,transcriber's ,note3 ,words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores2 those in bold are surrounded by equal signs4 ,misspelled words were corrected4 ,one full-page advertisement was moved from the front to the end of the book4 ,,carrots1 ,mangold ,wurtzels ,,and ,,sugar ,,beets4 ,,how ,,to ,,raise ,,them1 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,them ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,feed ,,them4 ,,by ,,james ,j4 ,h4 ,,gregory1 ,,author ,,of 8,,onion ,,raising10 8,,cabbage ,,raising10 ,,etc4 ,,linotyped ,,and ,,printed ,,by ,j4 ,j4 ,,arakelyan1 #bie ,,congress ,,street1 ,,boston4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #aijj1 by ,,james ,j4 ,h4 ,,gregory4 ,at the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of ,massachusetts4 ,,contents4 ,the ,argument for the ,raising of roots #c ,,the ,,carrot #e ,the ,location and ,soil #e ,the ,manure and its ,application #g ,preparing the ,bed #ab ,when to ,plant #ac ,the ,seed and the ,planting of it #ae ,quantity to the ,acre #af ,varieties1 and ,what ,kinds to ,grow #ag ,early ,very ,short ,scarlet #ai ,early ,short ,scarlet ,horn #ai ,short ,horn #ai ,danvers ,carrot #ba ,guerande ,carrot #ba ,long ,orange1 or ,long ,surry #ba ,large ,white ,belgian #bb ,the ,cultivation1 and the ,implements needed #bc ,gathering and ,storing the ,crop #bf ,raising ,carrots with ,onions #bi ,marketing and ,feeding #cj ,,the ,,mangold ,,wurtzels #cb ,varieties #cd ,the ,long ,varieties #ce ,the ,round ,varieties #ce ,the ,ovoid ,varieties #ce ,what ,kinds to ,grow #ce ,the ,soil and its ,preparation #ch ,the ,manure and its ,application #ci ,salt as an ,auxiliary ,manure #dh ,planting the ,seed and ,tending the ,crop #di ,gathering and ,storing the ,crop #eb ,feeding the ,crop #ef ,the ,cost of the ,crop #fa ,,carrots4 ,in nutritious value roots compare with hay in about the average proportion of one to three4 ,if now we consider that thirty-four tons of ,swedes nearly forty tons of ,carrots and seventy-four tons of ,mangold roots have been raised in ,massachusetts1 to the acre1 and that to each of these crops should be added at least #ae per cent4 for the fodder value of the yield of leaves1 which were not included in these estimates1 we have a demonstration of how immensely more is the nourishment that can be obtained from an acre of roots than from an acre in hay4 ,such an immense increase in the nourishing products of the farm1 if fed on the premises as it should be1 unless the farmer is so located that he can buy manure cheaper than he can make it1 means a great increase in the manure products1 and consequently a great increase in the crops1--so that it has been wisely said1 root culture lies at the basis of good husbandry4 ,carrots and ,mangolds are subject to but few diseases4 ,in discussing the nutritious value1 chemists differ somewhat1 according as they measure this by the nitrogen they contain1 their per cent4 of dry matter or sugar1 but they agree in ranking them much superior to the early varieties of turnip and somewhat superior to the ,ruta ,baga or ,swede class1 particularly when fed to full grown cattle4 ,prof4 ,johnson ranks ,carrots with ,cabbage when fed to oxen1 for nourishment4 ,experiments appear to have proved that when equal measures of each are fed1 ,mangolds will give a greater increase of milk than potatoes1 by about a third4 ,for some reason not fully understood 7perhaps the depth they penetrate the soil has something to do with it7 ,onions will do better after ,carrots than after any other crop1 the yield being larger1 the bulb handsomer1 while the crop will bottom down earlier and better4 ,unlike ,turnips or ,swedes1 with high manuring the crop can be profitably grown for years on the same piece of land4 ,swine prefer ,mangolds to any root except the parsnip1 and both in this country and in ,england store hogs1 weighing from #abe lbs4 and upwards have been carried through the winter in fine condition1 when fed wholly on raw ,sugar ,beets or ,mangolds4 ,chemists rank ,carrots1 when compared with oats1 with reference to their fat and flesh forming qualities1 as #a to #e4 ,not only have roots a value in themselves as food1 but they have a special office1 taking to a large degree the place of grass and preventing the constipation that dry feed sometimes causes4 ,while practice proves that they should not be relied upon to entirely supersede hay or grain1 still they increase the value of either of these to a large degree2 and for slow working stock they may be fed with profit in place of from a third to half the grain usually given4 ,carrots add not only to the richness of the color1 but also to the quality of the milk1 while the flavor of the butter made from such milk is improved4 ,carrots fed in moderate quantities to horses give additional gloss to their hairy coats1 and have not only a medicinal value when given to such as have been over-grained1 but aid them in digesting grain1 as may be seen in the dung of horses fed on oats with ,carrots1 and that of those fed on oats without ,carrots4 ,when cooked they are sometimes fed to poultry1 and either cooked or raw to swine4 ,in the family economy they have their place1 particularly when young and fresh1 while in ,europe they enter largely into the composition of the well-known vegetable soups of the ,french4 ,,the ,,carrot4 8,the ,carrot10 7,daucus ,carota7 says ,burr in his 8,field and ,garden ,vegetables of ,america10 a book worthy a place in every farmer's library1--8in its cultivated state is a half-hardy biennial4 ,it is indigenous to some parts of ,great ,britain1 generally growing in chalky or sandy soil1 and to some extent has become naturalized in this country2 being found in gravelly pastures and mowing fields1 and occasionally by roadsides1 in loose places1 where the surface has been disturbed or removed4 ,in its native state the root is small1 slender and fibrous or woody1 of no value1 and even of questionable properties as an article of food40 ,the average result of several analyses of the ,carrot as given by ,dr4 ,voelcker1 is as follows3-- ,water1 #hg4j ,albuminous ,compounds1 4#g ,fat1 4#b ,pectine1 #a4b ,cellular ,fiber1 #c4e ,sugar1 #f4e ,ash1 4#i ,,the ,,location ,,and ,,soil4 ,it is important in selecting a location for the ,carrot bed that the land should be nearly level1 as otherwise the seed will be liable to wash out after heavy showers1 and the plants while young be either washed out or covered with soil and killed4 ,the land should be1 as far as possible1 clear of all stones4 ,the presence of large rocks 8in place10 as the geologists say1 would interfere with the continuity of the rows1 while the loose stones are not only always in the way while raking and planting the bed1 but are also in the way of the slide or wheel hoes which are apt to knock them against the young plants to their injury4 ,the strongest objections to a stony soil1 for ,carrots1 are that it interferes with the growth of the roots and greatly increases the labor of digging them4 ,it is important that the piece of ground selected for a crop that will require so much manure and labor should have every advantage possible in its favor2 it should not only be level and comparatively free from stones1 but if possible should have been previously under high cultivation1 that it may come to ,carrots when in high condition4 ,the best soil1 particularly for the ,long ,orange variety1 is a loam mellow to the depth of two feet or more4 ,on such soil the ,carrot will perfect itself1 growing straight and altogether beautiful to look upon1 as they stretch from side to side of the bushel boxes4 ,on some market gardens near critical markets1 farmers find it for their interest to ascertain by actual experiment on what part of their grounds the root will grow longest and straightest1 and when such plot is found make it a permanent bed4 ,if the soil does not naturally grow a long ,carrot and they are desired1 the end may be attained by trenching deep and adding sand4 ,the difference in the shape of the ,long ,orange1 when grown on a deep mellow loam1 and on a heavy soil with a compact sub-soil1 is so remarkable that it would be almost impossible to make an inexperienced person believe each lot was from the same seed1--those grown on the heavy soil1 resting on a compact sub-soil1 oftentimes so closely resembling the ,intermediate varieties as not to be distinguished from them4 ,though the course is not on the whole to be advised1 yet ,carrots can be raised on freshly turned sod4 ,such land will be very free from weeds1 and by making good use of the wheel harrow1 and applying manure in a very fine state1 should the season be a moist one1 fair crops may be raised4 ,reclaimed meadows in a good state of cultivation1 which are well-drained to the depth of thirty inches1 will oftentimes grow crops1 large in bulk1 but the individual roots are oftentimes inclined to 8sprangle10 and unless such meadows have been well drained1 and liberally covered with sand or gravelly loam1 they are apt to be spongy and inferior4 ,when grown on land inclining to clay1 they are apt to be small and woody in structure2 still1 such land1 if made friable by good underdraining and the application of sand1 may be made fair ,carrot ground4 ,,the ,,manure ,,and ,,its ,,application4 ,all root crops delight in most liberal manuring and the highest of cultivation4 ,carrots are no exception to this rule4 ,with every crop1 other conditions being equal1 it is the last half of the manure gives the profits2 and the more costly the cultivation required the more important it is that this golden fact be borne in mind4 ,though chemical analysis shows difference in the composition of all roots1 and that there is therefore an office for special manures1 yet their general composition is so nearly alike1 and animal manures1 most of which contain in greater or less proportion1 all the elements required1 are so difficult to handle in just the proportions that would be required from the chemical standpoint1 particularly when we consider that soils on which root crops are grown are usually rich in manures1 varying in their chemical constituents1 left over from former crops2--for this reason ,i treat of manure by the cord and with reference to its comparative strength1 bulk for bulk1 rather than of its chemical elements4 ,eight cords of good stable manure2 nine cords of a compost made of one part night soil to two parts muck or loam2 eight cords of muscle mud2 six or eight cords of rotten kelp--either of these applied to an acre of land in good condition by previous high cultivation would be sufficient for a good crop of ,carrots4 ,other manures might be mentioned1 but these will serve as a pretty good measure