps1 and have composed operas on the model of free and unfettered writing originated by him4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,church style of ,music given up for the ,stage ,his novelties of orchestration2 his use of instruments1 grouped quite in the modern manner for accompanying certain characters1 or for defining particular situations1 have already been touched upon2 and these characteristic features continue to give him a very prominent position as a reformer of early opera4 ,by him the complexion of matters was utterly changed1 and the groove of writing in the church style for the stage1 prevalent until his day1 was left for ever4 ,illustration3 ,,scarlatti4 ,sidenote3 ,the beauty of ,scarlatti's ,arias ,a century and more later we find a new reformer in ,gluck4 ,what had happened in the meanwhile8 ,opera had fallen under the great and commanding influence of ,alessandro ,scarlatti1 whose methods1 if not amounting to reform1 had certainly led to abuse4 ,it has been mentioned that he invented the ,da ,capo ,aria2 this was at first a welcome feature1 because it gave point and meaning to the music1 more definiteness of idea1 and greater unanimity of design4 ,compare it with what had gone before1 an endlessly dreamy musical recitation without form1 without symmetry or rhythm1 without set melody2 the only attributes of the older style were its dramatic intensity and truth4 ,and then ,scarlatti appeared upon the scene2 invented beautiful melodies1 and cast them into regular mould1 so that an audience knew that it only had to wait while a second part was gone through1 to hear again a first part that had perhaps given much pleasure3 it was a kind of encore1 granted without trouble or uncertainty4 ,we can imagine the melody-loving ,italians of the day welcoming this beautiful and artistic innovation4 ,sidenote3 ,their weakness ,but the beauty and charm of the idea compassed its own ruin2 for1 being but a formal procedure1 it did not equally suit every situation2 indeed1 it may readily be understood that there must have been very many occasions when it was little short of absurd1 for stage purposes1 to go twice through the same emotional aspects and crises4 ,in the operas1 and in many of the oratorios of our own master1 ,handel1 we may hear1 and perhaps it may be confessed1 be wearied by this inevitable repetition2 for the sense of appreciation in music is readier than it used to be1 and the more truthfully dramatic music of later generations tends to render almost intolerable a long1 unchanged recapitulation of something already heard4 ,but apart from its dramatic unfitness1 the real mischief of the ,da ,capo ,aria lay in the fact that it attracted too much attention from the plot4 ,each of the principal singers in the caste demanded that he or she should have at least one example to sing1 whether it suited the exigencies of the situation or no4 ,the audience went to the opera house1 not to hear an opera performed1 but rather to delight in a series of bravura airs1 and exercises in vocal agility1 performed by popular singers4 ,the real origin of opera was lost sight of1 dramatic considerations were practically ignored1 and the performance became of a lyrical1 rather than of a dramatic1 nature4 ,sidenote3 ,gluck #agad-aghg ,now ,gluck1 curiously enough1 had written many operas on this plan before it occurred to him to try to reform it2 but his artistic nature at last revolted against the absurdities of works of this type1 successful though he had been in the production of such4 ,after much thought and labour he set himself the task of remodelling the music1 in a manner which can best be explained by quoting his own words1 written in the prefix to the score of ,alceste3-- ,sidenote3 ,gluck's explanation of his ,reforms 8,when ,i undertook to set the opera of ,alceste to music1 ,i resolved to avoid all those abuses which had crept into ,italian opera through the mistaken vanity of singers and the unwise compliance of composers1 and which had rendered it wearisome and ridiculous1 instead of being1 as it once was1 the grandest and most imposing stage of modern times4 ,i endeavoured to reduce music to its proper function1 that of seconding poetry1 by enforcing the expression of the sentiment1 and the interest of the situations1 without interrupting the action1 or weakening it by superfluous ornament4444 ,i have been very careful never to interrupt a singer in the heat of a dialogue1 not to stop him in the middle of a piece1 either for the purpose of displaying the flexibility of his voice on some favourable vowel1 or that the orchestra might give him time to take breath before a long sustained note4444 ,my object has been to put an end to abuses against which good taste and good sense have long protested in vain4444 ,there was no rule which ,i did not consider myself bound to sacrifice for the sake of effect40 ,sidenote3 ,triumph of his ,methods ,from these quotations we may form some idea both of the serious errors that had crept into opera and of the thorough nature of the reforms which ,gluck contemplated4 ,he had many1 and severe1 battles to fight before he gained public opinion to his side2 but eventually he brought the artistic world round to his point of view1 with the result that a complete change of method was again adopted by composers3 the progress of opera1 which had drifted into a wrong channel1 was again headed in the right direction by a masterly hand1 and for some time a more real and genuine school of opera held the boards4 ,sidenote3 ,another ,retrogression ,but history repeats itself4 ,years passed away and operas were written both good and bad3 ,mozart1 with his beautiful and delicate pen2 ,beethoven1 with his imperishable picture of the faithful wife2 ,weber1 the composer par excellence of ,romantic opera2 ,spohr1 and others all left their influences--and in the main thoroughly artistic and beautiful ones--upon music drama4 ,to this chain of great classics there succeeded1 however1 a group of lesser luminaries whose tendencies were less truthfully artistic1 whose leanings were popular rather than sthetic1 and whose influence was to a great extent mischievous4 ,sidenote3 ,rossini1 #agib-ahfi ,most grievous of such offenders was ,rossini1 whose gifts of ready and spontaneous melody led him sadly astray4 ,his knowledge of effect was wonderful1 but his methods were of the clap-trap order1 and although there are admirable points in his work1 its appeal was made to popular taste rather than to the musician1 and popular taste is a fickle thing4 ,for a while1 ,rossini1 with his sensuous melodies1 his whirling crescendi1 his tricky orchestration1 carried ,europe with him--into wrong paths2 for the taste for such things is not a healthy one1 nor can the appetite always be satisfied by a glut of sweetmeats4 ,besides ,rossini there was1 as always1 a host of imitators who follow their hero at more or less respectful distances1 producing works which were pleasant enough but had little or none of the material that makes for endurance1 even though the whims1 fancies1 and tastes of some of our prime donne are responsible for their production1 now and again1 even in the twentieth century4 ,opera1 indeed1 during all this period was again straying from the right lines3 again the singers1 with their executive abilities1 were distracting attention from the equally important dramatic meaning of the works performed4 ,again the aria and duet were usurping the place of music which should have been defining the stage situation1 and conveying to the ear of the auditor a tone-picture to match the scenic representation1 and to help to carry on the action of the piece1 which1 indeed1 during these vocal performances suffered much from stagnation4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner1 #ahac-ahhc ,it needed a strong hand to stem the tide on this occasion1 and a strong hand was available in the person of ,richard ,wagner1 whose efforts have revolutionized opera to so great an extent that it is unlikely that any great work for the stage will ever be conceived in the future which will not show traces of his influence4 ,for he took no half-measures1 but went to the root of the matter1 and that in so thorough a way that he really invented an utterly new phase of expression4 ,until his employment of the kind of music which we call ,melos 7a continuous stream of melody without definite rhythm1 tune1 or cadence7 music in general1 and more especially operatic music1 had always1 from the time of the early composers of the ,monodic ,school1 paid some little regard to form and shape4 ,but ,wagner1 whose great idea it was that in the rendering of opera the arts of ,music1 ,action1 ,poetry1 and ,scenery should stand on an equal footing1 was unable to allow attention to be devoted to the music in the very special way in which it was drawn when set forms of song or air were admitted4 ,it overturned the balance which he deemed so desirable1 and threw into prominence one art at the expense of the others4 ,illustration3 ,,wagner4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,leit-,motif ,consequently1 with wondrous energy1 skill1 and in the face of the usual relentless opposition1 he gradually worked his way to the construction of what was1 until his time1 an absolutely unknown form of dramatic accompaniment4 ,in so far as it was continuous1 and expressive of the stage situation1 it resembled the music of the ,italian composers who preceded ,scarlatti4 ,but the great and original innovation of ,wagner was his use of melody 7a feature non-existent in the works of the ,monodic writers72 not melody of the stereotyped nature which we designate as tune1 nor even the rhythmic1 square-cut1 and often beautifully appropriate melody of a ,mozart or a ,beethoven4 ,wagner's melodies were so constructed that they had1 generally speaking1 definite signification3 every subject 7or leit-motif1 as it was called7 was intended to suggest to the mind of the hearer some definite idea connected with something occurring upon1 or suggested by the stage4 ,not that the entrance of a certain character was always accompanied by certain music2 rather1 a deeper psychological problem was offered1 the words sung calling up definite ideas1 or such suggestions being left to the music alone on occasion4 ,and for this type of theme ,wagner chose either certain definite passages or fragments of melody1 such as the opening phrase of 8,parsifal0-- ,music3 ,melodic ,leit-motif4 7,wagner's 8,parsifal407 or certain chord progressions1 such as the following3-- ,music3 ,harmonic ,leit-,motif4 7,grail ,theme1 8,lohengrin407 or sometimes characteristic methods of orchestration4 ,moreover1 since the stage action or words would very often describe or suggest many ideas at the same time1 these themes would be often superimposed2 with the result that the music of ,wagner's operas--at any rate the later ones--is not so much a stream of melody as a flow of many combined melodies1 working together in contrapuntal richness and fertility into a harmonious whole1 which can be listened to either casually 7in which case it may or may not please the auditor7 or after considerable study1 when it will undoubtedly awake interest and admiration4 ,now1 between this kind of opera and that of the ,rossini school it is very evident that a very vast amount of difference exists4 ,whereas in the latter the hearer had his ear delighted and tickled1 without any trouble to himself1 to his immediate satisfaction1 the ,wagner operas demand careful attention1 study1 and oft-rehearing for intelligent appreciation4 ,the lazy1 pleasure-loving portion of mankind was immediately up in arms against such startling methods as these1 and even to-day1 although the ,wagner-cult is a very considerable one1 it is to be doubted whether the real tastes of the majority of operatic listeners are not rather for something demanding less careful and close attention4 ,whether this be so or no1 the point remains that ,wagner's innovations1 when once understood and grasped1 were seen to be so dramatically true and fitting that all composers of operas1 since his works became widely known1 have come under his influence1 and have in large measure framed their dramatic music on the lines laid down by him4 ,here1 then1 was another revolution1 and an important one4 ,formal melody still exists on the stage1 but the continuous inter-connecting links of melos are derived from ,wagner1 while the wondrous harmonies and chord combinations which he was the first to introduce into the realm of opera1 have been so many additions to the material which the modern composer has for manipulation4 ,since ,wagner there have been no reformers2 we do not yet see in what direction reform is to come4 ,if we are to rely on history1 which certainly seems to repeat itself with regard to opera1 we are probably slowly trending in some wrong direction or other4 ,what that wrong direction is we shall only know when some mighty master mind has turned us out of it4 ,it may be that the ,wagner operas1 which seem at the present time to be the height of dramatic perfection1 may yet contain many serious flaws1 either in workmanship or in method2 this much is certain1 that no imitator of ,wagner has achieved permanent success3 the ,colossus stands alone1 and none can vie with him on his own ground4 ,but opera must go on3 if the ,wagner reforms cannot be successfully adopted and used by others1 operas will be written 7as they are being written7 on other lines4 ,some of these new works will be good and some bad1 but the present seems to be a period of interregnum such as succeeded the times of ,monteverde and of ,gluck4 ,we are experiencing a spell of more or less unimportant operatic production which will1 in all probability1 go on slowly in some wrong direction until the brain of some clear-sighted and gifted genius has discovered that we are all astray1 and will alter the whole course of things4 ,until his advent we have no name to add to our list of reformers of opera4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,opera4 ,early commencement of opera--,the ,bardi enthusiasts--,what they achieved--,peri and ,caccini--,a logical commencement--,its imperfections4 ,it is a curious and interesting fact that the birth of opera should be due more or less to accident1 and should owe its origin to a group of amateurs3 but so it is1 and to the blind gropings in the dark after a something 7they knew not what7 of a small circle of polished scholars1 we owe the form of opera as we have it to-day4 ,it is impossible to trace back to the earliest times the addition of music to a stage play2 from the constant references to the use of the art made by the ,greek poets1 we know that it was a handmaid to the drama from very early times4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 too1 there is plenty of evidence to show that1 at certain stated intervals in the course of the drama1 music was introduced2 but such music as this was always written in the church style of the period1 and had no significance of its own4 ,it was the annoying and incongruous presentation of polyphonic music 7written in strict contrapuntal style1 and in the church manner7 with the performance of dramas1 in which such music was utterly out of place1 that led the band of amateurs mentioned above to search for a more suitable means of clothing the dramatic ideas and stage situations4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,bardi ,enthusiasts 7#aehe1 about7 ,sidenote3 ,what they ,achieved ,this band of dilletanti is generally known by the name of the 8,palazzo ,bardi0 coterie1 from the fact that their chief representative was a certain ,count ,bardi1 and that their meetings were usually held at his palace in ,florence4 ,this city was1 at the period of which we write 7the last part of the sixteenth century71 highly interested in the masterpieces of literary antiquity1 more especially in the magnificent dramas of the older ,greek poets4 ,although the ,florentines knew that these tragedies had some form of musical accompaniment1 they were quite in the dark as to what that music was2 they felt1 however1 that the one and only prevalent kind of music of their day--i4e41 sacred music1 was by no means adequate for the expression of the ideas to be represented4 ,the ,bardi amateurs therefore turned the steps of their native musicians towards other paths1 and induced them to write music of a kind which they believed to be dramatically fit and suitable4 ,that this music was a failure does not matter in the least1 for although it was unable to give any genuine idea of what these enthusiasts sought--namely1 a reproduction of ,greek tragedy consistent with its original form--it invented a new medium and method of expression1 of which composers soon availed themselves in setting to music the dramatic productions of the day4 ,the first of these early composers to achieve success in this field was ,peri1 who produced in #aeid 7or #aeig7 ,daphne1 and a few years later1 in #afjj1 ,euridice4 ,daphne was semi-privately performed1 but ,euridice was put before the world1 and achieved such success that its method and style of composition were soon taken as models for stage music4 ,hence the date #afjj is assigned as that of the birth of real opera2 the same year seeing the production of the first real oratorio1 as we now understand the term4 ,we quote the whole of the short prologue to the earliest known opera3 ,prologue to 8,euridice0 ,music3 ,prologue to 8,euridice40 7,peri1 ,a4,d4 #afjj47 ,,la ,,tragedia4 ,io che d'al te sospir vagae di pianti spar s'or di doglia or di minacie volto ,fei negli ampi teatri al popol fol to scolorir di pieta voltie sembian ti4 while for an example of early operatic dance-music the final 8,ritornello0 from the same opera may serve as illustration4 ,music3 ,final ,ritornello in ,peri's 8,euridice40 ,questo ,ritornello va riplicato pi volte1 e ballato da due ,soli del ,coro4 ,sidenote3 ,peri and ,caccini ,peri led the way2 others followed4 ,in a short decade the ,north of ,italy produced a whole school of writers who had grafted their ideas on those of the composer of ,euridice1 chief among them being ,caccini1 who won great fame in the new style4 ,but the chief merit must be accorded to ,peri1 for it was to him that we owe the invention of the dramatic recitative2 that is to say1 instead of coupling the dialogue to music that might have been designed for the church1 as his predecessors had been content to do1 he endeavoured in his operas to allow the singing voice to depict the ideas expressed by inflections such as would be made by the speaking voice under similar circumstances4 ,as he himself tells us in his preface to ,euridice1 he watched the various modifications in sound made by the speaker in ordinary conversational dialogue1 and sought to reproduce these in music3 8,soft1 gentle speech by half-spoken1 half-sung notes on an instrumental bass2 more emotional feelings by melody of more disjunct character1 and at a quicker rate10 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,logical ,commencement ,thus was opera1 in our modern meaning of the term1 begun1 and this1 too1 on a proper1 logical1 sthetic basis4 ,it was in #afjj a new form1 an untried and questionable innovation2 but it contained the elements of strength and endurance1 and by rapid steps grew and developed1 until within a few short years all other methods of accompanying stage plays by music were obsolete1 and the new 8,monodic0 style held unquestioned sway4 ,sidenote3 ,its ,imperfections ,crude it certainly was1 for modern tonality1 as we understand it1 was still undeveloped2 harsh and ugly much of its music must have been1 for melody was unknown1 time was practically non-existent1 and of form there was none4 ,and yet1 in so far as it sought in its music to faithfully reproduce the dramatic situation1 such work was more truly of the essence of opera than many another of more recent date and of greater success4 ,unlike the polyphonic choral music of its date1 it will not bear performance in our own day1 yet for it must be claimed truth1 strength1 and clearness of aim2 as pioneer work it has been invaluable4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,early ,,italian1 ,,french1 ,,german1 ,,and ,,english ,,opera4 ,monteverde--,scarlatti--,cambert--,lull y--,keiser--,purcell--,handel in ,london--,handel's rival1 ,buononcini--,handel's operas now obsolete by reason of their lack of dramatic truth4 ,sidenote3 ,monteverde1 #aefh-afea ,opera in ,italy1 after its initial stages1 as represented by the works of ,peri and ,caccini1 fell under the commanding sway of ,monteverde1 of whose influence we have already said much in the chapter upon the 8,reformers of ,opera40 ,an example of his melodious1 although1 of course1 somewhat crude style1 may be seen in the 8,moresca0 which we append3-- ,music3 ,fragment of a 8,moresca0 7,dance7 from ,monteverde's 8,orfeo0 7#afji74 ,monteverde was followed by his pupil ,cavalli1 who worked in ,venice1 and who improved the recitative2 in his operas1 male sopranos 7,castrati7 were first employed on the stage1 a practice in vogue for many years subsequently4 ,cavalli also foreshadowed the aria1 or set melody1 soon to become so prominent a feature of ,italian opera4 ,among other prominent composers of this period are ,cesti and ,legrenzi1 ,caldara and ,vivaldi4 ,sidenote3 ,scarlatti1 #afdi-agbe ,these men1 however1 stand completely overshadowed by that ,colossus of early opera1 ,alessandro ,scarlatti4 ,naples was the scene of his activity1 and here he wrote1 amongst countless other compositions1 over one hundred operas1 most of which made their mark4 ,in ,scarlatti we have the turning-point between antiquity and modernity in stage music4 ,of course his operas sound old-fashioned to us1 but it would be quite possible to listen to them1 whereas those of a former date could only have antiquarian interest if produced now4 ,his great genius for melody caused him to modify very considerably the stiff1 though dramatically correct1 recitative of earlier composers1 and to substitute beautiful1 and sometimes inappropriate1 airs in its place4 ,in this dangerous method of exalting the music at the expense of the other arts employed in music drama he was followed by almost all composers for very many years--until1 in fact1 the recognition by ,gluck of the falseness of the situation4 ,opera writers there were by the hundred3 the names of most of these are now forgotten--many remembered2 ,rossi1 ,caldara1 ,lotti1 ,buononcini1 all had their successes1 and contributed in various degrees to the development of early ,italian opera4 ,sidenote3 ,cambert1 #afbh-gg ,but before this1 ,opera had found its way to ,france2 the world-renowned ,euridice had been performed in ,paris as early as #afdg1 and its influence was quickly felt4 ,masques and ballets had been staged before this time1 but ,robert ,cambert was the first ,french writer to produce opera4 ,at first successful1 ,cambert was ousted from his deservedly high position as the founder of ,french opera by the unscrupulous and brilliant ,lully4 ,sidenote3 ,lully1 #afcc-hg ,for ,lully 8came1 saw1 and conquered40 ,although an ,italian1#a his name is one of the most prominent in the history of opera in ,france4 ,coming from ,florence to ,paris at an early age1 he quickly saw his way to improving on the popular operas of ,cambert1 and his inventive and fertile talent soon put the older writer into the background4 ,lully's great gift lay less in aptitude for the conception of melody1 or even in his skill with the orchestra1 than in the powers he possessed of writing truly dramatic and suitably expressive recitative4 ,moreover1 he employed his chorus as an integral factor in the situation1 not as a mere collection of puppets encumbering the stage2 he is credited1 too1 with the invention of the 8,french0 overture1 a form in which an introductory slow movement is followed by another in quick fugal style1 with a third short dance movement to conclude4 ,like ,scarlatti in ,italy1 ,lully in ,france towers high above all opera composers of that period1 and his mark upon ,french ,grand ,opera exists till this day4 #a ,the name is often spelt with i1 not y4--,,ed4 ,illustration3 ,,lully4 ,sidenote3 ,keiser1 #afgc-agci ,germany at the same period can boast of no name of like importance1 but operatic development was taking place in this country also1 the chief agent in its progress here being ,keiser1 who produced a great number of operas in ,hamburg4 ,although not the first to write such works in ,germany1 he is important as being an early factor in the popularization of opera during the forty years in which he laboured in this direction3 he had also many followers1 among whom must be named ,handel1 who wrote a few operas for ,hamburg at an early period of his career4 ,german opera at this time1 however1 gave but little promise of the grand future before it3 the operas of ,keiser and ,hasse contain but few indications of the glories of a school of composers that includes ,mozart1 ,beethoven1 and ,weber4 ,sidenote3 ,purcell1 #afeh-ie ,and what was ,england doing at this period8 ,one genius of the highest rank1 some would say the greatest child of music that ,england has ever produced1 was at work in the form of ,henry ,purcell1 whose too short life was in part occupied by the composition of opera4 ,spontaneity of melody1 freshness and boldness of thought1 and rare dramatic conception are the chief characteristics of the works of our early ,english master4 ,many of these are operas by courtesy only1 for in only one of them1 ,dido and neas1 is the music continuous throughout2 this1 however1 may claim for itself the title of the first ,english opera4 ,before this time 7about #afge7 masques and plays had employed music incidentally1 but ,dido is the earliest known instance of its continuous use4 ,purcell did not follow up his early operatic success1 most of the other stage works1 such as ,king ,arthur1 containing spoken dialogue4 ,it is unfortunate for ,england and her musical sons that the dominating personality of ,handel so soon overshadowed all other musical life in this country3 the wholly sound and sthetically true national influence of ,purcell would undoubtedly have been large1 and it is not too much to say that an early school of genuine ,english opera might have flourished1 had it not been that the great ,saxon composer was1 within a few years of ,purcell's death1 turning his attention to the production of opera in ,london4 ,sidenote3 ,handel1 #afhe-agei ,for although ,handel produced operas in ,germany1 in ,italy1 and in ,england1 it was in ,london that the very large majority of his pieces first saw the light1 and that he achieved the greatest success4 ,between the date of the first performance of ,rinaldo at the ,haymarket1 ,february #bdth1 #agaa1 and that of his last opera1 ,deidamia in #agda1 ,handel composed no less than forty-two grand operas4 ,with indomitable energy1 and in face of very frequent misfortune1 he poured forth these works1 many of which contain powerful music4 ,undeterred by failure1 he took one theatre after another in ,london1 sometimes making much money1 at other times becoming bankrupt4 ,the final stage in ,handel's operatic career was brought about by a lengthy and expensive rivalry between him and a clever ,italian composer1 ,buononcini1 who had been brought to ,england by an influential body of nobles and politicians whom the fiery ,handel1 and his supporters1 had offended4 ,the dispute became more than a musical one1 and developed social and political sides3 an amusing epigram by one ,john ,byrom neatly sums up the situation3-- 8,some say1 compared to ,buononcini1 ,that ,mynheer ,handel's but a ninny2 ,others aver1 that he to ,handel ,is scarcely fit to hold a candle2 ,strange all the difference there should be ',twixt ,tweedle-dum and ,tweedle-dee40 ,sidenote3 ,handel's ,rival ,the sentiment of the two last lines was probably voiced by many1 especially as both composers were men of great talent and capable of producing excellent work4 ,in the end1 the genius of ,handel triumphed1 but at the expense of both his pocket and his health2 bankruptcy and paralysis came upon him1 and he in future turned his attention to the more lucrative and less expensive art form1 ,oratorio4 ,sidenote3 ,handel's ,operas ,obsolete ,that we have been the gainers thereby is undoubted1 for whereas many of his oratorios are constantly performed1 and are of commanding interest1 few would care to sit through a performance of any of his operas1 or indeed those of any of the composers mentioned in this chapter4 ,it is not so much that the music is expressed in the idiom of a bygone era1 for the style of ,handel's oratorio and opera music is1 especially in the arias1 very similar2 and we are frequently able to listen with pleasure to old works1 written for the clavier and for stringed instruments by the ,continental contemporaries of the men of this period4 ,it is rather that the dramatic situation is so absurdly poor1 that the stereotyped method of procedure in the distribution of the airs1 the concessions to the solo singers and the character of the music given to them1 and the stiff1 unnatural use of the chorus in these operas1 combine to make their presentation to-day a matter of artistic impossibility4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,operas ,,of ,,gluck ,,and ,,the ,,great ,,composers4 ,gluck and his masterpieces--,mozart--,beethoven--,webe r and romantic opera--,der ,freischtz--,other operas--,schubert--,opera writing a distinct form of composition--,the small influence of the really great composers upon opera4 ,the methods of ,christoph ,willibald ,gluck1 and his influence upon all that came after him1 have already been touched upon4 ,unlike the operas of ,monteverde1 the works of the later reformer still hold the boards1 and therefore a little consideration to these may now be given1 seeing that they influenced the composers of all schools and of every nationality4 ,we may safely ignore the many works written on old methods and produced during the first forty years of the composer's life2 they are practically as obsolete as those of ,monteverde4 ,but those written under the strong convictions forced upon him by comparative failure in ,england are of great importance1 and are interesting1 not only for the models they set to others1 but also for the beauty and worth of the musical ideas which they contain4 ,those that have the greatest claim to notice have the following titles3-- ,orfeo 7#agfb71 produced in ,vienna4 ,alceste 7#agfg7 0 0 ,paris and ,helen 7#agfi71 produced in ,vienna4 ,iphigenia in ,aulide 7#aggb71 produced in ,paris4 ,armida 7#aggg71 produced in ,paris4 ,iphigenia in ,tauride 7#aggi71 produced in ,paris4 ,sidenote3 ,gluck's ,masterpieces ,of these works1 the famous story of ,orpheus and ,euridice has perhaps the most dramatically beautiful musical setting1 and is more often heard than are the other operas2 be it borne in mind1 however1 that even in this masterpiece there is much that sounds antique both in method and in form2 this is of necessity the case1 when one considers the date at which ,gluck wrote and the comparatively backward state of the art of music in the mid-eighteenth century4 ,gluck's type of melody may be discerned from the following quotation3-- ,the commencement of the famous ,aria1 8,che faro10 from ,gluck's 8,orfeo40 ,music ,che faro senza ,euridice6 dove andro senza il mio ben8 ,che faro dove andro1 ,che faro senza il mio ben4 ,sidenote3 ,mozart1 #agef-ia ,gluck1 even in his later works1 never reached the height of musical technique that was attained to by a young and glorious composer who was his contemporary for thirty years--almost the whole of his short life4 ,wolfgang ,amadeus ,mozart had other models to guide him1 for the works of ,grtry1 ,piccini1 ,sacchini1 ,benda1 ,cimarosa1 and others were known to him1 and in his scores we find a summing up of1 and an improvement upon1 all operatic music previously penned4 ,mozart handles the orchestra in a more modern and a vastly more masterly way than any of his predecessors2 his operas1 too1 deal with such a variety of subject that they show infinitely more resource and diversity of treatment than those of ,gluck1 which were all written on the 8grand0 model4 ,we feel that we have to do with men and women1 creatures of flesh and blood1 and not with far-away1 shadowy classic shapes1 whose appeals to our sympathies must naturally be less vivid4 ,his melodies1 too1 of round1 full outline1 possess a richness of expression and a warmth that is not always discernible in the older master2 and in addition we have vivacity1 charm1 and piquancy in the lighter scenes which had no place in the products of the more severe school4 ,two examples of ,mozart will serve to illustrate his style4 ,the first shows him in a lyrical mood1 ,a fragment of a ,mozart 8,canzone10 8,voi ,che ,sapete0 7,the ,marriage of ,figaro74 ,music ,voi1 che sapete che cosa amor1 ,donne1 vedete s'io l'ho nel cor4 while the second gives us the composer in more dramatic guise4 ,the famous passage from ,mozart's 8,don ,giovanni0 when the ,commandant appears4 ,music ,don ,giovanni1 by thee invited1 ,here behold me1 as thou'st directed4 ,mozart's most successful operas are3-- ,idomeneo 7produced at ,munich1 #agha74 ,die ,entfhrung aus dem ,serail 7produced at ,vienna1 #aghb74 ,le ,nozze di ,figaro 7produced at ,vienna1 #aghf74 ,don ,juan 7produced at ,prague1 #aghg74 ,die ,zauberflte 7produced at ,vienna1 #agia74 ,these1 the most popular of which are ,the ,marriage of ,figaro and ,don ,juan1 are written1 for the most part1 in the then prevalent ,italian style4 ,german opera1 as a distinct national product1 was not yet born1 and although ,mozart's ,magic ,flute was a step in this direction1 it is his ,italian works that raise his name to so high a pinnacle in the temple of operatic fame4 ,the bright and sparkling ,figaro is to be heard in every country and in many languages1 while its more sombre companion1 ,don ,juan1 with its highly dramatic and noble music1 is even more widely performed4 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven1 #aggj-ahbg ,beethoven1 with his solitary opera1 ,fidelio1 produced in ,vienna1 #ahje1 is a landmark4 ,although ,italian in form to a great extent1 this work shows tendencies towards that school of romantic thought which was so soon to become the characteristic feature of the best period of ,german opera2 the music1 carefully wrought and intrinsically beautiful1 makes large appeal to the emotions2 although in reality only a 8,singspiel10 there being spoken dialogue1 it is generally classed with grand opera1 its music being so noble and dignified4 ,an example of the greater modernity of ,beethoven's style may be seen in the subjoined passage4 ,adagio opening of ,beethoven's 8,leonora10 ,overture ,no4 #c1 introducing the theme of ,florestan's ,air in ,act ,,iii4 ,music ,sidenote3 ,weber1 #aghf-ahbf ,romantic opera 7i4e41 opera in which the influence of the romance school of literature1 as opposed to the classic1 is felt7 owes its prominence in the first place to ,carl ,maria von ,weber4 ,the music of such operas differs from that of the more classical models in its greater richness of harmony1 its more remote and poignant use of discords1 its sudden and unexpected turns of modulation1 and its more picturesque orchestration4 ,although there are many suggestions of romantic opera before his day1 it is to ,weber that the credit of the foundation of this school of composition is1 as a rule1 usually ascribed4 ,with his wonderfully beautiful work1 ,der ,freischtz1 he led the way into a vast1 and as yet comparatively unexplored field2 other composers were ready enough to follow him1 but his leadership is unquestionable4 ,sidenote3 8,der ,freischtz0 ,the opera ,der ,freischtz lent itself particularly to the new mode of treatment3 its story deals with the weird and the supernatural1 and thus seems to demand a form of treatment distinct and different from that accorded to the calm and stately libretti of the older schools of opera4 ,in his setting of this story1 ,weber made slight use of the conventional ,italian methods2 it is a ,german opera1 pure and simple1 with constant reference to the ,volkslieder1 and a noticeable absence of the stereotyped conventionalities of ,aria and ,ensemble4 ,here is a short illustration from the famous 8,incantation ,scene03-- ,fragment from the ,incantation ,scene of 8,der ,freischtz40 ,music ,ere descends tomorrow's sun1 deeds of darkness will be done1 u-hu-i1 u-bu-i1 u-hu-i4 