of value for any kind accessible to farmers in general4 ,to produce a very large crop1 such as one would like to be able to point to when premium crops are called for1 add from one-quarter to one-half to the above quantities4 ,the condition of the manure is a matter of importance2 the stable manure should be good2 not half bedding1 not burnt1 neither too coarse nor too new2 the night soil should have been well mixed with the soil in the compost heap1 and have been pitched over twice with sufficient intervals between to allow it to develop some heat4 ,the muscle mud should be rich in dead muscles4 ,in all farming1 it is important that the manures applied should be in a fine condition mechanically1 and particularly is this true of root crops4 ,for the roots of all plants can take up only such parts of the manures as are dissolved in water1 and the firmer the manure is the more readily can water penetrate it4 ,a man who is unfortunately short of manures can materially increase the capacity of what he has by working it over until it is very fine4 ,when short of a supply of animal manure1 where the soil is already in good condition1 a good fertilizer can be used with success4 ,apply fifteen hundred pounds to the acre4 ,the famous fertilizer formulas of ,prof4 ,stockbridge have generally done so well ,i should be willing to try them on an acre of ,carrots1 were ,i short of other manures4 ,there is another matter concerning our manures which requires attention2 if they are too fresh or crude they will be apt1 if applied to our long growing varieties1 to drive the growth too much into the top of the ,carrot1 to the loss of the root1 giving us tops to our knees with roots about the size of a hoe handle4 ,it is important therefore1 when used liberally1 that they should be somewhat decomposed--that the mixtures should be composts1 as far as the time will allow1 and not mere mixtures4 ,to the shorter varieties the crude manure may be applied with a degree of safety4 ,here let me note a fact that ,i think is of general application in farming1 viz43--that a style of manuring that will drive tall growing varieties of vegetables nearly all to tops or vine1 with dwarf varieties of the same kind will work admirably4 ,the ,pea is a very good illustration2 to get a good crop of a dwarf variety1 manure liberally1 but the same quantity applied to the taller sorts would drive them excessively into vine at the expense of the crop4 ,don't make your compost heap on the ground where the crop is to grow1 for the result will be no crop where the heap stands4 ,for the same reason it is bad policy to cart out any strong manure to stand on the land in heaps1 no matter how small1 over winter4 ,there will be nothing lost by spreading the manure over the surface before the ground is frozen4 ,in getting it into the soil1 keep it as near the surface as possible without its interfering with the planting of the seed1 bearing in mind the nitrogen1 that element in manures1 about the loss of which by evaporation there is much uncalled for anxiety1 tends to work down into the soil4 ,if the manure is coarse it may be applied to the surface in the ,fall and be deeply ploughed in1 and in the ,spring again brought to the surface by ploughing equally deep1 having meanwhile received the benefits of frost and moisture4 ,in applying fertilizers keep them near the surface1 scattering them broadcast and raking or harrowing in4 ,it is better not to apply these all at once4 ,apply about two-thirds at the time of sowing1 the remainder when the crop is about one-third grown--following it with the slide hoe1 which will tend to work it in just under the surface4 ,in applying all fertilizers in the ,spring time1 it is well to do so early in the day1 as winds are apt to rise as the day advances1 which seriously interfere with the economical application and even distribution4 ,fertilizers tend to hasten the maturity of the crops to which they are applied4 ,there is one condition that has a very important bearing on the cost of ,carrots and all roots1 viz43--that both the ground and manure should be as free from all weed seed as possible4 ,for this reason ground recently from the sod1 the third year1 provided it has been kept under a high state of cultivation1 and such manures which from their very nature must be comparatively free from the seed of weeds1 such as fish composts1 night soil1 or barn manure a year old1 are to be preferred4 ,dr4 ,voelcker gives the result of #aj analyses of the ashes of the root and #b of the ashes of the leaves of the ,carrot1 and from these deduces the following as the number of pounds of mineral matter taken from an acre of land1 by #aj tons of roots and #d tons of tops4 ,potash1 ,soda1 ,lime1 ,phosphoric ,acid1 #aaf lbs4 #hf lbs4 #aja lbs4 #ca lbs4 ,sulphuric ,acid1 ,chlorine1 #cd lbs4 #ca lbs4 ,to those who desire to experiment with mineral manures this table will be interesting as showing the kinds and proportion of each needed4 ,the potash is found in unleached ashes1 from two to five pounds to the bushel2 or in the ,german ,potash salts2 the soda and chlorine in common salt1 7chloride of sodium72 lime in the common lime of the mason1 the ,phosphoric acid in the phosphates offered in the markets1 and the ,sulphuric acid in that directly or in common finely ground plaster known by chemists as ,sulphate of ,lime4 ,i shall have occasion to present some very valuable suggestions of the learned ,professor1 under the head of 8,the ,manure0 in my article on ,mangolds1 to which they more especially apply4 ,the greatest single item in the cost of any crop is the manure1 but this is an exceedingly varying element4 ,farmers near cities1 and particularly if they also reside near the sea-coast1 as an off-set for the greater cost of farming-land and expenses of living1 have the advantages of a city market and special facilities for collecting manures1 at a cost to them1 much below the standard value of stable manure4 ,night soil to almost an unlimited extent can be obtained for the cost of collecting it1 while the waste material of the fisheries1 ,kelp1 ,rock ,weed1 ,muscle ,mud1 ,glue ,waste1 ,sugar ,house ,waste1 and the products of the distilleries1 these and other rich fertilizers can be procured at so low a figure1 in proportion to their value1 that root crops can be raised considerably cheaper than in farming districts not so favored4 ,many a man can be found in these favored districts who thinks he is making a good business at farming1 yet could he but sell the manure he gathers so cheaply1 at its market value1 barn manure being the standard1 he would make money by doing so and folding his arms the rest of the year4 ,the fact is he is really losing money at farming2 but through his crops he is selling what cost him but a trifle--at a price1 indeed1 below its real value1 but still so far in advance of cost as to leave a profit4 ,such a man does wisely in the course he pursues though he makes a mistake in the debtor and creditor side of the account1 for it is most decidedly wiser to be at work than idle1 though the result makes no difference in the dollars in a man's pocket4 ,,preparing ,,the ,,bed4 ,the great object here should be to get the soil thoroughly fine that the small1 thread-like fibers1 and the roots themselves1 may waste the least possible vital power in permeating the earth in search of food1 or in pushing downwards4 ,the vitality wasted in this way is just so much taken from growth1 and may make the sole difference between a good crop and a poor one4 ,if it is necessary that the first ploughing should be a very deep one1 better apply the manure 7as previously stated1 the finer mechanical condition this is in the better7 afterwards4 ,should the manure be to any degree coarse after spreading1 run the brush or wheel harrow over it1 one or both4 ,this will also break up the clods and fine up the soil and incorporate the manure with it4 ,if still at all lumpy1 follow with a plank drag4 ,next plow shallow a few furrows1 and have men1 with wooden-toothed hand rakes1 rake at right angles1 pulling all coarse stones and lumps of earth and manure into the last furrow made4 ,in brief1 proceed to make as fine a seed bed as for onions4 ,if any one1 depending on the apparent fineness of the surface1 concludes to dispense with the final raking and let the work of the brush harrow answer1 he will be apt to repent it before the season closes2 should he try it let him be sure to double the quantity of seed planted in that portion of the land so treated4 ,when the land is loamy and free from stones an implement known as the 8,meeker ,harrow10 will be found to be a great time-saver in preparing the seed bed2 by actual test on my own farm1 ,i find that it will do the work of more than a dozen hands with rakes4 ,if the bed has its first ploughing early in the season1 much of the weed seed will germinate before planting time1 then an occasional use of the cultivator will destroy many of the pests4 ,,when ,,to ,,plant4 ,some of our best farmers advocate planting about the middle of ,may1 others equally successful in root culture claim that the middle of ,june is the best time4 ,there are arguments for both early and late planting4 ,in ,new ,england we usually have the weather sufficiently moist towards the close of ,may to insure the germination of the seed and protect the plants when they break ground1 from 8sun-scald40 ,those planted as late as the middle of ,june are more liable to be so affected by the dry weather usual at that period as not to vegetate as well2 and should the heat be very great just after they push through the ground1 sometimes in a single day nearly the entire crop will disappear by 8sun-scald40 ,but on the other hand1 by planting late we about get rid of one weeding1 assuming that the ground is stirred by the cultivator occasionally1 up to the time of planting4 ,again1 this brings the crop in full vigor in ,october1 the month of all others most favorable for the growth of the root1 and the ,carrots being dug while the tops are in fair growing condition1 keep better than when dug fully ripe4 ,the argument for late planting holds especially good for the ,short ,horn varieties1 as these require a shorter time to mature than the long kinds4 ,if the crop is planted too early1 sometimes the roots1 having matured1 will attempt to push seed shoots2 when this is so they will be found woody in their structure1 with numberless thread-like roots1 while their quality and keeping properties are greatly injured4 ,this crop on rich land is sometimes planted as late as the first week in ,july1 and with great success1 should the ,fall prove exceptionably mild1 yet1 as a rule1 ,i would not recommend planting later than the middle of ,june4 ,if it so happens1 from press of work1 or the dry weather1 the farmer has to plant later than this1 then by all means let him confine himself to the earlier varieties4 ,,the ,,seed ,,and ,,the ,,planting ,,of ,,it4 ,the seed grows with a covering of small1 short1 stiff hairs1 which makes them adhere together2 these must be very thoroughly removed before the seed can be relied upon to flow freely from the machine4 ,much of foreign grown seed reaches this country not properly cleaned4 ,to remove this furze1 either thrash the seed with the flail very thoroughly1 when the weather is quite cold and dry1 or warm the seed slightly and rub it with the hand against the wires of a sieve1 of a right degree of fineness to let the hairs fall through4 ,either winnow or sink in water1 to remove all impurities4 ,if sunk1 be careful to dry the seed at a very moderate temperature4 ,as ,carrot seed vegetates somewhat slowly and the plants are quite small when they first appear1 weeds are apt to get the start of them before the rows can be seen with sufficient distinctness to make it safe to use the slide hoe4 ,for this reason some farmers practice soaking the seed in water and keeping it at a temperature that will nearly develop the sprout1 before planting4 ,this may be done by soaking the seed from #cf to #dh hours in milk warm1 or rather strong manure water1 then removing it to where the air is of about the same temperature4 ,stir1 it slightly for a few days1 and finally dry it sufficiently to drop freely from the machine by adding plaster1 charcoal or dust4 ,camphor has a wonderful effect in stimulating the vitality of seed1 and the addition of a small quantity of it to the manure water would doubtless be of advantage4 ,this process should not be carried so far as to develop the sprout4 ,should the surface of the ground be very dry when the seed is sown1 this soaking process may be fatal1 for if the germ is once started it will not live in a dormant state2 it must either grow or die3 whereas1 seed that have not been soaked will vegetate after rains wet the dry surface4 ,be sure that the seed planter has a good roller attached to it1 and not a mere coverer1 as this will help confine the moisture and thus materially aid in developing the seed4 ,,quantity ,,of ,,seed ,,to ,,the ,,acre4 ,tables vary greatly some advising as high as four pounds to the acre4 ,if the design is to raise small-sized roots for early marketing1 possibly this might not be an excess of seed1 but to advise so heavy seeding for ordinary field crops1 means that much of the seed is poor trash1 probably old and worthless1 and put in as a make-weight4 ,some years ago a party wrote me1 offering a variety of garden seed at a very low figure1 and stated that it was of his own raising4 ,as it was a kind that ,i was in the habit of raising1 ,i had the curiosity to write and ask how he could afford to raise it at such a price4 ,he replied that it was of his own growing1 but so old as to be good for nothing1 and therefore he sold it to seedsmen at a very low figure1 to mix with their good seed to help make weight6 ,when four pounds of ,carrot seed are advised to the acre1 for a field crop1 ,i think that some of this kind of seed must somehow have got into the mixture4 ,with everything favoring1 and the farmer by experience having his seed sower under perfect control1 rather less than a pound of seed will be sufficient for an acre4 ,the great object to aim at is1 while having the plants thick enough1 not to have much of any thinning to do1 as it costs about as much to thin a crop as it does to weed it1 with the drawback that the plants left in the ground are more or less started1 and so put back by the thinning4 ,as a general rule ,i would advise one and one-half pounds of seed to the acre1 and this the farmer can reduce in proportion as he is favored by circumstances and advances in experience4 ,twelve inches is a sufficient distance between the rows of the two small1 early varieties1 and fifteen between the rows of all other sorts4 ,with the greatest of care the seed will not come up with mathematical precision4 ,some advocate leaving a plant to about every inch of row2 others1 to thin to four inches apart4 ,with the exception of the shorter variety including the ,guerande1 which are somewhat like ,onions in their aptitude to grow to a good size when crowded1 pushing out either side of the rows1 as a rule ,i advise thinning to four inches1 leaving them thicker near the vacant places4 ,,varieties1 ,,and ,,what ,,kinds ,,to ,,grow4 ,foreign catalogues give lists of about two dozen varieties1 which differ in earliness1 size1 color1 form1 termination of root1 characteristic of growing entirely under or partly above ground1 and in the size of the core or heart4 ,in foreign catalogues1 what we call 8,orange10 are known as 8,red0 ,carrots4 ,from a test of these varieties ,i have thus far found two1 viz43 the ,guerande and the ,chantenay worthy of being added to the kinds already grown to a greater or less extent in the ,united ,states4 ,the yellow-fleshed sorts are repudiated in ,new ,england by general consent2 yet the ,yellow ,belgian1 on a limited trial has proved with me to be an exceptionally good keeper4 ,the ,purple or ,blood-,red is of a deep purple color1 a poor cropper and by no means attractive to the eye4 ,the remaining varieties may be classed as follows3--,early1 middling early and late4 ,the first class is made up of the ,early ,very ,short ,scarlet1 the ,early ,scarlet ,horn and ,guerande4 ,the second class of all the half-long or short-horn varieties1 and the third1 of the long varieties1 such as ,long ,orange1 ,belgian and ,altringham sorts4 ,in addition to about one-half of these foreign varieties1 cultivated more or less generally in this country1 there are several kinds catalogued by seedsmen1 all of which are but improved strains made by careful selections1 through a series of years1 from what was originally imported stock4 ,these strains usually bear the name of some person4 ,a brief discussion of the more valuable varieties will now be in order4 ,here ,i will lay down three general facts1 viz43--#ast1 that of the various orange colored varieties1 the shorter growing kinds are1 as a rule1 the darker colored and sweeter flavored4 #b;d1 that the proportion of dark1 orange-colored roots in any crop1 while it will depend largely on the care that has been used in the selection of seed stock for a series of years1 does not turn wholly on this1 but soil1 season or manure1 one or all1 have some influence in this direction4 #c;d1 that the fact that more or less of the ,carrots tend to push seed shoots the first year1 while with the long varieties it may prove that the seed has been allowed to mix with the wild varieties1 yet the probability 7marked cases excepted7 is decidedly the other way2 while with the short horn varieties this tendency to push seed shoots the first season1 so as to make something of a show when an acre is glanced over1 is quite a common characteristic with seed of the very purest strain4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,very ,,early ,,short ,,short ,,horn4 ,,long ,,orange4 ,,short ,,scarlet4 ,,scarlet4 ,early ,very ,short ,scarlet4 7see engraving47 ,early ,short ,scarlet ,horn4 7see engraving74 ,these two varieties are the shortest grown and are raised at times in forcing beds1 for an early market1 the former very generally so4 ,they are of a very rich orange color1 fine-grained1 sweet1 and of excellent flavor1 heading the list for quality4 ,their rich color makes them valuable above all other kinds for coloring butter4 ,though quite short1 yet the ,early ,short ,scarlet ,horn can be grown to yield a great bulk of roots1 from the fact that from the smallness of their tops the roots can be grown very thick1 two or three abreast all along the rows4 ,when the small1 handy size of this variety is considered in connection with the superior quality1 it stands foremost as a table ,carrot1 and ,i therefore recommend it in preference to all others for family use4 ,short ,horn4 7,see engraving47 ,this variety intermediate between the ,early ,forcing and ,long ,orange1 with but slight variations in form1 is shown under various names1 as ,intermediate1 ,nantes1 ,half ,long1 ,james' ,improved1 ,stump-,rooted1 etc4 ,it is characterized by a darker color than the average of the ,long ,orange1 finer grain1 and a sweeter and richer flavor4 ,in part from the more solid structure of the ,carrot1 and in part from its better stowage1 thirty-six measured bushels of this variety make a ton1 while of the larger varieties forty bushels are required4 ,the best strain of this variety is doubtless the kind known as the 8,danvers0 ,carrot4 ,danvers ,carrot4 ,in the town of ,danvers1 ,mass41 the raising of ,carrots on an extensive scale has for years been quite a business--the farmers finding a large market in the neighboring cities of ,salem1 ,lynn and ,boston4 ,after years of experimenting they settled upon a variety which originated among them 7as did the ,danvers ,onion7 known in their locality as the 8,danvers ,carrot40 ,it is in form about midway between the ,long ,orange and ,short ,horn class1 growing very generally with a stump root4 ,the great problem in ,carrot growing is to get the greatest bulk with the smallest length of root1 and this is what the ,danvers' growers have attained in their ,carrot4 ,under their cultivation they raise from twenty to forty tons to the acre4 ,this ,carrot is of a rich1 dark orange in color1 very smooth and handsome1 and from its length1 is easier to dig than the ,long ,orange4 ,it is a first-class ,carrot for any soil4 ,illustration3 ,,guerande ,,carrot4 ,guerande or ,ox ,heart4 ,this variety is a great favorite with many who raise ,carrots for stock4 ,it is short and chunky in build1 of a rich orange color1 and of excellent quality1 and the crop can be hand pulled4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,long ,,orange4 ,illustration3 ,,danvers ,,carrot4 ,long ,orange1 or ,long ,surry4 ,this is a standard variety1 and in its various strains is doubtless more generally grown than any other kind4 ,the chief objection to it is the depth to which it penetrates the ground1 and hence the extra work of digging it2 while the end of the root which causes the extra work is of inferior quality when compared with the body1 differing in this respect from the shorter varieties1 which are of the same quality throughout4 ,the heart is larger in proportion than in the shorter varieties1 which is considered an objection4 ,the keeping properties are excellent1 and in this respect it is superior to the earlier kinds4 ,on light soil the roots grow long1 straight and make a fine show in the market4 ,altringham4 ,this is a ,carrot of excellent quality for the table1 the flesh being of a rich orange color1 crisp and sweet1 but as a cropper it is inferior to the ,intermediate or ,long ,orange varieties1 and hence is but little cultivated4 ,illustration3 ,,large ,,white ,,belgian4 ,large ,white ,belgian4 ,this is the largest of all varieties and will yield at least a quarter more than any other sort4 ,the roots grow several inches out of ground1 and all can be readily pulled by the hand4 ,analysis shows that it is nearly as sweet as the ,mangold ,wurtzel1 rather sweeter than the ,swede ,turnip1 and about two thirds as sweet as the ,sugar ,beet4 ,the two objections to it are its color and its keeping properties2 it being rather a poor keeper1 while the color has made it a carrot for horses rather than cows4 ,if farmers have but a small quantity of manure1 the ,white ,belgian is a good variety for them to raise for feeding early in the winter4 ,,the ,,cultivation1 ,,and ,,the ,,implements ,,needed4 ,just as soon as the young plants can be detected breaking round1 the prudent farmer will push the slide hoe1 and have his boy weeders follow immediately after it on hands and knees4 ,boys that have had a little experience1 with their nimble fingers can do more work than men1 while their wages are only about half as much4 ,on the sea-coast we hire boys who make a business of weeding1 for from seventy-five cents to a dollar a day4 ,the one great danger in hiring boys is that careless ones are apt to break off the weeds instead of pulling them up by the roots4 ,to ascertain their comparative faithfulness1 it is well to quietly mark a few rows of the different weeders1 at their first weeding1 and by the time for the second weeding the difference between a good and a bad one will be very plainly visible4 ,don't accept that theory of the shiftless man1 that it is well to have the weeds grow pretty tall before the first weeding1 that the plants may be protected from the sun4 ,i have noticed that oftentimes those who act on this theory give over their weeding1 and plough up the bed before they have half finished it4 ,promptness in the first hoeing and weeding is exceedingly important in the management of all root crops1 and it is where the greatest mistake is apt to be made in their cultivation4 ,illustration3 ,,slide ,,hoe4 ,illustration3 ,,wheel ,,hoe4 ,illustration3 ,mc,g,e,e ,,cultivator4 ,illustration3 ,,michigan ,,seed ,,sower4 ,illustration3 ,,lang',s ,,hand ,,weeder4 ,there are a few implements that are specially needed in the cultivation of root crops1 and of these1 every wise farmer will get the very best attainable4 ,these implements are the ,seed ,sower1 the ,hand ,weeder1 the ,slide ,hoe1 the common ,wheel ,hoe1 and one for weeding both sides of a row at the same time4 ,of these there are a great many varieties1 each of which are more or less popular among a class of growers4 ,the engravings illustrate such as are in use in my own section of country1 where root culture forms a very important part of the agriculture of farmers4 ,both the slide and the wheel hoe1 for rapid work1 far surpass the common hand hoe1 while they cut up the weeds equally clear4 ,the double wheel hoe is used until the tops of the crops become so large as to be in the way1 when the single wheel hoe or slide hoe takes its place4 ,fuller's ,unique ,hoe having a single wheel is preferred1 to any double wheeled implement by many gardeners1 especially so by reason of its stiffness4 ,each should be two inches narrower than the space between the rows4 ,a slide hoe is an amazing handy implement about a farm for many uses other than between the rows of root crops4 ,a new class of implements have been introduced within a few years which1 to a degree1 supersede the use of the common wheel or slide hoe1 though there is yet a valuable sphere for each of them2 ,i refer to the weeders which cut each side of the row at the same time4 ,i have tested every variety of these and have found nothing now in the market superior to the ,mc,gee ,garden ,cultivator4 ,these hoes which take each side of the row at once cannot safely be made to go over the ground as fast as those designed for use between the rows1 but working close home to the growing crop1 they save a large portion of the cost of hard weeding4 ,of seed drills there are a dozen or more in the market1 several of which ,i have used on my farms4 ,i prefer the ,michigan over all others4 ,among other advantages it can be relied upon to drop almost any variety of small seed1 while it is a good coverer and having a roller attached1 it packs the earth over the seed1 which1 as every farmer knows1 tends to keep the moisture in and thus hastens their germination4 ,the hand weeder is an excellent little implement to facilitate the laborious work of weeding1 especially when the surface is baked and therefore rather hard on the fingers4 ,,gathering ,,and ,,storing ,,the ,,crop4 ,one of the greatest outlays attending the raising of ,carrots is in the gathering and topping of the crop4 ,the common process of digging with a fork and throwing into piles to be afterwards topped is laborious and costly4 ,where the crop is to be consumed on the farm1 the labor and consequent cost may be greatly lessened by first cutting off the tops by a sharp shovel1 spade or common hoe1 or a slide hoe which has been weighed by a piece of lead pipe1 or some similar heavy article1 slid down the handle and fastened where that unites with the hoe4 ,should a slice be taken off the tops of the roots it will do no harm1 as ,carrots differ in this respect from other roots1 in that1 when the tops are cut they are not apt to rot2 indeed1 some practice cutting off a slice of the top when topping1 to keep them from sprouting so readily when stored4 ,the common way of gathering the crop1 by loosening with spades or forks and then pulling out by the tops1 throwing into heaps or scattering over the ground and afterwards topping with a knife1 is a long and costly job4 ,an improvement on digging is to run a plough close to the row and then pull out as many as possible by hand and dig up the remainder4 ,still a better course particularly when the ,danvers variety is grown1 is beginning in the middle of the piece1 to run a subsoil plough close home to the roots1 when1 if run sufficiently deep it will lift the ,carrots a little out of the ground4 ,follow with forks or hoes and draw the roots inward on the ploughed portion1 so far as to give room for the horse to walk4 ,let the roots remain a few hours scattered over the surface1 when in picking up and tossing them into carts or baskets1 any earth adhering will be jarred off4 ,let the crop remain out as late as it can be risked without freezing2 and if they are in good growing condition this will be well towards ,november1 in the latitude of central ,new ,england1 and even into the first week of that month in the milder temperature of the sea-coast4 ,roots not fully matured will keep better than those fully ripe when dug1 on the principle that the varieties of apples we call 8winter0 apples are simply those kinds that do not ripen on the tree--they are not winter apples1 because they are ,baldwins1 or ,greenings1 for these same kinds in the ,south where the ripening season is longer1 are ,fall apples4 ,if the ,carrots have been planted too early they will ripen before digging1 and be apt to send out roots and prove poor keepers1 besides losing the advantage of ,october weather which is the ,carrot month1 doing more for the weight of the late planted crop than all the season besides4 ,rake the tops off the bed but do not waste them1 for they are highly relished by animals1 and if the ,carrots are harvested when they ought to be1 to keep well1 that is1 when in good growing condition1 there will be a great weight of tops1 sometimes as high as a quarter of the weight of roots2 and this mass of green fodder1 coming at a time when the fields are usually bare of grasses1 will prove very valuable and acceptable food for the cows4 ,in storing1 one fact must be borne in mind2 that ,carrots will heat1 sprout and rot1 under circumstances in which ,mangolds would keep sound and uninjured4 ,i have several times lost quantities when buried in the ground where ,mangolds and common table ,beets1 under precisely the same conditions1 have kept perfectly sound4 ,if the crop is to be fed at once1 they may be dumped into the cellar or barn floor in the most expeditious way2 but if to be fed into the winter1 then all depth of the heap above two and a half feet means a proportionate increase of danger of heating1 sprouting and rotting1 and so much greater care to air the cellar in cool1 dry weather4 ,i need hardly state that cellars for keeping ,carrots and all roots should be free from standing water1 and as cool as possible without actually freezing4 ,they should not be put directly on the cellar floor1 but on a platform to admit air under them and it is an excellent plan to scatter a little sand among them4 ,i find that ,carrots keep exceedingly well if poured 7not placed7 in a trench #ad inches wide and #b feet deep1 to be covered slightly at first and more as cold increases1 so that they have first a little coarse litter1 then a foot of earth1 and on this about #ah inches of waste or cheap hay4 ,when the roots are large they will keep sufficiently better to pay for the extra trouble1 if they are piled 8heads and points0 to the height of two and a half feet1 with a slight space for air between the piles4 ,if there are not cellar conveniences for storing the entire crop1 with a good protection of hay under and around them1 a few tons may be stored1 for early feeding1 in the barn1 provided it is not so cold as to freeze them4 ,,raising ,,carrots ,,with ,,onions4 ,i transfer from my ,treatise on ,onions1 a paragraph relative to growing ,carrots with onions4 ,the plan of raising ,carrots with onions is considered an improvement by some who have adopted it1 as the yield of ,carrots is thought to be clear gain1 diminishing but little or none the yield of onions4 ,carrots are planted in two ways2 one by sowing them in drills between every other row of onions1 and the other1 which is considered an improvement1 called the ,long ,island plan1 by planting the onions in hills from seven to eight inches from center to center1 dropping a number of seed in each hill1 and from the first to the twelfth of ,june1 planting the ,carrot seed1 usually by hand1 between these hills in two rows then skipping one1 and thus on through the piece4 ,the onions1 as they are pulled are thrown into every third row1 the ,carrots being left to mature4 ,by this method from two to six hundred bushels of ,carrots are raised per acre in addition to the