7,the clock strikes twelve in the distance47 ,,caspar 7speaking through the music73 8,zamiel1 by the wizard's skill appear6 ,zamiel1 hear me1 hear60 ,sidenote3 ,other ,operas ,der ,freischtz was produced in ,berlin in #ahba4 ,like so many other of the finer old operas1 it is a 8,singspiel10 but for all that it still holds the boards1 although modern taste in serious opera now prefers the continuous use of one means of expression--namely1 music4 ,it is almost the only opera of ,weber's that is ever heard1 for ,euryanthe1 produced in ,vienna in #ahbc1 and ,oberon1 produced in ,london in #ahbf1 in spite of their beautiful music1 are unfortunately so poor from the dramatic point of view as to be almost intolerable1 while the earlier operas previous to ,der ,freischtz do not show the composer at his best4 ,in ,weber1 whose one great work has had an untold influence upon operatic composers1 we meet the last of the great masters 7from an operatic point of view7 until ,wagner4 ,schubert1 ,schumann1 and ,mendelssohn were all so versatile that they achieved some success in opera2 but it must be confessed that for any abiding result their work has had1 they might not have composed such works at all4 ,lesser stars in the musical firmament1 such as ,spontini1 ,marschner1 and ,meyerbeer1 have had greater and wider reaching influence in this particular branch of musical art4 ,sidenote3 ,schubert1 #agig-ahbh ,this is partly owing to the fact that these three mighty men of music were of a non-dramatic nature3 ,schubert more often turned to the stage than did ,schumann or ,mendelssohn1 and his beautiful melodies and skilled knowledge of effect helped on his operas towards success in their day2 but even his most popular examples1 ,fierabras and ,alfonso and ,estrella1 very rarely obtained a hearing4 ,mendelssohn's early works1 ,the ,wedding of ,camacho and his fragment of ,lorelei1 are also comparatively unimportant1 while ,schumann's ,genoveva cannot be classed among the list of works in the ordinary repertoire4 ,it is curious and interesting to notice how small a share those who have reached the topmost pinnacle in the musical temple have had in the development of opera2 while the influence of the great classical and romantic composers has been exerted with immense sway over almost every other form of the art1 and while that influence has elevated and exalted such art forms to dignified and poetic heights1 they have1 with the single exception of ,mozart1 left opera almost unaffected4 ,sidenote3 ,opera ,writing a distinct form of ,composition ,the heroes of opera1 ,gluck and ,weber1 were of far less importance as all-round composers than many of the masters whose operatic efforts they completely eclipse4 ,whereas without ,gluck and ,weber it would be difficult to conceive the position of opera to-day1 we must admit that they have had little influence over other branches of composition4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,small ,influence of the really great ,composers ,on the other hand1 the names of those most honoured in the art of composition appear seldom or never upon the operatic play-bill4 ,the great contrapuntist1 ,bach1 wrote no music for the stage2 ,haydn1 the so-called 8father0 of the sonata1 the string quartet1 and the symphony1 only composed a number of unimportant light operas2 ,beethoven1 the perfecter of form and design1 one solitary1 though notable1 example2 ,schubert1 the unrivalled composer of songs1 a few early works2 ,mendelssohn1 the calm and classic writer of the oratorio1 and of the beautiful orchestral overtures1 a few boyish pieces2 ,schumann1 the daring inventor of so many harmonic and rhythmic designs1 and the composer of many a masterpiece of pianoforte and chamber music1 again a solitary and little known specimen4 ,brahms1 the great apostle of absolute music1 and of the classical school1 followed ,bach in leaving the stage severely alone4 ,mozart stands out as the one great composer who rose to the highest point of eminence1 not only as a creator of sonata1 quartet1 symphony1 and choral work1 but also as a consistently great and successful master of opera4 ,all honour to the great versatility of his immeasurable genius6 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,some ,,lesser ,,stars ,,in ,,the ,,operatic ,,firmament4 7a7 ,,the ,,italian ,,school 7,,cimarosa ,,to ,,verdi74 ,the ,italian school--,opera ,buffa--,the ,neapolitan school--,piccini--,a notable contest--,cimarosa--,rossini3 his ,barber of ,seville--,recitative and its significance--,william ,tell--,bellini and ,donizetti--,verdi3 his early and later operas4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,italian ,school ,italy was the birthplace of modern opera1 and for generations the language of opera was ,italian1 irrespective of the nationality of the composer4 ,thus a large number of the operatic works of ,gluck and of ,mozart1 both of whom rank as ,german masters1 were to libretti in ,italian4 ,on the contrary1 many ,italian-born musicians1 such as ,cherubini and ,spontini1 devoted their best efforts to ,grand ,opera in ,france4 ,when speaking of the ,italian school1 therefore1 it must be understood that the language of the libretto and the class of opera are taken into account1 rather than the nationality of the composer4 ,sidenote3 ,opera ,buffa ,side by side with ,grand ,opera1 as typified by ,gluck1 there grew up a lighter and less serious form of musical play known as 8,opera ,buffa40 ,at first designed as an interlude or intermezzo between the acts of a serious drama1 this new and bright art form was so fascinating as to quickly justify for itself a separate existence4 ,it was mostly harmonious in character1 and the music was1 appropriately1 of slighter texture4 ,it flourished most luxuriantly in ,naples1 from which fact the composers of these charming little operas are generally classed as the 8,neapolitan school40 ,sidenote3 ,the ,neapolitan ,school ,sidenote3 ,piccini1 #agbh-ahjj ,sidenote3 ,a ,notable ,contest ,logroscino 7born about #agjj71 who invented the connected series of separate movements known as the ,concerted ,finale1 and ,pergolesi 7#agaj-cf71 who wrote a famous example of this kind of opera under the title ,la ,serva ,padrona1 are two notable members of this little band of composers4 ,in addition to these may be named ,jomelli1 ,sacchini1 ,galuppi1 ,paisiello1 and ,piccini1 the last-named being specially famous through his contest with ,gluck1 a musical duel yet more notorious than that between ,handel and ,buononcini already mentioned4 ,for ,piccini1 a man of great talent though not of genius1 was brought to ,paris in #aggf and pitted against the reformer ,gluck1 whose revolutionary methods of procedure met with anything but favour in certain quarters4 ,the rival composers1 strongly backed by their respective supporters1 fought bitterly for pre-eminence1 with results only too disastrous to the poor ,italian maestro1 who was very unfortunately handicapped4 ,for we read that on the night of the first production of the work1 which was seriously intended to beat ,gluck on his own ground 7the same subject for a libretto--viz41 ,iphigenia in ,tauride--having been chosen71 his music was almost wrecked by the prima donna of the occasion1 that good lady being hopelessly intoxicated2 whereupon men exclaimed1 8,not ,iphigenia in ,tauride1 but ,iphigenia in ,champagne60 ,in spite of his merits1 this composer of eighty operas is now hardly known1 except in connection with this famous controversy4 ,illustration3 ,,cimarosa4 ,sidenote3 ,cimarosa1 #agdi-ahja ,a more famous ,neapolitan is ,cimarosa1 whose sparkling work1 ,the ,secret ,marriage1 is still played to-day4 ,on the occasion of its first performance at ,vienna in #agib1 the ,emperor was so delighted with it that he ordered its repetition on the same evening1 thoughtfully providing the artistes with supper between the performances4 ,cimarosa's other works1 although charming and sometimes of great beauty1 are now practically dead3 his fame was soon eclipsed by that of the young and rising ,mozart4 ,sidenote3 ,rossini1 #agib-ahfh ,with the success of ,mozart and ,weber in ,german opera1 and the desertion of the ,italian methods in favour of the ,french by ,cherubini and ,spontini1 ,italian opera lay for a while under a cloud4 ,this was dispersed by the furore created by the operatic creations of ,rossini1 who1 although by no means a very skilled or capable musician1 had a rare knowledge both of effect and also of the kind of thing to which the general public loves to listen4 ,melodic gifts were his1 and when one adds a certain clever and tricky use of the orchestra and an evident desire to give the singers the most vocal and effective music that he could possibly invent1 we can readily understand how successful was this facile composer4 ,sidenote3 8,the ,barber of ,seville0 ,the earliest of his operas to win him fame was ,tancredi1 a grand opera produced in #ahac4 ,this was followed after an interval of two years by the production of one of his best known works1 ,the ,barber of ,seville1 an excellent example of ,opera ,buffa4 ,its overture is well known1 and introduces samples of that effective device1 cheap and yet wondrously convincing1 known as the 8,rossinian ,crescendo40 ,this is attained1 as will be seen1 by the use of a simple figure of melody begun very softly and continued with greater and greater degrees of power and more and more instruments4 ,in spite of its simplicity and obviousness1 its effect is an intoxicating one1 and is an example of the simple and yet unfailing means by which ,rossini attracted his public4 ,example of a ,rossini 8,crescendo10 from the ,overture to 8,il ,barbiere40 ,music ,sidenote3 ,recitative ,the whole opera1 with its brilliant bravura voice passages1 its grandiose effects of double thirds1 and its periods of climax1 is particularly characteristic of its composer4 ,rossini produced a vast number of operas1 both serious and comic2 in the former he made a great innovation when he wrote ,otello in #ahaf4 ,we have already frequently mentioned that in ,grand ,opera the music must be always continuous2 this1 however1 does not imply a continuous series of airs1 duets1 and choruses4 ,these were divided by passages of blank verse or dialogue1 which correspond to the passages of dialogue with which we in ,england are so familiar in the productions of ,gilbert and ,sullivan4 ,when these passages were spoken1 as in ,beethoven's ,fidelio or ,weber's ,der ,freischtz1 the work1 however tragic in subject1 was not termed 8,grand ,opera0 at all1 but rather 8,comic ,opera0 or 8,singspiel40 ,when1 however1 all was sung1 then the term 8,grand ,opera0 was applied4 ,but a difference was given to the musical setting of such passages to that allotted to the more lyrical portions4 ,at first1 when there were no lyrics1 as in the early ,monteverde operas1 the musical setting was of the same character throughout2 after the introduction of the ,aria into opera by ,scarlatti1 the intermediary dialogue was often set to music of a parlante 7or speaking7 nature1 generally without time divisions or musical accent3 this portion of the music was termed the ,recitative4 ,so unimportant was this ,recitative considered from a musical point of view that no trouble was taken in the writing of it--it was a necessary evil4 ,mozart1 we find1 on one or two occasions1 entrusted its composition to his pupil ,sussmyr4 ,moreover1 the orchestra rarely played the accompaniment to it1 this task being entrusted to the harpsichord2 even the part for this was not written out1 only a bass with figures being provided4 ,it will thus be seen how small a degree of importance was attached to the music of these connecting links3 such recitative was termed 8,recitativo secco10 and of this our first quotation from ,peri is a good example4 7,see page #ce47 ,both ,monteverde and ,gluck had made attempts at relieving the dulness of this method of accompaniment by the introduction not only of the orchestra1 but also of fitting and suitable music on certain occasions4 ,rossini revived this plan in ,otello1 and since then it has been generally employed in all serious opera4 ,from the fact that the instruments of the orchestra are necessary for its proper presentation1 this form of recitative has received the name of ,recitativo ,stromentato4 ,sidenote3 8,william ,tell0 ,rossini's operas have mostly gone the way of all such light and trivial music1 but among the more long-lived specimens may be named ,la ,cenerentola1 ,gazza ,ladra1 and ,william ,tell4 ,the last-named1 with its popular overture1 is a work of much better class than its brethren1 and was written some long period after the others1 when ,rossini himself began to be dissatisfied with his earlier works4 ,the fact1 however1 remains that he can never have taken himself as a very serious musician1 for the last forty years of his life were spent in idleness and he wrote practically nothing4 ,sidenote3 ,bellini and ,donizetti ,what has been said of the operas of ,rossini applies also in very large measure to those of his followers--,mercadante1 ,pacini1 ,bellini1 and ,donizetti1 all of whom wrote on the same empty plan4 ,of these four the last-named produced works which have had the greatest longevity1 and1 thanks to certain prime donne who have more belief in the beauty and skill of manipulation of their voices than they have love for the real and artistic in music1 some are still to be heard during every opera season4 ,the most famous ,bellini opera is ,norma1 while ,la ,sonnambula runs it a close second4 ,donizetti is remembered by ,lucia di ,lammermoor1 ,lucretia ,borgia1 ,la ,favorita1 ,la ,fille du ,rgiment1 and ,l',elisir d',amore4 ,sidenote3 ,verdi1 #ahad-aija ,more worth attaches to the many beautiful works of the last of this school1 ,verdi1 who lived to so ripe an age and so modernized his methods that his later operas all belong rightly to a post-,wagner period4 ,but in his early scores ,verdi wrote entirely on the ,italian model1 and although of sterner mould than ,bellini and ,donizetti1 his works bear a close family resemblance to those of his immediate predecessors4 ,like them1 ,verdi had a ready gift of melody4 ,such operas as ,ernani 7#ahdd71 ,rigoletto 7#ahea71 ,il ,trovatore 7#ahec71 and ,la ,traviata 7#ahec7--the last-named having been written in the short space of one month--are replete with energy and vigour and full of broad and sometimes somewhat vulgar tune4 ,these works still hold their position on the stage1 and appeal to those who love easily grasped and tuneful music1 coupled with interesting dramatic action4 ,illustration3 ,,verdi4 ,for years ,verdi wrote operas on this popular plan1 producing the familiar ,un ,ballo in ,maschera as late as #ahei4 ,but the influence of the methods of ,wagner was creeping over him1 and 7although he never attempted to follow the master to the full7 it is evident in his grand opera ,ada1 produced in #ahga4 ,this work1 rich and glowing with local colour1 and with a plot whose action is laid in ,egypt1 is a stepping-stone between the earlier and later operas1 and shows the music of its composer in a transition stage4 ,here is a type of ,verdi's ready gift of melody3-- ,radams' first ,aria in 8,ada0 7,verdi74 ,music ,celeste ,ada forma divina mistico serto di luce e fior ,sidenote3 ,verdi's ,later ,operas ,otello1 produced in #ahhg1 and ,falstaff in #ahic1 when its wonderful creator was just upon eighty years of age1 are modern operas in the real sense of the expression4 ,the old ,verdi is to a great extent laid aside1 and these marvellous and powerful works1 while still exhibiting great freshness of melody1 give evidence also of such masterly use of the orchestra1 and such perfect wedding of words with music as is only to be found in the music of the most modern days4 ,so that in ,verdi's operas we stretch hands across the chasm that divides the simple1 melodious1 old-fashioned works from the complex polyphonic modern examples1 and note in his compositions a movement and progress parallel with that made in all other branches of musical art during a similar period of its history4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,some ,,lesser ,,stars ,,in ,,the ,,operatic ,,firmament4 7b7 ,,the ,,german ,,school 7,,keiser ,,to ,,nicolai74 ,keiser and his successors--,hiller--,real ,german opera--,spohr--,marschner--,operatic interest not centred in ,germany at this time4 ,sidenote3 ,keiser and his ,successors ,a good start was given to ,german opera1 as we have already shown1 by ,keiser1 who wrote over one hundred operas for the ,hamburg house4 ,the fact that after his decease the centre of interest shifts partly to ,england 7where ,handel was at work71 and still more to ,italy1 does not mean that ,german composers were idle4 ,true1 many of them were writing operas on the ,italian plan1 and therefore must be classed with the ,italian school1 and even the greatest sons of ,german soil were content to produce their masterpieces in foreign capitals rather than at home4 ,thus it is that we find ,gluck bringing out all his important works in ,vienna or ,paris2 ,mozart his at ,prague1 ,munich1 or ,vienna2 ,beethoven his only specimen in ,vienna4 ,the work done on ,german soil must not1 however1 be passed over lightly4 ,stars of the second magnitude1 such as ,hasse 7#afii-aghc71 who wrote over one hundred operas1 and ,graun 7#agja-agei7 have their place among the constellations4 ,they are not important either in their influence upon opera generally nor upon ,german opera in particular1 since their work was almost exclusively done to ,italian libretti on the prevailing ,italian model2 but they both had great influence upon ,adam ,hiller1 who has a distinct place in the history of opera4 ,sidenote3 ,hiller1 #agbh-ahjd ,for it is very largely to ,hiller that the credit of the foundation of the 8,singspiel0 may be allotted4 ,this form of opera1 to which we must1 of necessity1 allude frequently1 seeing that it was the form very largely in vogue at the time of ,mozart1 ,beethoven1 and ,weber1 although possibly derived in the first instance from the ,french operetta1 soon justified its existence as a distinctly ,german form of art4 ,hiller raised it from a mere collection of songs1 and adopted an able and dramatic method in setting the words to forms of larger outline and of more complex development4 ,his chief works are ,der ,dorfbarbier and ,die ,jagel1 both of which sometimes gain a hearing to-day4 ,without doubt he had something to do with the success attained by ,weber and ,mozart1 for although their settings of similar 8song-plays0 are infinitely superior1 their work is certainly more sure by reason of the leadership he gave them4 ,the pioneer in a new land seldom reaches its utmost limits4 ,sidenote3 ,real ,german ,opera ,hiller's operettas were ,german and not ,italian1 and that also must have affected ,mozart and ,weber1 for they were able to notice the deeper appeal made on a ,german audience by a performance in the vernacular1 and both eventually followed suit4 ,until the production of ,der ,freischtz at the ,berlin ,opera ,house in #ahba there was little to justify such a course1 but after that date we find many composers writing ,german operas1 and founding a school of composition which includes such names as ,spohr1 ,marschner1 ,lortzing1 ,lindpaintner1 and ,nicolai4 ,sidenote3 ,spohr1 #aghd-ahei ,spohr's greatest operatic work1 ,faust1 was actually staged at ,frankfort two years before ,der ,freischtz first saw the light of day4 ,although very popular both in ,germany and ,england for many years1 this opera rarely gets a performance now1 it having been entirely eclipsed by ,gounod's work of the same title4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,a4 ,,hiller4 ,besides ,faust1 ,spohr wrote many other operas1 following ,weber to a large extent in romanticism of method1 although the peculiarly chromatic genius of his music never leaves one in doubt as to its authorship4 ,the most successful of these are ,zemir and ,azor1 ,jessonda1 ,der ,berggeist1 and ,der ,alchymist1 all almost entirely forgotten now4 ,the popular song with sopranos1 8,rose ,softly ,blooming10 comes from the first-named of these4 ,sidenote3 ,marschner1 #agif-ahfa ,a still more faithful follower in the footsteps of ,weber was ,heinrich ,marschner1 who loved the demoniacal and the weird1 and gloated over them in his music4 ,his operas1 the most famous of which are ,der ,vampyr1 ,hans ,heiling1 and ,the ,templar and the ,jewess 7founded on ,scott's ,ivanhoe71 still have a hold on ,german affections4 ,the study of ,hans ,heiling is held to have had a great influence over ,wagner at the time he was composing ,the ,flying ,dutchman4 ,many composers of this school and this date remain in our memories through the more or less frequent performances of their most successful work4 ,among such may be named ,lortzing 7#ahjc-aheb71 composer of ,peter the ,shipwright 7a story dealing with ,peter the ,great's life in the shipbuilder's yard at ,zaandam72 ,flotow 7#ahab-hc71 composer of the tuneful and popular ,martha2 ,kreutzer 7#aghb-ahdi71 ,lindpaintner 7#agia-ahef71 and ,nicolai 7#ahaj-di74 ,the overture to the last-named composer's ,merry ,wives of ,windsor is world famous4 ,peter ,cornelius 7#ahbd-gd7 and ,goetz 7#ahdj-gf7 each composed a well-known opera1 ,the ,barber of ,bagdad and ,the ,taming of the ,shrew respectively4 ,sidenote3 ,operatic interest not centred in ,germany at this time ,the fact that the ,germans at this time did not produce composers of greater operatic eminence is due largely to the fact that the grandeur and charm of ,french grand opera was drawing many devotees and many composers to ,paris4 ,while ,italy had its brilliant ,rossini and ,verdi to uphold the traditions of national opera in their own land1 there was no composer of ,german opera on a like eminence1 or one that could successfully vie with the ever-increasing magnificence and interest of the grand opera of ,paris4 ,to that brilliant episode in the story of the opera we will now turn our attention4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,some ,,lesser ,,stars ,,in ,,the ,,operatic ,,firmament4 7c7 ,,the ,,french ,,school 7,,rameau ,,to ,,ambroise ,,thomas74 ,rameau--,divergence of methods--,the successors of ,gluck and ,piccini--,mhul--,cherubini and ,spontini--,meyerbeer--,auber--,gounod-- ,bizet--,reasons for the popularity of ,faust and ,carmen--,offenbach--,dlibes and ,lalo--,thomas4 ,the ,italian ,lully had no small share in founding what afterwards became a school of ,grand ,opera in ,paris4 ,as we have already said1 he was so jealous of his fame that he brooked no rivals2 so powerful was he1 too1 at ,court that he was instrumental in keeping in the background every other aspirant to fame in his own particular line4 ,so that we have to wait for some years before we find any notable name in ,france so far as operatic development is concerned4 ,sidenote3 ,rameau1 #afhc-agfd ,rameau is the next composer to be mentioned4 ,his fame is not so great as that of his predecessor ,lully1 nor are his works so full of vivacity and brightness4 ,but he was a capable and skilled workman1 and did much for ,french opera2 his music is pompous and antique1 nor does it compare in interest with that of the versatile ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau1 who wrote at least one work1 ,le ,devin du ,village1 which enjoyed very many years of popularity4 ,sidenote3 ,divergence of ,methods ,the last-named work1 moreover1 did not pretend to belong to the genus 8,grand ,opera10 but was an 8,opera ,comique10 a branch of art in which the ,french have always excelled3 indeed1 from about this date 7#agfj circa7 opera in ,france was diverging into two lines1 one looking towards ,grand ,opera1 and taking exalted1 serious1 or tragic themes for treatment1 the other having the production of ,comic ,opera1 with all its variety of scope and more human subjects of interest1 as its aim2 the course of these two must be followed1 as indeed they ran to a great extent1 side by side4 ,much was due to the opening1 in #agfb1 of the new 8,opera ,comique0 ,theatre in ,paris1 at which composers obtained a hearing1 whose music was not fit for the ,opera ,house proper1 and who would not1 moreover1 have attempted work in the larger and more serious forms4 ,illustration3 ,,puccini4 ,illustration3 ,,piccini4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,successors of ,gluck and ,piccini ,such men were ,monsigny 7#agbi-ahag71 ,grtry 7#agda-ahac71 and ,philidor 7#agbf-agig74 ,they were at work in ,paris shortly after the ,gluck-,piccini contest1 and wrote operas which pleased by their simplicity1 brightness1 and tunefulness2 all of them being of the order of the ,german 8,singspiel0--i4e41 with spoken dialogue4 ,but it must be remembered that these composers1 although they flourished subsequent to ,gluck1 had not imbibed his principles2 nor did the light forms of opera which they1 in the main1 set themselves to write1 leave much room for the exemplification of such4 ,consequently1 when the operas of ,mozart1 constructed with artistic unity of principle and upon logical lines1 began to obtain a hearing in ,paris1 such works as theirs soon dropped out of fashion4 ,sidenote3 ,mhul1 #agfc-ahag ,of more importance is ,mhul1 who1 while still writing in the main for the ,opera ,comique1 did so in a thoroughly artistic manner1 taking ,gluck as his model4 ,he was a man of considerable originality1 who made the curious experiment of leaving out the violins of the orchestra throughout the whole of his opera ,uthal1 with the idea of giving a cold1 vague effect4 ,however successful in that respect1 it may be safely prophesied that this was done by ,mhul for the first and the last time4 ,his most popular work was ,joseph1 a story dealing with the ,bible narrative4 ,one of its tunes is well known to pianists through the fact that ,weber wrote a set of very interesting pianoforte variations upon it4 ,sidenote3 ,cherubini and ,spontini ,we must now turn our attention to two ,italian composers1 who belong to ,france through the fact of their having produced almost all their important works on the boards of either the ,opera ,comique or the ,acadmie4 ,cherubini 7#agfj-ahdb7 wrote two or three great works1 such as ,les deux ,journes 7#ahjj71 ,les ,abencerages 7#ahac71 and ,ali ,baba 7#ahcc74 ,the first-named1 known in ,england as ,the ,water ,carrier1 although classed as opera comique1 approximates in its music more to what ,beethoven wrote in ,fidelio and ,weber in ,der ,freischtz than to the ephemeral productions which were the fashion of the hour4 ,cherubini's music is that of a man who preceded all composers of the 8romantic0 period1 and therefore sounds antique and colourless to modern ears2 nevertheless it is solid and good1 and far superior to much of the same date4 ,spontini 7#aggd-ahea7 is spoken of by ,naumann the historian in the following words3--8,no other composer has succeeded in infusing into the music the spirit of heroism and glory which prompted the victorious exploits of ,napoleon1 in portrayal of which ,spontini created a kind of artistic expression1 the influence of which has extended to the present day40 ,his chief works1 replete with grandeur and magnificence1 are ,la ,vestale 7#ahjg71 ,fernand ,cortez 7written at the request of ,napoleon in #ahji on a ,spanish subject1 partly with the idea of conciliating the ,spanish71 and ,olympia 7#ahai74 ,other composers of the period include ,boieldieu 7#agge-ahcd71 who wrote the world famous ,la ,dame ,blanche1 ,isouard 7#aggg-ahah71 ,adam1 ,halvy1 ,hrold 7the composer of ,zampa71 and many another4 ,the names of these composers pale before that ,titan of ,french ,grand ,opera1 whose advent upon the scenes we must now note--,meyerbeer4 ,sidenote3 ,meyerbeer1 #agia-ahfd ,meyerbeer1 a ,german by birth1 having first seen the light of day in ,berlin1 and1 withal of ,jewish origin1 produced operas in ,italy1 ,germany1 and ,france2 his choicest efforts were lavished upon his operas for the ,paris ,acadmie1 and his name is now always classed with ,french music4 ,he had wonderful gifts1 which he sometimes abused1 for his music seeks the effective1 irrespective of its artistic unity or the reverse4 ,in his lifetime he was lauded to the skies1 and afterwards just as bitterly denounced4 ,wagner1 who really learned much from him1 speaks of him as 8a miserable music-maker1 a ,jew banker to whom it occurred to compose operas40 ,it must be admitted that ,meyerbeer's music is often vulgar and conventional1 but his masterpiece1 ,the ,huguenots1 contains some fine writing1 and is specially noticeable for the clever and striking use made at several points in the progress of the story of ,luther's grand old hymn-tune1 8,ein ,feste ,burg40 ,this chorale is used as a kind of leit-motif for the persecuted ,huguenots1 and forms a most effective foil to much of the other music of the opera4 ,the opening of the ,chorale1 from ,meyerbeer's 8,les ,huguenots40 ,music ,in his most famous works1 ,robert le ,diable 7#ahca71 ,les ,huguenots 7#ahcf71 ,le ,prophte 7#ahdi71 ,dinorah 7#ahei71 and ,l',africaine 7#ahfd71 ,meyerbeer shows his knowledge of effect1 both vocally and orchestrally4 ,although over-elaborate and pompous1 these operas are still performed at fairly frequent intervals1 seeing that they are effective from a stage point of view1 and also extremely gratifying to the singers1 without descending to that inanity which so often characterizes operatic music written to please vocalists4 ,sidenote3 ,auber1 #aghb-ahga ,passing over that eccentric genius1 ,hector ,berlioz1 who made a few bids for popularity in operatic composition1 with remarkable lack of success1 we must notice the brilliant ,auber1 whose light-hearted music filled the ,opera ,comique audiences with delight for many years4 ,although only known to us in ,england by the overtures which are so popular with sea-side orchestras and amateur bands1 his operas are still popular enough on the ,continent4 ,he wrote both for the ,grand ,opera and the ,opera ,comique1 his most lasting successes being achieved in the latter field2 of the larger type1 ,masaniello is the best known1 and is important as inaugurating a new career for ,french grand opera1 in so far as it breaks from the classic model of ,gluck and his followers and incorporates elements of the newer romance school4 ,of the lighter works1 ,fra ,diavolo is one of the most successful4 ,auber will be remembered not only for the vivacity and brightness of his music1 but also for his fascinating and clever employment of the orchestra1 for which he wrote with consummate ease and invariable excellence4 ,sidenote3 ,gounod1 #ahah-ic ,in ,gounod we meet the composer of ,faust1 probably the most popular opera that the world has ever known4 ,the reasons for its popularity are not hard to seek--an easily understood and well-known story1 a succession of bright1 melodious1 and yet good musical numbers1 and an amount of opportunity for the stage management beyond the average--all these things have tended to keep ,faust constantly before the opera-goer4 ,faust was produced in #ahei1 and although its orchestration may sound thin1 and its melodies appear ultra-square to those who are accustomed to feast on the sonorous melody of ,wagner1 it yet pleases and is likely to please4 ,it is the best of the ,gounod operas1 and quite outpaces other efforts by the same composer4 ,of these1 ,romeo and ,juliet is the most often heard1 but there are others1 such as ,the ,mock ,doctor1 ,philmon and ,baucis1 and ,mireille1 which latter ,gounod always said was his best opera4 ,illustration3 ,,offenbach4 ,sidenote3 ,bizet1 #ahch-ge ,if ,faust holds first place for popularity with the masses1 it is closely followed in this respect by the ,carmen of ,bizet1 a work of greater dramatic power1 and offering much that is fresh in its scoring and its ingenious use of ,spanish colouring and rhythms4 ,the performance of ,faust or ,carmen is fairly certain to fill any provincial opera-house1 and we find these works to be very often the mainstay of the touring companies4 ,indeed1 statistics show the number of performances of these works to exceed that of all other operas1 and in #ahha the number of times ,carmen had been performed exceeded1 as was ascertained in ,berlin1 that of all the representations of ,weber and ,wagner's works put together4 ,but ,wagner's music enjoys so large a share of public attention at the present time that the proportion of performances of these operas is probably now considerably less4 ,sidenote3 ,offenbach1 #ahai-hj ,contemporary with ,gounod and ,bizet was ,jules ,offenbach1 a composer of comparatively low aim but with a certain amount of musicianly skill and a sure knowledge of effect4 ,his operas are mostly comic1 but in their day they enjoyed a furore by no means limited to the ,parisian public4 ,his output was enormous1 nearly seventy operas standing to his name2 of these the most famous is ,orphe aux enfers2 his most ambitious effort1 ,les ,contes d',hoffmann1 was only completed just before his death4 ,written only for the pleasure of the time1 there is little of any lasting merit in his work4 ,sidenote3 ,dlibes and ,lalo ,of higher standard1 although his attention was in the main given to comic opera1 is the music of ,lo ,dlibes 7#ahcf-ia71 composer of the operas ,le ,roi l'a dit 7#ahgc71 ,lakm 7#ahhc71 and the ballet1 ,copplia4 ,lalo 7#ahbc-ib7 is best known by his work1 ,le ,roi d' ,ys1 often staged and containing much good music4 ,victor ,mass 7#ahbb-gf7 composed ,paul et ,virginie and many other works which gained popularity4 ,sidenote3 ,thomas1 #ahaa-if ,with brief mention of ,ambroise ,thomas1 a musician much influenced by ,gounod1 who wrote two works at least of enduring quality1 ,mignon 7#ahff7 and ,hamlet 7#ahfh7 for the ,french opera1 we must for the present leave this school of composition1 returning to it anon to make mention of a number of brilliant men of talent still happily alive and at work to-day adding their quota to the fabric reared by their predecessors4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,english ,,opera ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,and ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,the ,beggar's ,opera--,arne--,bishop--,balfe--,wallace --,goring ,thomas--,sullivan--,living writers4 ,we have not much to boast of1 so far as ,english operatic music is concerned1 from the death of ,purcell to about the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,purcell's work1 in its limited field1 was excellent1 but ,handel's powerful personality attracted so much attention to the ,italian methods of composition that no other style found real favour for many years4 ,sidenote3 ,the 8,beggar's ,opera0 ,opera1 of course1 existed in ,england1 but it was of the ,italian order3 indeed1 there was so much said against the unfortunate ,english language as a medium of vocal expression1 that native talent had little or no chance of distinguishing itself4 ,the only work that stands out during this period as being essentially ,english was a curious medley of songs and airs called the ,beggar's ,opera produced in #agbh1 but even this was arranged by ,dr4 ,pepusch 7a ,german76 ,the old genuine ,english tunes were1 however1 used in this1 and its one or two successors1 but the music is not of a serious type4 ,the airs are simple and simply harmonized1 and make no comparison with the ,handel or ,buononcini operas4 ,moreover1 they are so short that we may quote the whole of one as an example4 ,song from 8,the ,beggar's ,opera10 arranged by ,dr4 ,pepusch4 ,music ,pretty ,polly say1 ,when ,i was away1 ,did your fancy never stray to some newer lover8 ,without disguise2 ,heaving sighs2 ,doating eyes2 ,my constant heart discovers1 ,fondly let me tell1 ,fondly let me tell6 ,o pretty1 pretty ,poll4 ,sidenote3 ,arne1 #agaj-gh ,one of the first ,englishmen to write ,opera on the prevalent ,italian model was ,thomas ,arne1 whose chief work was ,artaxerxes2 he also wrote many masques or plays with incidental music4 ,to us of to-day he is best known as the reputed author of 8,rule ,britannia10 and of the popular and tuneful setting of ,shakespeare's words1 8,where the ,bee sucks40 ,the ,english style of composition of this period1 which is in the main vigorous1 manly1 and bold1 was not at all suited to the taste of the fashionable public1 who were led to believe that the florid and effeminate ,italian airs were the only tune method of operatic composition2 consequently we are not surprised that native talent was overlooked and ignored1 and that we have nothing to show that will compare with what was going on in ,italy1 ,germany1 and ,france at a corresponding period4 ,arne's name is still remembered and his tunes sung1 but the same can hardly be said of his followers and successors1 ,shield1 ,storace1 ,kelly and others4 ,although these men attempted dramatic composition in the style of ,arne1 they had no very definite model upon which to work1 and they were more successful in the glee and madrigal than in stage work4 ,we hear some of their songs now and then1 but their influence on national opera was very slight indeed4 ,sidenote3 ,bishop1 #aghf-ahee ,the eighteenth century is indeed a period of blank in ,english operatic history1 and in spite of the work of ,henry ,bishop1 who wrote effective concerted numbers1 the earlier part of the nineteenth century has but little more to show4 ,bishop was content to leave the ,english 8,ballad ,opera0 where he found it1 although he had the ability to found a natural school of opera had he had the requisite energy and initiative4 ,sidenote3 ,balfe1 #ahjh-ahgj ,the first ,english composer after ,arne to produce anything attaining to real popularity1 and to really deserve the name of opera1 was ,balfe1 who1 following an example set by ,john ,barnett in his opera ,the ,mountain ,sylph1 produced in #ahce ,the ,siege of ,rochelle1 and eight years later the well-known ,bohemian ,girl4 ,that these operas are not of a particularly exalted type must be admitted2 the airs are tuneful and mostly commonplace4 ,there can be no comparison1 for example1 between the ,bohemian ,girl and ,faust1 because although both make a ready and immediate appeal1 the artistic standard is much lower in the ,english than in the ,french work4 ,but still the work of ,balfe was an immense advance on the poorly constructed ballad opera that had hitherto found acceptance1 and it helped to pave the way to higher ideals and better methods4 ,type of ,balfe's melody 8,the ,bohemian ,girl40 ,music ,when other lips and other hearts ,their tale of love shall tell1 ,sidenote3 ,wallace1 #ahad-fe ,on about the same plane is ,wallace1 whose most popular work is ,maritana--even more trying to listen to 7for the cultured hearer7 than the ,bohemian ,girl4 ,these works1 although poor and of no interest to the musician1 yet play a part in the education of the people4 ,those quite unenlightened in the forms of opera can make a good start by at first listening to works of this type2 and as their experience grows1 so their taste will undoubtedly improve1 and ripen to an appreciation of better things4 ,the admiration of the crowd for such works as these1 although now less than formerly1 is not to be altogether condemned1 seeing that it may in some cases be the means of raising the masses to an appreciation of something better and more musically satisfactory4 ,as musical education in ,england gradually improved1 so we find our composers more artistic in their outlook and more solid in their work4 ,the operas of ,benedict 7#ahjd-he7 and ,macfarren 7#ahac-hg71 although seldom performed now1 are the output of talented and cultured musicians1 who possessed1 moreover1 gifts of melody and dramatic characterization which must not be overlooked4 ,benedict's best opera was ,the ,lily of ,killarney1 produced in #ahfb4 ,sidenote3 ,goring ,thomas1 #ahea-ib ,greater heights still were reached by ,goring ,thomas1 who wrote ,esmeralda and ,nadeshda1 both works of merit1 and from which excerpts are frequently given in our concert rooms4 ,sidenote3 ,sullivan1 #ahdb-aijj ,last amongst deceased ,english composers of opera may be named ,arthur ,sullivan1 who wrote one serious opera1 ,ivanhoe 7#ahia71 and a host of delightful works of slighter scope to which it is hard to give a class-name4 ,they are not quite of the opera comique type1 nor do they partake of the farcical nature of 8,opera ,bouffe40 ,perhaps a nondescript term such as 8,light ,opera0 answers as well as any other to the charming1 harmonious1 graceful class of 8,singspiel0 which found such favour not only in ,england1 but in the case of some works 7such as ,the ,mikado71 also on the ,continent4 ,their popularity1 immense some twenty years ago1 now appears to be somewhat on the wane2 but they are still models of refinement and of good sound musicianship4 ,sidenote3 ,living ,writers ,illustration ,more serious attention has1 however1 been paid to opera in ,english by composers still living than by any named in this chapter4 ,to these some consideration must be given1 after we have noticed to some extent the ,wagner operas and their influence4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,wagner ,,and ,,his ,,operas4 ,wagner's early days--,at ,wrzburg--,at ,knigsberg-- ,at ,riga--,at ,paris--,rienzi--,dresden--,zurich-- ,munich--,triebschen--,bayreuth--,death- -,wagner's methods--,the ,flying ,dutchman--,tannhuser --,lohengrin--,tristan and ,isolde--,die ,meistersinger--,the ,ring--,parsifal-- ,wagner's continued development4 ,the name of ,wagner is the most interesting in all the annals of opera4 ,we live too far away from the days of ,lully and of ,gluck to feel more than a shadowy interest in the personality of these men1 although it was very marked2 and in the case of more modern composers of pronounced character and distinctive achievement1 such as ,meyerbeer1 ,spontini1 or ,verdi1 none can approach the great ,richard ,wagner in interest or in fascination4 ,since he is not only the most striking of opera composers1 but also one whose work is judged1 practically1 by his efforts in this field alone of all musical art1 we need have no hesitation in giving1 in his case1 a slightly more developed biographical notice than has been possible for men of less operatic repute4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's ,early ,days ,richard ,wagner1 a junior member of a large family1 was born in ,leipsic in #ahac 7,may #bbnd74 ,his father died early1 and his mother soon married again4 ,richard's step-father1 ,geyer1 was instrumental in introducing the boy to the stage1 as he was an assistant at the ,court ,theatre at ,dresden4 ,moreover1 he perceived artistic instincts in the boy1 and had him properly educated4 ,wagner's earliest dramatic effort was made at the age of fourteen1 when he wrote a great tragedy la ,shakespeare2 forty-two of his characters were slaughtered in the first four acts1 so for the dnouement they were in part resuscitated as ghosts6 ,these early attempts may cause us to smile1 but in them may be seen the power to grapple with work on a large scale1 which was so characteristic a feature of the man's later life4 ,he struggled to master the pianoforte1 very unsuccessfully1 and also wrote the usual pianoforte sonatas and pieces4 ,his education1 proceeded with at ,dresden and ,leipsic1 was of a very broken nature1 and he was a bad pupil3 his inclination being to study ,weber and ,beethoven rather than ,latin and ,greek2 consequently he was always uneasy and desirous of escaping from the trammels of education4 ,sidenote3 ,at ,wrzburg1 #ahcc ,this he did when he was about nineteen years of age1 taking a post as chorus master at the ,wrzburg theatre1 and writing at the age of twenty his first opera1 ,the ,fairies2 this work and its successor1 ,das ,liebesverbot1 need not detain us1 except to record that the latter had two productions at ,magdeburg in #ahcf1 ,wagner having gone there to act as conductor4 ,of these the first was a failure1 the second was to an audience consisting of ,wagner's landlady1 her husband1 and a ,polish ,jew4 ,after this the ,magdeburg theatre retired gracefully into bankruptcy1 and with it went the conductor4 ,sidenote3 ,at ,knigsberg1 #ahcf ,being attracted by a certain ,wilhelmina ,planer1 who was acting at ,knigsberg1 ,wagner's next steps were directed to this small town1 where he married his lady-love1 and also received the directorship of the opera4 ,bankruptcy fell to the lot of this theatre also1 and ,wagner shifted to ,riga1 where he found better work on a more secure footing4 ,sidenote3 ,at ,riga1 #ahch ,riga had a good opera-house1 and so inspired the ambitious composer that he longed to scale greater heights1 and set out for ,paris4 ,he went by sea to ,london1 being well-nigh wrecked off the coast of ,norway1 and received impressions which are ably recorded for us in his setting of the story of the ,flying ,dutchman1 composed shortly after the voyage4 ,sidenote3 ,at ,paris1 #ahci ,crossing to ,paris1 ,wagner lived for some time on the very verge of starvation2 he had had introductions to ,meyerbeer and other persons of influence in the ,french capital1 but no one wanted the work of an unknown ,german composer1 and he was forced to earn a living as best he could by arranging fantasias from popular operas1 and turning out tuneful melodies for the cornet4 ,his wife cheered him on and did her best1 but misfortune dogged him1 for a little theatre that agreed to produce ,das ,liebesverbot failed before the day of production came4 ,sidenote3 8,rienzi0 ,undaunted1 ,wagner continued his work on the score of his first real opera ,rienzi1 which is founded on ,lytton's novel of the same name4 ,its music is modelled after the style of ,meyerbeer1 and of the grand opera of ,paris4 ,the ,wagner of reform was not yet born3 before his crusade could start1 its author must be convinced of the futility of the older methods1 and as a struggling composer he had at present as his great idea the problem of making both ends meet2 consequently in ,rienzi we do not find anything to specially arrest the attention1 nor is the work looked upon by serious ,wagnerians as worthy of consideration2 it had its importance1 however1 in gaining ,wagner a hearing1 being produced at ,dresden in #ahdb4 ,sidenote3 ,dresden1 #ahdb ,wagner went to ,dresden to prepare the work for performance1 and settled down there1 taking up the duties of ,hofkapellmeister4 ,during his sojourn in the ,saxon capital he produced ,the ,flying ,dutchman 7#ahdc7 and ,tannhuser 7#ahde74 ,but in the latter year ,wagner got himself into political troubles1 and had to fly the kingdom4 ,he settled down to a roving life in ,paris and ,switzerland1 working at ,lohengrin1 which was produced by ,liszt at ,weimar in #ahej4 ,sidenote3 ,zurich1 #aheb-ee ,while living at ,zurich he sketched the libretto of the ,ring1 a gigantic cycle of four operas1 of which more anon4 ,in #ahee he came to ,england as the conductor of the ,philharmonic ,society's concerts for the year4 ,a good deal of disapproval with his methods and his work was experienced by him in this country1 and he returned to ,zurich to take up his work again there1 settling down not only to the ,ring1 but also to the newly-conceived ,tristan4 ,sidenote3 ,munich1 #ahfa-fe ,in #ahfj ,wagner's period of exile was at an end1 and he returned to ,german soil and composed the most ,german of his operas1 ,die ,meistersinger4 ,shortly afterwards he went to dwell in ,munich1 beneath the eye of his patron1 ,king ,ludwig ,,ii4 of ,bavaria1 who financed him until the end of his life4 ,the monarch and the composer were hand-in-glove with each other1 so much so that in the year #ahfe the latter had perforce to leave the ,bavarian capital1 returning to ,swiss soil for six more years4 ,sidenote3 ,triebschen1 #ahff-gb ,the well-known village of ,triebschen1 on the lake of ,lucerne1 was ,wagner's home during this period1 during which most of the detail work of composition of the ,ring was polished off and in part produced4 ,in #ahgj1 his first wife having died1 ,wagner married ,cosima von ,blow1 a daughter of his friend ,liszt4 ,this is the present ,madame ,wagner1 who rules all at ,bayreuth to-day with so firm a grip4 ,sidenote3 ,bayreuth1 #ahgb-hc ,in #ahgb ,wagner returned to his patron1 ,ludwig ,,ii41 who encouraged him to devise schemes to raise #de1jjj to build a theatre where he liked1 and after his own design2 ,bayreuth1 a small ,bavarian township1 was pitched upon1 and here a theatre was erected and opened in #ahgf4 ,it was built with special reference to ,wagner's idea that every seat in the house should have a complete view of the stage1 and should therefore be on a slightly higher level than the seat in front of it2 and also that the orchestra should be out of sight beneath the stage4 ,special arrangements for the remarkably heavy stage scenes and mechanical devices necessary for the production of the ,ring were also made1 and all was successfully brought to a happy issue by three performances of that cycle in full1 under the well-known and happily living great ,wagnerian conductor1 ,hans ,richter4 ,sidenote3 ,death ,after a further visit to ,england in #ahgg1 ,wagner returned to ,bayreuth and wrote his last work1 ,parsifal1 which was produced at the new ,opera ,house in #ahhb4 ,early in the following year ,wagner died at ,venice1 but his body was taken to his home1 8,wahnfried10 and there interred4 ,bayreuth is to-day the goal of many pilgrims1 people of all nationalities assembling for the performances of the ,ring and other works1 which generally take place during the summers of alternate years4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's ,methods ,in our chapter upon the ,reformers of ,opera we noted the methods by which ,wagner brought music into its proper sphere--namely1 that of an adjunct to the work of the stage2 we need not here recapitulate his theories of the absolute necessity of the music helping1 rather than hindering1 the dramatic action4 ,let it be borne in mind that he set before himself the object of eliminating all that was unworthy in the methods of his predecessors1 and found himself unable1 in the greater part of his work1 to accept the set aria1 duet1 or other concerted movement1 in their place substituting a continuous1 rich1 and fully-scored accompanied recitative1 consisting very largely of a series of melodies1 heard singly or in combination2 each melody1 or leit-motif 7which might1 however1 be also a chord-progression1 or characteristic combination of instruments71 being meant to bring to the mind of the listener1 through his ear and brain1 a definite train of thought4 ,sidenote3 8,the ,flying ,dutchman0 ,wagner did not by any means arrive at this conception straight away4 ,rienzi1 with its spectacular effects and showy music1 is an avowed copy of ,meyerbeer and the grand opera methods4 ,a step in advance was taken in ,the ,flying ,dutchman4 ,the story is the well-known one of the sailor doomed to perpetually sail his vessel for ever and ever1 being allowed to touch land once in seven years only2 his chance of salvation being that some woman will voluntarily give herself to him2 then only may he find peace4 ,senta1 the heroine of the opera1 offers to do this1 in spite of her affection for her promised lover ,erik2 she clings to her determination1 in spite of all entreaties of father 7,daland7 and lover1 and throws herself into the sea as the ,dutchman's ship sails away4 ,this proves her devotion1 and the ship sinks2 its wanderings now over at last4 ,the 8,curse0 ,motive1 associated with the 8,flying ,dutchman40 ,music ,the music in this early work is still roughly divided into solo1 duet1 and chorus1 and shows only a few traces of the ,wagner of the future2 the fine overture1 with its well-known passages depicting the angry1 stormy waves and the other sea portions of the work1 were largely inspired by ,wagner's own perilous voyage in #ahch4 ,it contains much fine music1 but much also that is dull and unconvincing4 ,sidenote3 8,tannhuser0 ,tannhuser deals with the story of the knight who leaves the world1 his affianced bride1 and his duties1 for the unhallowed delight of ,venus4 ,tiring at last of these1 a chorus of pilgrims on their way to ,rome moves him to penitence1 and he returns to the court of the ,landgrave of ,thuringia1 whose daughter ,elizabeth welcomes back ,tannhuser her beloved4 ,he1 however1 cannot refrain from boasting of the joys of his impious haunts1 and is banished from the ,court1 to seek forgiveness at ,rome4 ,elizabeth prays in solitude for him1 but the pilgrims return without him1 he eventually reappearing in despair1 for the ,pope has refused him absolution4 ,he desires to return to ,venus1 but ,wolfram1 his friend1 reminds him of ,elizabeth1 who has died of grief2 her funeral procession passes1 and ,tannhuser falls dead by her bier1 just as messengers from ,rome announce his ultimate forgiveness by the ,pope4 8,venusberg0 ,motives1 8,tannhuser40 ,music ,music ,to all concert goers the ,tannhuser music is familiar by the overture1 based mainly on the pilgrims' chorus and the ,venusberg music1 and by the song of ,wolfram to the ,evening ,star4 ,throughout the opera the scoring is fine and effective1 and the leit-motif makes a few definite appearances2 it is a step towards ,wagner's goal1 but only an early one4 ,the music is continuous throughout each act1 and less definitely split up than in the ,dutchman2 a good deal of the success of ,tannhuser depends on its spectacular opportunities1 the grand scene in the second act with the majestic march offering special scope in this respect4 ,sidenote3 8,lohengrin0 ,in ,lohengrin we meet with one of the most popular of ,wagner's works3 ,lohengrin1 an unknown knight1 appears in a boat drawn by a swan1 as it were by magic1 to succour ,elsa of ,brabant1 wrongfully accused of the murder of her brother by ,frederic of ,telramund1 and ,ortrud his wife3 he defeats ,telramund in a duel1 and ,elsa bestows her hand upon him4 ,ortrud nurtures revenge1 and suggests that ,elsa has married a nameless adventurer4 ,elsa1 although she has promised never to question ,lohengrin as to his name1 or origin1 falls a prey to insinuation and to anxious curiosity3 she elicits from him that he is son to ,parsifal1 guardian of the ,holy ,grail1 and now his origin is known1 the swan will come to bear him away once more4 ,at his departure ,ortrud suggests that the swan is none other than the brother whom ,elsa is under suspicion of having made away with1 but ,lohengrin1 by the power of the ,holy ,grail1 restores her brother to her1 and then sails away1 leaving her for ever4 ,the mystical beauty of the 8,grail0 7see p4 #bh7 theme1 with its distinctive and original scoring for flutes and string harmonics1 always throws the hearer1 at the outset of the ,prelude1 into the right mood for this work4 ,the music is not throughout at an equally high level1 but there is a greater consistency than in the earlier works1 and more use is made of guiding themes4 ,the well-known 8,bridal ,chorus10 so often played at weddings1 occurs in the second act1 and adds greatly to the spectacular opportunities afforded2 there is beautiful writing1 also1 in ,elsa's procession to the ,cathedral1 and in ,lohengrin's 8,farewell40 ,sidenote3 8,tristan and ,isolde0 ,tristan and ,isolde is an exposition of a legend which narrates how ,king ,mark of ,cornwall sends his trusty knight ,tristan to bring back for him from ,ireland a bride1 ,isolde4 ,the knight and the maiden1 under charm of a love potion administered by the maid ,brangne1 fall in love with each other during the voyage1 and on their return are neither of them faithful to ,king ,mark4 ,the followers of the latter surprise them1 and ,melot stabs ,tristan1 who is then conveyed to his castle in ,brittany4 ,here he pines away in longing for ,isolde1 and dies just as she reaches the shore4 ,the combined themes of ,tristan's ,sufferings and ,isolde's ,love-longing4 ,music ,this opera has been described as one long love duet1 with occasional interludes3 there is very little action or movement1 and it is the surpassing beauty of the music which accounts for the wondrous hold the work has upon the cultured public4 ,it is the manifestation to the full of ,wagner's ideas of the propriety of music for illustrative purposes1 and the music is a continuous stream of surging sound1 passion laden4 ,the chromatic nature of the themes intensify the emotionalism sought to be conveyed3 such music can never be popular in the ordinary interpretation of the word1 but as an illustration of the musical expression of the beauty and passion of love it is unapproachable and inimitable4 ,sidenote3 8,die ,meistersinger0 ,the ,mastersingers of ,nuremberg is the one work of ,wagner embodying touches of humour4 ,it is sometimes called a comic opera1 but this is to give it a misleading title3 humorous it is in parts1 but these are separated by long stretches of music of a serious and dignified nature4 ,the plot is concerned with the old guild of ,mastersingers1 entry to which was hedged about by numberless petty restrictions in the middle ages4 ,walther1 a young knight1 seeks entry1 since it is only as a master singer that he can hope to win the hand of ,eva1 daughter to ,pogner1 who awards her as the prize to the composer and singer of the most beautiful song4 ,beckmesser1 another candidate for the fair ,eva1 is also umpire to the guild1 and thus has an unfair advantage over ,walther when he sings the song which he hopes will gain him admission4 ,he breaks every possible rule1 and is hopelessly rejected4 ,but ,hans ,sachs1 the shoemaker1 is convinced of the beauty of ,walther's song1 and induces the other masters to give him another hearing4 ,beckmesser breaks down in a comically hopeless attempt at the final competition1 and ,walther1 with a beautiful and impassioned 8,prize ,song10 wins the coveted award4 8,the ,mastersingers40 ,music ,the dignified overture1 with its contrapuntal skill in combined themes1 the songs sung by ,walther at various periods in the development of the story1 the curious and humorous lute music allied to ,beckmesser's quaint verses1 the noble monologue for ,hans ,sachs1 the dance of the apprentices1 and the quintet of the principal characters which occurs late in the opera1 are all features of musical interest4 ,the story allows more scope than in the other music dramas for numbers in set musical form1 with the result that we have several delightful excerpts from this work which are quite capable of effective performance apart from the stage setting4 ,for the rest1 the music is in ,wagner's advanced manner1 but often in lighter style than is usual with him2 a natural sequel to the humorous nature of many of the scenes which the music portrays4 ,sidenote3 8,the ,ring0 ,the cycle of four operas written on the same set of legends1 ,rheingold1 ,die ,walkre1 ,siegfried1 and ,gotterdmmerung1 is conveniently spoken of as the 8,ring40 ,the term is derived in the same way as is the word cycle or circle1 and expresses a complete or rounded group of ideas3 it is not in any way taken from the actual golden ring which figures largely in the plot as the desired object around which so much of the story centres4 ,it is not possible here to go into detail as to the plots of these four operas2 they may and should be studied before hearing the work1 by means of one of the numerous handy volumes on the subject which have been published during recent years4 ,suffice it to say that each of the operas is a complete work in itself1 the shortest being ,rheingold1 which is in one long act lasting about two hours3 the longest is ,the ,dusk of the ,gods1 which plays for about five hours4 ,die ,walkre and ,siegfried are each of them ordinary operas in three acts4 ,the legendary story of the ,nibelungs forms the basis of the operas1 and with it is combined the birth of ,siegfried1 child of earth-mortal and of war-maiden 7,walkre71 his life1 death1 and the general fall of the gods4 ,the conception of the 8,ring0 was somewhat fortuitous4 ,wagner started with the story of ,siegfried2 he then found that he must explain that by telling the story of ,brnnhilde1 the war-maiden4 ,to make this clear1 a prelude 7,rheingold7 was necessary for the explanation of the presence of the cursed gold which lies buried beneath the ,rhine1 and over which gods and mortals fight and contend4 ,in the ,ring1 ,wagner's use of leit-motiven and general principles reach their highest consummation4 ,the music has its supreme moments of beauty1 which are apparent to every auditor4 ,for him who would sound these works to their fullest depths1 study and concentrated thought are1 in addition1 necessary4 ,in most cases1 full enjoyment of the wondrous beauties and complexities of the scores will only come after hearing and much rehearing4 ,sidenote3 8,parsifal0 ,wagner's last opera1 ,parsifal1 returns to the subject of the 8,holy ,grail10 and is entitled a ,sacred ,festival ,drama4 ,its composer's wish was that it should be performed at ,bayreuth only1 and for more than twenty years this request1 backed also by copyright laws1 was followed4 ,recently1 however1 in ,new ,york and in ,amsterdam enterprising managers have1 much against ,madame ,wagner's wish1 put it before their patrons4 ,according to all accounts it is less impressive in an ordinary theatre than amidst the quiet surroundings of ,bayreuth1 and it seems to be a work unsuited for general performance1 and one that should only be given at a suitable time1 in a suitable place1 and before an audience thoroughly in sympathy with the subject4 ,its performances in ,england have so far been restricted to the concert-room1 when its ,prelude1 the ,good ,friday music1 the chorus of ,flower ,girls1 and other excerpts are sometimes given4 ,the story deals with the dual relationship of the hero1 ,parsifal1 in his service to the ,holy ,grail 7guarded by ,titurel and ,amfortas71 and in his contact with the temptations of the world1 as exemplified by ,klingsor1 with his magic charms1 and ,kundry1 his most beautiful and ravishing assistant4 ,parsifal maintains his spotless innocence1 spite of all temptation1 and eventually opens up a way of salvation to the fallen ,amfortas1 and to all the knights of the ,grail whose faith had languished and faded4 ,the music throughout is of intensely devotional feeling and of a religious fervour1 varied only by the strains that accompany ,kundry and the ,flower ,girls3 the use of the guiding-theme is less prominent and important in this work than in the case of the ,ring operas1 nor are the principles of its composer so closely followed out4 ,its sincerity1 poetry1 and depth always command our admiration and attention1 even if the charm be not always so apparent as in some of the earlier operas4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's ,continued ,development ,betwixt first and last in ,wagner is a great gulf fixed3 his was a nature that was content to go on only from strength to strength4 ,unlike ,meyerbeer or ,rossini1 who were mostly content to write opera after opera upon the same general outline1 the same broad pattern1 ,wagner always presses on towards a closer realization of an ideal form of work which he has set himself for achievement4 ,hence the cumulative power displayed in the wondrous series of music dramas of which we have attempted to give some slight account in this chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,modern ,,opera ,,since ,,wagner',s ,,reforms4 ,wagner's influence--,no mere copying--,modern 8,melos0--,use of the orchestra--,his harmony --,men of a younger generation--,the ,slavs4 ,the last of the revolutionists has left an indelible mark upon operatic history4 ,as we have before said1 there has been nothing since the time of ,wagner which can lay claim to having advanced the art of opera1 nothing new has been done1 and it is not easy to see on what lines anything fresh can be attempted4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's ,influence ,but composers have not been slow to take advantage of the new methods introduced by that ,colossus among opera writers1 whose innovations have altered the whole aspect of things1 both in stage management1 in the wedding of suitable music to a really dramatic libretto1 in the use of the leit-motif1 and in the writing of melos1 accompanied by characteristic and definitive use of the orchestra4 ,sidenote3 ,no mere ,copying ,it is not too much to say that every composer of opera1 since ,wagner's later works became known1 has come under the influence of the great master1 consciously or unconsciously4 ,it is not inferred that modern musicians have taken the system of guiding themes and used them systematically in the manner in which they are used in the ,ring3 this has indeed been attempted1 sometimes on quite a large scale1 and sometimes with success1 more often with failure2 for mere imitation of ,wagner's methods have always spelt failure4 ,the systematic use of guiding themes has1 however1 become common1 not only in dramatic music1 but even in abstract music1 and occasionally in the oratorio1 as witness ,elgar's ,apostles4 ,sidenote3 ,modern ,melos ,but whether the guiding-theme plan has been adopted or no by late nineteenth century composers of opera1 there is no doubt that all have been influenced by the melos and accompanied recitative of ,wagner4 ,the new1 richly-constructed musical dialogue1 if we may so term it1 which he was the first to treat in so characteristic and individual a manner1 became a new tool in the hands of composers4 ,the tool is one which turns out attractive work and has been plentifully laboured with3 its results are apparent everywhere1 in the modern dramatic passages that differ as widely from the ,mozartean recitatives as they in turn do from those of ,scarlatti4 ,the main difference is due to the polyphonic blending of themes in the orchestral accompaniment3 they may or may not be guiding themes1 but in any case they are superimposed to a much greater extent than was the case in the simple chordal recitative sections of earlier days4 ,sidenote3 ,use of the ,orchestra ,wagner's use of the orchestra1 too1 unquestionably led the way for much of the modern scoring2 the rich completeness of a whole family of instruments of the same timbre has found many admirers1 and modern orchestration has a resonance and a roundness which is hard to find in music prior to his time4 ,the tendency to-day is to use more and more instruments1 and to group them according to their characteristic tone colour1 thus offering a palate of greater scope and variety4 ,sidenote3 ,his ,harmony ,it must be borne in mind1 too1 that ,wagner's simultaneous use of many themes brought into prominence the possibility of the use of many uncommon harmonies4 ,we will not say he invented these1 because it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to find any that have not occurred in the writings of that marvellous contrapuntist1 ,j4 ,s4 ,bach2 but whereas in the older master their use is fortuitous and rare1 they become in ,wagner of frequent and designed occurrence--hence the ear accepts them eventually1 although sometimes at first repelled4 ,these many new harmonies are part of the legacy bequeathed to a younger generation by the ,bayreuth maestro4 ,we have seen how ,verdi1 the greatest of ,wagner's contemporaries1 was influenced by the ,german composer1 and how his whole style underwent transformation as he imbibed deeper and deeper of the fountain of new methods and ideas which sprung from the study of such works as the ,ring4 ,nor was ,verdi alone of those of whom we have already spoken in being thus influenced1 although the traces of such influence are not everywhere so apparent4 ,gounod1 ,ambroise ,thomas1 ,sullivan1 and many another wrote works during and after ,wagner's lifetime which owe at least something to what their composers had learned from him4 ,sidenote3 ,men of a ,younger ,generation ,but it is only natural that fuller results should be seen in the men of a younger generation1 men happily alive and at work to-day1 in various countries and of various nationalities4 ,to these we may now devote a little attention4 ,that they have by no means slavishly copied ,wagner is of course readily admitted2 at the same time it cannot be maintained that they have in any way advanced upon his work1 and their success is largely dependent upon their ability to seize upon the chief merits of his models and to combine with them some of their own particular features of temperament1 and of their individuality of style4 ,the chief modern composers of opera living to-day are-- 7a7 ,german--,goldmark1 ,humperdinck1 ,richard ,strauss4 7b7 ,italian--,boito1 ,puccini1 ,mascagni1 ,leoncavallo1 ,cilea1 ,mancinelli1 ,franchetti4 7c7 ,french--,saint-,sans1 ,massenet1 ,messager1 ,bruneau1 d',indy1 ,charpentier1 and ,debussy4 7d7 ,english--,mackenzie1 ,stanford1 ,cowen1 ,bunning1 ,corder1 de ,lara1 ,ethel ,smyth1 ,mc,cunn1 and others4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,slavs ,before saying more about these composers1 whom we can conveniently treat under the headings of the different nationalities to which they belong1 we may turn aside a moment for a consideration of a school of composition that possesses peculiar and characteristic features of its own--namely1 that of the ,russian and ,slav races4 ,the most prominent of its representatives have lived and worked since the time of ,wagner1 but the strong national characteristics of the ,slavs have prevented his influence from being so apparently marked as it is in the case of composers of the more western nations4 ,the opera writers of this school are1 in many cases1 still living1 but as death has taken from us ,glinka and ,tchakovsky1 and more recently ,dvrk1 it will be as well to treat of the ,slav composers in a separate chapter1 making some slight endeavour to grasp some outline of the distinctive features which are theirs1 and which colour all their compositions1 whether for the stage or otherwise4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,slavonic ,,opera4#b ,early ,russian composers--,glinka--,dargomijsky--,borod in-- ,csar-,cui--,tchakovsky--,polish opera--,bohemian opera --,dvrk--,other ,european countries4 ,the operas of the ,russians1 ,poles1 and ,bohemians1 in so far as they possess points of individual interest1 do so by virtue of their natural characteristics4 ,it is unnecessary1 therefore1 to trace back the history of ,opera in these countries to its foundation1 as we should find that1 in the main1 it was a borrowed and foreign art1 employing only methods that had derived their origin elsewhere1 generally in ,italy4 #b ,those interested in the ,development of ,national ,opera in ,russia are referred to four exhaustive papers read before the ,musical ,association by ,mrs4 ,newmarch1 under this heading1 and published in the volumes of the ,proceedings for #aijj1 #aijb1 #aijc1 #aijd respectively4 ,sidenote3 ,early ,russian ,composers ,although1 therefore1 we find that opera in ,russia was produced as early as #agcg on the ,italian model1 and even in the vernacular with some attempt at national style in #agef1 these early attempts soon gave way before the popular style of light ,italian pieces1 and the work of such composers as ,volkov1 ,titov1 and ,cavos may be passed over as unimportant in the history of opera4 ,even the music of that much greater musician1 ,anton ,rubinstein1 so far as his dramatic work goes1 is a negligible quantity1 in so far as it is ,teuton in style and without distinction or national signification4 ,sidenote3 ,glinka1 #ahjd-eg ,the acknowledged pioneer in this school was ,glinka1 who wrote but one work of lasting worth1 ,a ,life for the ,czar4 ,this opera1 however1 laid such hold upon the ,russian peoples as to have become the most popular opera in their repertoire1 and we are told that it is played invariably for the opening night of the season both at ,moscow and at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,it is intensely national in subject1 and although the music shows many traces of ,italian influence1 which is not surprising considering its date of production 7#ahcf71 there is still much that has its origin in national song and folk theme4 ,glinka afterwards wrote and produced a still more national1 but less successful1 work entitled ,ruslan and ,ludmilla4 ,glinka's one popular opera is not only important in itself2 it is still more worthy of notice as the stimulating motive which enabled a large number of younger ,russians to write works of a similar nature4 ,it must be conceded that to ,englishmen the names of these men are hardly anything but names2 yet in their own country they mean much more to the people than do the names of our ,english composers to the majority of us in this country4 ,unfortunately1 intense enthusiasm and natural fervour has by no means found its way at present into ,english music4 ,the extremely intimate nature of the music of the operas written by such men as ,dargomijsky1 ,serov1 ,csar-,cui1 ,rimsky-,korsakoff1 ,borodin1 ,tchakovsky1 and ,arensky1 while making for their popularity in the country