crop of onions4 ,more manure is required for the two crops than for the onions alone4 ,the machine used for sowing in drills has two boxes attached to the axle at equi-distance from the wheels2 there are three or four holes in the axle that communicate with the seed in the boxes1 and as these holes pass under the boxes they are filled with seed1 and as they turn the seed are dropped into the earth4 ,screws are sunk into the holes1 which can be sunk more or less at pleasure1 and the quantity of seed which the holes will contain is thus graded4 ,the machine should first be tested1 and so regulated that on a barn floor it will drop from eleven to twelve seed from each hole4 ,when so regulated1 on using in the field it will drop but from seven to twelve1 owing to the more uneven motion4 ,,marketing ,,and ,,feeding4 ,in the cities there is a large market for ,carrots as feed for horses1 it being very generally accepted that a few given daily or every other day1 aids the digestion of grain-fed animals1 adds to the gloss of the hair1 and are of special medicinal value4 ,the largest1 smoothest and darkest orange colored roots sell the best in the market4 ,the price varies all the way from ten to twenty dollars a ton of #b1jjj pounds1 depending in part on the value of hay4 ,where the quantity fed daily is small1 a large knife or a shovel will answer to cut them up in pieces of suitable size2 but if the quantity amounts to several bushels daily1 then a root-cutter will be needed4 ,there are two classes of these1 one for sheep1 and the other for large stock1 the essential difference being that those designed to cut roots for sheep cut into smaller pieces4 ,of those designed to cut roots for large stock1 the ,whittemore machine is as good a machine as any1 having a capacity to cut up a bushel in about half a minute4 ,among farmers there is much unnecessary fear about the danger of animals choking while feeding on apples1 potatoes and roots4 ,for the last ten years ,i have fed to my cows not far from three hundred tons of squashes1 potatoes and roots1 7mostly squashes7 and never yet lost an animal or had any very serious trouble from choking4 ,my habit is to feed them while quietly in their stalls1 with a division board between the feed of each4 ,all cases of choking that have come to my notice have occurred where the animal was suddenly disturbed while eating4 ,there is a great difference of opinion as to how many roots can be fed to stock daily without injuring them4 ,the proportion will depend somewhat on the constitutional peculiarities of individual cows1 but when the bowels are all right the appetite of the animal is probably the safest guide4 ,i have had a large and extended experience in feeding squashes to milch cows1--the ,boston ,marrow1 ,hubbard and other varieties2 beginning with a half a bushel to each animal1 ,i increase the quantity until the daily consumption has averaged a hundred pounds a day to each4 ,under such heavy feeding1 after a while their appetites clog somewhat1 but ,i am inclined to the opinion that beginning with a moderate feed1 they would soon readily eat seventy-five pounds daily with a relish1 for as long a period as they might last4 ,when feeding ,carrots or any roots1 the most economical method is to give meadow or salt hay1 with a small quantity of flax-seed or cotton-seed meal4 ,the effect of the roots and these rich meals is to give to these inferior varieties of hay1 the nutritious value of the best upland ,english4 ,carrots fed too liberally to horses1 will make them soft1 and cause them to sweat at the least exertion4 ,the manure made by animals fed on ,carrots or any other roots is of poor quality and therefore for the farm's 7as well as the animal's7 sake a proportion of grain1 or its equivalent1 should always be fed with them4 ,,mangold ,,wurtzels4 ,what is a ,mangold ,wurtzel8 ,a number of years ago ,i raised a piece of ,early ,turnip ,beet seed in a very isolated location2 there was not another piece of ,beet seed growing within half a mile1 at least4 ,a good deal of the seed wasted1 as is usual when the seed is allowed to ripen well on the stock before cutting4 ,from this waste seed thousands of young plants sprang up1 many of which survived the winter1 by the help of the protection of chickweed and snow4 ,they had got so far along when ploughing time came1 ,i left the piece unploughed1 thinning them out that they might produce early beets4 ,as the season advanced a good many of them pushed seed shoots and ripened a crop of seed4 ,some of the seed ,i gathered and the next season planted it to see what it would produce4 ,the crop was 8everything20 all the way from a nice1 dark colored ,early ,turnip ,beet1 through different sizes1 colors and forms1 up to a light-fleshed ,mangold ,wurtzel6 ,as the original ,beets were a very pure ,turnip ,beet1 and during several years of careful cultivation for seed purposes had shown no admixture with any other variety1 the experiment proved either that the coarse variety of ,stock ,beet1 which we call ,mangold ,wurtzel are but sports from our fine-grained table ,beets1 or that the ,beets class are sports from ,mangolds1--most probably the former4 ,mangold ,wurtzels differ from table ,beets in their general coarseness of structure1 and the larger size to which they grow1 the elements which enter into the composition of each being the same in kind4 ,what is a ,sugar ,beet8 ,the term 8,sugar ,beet0 is an unfortunate one1 as the word 8,sugar0 had already been appropriated to express the sweet flavor of the varieties of ,beets raised for table use1 while the word ,beet is strictly a misnomer1 the vegetable ,sugar ,beet being in reality a ,mangold ,wurtzel4 ,a generation ago our fathers used the term 8,sugar0 as a familiar designation for any sweet variety of beet raised for table use1 and at the present by the great majority of the public the term is still so used4 ,as the new industry of manufacturing sugar from the beet grew on the continent of ,europe1 seedsmen were called upon to supply for commerce seed of the best variety for this purpose4 ,it was necessary that this variety should be as free as possible from all coloring substance as this would1 as a matter of course1 give a stain to the juice1 and impose on the manufacturer the labor of purifying it4 ,the ones at first selected were the long1 white ,mangold ,wurtzel1 and these were called the 8,sugar0 ,beet in commercial parlance4 ,these white ,mangolds were not entirely white1 the portion that grew above ground being usually colored a light green by exposure to the sun's rays2 it became therefore an object for the manufacturer to still improve on them to the end that all the coloring should be eliminated4 ,the intelligence and enterprise of the seedsmen of ,europe responded to this want1 and in the course of a few years two prominent varieties were produced1 that have nearly completely satisfied it1--one of these was sent out by the estimable house of ,vilmorin ,andrieux ,co41 of ,paris1 and is named 8,vilmorin's ,new ,improved ,white10 and the other 8,white ,imperial ,extra10 by the distinguished ,german house of ,ernest ,benary4 ,these improved ,sugar ,beets of commerce grow nearly entirely under ground1 and when grown these beets define themselves to be the ,mangold variety1 by the coarser structure of the root1 the stouter ribs and the greater coarseness of the leaves1 which spring in larger masses directly from the crown1 than is the case with beets for the table4 ,the moral of all this for my farmer friends is1 that if you want a beet for table use do not order 8,sugar ,beet0 or you will be very likely to find a ,mangold growing in your garden1 a return1 but not a recompense for the sweat and toil of the husbandman4 ,,varieties4 ,about twenty varieties are catalogued by seedsmen1 many of which are but strains of the same kind1 bearing the name of the grower1 who by careful cultivation has endeavored to improve it4 ,classified by form they come under three classes1 viz43--the long1 the round and the ovoid or intermediate varieties4 ,classified by color we have the red or scarlet1 the pink1 the yellow or orange1 and the white varieties4 ,the ,long ,varieties4--,among the more prominent of these are the ,ox ,horn1 the common ,long ,red1 ,norbition ,giant1 ,carter's ,orange ,globe1 and the ,silesian varieties of ,sugar ,beet4 ,the ,ox ,horn is a very crooked growing variety1 as its name would imply1 with a small diameter in proportion to its great length4 ,growing almost wholly out of ground it curves about so in the row as to be decidedly in the way1 is apt to break when pulled and in addition to these defects1 storing very badly1 it is not in any way desirable4 ,the ,norbiton ,giant1 ,long ,red1 ,gate ,post1 and ,tankard are improvements over the common ,long ,red in a greater uniformity in their habit of growth1 their size1 and a less liability to grow hollow at the top at the advanced stage of growth4 ,illustration3 ,,long ,,red ,,mangold4 ,the ,round ,varieties4--,in these are included the common ,red and ,yellow ,globe1 ,gate ,post and ,tankard1 with some of the underground varieties of the ,sugar ,beet4 ,ovoid are either red or yellow in color and are intermediate in form between the long and the round kinds4 ,what ,kinds to ,grow4--,in this country the ,long ,red are the most popular1 particularly the ,norbiton ,giant variety4 ,while travelling in ,england1 ,ireland and ,france1 for inquiry and observation1 ,i found that the round and ovoid varieties were more generally cultivated than the long sorts4 ,in my experience the ovoid varieties incline to grow smoother than the long kinds and hence are likely to bring up less earth with them1 which on heavy soil is a matter of some moment4 ,i think of the two kinds the yellow1 under the same circumstances1 makes the larger root4 ,the long varieties pile better in the cellar1 while the round or ovoids cut up rather more readily1 appear less inclined to rot at the top1 and are firmer fleshed4 ,the globe and ovoid varieties appear to be best adapted to hard and shallow soils1 and of these the ,yellow ,globe and ,ovoid are especially valuable1 as they are better keepers than most sorts and remain sound1 without sprouting1 until late into the spring1 and with special care may be kept even into the summer season4 ,illustration3 ,,ovoid ,,mangold4 ,the long ,silesian varieties of ,sugar ,beet vary from each other only in the color of the part exposed above ground1--being green1 grey or red4 ,the kind introduced to the ,american public a few years ago1 under the name of ,lane's ,improved ,american ,sugar ,beet1 is a strain of ,long ,white ,mangold4 ,the improved varieties of ,germany and ,france yield about double the percentage of sugar that is found in the common ,mangold1 in some crops the proportion being as high as sixteen per cent4 ,this would make the ,sugar ,beets of double the value of ,mangolds for stock1 but unfortunately1 the roots under like conditions of cultivation1 average but half the weight of ,mangolds4 ,illustration3 ,,globe ,,mangold4 ,the average percentage of sugar found in analysis of beets grown in this country is exceptionably high4 ,having land free from alkalies1 of unbounded fertility1 readily accessible1 and attainable at almost nominal cost1 it is a serious question why we do not follow the example of other countries and raise our own sugar rather than import it4 ,our inducement is the home market that the sugar factory would afford for unlimited areas of beets1 while the refuse pulp would enable farmers to increase greatly the number of their neat stock1 to the advantage of the manure pile and enlargement of their area of tillage4 ,the great draw back is the price of labor in our own prosperous country4 ,,the ,,soil ,,and ,,its ,,preparation4 ,in the matter of soil1 ,mangold ,wurtzels will accept a greater latitude than any other root2 thriving on every variety1 all the way from light loam to muck1 and from that to as strong a clay as is sufficiently friable for tillage4 ,muck 7properly drained7 and a strong loam are best suited to develop pounds of crop4 ,though the crop grown in the lighter soil is not so great it is much sweeter than when grown on heavy soil and when extraordinary quantities of manure have been applied1 some of the heaviest crops on record have been grown on light loam4 ,the great crop of ,mr4 ,fearing of ,hingham1 of over sixty tons to the acre1 was raised on a sandy loam4 ,some years ago ,i took a purchaser into the field where two lots of ,mangolds were growing2 he selected at once the large roots on the low land4 ,i asked him to taste a slice of those on the upland1 when he at once changed his preference4 ,as a rule it will be found that those grown on warm upland soil are decidedly the sweeter and this fact has an important bearing on the feeding value of the crop4 ,if the soil is in good heart for a foot in depth1 plough it to that depth before putting on the manure4 ,after putting on the manure1 if coarse1 it will be well to cut it up with ,randall's wheel-harrow before ploughing under4 ,after cross ploughing the manure four or five inches beneath the surface the aim should be to make a good seed bed by getting the surface level and the soil light and fine4 ,on most soils this can be accomplished by a liberal use of the wheel-harrow followed by a fine-toothed smoothing harrow and that by a plank drag4 ,an old barn door will sometimes answer for this1 but as it is an excellent implement on the farm it will be well to have one4 ,it should be about three feet wide and six long1 with one side about ten inches high1 meeting the bottom at an angle of forty-five degrees2 the planks had better overlap slightly1 as they will the better break the lumps of earth4 ,the team is to be hitched to the turned up side1 and the driver is to stand on the drag1 driving it sideways over the land4 ,the effect of such a drag in breaking up lumps and generally pulverizing the soil1 will be found to be much superior to that of any roller4 ,should the soil be of such a character or in such a condition that the harrow and drag process will not make a good seed bed1 there remains no resource other than to prepare it as for onions1 either raking over the entire surface1 or running over it three or more times with the ,meeker ,harrow4 ,illustration3 ,,meeker ,,harrow4 ,,the ,,manure ,,and ,,its ,,application4 ,the kind and quantities of food needed to grow any vegetables is found by an analysis of that vegetable4 ,having thus learned the kind and quantity needed for any crop1 the next step of the wise farmer will be to ascertain what manures contain the necessary constituents and which of these contain them in the cheapest form4 ,a little knowledge of ,chemistry1 in its application to manures1 is of incalculable value to the husbandman and no amount of experience and traditionary knowledge can serve as a substitute for it4 ,i believe that it is in this direction that the great advance in agriculture will be made1 and were there no other argument for ,agricultural colleges the fact that they are prepared to give thorough instruction in this one department would be a sufficient reason for their existence1 and for their liberal patronage by their several states4 ,prof4 ,voelcker1 an excellent authority in everything that pertains to chemistry1 in its application to agriculture1 gives the following table as the average composition of the ash of the principal root crops4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,average ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,ash ,,of ,,roots4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,number of ,analyses4 ,potash4 ,soda4 ,lime4 ,magnesia4 ,oxide of ,iron4 ,phosphoric ,acid4 ,sulphuric ,acid4 ,silica4 ,chlorine4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,turnips4 #ch #di4h #g4h #aa4g #b4f #j4i #aj4c #aa4h #a4b #e4j ,,swedes4 #g #ch4i #ad4j #ab4h #d4b #j4h #aj4d #ac4g #a4i #d4b ,,mangolds4 #ab #df4f #ah4d #e4i #d4h #j4h #h4c #c4g #d4j #i4i ,,sugar ,,beet4 #dj #dh4j #aj4d #f4d #i4e #a4j #ad4d #d4g #c4h #b4c ,,carrots4 #aj #cg4j #bj4g #aj4i #e4b #a4j #aa4b #f4i #b4j #d4i ,,parsnips4 #d #df4g #b4g #ae4g #f4j #a4c #ae4h #e4f #b4d #d4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,leaf ,,ash4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,turnips4 #cg #bg4f #e4a #cc4b #b4f #b4j #g4c #ac4a #c4e #g4g ,,swedes4 #c #ba4i #ab4c #cj4b #c4b #b4j #f4d #aj4f #d4h #aa4j ,,mangolds4 #d #be4e #bc4c #aj4d #i4g #a4b #e4d #g4b #c4c #ag4h ,,sugar ,,beet4 #g #ba4i #af4f #ai4eah4a #a4c #g4c #g4i #c4a #e4g ,,carrots4 #g #ag4f #ah4b #cb4a #c4i #c4j #c4h #h4b #e4b #h4i ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,this table shows us that the ,mangolds require the mineral ingredients of manure in the following order1 when arranged with reference to their importance3--,potash1 ,soda1 ,chlorine1 ,lime1 ,phosphoric ,acid1 ,magnesia1 ,sulphuric ,acid1 ,silica4 ,in addition to these minerals other substances enter into the composition of ,mangolds1 the most important of which is ,nitrogen4 ,barn-yard manure contains about all the elements needed by vegetation1 but not always in the right proportion1 therefore1 when applying it1 it is always profitable to know the proportions of the minerals which enter into crops that the deficiency may be supplied from other sources4 ,it is perhaps hardly necessary to say that unleached wood ashes and the ,german ,potash ,salts1 ,sulphate and ,muriate1 are the cheapest sources for ,potash at present known1 while ,soda and ,chlorine are obtained from ,muriate of ,potash or from the waste salt of the fisheries4 ,of this ,i shall have more to say presently when treating of salt as an auxiliary fertilizer4 ,lime is obtained from the common ,carbonate of ,lime of the mason1 either water or air slacked1 and this usually contains more or less of ,magnesia1 or from wood ashes which is largely one-third lime4 ,the great source of ,phosphoric ,acid is the bones of animals or corprolites1 by which is meant the fossilized bones and dung of extinct animals2 ,sulphuric ,acid is most cheaply obtained from ,plaster1 which is ,sulphate of ,lime4 ,some hold great benefit is derived by the crop of the following year1 from ploughing under the leaves as soon as the roots are topped2 the value of this is just what the analyses of our table shows4 ,the large crops reported as raised in this country1 have been raised on soil ranging from light to a friable clay loam and have received all the way from eight to fifteen cords of barn-yard manure to the acre4 ,in some instances this has been all ploughed in2 in others half spread broadcast and ploughed in and the other half put in the furrows4 ,when coarse and unfermented ,i would advise a deep ploughing of it under1 in the ,fall as with ,carrots2 other waste substances can be used as substitutes for barn-yard manure1 care being taken either that such waste substances are specially rich in ,potash1 ,soda and ,chlorine1 or that these substances be added4 ,the equivalents given are roughly estimated under the article treating of the manure for ,carrots and will be sufficient for practical purposes2 ,i therefore make no further allusions to these cheap wastes as sources for manure1 further than to mention that sea manures are specially rich in potash and soda4 ,of all roots ,mangolds are the rankest feeders1 removing more plant food from the soil than any other root crop4 ,the crop of ,mr4 ,albert ,fearing1 of ,hingham1 ,mass41 was sixty tons of roots1 and if the tops were in the usual proportion1 of about one-third1 they weighed twenty tons more1 giving the enormous yield of eighty-tons of green food from one acre of ground4 ,the crop raised on ,deer ,island1 in ,boston harbor1 was about seventy tons to the acre2 with a like proportion of tops the total yield must have been over a hundred tons4 ,in the sewage farms of ,england eighty tons of roots have been raised on an acre of ground4 ,fearing applied fifteen cords of manure to his acre of ground2 of the quantity applied to the ,deer ,island crop ,i regret ,i have not the data at hand4 ,if the mere bulk alone was to be aimed at in the crop1 the problem would be a very simple one1 but there are three points to be considered3 first1 how to get a crop that shall be great in bulk and at the same time give us the second desirable point1 viz43 ripeness1 and thus insure the third desirable point1 viz43 the highest percentage of sugar it is possible for the roots to acquire4 ,this matter of the value of ,mangolds1 for feeding purposes1 being in about the same proportion as the sugar present1 though appertaining to that part of this ,treatise which treats of 8,feeding to ,stock10 yet has so direct a bearing on the manuring of the crops that ,i will take it up at this place4 ,the recent researches of that distinguished chemist1 ,prof4 ,voelcker of ,england1 than whom there is no better authority1 has thrown much light on the question of manure in its application to this crop4 ,the ,professor takes the position that the nutritious value of roots is in proportion to the amount of dry matter in them1 and that the percentage of sugar present coincides with that of dry matter1 the proportion of sugar rising or falling with the percentage of dry matter in the roots4 ,that the feeding value does not depend on the proportion of nitrogen they contain1 is proved theoretically1 by the fact that the percentage is very much higher in the early stages