of their production1 is a factor against their performance in ,england1 where the folk-songs and themes introduced would be unknown and unappreciated4 ,sidenote3 ,dargomijsky1 #ahac-fh ,dargomijsky1 who has been claimed as the founder of modern ,russian opera1 wrote two fairly well-known works1 ,the ,water-,sprite and ,the ,stone ,guest1 the story of the latter being closely allied to that of ,mozart's ,don ,giovanni4 ,in his operas ,dargomijsky seems to have been more or less unconsciously working on the lines of ,wagner in the construction of his intermediary recitative sections1 and his whole method is one of greater advancement than that of ,glinka4 ,his chief follower was ,moussorgsky 7#ahci-ha71 a composer much influenced also by ,wagner4 ,the latter was also an able literary critic2 his most famous work was entitled ,judith4 ,sidenote3 ,borodin #ahcd-hg ,borodin1 a capable chemist as well as a skilled musician1 has a name for the composition of clever examples of chamber music4 ,to the operatic repertoire he contributed ,prince ,igor1 a work following ,italian methods to some extent1 but still possessing much that stamps its ,russian origin4 ,it is one of the few members of its class which is bright and cheerful in tone1 with an absence of that pessimism which is the prevalent feature of so much ,russian music4 ,sidenote3 ,csar-,cui #ahce- ,csar-,cui has composed ,ratcliff1 ,angelo1 ,the ,flibustier1 and five other works1 the last mentioned having been produced in ,paris4 ,cui is still living 7#aiji71 and is well known for his able literary articles and contributions to the ,russian journals and magazines4 ,rimsky-,korsakoff 7born in #ahdd7 has written several works1 among them ,pskowitjanka and ,the ,may ,night4 ,up to the present1 although some of his orchestral music has found representation in ,england1 we have not yet had any opportunity of passing criticism upon his operatic flights4 ,sidenote3 ,tchakovsky #ahdj-ic ,the name of ,tchakovsky is well enough known in the concert rooms of ,england1 and1 indeed1 of the world4 ,of all ,russian composers his is the name to conjure with1 and although one cannot pass unrestrictedly favourable criticism upon all that he composed1 we undoubtedly owe to him a very great deal that is surpassingly rich1 beautiful1 and likely to endure4 ,his genius1 however1 did not shine at its brightest in the theatre1 and although1 like the ,bohemian ,dvrk1 he was attracted again and again to the stage1 his work has not met with such universal success as it has done in other spheres4 ,in ,england only one opera of his1 ,eugene ,oniegin1 has been produced2 but several more fine works proceeded from his fertile pen1 some of them still very popular in their own country4 ,the chief are ,the ,oprichnik 7#ahgb71 ,eugene ,oniegin1 ,joan of ,arc 7#ahhj71 ,mazeppa 7#ahhc71 and ,the ,enchantress 7#ahhg74 ,tchakovsky attempted many styles1 but his individuality was always apparent1 sometimes with good results and sometimes not4 ,when the subject of the opera was in accordance with the general trend of his thought1 the result was a felicitous one1 but he holds a lower place as a writer of opera than is his possession as a creator of symphony1 song1 and tone poem4 ,sidenote3 ,polish ,opera ,the sister country of ,poland has at present made little claim to achievement in the opera house3 the national dances1 the polonaise1 valse1 mazourka1 etc41 have been utilized by ,glinka very effectively1 but the only record of ,polish opera to hand is the work of the great pianist1 ,paderewski1 whose ,manru has recently come to light4 ,its music is described as ,german rather than ,polish1 and it is not likely to found a new school of composition4 ,sidenote3 ,bohemian ,opera ,of more interest is the national opera of ,bohemia1 with its headquarters at ,prague4 ,among its earlier composers we find the names of ,tomaschek1 ,nepravnik1 and ,fibich4 ,more important than these is ,smetana 7#ahbd-hd71 who settled in ,prague in #ahff1 at a time when national freedom of thought and language was gaining position in ,bohemia4 ,smetana took advantage of the enthusiasm with which everything national was greeted1 and by his incorporation of the folk-songs of the people into his operas1 introduced to his country a new form of opera which at once took root and flourished there4 ,the melodies he chose were dear to the hearts of the people2 moreover1 they were simply and yet effectively treated1 with due knowledge of and consideration for stage-effect2 consequently ,smetana's operas are in ,bohemia looked upon as the realization of a national ideal4 ,we know little of them in this country1 save that the overture to the ,bartered ,bride is a popular item in the repertoire of our orchestral societies2 but he wrote many other works1 such as ,dalibor1 ,der ,kuss1 and ,libusa4 ,sidenote3 ,dvrk1 #ahda-aijd ,his pupil and follower1 ,dvrk1 whose name as a composer of symphonies and chamber music is an exalted one also wrote much for the stage2 indeed1 just before his death a new opera by him1 ,armida1 was produced in ,prague4 ,but his success1 although so great and well deserved in other fields1 is not comparable with that of ,smetana1 nor has he ever in the same way touched the hearts of the people4 ,other works by him are ,king and ,collier 7#ahgd71 ,wanda 7#ahgf71 ,der ,bauer ein ,schelm 7#ahgg71 ,demetrius 7#ahhb71 and ,rusalka 7#aija74 ,his operatic essays are unknown in this country1 nor are any works of other ,bohemian composers offered for our pleasure in ,england so far as the theatre is concerned4 ,there is1 however1 a promising young group of composers working at ,prague1 of whose doings we may some day hear more than at present4 ,sidenote3 ,other ,european ,countries ,it may here be convenient to glance at the conditions that govern opera in some of the other ,european countries1 which give evidence of a certain amount of activity2 this has1 in the main1 confined itself up to the present within its own borders4 ,the ,scandinavian composers1 such as ,gade1 ,grieg1 ,sinding1 etc41 whose names are world known in other fields1 have nothing to show us in respect of opera4 ,the opera houses of ,christiania and ,copenhagen are active and busy1 but they produce little indigenous opera1 nor does the fame of that little travel very far4 ,the ,spaniards and ,portuguese also have no claim to fame as composers of opera1 the name of ,arrieta1 we take it1 being little known1 although he is the most famous of ,spanish musicians so far as dramatic writing is concerned4 ,interest in the opera of these countries is the work of the specialist1 rather than of the general writer2 and we now turn to the conditions of opera as they obtain to-day in ,england and in the sister countries of ,germany1 ,france1 and ,italy4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,opera ,,to-,,day ,,in ,,italy1 ,,germany1 ,,france1 ,,and ,,england4 ,boito--,his interesting personality--,puccini--,mascagni --,leoncavallo--,cilea--,german composers--,goldmark and ,humperdinck--,the ,french school--,saint-,sans-- ,massenet--,bruneau--,english composers--,stanford-- ,mackenzie--,cowen--,corder--,bunning1 etc4 ,to-day the art of operatic composition appears to be returning for its best results to its much loved home1 ,italy3 it is the young ,italian composers1 among all its devotees of all nationalities1 who appear to be putting forth the strongest work4 ,contemporary ,english1 ,french1 and ,german operas1 with a few notable exceptions1 are rarely heard beyond the borders of the land which gives them birth1 but the works of ,mascagni1 ,puccini1 and ,leoncavallo find a home in every opera-house4 ,sidenote3 ,boito1 #ahdb ,at the outset of our review of living ,italian opera composers we meet the strange figure of ,arrigo ,boito1 more famous for his one completed opera than are many composers who have endowed the world with dozens of such works4 ,the charm of his personality has aided its success1 while the ill fortune which dogged its birth and its intimate relationship to a great home have also contributed to its world-wide fame4 ,sidenote3 ,his interesting ,personality ,not that ,boito's ,mefistofele is a work in the repertoire of every opera-house2 rather1 its performances seem to be limited in number1 and yet all the world knows of its composer as the capable litterateur and musician who1 amidst intense excitement1 brought his ,mefistofele before the ,milanese public at ,la ,scala in #ahfh1 and by the novelty of its form and musical treatment so displeased a very large number of his would-be admirers1 that he fell from the height of popularity to which expectation had elevated him almost to the depth of extinction so far as his musical efforts were concerned4 ,mefistofele has been rewritten2 it was a work in advance of its time1 and honour must be given to ,boito for the artistic beauty of his conceptions1 and for his courage and skill in the wielding of them to the ultimate conviction of an unwilling public4 ,this fascinating but tantalizing composer still stimulates interest by the fact that he keeps two other and newer operas1 ,nero and ,orestiade1 in his desk1 and refuses1 at any rate for the present1 to bring them to the light4 ,he has received the degree of ,doctor of ,music from the ,university of ,cambridge1 and at a concert given to celebrate the event in #ahic the author had the pleasure of taking part in a performance of the ,prologue to ,mefistofele under his bton4 ,verdi's last two operas are to libretti by ,boito4 ,commencement of ,vocal ,scherzo from ,boito's 8,mefistofele40 ,music ,siam nimbi volanti dai limbi1 nei santi ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,mascagni ,we now come to a composer whose music1 or part of it1 at any rate1 must have been heard by everybody2 we speak of ,pietro ,mascagni1 whose most famous opera1 entitled ,cavalleria ,rusticana1 is probably the most popular modern work in the operatic repertoire4 ,it was produced in #ahij1 and soon attained to fame2 this was due1 to some extent1 to the introduction of a new device--namely1 the performance of an orchestral intermezzo dividing the work into two parts1 the curtain remaining up and disclosing an empty stage 7a street scene74 ,possibly the original intention in leaving the curtain up was to prevent the buzz of conversation which always accompanies its fall1 and precludes the possibility of careful attention to the music2 but in this instance the music is so melodious1 tuneful1 and cleverly scored that it assured the success of the opera4 ,succeeding works from the same pen1 ,l',amico ,fritz1 ,i ,rantzau1 ,william ,ratcliff1 ,iris1 and others1 have not yet found equal success4 ,sidenote3 ,leoncavallo ,very frequently coupled upon the same play-bill with ,mascagni's ,cavalleria is the short modern ,italian opera1 ,i ,pagliacci 7,the ,strolling ,players71 the work of ,leoncavallo1 and written upon much the same general lines as its forerunner2 its prologue1 for a solo baritone1 is popular in our concert halls2 in the opera it occurs as part of the overture1 the singer pushing his way through the curtain1 and retiring again after his performance1 before the stage scene is actually disclosed4 ,leoncavallo has written many other works1 but his chief distinction of later date has been that upon him has fallen the choice of the ,german ,emperor to write a typically ,german opera on the subject of ,roland of ,berlin4 ,the work was produced in ,berlin in #aije1 but without giving full satisfaction1 the general opinion being that a ,german composer should have been chosen to clothe so essentially national a subject with music1 and that ,leoncavallo's attempt was uninspired1 grandiose1 and lacking in the elements of beauty4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,cilea ,other followers of ,mascagni are ,giordano1 composer of ,andrea ,chenier2 ,spinelli1 chiefly known by ,a ,basso ,porto2 and ,franchetti4 ,more famous than these is ,francesco ,cilea1 a young composer of promise1 whose one work that has been submitted to ,english audiences1 ,adriana ,lecouvreur1 contains music of great beauty and charm4 ,the method of ,mascagni is closely followed1 even to the introduction of a tuneful and charmingly scored intermezzo1 but there is independence of melodic phrase and real grip in the music4 ,adriana was originally produced at ,milan in #aijb1 and was staged at ,covent ,garden during the autumn visit of the ,san ,carlo ,company two years later4 ,sidenote3 ,puccini ,undoubtedly the greatest of the modern ,italian composers is ,giacomo ,puccini1 who has made himself famous not merely by one opera but by several4 ,his earlier works1 ,manon ,lescaut1 etc41 hardly represent him at his best1 although they contain much fine music2 but in ,la ,bohme 7produced in #ahif71 in ,la ,tosca1 and most of all in ,madama ,butterfly 7#aijd71 this clever musician has found himself and has risen to great heights4 ,he is most happy in the way in which his music paints the situation to be depicted1 and he has a most wonderfully ready power of melody4 ,the continuous use of distinctive and rhythmic melody and the absence of any definite characterization by means of the leit-motif differentiates his work very largely from that of the ,wagner ,school--it is altogether on a lighter basis1 but the melody has an irresistible attractiveness1 which accounts largely for the favour which his operas are finding at the present day4 ,such straightforward lyrical writing as the theme which usually accompanies ,sharpless the ,consul 7in ,madama ,butterfly71-- ,music or the more tenderly impassioned themes1 such as this one from the love duet which closes the first ,act of the same opera1 ,love ,duet1 from 8,butterfly40 ,music will convey some idea of the style which this composer adopts4 ,his next promised opera is to be upon an ,american subject1 ,the ,girl of the ,golden ,west4 ,illustration3 ,,leoncavallo4 ,sidenote3 ,german ,composers ,sidenote3 ,goldmark1 #ahcj ,germany to-day can hardly be held to have produced such an array of familiar names1 but that of ,humperdinck has become famous through his setting of the delightful fairy tale ,hansel and ,gretel4 ,there is1 however1 still living a senior to ,humperdinck in the person of ,goldmark1 whose ,cricket on the ,hearth has been performed in this country4 ,goldmark was born as long ago as #ahcj1 and became famous by his opera1 ,the ,queen of ,sheba1 produced in ,vienna in #ahge3 he has penned much music1 and other operas1 but the two above named are his best known contributions to operatic literature4 ,sidenote3 ,humperdinck ,more interesting1 because his fairy opera has been seen by almost everyone1 is ,humperdinck1 who has skilfully applied ,wagnerian methods to opera on a comparatively light subject4 ,the story of ,hansel and ,gretel1 from ,hans ,andersen1 is worked up into a charming plot1 and if some of the incidents seem1 upon the modern stage1 somewhat trivial and childish1 the music is so perfect in form and matter that the ear is delighted throughout4 ,the use of folk-songs and simple melodies which appeal to all1 is supplemented by a wonderfully capable and polyphonic use of the orchestra1 which shows the master hand in every bar of the score4 ,from ,humperdinck's 8,hansel and ,gretel0 ,overture1 showing three important ,motives4 ,music ,hansel and ,gretel can be appreciated alike by the smallest child and by the skilled musician1 and therein lies its great charm1 for much study must usually precede appreciation of work so elaborate and complex4 ,humperdinck's succeeding works1 several in number1 have not risen to the same level1 either of beauty or of popularity3 his recent opera1 ,die ,heirat wider ,willen1 was produced with a fair measure of success under ,strauss at ,berlin in ,april #aije4 ,sidenote3 ,richard ,strauss ,richard ,strauss1 the well-known composer of orchestral tone poems1 has made several bids for fame in opera3 his early works1 such as ,guntram and ,feursnot1 have not called so much attention as have ,salome1 produced at ,dresden in #aijf1 and the ,elektra staged in #aiji 7,january #beth74 ,strauss writes very boldly1 with the most cacophonous lack of blend between orchestra and voice1 as this example1 culled at random from ,elektra1 will show4 ,fragment from ,strauss' 8,elektra0 7#aiji74 ,music ,ich habe solche ,angst mir zittern die ,knie bei ,tag und ,nacht ,other living composers of ,german opera are ,max ,schillings2 ,weingartner1 the great orchestral conductor2 ,siegfried ,wagner1 son of the great master2 ,nessler1 composer of ,the ,trumpeter of ,skkingen 7a wonderfully popular work1 which1 however1 is not of the first rank71 and many others whose fame may or may not be enduring4 ,modern ,german opera since ,wagner has hardly1 with the exception of ,hansel and ,gretel1 the distinction1 power1 and originality which we find in the followers of the young ,italian school4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,french ,school ,more famous are the men of the ,french school1 the natural followers of ,gounod1 ,ambroise ,thomas1 and their fellows4 ,progress is noticeable from the type of music which prevails in ,faust in the works of such composers as ,saint-,sans1 ,massenet1 and ,bruneau1 and the influence of ,wagner is quite apparent4 ,but in ,french opera the traditions which belonged to the 8,acadmie0 of old1 and which have descended to the more modern 8,grand ,opera10 combine with a certain ,gallic grace and charm to preserve individuality to this school4 ,sidenote3 ,saint-,sans #ahce ,foremost among ,french composers in every branch of the art is that versatile and gifted man1 who has just missed becoming a genius1 ,camille ,saint-,sans4 ,like ,boito1 he possesses an interesting personality1 prominent amongst his characteristics being a habit he has of suddenly disappearing for months together from the eyes of a world of which he has grown temporarily weary4 ,he will then come back from some half civilized or totally barbarous district of ,africa or elsewhere1 bearing with him piles of manuscript1 which soon finds a ready publisher4 ,the music so composed often bears some impress of the surroundings amidst which it has been penned1 which adds in no small degree to its acceptance by the public4 ,saint-,sans has written many operas both for the ,grand and the ,comique stage without any very marked success3 the work best known in ,england is ,samson and ,delilah1 a dramatized version of the ,bible story4 ,as such1 by the censorship of stage plays that exists in ,england1 this was not allowed to be performed in its original condition until the year #aiji2 but it then became as popular as it is on the ,continent1 where its beautiful and impassioned music finds many admirers4 ,saint-,sans' ,henry ,,viii4 is1 of his other works1 the best known4 ,the list also includes ,proserpine1 ,ascanio1 ,phryne1 and ,les ,barbares4 ,his last work is ,l',anctre1 produced at ,monte ,carlo in #aijf4 ,sidenote3 ,massenet1 #ahdb ,illustration ,jules ,massenet is the author of many operas1 of which mention may be made of ,le ,roi de ,lahore1 ,hrodiade1 ,manon1 ,le ,cid1 ,esclarmonde1 ,werther1 ,thas1 ,la ,navarraise1 and ,le ,jongleur de ,notre ,dame4 ,hrodiade is really a dramatic version of the ,bible story of ,st4 ,john and ,salome4 ,by a few trivial alterations of names and lines it was so altered as to pass the ,lord ,chamberlain's censorship1 and was produced at ,covent ,garden in #aijd4 ,the general atmosphere of the sacred subject1 however1 still hovered over it1 and to ,english taste it was unpleasing and unpopular3 it is perhaps the best of the ,massenet operas1 ,manon and ,la ,navarraise approaching it nearest in popular esteem4 ,his latest success is ,le ,jongleur de ,notre ,dame1 produced at ,monte ,carlo in #aijb4 ,sidenote3 ,bruneau1 #aheg ,a most earnest and serious minded composer1 who more closely follows ,gluck and ,wagner in his desire for operatic truth1 is ,alfred ,bruneau1 one of the finest of ,french musicians4 ,from the first his style has been revolutionary1 and owing to crudities somewhat hard to accept2 but while sometimes musically deficient1 his dramatic grip and sincerity of purpose are so strong that there is doubtless a future before his operas4 ,le ,rve1 ,l',attaque du ,moulin1 ,messidor1 and ,l',ouragan are the names given to his chief works1 the third named of these being perhaps the best4 ,bruneau was fortunate in securing the services of the late ,m4 ,zola as his librettist1 several prose-poems by the great novelist having been entrusted to his care4 ,andr ,messager has chiefly distinguished himself by a charming light work1 ,la ,basoche1 which has had much attention at ,english hands4 ,dubois1 ,paladihle1 and others are still at work in the field of ,french opera1 but perhaps its most prominent modern representative is ,gustave ,charpentier1 whose opera ,louise 7#aijj7 has made a great hit1 and shows possession of great gifts from which much more may in the future be expected4 ,vincent d',indy1 another of the younger school1 is the composer of a fairly successful work1 ,fervaal4 ,sidenote3 ,debussy ,claude ,debussy1 a composer who has written an amount of successful music of an unique kind1 in that it employs mostly a scale of whole tones1 rather than one of tones and semitones1 produced in #aijb an opera based on ,maeterlinck's ,pelleas et ,melisande4 ,this original and distinctive work has become highly popular1 and was performed at the ,covent ,garden season of #aiji4 ,here is a fragment showing the composer's curious use of whole tones4 ,debussy's 8,pelleas and ,melisande40 ,music ,sidenote3 ,english ,composers ,with the exception of ,sir ,hubert ,parry1 all the chief living composers of ,english nationality have made a bid for fame in ,grand ,opera1 but with only partial success4 ,those whose efforts appear to have led to the best results are ,stanford and ,mackenzie4 ,unfortunately for us1 there is in this country less opportunity for operatic composers than in almost any other3 works when written have little chance of being staged1 unless perhaps semi-privately4 ,occasionally the management of the ,grand ,opera invites a work from an ,english musician1 but even then it is sometimes coupled1 as was the case with ,bunning's ,princess ,osra1 with the condition that it be performed in a foreign language4 ,opera is not the hobby and delight of the man in the street1 as it is in many ,continental countries1 and the works that find favour at ,covent ,garden seem to be chosen according to the wishes of the boxholders and members of the syndicate4 ,after all1 it is these that supply the sinews of war1 and therefore the ,english public at large has no just cause for complaint4 ,if the ,english public will come forward and support national opera schemes1 as it is constantly being invited to do1 there would be some hope for ,english opera composers4 ,under present conditions opportunity is infrequent1 although when it comes it is generally seized by those concerned4 ,sidenote3 ,stanford1 #aheb ,undoubtedly the pluckiest attempts to wrest fame from grudging audiences in this respect has been made by ,sir ,charles ,stanford4 ,undeterred by failure1 indifferent success1 and lack of appreciation1 he has made repeated efforts in opera4 ,his earliest were in ,germany1 where ,the ,veiled ,prophet of ,khorassan 7,hanover7 and ,savonarola 7,hamburg7 came to light4 ,later on came the ,canterbury ,pilgrims1 produced at ,covent ,garden in #ahhd4 ,some success attended the last-named1 but it was many years before it found a companion1 ,shamus ,o',brien not appearing until #ahif4 ,stanford is an ,irishman1 and the subject particularly suited his individual temperament4 ,the work1 confessedly less in the grand opera style than that of the romantic comic opera1 enjoyed great favour for a short time1 and contained charming music4 ,of still more importance is his last born1 a version of ,much ,ado about ,nothing1 staged at ,covent ,garden in #aija1 the music of which1 although unequal1 contains some fine moments4 ,illustration3 ,photo ,russell ,sons4 ,,sir ,a4 ,c4 ,,mackenzie4 ,sidenote3 ,mackenzie #ahdg ,mackenzie's operas are ,colomba 7#ahhc71 ,the ,troubadour 7#ahhf71 and ,the ,cricket on the ,hearth4 ,the last-named still awaits a hearing1 and promises to be of much interest4 ,a lighter work of the ,savoy type was also written by this composer1 and had a good run4 ,a bid for popularity1 in the shape of a small and trifling but musically interesting operetta1 produced at one of our largest music halls in #aije1 was also made by ,mackenzie4 ,of such innovations as this1 and their purport1 we may say more anon4 ,sidenote3 ,cowen1 #aheb ,frederic ,cowen seems to have lost heart1 so far as operatic enterprise is concerned4 ,the list of his essays in this form of art are ,the ,lady of ,lyons 7#ahgf71 ,thorgrim 7#ahij71 ,signa 7#ahic71 and ,harold 7#ahie74 ,the general opinion of these is1 that while containing much music that is genuinely charming and beautiful1 there is not enough dramatic virility or depth of idea to carry so exacting a work as a grand opera to a successful issue4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,corder has completed many operas1 only one of which1 ,nordisa1 has been produced1 and this as long ago as #ahhf4 ,mr4 ,hamish ,mac,cunn1 a ,scotch composer1 is answerable for the music to ,jeanie ,deans and ,diarmid4 ,miss ,ethel ,smyth is one of the rare instances of a member of the fairer sex rising to any point of distinction in operatic composition3 her one-act work ,der ,wald 78,the ,wood07#c achieved considerable success in ,england a few years back1 and her music is held in still higher esteem in ,germany1 where her last opera1 ,the ,wreckers1 has had great success4 #c ,performed at ,covent ,garden1 ,july #aijb1 and distinctly ,wagnerian in style4 ,the opening woodland scene music is as original as it is delightful1 and evidences the real ability of this native lady composer4--,,ed4 ,illustration ,princess ,osra1 produced at ,covent ,garden in #aijb1 is the work of a young ,englishman1 ,herbert ,bunning1 who simulates the modern ,italian method1 and from whom more may be heard ere long4 ,mr4 de ,lara has produced ,the ,light of ,asia1 ,amy ,rosbart1 and ,messaline1 while other workers in this direction may include ,mr4 ,somerville1 ,alick ,mc,lean1 ,edward ,german1 and ,franco ,leoi4 ,english opera suffers much from lack of opportunity1 still more from absence of individuality4 ,were ,english composers able to graft on to their style some trace of natural characteristics1 as we find the ,russians and ,bohemians of to-day have done1 there is little doubt but that their productions would command a greater interest and a more enduring success4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,operatic ,,enterprise ,,in ,,england4 ,subsidized opera--,opera an educative factor--,objection to subsidies--,advantages--,english opera--,opera companies--,covent ,garden--,the ,royal ,opera ,syndicate --,history of opera in this country--,travelling companies--,the ,carl ,rosa ,company--,the ,moody-,manners ,company--,the outlook4 ,sidenote3 ,subsidized ,opera ,in ,england we stand1 so far as operatic enterprise is concerned1 on a different footing to most of the ,continental nations1 in so far as there is no ,government support nor ,state aid to ,opera4 ,it is a care in the economy of most of the ,european ,governments that an annual grant should be made towards the expenses of the ,opera ,house4 ,the subsidies so granted vary in different countries and in different towns1 but the main idea in all cases is the same1 to provide a certain amount of money so that there may be an opera-house more or less always open1 to which the people may go on payment of quite small sums and witness really good performances4 ,sidenote3 ,opera an ,educative ,quantity ,in such countries as these1 ,opera is looked upon not so much as a luxurious amusement as an educational factor1 capable of instilling artistic ideas into the plebeian mind1 and in common with picture galleries1 public statues1 and beautifully kept gardens1 inculcating an appreciation of the beautiful in art4 ,in ,paris1 for example1 a sum of #cb1jjj is given annually for the support of the ,grand ,opera ,house1 while a further sum of #ab1jjj is granted for the ,opera ,comique1 the deficit arising from the numerous expenses incurred for singers1 orchestra1 stage hands1 etc41 being met by these grants4 ,as a quid pro quo the ,government demands the distribution of free seats to certain persons and societies to a very large proportion of its subsidy4 ,this may or may not represent a hardship to the management1 for whereas the seats thus given might possibly have been all sold1 it is more than probable that on the majority of occasions there would have been much spare room which is thus filled4 ,sidenote3 ,objections to ,subsidized ,opera ,besides the objections that returns in the shape of gratuitous entrances must be allowed there is the further and more serious one1 that the reins of power sometimes fall into the hands of inartistic and unmusical persons4 ,this is less likely to happen in a city of culture1 such as ,paris1 than in some of the smaller ,german towns1 when the control of such matters is left to the ,intendant of the place1 who holds despotic sway and works matters according to his own sweet will4 ,so that it often happens that a certain class of opera1 or a certain little particular clique of singers1 obtains a hearing to the exclusion of almost all else4 ,sidenote3 ,advantages ,but these possible dangers can hardly be said to counteract the benefits which are conferred by the regularly paid subsidy3 the money paid assures a large portion of the working expenses1 and the management of the ,opera ,house knows that the doors will not have to be closed for lack of the sinews of war1 but that all the year round performances may be given1 if not daily1 at least at very frequent intervals4 ,such vexed questions as control of the repertoire and of the choice of singers1 of course1 may and do occur2 but so far as the man in the street is concerned1 there is always the opportunity presented of hearing opera1 of hearing it well done1 and of extending his knowledge and critical power1 to say nothing of the addition to the artistic pleasures of his life4 ,sidenote3 ,english ,opera ,in ,england we have no ,state aid1 with the result that we are not in a position to be able to hear opera all the year round4 ,during the three months of the 8,grand0 season the prices are high and the hours somewhat prohibitive4 ,the desirability of some ,governmental subsidy has been warmly advocated by ,sir ,charles ,stanford and others1 and were such an amount as that granted by the ,french for their ,opera ,house given to ,covent ,garden1 there is little doubt that we should be able to hear ,grand ,opera whenever we liked to go1 at moderate prices4 ,this undoubtedly would be a great advantage to the general musician1 and to some members of the public1 but it has yet to be shown that there is a public willing to gather in sufficient numbers to fill a large house for the greater number of the nights of the year3 it would be quite possible to have the money and the house opened1 and yet no audience sufficient to justify a performance4 ,it seems a little doubtful whether1 at present1 the ,english lay mind is quite ready for the scheme3 indeed it is to be feared that an appreciation of opera is not sufficiently wide-spread through the rank and file of the ,english people to justify any such scheme for the time being4 ,free tickets to students1 and the like1 in return for a grant1 might do something towards filling the house1 but unless the general public would evince sufficient interest in the scheme to come nightly in large numbers1 the purpose in view would be defeated4 ,we do not appear to have the natural inborn love of opera so common amongst continental peoples1 and until our national education is more advanced it is not very likely that a ,state grant would be of ultimate practical value4 ,sidenote3 ,opera ,companies ,operatic enterprise in ,england1 then1 depends upon private initiative3 this means1 of course1 that there are different bids for fortune made from time to time by various companies and syndicates4 ,this has been so for many years1 even so long ago as the days when ,handel made a venture on his own account1 in opposition to the band of wealthy titled folk who set up ,buononcini to oppose him3 and in so far as rivalry is provocative of effort1 the existence of different companies makes for good4 ,one body in ,england is1 however1 almost unique in being able to spend freely on singers1 orchestra1 and accessories4 ,sidenote3 ,covent ,garden ,opera ,this body is the ,royal ,opera ,syndicate1 formerly generally known as the ,royal ,italian ,opera1 the scene of whose labours is ,covent ,garden4 ,here another point1 in which we differ from the ,continental nations1 must be noticed1 and that is1 that we have in ,england no ,opera ,house4 ,the ,grand ,opera of our ,london season is held at ,covent ,garden1 which is nothing but an ordinary theatre1 although a very large one2 whereas in ,france and ,germany the ,opera ,house is practically sacred to the performance of opera4 ,we have no building of a similar nature4 ,covent ,garden1 for instance1 is the scene of musical festivals1 sometimes of promenade concerts1 of fancy dress balls1 and various other functions1 it being devoted to opera only at certain seasons of the year4 ,the ,royal ,opera ,syndicate runs a season of ,grand ,opera from the end of ,april until the end of ,july--a three months' season1 performances being given nightly4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,royal ,opera ,syndicate ,for financial support the syndicate depends upon subscribers1 who take boxes and stalls for the whole of the season3 the boxes1 prices for which are very high1 are taken by the ,king and ,court1 wealthy and titled people1 and also wealthy and untitled people2 in short1 subscribers to the opera are fashionable1 and members of 8society0 rather than musical4 ,seeing1 however1 that they provide the backbone of the enterprise1 it is only natural that the syndicate should feel bound to consult their tastes2 it thus happens that we rarely get opera in the vernacular1 society preferring the words in either ,french1 ,german1 or ,italian4 ,to much the same cause is due the somewhat lamentable fact that opera by ,english composers rarely obtains a hearing4 ,besides the subscribers for boxes1 etc41 ordinary members of the public can obtain entrance at prices that are somewhat high3 stalls cost a guinea each per performance 7on special occasions twenty-five or thirty shillings71 and the topmost gallery--from which1 however1 one can see well and hear better--is priced at half-a-crown2 there are1 of course1 various intermediate prices4 ,admission is expensive1 but a good performance is now almost a certainty1 and much thanks is due to the ,royal ,opera ,syndicate for this4 ,in years gone by the chief centre of interest used to be the prima donna or principal tenor1 all else being relegated to a slipshod background2 but of late years the ,syndicate has laid out much money in altering and improving the stage and stage machinery2 new scenery has been painted1 and the operas newly dressed2 the best singers available are engaged1 and a good orchestra1 with good conductors1 adds no little to the performances4 ,reliance is placed1 in the main1 upon certain attractive operas1 but interesting novelties and quasi-novelties are from time to time introduced1 and the whole thing may be said to be well done4 ,sidenote3 ,history of ,opera in this ,country ,this was not always so1 and the fortunes of ,grand ,opera in ,england have fluctuated according to the financial state of the companies responsible for its production4 ,opera always appears in this country to have been largely dependant upon fashionable supporters1 from the times of the old ,opera ,house in the ,haymarket up to the present day4 ,covent ,garden has had its ups and downs2 it was really dubbed 8,opera ,house0 in #ahdg1 having formerly been given over to ordinary theatrical uses1 chief of which1 so far as opera is concerned1 was the production of ,weber's ,oberon in #ahbf1 while ,bishop's operas all saw the light upon the same boards4 ,italian opera prevailed from #ahdf to #ahhe1 when the company came to financial grief4 ,opera was then carried on by ,seor ,lago1 ,sir ,augustus ,harris taking over the reins from #ahhh to #ahif4 ,since that date it has been in the hands of the present ,syndicate4 ,in addition