of growth1 before the crop is matured1 than it is later in the season1 while in the experiments of ,mr4 ,lawes in feeding sheep1 the lot containing the most nitrogen in the way of nutrition gave the poorest results4 ,assuming with ,prof4 ,voelcker that bulk should not be sought at a disproportionate sacrifice of sugar in the crop1 and that certain soils and certain manures and certain methods of cultivation are more favorable than others to the development of this desirable proportion4 ,i present extracts from his valuable article on 8,root ,crops as affected by ,soil and ,manures40 8,land highly manured with rich dung from the fattening boxes or stables1 induces luxurious and vigorous growth in root crops1 and1 as is well known1 has a tendency to develop over-luxuriance in the tops4 ,this is the case more particularly if the dung is derived from fattening beasts1 liberally supplied with oil-cake and artificial food1 rich in nitrogenous constituents4 ,if the ,autumn turns out fairly dry and warm1 the roots in highly manured land continue to grow vigorously1 the bulbs swell to a large dimension1 and if the weather in ,september and ,october continues warm and dry1 a heavy weight1 and fairly ripe roots1 result from the liberal use of rich dung4 ,but should the ,autumn be cold and wet1 too liberal application of good1 well-rotten dung is apt to maintain the luxuriant tops in a vigorous1 active-growing condition1 at a period of the year when the crop has to be taken up1 and the result is an immature root crop1 of a low feeding value4 ,although the bulbs may be of a good size1 they turn out1 when grown under such conditions1 watery1 deficient in sugar1 and not nearly as nutritious as they would have been had a more moderate dressing of dung been put upon the land4 ,the main cause of the immature condition and low-feeding quality of ,mangolds grown with an excessive quantity of rich dung is the comparatively large amount of ammonial and nitrogenous constituents in the dung2 for numerous field experiments have shown that the peculiar tendency of ammonia salts1 and of readily available nitrogenous substances is to induce luxuriant leaf-development and vigorous and prolonged growth1 which results frequently in a more or less immature condition of the roots4 ,there is thus danger of over-manuring crops2 and the desire to produce heavy crops of ,mangolds not unfrequently leads practical men not to appreciate sufficiently this danger4 ,it is quite true ,mangolds are very greedy feeders1 and no doubt some soils will swallow up almost any amount of dung2 but at the same time it has to be borne in mind that all land is not alike1 and that there are many naturally rich clay loams containing immense stores of plant food which requires only to be brought into play by good cultivation in order to become available to plants4 ,i am much inclined to think that it is a mistake to manure soils of the latter description too liberally with dung1 even for ,mangolds1 and that in many cases a more economical result1 and certainly a better quality of ,mangolds1 although not so heavy a crop1 would be given1 if instead of all the enormous dressings of dung which are often applied to that crop1 the lands were manured in ,autumn with only half the quantity of dung1 and the seed drilled in with three to four cwt4 of superphosphate or dissolved bones1 which manures1 as we shall see presently have a tendency to produce early maturity in roots4 ,we frequently hear of complaints that ,mangolds scour1 or do not keep well4 ,complaints of this kind are only expressions in other words for the immature condition of the roots1 and in many cases the cause of this undesirable condition has to be sought in the excessive amount of ammonial or nitrogenous constituents which are applied to the ,mangolds in the shape of heavy dressings of dung4 ,the same remarks apply with equal force to the exclusive and to abundant use of sulphate of ammonia1 nitrate of soda1 and nitrogenous manures in general4 ,the special effect of all ammonial and nitrogenous manures in general1 as already stated1 is to produce luxuriant leaf development1 to induce prolonged and vigorous growth1 resulting in an immature and watery condition of the bulbs4 8,large roots1 generally speaking1 are far less nutritious than better matured roots of a moderate size4 ,for illustration of this fact ,i quote the following comparative analyses3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,water4 ,nitrogenous ,constituents4 ,sugar1 ,pectine1 c4 ,crude ,fibre4 ,ash4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,mangolds #i lbs4 #ia4he #a4cd #b4hf #b4ed #a4da 8 #g lbs4 #hi4dh #a4bd #c4ie #d4ea 4#hb 8 #d lbs4 #hi4gg #j4gc #g4fh 4#hi 4#ic 8 #a to #b lbs4 #hf4ij #j4fa #aj4ea #a4jg 4#ia ---------------------------------------- -------------- 8,small ,mangolds approach ,sugar ,beets in composition1 whilst large ,sugar ,beets are hardly better than common ,mangolds1 and monster beets are even less nutritious than well-matured ,mangolds of fair average size4 ,monster roots1 as is well known1 are always very watery1 poor in sugar1 and almost useless for feeding purposes4 8,big ,berkshire beets1--one weighing #af pounds and the other #ab pounds1--contained only #c4hi or #d per cent4 of sugar respectively1 and in round numbers as much as #ia per cent4 of water4 ,this high percentage of water is accompanied by a larger amount of albuminous compounds and of mineral matter1 than the proportions in roots1 containing very much more solid feeding matter4 ,a large amount of albuminous matter and of ash1 indeed indicates immaturity and poverty in sugar1 a characteristic of big1 excessively manured roots4 8,generally speaking1 all nitrogenous manure1 either should not be used at all1 or only sparingly1 for roots1 on stiffish land1 and all soils which contain a good deal of clay1 are naturally cold and unfavorable to a vigorous and rapid growth4 ,light land1 like most productive sandy soils and friable turnip loams1 favors the quick and vigorous growth of roots1 and is conducive to early maturity4 8,nitrate of soda has the same general effect upon root crops as nitrogenous manures1 but it appears to be more energetic in its action1 and1 on the whole1 to be a useful addition to home manures1 and to increase the produce in roots more considerably than sulphate of ammonia4 ,its effect is specially marked upon ,mangolds1 and1 to my knowledge1 heavy crops of ,mangolds have been produced upon rather light land by #a #a-b cwt4 of ,nitrate of ,soda1 two cwt4 of common salt1 sown broadcast1 and four cwt4 of dissolved bones drilled in with the seed4 8,potash salts in some field experiments which ,i have tried in different parts of the country1 have shown that ,potash has a decidedly beneficial effect upon root crops1 on poor1 sandy soils2 while on the majority of land1 and notably upon clays or clay loams1 or soils in a good agricultural condition1 ,salts of ,potash do not increase the produce4 ,the special effect of superphosphates1 dissolved bones and similar phosphatic manures1 is to produce early maturity2 and hence phosphatic manures are employed in practice very largely1 and with much benefit1 by root growers4 ,in free-growing1 light soils1 it is desirable either to use dissolved bones in addition to half dressing of farm-yard manure1 as a manure for roots1 or to spread broadcast #b or #c cwt4 of salt1 or #b cwt4 of guano and #a cwt4 of nitrate of soda and #b cwt4 of common salt1 and to drill with the seed #c to #d cwt4 of dissolved bones4 ,on the heavier description of soils it is preferable to use mineral superphosphate for roots1 especially if the land has been dressed in ,autumn with a moderate quantity of dung40 ,,salt ,,as ,,an ,,auxiliary ,,manure4 ,it will be seen by the table of analysis of roots1 that the ,mangold has in it a remarkably large percentage of ,chlorine and ,soda1 the roots yielding respectively #i4i and #ah4d1 while the tops give1 #ag4h and #bc4c4 ,salt being a combination of ,chlorine and ,soda1 known to chemists as ,chloride of ,sodium1 must therefore be a valuable auxiliary manure for ,mangolds1 that is1 one to be used in connection with other manures4 ,practice proves what chemistry indicates4 ,prof4 ,voelcker tells us that 8salt tends to check over-luxuriance in the tops1 while it prolongs the period of active growth4 ,in consequence of this specific action it may be employed with benefit as an auxiliary manure upon light land1 in quantities not greater than five bushels to the acre40 ,mr4 ,lewes1 of ,new ,york1 believes that by scattering over the surface1 when the ,mangolds develop the fourth leaf1 four or five bushels of the refuse of the ,syracuse salt works1 which is about equal parts of salt and plaster1 he has increased his crop ten tons to the acre4 ,mr4 ,lewes finds that salt tends to prevent a disease which sometimes attacks the leaves1 known as 8rust40 ,he states that it can be obtained at the works for about #c4ej per ton4 ,prof4 ,voelcker believes it would be injurious rather than beneficial on heavy land4 ,the quantity to be applied to the acre as given by practical growers1 varies from four to twenty-five bushels4 ,the effect is not always the same2 one season the increase may be very striking and the next1 under the same application1 not be perceptible1 the cause of which is not very clear1 though it appears to give better results in dry seasons than in wet4 ,the most striking effect from the application of large quantities1 in my experience1 has been on the borders of meadow land4 ,a number of years ago ,i manured in the furrow with refuse herring bait1 salt and all1 just as taken from the fish barrels4 ,the crop of ,mangolds grown from this manuring was one of the largest and smoothest ,i ever raised4 ,the next season the land was planted to ,oats4 ,in the ,fall1 while laying a heap of this oat straw in the barn1 ,i chanced to use one as a tooth-pick4 ,it tasted as though it had been pickled2 thinking it was the result of some accident1 ,i took another2 that also was salt4 ,this aroused my curiosity and on examination ,i found farther1 to my great surprise1 that all the straw tasted as though it had been dipped in pretty strong brine4 ,certainly this tremendous salting1 over and above what the crop of ,mangolds could use1 to all appearance1 had not lessened the bulk of roots4 ,on meadow land1 ,mr4 ,ware of this town1 thinks that in a dry season he doubled his crop by the application of refuse salt1 at the rate of twenty-five bushels to the acre4 ,in purchasing waste salt for this or any other agricultural crop1 it is best to get the dirtiest lot possible1 for this dirt is the waste of the fish on which it has been used1 and consists mostly of fish scales1 