to the ordinary three months' season1 the ,syndicate has of late preceded their ordinary operatic productions by one or more presentations of specially prepared and rehearsed performances of ,wagner's ,ring4 ,for these special care and detailed work is given1 and higher prices are charged2 while the ,wagnerian conductor1 ,richter1 is placed in command4 ,of late years the ,syndicate has experimented with opera in ,english3 the ,ring of ,wagner1 the ,meistersinger1 ,madama ,butterfly1 and other operas have been performed in ,english1 and1 in the main1 by ,english and ,american artists1 with great success4 ,these ,english performances have been held during short seasons given at different periods of the year to the grand season proper1 and the admission fees have been slightly less4 ,the ,syndicate also occasionally lets the house to the ,moody-,manners and other opera companies4 ,although not exclusively given over to the purposes of opera1 ,covent ,garden is1 in the main1 an 8,opera ,house02 the ambitious title is1 however1 also claimed by many a suburban and provincial theatre1 absolutely without meaning or reason1 seeing that operas are rarely heard within their walls4 ,many attempts have periodically been made to provide ,london with an ,opera ,house1 a notable instance being the fine building now known as the ,palace ,theatre of ,varieties2 this house was intended as the home of ,english national opera1 and ,sullivan's ,ivanhoe started the venture in #ahia1 but neither that work nor any other could1 in all probability1 fill a theatre night after night without some financial support to fall back upon2 and although various plans are in the air1 a permanent ,opera ,house does not seem to be a very quickly realizable possibility4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,travelling ,companies ,sidenote3 ,the ,carl ,rosa ,opera ,company ,sidenote3 ,the ,moody-,manners ,opera ,company ,after the ,royal ,opera ,syndicate1 with the opportunities it affords for hearing ,grand ,opera1 the ,englishman owes most to the various travelling companies1 some of them very good1 whose work1 although occasionally heard in the ,metropolis1 is mostly done in the provinces4 ,of these the most famous1 in its palmy days1 was the company formed by ,mr4 ,carl ,rosa in #ahge1 and which is still in existence1 although its inceptor died some years ago4 ,originally1 performances given by ,mr4 ,carl ,rosa took place in ,london1 and during the seasons of #ahge and following years the ,princess' ,theatre1 ,the ,lyceum1 ,the ,adelphi1 and ,her ,majesty's ,theatre were the scenes of many a successful presentation2 among works first brought to light under ,mr4 ,rosa's rgime1 or subsequently by the company bearing his name1 may be mentioned ,cowen's ,pauline and ,thorgrim1 ,thomas' ,nadeshda and ,esmeralda1 and ,hamish ,mac,cunn's ,jeanie ,deans4 ,even more important than the production of these novelties was the work done by ,mr4 ,rosa in putting before the ,english public for the first time operas of such acknowledged excellence as ,cherubini's ,water ,carrier1 ,wagner's ,dutchman and ,lohengrin 7in ,english71 and other works of similar calibre4 ,although still doing good work1 the company has hardly1 since its founder's death in #ahhi1 lived up to its earlier achievements1 and the new operas performed are infrequent in appearance4 ,london is no longer its home1 although suburban theatres often welcome one of its various constituent travelling parties2 its work lies more in the provinces1 especially in the larger commercial cities of the ,north of ,england4 ,perhaps more to the fore1 at the present day1 is the company founded in #ahig by ,mr4 ,charles ,manners and ,madame ,fanny ,moody4 ,several plucky attempts have been made by these artists to provide a really efficient series of presentations of standard operas at comparatively low prices in ,london4 ,this has been achieved by limiting the expenses incurred upon vocalists4 ,while therefore it can hardly be claimed for the ,moody-,manners company that the exponents of the leading characters of the operas are singers of the first rank1 there are compensating advantages in the greater artistic unanimity of the chorus-singing and acting1 and of the general stage management4 ,another feature of the ,london performances has been the occasional adoption of a scheme of short illustrative lectures given before the curtain1 as to the plot1 music1 and composer of the work about to be rendered4 ,it is said that ,mr4 ,manners loses money annually in ,london to gain it again in the provinces2 he has certainly been courageous in taking ,covent ,garden and other large houses for long series of performances1 some of quasi-novelties1 which cannot have been financially successful4 ,the repertoire contains some works of the first magnitude1 and the main company gives very good performances4 ,other features of the scheme to be noticed are the prizes occasionally offered in public competition for new works1 and a 8school0 attached to the company1 and travelling with it1 where young vocalists are trained and given opportunity for placing their abilities before the public4 ,besides the chief company1 there are four other branches from the same parent stem travelling and performing in various parts of the world4 ,mr4 ,manners recently endeavoured to form an 8,opera ,union10 and some two thousand persons signed a form agreeing to support and take tickets for an ,english opera season in ,london2 when1 however1 the scheme was ripe only a few hundred of these actually subscribed1 and the idea had therefore to be relinquished4 ,mention must be made of the generous action of the music publishers1 ,messrs4 ,ricordi1 who in #aije offered a prize of #ejj for the best ,english opera4 ,this was gained by ,dr4 ,edward ,naylor of ,cambridge for a work entitled ,the ,angelus1 staged and performed by the ,royal ,opera ,syndicate on ,january #bgth1 #aiji2 the work had a poor reception1 and was only played twice4 ,other schemes are frequently put before the public1 and although in some cases they are too short-lived1 and in others not of sufficiently high aim to call for special mention1 there is no real lack of opportunity in ,england in the twentieth century of hearing opera fairly well done4 ,no comparison with ,continental standards can be made in the provinces1 conditions being so different2 but the opera season at ,covent ,garden can vie with all rivals1 and there is a gradual increase throughout the country1 both of persons capable of appreciation of operatic enterprise and of artistic perception1 which will not allow of slipshod presentations or performances4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,outlook ,undoubtedly much remains to be done before we can claim for the ,english as a nation an equal amount of that fondness for opera which is so notable a characteristic of our ,continental brethren2 that we are moving somewhat slowly in that direction is perhaps1 for the present1 sufficient matter for congratulation4 ,lovers of opera in the vernacular have not so very much to encourage them as to the ultimate realization of the ideas they cherish1 but those who are content to be satisfied with progress that is steady1 if still slow1 may see in ,england of to-day much in the growing appreciation for better music on the part of the masses upon which to congratulate themselves1 and upon which also to build hopes for the future4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,how ,,to ,,listen ,,to ,,and ,,enjoy ,,opera4 ,feelings of disappointment--,expectations--,the language difficulty--,why the story is hard to follow--,what we go to the opera to hear--,some suggestions--,to grasp the story--,to realize the style of the music --,re-hearing necessary--,how to begin to study opera --,what is necessary for its enjoyment4 ,in penning such a chapter as this1 ,i have no desire to lay down the law to those older and wiser than myself1 nor do ,i wish to be didactic1 or to instruct where no instruction is needed4 ,the musician and the opera-habitu will not need telling how to listen to opera1 nor how to enjoy it2 nor should ,i be thanked for attempting the task4 ,sidenote3 ,feelings of ,disappointment ,at the same time it must be borne in mind that to the very large majority of young persons their first introduction to opera raises a feeling of disappointment4 ,people vary much1 and there are those to whom the charm of music is so great that the most unfamiliar harmonies will convey delight to their ears and satisfaction to their mind4 ,but this is exceptional rather than the rule1 and it is to be feared that the neophyte1 visiting the opera in a state of glorious ignorance1 generally comes away with an inglorious feeling of unrealized ideals and unattained expectations4 ,sidenote3 ,expectations ,to the average school-girl1 for example1 opera suggests various fascinating details read about in books and papers2 such as beautiful singing1 the presence of fashionable and brilliant persons1 possibly of royalty2 tiaras of diamonds and gorgeous costumes1 and a thousand and one other trifles which may or may not come up to expectation4 ,even if they do1 the excitement of such extraneous attributes as these soon palls1 and the girl is left to reflect on the opera itself1 which is perhaps the most fruitful source of disappointment4 ,for ,i would here assume what ,i take to be generally the case1 namely1 that the boy or girl paying a first visit to the opera has no real idea as to what is in store for them2 and the excitement of the first entry into the large and brilliant house1 with its crowd of well-dressed people experienced1 a series of miniature shocks awaits the novice1 whom1 for sake of example1 we may take to be an averagely intelligent and musical girl of sixteen4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,language ,difficulty ,it does not take her long to discover that she can understand the meaning of hardly any word sung on the stage2 a word or two here and there may be caught and mentally translated1 but hardly sufficient1 unless the girl be specially conversant with ,french1 ,italian1 or ,german to piece things connectedly together1 or to gather enough to follow the sentiments expressed3 a little natural irritation at not knowing what it is all about ensues4 ,sidenote3 ,why the ,story is ,hard to ,follow ,the words not being caught1 as they would in an ordinary play in the vernacular1 it is difficult to follow the story which is being unfolded2 an ordinary stage piece may be intelligently followed by a deaf person by means of the eye1 but in opera1 situations must develop more slowly owing to the musical setting1 and there is generally1 so far as stage work is concerned1 a minimum of action2 it is therefore quite possible for our young lady to leave the theatre with the very barest notion as to the plot of the opera she has witnessed4 ,should the work witnessed be of a very popular character1 such as ,faust1 various numbers in the music will appeal to her ear as being pleasantly familiar2 even in such a case as this1 however1 there will be much that falls strangely1 while with the majority of works the music would be so new that only a confused general idea would be carried away4 ,not following either the language or the story1 the music would be but another factor of confusion to our inexperienced girl1 and especially would this be the case if the work presented were of a modern nature1 or in a style to which she was quite unaccustomed in any phase of the art4 ,such1 to my knowledge1 are some of the feelings experienced by young people taken to the opera for the first time2 first impressions are strong1 and a feeling of distaste thus inculcated may be hard to eradicate4 ,before considering how such wrong impressions might be prevented1 or at least modified1 we must again consider briefly what we go to the opera to hear4 ,sidenote3 ,what we go to the ,opera to hear ,it is not merely beautiful singing1 for that can be heard more effectively from the same artists in the concert hall1 when they are unhampered by the necessities of stage-action1 costume1 and make-up4 ,nevertheless1 there are those who are content at the opera with this alone1 hence the popularity of certain ,italian operas1 the success of which depends almost entirely upon pure vocalization and expressive singing with support of little in the way of stagecraft or dramatic truth4 ,nor is it excellent orchestral playing that is the main objective1 for that1 too1 can be better heard in the symphony of the concert-room4 ,nor is fine acting the main consideration--for that we must visit some temple of the drama2 nor is it the wonderful development of stage appliance1 the marvellous scenic displays1 or electric lighting devices that call for comment3 these can be better seen in some house mainly devoted to spectacular presentation4 ,it is none of these in particular for which we go to the opera1 but rather for the combination of them all1 which forms the characteristic feature of that complex aggregation of various arts of which opera is constituted4 ,and seeing how many-sided and complex an art-growth it is with which we have to deal1 small wonder is it that real appreciation for its numerous points comes but slowly1 and only subsequent to experience1 perhaps to study4 ,sidenote3 ,some ,suggestions ,now experience and study are just the things of which our imaginary young friend is quite unable to boast1 hence the confused and mystified mental condition in which she1 in all probability1 leaves the opera house4 ,although easy to diagnose1 the remedy for this state of things is more difficult to seek1 but perhaps the following suggestions may be made3-- ,sidenote3 ,to ,grasp the ,story ,first of all1 ,i would advise1 make some attempt before going to the opera to master the details of the plot or story2 there are many means of doing this3 in all the operas published in ,boosey's ,royal ,edition the plot is plainly set out at the beginning1 and any work not published there may almost certainly be found with its story simply set forth in a book entitled ,the ,opera1 by ,streatfield4 ,this done1 some idea of what is taking place upon the stage can be grasped1 and even perhaps some sentences of the libretto followed4 ,without such help1 plots with so much movement and incident as even ,lohengrin or ,siegfried may be hard to grasp2 but do not make the mistake of taking a copy of the music or libretto into the house with you2 the auditorium is generally too dark to admit of their use1 and even if this be not impossible1 frequent cuts make following a difficult matter4 ,sidenote3 ,to ,realize the ,style of the ,music ,having realized the plot1 try to get some idea of the style of the music1 that is1 whether it is an opera of the older classical school 7,mozart1 ,cherubini1 ,weber1 etc471 in which case it will split up into airs1 duets1 finales1 etc41 with music somewhat in the manner of the familiar sonata2 or if perhaps it be an ,italian work 7,rossini1 ,donizetti1 ,verdi71 with the same sub-divisions1 but of a more tuneful and simple nature2 or if a work of the 8,grand ,opera0 school 7,spontini1 ,meyerbeer71 with massive stage effects and pompous musical utterances2 or again1 perhaps a modern work in the ,wagner manner1 with continuous non-divided music1 and without definite tunes 7melos and not rhythmic air72 in this latter case1 one or two of the chief leit-motiven might be memorized1 but ,i would not advise this class of opera for a first experience2 it is too advanced4 ,in any case1 do not go without some clear idea as to the manner and style of the music to be listened to2 if any of the work can be played through and made at all familiar beforehand1 so much the better4 ,sidenote3 ,re-hearing ,necessary ,with some sort of nodding acquaintance with the plot and the music1 enjoyment may be attained if the work be not too complex2 but even then ,i would say that it is not very easy to appreciate an opera at a first hearing2 so that if opportunity arises for a second visit to the opera house to be paid1 choose the same work that you have already heard4 ,a first visit does little more than create an impression2 a second visit will renew old impressions and convey further ones2 a third visit would enable one to be on the look-out for special parts which have made special appeal2 a fourth visit would1 as a rule1 constitute thorough enjoyment1 provided the work be well performed4 ,of course there are some operas which can be easily appreciated at a first or second hearing1 but these are the great minority1 and ,i would suggest four visits before any judgment is passed2 for an ordinary amateur to hear a new work and either praise or condemn extravagantly is nothing more or less than presumption2 the more experienced and capable the critic1 the more reserved is his judgment4 ,undoubtedly1 for the more complex operas1 four visits1 unaccompanied by private study or by rehearing of the music1 would be insufficient4 ,sidenote3 ,how to ,begin to ,study ,opera ,begin with simple operas3 such works as ,faust and ,carmen1 the tunes of which are already known to a large extent1 at once suggest themselves2 and perhaps in the same category1 although in a very different class1 may be placed ,lohengrin and ,cavalleria ,rusticana2 after a course of easily grasped works1 more exalted creations1 such as ,don ,giovanni1 ,fidelio1 and ,die ,meistersinger1 may be approached2 and finally we come to the serious works of ,wagner's ,ring1 such operas as ,tristan and ,isolde1 the beauties of which are a sealed book to the inexperienced and the unmusical4 ,as is the case with every phase of every art1 real appreciation can only spring from real comprehension2 that which is not understood cannot be fully beloved4 ,there must be a beginning and a gradual growth2 love for opera is hardly an inborn gift2 rather is it a cumulative force1 fed by an ever-increasing knowledge1 and by ever-widening critical faculties4 ,to love music1 singing1 or an orchestral performance does not also necessarily imply an ability to care in the very least for so polymorphous a work as opera1 which must be a thing of separate study1 the more difficult in that it demands attention from so many points of view4 ,sidenote3 ,what is ,necessary for its ,enjoyment ,and when knowledge and experience are to some extent gained1 become not too critical1 for that mars enjoyment2 those whose love is freshest for opera are not those unhappy critics who must perforce write a long analytical account of a new work ere the final curtain has fallen upon it1 but rather those who have grown to cherish the musical phrases for their own sake and for their inherent beauty1 irrespective of who may be singing them1 provided the singing be good and correct4 ,love for opera1 although not lightly gained1 is also not lightly lost2 it is a taste that endures and strengthens as time goes on and knowledge deepens4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,chief ,,opera ,,houses ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,covent ,garden--,la ,scala--,san ,carlo--,venice--,rome--,paris and the ,grand ,opera--,vienna--,budapest--,prague--,be rlin --,dresden--,munich--,bayreuth--,russia- -,other ,european countries--,egypt--,america4 ,sidenote3 ,covent ,garden ,architecturally speaking1 our ,english opera house is not one of the sights of ,london4 ,hidden away somewhat ignominiously in a side street1 it has little appearance1 in spite of its size1 and by no means forms so conspicuous a feature in the way of public building as do the majority of the houses in foreign capitals4 ,of the performances devoted to opera given within its walls we have already said something1 and may therefore pass on to a consideration of the ways and doings of some of the ,continental opera houses4 ,sidenote3 ,la ,scala ,turning1 at first1 to the sunny land where opera was born1 the name of the most famous 8,la ,scala0 ,theatre at ,milan at once comes to the mind4 ,this house has the enormous seating capacity for #c1fjj persons4 ,apart from its size1 there is the musical and artistic interest which this house derives from the production of many works here for the first time4 ,since its opening date1 ,august #crd1 #aggh1 hundreds of operas have been staged1 and the triumphs of ,rossini1 ,meyerbeer1 ,bellini1 ,donizetti1 and ,verdi have been witnessed4 ,it is enough to state that such works as ,rossini's ,la ,gazza ,ladra1 ,bellini's ,norma1 ,donizetti's ,lucretia ,borgia1 ,verdi's ,i ,lombardi1 ,boito's ,mefistofele1 and ,ponchielli's ,la ,gioconda first saw the light of day in 8,la ,scala0 to establish for it a claim to notice on the part of opera-goers4 ,sometime ago the municipal grant towards the expenses of the establishment was close upon #aj1jjj1 but a five years' contract dating from #aijb allows only an annual subsidy of #c1ijj for #ej performances1 and at reduced prices4 ,sidenote3 ,san ,carlo ,even older than ,la ,scala1 as it dates originally from #agcg1 is its ,neapolitan rival 8,san ,carlo40 ,the new house1 built after a fire in #ahaf1 is of great size1 and at one time vied with its ,milanese brother in the importance of new works produced2 but less financial support has been forthcoming from ,naples than is the case at ,milan1 and although an annual grant of #c1bjj is given by the municipality1 the ,san ,carlo productions1 although of very high rank1 are perhaps hardly on a level with those at ,la ,scala4 ,but ,san ,carlo has had its triumphs1 and has seen the first production of ,rossini's ,mos in ,egitto1 ,zelmira1 and other works1 and of ,donizetti's ,lucia di ,lammermoor1 besides numbers of other operas of less fame4 ,sidenote3 ,venice ,although ,venice looms large in the history of music1 and its doings in opera have been very considerable1 there appears to be no theatre solely devoted to this class of work1 nor is there any regular grant4 ,it is interesting to remember that ,rossini's ,semiramide and ,tancredi are both ,venetian productions4 ,sidenote3 ,rome ,rome in older days had pride of place amongst opera houses1 and ,mr4 ,hadow speaks of it as being at one time the highest school in which a musician could graduate4 ,here was produced ,rossini's ,il ,barbiere and many another famous work4 ,to-day opera at ,rome1 if indeed it is on an equal level1 hardly seems to be of higher importance than that in other ,italian cities4 ,it has no subsidy at the present time1 and has to depend on its own resources for its upkeep4 ,sidenote3 ,paris ,the ,french opera house is1 as most people know1 one of the most imposing sights of ,paris2 well situated and finely conceived1 it is a worthy home for that art product for which it is intended4 ,the history of ,french opera from the earliest recorded performances of the sixteenth century is1 of course1 a very extensive one4 ,so long ago as #afgb the name of ,lully made ,parisian opera famous1 and although for a time its home was transferred to the ,palace ,royal1 the site has borne testimony to many a fine building1 the present one1 inscribed ,acadmie ,nationale de ,musique1 dating from #ahgd 7commenced in #ahfa74 ,although its seating capacity of #b1aef is much less than that of ,la ,scala1 it is the largest house in the world1 and covers almost three acres of ground1 the cost of its erection being nearly a million and a half4 ,besides ,lully1 the names of ,rameau1 ,gluck1 ,cherubini1 ,spontini1 ,hrold1 ,auber1 ,meyerbeer1 and ,berlioz are all indissolubly connected with the opera of ,paris3 of that special class of work1 the ,parisian 8,grand ,opera10 we have already spoken4 ,there is no house in all musical history that can claim so great a measure of variety and incident1 nor make such interesting reading1 as that of the 8,acadmie de ,musique40 ,its fortunes have fluctuated1 but it has done wonderful work1 and a mere recapitulation of names of fine operas which gained their original production here would be far too long for quotation4 ,the glory of ,parisian ,grand ,opera has always held a spell over the nations1 and has been a thing apart from all else in music2 we know something of its hold upon ,wagner1 and if there is to-day somewhat less of a glamour cast by it than in the days when ,lully held despotic sway1 or ,spontini or ,meyerbeer dominated all1 there is still a charm and delight to be found within its walls1 which are difficult to equal in houses where the traditional uses are less sacredly adhered to4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,grand ,opera ,the ,french are very jealous of its traditions1 and although modern times have not allowed the direction to fall behind in their efforts to keep pace with the strides operatic music has made under ,wagner's influence1 it is only quite recently that the works of the composer have been welcomed in ,paris4 ,popular feeling1 partly on patriotic grounds1 for long kept his operas in the background3 ,parisians would have none of them4 ,the result has been1 perhaps1 even more rigidly to preserve those customs of ,grand ,opera1 such as the inclusion of a ballet1 which are amongst its most distinctive features4 ,touching upon the question of finance1 we find that the ,french ,government allows the very large subsidy of #cb1jjj per annum towards the expenses of ,grand ,opera2 in return1 however1 opera is supposed to be staged three or four times during the week1 and the prices of admission1 as compared with ,london1 are not high 7ranging from #ag fr4 to #b fr474 ,france loves its opera1 and does not hesitate to lay out good round sums for its support2 nor are its people behind-hand in their attendance2 a crowded house is the rule rather than the exception1 appreciation1 while critical1 being still keen4 ,sidenote3 ,vienna ,comparing not unfavourably in dignity of conception and splendour of adornment with the ,french house is the ,opera ,house of ,vienna1 an ornament in that encircling ring of fine buildings which is so distinctive a feature of the ,austrian capital4 ,vienna has been the home of so many of the giants of music that it is not surprising that it should have witnessed the production of many a work now world famous3 ,gluck's ,orfeo 7#agfb71 ,mozart's ,figaro 7#aghf71 ,cosi fan ,tutte 7#agij71 and ,zauberflte 7#agia71 ,beethoven's ,fidelio 7#ahje72 these alone would suffice to cause ,vienna to stand high in musical fame1 for it was at ,vienna that these works first came to light4 ,not that the present ,opera ,house witnessed their production1 for the building which to-day stands as an abode of opera dates from a more recent time2 the cost of its erection was #eji1gie4 ,belonging to the ,state1 its affairs are administered by the ,lord ,chamberlain's department1 any deficit being made good from the ,emperor's ,civil ,list4 ,sidenote3 ,budapest ,the ,hungarian ,opera ,house at ,budapest also receives from the ,state a subsidy of #bd1bjh1 and in addition a sum of #bej for salaries2 the ,emperor supplementing this by a grant of #ac1ccd4 ,sidenote3 ,prague ,reference must also be made to ,prague1 famous for the production of ,mozart's ,don ,giovanni in #aghg4 ,more recently ,prague has been the home of works of the ,bohemian school1 as exemplified by ,smetana1 ,dvrk1 ,fibich1 and others4 ,smetana's ,bartered ,bride was staged at ,prague in #ahff1 and from that date to the time of the appearance of ,dvrk's last opera1 ,armida1 in #aijd1 the ,national ,theatre has witnessed a constant succession of works of a characteristically national tone which make an unfailing appeal to the ,czechs4 ,the ,czech theatre has a ,state grant of #c1gej4 ,sidenote3 ,berlin ,the ,berlin ,opera ,house also has claims to notice1 for was not ,weber's ,der ,freischtz mounted here for the first time8 ,moreover1 ,berlin being the capital of ,germany1 the house is the scene of many fine ,state performances much patronized by the ,royal ,house4 ,the building itself1 although standing well in the fine 8,linden0 promenade1 will not compare with ,paris or ,vienna from an architectural point of view2 the ,opera ,house and ,play ,house of ,berlin together receive #ed1jjj towards their working expenses4 ,sidenote3 ,dresden ,leipzig and ,dresden have also fine theatres1 the ,dresden ,opera ,house being specially famous for its associations with ,weber and ,wagner4 ,moreover1 it is a fine building1 magnificently situated in an imposing position1 and having considerable architectural pretensions4 ,the ,king of ,saxony pays #ca1jjj for the opera1 theatre1 and orchestra1 and also makes good any deficit that arises4 ,at this theatre ,richard ,strauss has produced his two latest operas1 ,salome and ,elektra4 ,sidenote3 ,munich ,munich has of late come to the front in operatic matters2 the ,court ,theatre1 administered from the ,civil ,list1 has for long devoted much attention to opera1 but interest is now centred somewhat on the new 8,prince ,regent0 ,theatre1 where an attempt is being made to outvie ,bayreuth itself in the ,wagner productions2 fine performances have taken place during the last few summers2 the best singers available have been engaged1 and no expense spared in mounting and general details4 ,nor have the performances been confined to ,wagner1 for representations of ,mozart's operas have been interspersed with these4 ,it is as yet too early to say what influence1 if any1 the new ,munich house will have on the fortunes of ,bayreuth1 but it seems probable that a theatre even better fitted up than ,bayreuth itself for ,wagnerian performances1 and in so much more central and easily reached a position1 may in the near future very prejudicially affect the fortunes of the older house4 ,almost every ,german town of any size has its ,opera ,house1 and detailed description of these is manifestly impossible1 although very much interest attaches to some of them2 we must therefore conclude our account of the ,german theatres with a short description of the theatre built by ,wagner at ,bayreuth according to his own ideas of what such a house should be4 ,sidenote3 ,bayreuth ,there is little doubt that at the present time the ,bayreuth ,opera ,house is the most famous in the world2 worship of ,wagner is still wide-spread1 and the halo surrounding his name and his home casts a glow upon the little town which he selected as the scene of his final labours2 and1 therefore1 from all parts of the world1 when the ,bayreuth theatre opens its doors1 pilgrimages are made1 and devotees flock with an intense enthusiasm which has no parallel in the case of any other house4 ,moreover1 until the ,americans boldly pirated ,parsifal1 contrary to ,wagner's wishes1 it was here only that his last great work could be heard2 hence1 to the true ,wagnerian1 ,bayreuth is a spot sacred and hallowed1 inspiring a reverence quite distinct from that felt for any other4 ,illustration3 ,,bayreuth ,,theatre4 ,it was in ,may #ahgb that the foundation-stone was laid1 and celebrated with a performance of ,beethoven's ,choral ,symphony1 and the completion of the building1 delayed by lack of funds1 took place in #ahgf1 when the ,ring was performed2 since then performances have taken place on a grand scale at intervals of a year or two years in the summer4 ,seats1 which are the same price all over the house1 cost #a for each performance2 a feature in the construction was that an equally good view should be obtained from every point of view 7hence the equality of prices72 this was done by raising every seat a little above the one immediately in front of it1 and by putting each spectator where he could see between the heads of the two persons before him4 ,another feature was the submerged orchestra--i4e41 below the level of the floor of the house2 even the conductor1 although he has the stage in view1 cannot be seen by the audience1 and part of the orchestra 7the brass7 is actually under the stage--an experiment which seemed doubtful at first1 but which has on the whole proved successful4 ,the machinery and scenery were as good as could possibly be obtained1 and the management still keeps up to date in this respect4 ,although open to competition both from ,new ,york and from ,munich1 ,bayreuth seems likely to hold its own for some years to come1 whenever it may choose to open its doors4 ,sidenote3 ,russia ,in ,russia1 and more especially at ,petersburg and ,moscow1 theatrical attendance is looked upon as an educational matter1 and therefore it is possible to see opera for fivepence6 7,happy people--in that respect67 ,of course this means very large ,imperial help1 information as to the exact amount of which is not forthcoming2 but the two capitals have fine houses1 with interest for us in that they have witnessed the production of most of the operas of the young ,russian school2 the ballet is much beloved in ,russia1 and forms one of the regular objects of representation4 ,sidenote3 ,other ,european ,countries ,space forbids us to go into detail as to the opera houses of ,sweden 7,royal ,theatre of ,stockholm71 ,norway 7,national ,theatre1 ,christiania71 ,spain1 ,holland1 ,belgium 7,brussels1 ,thtre de la ,monnaie71 ,denmark 7,copenhagen1 ,royal ,theatre71 or ,portugal 7,lisbon1 ,san ,carlos74 ,the latter is1 however1 of special interest in being one of the oldest houses of its kind1 having been erected in #agic4 ,information as to the subsidies received by these and other theatres will be found in ,appendix ,b4 ,sidenote3 ,egypt ,sidenote3 ,america ,of opera houses outside ,europe it will be perhaps sufficient to mention those of ,cairo and ,alexandria 7the former of which saw the production of ,verdi's ,ada in #ahga71 and the ,american houses 7,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,philadelphia74 ,the ,new ,york1 the ,metropolitan1 and the ,manhattan opera houses witness very magnificent performances1 and command the best and most expensive talent in the world4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,offshoots ,,and ,,curiosities ,,of ,,opera4 ,operetta--,musical comedy--,ballad opera--,masque-- ,ballet--,objections thereto--,curiosities of construction--,pasticcio--,mixed language-- ,stereotyped casts--,curiosities of stage requirements --,wagner's supernatural requirements--,curiosities of the music--,vocal cadenzas4 ,the chief offshoot of ,opera proper is ,opera ,comique1 or ,singspiel4 ,this we have already described as being opera interspersed with spoken dialogue1 not necessarily of a humorous nature3 the mere fact1 however1 of its introduction confers on the work the title of ,opera ,comique in ,france1 or of ,singspiel in ,germany4 ,when one remembers that such works as ,beethoven's ,fidelio and ,weber's ,der ,freischtz belong to this type1 it is evidently of great importance1 and a very large number of the operas already mentioned by a variety of composers come under this heading4 ,sidenote3 ,operetta ,next perhaps in interest is the operetta1 or short opera1 originally a one-act light opera very frequently employing spoken dialogue2 the general style1 moreover1 is lighter and of less imposing proportions than serious opera4 ,in later days operettas are often prolonged into two or more acts1 and have been made very specially familiar to ,english theatre-goers by the long series of works by ,gilbert and ,sullivan1 which1 properly speaking1 belong to this category4 ,sidenote3 ,musical ,comedy ,of a somewhat lower grade is musical comedy1 a popular type of stage piece making considerable use of music1 but of only the less exalted forms of the art2 no serious pretensions to artistic beauty are claimed by these works1 the taste for which seems to be1 at the present time1 somewhat on the wane4 ,sidenote3 ,ballad ,opera ,a form of opera for which the ,english have always had an affection is the 8,ballad ,opera10 really a string of airs1 often by different composers1 thrown more or less promiscuously into a story1 with which they often appear to have no very close connection2 there is practically no concerted music1 and the whole bears some sort of resemblance to a ballad concert4 ,the renowned ,beggar's ,opera1 which for years was a model for ,english entrepreneurs1 belonged to this category1 and set an example for hosts of imitators to follow2 indeed1 ,england is only now beginning to shake herself free from the trammels of this class of work1 to which such operas as ,the ,bohemian ,girl and ,maritana tend to approximate4 ,the ballad opera also took root in ,america1 where hundreds of such works flourished for a time1 and it is not unknown in ,germany1 where it receives the title of 8,liederspiel40 ,sidenote3 ,masque ,of more artistic merit and interest is the 8,masque10 which really preceded opera2 originally developing in carnival processions through the streets of ,italian towns1 it was adopted in ,england during the reigns of ,henry ,,viii4 and some succeeding monarchs4 ,the plan of such works was the presentation of some allegorical idea upon a stage with descriptive music1 both vocal and instrumental1 and1 in addition1 a large proportion of dancing4 ,campion1 ,lock1 ,coperario1 and many others took part in the composition of these divertissements1 which were in great demand for such functions as royal weddings4 ,they were staged in the most sumptuous manner1 great attention being paid to stage machinery1 costume1 etc42 much of the music has been lost1 but what remains shows it to have been excellent of its class1 and effective even in performance to-day4 ,sidenote3 ,ballet ,in early days of operatic history there was no radical difference between the masque and the ballet2 an entertainment of vocal and instrumental music in celebration of the marriage of the ,duke of ,joyeuse in #aeha 7costing three and a half million francs to produce1 by-the-bye7 was termed 8,ballet comique de la ,royne40 ,as an illustration of the dance alone1 which is its present signification1 the ballet appears to date from the foundation of the opera in ,france1 with which it has had a very close and lasting connection4 ,indeed until recently grand opera without a ballet was unknown2 beginning with ,lully1 and continuing even up to the present day1 the ballet has maintained a position of great importance2 and although it has never appealed to the ,english to the same extent as it seems to have done to our ,continental brethren1 it has been transported with the works in which it was introduced1 and has become a very familiar feature to opera-goers2 even so recent a work as ,cilea's ,adriana ,lecouvreur introduces a lengthy and somewhat annoying ballet4 ,sidenote3 ,objections thereto ,for the great disadvantage of the ballet is that it breaks up the continuity of the story2 the development of the interest of the opera is arrested1 and so far as the music is concerned a complete difference in style is often necessary1 the result being that the old train of thought and idea is often only to be resumed with difficulty4 ,hence it happens that1 with a growing appreciation for artistic truth in opera1 the ballet has fallen into the background1 and most operas seen to-day do not include any performance of what is1 at best1 a somewhat irrelevant interlude4 ,a few attempts1 such as that by ,wagner in ,tannhuser1 to introduce a ballet as an integral factor in the dnouement1 have not been specially successful1 nor have they been widely imitated4 ,as a separate form of entertainment1 apart from opera1 the ballet has had excellent music written for it by ,adam1 ,sullivan1 ,tchakovsky1 and others 7in ,russia it is a very popular amusement72 but in ,england its appearances are now mainly confined to the music-hall1 where it is wedded to music of a light and charming character4 ,sidenote3 ,curiosities ,a few words as to curiosities of opera2 these may be grouped under two or three different heads1 somewhat as follows3-- 7#a7 ,curiosities of ,construction and ,design4 7#b7 ,curiosities of ,stage ,requirements4 7#c7 ,curiosities of the ,music4 ,sidenote3 ,curiosities of ,construction ,sidenote3 ,pasticcio ,the old manner of collecting a mass of heterogeneous materials in the way of airs and songs1 and of turning them into a kind of opera1 is certainly curious4 ,the name 8,pasticcio10 or 8pie10 is very applicable to this hybrid growth1 which1 however1 has at times attained to great popularity2 one of the most famous instances of its kind is ,muzio ,scevola1 produced in #agga4 his work was in three acts3 the first composed by ,ariosti1 the second by ,buononcini1 and the third by ,handel2 the last-named great composer1 with an easy manner of doing things which would certainly not pass muster at the present day1 also brought out in #agch an opera almost entirely made up of favourite airs from his other works2 an example which ,gluck followed a few years later4 ,the day for this kind of thing is fortunately past1 and no composer of serious operatic work would revert to a procedure which is more suggestive of the construction of a pantomime4 ,sidenote3 ,mixed ,languages ,the singing by different performers in different languages at the same time is another defunct custom2 so little regard was paid to the importance of the libretto that it used to be quite a common occurrence for each person on the stage to sing in whatever language came easiest to him or her2 on the ,continent the airs would perhaps be sung in ,italian and the recitatives in ,german1 with an inconsistency that is almost incredible2 when1 however1 agility in vocalization was the chief attraction in operatic representation1 it is to be presumed that intelligibility of utterance was not an important consideration4 ,sidenote3 ,stereotyped ,casts ,to the same cause must be attributed the extraordinary fact that the dramatis person were the same for nearly all operas during a certain period4 ,whatever the story or plot to be unfolded1 it was essential that there should be six principal characters--a high soprano1 a mezzo1 and a contralto1 a male soprano1 a tenor1 and a bass2 of course slight modifications in the character of the voices was occasionally allowed1 but the main lines followed were as above4 ,and whether it suited the story or not1 each of these good people expected to have an important air to sing in each act1 and woe betide the unhappy composer who wrote a more attractive piece for one of them than was supplied to his or her rival singer4 ,from this stereotyped form of bondage1 with its horrible artificiality1 opera is now free2 and it is due to the observance of these conventions that the works of ,handel and other composers1 who wrote really good music1 are absolutely dead4 ,apart from the construction in the form of the opera1 there have been from time to time interesting experiments made with regard to the housing of that integral portion of it--the orchestra4 ,wagner's innovation1 the placing of the band out of sight and below the stage1 although it necessitated the increase of the string sections1 has proved on the whole good2 other designs have been the entire covering in of the orchestra with a thin transparent substance1 which has had the effect of subduing the sound1 but which has also proved disastrously hot for the poor players4 ,one idea emanated from the ,new ,york ,metropolitan1 when ,mr4 ,conried suggested the placing of the brass players upon a movable platform1 which could move up or down at will2 if it is desired that their instruments shall sound prominently they will be raised into the air2 if1 on the other hand1 a subdued effect is required1 they will be lowered a few feet2 a long crescendo will1 presumably1 be effected by a gradual elevation of this movable floor6 ,one has yet to wait to see this somewhat freakish invention adopted4 ,sidenote3 ,curiosities of ,stage ,requirements ,in days when enormous groups of performers were considered indispensable for grand effects in opera1 one reads of many extravagances in the way of display4 ,in modern scenic dramatic works1 in the ballet1 and in pantomime1 these effects are no doubt legitimate enough2 but in so far as the cumbering of the stage with voiceless supers hardly helps on the cause of opera1 it is a matter for congratulation that these exceptional stage demands are no longer made to any great extent4 ,here1 for instance1 is the modest list of performers that took part in ,freschi's ,berenice in #afhj3-- #ajj ,virgins4 #ajj ,soldiers4 #ajj ,horsemen in ,iron ,armour4 #dj ,cornets on ,horseback4 #f ,mounted ,trumpeters4 #f ,drummers4 #f ,ensigns4 #f ,sackbuts4 #f ,flutes4 #ab ,minstrels playing on ,turkish instruments1 etc4 #f ,pages4 #c ,sergeants4 #f ,cymbaleers4 #ab ,huntsmen4 #ab ,grooms4 #ab ,charioteers4 #b ,lions led by #b ,turks4 #b ,elephants4 #d ,horses with ,berenice's ,triumphal ,car4 #ab ,horses drawing #f cars4 #f ,chariots4 ,a stable with #ajj living horses4 ,a forest filled with wild boar1 deer1 and bears4 ,however magnificent and imposing in effect such a spectacle may be1 its proper sphere is not opera4 ,with ,meyerbeer1 ,spontini1 and other composers of grand opera these ideas have found favour2 but they are a bar to the production of their works to-day1 not only on the score of very considerable expense1 but also because the artistic sense that delights in beautiful music wedded to appropriate drama will hardly find pleasure in such merely sensuous effects of the eye4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's ,supernatural ,requirements ,the difficulties of modern stage management occur chiefly in the presentation of the supernatural2 huge crowds are easy enough to put upon the stage1 but to make a bird fly across naturally is a more involved matter4 ,in so many of the ,wagner operas these supernatural features are essential elements of the situation2 the ,rhine maidens must appear to be swimming in real water1 the bird must fly ahead of ,siegfried to show him the rock on which ,brnnhilde sleeps1 and round that rock living flames of fire must dart and play4 ,it is such points as these which are difficult to stage convincingly4 ,has anyone ever felt very frightened at the dragon ,fafner8 ,the fire has a way of coming out of his mouth at the wrong time1 his head and his tail seem to have little connection with one another1 and the impressive effect of his deeply sonorous utterances is often marred by the very visible megaphone through which they are uttered4 ,in these strange beasts1 for which machinery is ineffective1 there is still scope for improvement in modern stage management4 ,sidenote3 ,curiosities of the ,music ,curiosities in the music occur now and then3 such1 for instance1 is the weird portion in the middle of ,weber's ,euryanthe overture1 where the curtain rises momentarily to display a gruesome tomb3 such is the thrusting aside of the stage curtain in the midst of ,leoncavallo's ,pagliacci prelude for one of the characters to sing a song2 such is the curious vocal scherzo upon one reiterated note1 for the chorus of seraphim in ,boito's ,mefistofele4 ,on a bigger scale is the curious experiment made by ,michael in the opera ,utal1 in writing his work without any violins in the orchestra4 ,of more frequent occurrence than the omission of instruments is the inclusion of various unusual effects1 such as the introduction of a mandoline for the serenade in ,mozart's ,don ,giovanni1 of the ,glockenspiel for ,papageno in the ,magic ,flute1 of peal of bells in many works1 and so forth1 whereas ,handel sighed for a cannon1 and ,tchakovsky actually used one in his #ahab overture4 ,the maximum of stage noise in this way was probably reached by ,spontini1 who1 in his opera ,alcidor had a number of anvils upon the stage tuned to certain notes6 ,an anvil accompaniment1 not ineffectively used1 may be heard in ,gounod's ,philmon and ,baucis4 ,sidenote3 ,vocal ,cadenzas ,among curiosities of the music must be mentioned the vocal cadenzas1 etc41 written for exceptional singers2 and in the days when these singers used to include male sopranos and contraltos 7termed ,castrati71 the majority of singers appear to have been exceptional4 ,for a man to develop a high soprano voice seems not only unnatural but inartistic2 and these singers1 many of them most famous1 belong to an order of things that obtains no longer1 being contrary both to modern ethics and to good taste3 what the male soprano could do can usually be done equally well by a good woman singer1 and of these there is usually a sufficient supply4 ,for women singers with voices of exceptional compass special music has often been written1 as witness the part of 8,queen of the ,night0 in ,mozart's ,zauberflte1 much of which lies abnormally high4 ,even where not written1 singers of ,italian opera have often introduced elaborate and wonderful cadenzas for the purposes of display1 and these1 although not tolerated in opera of the most exalted kind1 may still be frequently heard4 ,an example of a cadenza of this kind may conclude the chapter4 ,example of a ,vocal ,cadenza quoted by ,mozart as sung to him by ,lucrezia ,agujari in #aggj4 ,music ,nowadays little of this kind of music is written for the voice1 so far as opera is concerned4 ,the work required of the modern operatic singer is more dramatic by nature1 and makes demands upon technique of a different order4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,a ,,chapter ,,of ,,chatter4 ,opera and politics--,lohengrin in ,paris-- ,opera non-lucrative to the composer--,jenny ,lind's contract--,modern fees--,royalties-- ,librettists--,metastasio and ,scribe--,the prima donna--,stories of singers and composers4 ,sidenote3 ,opera and ,politics ,now and again it happens that ,opera rubs shoulders with ,politics1 and acquires some importance in the affairs of nations4 ,lully's power at court in the days of ,louis ,,xiv4 was notorious1 and none too generously exercised so far as his fellow musicians were concerned4 ,but influence with monarchs1 such as that which he acquired1 is exceptional and rarer now1 and less powerful than in those earlier days4 ,lully profited by the royal favour bestowed on him1 but some great composers have been less fortunate4 ,cherubini1 for instance1 was detested by the great ,napoleon1 who lost no opportunity of inflicting slights upon him4 ,cherubini's sympathies were clearly manifested in his ,water ,carrier opera1 as on the side of revolution1 but distinctly contrary to the excesses to which it often led4 ,so enraged were some ruffians with him that he was in #agid dragged out of his house1 marched through ,paris1 and finally compelled to provide music for the pleasure of his captors4 ,napoleon frequently called him into his presence in order to praise other composers1 suggesting that he compared unfavourably with them4 ,when ,cherubini replied with some little spirit1 he was promptly punished by being compelled to conduct various concerts and state performances with no reward whatever4 ,on the other hand1 ,napoleon1 for a time1 could not do enough for ,spontini3 he commanded the production of ,la ,vestale1 and rewarded him with a present of #aj1jjj francs1 loading him1 moreover1 with praises and honours2 this did not1 however1 last for very long1 for the downfall of the great conqueror was at hand1 and anxieties and cares claimed his attention4 ,illustration3 ,photo ,w4 ,shadwell ,clerke4 ,sidenote3 8,lohengrin0 in ,paris ,political feeling has probably never run so high over operatic matters as it did in ,paris after the ,franco-,german war3 for years no ,german work was tolerated1 at any rate so far as new matter was concerned1 and the determination of the management to produce ,wagner's ,lohengrin in #ahia was the signal for a riotous uproar4 ,public feeling ran high2 some of the leading singers1 considering discretion the better part of valour1 caused frequent postponements of the performance by means of convenient indispositions1 and when the work actually came to presentation cordons of police were called out to guard the opera house1 both inside and out4 ,m4 ,lamoureux1 who conducted1 did so with a pistol in his pocket4 ,opposition inside the theatre made itself felt by an objectionable device of setting floating in the auditorium little balloons of evil-smelling gas2 while opposition in the street was met by cavalry charges and frequent arrests4 ,the whole occasion was made one of political import1 but fortunately commonsense prevailed1 and no serious issues resulted2 happily for opera1 such scenes as these are infrequent and unusual4 ,in our country opera has little or no connection with political matters1 except that when some foreign potentate visits our shores1 a gala performance at ,covent ,garden is usually arranged as one of the features of his visit3 so far as ,english art or ,english artists are concerned1 there is1 unfortunately1 little use made of either on these occasions4 ,sidenote3 ,opera non-lucrative to the ,composer ,opera is not a fortune-making business for the majority of those who embark on such enterprise3 so far as the composition of opera is concerned1 financial result is usually very small4 ,nowadays an opera cannot be lightly tossed off in a few days3 it is true that ,handel composed ,rinaldo in fourteen days1 ,rossini ,il ,barbiere in thirteen 7a wonderful performance71 and ,pacini his ,saffo in four weeks2 but these are very exceptional instances1 and may fitly be compared with the labour of ,wagner1 who had the ,meistersinger and the ,ring on hand for something like twenty years4 ,modern opera1 with its polyphonic orchestral background and amorphous movements1 demands years of work1 and for the majority of those who give so much of their lives to it there is little to show in return1 so far as a monetary point of view is taken4 ,operatic management1 too1 is very speculative2 ,handel lost his whole fortune 7#aj1jjj7 and became bankrupt through his operatic ventures1 and yet his works had enormous success in their day4 ,it is to be feared that the example set by him has been followed by many a subsequent manager1 and is yet in store for many another4 ,the chief item in expenditure is1 of course1 the enormous amount swallowed up in the fees paid to the singers2 ,handel paid ,senesino #a1djj guineas for the season in #agca1 and even allowing for the greater value of money in those days1 that is a comparatively small amount4 ,here1 for example1 is the contract made by ,jenny ,lind with ,mr4 ,lumley in #ahdf4 ,far less liberal1 by the way1 than such a singer would receive to-day3-- ,sidenote3 ,j4 ,lind's ,contract 8#a4 ,an honorarium of #abj1jjj francs 7#d1hjj7 for the season 7,april #adth-,august #bjth1 #ahdg74 8#b4 ,a furnished house1 carriage1 and pair of horses4 8#c4 ,a sum of #cjj should she desire to have a preliminary holiday in ,italy4 8#d4 ,liberty to cancel the engagement should she feel dissatisfied after her first appearance4 8#e4 ,an agreement not to sing elsewhere for her own emolument40 ,it generally happens that a singer commands higher fees for private than for public singing1 the advantage of the latter being as a rule a guaranteed number of appearances2 ,farinelli1 for example1 the chief singer engaged by the noble faction that set up in opposition to ,handel in #agcd received only #a1ejj per annum1 but his private engagements made up his income to #e1jjj a year--a large one at that date4 ,this singer afterwards visited the court of ,philip ,v4 of ,spain2 that monarch was suffering from mental depression1 from which nothing aroused him until the advent of ,farinelli4 ,the ,queen was so delighted to see her royal spouse once more interested in anything that she engaged ,farinelli at a salary of #ej1jjj francs to remain in ,madrid2 this he did1 singing the same four songs to the ,king every night for ten years6 ,eventually ,philip ,v4 succumbed1 but he must have been a patient monarch4 ,it does not always happen that singers of equal merit receive the same payments1 some being more fortunate than others2 ,catalani1 for example1 in #ahjg received #e1jjj for the season1 and with her concerts and provincial tours netted a profit for the year of #af1gjj4 ,a more famous singer1 ,lablache1 in #ahbh could only command #a1fjj for four months2 while ,malibran in #ahce received #b1gee for twenty-four appearances in ,london1 and #de1jjj francs for one hundred and eighty-five performances a few years later at ,la ,scala4 ,sidenote3 ,modern ,fees ,but these fees are as nothing compared with those commanded by the leading singers of to-day1 more especially in ,america1 where money is poured out like water1 and where artists are retained at high fees by one opera house1 even if they do not sing a single note during the whole season1 so that a rival house should not secure their services4 ,it is not very unusual for a singer to receive #a1jjj per performance in the twentieth century4 ,madame ,patti has stated that she received #a1bjj per night for two seasons of sixty nights each4 ,caruso has been paid #bj1jjj for eighty performances1 and about #h1jjj per annum for singing into gramophones2 his contract for four years at #dj1jjj per annum with the ,new ,york ,metropolitan is probably a record in this direction4 ,of course the amount received by those who compose the music never approximate to such figures as these4 ,for ,don ,juan ,mozart received only #ejj thalers1 and for ,figaro #ajj ducats4 ,weber's payment for ,der ,freischtz was #hj ,friedrich d'ors1 out of which he had to pay the librettist2 after the treasury had netted #cj1jjj thalers from this work ,weber was presented with another #ajj6 ,there are1 however1 a few examples of fair bargains made by musicians3 ,spontini in #ahad was offered the then liberal salary of #gej per annum for two operas each year in ,berlin2 in #ahai he accepted a ten years' engagement at the court of ,frederick ,william ,,iii4 of ,berlin at a salary of #d1jjj thalers1 a benefit of #a1jej thalers1 a free concert1 and a pension4 ,he was well treated1 but did not himself behave very well1 allowing his servant to sell free admissions to the theatre1 and grumbling because his first-night presentations did not bring in as much as he wished4 ,he finally ended by a demand for compensation for #df1hej thalers1 and that in face of the fact that he was convicted of lse-majest and sentenced to nine months' imprisonment3 an indignity from which his new monarch graciously released him4 ,sidenote3 ,royalties ,sometimes an agreement is made with the composer by which he receives a royalty or lump sum for each performance of his work4 ,to the composer of an opera that takes the public fancy this spells fortune1 and vast sums have now and again been made in this way4 ,isouard1 for example1 received for the performances of his ,cendrillon in ,paris alone over #ajj1jjj francs in #ahaj1 while ,rossini and others have by similar strokes of luck easily acquired wealth4 ,so small1 however1 is the proportion of new works to-day which become popular1 that the chances of such good fortune are very small2 a ,cavalleria ,rusticana only makes its appearance now and then1 nor is the composer of such a work often able to repeat his success4 ,sidenote3 ,librettists ,although rarely recognized1 the work of the author of the libretto is of vast importance4 ,in the days when the story meant little or nothing1 provided so many pegs were provided on which to hang the 8,arias10 the share of the librettist was a less conspicuous one2 to-day no inconsiderable part of the failure of an opera is due to a poor libretto4 ,it therefore frequently happens that composers1 finding it impossible to find a poem to please them1 write their own libretti1 the chief example of this dual work being ,wagner1 whose dramas are often very fine considered from a literary point of view alone4 ,sidenote3 ,metastasio and ,scribe ,most famous of the librettists of early operas is ,metastasio 7#afih-aghb71 some of whose poems were set by thirty and forty different composers3 he wrote dramas used by such composers as ,handel1 ,hasse1 ,jomelli1 ,porpora1 ,graun1 ,gluck1 ,meyerbeer1 ,caldara1 ,haydn1 ,cimarosa1 and ,mozart4 ,in later days mention may be made of the dramatist ,scribe 7#agia-ahfa71 a ,french poet who provided a vast number of works for both the ,grand ,opera and the ,opera ,comique4 ,the list of composers who have used ,scribe's libretti includes ,auber1 ,adam1 ,boieldieu1 ,donizetti1 ,hrold1 ,halvy1 ,meyerbeer1 and ,verdi4 ,quite one hundred of his operas were staged and performed1 to say nothing of light dramatic and other pieces4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,prima ,donna ,scattered here and there in literature that deals with opera may be found endless stories of singers1 composers1 and art-patrons4 ,most fruitful in providing amusing tales are the prime donne1 whose jealousies and bickerings1 although unpleasant enough for those who have to contend against them1 make sufficiently good reading4 ,the ,prima ,donna generally knows her power1 and is autocratic3 there is not every day at hand a ,handel1 to take such a one forcibly by the scruff of her neck and hang her suspended from a window in mid-air until his will is granted4 ,when such a factious lady has a husband in the same rle consequences may be very bad indeed3 the tenor ,arsani1 for example1 the teacher of the ,garcias1 had a wife who was a prima donna2 but instead of acting together1 so jealous were they of each other1 that when one was receiving the plaudits of the audience the other would go round into the auditorium and hiss6 ,rivalry is not always1 however1 so apparent1 and when fine singers are willing to co-operate1 very fine results are sometimes obtained4 ,the most notable ensemble in this respect was probably that of the four great singers1 ,grisi1 ,rubini1 ,tamburini1 and ,lablache1 a combination of talent very seldom equalled1 which delighted auditors of the early ,victorian era4 ,nowadays1 although a person of power1 the great singer has not the field so entirely to himself as to be able to dictate as to what he will or will not do3 a certain tenor1 for example1 at ,marseilles early in #aije withdrew his promise to sing at a certain concert for the reason that a rival tenor had been engaged4 ,great was his amazement to find that this refusal by no means jeopardized the concert1 as he had hoped1 but rather became an additional source of amusement2 for the management1 having advertised him1 determined that he should be seen upon the stage1 and a ridiculous effigy of him was brought forward1 and a trio from ,faust sung by other singers grouped round it4 ,this may not have been very dignified1 or even witty1 but a few drastic measures of this kind might induce singers to be a little more reasonable in their treatment of the public4 ,strange measures are sometimes taken to prevent the success of an opera3 a hired body of fellows to hiss in opposition to the organized claque is by no means a rare sight in a ,french house2 but sometimes more militant measures are taken4 ,rousseau's ,le ,devin du ,village1 for example1 received its coup de grace from the fact that in #ahbh some person 7supposed to have been ,berlioz7 threw a huge powdered wig on to the stage in the midst of the performance4 ,so bad was the opposition to ,jomelli's ,armida1 produced in #agej1 that its composer flew the house for his life by a back door4 ,the opposition to ,lohengrin in ,paris has already been commented upon1 but that to ,tannhuser1 organized by the ,jockey ,club in #ahff1 was even stronger3 noise and disorder filled the theatre2 people in the pit played flageolets1 while the gallery sang riotous songs4 ,so prejudiced was public opinion that a fair hearing was not accorded to the work4 ,under these conditions it is not altogether incredible that ,merime should have exclaimed that he could write similar music after hearing his cat walk up and down the pianoforte6 ,of composers1 there are perhaps more amusing stories of ,spontini than of any other single opera writer4 ,this very opinionated and high-handed ,italian thought much of himself1 and little of all else1 with the result that his life is very amusing reading4 ,he would have what he wanted4 ,if his cellos could not play loud enough1 they were made to sing their parts as well2 if1 after six hours' rehearsal1 his prima donna fainted1 he suggested that someone with more physique should be engaged4 ,he did not1 however1 always have his own way4 ,when ,la ,petite ,maison was produced in #ahjd1 the audience dashed on the stage and smashed everything1 while ,la ,vestale was greeted with laughing1 snoring1 and the putting on of nightcaps4 ,his orchestra1 although moderate in volume in comparison with what often obtains to-day1 was considered very noisy1 so much so that it is said that a certain doctor who had a very deaf patient thought he might be made to hear by attending a performance of ,la ,vestale4 ,after a specially noisy passage the deaf man with delight turned to his doctor3 8,i can hear10 said he4 ,his remark met with no response1 for the reason that the doctor himself had been deafened by the noise4 ,spontini felt such opposition very keenly3 others are less affected by hostility4 ,when ,rossini's ,il ,barbiere was produced at ,rome in #ahaf1 it was hooted and hissed1 much to the chagrin of several of the composer's friends4 ,thinking to commiserate with him on the failure of his work1 they called at his house1 expecting to find him in the depths of despair3 instead of that the maestro was safely tucked up in bed and fast asleep4 ,quotations of stories of singer and composer might fill many chapters of such a book as this1 but there are books such as ,sutherland ,edward's ,history of the ,opera and ,ella's ,musical ,reminiscences to which those interested may readily turn1 and therefore need not be reprinted here4 ,a whole wealth of amusement may be derived from the daily papers1 and to-day the impressarios of ,new ,york seem to be the most persecuted persons in the world4 ,opera has its worries and troubles1 but to those who love it it is a constant source of refreshment and of artistic joy4 ,appendices4 ,a4 ,,chronological ,,list ,,of ,,composers ,,of ,,opera1 ,,great ,,singers1 ,,conductors1 ,,etc4 ,b4 ,,financial ,,aid ,,granted ,,to ,,operatic ,,schemes ,,from ,,state ,,or ,,municipal ,,funds4 ,c4 ,,glossary ,,of ,,terms ,,mainly ,,used ,,in ,,opera4 ,d4 ,,list ,,of ,,instruments ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,orchestras ,,of ,,composers ,,of ,,different ,,periods ,,of ,,opera4 ,e4 ,,bibliography ,,of ,,opera4 ,appendix ,a4 ,chronological ,list of ,composers of ,opera 7with names of their chief works71 ,great ,singers1 ,conductors1 etc4 #aece 7874 ,vincenzo ,galilei 7,florence74 ,early writer of music drama on the lines of ,greek tragedy4 #aeej 7874 ,cavalieri4 ,composer of the first oratorio1 also of four music dramas4 ,one of the earliest composers to seek to illustrate the meaning of the words by the music4 #ae-- 7874 ,giovanni ,bardi4 ,the instigator of the idea of modern opera3 at ,bardi's house the circle of dilletanti and musicians assembled and endeavoured to resuscitate ,greek drama by the provision of suitable music4 #ae-- 7874 ,jacopo ,peri4 ,composer of first real opera in the modern sense of the term2 ,dafne 7#aeig7 and ,euridice 7#afjj7 are the titles of his works1 in the monodic style4 ,these opened up new ground1 and set a model which other composers quickly followed4 #aeeh4 ,guilio ,caccini 7,rome74 ,opera composer of the monodic school2 shares with ,peri the merit of founding modern opera4 #aefg4 ,claudio ,monteverde 7,cremona71 #aefg-afdc4 ,writer of many operas1 intermezzi1 etc42 he was a great innovator in harmony1 and also did much to extend the use of the various instruments of the orchestra4 ,the earliest composer to associate certain groups of instruments with certain of the stage characters4 #aege4 ,thomas ,campion 7,london74 ,english composer of masques and ballets4 #aehj4 ,john ,coperario 7,london74 ,an ,englishman who travelled in ,italy1 and wrote music for ,english plays4 #aehb4 ,william ,lawes 7,dinton74 ,english composer of court masques and airs4 #aehe4 ,heinrich ,schtz 7,kstritz71 #aehe-afgb4 ,first ,german operatic composer1 who also excelled in church music4 #aehh or #aeij4 ,nicholas ,laniere 7,italy74 ,a foreign musician who settled in ,england and wrote music for masques2 one of his compositions was a masque by ,ben ,johnson1 8in stylo recitativo40 #aeif4 ,henry ,lawes 7,dinton74 ,english composer who shared with ,matthew ,lock and ,cook the composition of one of the earliest ,english operas1 ,the ,siege of ,rhodes4 #aeig4 ,benedetto ,ferrari 7,venice74 ,helped to found the ,venetian ,school of ,opera4 #afjj4 ,pietro ,f4 ,cavalli 7,crema74 ,a follower of ,monteverde1 who wrote at least twenty-seven operas1 mostly for ,venice1 but some were performed in ,paris2 a composer of dramatic power4 #afjj4 ,production of ,peri's ,orfeo1 the first publicly performed opera4 #afjj 7874 ,francesco ,manelli 7,venice74 ,shares with ,ferrari the credit of the foundation of opera in his native city4 #afjd4 ,giacomo ,carissimi 7,marino74 ,great composer of oratorio1 who also wrote occasionally for the stage4 #afbj4 ,marcantonio ,cesti 7,florence874 ,follower of ,cavalli and ,carissimi2 wrote about twelve operas4 #afbe4 ,giovanni ,legrenzi 7,bergamo74 ,composer of seventeen operas1 mostly produced in ,venice4 #afbg4 ,the first ,german opera 7,dafne7 produced4 #afbh4 ,robert ,cambert 7,paris74 ,first ,french composer of opera2 at first thoroughly successful1 this musician was ousted from his position by ,lully1 and died in ,england in #afgg4 #afcb 7874 ,matthew ,lock 7,exeter74 ,composer of incidental music to plays 7,the ,tempest1 ,macbeth1 etc471 one of which 7,psyche7 was published under the title of 8,the ,english ,opera40 #afcc4 ,jean ,batiste ,lully 7,florence74 ,migrated to ,france at an early age2 obtained great power at the court of ,louis ,,xiv41 and monopolized ,french opera for many years4 ,he wrote at least thirty ballets and twenty operas4 ,lully died in #afhg4 #afce4 ,g4 ,v4 ,draghi4 ,italian composer who settled in ,england and wrote incidental music and act tunes4 #afcg4 ,bernardo ,pasquini 7,tuscany74 ,wrote a few operas for ,rome2 a fine polyphonic composer4 #afdj4 ,giovanni ,buononcini 7,modena74 ,father of a more famous son2 wrote five operas1 which remain in ,,ms4 #afde4 ,alessandro ,stradella 7,venice871 #afde-ha4 ,although more famous for his church music1 wrote eleven operas4 #afde4 ,francesco ,rossi 7,bari74 ,wrote four operas for ,venice4 #afdf4 ,johann ,thiele 7,naumburg74 ,composer of opera and also of ,singspiel4 ,his ,singspiel1 ,adam and ,eve1 produced in #afgh1 was the first of such works to be publicly performed in ,germany1 and is interesting as being the forerunner of many a subsequent work of the same class which has obtained world-wide popularity4 #afdf4 ,akebar1 ,roi de ,mogol1 the first ,french opera 7words and music by the ,abb ,mailly71 performed at ,carpentras4 #afdi4 ,pascal ,colasse 7,rheims74 ,wrote many operas1 after the model of ,lully4 #afej4 ,marais4 ,composer of ,french opera2 died #agah4 #afeh4 ,henry ,purcell 7,london71 #afeh-ie4 ,english composer of great dramatic power and of marked originality4 ,wrote music for many masques1 plays1 and for the first real ,english opera1 ,dido and neas2 had it not been for the powerful personality of ,handel1 which dwarfed all other matters musical during the time he lived in ,london1 ,purcell might have founded a real school of ,english opera4 ,chief works3 ,dido and neas 7#afgg71 ,the ,indian ,queen 7#afij71 ,dryden's ,tempest 7#afij71 ,dioclesian 7#afij71 ,king ,arthur 7#afia71 ,bonduca 7#afie74 #afei4 ,alessandro ,scarlatti 7,trapani71 #afei-agbe4 ,composer of one hundred and fifteen operas2 is important as the first to largely employ set forms in his works4 ,his use of the ,da capo ,aria1 although at first attended with success1 became so popular as to be the means of its own undoing4 ,he also uses the orchestral ritornello1 occasionally employed by ,monteverde1 and is the first composer to make full use of the orchestra for the accompaniment of recitative4 ,while histrionically interesting1 little of his music would be accepted to-day4 #afei4 ,francesco ,a4 ,pistocchi 7,palermo74 ,a member of the ,bolognese school of composers4 #affj4 ,andr ,campra 7,aix1 ,provence74 ,popular writer of ,french opera1 who attempted to combine the features of the ,italian and ,french schools2 he produced about thirty works of high rank4 #affa4 ,j4 ,a4 ,perti 7,bologna74 ,another member of the ,bolognese school2 produced operas in his native town and at ,venice4 #affg4 ,antonio ,lotti 7,venice74 ,produced an opera before he was sixteen years of age1 and wrote many others in after life4 #affg4 ,dr4 ,pepusch 7,berlin74 ,famous ,german composer who settled in ,london1 and collected the songs and pieces which made up ,the ,beggar's ,opera1 the first of a long line of such ballad operas4 #afgj 7874 ,johann ,conradi4 ,early writer of ,german opera2 produced works at ,hamburg4 #afgb4 ,giovanni ,batiste ,buononcini 7,modena71 #afgb-agej 7874 ,writer of twenty-two operas2 mainly famous as having been the selected composer pitted against ,handel1 with disastrous results to both parties financially4 #afgb4 ,andr ,destouches 7,paris74 ,wrote a famous opera1 ,iss2 and many other works for the stage4 #afgd4 ,reinhard ,keiser 7,weissenfels71 #afgd-agci4 ,first important composer of ,german opera1 composing sometimes as many as eight in one year2 one hundred and sixteen works stand to his name1 many with the recitatives in ,german and the arias in ,italian4 #afge4 ,marc ,antonio ,buononcini 7,modena74 ,wrote an opera1 ,camilla1 which was played sixty-four times in ,england during four years2 brother of ,handel's rival4 #afgg4 ,production of ,purcell's ,dido and neas1 the first real ,english opera4 #afgh 7874 ,antonio ,caldara 7,venice74 ,wrote sixty-six operas1 besides a large number of oratorios and other works4 #afhj 7874 ,senesino4 ,famous male soprano1 who appeared in many of the operas ,handel wrote for ,london2 he retired from the stage in #agce with a fortune of #ae1jjj4 #afha4 ,johann ,mattheson 7,hamburg74 ,opera singer and composer and a friend of ,handel1 in some of whose operas he appeared4 #afhc4 ,jean ,phillippe ,rameau 7,dijon71 #afhc-agfd4 ,one of the early fathers of ,french opera1 and second only in importance to ,lully2 produced many operas1 and influenced ,gluck1 who heard some of his works in ,paris4 #afhd4 ,francesco ,durante 7,naples74 ,wrote occasionally for the stage1 but mostly for the church4 #afhe4 ,george ,frederick ,handel 7,hall71 #afhe-agei4 ,wrote operas for ,italy1 ,germany1 and ,england4 ,in great contrast to the music of his oratorios1 his opera music sounds antiquated and dull2 its only performance to-day is the occasional singing of an air from one of the operas4 #afhf4 ,niccola ,porpora 7,naples71 #afhf-agfg4 ,wrote many operas1 mainly consisting of florid arias and vocal gymnastics2 a wonderful singing-master1 who turned out some excellent pupils4 #afih4 ,p4 ,a4 ,d4 ,b4 ,metastasio 7,rome74 ,one of the greatest of librettists2 he furnished subjects for operatic treatment for a vast number of composers1 including ,gluck and ,mozart4 #afii4 ,johann ,a4 ,hasse 7,bergedorf71 #afii-aghc4 ,fertile opera composer1 who produced over one hundred works with success4 ,hasse possessed great gifts of melody1 and was fortunate in having a remarkably fine singer in his wife1 who acted as exponent of many of the leading parts4 #agjj4 ,faustina ,hasse 7,venice74 ,sang also for ,handel1 and was very popular in ,london2 her salary for #agbf was #b1jjj2 a great rivalry existed between ,hasse and ,cuzzoni4 #agjj4 ,francesca ,cuzzoni 7,modena74 ,also sang for ,handel2 this is the lady whom he threatened to throw out of the window unless she sang what he wished4 ,she died in poverty in #aggj4 #agjj4 ,nicolo ,logroscino 7,naples74 ,wrote comic operas1 and is credited with the invention of the concerted finale2 his operas are all in the ,neapolitan dialect4 #agja4 ,k4 ,h4 ,graun 7,wahrenbrch74 ,wrote twenty-seven operas1 which contain melodies and good arias4 ,he is better known by his church cantatas1 especially ,der ,tod ,jesu4 #agjc4 ,g4 ,m4 ,caffarelli 7,naples74 ,famous singer1 said to have been kept by ,porpora for five years to one page of exercises and then dismissed as the greatest singer in ,europe4 ,he had great success in male soprano parts4 #agje4 ,giovanni ,carestini 7,ancona74 ,famous male contralto1 who sang for ,handel in ,london4 #agje4 ,c4 ,b4 ,farinelli 7,naples74 ,another pupil of ,porpora1 who sang for the party opposed to ,handel2 one of the most renowned singers the world has ever produced4 #agji4 ,egidio ,duni 7,matera74 ,seems to have founded opera comique in ,france1 writing many such works for the ,parisian stage4 #agaj4 ,thomas ,arne 7,london71 #agaj-gh4 ,one of the most famous of early ,english opera writers2 besides many masques 7including ,milton's ,comus7 he wrote the opera ,artaxerxes1 which enjoyed many years of popularity4 ,arne is best known to-day by the incidental music which he wrote to ,shakespeare's ,tempest1 the song1 8,where the ,bee sucks10 being world known4 #agaj4 ,g4 ,v4 ,pergolesi 7,jesi71 #agaj-cf4 ,a composer of great promise1 whose early death may be much lamented4 ,although best known by his church music1 he had many merits as a writer of opera4 ,his best work in this direction is a short operetta1 ,la ,serva ,padrona4 #agab4 ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau 7,paris71 #agab-gh1 the famous litterateur1 wrote operas1 the most famous of which1 ,le ,devin du ,village1 may claim to have been the first opera comique2 its success was enormous1 but the orchestration and some of the details are not ,rousseau's4 #agad4 ,nicolo ,jommelli 7,aversa71 #agad-gd4 ,one of the best composers of the ,neapolitan school1 who combined skilful design with melodious and expressive themes4 ,mozart thought much of his music and extolled his operas2 his sacred music alone has come down to our day4 #agad4 ,cristopher ,willibald ,gluck 7,weidenwang71 #agad-hg4 ,the first of the great reformers of opera4 ,besides a very large number of works written on old models1 his newer-fashioned and enduring masterpieces include ,orfeo 7#agfb71 ,alceste 7#agfg71 ,iphignie en ,aulide 7#aggd71 ,amide 7#aggg71 ,iphignie en ,tauride 7#aggh74 #agbe4 ,gaetano ,guadagni 7,lodi74 ,a great male contralto who sang for ,handel and created a furore in ,london4 #agbf4 ,f4 ,a4 ,d4 ,philidor 7,dreux74 ,famous chess player and operatic composer2 was a prolific writer4 ,he was the first to introduce the unaccompanied quartet upon the stage4 ,his happiest essay was upon the ,english subject ,tom ,jones4 #agbh4 ,j4 ,a4 ,hiller 7,grlitz74 ,established the ,singspiel1 composing fourteen of these works1 which met with pronounced success4 #agbh4 ,nicolo ,piccini 7,bari74 ,a good composer1 now mostly remembered as the opponent of ,gluck2 while the fact militated against the success of his operas upon their production1 it has kept his memory green and has gained attention for his music1 which1 although on the prevalent model of its time1 has much merit4 #agbi4 ,guiseppe ,sarti 7,faenza74 ,produced many operas of great excellence1 which are forgotten to-day4 ,his triumphs were won in such contrasted centres as ,milan and ,st4 ,petersburg4 #agbi4 ,p4 ,a4 ,monsigny 7,st4 ,omer74 ,composed many forgotten operas2 while possessing melodic gifts he had little training1 and his scoring and constructive powers were weak4 ,his best works are ,le ,dserteur 7#agfi71 and ,flix ou l'enfant trouv 7#aggg74 #agcb4 ,joseph ,haydn 7,rohrau71 #agcb-ahji1 the master who excelled in so many branches of the art1 made no serious claim to be a composer of opera4 ,a few works were written by him for the stage while he was attached to ,count ,esterhazy1 but they can in no way compare with his labours in other fields1 nor had they any bearing upon the growth and development of opera as an art form4 #agcc4 ,f4 ,j4 ,gossec 7,hainault74 ,a ,belgian composer of some repute in his day2 his operas were mostly written for ,paris4 #agcd4 ,a4 ,m4 ,g4 ,sacchini 7,pozzuoli71 #agcd-hf4 ,a composer of dramatic gifts much influenced by ,gluck1 whose compositions quite overshadow those of his follower4 ,sacchini wrote over forty operas4 #agci4 ,k4 ,d4 von ,dittersdorf 7,vienna74 ,composed very many operas1 both serious and light4 ,he is best known by the ,singspiel1 ,doctor und ,apotheke 7#aghf74 #agda4 ,a4 ,e4 ,m4 ,grtry 7,lige74 ,a fertile composer1 very gifted for the writing of opera comique1 wrote fifty operas for ,paris4 ,he had a knack of cleverly illustrating the stage situation1 and although his harmonies were so thin that it was said that one could 8draw a coach and four between the bass and the first fiddle10 he yet seems to have been more apt in his musical conceptions than many a more cultured musician4 #agda4 ,giovanni ,paisiello 7,tarento74 ,may be reckoned amongst the most prolific of ,italian composers of his period4 ,he was one of the first to introduce the concerted finale into serious opera1 this form having hitherto been almost entirely confined to light opera4 ,his ,barber of ,seville became so famous as almost to wreck the production of an opera under the same title by ,rossini4 #agdc4 ,lucretia ,agujari 7,ferrara74 ,was a singer of extraordinary ability and compass4 #agde4 ,ludwig ,fischer 7,mainz74 ,also a singer of great compass1 having a round bass voice of two and a half octaves4 ,he was a friend of ,mozart's1 and sang in the production of ,entfhrung aus dem ,serail4 ,music #agdh4 ,william ,shield 7,durham74 ,composer to ,covent ,garden ,theatre2 wrote operas both serious and comic4 ,he appears to have possessed great melodic gifts1 and his many works are notable for their vigour and their tunefulness4 ,he died in #ahbi4 #agdi4 ,the ,abb ,vogler 7,wrzburg71 #agdi-ahad4 ,was a man of many parts2 he wrote upon theatrical matters1 and composed music for the organ1 for instruments1 for the church1 and for the stage4 ,his operatic music is perhaps of the least importance1 although his stage productions number some sixteen pieces4 #agdi4 ,domenico ,cimarosa 7,aversa74 ,was in his day a most popular composer of opera1 sixty-six fine works standing to his credit4 ,he made his mark more especially in his comic operas1 of which ,il matrimonio segreto 7#agib7 is the best known4 #agdi4 ,gertrude ,elizabeth ,mara 7,cassel74 ,a fine singer1 made little impression upon ,mozart1 but still appears to have been a great artist4 ,she had a beautiful voice and great facility2 she was one of ,handel's best singers in ,england4 #agej4 ,antonio ,salieri 7,legnano74 ,wrote thirty-seven operas and a ,singspiel4 ,his works were modelled upon those of ,gluck1 and present no special features of interest4 #ageb4 ,j4 ,f4 ,reichardt 7,knigsberg74 ,wrote some moderately successful operas1 and some important specimens of ,singspiel1 mostly for ,berlin4 #ageb4 ,n4 ,a4 ,zingarelli 7,naples74 ,was a prolific operatic composer1 who penned some thirty operas1 besides much sacred music4 ,his style was recommended by ,napoleon to ,cherubini1 much to the disgust of the last-named composer4 #aged4 ,peter ,winter 7,mannheim71 #aged-ahbe4 ,wrote a very large number of tuneful and melodious operas4 ,his works have not survived to the present day1 being structurally weak1 but they were very successful during the composer's life and for a few years afterwards4 #agef4 ,vincenzo ,righini 7,bologna74 ,was operatic singer1 composer1 and conductor4 ,his twenty operas were many of them produced at ,berlin1 where he was for some years conductor of the ,italian ,opera4 #agef4 ,wolfgang ,amadeus ,mozart 7,salzburg71 #agef-ia4 ,the long list of ,mozart's operas 7many of them written in youth7 includes ,idomeneo 7#agha71 ,die ,entfhrung aus dem ,serail 7#aghb71 ,le ,nozze di ,figaro 7#aghf71 ,don ,giovanni 7#aghg71 ,cosi fan tutte 7#agij71 ,la ,clemenza di ,tito 7#agia71 ,die ,zauberflte 7#agia74 #agfj4 ,maria ,luigi ,c4 ,z4 ,s4 ,cherubini 7,florence71 #agfj-ahdb4 ,an accomplished musician in all departments2 wrote fine operas1 containing a wealth of sterling music4 ,his chief operas are ,la ,finta ,principessa 7#aghe71 ,giulio ,sabino 7#aghf71 ,dmophon 7#aghh71 ,lodoiska 7#agia71 ,mde 7#agig71 ,les deux ,journes 7#ahjj71 ,anacreon 7#ahjc71 ,faniska 7#ahjf71 ,les ,abencerages 7#ahac71 ,ali ,baba 7#ahcc74 #agfj4 ,aloysia ,weber 7,mannheim74 ,a vocalist for whom ,mozart conceived a great affection1 eventually1 however1 marrying her sister4 ,the part of 8,constance10 in ,die ,entfhrung aus dem ,serail1 was written for her4 #agfa4 ,katherina ,cavalieri 7,whring74 ,was a singer for whom both ,mozart and ,salieri wrote special parts in their operas4 ,mozart said of her that 8she was a singer of whom ,germany might well be proud40 #agfc4 ,stephen ,storace 7,london74 ,produced some early operas in ,vienna1 where he formed a friendship with ,mozart4 ,on his return to ,london he produced ,the ,haunted ,tower 7#aghi71 ,the ,pirates 7#agib71 and many other works1 which attained very great success4 ,he is almost the earliest example of an ,english composer introducing the concerted finale4 #agfc4 ,etienne ,henri ,mhul 7,givet74 ,had a wonderful talent for opera1 of which he produced a great quantity of examples1 in addition to writing ballets and operettas4 ,his best known works are ,uthal and ,joseph4 ,mhul died in #ahbb4 #agfc4 ,j4 ,f4 ,lesueur 7,abbeville74 ,wrote a certain number of operas for ,paris1 of which the best is ,les ,bardes4 ,the march of time has left ,lesueur behind1 in company with many another composer of considerable but not commanding merits4 #agff4 ,f4 ,x4 ,sssmayer 7,steyer74 ,is chiefly known to fame as being a sort of 8hack0 to ,mozart1 writing recitatives and filling in details for the great and busy composer1 whose factotum he was for some years4 #agff4 ,g4 ,crescentini 7,urbania74 ,was a famous sopranist1 one of the last of his class2 he won favour from many1 including the ,emperor ,napoleon1 who showered benefits upon him4 ,he not only sang magnificently1 but composed arias to suit his own voice and special style4 #agff4 ,joseph ,weigl 7,eisenstadt74 ,wrote one famous work1 ,schweizer ,familie1 and many others of less import1 numbering thirty-one in all1 besides ballets4 #agfg4 ,henri ,berton 7,paris74 ,wrote many operas4 ,he is interesting1 moreover1 as an early instance of a composer penning his own libretti4 ,his music was often written in conjunction with others1 such as ,cherubini1 ,mhul1 and ,spontini4 #agfh4 ,elizabeth ,billington 7,london74 ,was a prima donna of exceptional compass4 ,during a long and varied career she appeared on the boards of many an operatic stage in ,europe2 her successes were1 however1 largely won in ,england4 #aggj4 ,ludwig von ,beethoven 7,bonn71 #aggj-ahbg4 ,beethoven's single opera1 ,fidelio1 was produced at ,vienna in #ahjf4 #agga4 ,ferdinand ,paer 7,parma74 ,was an ,italian composer of many operas1 both serious and comic2 his ,eleanor seems to have inspired ,beethoven's ,fidelio4 #aggc4 ,c4 ,s4 ,catel 7l',aigle74 ,wrote many operatic works for the ,paris ,opera4 ,his music was looked upon by the ,french public as 8academic0 because he held a professorship at the ,conservatoire2 hence it stood condemned before trial and had little chance4 ,catel was associated with ,cherubini in the composition of one opera4 #aggd4 ,g4 ,l4 ,p4 ,spontini 7,majolate71 #aggd-ahea4 ,one of the most interesting personalities in the history of opera4 ,although he wrote ,italian opera for ,naples1 his great successes were achieved in the field of ,french grand opera1 of which he remains one of the shining ornaments4 ,his chief operas are ,la ,vestale 7#ahjg71 ,ferdinand ,cortez 7#ahji71 ,olympia 7#ahba71 ,alcidor 7#ahbe72 none are now performed4 #aggd4 ,c4 ,e4 ,f4 ,weyse 7,altona74 ,was a composer of ,danish opera1 whose works1 however1 have not penetrated beyond the country for which they were written4 ,he seems to have been one of the earliest to introduce the ,scandinavian ,volkslied to the stage4 #agge4 ,f4 ,a4 ,boieldieu 7,rouen74 ,is world known by his opera1 ,la ,dame ,blanche1 produced in ,paris in #ahbe1 one of many works1 but the only one at all known to fame4 ,he spent eight years in ,russia writing operas and ballets for that country1 but his greatest achievements belong to his second ,parisian period4 #agge4 ,nicolo ,isouard 7,malta74 ,is another composer of works for the ,parisian houses1 no less than thirty-four operas standing to his credit4 ,isouard and ,boieldieu were in keen rivalry1 to their great advantage1 since both put forth their best work4 #aghj4 ,angelica ,catalani4 ,was the possessor of a voice of wonderful flexibility1 with a speciality for chromatic scales4 ,for the period at which she flourished1 she probably made more money than any other artist4 ,her greatest success seems to have been as 8,susanne0 in ,mozart's ,nozze di ,figaro4 #aghb4 ,d4 ,f4 ,e4 ,auber 7,caen74 ,was one of the greatest masters of opera comique2 his melodious style and piquant orchestration are models of their kind1 and have secured a lasting vogue for his works1 the best known of which are ,masaniello 7#ahbh71 ,fra ,diavolo 7#ahcj71 ,le ,chevale de ,bronze 7#ahce71 ,le ,domino ,noir 7#ahcg71 ,les ,diamants de la ,couronne 7#ahdb74 #aghb4 ,conradin ,kreutzer 7,msskirch74 ,wrote a number of successful operas1 his powers as a composer of attractive arias being considerable4 ,his fairy opera1 ,der ,verschwender1 may still occasionally be heard in ,germany4 #aghd4 ,louis ,spohr 7,brunswick71 #aghd-ahei4 ,is a composer mostly known in ,england by his sacred music and his violin compositions4 ,his claims as a writer of operas must not1 however1 be overlooked1 his ,faust being in the van with regard to ,romanticism in opera4 ,his ,jessonda also met with considerable favour1 and its overture often gains a hearing in our concert rooms4 #aghd4 ,francesco ,morlacchi 7,perugia74 ,was chorus-master of the ,italian ,opera at ,dresden1 for which town he wrote a large number of works1 successful in their day1 but now never heard4 ,he mostly excelled in the composition of light1 sparkling1 and superficial music4 #aghf4 ,carl ,maria von ,weber 7,eutin71 #aghf-ahbf4 ,besides many early works1 which call for no special mention1 ,weber's operatic productions include ,der ,freischtz1 ,euryanthe 7#ahbc71 and ,oberon 7#ahbf74 #aghf4 ,henry ,rowley ,bishop 7,london74 ,was a most prolific writer of operas for the ,london theatres1 eighty-two of such works standing to his name2 many of these1 however1 do not merit the term 8opera0 as we understand it to-day4 ,bishop was most effective in his choruses and his writing for the voice generally4 #aghg4 ,m4 ,e4 ,carafa 7,naples74 ,wrote thirty-five operas1 which met with great success in ,italy2 he is now a forgotten composer4 #agij4 ,alberico ,curioni 7,naples874 ,was a famous tenor singer who met with great success in ,london1 notably in the opera ,medea4 #agij4 ,nicola ,vaccaj 7,tolentino74 ,wrote many ,italian operas1 particularly for ,venice4 ,one at least of his works was also presented in ,london1 where he lived for a short time4 #agia4 ,giacomo ,meyerbeer 7,berlin71 #agia-ahfd4 ,is a very notable figure in the annals of opera1 and his best works still survive in the repertoires of the leading houses4 ,these are ,robert le ,diable 7#ahca71 ,les ,huguenots 7#ahcf71 ,le ,prophte 7#ahdi71 ,l'toile du ,nord 7#ahed71 ,dinorah 7#ahei71 and ,l',africaine 7#ahfd74 #agia4 ,l4 ,j4 ,f4 ,hrold 7,paris74 ,is best known by his ,zampa and ,le ,pr aux ,clercs1 both of which are frequently before the public4 #agia4 ,p4 ,j4 ,lindpaintner 7,coblenz74 ,wrote twenty-eight operas1 mostly forgotten now4 ,the best seems to be ,der ,vampyr4 #agib4 ,g4 ,a4 ,rossini 7,pesaro71 #agib-ahfh4 ,is world known1 if only for his ,william ,tell music4 ,from his enormous list of operatic works1 the following may be selected for mention3 ,tancredi 7#ahac71 ,l',italiani in ,algeri 7#ahac71 ,il ,barbiere di ,siviglia 7#ahaf71 ,la ,cenerentola 7#ahag71 ,la ,gazza ,ladra 7#ahag71 ,semiramide 7#ahbc71 ,mos in ,egitto 7#ahah71 ,guillaume ,tell 7#ahbi74 #agid4 ,luigi ,lablache 7,naples74 ,was a magnificent bass singer who delighted ,europe4 ,he excelled in both serious and comic parts1 and was a well-equipped artist4 #agie4 ,g4 ,b4 ,rubini 7,romano74 ,was equally celebrated as a tenor of the first rank4 ,his greatest successes were attained in ,rossini's and ,bellini's operas4 #agif4 ,giovanni ,pacini 7,catania74 ,wrote a large number of operas1 of which the best is ,saffo 7,naples1 #ahdj74 ,his works total eighty specimens of opera alone1 but most are written upon the pattern of ,rossini4 #agif4 ,heinrich ,marschner 7,zittau74 ,was a powerful composer of romantic opera4 ,hans ,heiling is especially fine1 while mention must also be made of ,templer und ,jdin and of ,der ,vampyr4 ,his operas are conceived in a kindred spirit to that of ,weber's4 #agig4 ,franz ,schubert 7,vienna71 #agig-ahbh4 ,schubert's importance as a writer of opera is small as compared with his achievement in other fields--such as song and symphony4 ,the chief in degree are ,fierrabras and ,alfonso und ,estella4 #agig4 ,saverio ,mercadante 7,altamura74 ,wrote a number of operas on the ,italian model1 of which ,il ,guiramento 7,milan1 #ahcg7 is the finest4 #agig4 ,lucy ,elizabeth ,vestris 7,london74 ,made a great impression as a singer upon the opera habitus of her day4 ,she was the original 8,fatima0 in the production of ,oberon4 #agig4 ,gaetano ,donizetti 7,bergamo74 ,wrote a very large number of operas1 which present such opportunities to vocalists as to be frequently produced to-day4 ,the chief ones in the modern repertoire are ,lucia di ,lammermoor 7#ahce71 ,lucretia ,borgia 7#ahcc71 ,l',elisir d',amore1 ,la ,fille du ,rgiment 7#ahdj71 ,linda di ,chamounix 7#ahdb71 ,la ,favorita 7#ahdj71 ,don ,pasquale4 #agih4 ,giudetta ,pasta 7,como74 ,was an ,italian singer of great charm and ability2 in ,rossini's operas she appears to have been almost unequalled4 #agih4 ,k4 ,g4 ,reissiger 7,belzig74 ,a prolific composer1 produced many operas of an 8academic0 class1 which have not survived their day4 #agii4 ,j4 ,f4 ,f4 ,e4 ,halvy 7,paris74 ,wrote a vast number of ,french operas1 the best known of which is ,la ,juive4 #ahjj4 ,antonio ,tamburini 7,faenza74 ,was a baritone singer and a member of the famous 8,puritani0 quartet1 which delighted both ,london and ,paris for so many years4 ,he excelled in his interpretation of the baritone parts of operas of the ,rossini school4 #ahja4 ,vincenzo ,bellini 7,catania74 ,this famous opera composer is still known by the frequent performance of his best works--,la ,somnambula 7#ahca71 ,norma 7#ahca71 ,i ,puritani 7#ahce74 ,more might have come from this composer1 had he not died at the early age of thirty-four4 #ahjb4 ,john ,barnett 7,bedford74 ,was an ,english composer of a number of operas and of music for stage pieces4 ,he has the credit of the first real ,english opera since ,arne's ,artexerxes in his ,mountain ,sylph1 produced in #ahce4 ,this is his best known work1 but he wrote other operas1 such as ,fair ,rosamund 7#ahcg7 and ,farinelli 7#ahci74 #ahjb4 ,louis ,niedermeyer 7,nyon74 ,had the misfortune to produce several operas which were mostly failures4 ,he had1 however1 original ideas as to orchestration1 and is worthy of remembrance for his gifts of melody4 #ahjc4 ,adolphe ,charles ,adam 7,paris74 ,wrote grand opera1 ballet music1 and opera comique1 being only remembered for the last-named1 for which he had real talent4 ,his best work is ,le ,postillon de ,longjumeau 7#ahcf74 #ahjc4 ,g4 ,a4 ,lortzing 7,berlin74 ,wrote many operas still popular in ,germany2 one indeed1 ,peter the ,shipwright1 has met with considerable success in this country4 ,he wrote upon a model which ,sullivan so excellently employed in his light operas4 #ahjc4 ,hector ,berlioz 7,grenoble71 #ahjc-fi4 ,an eccentric genius among musicians4 ,wrote operas such as ,les ,troyens and ,benvenuto ,cellini1 which contain fine music1 but which have never pleased the public1 and which remain practically unperformed4 #ahjd4 ,julius ,benedict 7,stuttgart74 ,although a ,german1 is always looked upon as an ,english composer1 his life having been spent in this country4 ,he is best known by his often-performed ,lily of ,killarney1 which dates from #ahfb4 ,benedict died in #ahhe4 #ahjd4 ,wilhelmine ,schrder-,devrient 7,hamburg74 ,must always remain a person of interest to musicians1 in that she created the part of ,leonora in ,beethoven's ,fidelio upon its revival in #ahbb1 when that work really gained a fair hearing4 ,she was also an early exponent of ,wagnerian parts 7,senta1 ,venus1 etc474 #ahjd4 ,michael ,i4 ,glinka 7,novospaskoi74 ,is the earliest of ,russian opera composers to be known outside his own country1 and he is important1 not only for his compositions of ,life for the ,czar and ,russlan1 but also in that he founded a school of ,russian opera which has brought forth much fruit4 #ahje4 ,luigi ,ricci 7,naples74 ,wrote a large number of operas1 very famous in their day1 but now forgotten4 #ahje4 ,manuel ,garcia 7,madrid74 ,the wonderful centenarian3 claims notice as the trainer of those fine operatic artists1 ,jenny ,lind and ,catherine ,hayes4 #ahjf4 ,henrietta ,sontag 7,coblenz74 ,was a charming and gifted soprano of ,european reputation1 who delighted all hearers1 and seems to have combined a charming personality with great artistic attainments4 #ahjg4 ,j4 ,a4 ,tichatschek 7,weckelsdorf74 ,was a ,bohemian tenor who made for himself a great reputation in all the grand operas of the greater masters4 ,he was also the original 8,rienzi0 and 8,tannhuser40 #ahjh4 ,a4 ,l4 ,clapisson 7,naples74 ,was a graceful composer of many operas which pleased in their day1 but which have had no continuance of popular favour4 #ahjh4 ,michael ,william ,balfe 7,dublin71 #ahjh-ahhh4 ,is the best known of ,english opera writers of his period1 and his ,bohemian ,girl 7#ahdc7 is familiar to all4 ,other of his successes are ,the ,siege of ,rochelle 7#ahce71 ,the ,maid of ,artois 7#ahcf71 ,blanche de ,nevers 7#ahfc71 ,il ,talismano 7#ahgd74 #ahjh4 ,michael ,a4 ,a4 ,costa 7,naples74 ,was best known as a conductor1 more especially of the ,italian opera in ,england4 ,he wrote a few forgotten specimens1 but is mainly of importance as a wielder of the bton4 ,costa died in #ahhd4 #ahjh4 ,p4 ,l4 ,p4 ,dietsch 7,dijon74 ,was also a conductor4 ,his chief claim to fame seems to have been that he purchased the libretto of ,wagner's ,flying ,dutchman1 and clothed it with absolutely forgotten music4 #ahjh4 ,albert ,gnsar 7,antwerp74 ,wrote a number of comic operas for ,paris4 ,they seem to have been works of elegance and grace1 without special distinction4 #ahjh4 ,marie ,felicita ,malibran 7,paris74 ,performed in opera at the age of five4 ,she seems to have had no rivals as a singer1 and excelled in all parts which she undertook4 ,she created an indelible impression upon all that were fortunate enough to hear her4 #ahji4 ,felix ,mendelssohn ,bartholdy 7,hamburg71 #ahji-ahdg4 ,the claims of ,mendelssohn as a writer of opera are not serious1 and are confined to a few early and incomplete works4 ,the best1 musically1 is the fragment of ,lorelei4 #ahji4 ,f4 ,ricci 7,naples74 ,like his brother ,luigi1 wrote operas which have not survived their generation4 #ahji4 ,j4 ,h4 ,hatton 7,liverpool74 ,is better known as a writer of songs than of operas4 ,he wrote1 however1 a good deal of incidental music for the stage1 as well as one real opera4 #ahaj4 ,robert ,schumann 7,zwickau71 #ahaj-ef4 ,schumann's one contribution to the field of opera is his ,genoveva1 which is seldom heard1 in spite of many unquestionable beauties4 #ahaj4 ,otto ,nicolai 7,knigsberg74 ,was a capable composer and conductor4 ,he is chiefly known to fame by his masterpiece1 ,the ,merry ,wives of ,windsor1 which was produced in ,berlin in #ahdi4 #ahaj4 ,flicien ,c4 ,david 7,cadenet74 ,a ,french composer of operas2 is not to be confused with ,ferdinand ,david the violinist1 and friend of ,mendelssohn4 ,flicien wrote grand operas for ,paris1 and his greatest success seems to have been ,lalla ,rookh 7#ahfb74 #ahaa4 ,p4 ,j4 ,a4 ,varney 7,paris74 ,is one of the minor lights of ,french ,opera1 his works1 which are of small importance1 being in the light style4 #ahaa4 ,c4 ,ambroise ,thomas 7,metz71 #ahaa-if4 ,was one of the greatest representatives of modern ,french opera1 who possessed real talent for writing for the stage4 ,he learnt much from both ,gounod and ,hrold1 and is best known by his operas ,mignon 7#ahff7 and ,hamlet 7#ahfh74 #ahab4 ,f4 von ,flotow 7,bentendorf74 ,is the composer of ,martha1 an ever-popular light opera2 the music of this1 as of his many other works1 is by no means exalted1 but pleases by its melodious and tuneful attractiveness4 #ahab4 ,giulia ,grisi 7,milan74 ,was one of the most famous operatic artists of last century1 and the soprano of the 8,puritani0 quartet 7,grisi1 ,rubini1 ,tamburini1 and ,lablache74 ,like so many artists of that period1 her great achievements were in the works of ,rossini4 #ahab4 ,cavaliere ,mario 7,cagliari74 ,was an even greater tenor1 who eventually married ,grisi4 ,like his wife he was the idol of the ,english and ,french capitals for many seasons4 #ahab4 ,fanny ,persiani 7,rome74 ,was yet another singer of ,rossinian opera4 ,she was a fine actress as well as a vocalist1 and commanded universal admiration4 #ahac4 ,enrico ,petrella 7,palermo74 ,produced an ,italian opera practically every year for many years4 ,this composer has been dead for nearly thirty years1 and his operas seem to have shared the same fate4 #ahac4 ,richard ,wagner 7,leipsic71 #ahac-hc4 ,the names and dates of ,wagner's chief operas are3--,rienzi 7,dresden7 #ahdb2 ,the ,flying ,dutchman 7,dresden7 #ahdc2 ,tannhuser 7,dresden7 #ahde2 ,lohengrin 7,weimar7 #ahej2 ,the ,ring3--7#a7 ,rheingold 7,munich7 #ahei2 7#b7 ,die ,walkre 7,munich7 #ahgj2 7#c7 ,siegfried 7,bayreuth7 #ahgf2 7#d7 ,gotterdmmerung1 7,bayreuth7 #ahgf2 ,tristan und ,isolde 7,munich7 #ahfe2 ,die ,meistersinger 7,munich7 #ahfh2 ,parsifal 7,bayreuth71 #ahhb4 #ahac4 ,giuseppe ,verdi 7,roncole7 #ahac-aija4 ,verdi's operas are very numerous3 these may perhaps be specially mentioned3--,i ,lombardi1 #ahdc2 ,ernani1 #ahdd2 ,rigoletto1 #ahea2 ,il ,trovatore1 #ahec2 ,la ,traviata1 #ahec2 ,un ,ballo in ,maschera1 #aheg2 ,ada1 #ahga2 ,otello1 #ahhg2 ,falstaff1 #ahic4 #ahac4 ,a4 ,s4 ,dargomizhsky 7,toula74 ,is of considerable importance in the development of national ,russian opera2 of his works we may mention ,the ,roussalka 7#ahef7 and ,the ,stone ,guest1 only performed three years after his death1 in #ahgb4 #ahac4 ,g4 ,a4 ,macfarren 7,london74 ,so well known as a theorist2 essayed many operas1 of which ,robin ,hood was the most successful4 ,other of his works are ,the ,devil's ,opera and ,helvellyn4 #ahac4 ,e4 ,j4 ,loder 7,bath74 ,was an ,english writer of operas1 the best of which is the ,night ,dancers 7#ahdf74 #ahad4 ,emma ,albertazzi 7,london74 ,an ,english prima donna who married an ,italian4 ,she sang in all the chief houses of opera1 but was a poor and indifferent actress4 #ahad4 ,w4 ,v4 ,wallace 7,waterford74 ,is known to all by his tuneful1 if ordinary1 ,maritana4 ,he wrote better works1 and his ,lurline may be mentioned4 #ahae4 ,g4 ,hippolyte ,roger 7,saint-,denis74 ,was a great ,french tenor1 for whom ,ambroise ,thomas1 ,auber1 ,clapesson and others wrote operas4 ,he unfortunately lost an arm1 and had to give up the stage4 #ahag4 ,carlo ,pedrotti 7,verona74 ,wrote ,italian operas1 of which mention may be made of ,tutti in ,maschera and ,il ,favorito4 #ahag4 ,aim ,maillart 7,montpellier74 ,won the ,grand ,prix de ,rome1 and wrote operas which had some measure of success4 #ahag4 ,francesco ,lamperti 7,savona74 ,a great teacher of singing1 whose pupils include ,albani1 ,mariani1 and ,shakespeare4 #ahah4 ,c4 ,f4 ,gounod 7,paris71 #ahah-ic4 ,besides the evergreen ,faust 7#ahei71 ,gounod's other successes include ,the ,mock ,doctor1 ,philmon and ,baucis1 ,mireille1 and ,romeo and ,juliet1 all of which are often heard4 #ahah4 ,j4 ,sims ,reeves 7,woolwich74 ,in his palmy days was often heard in opera1 the tenor parts of many melodious operas in favour at the time exactly suiting his methods and style4 #ahah4 ,a4 ,n4 ,serov 7,petersburg74 ,serov was a ,russian composer who admired and followed ,wagner2 his works have their place in the annals of opera in his country4 #ahai4 ,jacques ,offenbach 7,cologne74 ,a prolific composer of some seventy specimens of opera bouffe and operetta2 in light works such as these he achieved almost unexampled success1 and enjoyed immense popularity4 #ahbj4 ,jenny ,lind 7,stockholm74 ,this name is fresh in the memory of all1 although its gifted possessor went the way of all flesh some thirty years ago4 ,as a singer she commanded universal admiration1 while as a woman she was looked up to and respected by all4 ,her triumphs in operatic soprano parts were such as to be seldom equalled4 #ahbj4 ,franz von ,supp 7,spalato74 ,was the ,german equivalent of ,offenbach--a prolific writer of comic opera4 #ahba4 ,c4 ,a4 ,f4 ,echert 7,potsdam74 ,wrote an opera at the age of ten1 and others at a later date4 ,he won more fame1 however1 as a conductor1 holding important posts in this capacity at ,paris1 ,vienna1 and ,berlin4 #ahba4 ,m4 ,f4 ,p4 ,viardot-,garcia 7,paris74 ,a young sister of ,malibran1 attained considerable celebrity as a singer and actress2 she appeared not only in works of the ,rossini school1 but in the operas of ,meyerbeer1 ,gluck1 and others4 #ahba4 ,italo ,gardoni 7,parma74 ,was a tenor singer of repute1 who to a considerable extent took the place of ,mario2 he sang frequently in ,london4 #ahbb4 ,apolloni4 ,was an ,italian composer who wrote operas upon the early ,verdi model1 achieving one great success in ,l',ebreo4 #ahbb4 ,luigi ,arditi 7,crescentino74 ,although he composed a few operas1 is more widely remembered as a conductor1 he having wielded the bton during many operatic seasons both in ,england and abroad4 #ahbb4 ,csar ,franck 7,lige74 ,his merits seem only now beginning to be recognized as a composer2 wrote a small number of operas1 of which the music appears to have been heard only in the concert room4 #ahbb4 ,f4 ,m4 ,v4 ,mass 7,lorient74 ,wrote some operas in the style of ,auber with very great success4 ,a number of later works1 some of which have been produced at ,covent ,garden1 have been less favourably received4 #ahbc4 ,edouard ,lalo 7,lille74 ,the writer of some excellent violin music2 includes among his writings one work1 ,le ,roi d' ,ys1 which is often to be heard4 #ahbc4 ,l4 ,e4 ,e4 ,reyer 7,marseilles74 ,is yet another ,french composer of opera1 chiefly known by his ,sigurd1 produced in #ahhd4 #ahbc4 ,marietta ,alboni 7,cesena74 ,was a world-renowned contralto1 who created a furore in ,london4 ,she was set up as a sort of rival attraction to ,jenny ,lind1 who was performing at another theatre1 and was powerful enough to hold her own4 #ahbd4 ,peter ,cornelius 7,mainz74 ,wrote a number of operas1 of which ,the ,barber of ,bagdad seems to have been a kind of forerunner of ,die ,meistersinger1 and is enormously in favour in ,germany4 #ahbd4 ,friedrich ,smetana 7,leitomischl74 ,is the father of ,bohemian opera1 and his work1 ,the ,bartered ,bride1 paved the way for a series of national operas which are dear indeed to the hearts of the ,bohemians4 ,he is important1 also1 as the model upon which ,dvrk framed much of his work4 #ahbe4 ,f4 ,r4 ,herv 7,houdain74 ,wrote a very large number of ,french operettas of a very light trend1 which are hardly likely to go down to posterity4 #ahbf4 ,mathilde ,marchesi 7,frankfort74 ,an eminent soprano vocalist1 whose influence has been widely felt in the operatic world1 not only by her performances1 but also by her teaching4 ,her ,ecole de ,chant and vocal exercises are world known4 #ahbf4 ,ivar ,hallstrm 7,stockholm74 ,a ,swedish composer of operas2 has produced works of a distinctly national impress4 #ahbg4 ,marie ,carvalho 7,marseilles74 ,a ,french vocalist2 was at one time in the first rank of artists of the grand opera and the opera comique4 ,she specially excelled in her interpretations of the soprano characters of the ,gounod operas4 #ahbh4 ,antonio ,cagnoni 7,godiasco74 ,wrote a number of ,italian operas of moderate quality2 his attentions were mostly confined to opera buffa4 #ahbh4 ,ferdinand ,poise 7,nmes74 ,wrote a number of charming light works1 somewhat in the style of his master ,adam4 ,paris was the scene of his labours4 #ahbi4 ,anton ,rubinstein 7,wechwotynecz74 ,bears a name well known in many musical fields3 in opera he was hardly great1 his music being non-dramatic in character4 ,he wrote ,the ,demon and a few 8sacred operas40 #ahbi4 ,ciro ,pinsuti 7,siena74 ,is indeed popular as a writer of songs2 it is not so well known that he includes amongst his larger works operas that have been produced at ,la ,scala1 ,milan1 and elsewhere4 #ahcj4 ,karl ,goldmark 7,keszthely74 ,the most famous opera by this composer is ,the ,queen of ,sheba1 produced at ,vienna in #ahge2 subsequent and less successful productions include ,merlin 7#ahhf7 and ,the ,cricket on the ,hearth 7#ahif74 #ahcj4 ,edouard ,lassen 7,copenhagen74 ,another writer of melodious songs2 produced three successful operas4 ,he also succeeded ,liszt as conductor at ,weimar4 #ahcj4 ,edmund ,kretschmer 7,ostritz74 ,had at one period a reputation as a composer of opera1 which recent years have failed to maintain4 #ahca4 ,t4 ,c4 ,j4 ,tietjens 7,hamburg74 ,one of the most brilliant and successful prime donne of the nineteenth century2 she excelled alike in light opera and grand opera1 in secular music and in sacred4 ,her early death in #ahgg was lamented by all who had heard her beautiful and artistic interpretations of the masterpieces of opera and of oratorio4 #ahcb4 ,a4 ,c4 ,lecocq 7,paris74 ,a prolific composer of light ,french pieces in the manner of ,offenbach4 ,not to be reckoned with as serious music1 his compositions are notable for their sprightliness1 vivacity1 and verve4 #ahcd4 ,pierre ,l4 ,l4 ,benoit 7,harlebeke74 ,is a ,flemish composer and an apostle of a ,flemish school of composition which he endeavours to form4 ,among his many works are operas and dramatic pieces4 #ahcd4 ,a4 ,p4 ,v4 ,borodine 7,s4 ,petersburg74 ,is well known as a chemist and an opera writer4 ,his music1 national in character1 is best study from an operatic point of view in ,prince ,igor4 ,borodine's music is also well known in the concert hall4 ,he died in #ahhg4 #ahcd4 ,a4 ,ponchielli 7,paderno74 ,although he died as long ago as #ahhf1 must be classed as a composer of the young ,italian school4 ,his chef d'uvre1 ,la ,gioconda1 often obtains a hearing4 #ahcd4 ,charles ,santley 7,liverpool74 ,famous alike on the stage and in the concert hall2 while his attentions have been latterly confined to oratorio4 ,his was a familiar figure on the ,covent ,garden stage some forty years ago4 #ahce4 ,filippo ,marchetti 7,bologna74 ,a member of the ,italian school of composers4 ,wrote many operas1 ,ruy ,blas achieving great success4 #ahce4 ,csar ,a4 ,cui 7,vilna74 ,has built up a reputation for himself amongst ,russian composers for his works of every description1 and he has an important place amongst those who have developed opera in ,russia4 ,william ,ratcliff and ,le ,flibustier deserve special mention4 #ahce4 ,c4 ,c4 ,saint-,sans 7,paris74 ,one of the most versatile and gifted of modern ,french composers2 has enriched the world by a few operas and by the sacred drama ,samson et ,dalila1 which is often heard in ,english concert rooms4 ,more recent efforts include ,henry ,,viii4 and ,phryne4 #ahcf4 ,emil ,hartmann 7,copenhagen74 ,is one of the few operatic composers of ,denmark4 ,his music is not heard in ,england4 #ahcg4 ,ernest ,guiraud 7,new ,orleans74 ,a contemporary and co-worker of ,dlibes2 wrote ,piccolino and other pieces4 #ahcg4 ,f4 ,c4 ,t4 ,dubois 7,rosney74 ,the famous ,french organist2 has also achieved certain success with his operas and ballets4 #ahcg4 ,joseph ,huber 7,sigmaringen74 ,a disciple of the ,german school4 ,wrote two operas1 popular in their day4 #ahch4 ,georges ,bizet 7,paris74 ,is never likely to be forgotten so long as ,carmen attains to a tithe of its present popularity4 ,this bright and sparkling work is deservedly in the front rank of favourite operas4 ,bizet wrote several unimportant operas before ,carmen1 but his early death prevented his giving to the world any successor to that famous opera4 #ahch4 ,zelia ,trebelli 7,paris74 ,a prima donna of high rank4 ,she made her dbut at ,madrid1 and was successful in ,germany and in ,london1 where her appearances in ,italian opera were very frequent4 #ahch4 ,frederic ,clay 7,paris74 ,the composer of the popular 8,i'll sing thee songs of ,araby40 ,wrote several light operas for ,covent ,garden and other ,english houses4 #ahci4 ,c4 ,p4 ,l4 ,dlibes 7,st4 ,germain du ,val74 ,wrote bright and sparkling music1 and was most successful in the ballet4 ,everyone is familiar with his ,sylvia1 and among his operas are ,lakm and ,le ,roi l'a dit4 #ahci4 ,carlos ,gomez 7,compinos74 ,was a ,brazilian composer1 whose opera ,il ,guarany was performed at ,covent ,garden4 #ahci4 ,v4 de ,goncieres 7,paris74 ,has produced several grand operas1 none of which have met with continued success4 #ahci4 ,edward ,napravnik 7,kniggratz74 ,was for a time the conductor of opera in ,petersburg1 and also wrote many national operas and songs4 #ahci4 ,joseph ,rheinberger 7,vaduz74 ,famous as a writer of organ music1 and of achievements in almost all branches of composition2 ventured also into the operatic field with his work ,die ,sieben ,raben4 #ahdj4 ,hermann ,goetz 7,knigsberg74 ,was a short-lived composer1 whose opera1 ,the ,taming of the ,shrew1 showed the possession of extraordinary gifts4 #ahdj4 ,p4 ,tchakovsky 7,votinsk74 ,this gifted and versatile composer is known in ,england only by his ,eugene ,oniegin1 so far as opera is concerned4 #ahda4 ,antonin ,dvrk 7,kralup74 ,the ,bohemian composer's operas are hardly as successful as his chamber music and his symphonies4 #ahda4 ,victor ,nessler 7,baldenheim74 ,wrote popular operas for ,germany4 ,their music is not of high rank1 but such works as ,der ,trumpeter von ,skkingen enjoy great popularity4 #ahda4 ,franco ,faccio 7,verona74 ,is an obscure composer of ,italian opera1 whose compositions display no particular originality4 #ahda4 ,pauline ,lucca 7,vienna74 ,a soprano vocalist who appeared in operas of ,meyerbeer and others4 ,alike in ,germany1 ,russia1 and ,england1 she seems to have aroused the keenest interest and excitement4 ,her voice was one of extended compass and of a sympathetic quality4 #ahda4 ,emmanuel ,chabrier 7,ambert74 ,wrote some operas1 the best of which was ,le ,roi malgr lui4 #ahdb4 ,carl ,millcker 7,vienna74 ,composer of ,singspiel4 #ahdb4 ,heinrich ,hofmann 7,berlin74 ,wrote music dramas and operas1 and sought to compose light works on the grand opera plan1 omitting all dialogue4 #ahdb4 ,jules ,f4 ,e4 ,massenet 7,montand74 ,is one of the most famous living composers of ,french opera1 many of whose works may be heard in this country4 ,hrodiade1 ,manon1 ,le ,cid1 ,esclamonde1 ,werther1 and other works testify to his ability and industry1 and he is a factor to be reckoned with in the development of opera in ,france4 #ahdb4 ,arrigo ,boito 7,padua74 ,is the composer of ,mefistofele and of the unheard ,nero4 #ahdb4 ,edmund ,audran 7,lyons74 ,was a famous composer of comic opera1 producing many light works in ,paris and in ,london4 #ahdb4 ,a4 ,s4 ,sullivan 7,london74 ,composed the opera ,ivanhoe4 ,he was also practically the originator of a charming form of comedy opera4 ,he died in #aijj4 #ahdc4 ,christine ,nilsson 7,wexio74 ,a ,swedish soprano1 and yet another of that brilliant band of gifted singers who delighted the habitus of the opera a few decades back4 #ahdc4 ,adelina ,patti 7,madrid74 ,first appeared in ,england in opera in #ahfa4 ,her successes were all made in ,italian opera1 with music of the florid type4 ,her appearances before the public are still frequent4 #ahdc4 ,hans ,richter 7,raab74 ,is one of the greatest of conductors1 and the greatest living authority upon ,wagner1 whose pupil and friend he was4 ,dr4 ,richter conducts the ,german performances at ,covent ,garden1 and was responsible for the first production of the ,ring at ,bayreuth in #ahgf4 #ahdd4 ,f4 ,cellier 7,london74 ,wrote light operas after the style of ,sullivan1 whose manner he successfully caught4 #ahdd4 ,rimsky-,korsakoff 7,tichwin74 ,in the van of modern ,russian musicians4 ,in opera he created some successes1 notably in ,the ,may ,night4 ,his last opera 7the #aeth7 is entitled ,the ,golden ,cock4 #ahdd4 ,emile ,paladilhe 7,montpellier74 ,a member of the younger ,french school2 chiefly known by his ,patrie4 #ahdf4 ,h4 ,c4 ,a4 ,g4 ,serpette 7,nantes74 ,has also written ,french operas1 but of a lighter style1 pertaining to the ,buffo character4 #ahdf4 ,ignaz ,brll 7,prossnitz74 ,has written a very large number of operas1 the best known of which1 ,the ,golden ,cross1 has been produced in ,england by the ,carl ,rosa ,company4 ,his operas are of the ,german school4 #ahdg4 ,augusta ,holmes 7,paris74 ,is one of the few women writers of opera4 #ahdg4 ,alexander ,mackenzie 7,edinburgh74 ,has produced operas with the ,carl ,rosa ,company1 and has also unheard works in his desk awaiting a favourable opportunity for production4 #ahdg4 ,amalie ,materna 7,st4 ,georgen74 ,a famous soprano of ,german opera1 and a great ,wagnerian singer1 her impersonations of ,brnnhilde being specially fine4 #ahdg4 ,joseph ,maas 7,dartford74 ,was a good tenor vocalist1 and an indifferent actor4 ,although often heard upon the stage1 he was more appreciated in concert work4 #ahdh4 ,luigi ,mancinelli 7,orvieto74 ,is the popular conductor of ,italian opera at ,covent ,garden4 ,as a composer he is also known1 both of opera and of oratorio4 #ahdi4 ,b4 ,l4 ,p4 ,godard 7,paris74 ,wrote much music in many styles4 ,his operas did not attain to the popularity of his chamber music or pianoforte pieces4 #ahej4 ,albani 7,chambly74 ,whose real name is ,marie ,lajeunesse1 is familiar to all concert goers of the present day4 ,her operatic successes during the two last decades of the nineteenth century were many1 and she sang well such parts as 8,isolde0 and 8,elsa40 #ahej4 ,zdenko ,fibich 7,bohemian74 ,has written operas of the type popularized in his country by ,smetana4 #ahej4 ,robert ,planquette 7,paris74 ,composed the evergreen ,cloches de ,corneville1 so dear to the heart of the ,frenchman4 ,his operettas are bright and sparkling4 #ahej4 ,anton ,siedl 7,pesth74 ,a ,wagnerian conductor of power4 ,he has conducted on the ,continent1 in ,england1 and in ,america4 #ahea4 ,a4 ,goring ,thomas 7,ratton74 ,this composer of so many favourite songs1 wrote the operas ,esmeralda and ,nadeshda1 from which excerpts are frequently heard4 #ahea4 ,vincent d',indy 7,paris74 ,is a prominent modern ,french composer2 his ,fervaal is a fine dramatic work4 #ahea4 ,tamagno 7,turin74 ,a celebrated operatic tenor1 whose fees of #djj per night in ,america are said to have created a record for male vocalists4 ,tamagno died in #aije4 #ahea4 ,jan ,blockx 7,belgian composer74 ,is the director of the ,flemish ,school of ,music in ,antwerp2 he has written several operas1 of which mention may be made of ,princesse d',auberge4 #aheb4 ,frederick ,cowen 7,jamaica74 ,the well-known song-writer and conductor has made several essays on opera with more or less success4 #aheb4 ,c4 ,v4 ,stanford 7,dublin74 ,is one of the strongest hopes of the ,english school of opera composition2 his various efforts1 although hardly crowned with unqualified success1 are almost all noteworthy and distinctly great in achievement4 #aheb4 ,frederick ,corder 7,london74 ,composed ,nordisa for the ,carl ,rosa ,company4 #aheb4 ,jean de ,reszke 7,warsaw74 ,one of the greatest of operatic tenors1 whose interpretations of the ,wagner rles has seldom been equalled4 #aheb4 ,barton ,mc,guckin 7,dublin74 ,tenor vocalist of repute4 #ahed4 ,engelbert ,hamperdinck 7,siegburg74 ,the composer of the popular ,hansel and ,gretel4 #ahee4 ,e4 de ,reszke 7,warsaw74 ,brother of the famous tenor1 and an almost equally great baritone2 excels in such parts as 8,sachs0 7,meistersinger71 etc4 #aheg4 ,alfred ,bruneau 7,paris74 ,an extremely modern ,french composer1 whose striking works create much discussion4 #aheh4 ,giacomo ,puccini 7,lucca74 ,is an ,italian composer whose works are now enjoying very great popularity1 quite a number of them being constantly before the public4 #aheh4 ,r4 ,leoncavallo 7,naples74 ,is another member of the ,italian school1 and the composer of ,pagliacci4 #ahei4 ,t4 ,j4 ,paderewski 7,podolia74 ,the world-renowned pianist2 has also composed a fairly successful opera4 #ahfj4 ,gustave ,charpentier 7,french school74 ,has written ,louise1 a familiar and popular work across the ,channel4 #ahfd4 ,richard ,strauss 7,munich74 ,the modern writer of symphonic poems2 has produced operas4 ,he is a conductor of the ,royal ,berlin ,opera ,house4 #ahfd4 ,pietro ,mascagni 7,leghorn74 ,is the composer of the tuneful ,cavalleria ,rusticana and other works4 ,among other contemporary composers and singers of opera may be mentioned3-- ,composers4 ,eugene d',albert ,h4 ,bunning ,cilea ,coronaro ,hamish ,mc,cunn ,a4 ,catalani ,delius ,g4 ,dupont ,c4 ,debussy ,dupais ,enna ,f4 d',erlanger ,filasi ,ernest ,ford ,franchetti ,glazounow ,gilson ,giordano ,galli ,edward ,german ,j4 ,holbrooke ,kienzl ,f4 ,leoi ,i4 de ,lara ,laparra ,leroux ,a4 ,messager ,mc,alpin ,mc,lean ,edward ,naylor ,orefice ,reznicika ,e4 ,solomon ,max ,schillings ,miss ,e4 ,smyth ,somerville ,w4 ,stenhammer ,spinelli ,tasca ,tinel ,siegfried ,wagner ,amherst ,webber ,f4 ,weingartner ,conductors4 ,signor ,campanini ,herr ,lohse ,mottl ,mahler ,frigara ,eckhold ,signor ,mugnone ,a4 ,messager ,e4 ,goosens ,w4 van ,norden ,nikisch ,panizza ,percy ,pitt ,t4 ,beecham ,singers4 ,m4 ,alvarez ,m4 ,ancona ,suzanne ,adams ,signor ,anselmi ,fraulein ,alten ,l4 ,arens ,signor ,ballisini ,marie ,brema ,a4 ,black ,mdlle4 ,bauermeister ,madame ,eames ,olive ,fremstad ,madame ,frease ,green ,m4 ,gilibert ,madame ,giachetti ,mc,hinckley ,m4 ,hrold ,walter ,hyde ,m4 ,journet ,alice ,nielsen ,agnes ,nicholls ,madame ,nordica ,mdlle4 ,olitzka ,plancon ,van ,rooy ,reinl ,herr ,reiss ,russ ,madame ,sembrich ,herr ,burrian ,david ,bispham ,signor ,caruso ,madame ,calv ,john ,coates ,m4 ,cotreuil ,herr ,cornelius ,madamede ,cisneros ,fraulein ,destinn ,van ,dyck ,dani ,mdlle4 ,donalda ,fraulein ,delsarta ,m4 ,dufriche ,signor ,dalmors ,knupfer-,egli ,selma ,kurz ,kirkby ,lunn ,zelie de ,lussan ,m4 ,lafitte ,m4 ,maurel ,marian ,mc,kenzie ,john ,mc,cormack ,madame ,melba ,charles ,manners ,fanny ,moody ,joseph ,o',mara ,blanche ,marchesi ,thomas ,meux ,madame ,norelli ,signor ,sammarco ,salignac ,scotti ,m4 ,saleza ,madame ,sobrino ,m4 ,seveilhac ,madame ,saltzmann-,stevens ,m4 ,slezak ,fraulein ,ternina ,edna ,thornton ,madame ,tettrazini ,vignas ,madame ,wittich ,c4 ,whitehill ,gleeson ,white ,appendix ,b4 ,financial ,aid ,granted to ,operatic ,schemes from ,state or ,municipal ,funds4 7,drawn from the ,government return made in pursuance of the ,address of the ,house of ,commons of ,march #bnd1 #aijc47 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,country4 ,,town4 ,,amount4 ,,comments4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,argentine ,buenos ,ayres ,nil4 ,municipal taxation ,republic exempted to performing ,companies at the ,opera4 ,austria and ,vienna ,free ,theatre given3,opera ,house cost ,hungary deficit made good #eji1gie to build4 from the ,emperor's ,civil list4 ,buda-,pesth #bd1bjh and #bej ,an additional grant for salaries4 from the ,sovereign of #ac1ccd4 ,prague #c1gej4 7,for the ,czech ,theatre for #aijc74 ,bavaria ,munich ,municipality keeps ,a sum of #ab1ejj goes up the ,court to the general ,theatre4 upkeep of the ,prince ,regent ,court ,theatre and ,theatre 7,new ,opera ,residency ,theatre ,house7 free in ,munich from the electric lighting ,royal ,civil list4 up to #a1abe4 ,wrtemberg ,deficit1 averaging ,house used for #ae1jjj1 made dramatic as well as good by the ,king operatic purposes4 of ,wrtemberg4 ,belgium ,subsidies granted to composers of from #ejj to #a1ejj francs per act on approved operas2 also of from #fj to #bej francs per performance4 ,brussels ,thtre ,royale de ,rent free1 but many la ,monnaie1 conditions imposed4 #e1fjj4 ,antwerp ,subsidy varied according to requirements4 ,bulgaria ,nil4 ,central ,san ,jos #ahig1 ,french ,opera1 #d1jjj4 ,america-- #ahih1 ,italian ,opera1 #a1bjj4 ,costa ,rica #ahii1 ,nil4 #aijj1 ,italian ,opera1 #ibj4 #aija-b1 ,nil4 #aijc1 ,italian ,opera1 #dhj4 ,guatemala ,guatemala ,a varying amount4 ,salvador ,san ,amounts varying ,free use of the ,salvador from #bgg to ,national ,theatre4 #f1jfh for various kinds of opera during the last #ab years4 ,chili ,santiago ,an amount1 about ,rent free3 the same #e1jjj1 8if the company apparently municipality is visits ,chili satisfied with annually from the performances40 ,europe4 ,denmark ,copenhagen ,deficit on ,royal paid from ,state ,theatre accounts4 ,egypt ,cairo and ,e#e1jjj for #cf ,alexandria operas and #bd comedies4 ,e#d1jjj for the ,cairo ,opera ,house and another theatre for upkeep4 ,france ,paris ,opera1 #cb1jjj4 ,rent free4 ,opera ,comique1 #ab1jjj4 ,germany ,berlin #ed1jjj from the ,state contributes to ,crown for the the upkeep and ,opera ,house and repairs4 the ,play ,house4 ,great ,nil4 ,britain ,greece ,nil4 ,small amounts occasionally granted from ,municipal ,funds in various towns4 ,italy ,rome ,nil4 #b1djj1 withdrawn in #ahih4 ,milan ,la ,scala receives #c1ijj for #ej performances4 ,turin ,municipal ,orchestra ,previous subsidy lent for operatic withdrawn4 purposes4 ,naples #c1bjj for the ,san ,carlo ,house4 ,venice ,varying amounts on special occasions4 ,norway ,christiania ,about #a1ajj granted per annum to the ,national ,theatre 7not exclusively for opera74 ,peru ,lima ,occasional grants to travelling companies for opera4 ,portugal ,lisbon ,san ,carlos ,opera ,house rent free4 ,russia ,petersburg ,details unavailable4 and ,in #aijb the sum of about ,moscow #cjj1jjj was granted by the ,emperor to the three ,imperial ,theatres in these cities4 ,warsaw ,nil4 ,former subsidy withdrawn4 ,riga ,nil4 ,managed by a 8,guild40 ,odessa ,opera ,house maintained by ,municipality4 ,saxony ,coburg and #c1ggh to the ,ducal ,rent free4 ,gotha ,court ,theatre4 ,dresden #ca1jjj paid by the ,king1 and any deficit made good 7#ae1jjj in #aijc74 ,many other towns grant free use of the theatre1 and sometimes of the ,municipal orchestra1 the scenery1 dresses1 etc4 ,servia ,belgrade ,royal ,national ,used for opera ,theatre receives and drama4 #a1gbj per annum4 ,spain ,nil3 various 8schools of music0 and orchestras receive ,municipal aid4 ,sweden ,stockholm ,royal ,theatre 7mainly opera7 receives #c1ccj from the ,crown1 and #c1ccj from the ,state2 also various other amounts4 ,switzerland ,berne #bhj to the theatre orchestra4 ,basle #a1jjj for musical institutions and the theatre orchestra4 ,geneva #f1dhj for the theatre and classical concerts4 ,united ,nil4 ,states ,uruquay ,montevideo ,a subsidy given to an annual performance of ,italian ,opera4 ,venezuela ,nil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,note4--,as a grant1 when made1 is often given both for the drama and for operatic purposes1 and sometimes for the support of musical functions generally1 such as concerts and band performances1 it is difficult to arrive at the actual figures for opera alone4 ,but the above quotations will afford a general idea as to the conditions obtaining with regard to subsidies in the various countries to which reference is made4 ,appendix ,c4 ,glossary of ,terms mainly used in ,opera4 ,act4 ,the larger sub-divisions into which operas are divided4 ,older operas were usually in five acts1 modern ones more often in three2 some1 as ,wagner's ,rheingold1 in one only4 ,act ,tune or ,curtain ,tune4 ,an old form of instrumental intermezzo1 composed for performance between the acts4 ,they were written for operas from about #afej to #agej1 by such composers as ,locke and ,purcell4 ,air or ,aria4 ,an operatic scene for a single voice2 they were of many kinds1 with titles defining the class to which they belonged in the operas of ,handel's day4 ,among these titles may be mentioned the 8,aria all ,unisono10 8,aria ,cantabile10 8,aria ,concertante10 8,aria da ,capo10 8,aria di ,bravura10 8,aria d',imitazione10 8,aria di ,mezzo ,carattere10 8,aria di ,portamento10 8,aria ,grande10 8,aria ,parlante40 ,arietta4 ,a short aria1 of less pretension than any of the foregoing4 ,ballad ,opera4 ,a form of ,english opera in which old and well-known songs were used instead of new music2 there was little concerted music4 ,the best example is the ,beggar's ,opera4 ,ballet4 ,an entertainment of dancing1 always a constituent feature of operas of a certain period4 ,bolero4 ,a ,spanish dance1 often introduced into the ballet4 ,cadenza4 ,vocal flourishes very common in the operas of the ,bellini1 ,rossini1 and early ,verdi school4 ,castrati4 ,male sopranos1 the breaking of whose voices was prevented by artificial means4 ,cavatina4 ,a melodious air4 ,faust's solo1 8,salve dimora10 is so named4 ,chitarrone4 ,a long-stringed1 double-necked lute1 used by ,monteverde in ,orfeo4 ,choragos4 ,the leader of the chorus in ,greek drama4 ,chorale4 ,a ,german hymn-tune4 ,effective use is made of chorales in ,meyerbeer's ,huguenots4 ,coloratura4 ,highly ornamented vocal music1 used in such places as the 8,aria ,concertante40 ,comic ,opera4 ,opera of a light nature1 with a humorous story4 ,not to be confounded with ,opera ,comique4 ,concerted ,numbers4 ,the ,finales and other parts of operas of the older school4 ,when several characters are upon the stage1 and the music describes a series of events or some development of the story4 ,curtain ,tune4 ,see ,act ,tune4 ,da ,capo4 ,a form of ,aria much used by ,scarlatti1 in which the second part of the air was followed by a repetition of the first4 ,divertissement4 ,a short ballet1 or an instrumental intermezzo4 ,ensemble4 ,a collection of most or all of the principal characters in an opera upon the stage at the same time4 ,entree4 ,see ,overture4 ,entr'acte4 ,music composed for performance between the acts4 ,entrepreneur 7,fr474 ,the organizer or director of a series of performances4 ,falsetto4 ,a false1 artificial use of the voice1 employed by men mostly for singing alto parts4 ,fanfare4 ,a flourish of trumpets used in many operas 7,fidelio1 ,tannhuser1 etc474 ,finale4 ,the conclusion of an opera1 or of an act thereof2 in early operas often a duet or trio1 but later on a concerted number1 often of very great dignity4 ,it was first largely used by ,logroscino1 and has since become an important feature of many operas4 ,glockenspiel4 ,a small set of bells played from a keyboard2 used by ,mozart in ,zauberflte and by ,wagner in the ,walkre4 ,gong1 or ,tam-,tam4 ,a bronze plate struck with a stick2 used by ,meyerbeer4 ,grand ,opera4 ,opera on serious or tragic subjects1 with no spoken dialogue1 and with everything conceived upon a large and dignified scale4 ,generally used to denote ,french ,opera4 ,harpsichord4 ,one of the forerunners of the pianoforte1 and the accompanying instrument used in the earliest operas4 ,imbroglio4 ,a confused passage1 where conflicting things are going on at the same time1 as in the street scene of ,die ,meistersingers4 ,impresario 7,italian74 ,has the same meaning as ,entrepreneur4 ,intermezzo4 ,a short1 light musical play1 originally introduced between the acts of ,grand ,opera4 ,the term is now usually applied to an instrumental interlude4 ,leit-motif1 or guiding-theme4 ,the distinctive piece of melody1 harmony1 or scoring associated with one character upon the stage1 or with a definite idea4 ,its use was perfected by ,wagner4 ,libretto4 ,the 8book10 or words of an opera4 ,lied4 ,german for air4 ,liederspiel4 ,play of songs4 ,this corresponds with the ,english ballad opera4 ,masque4 ,an early form of opera which made much of dancing and of scenic effects4 ,opera ,buffa 7,french1 ,opera ,bouffe74 ,a light opera of very little dignity1 but full of humour and comicality4 ,it corresponds somewhat with the ,english term1 8,comic opera40 ,opera ,comique4 ,a stage play1 often of serious character1 mainly set to music1 but in which there is spoken dialogue4 ,beethoven's ,fidelio and ,weber's ,der ,frischtz are in this class4 ,operetta4 ,a short opera1 generally of a light character4 ,overture4 ,the preliminary orchestral introduction to an opera4 ,it varies much in character1 length1 and importance2 according to its character and construction it is not only called overture1 but introduction 7intrada71 entre1 ,vorspiel1 prelude4 ,pasticcio 7a pie74 ,a collection of songs1 duets1 etc41 from various sources1 woven together to form a pleasing entertainment4 ,potp-ourri4 ,a collection of the favourite airs of an opera worked up into a piece for a solo instrument--generally the pianoforte4 ,recitative4 ,the less melodious and less definitely rhythmic vocal portions of an opera4 ,a kind of musical declamation4 ,recitativo ,secco4 ,simple recitation supported only by slight chords4 7,much used by ,mozart47 ,recitativo ,stromentato4 ,accompanied recitative1 the orchestral part having individual interest and importance4 ,ritornello4 ,an instrumental interlude between scenes1 or during the course of a scene4 ,romantic ,opera4 ,a class of opera dealing with legendary or supernatural subjects rather than classic themes4 ,its application is chiefly to operas of the ,weber-,marschner school4 ,scena4 ,a long and important operatic solo1 often in several movements1 for a solo voice4 ,it may consist of recitative or of aria portions1 or both1 but should be dramatic in its construction4 ,scenario4 ,a synopsis of the plot and scenes of the libretto of an opera4 ,secco4 7,see ,recitative47 ,singspiel4 ,the ,german form of opera comique1 with both music and spoken dialogue4 ,tessitura4 ,the range of a vocal composition--i4e41 as to whether it lies high or low in the compass of the voice4 ,transcription4 ,the more modern name for ,pot-pourri4 ,tremolo4 ,a rapid reiteration of the same note2 much used on the stringed instruments for dramatic purposes4 ,vaudeville4 ,a short operetta 7,french71 usually of a frivolous nature4 ,vorspiel 7,german74 ,see ,overture4 ,zwickenspiel 7,german74 ,an intermezzo or interlude4 ,appendix ,d4 ,list of ,instruments used in the ,orchestras of ,composers of different periods of ,opera4 #a4 ,the first real ,italian opera1 ,euridice1 by ,peri 7#afjj7-- #a ,chitarone #a ,lira ,grande #a ,viol di ,gamba #a ,theorbo #c ,flutes #b4 ,monteverde's ,orfeo 7#afjh7-- #b ,gravicembali 7,clavicembali7 #b ,contrabassi da ,viola #aj ,viole di ,brazzo #a ,arpa ,doppia #b ,violini ,piccioli alla ,francese #b ,chitarroni #b ,organo di ,legno #a ,regal #c ,bassi da ,gamba #d ,tromboni #b ,cornetti #a ,flautino 7,flageolet7 #a ,clarino 7,soprano ,trumpet7 #c ,trombe ,sordini 7,muted ,trumpets7 ,except for the smaller number of strings this orchestra is pretty well as large as a modern full operatic orchestra1 but its constitution and effect are absolutely different1 and of course in the present day hardly producible4 ,the gambas were used to accompany ,orpheus1 the violas ,euridice1 the guitars ,charon1 the organs ,apollo1 and the trombones ,plato4 #c4 ,gluck's ,alceste 7#agfg7-- #b ,flauti ,traversi #b ,oboe #b ,corni #c ,tromboni #b ,fagotti #b ,trombe ,strings ,this1 of course1 is an approximation to the modern orchestra1 but we must notice the absence of clarionets and percussion instruments4 #d4 ,mozart's ,figaro 7#aghf7-- #b ,flutes #b ,oboes #b ,clarionets #b ,bassoons #b ,horns #b ,trumpets ,tympani ,strings ,this is the ordinary orchestra of the 8classical period0 of music4 #e4 ,weber's ,oberon 7#ahbf7-- ,the same orchestra as ,mozart's1 with the addition of anotherp air of horns and of three trombones4 #f4 ,rossini's ,william ,tell 7,overture71 #ahbi-- #a ,piccolo #b ,flutes #b ,oboes 7,cor ,anglais7 #b ,clarionets #d ,horns #b ,bassoons #b ,trumpets #c ,trombones ,timpani ,cymbals ,triangle ,big ,drum ,strings 7with #e solo ,celli7 #g4 ,meyerbeer1 ,les ,huguenots 7#ahcf7-- #b ,flutes 7,piccolos7 #b ,oboes ,cor ,anglais #b ,clarionets #b ,bassoons #d ,horns #c ,trombones ,ophicleide #b ,cornets #b ,trumpets ,drums ,bell ,harp ,bass ,drum and ,cymbals ,strings #h4 ,wagner1 ,tannhuser 7#ahde7-- #c ,flutes 7one changing to ,piccolo7 #b ,oboes #b ,clarionets #a ,bass ,clarionet #b ,bassoons #b ,ventil ,horns #b ,hand ,horns #c ,trumpets #c ,trombones #a ,tuba #a ,pair ,tympani ,triangle ,cymbals ,tambourine ,grosse ,trommel ,harp ,strings ,and in addition1 upon the stage-- #a ,cor ,anglais #b ,piccolos #d ,flutes #d ,oboes #f ,clarionets #f ,bassoons #ab ,horns #ab ,trumpets #d ,trombones ,triangle ,cymbals ,tambourine #i4 ,wagner1 ,walkre 7#ahef71 performed #ahgj-- #af ,first ,violins #af ,second ,violins #ab ,violas #ab ,violoncellos #h ,double ,basses #c ,flutes #a ,piccolo #c ,oboes #a ,cor ,anglais #c ,clarionets #a ,bass ,clarionet #c ,bassoons #h ,horns #b ,tenor ,tubas #b ,bass ,tubas #a ,contra ,bass ,tuba #c ,trumpets #a ,bass ,trumpet #c ,trombones #a ,contra ,bass ,trombone #b ,pairs ,drums #a ,triangle #a ,pair ,cymbals #a ,rhrtrommel #a ,glockenspiel #f ,harps #aj4 ,wagner1 ,parsifal 7,prelude71 #ahhb-- #c ,flutes #c ,oboes ,cor ,anglais #c ,clarionets #a ,bass ,clarionet #c ,bassoons #a ,double ,bassoon #d ,horns #c ,trumpets #c ,trombones #a ,bass ,tuba ,drums ,strings ,appendix ,e4 ,bibliography of ,opera4 ,the following are the chief works upon opera in the ,english language3-- ,edwards1 ,h4 ,s4--,the ,lyrical ,drama4 ,matthew1 ,j4 ,e4--,popular ,history of ,opera4 ,chesney4--,stories of the ,operas4 ,edwards4--,the ,prima ,donna4 ,louis1 ,alexander4--,the ,opera ,glass1 or a view of #ajj ,operas4 ,upton4--,standard ,operas4 ,barker4--,the ,opera ,guide4 ,spier4--,stories of the ,operas4 ,guerber4--,stories of ,famous ,operas4 ,annesley4--,the ,standard ,opera ,glass4 ,sachs and ,woodrow4--,modern ,opera houses and ,theatres4 ,mapleson4--,mapleson ,memoirs4 ,arditi4--,my ,reminiscences4 ,fitzgerald4--,the ,savoy ,opera4 ,apthorp4--,the ,opera1 ,past and ,present4 ,elson4--,critical ,history of ,opera4 ,lahee4--,grand ,opera in ,america4 ,galloway4--,the ,operatic ,problem4 ,lawrence ,gilman4--,aspects of ,modern ,opera4 ,streatfield4--,the ,opera4 ,nights at the ,opera4--7,delamore ,press47 ,opera4--7,grove's ,dictionary47 ,there is also a perfect mass of ,wagner literature1 including biographies 7such as ,mr4 ,ashton ,ellis' colossal work71 essays1 articles1 books on the ,ring and other operas1 books explanatory of the music1 etc41 etc4 ,index4 ,adam1 #he1 #ahi1 #bjg ,ambroise ,thomas's ,hamlet1 ,mignon1 #ij ,arensky1 #abd ,aria from ,gluck's ,orfeo1 #ej-ea ---- ,verdi's ,ada1 #gc-gd ,ariosti1 #aij ,arne1 #ic-id ,arne's ,artaxerxes1 #ic ,arrieta1 #abi ,arsani1 #bjh ,auber1 #hg-hh1 #age1 #bjg ,auber's ,masaniello1 #hg2 ,fra ,diavolo1 #hh ,bach1 #fa ,balfe1 #id-ie ,balfe's ,the ,siege of ,rochelle1 #ie2 ,bohemian ,girl1 #ie1 #ahg ,ballad ,opera1 #ae1 #id1 #ahf ,ballet1 #ahh-ahi ,bardi1 ,count1 #cc ,barnett's ,the ,mountain ,sylph1 #id ,bayreuth1 #agi1 #ahj-ahc ---- ,wagner's theatre at1 #ajc ,beethoven1 #ac1 #ad1 #bd1 #bg1 #dd1 #ee1 #fa1 #gf1 #gg1 #ii ,beethoven's ,fidelio1 #ee1 #gj1 #hd1 #agj1 #agg1 #ahe ,beggar's ,opera1 #ia-ic1 #ahf ,bellini1 #ae1 #gb1 #agc ,bellini's ,la ,sonnambula1 ,norma1 #gb ,benda1 #ea ,benedict1 #if ,benedict's ,the ,lily of ,killarney1 #if ,berlin1 #agh ,berlioz1 #hg1 #age1 #bji ,bishop1 ,henry1 #id1 #aeg ,bizet1 #hi ,bizet's ,carmen1 #hi ,boieldieu1 #he1 #bjg ,boieldieu's ,la ,dame ,blanche1 #he ,boito1 #acj-acb1 #ada ,boito's ,nero and ,orestiade1 #aca2 ,mefistofele1 #aca1 #agc1 #aie ,borodin1 #abd1 #abe ,borodin's ,prince ,igor1 #abe ,bruneau1 #ada1 #adc ,bruneau's ,l',attaque du ,moulin1 ,l',outragan1 ,la ,rve1 ,messidor1 #adc ,budapest1 #agh ,bunning1 ,herbert1 #adh ,bunning's ,princess ,osra1 #ade1 #adh ,buononcini1 #db1 #de-df1 #fd1 #aed1 #aij ,caccini1 #cg1 #ci ,caldara1 #da1 #db1 #bjg ,cambert1 ,robert1 #db ,campion1 #ahg 8,canzone0 by ,mozart1 #eb ,carl ,rosa ,opera ,company1 #aei ,caruso1 #bjd ,catalani1 #bjd ,cavalli1 #aj1 #dj ,cavos1 #abc ,csar-,cui1 #abd1 #abe ,csar-,cui's ,angelo1 ,ratcliff1 ,the ,flibustier1 #abe ,cesti1 #da ,charpentier1 #add ,cherubini1 #ad1 #fc1 #ff1 #hd1 #afh1 #age1 #aii ,cherubini's ,ali ,baba1 ,les ,abencerages1 ,les deux ,journes1 #hd2 ,water ,carrier1 #aei1 #bjj ,chorale from ,meyerbeer's ,les ,huguenots1 #hf ,cilea1 #acd ,cilea's ,adriana ,lecouvreur1 #acd1 #ahh ,cimarosa1 #ea1 #fe1 #bjg ,cimarosa's ,the ,secret ,marriage1 #fe ,companies1 opera1 #aed2 travelling1 #aeh ,composers1 stories of1 #bji-baa ,concerted ,finale1 ,invention of1 #ab1 #fd ,contest1 a notable1 #fe ,coperario1 #ahg ,corder1 #adg ,corder's ,nordisa1 #adg ,cornelius1 #gi ,cornelius' ,the ,barber of ,bagdad1 #hj ,covent ,garden opera1 #aed1 #aeg ,cowen1 #adg ,cowen's ,harold1 ,signa1 ,the ,lady of ,lyons1 #adg2 ,thorgrim1 #adg1 #aei2 ,pauline1 #aei ,curiosities of opera1 #ahi-aih ,da ,capo ,aria1 ,birth of1 #aa2 weakness of1 #ba2 reform of1 #bb ,dargomijsky1 #abd ,dargomijsky's ,the ,stone ,guest1 ,the ,water-,sprite1 #abd ,debussy1 #add ,debussy's ,pelleas et ,melisande1 #add ,de ,lara1 #adh ,de ,lara's ,amy ,robsart1 ,messaline1 ,the ,light of ,asia1 #adh ,dlibes1 ,lo1 #ij ,dlibes' ,copplia1 ,lakm1 ,le ,roi l'a dit1 #ij ,d',indy1 ,vincent1 #add ,donizetti1 #ae1 #gb1 #agc1 #bjg ,donizetti's ,la ,favorita1 ,la ,fille du ,rgiment1 ,l',elisir d',amore1 #gb2 ,lucretia ,borgia1 #gb1 #agc2 ,lucia di ,lammermoor1 #agd ,dresden1 #agi ,dubois1 #add ,dvrk1 #abf1 #abh1 #agh ,dvrk's ,demetrius1 ,der ,bauer ein ,schelm1 ,king and ,collier1 ,rusalka1 ,wanda1 #abh2 ,armida1 #abh1 #agh ,early ,russian composers1 #abc ,elgar's ,apostles1 #aag ,empiricism1 ,musical1 #ab ,english ,opera1 #dd-dg1 #ia ,enterprise1 ,operatic1 in ,england1 #aej ,farinelli1 #bjc1 #bjd ,fibich1 #abg1 #agh ,flotow1 #gi ,flotow's ,martha1 #gi ,franchetti1 #acd ,french ,opera1 #db-dc ,french ,school1 the1 #ha-ij ,gade1 #abi ,galuppi1 #fd ,german1 ,edward1 #adh ,german ,opera1 #dc-dd ,german ,school1 the1 #gf-hj ,giordano1 #acd ,giordano's ,andrea ,chenier1 #acd ,glinka1 #abc1 #abg ,glinka's ,a ,life for the ,czar1 ,russia and ,ludmilla1 #abc ,gluck1 #ac-ae1 #bj1 #bb-bd1 #ca1 #db1 #dh-ea1 #fa1 #fc1 #fd-fe1 #ga1 #gf1 #hc1 #hg1 #ih1 #adc1 #age1 #aij1 #bjg ,gluck's ,armida1 ,iphigenia in ,aulide1 ,paris and ,helen1 #di2 ,alceste1 #bc1 #di2 ,orfeo1 #di1 #agg2 ,iphigenia in ,tauride1 #di1 #fe ,goetz1 #hj ,goetz's ,the ,taming of the ,shrew1 #hj ,goldmark1 #acg ,goldmark's ,cricket on the ,hearth1 ,the ,queen of ,sheba1 #acg ,goring ,thomas's ,esmeralda1 ,nadeshda1 #ig ,gounod1 #hh1 #ada ,gounod's ,mireille1 ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,the ,mock ,doctor1 #hh2 ,philmon and ,baucis1 #hh1 #aif2 ,faust1 #hh1 #ie1 #ada1 #agj ,grand ,opera1 definition of1 #gj2 in ,england1 #aef-afb ---- ,french1 #dc1 #fc1 #agf ,graun1 #gg1 #bjg ,grtry1 #ea1 #hb ,grieg1 #abi ,grisi1 #bjh ,halvy1 #he1 #bjg ,handel1 #aa1 #dc1 #dd-dg1 #fd1 #gf1 #aed1 #aij1 #aia1 #aie1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjg ,handel's ,deidamia1 #de2 ,rinaldo1 #de1 #bjb ,harris1 ,sir ,augustus1 #aeg ,hasse1 #dc1 #gg1 #bjg ,haydn1 #fa1 #bjg ,hrold1 #he1 #age1 #bjg ,hrold's ,zampa1 #he ,hiller1 #gg1 #gh ,hiller's ,der ,dorfbarbier1 ,die ,jagel1 #gg ,humperdinck1 #acg ,humperdinck's ,die ,heirat wider ,willen1 #aci2 ,hansel and ,gretel1 #acg1 #ach1 #ada ,innovations1 musical1 #bj ,isouard1 #he1 #bjf ,italian ,opera1 #ae1 #ci-db ,italian ,school1 the1 #fc-ge ,jenny ,lind1 #bjc ,jomelli1 #fd1 #bjg ,jomelli's ,armida1 #bji ,keiser1 #dc1 #gf ,kelly1 #id ,kreutzer1 #gi ,lablache1 #bjd1 #bjh ,lago1 ,seor1 #aeg ,lalo1 #ij ,lalo's ,le ,roi d',ys1 #ij ,legrenzi1 #da ,leipzig1 #agi ,leit-motif1 the1 #bg1 #bh1 #aje1 #ajg1 #aaf1 #ace ,leoi1 ,franco1 #adh ,leoncavallo1 #acj1 #acc ,leoncavallo's ,i ,pagliacci1 #acc1 #aie2 ,roland of ,berlin1 #acc ,librettists1 #bjf ,lindpaintner1 #gh1 #gi ,liszt1 #ajb1 #ajc ,lock1 #ahg ,logroscino1 #ab1 #fd ,lortzing1 #gh1 #gi ,lortzing's ,peter the ,shipwright1 #gi ,lotti1 #db ,ludvig ,,ii41 ,king of ,bavaria1 #ajb1 #ajc ,lully1 #aa1 #db-dc1 #ha1 #ih1 #age1 #agf1 #ahh1 #aii ,mac,cunn1 ,hamish1 #adg ,mac,cunn's ,diarmid1 #adh2 ,jeanie ,deans1 #adh1 #aei ,macfarren1 #if ,mackenzie1 #ade1 #adg ,mackenzie's ,the ,cricket on the ,hearth1 ,the ,troubadour1 #adg ,malibran1 #bjd ,manners1 ,charles1 #afj1 #afa ,marschner1 #ad1 #fj1 #gh1 #gi ,marschner's ,der ,vampyr1 ,hans ,heiling1 ,the ,templar and the ,jewess1 #gi ,mascagni1 #acj1 #aca-acb ,mascagni's ,cavalleria ,rusticana1 #acb1 #agj1 #bjf2 ,l',amico ,fritz1 ,i ,rantzau1 ,iris1 ,william ,ratcliff1 #acc ,masque1 the1 #ahg ,mass1 ,victor1 #ij ,mass's ,paul et ,virginie1 #ij ,massenet1 #ada1 #adb ,massenet's ,esclarmonde1 ,hrodiade1 ,le ,cid1 ,la ,jongleur de ,notre ,dame1 ,la ,navarraise1 ,le ,roi de ,lahore1 ,manon1 ,thas1 ,werther1 #adb ,mc,lean1 ,alick1 #adh ,mhul1 #hc ,mhul's ,joseph1 ,uthal1 #hc ,melody1 ,adoption of1 #aj ,melos1 #af1 #bf1 #cj1 #aaf2 ,modern1 #aag ,mendelssohn1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa ,mendelssohn's ,lorelei1 ,the ,wedding of ,camacho1 #fj ,mercadante1 #gb ,merime1 #baj ,messager ,andr1 #add ,metastasio1 #bjg ,meyerbeer1 #fj1 #he-hg1 #ih1 #aja1 #afi1 #agc1 #age1 #agf1 #aid1 #bjg ,meyerbeer's ,dinorah1 ,l',africaine1 ,le ,huguenots1 ,le ,prophte1 #hg ,michael's ,utal1 #aie ,mixed language singing1 #aij ,monodic style1 #ch ,monsigny1 #hb ,monteverde1 #i1 #ai1 #bj1 #ca1 #ci1 #dh1 #ga ,moody1 ,madame ,fanny1 #afj ,moody-,manners ,company1 #aeh1 #afj 8,moresca0 from ,monteverde's ,orfeo1 #ci-dj ,moussorgsky's ,judith1 #abe ,mozart1 #ac1 #ad1 #bd1 #bg1 #dd1 #ea-ee1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fe1 #ff1 #gj1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #afh1 #bje1 #bjg ,mozart's ,die ,entfurhrung aus dem ,serail1 ,idomeneo1 #ed2 ,don ,juan1 #ed1 #bje2 ,magic ,flute1 #ed1 #aie2 ,the ,marriage of ,figaro1 #ed1 #agg2 ,cosi fan ,tutte1 #agg2 ,zauberflte1 #agg1 #aif2 ,don ,giovanni1 #abd1 #agj1 #agh1 #aie ,munich1 #agi ,musical comedy1 #ahf ,musical empiricism1 #ab ,music1 ,emotional effect of1 #cd2 an accessory1 #e2 polyphonic1 #cc ,muzio ,scevola1 #aij ,napoleon ,i41 #aii1 #bjj ,naumann1 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