which for manuring purposes is decidedly the most valuable part of the fish4 ,for this reason the waste from salted herring is probably the most valuable of all4 ,,planting ,,the ,,seed ,,and ,,tending ,,the ,,crop4 ,our ground being now ready the next step is to plant it3 ,how much seed shall we need and how far apart shall we have the rows8 ,the very best of seed is often disappointing in the matter of vegetating1 and it is therefore best to plant with a liberal hand1 for it is better to have to thin out than not have plants enough4 ,from six to ten pounds of seed is the quantity used1 the larger quality when planted for sugar purposes1 the object in view being to get an even stand with all the roots the same distance apart1 to attain which a great deal of thinning is necessary4 ,as to the proper distance between the rows1 practical growers will give various replies2--#ah1 #bj1 #bb1 #bd1 #cj inches4 ,the thirty inch men are those who expect to depend on the cultivator to do about all their weeding4 ,that the crop does not require so much room to yield the greatest bulk1 is shown by the experience of other cultivators1 who have raised from forty to over sixty tons to the acre1 with their rows from eighteen to twenty-two inches apart1 while the greatest1 crop on record1 viz43--of over eighty tons to the acre1 was raised with the rows twenty-four inches apart4 ,planting on ridges is often advised1 but as far as ,i have observed1 those who begin this way generally change to the system of level culture as they advance in experience4 ,the only advantages ,i have found in the system of ridge cultivation have been that the ,mangolds appear to grow with fewer roots1 and are rather more easily weeded4 ,these advantages in practice are more than off-set by the extra labor of making the ridges and preparing them for planting4 ,mangold seed is apt to come up badly4 ,in ,france1 where land is cut up into small areas and labor is cheap1 one would expect to find as little waste as possible1 but while travelling there ,i noted in their fields that the ,mangolds were quite scattering4 ,mangold seed1 like those of beets1 are enclosed in a porous shell which itself is usually called the seed4 ,by cracking these 8seeds0 the real seed will be found within1 at the angles1 from one to four in number1 and when broken1 if fresh1 appear as white as flour4 ,one reason why a portion of the seed fails to vegetate1 is1 ,i infer1 from the quantity of moisture necessary to reach and swell the encased seed4 ,for this reason1 if planted during dry spells1 care should be taken to get them down to a good depth1 say an inch and a half deep1 and then to pack the fine earth closely over them so that it may hold the moisture4 ,any machine1 therefore1 that is used for planting should have a good roller4 ,to facilitate and hasten the vegetation1 some cultivators practice soaking the seed1 by pouring on water when almost at a scalding temperature1 and letting the seed remain in it from thirty-six to forty-eight hours1 being careful to keep it where the water will not fall below blood heat1 then rolling plaster or dry soil1 until it is sufficiently dry to drop readily from the machine4 ,some prefer to plant by hand1 believing that the greater certainty of getting the seed up and the greater regularity of the plants in the row is more than an off-set to the additional labor4 ,in doing this some growers will drop the seed on the surface by the machine1 and then follow and push them under to the depth requisite1 with the thumb and finger2 others use a strip of plank about four inches wide and three feet in length1 on the under side of which are inserted wooden pins1 every seven inches1 the pins being one and a quarter inches in diameter and projecting two inches4 ,the holes having been made1 the seed are dropped in1 and covered by the hand4 ,where blanks are found they may be profitably filled by transplanting the young ,mangolds1 care being taken to break off the tops of the larger leaves1 and also to loosen the ground a little when planting them4 ,if a time just after a shower is selected1 the result will be very satisfactory4 ,the transplanted roots when gathered in the ,fall will usually be found with several small roots in place of a single tap root4 ,all root crops require prompt and thorough attention in the matter of weeding1 and to lessen this costly department of labor they should not be raised on land abounding in the seed of weeds4 ,mangolds will require two or three hand weedings1 besides as many slidings with the scuffle or wheelhoe4 ,if too thick they should be thinned rather early in their growth1 for ,i have oftentimes noticed that if this is left until the roots begin to develop1 those left standing are apt to be dwarfed4 ,it is best to give two thinnings4 ,the plants should be left from ten to twelve inches apart2 the crop of eighty tons was thinned to twelve inches apart and as the roots are more apt to grow coarse and prongy1 and with less sugar in them1 when far apart1 ,i am inclined to ten or twelve inches as far enough4 ,the object aimed at should be1 as ,prof4 ,voelcker has shown1 to get the weight in many roots of medium size rather than in fewer roots of large size4 ,,gathering ,,and ,,storing ,,the ,,crop4 ,unlike other roots1 the keeping qualities of ,mangolds are destroyed by a temperature low enough to but little more than freeze the surface of the ground4 ,in the late ,fall when the growth is about completed1 these much exposed roots have but few leaves to protect them and hence1 where freezing weather is feared1 the provident farmer will always give them the benefit of the doubt4 ,if he is so unfortunate as to have his crop injured1 let him at once get the most he can out of them1 in the way of food1 for though the injury at first may appear to be but trivial1 the part frozen will become first corky and afterwards turn black1 and ultimately rot4 ,if but slightly frozen the frost may be taken out by at once covering the roots temporarily with earth1 but such roots must be fed early or they will rot4 ,where the globe or ovoid varieties are grown1 on land where they pull hard they may be lifted by running a subsoil plough with care4 ,in pulling these1 or any roots that are to be topped on the field1 don't do1 as is usually done1 either scatter them on the surface1 without any system1 or throw them into heaps1 as in either way the cost of removing the tops is increased4 ,if thrown in piles the tops become more or less intermingled1 and the small amount of extra labor thereby caused in topping each individual root becomes great in the aggregate1 when thousands are handled4 ,still it oftentimes happens that the weather takes a sudden1 unexpected turn1 threatening too low a temperature for the safety of the crop2 under such circumstances the question is how to get it out of danger in the most expeditious way possible4 ,the quickest way is to pull and throw into heaps1 roots in1 tops out1 by which arrangement1 should there be considerable of a freeze up1 the tops would shield the roots4 ,to protect them still more effectually earth may be shovelled over the heaps1 so as barely to cover them1 and when protected in this way they may be allowed to remain quite awhile awaiting the leisure of the farmer4 ,here let me say that this plan of protection will not answer for all crops1 as ,i have learnt with ,cabbages1 to my sorrow1 for when covered up this way1 but for a few days1 when taken out they will be found to be almost cooked by the great heat which they have developed4 ,in gathering all roots the great object is to have as few handlings as possible1 hence1 if the tops are not twisted off as the ,mangolds are pulled1 they should be laid in rows1 tops in and roots out1 four or more rows being put in one4 ,it will be best to have two hands work together1 and so make two of these rows1 leaving a small passage-way between them1 the roots being on the inside4 ,now let the topper follow with a large and sharp knife1 and lop off the leaves to his right and left as he goes1 being careful to so top the roots that each individual leaf will fall separately1 which means that he is not to cut the top of the root itself1 for unlike ,carrots1 ,mangolds so cut are apt to decay when stored4 ,for economical work the knife should be a large and somewhat heavy one1 the blade eight or nine inches in length4 ,a small grit stone for the use of the hands engaged in topping any kind of roots is always a good investment2 is saves running to the barn for an occasional touch on the grindstone4 ,if the roots are to be marketed they will need to be left to have the earth on them dry1 that it may fall off when loading1 but if for use on the farm it will be rather of an advantage1 as it will help keep them from wilting4 ,the portion of the crop to be fed before ,spring should be stored as near to the place of feeding as possible4 ,the great object should be to keep them sufficiently covered and cool to prevent wilting4 ,as all the beet family are good keepers1 there need be but a small per cent4 of loss4 ,store them in a cool1 rather moist cellar1 provided it has no standing water4 ,the heap may be three or four feet in depth1 and should be covered with earth that is rather moist than otherwise1 to prevent evaporation4 ,the long varieties may be piled cordwood fashion4 ,those to be fed after ,spring opens can be kept in a pit1 dug in gravelly soil1 on a hill-side1 or where there is no danger from standing water2 the pit may be three or four feet in depth1 and be filled to the surface4 ,in covering there are two methods3 one1 to throw the earth directly on the roots1 and the other to first cover them with cornstalks1 or some dry1 coarse litter before throwing on the earth4 ,in practice ,i find that when the litter is used the roots in immediate contract with it are apt to mould1 more or less1 and be affected with a dry rot1 though it is an excellent plan to throw over coarse litter up to severe freezing weather4 ,which ever course is pursued it is best not to throw on more at first than is sufficient to barely cover them1 and to add the remainder1 making a covering of about two feet in depth in all2 to which is to be added a foot of coarse hay as the weather becomes cold4 ,the process of thatching with straw and so piling that there shall be a roof-like slant to the heap1 with furnace-like ventilators opening from it at intervals1 ,i have never found necessary in actual practice1 the elevation of the earth above the bed being a sufficient water shed1 while the cold nature of the root prevents heating4 ,rats are the great enemies of root pits4 ,i have had galleries cut by these vermin through a bed of roots1 utterly destroying them for seed purposes4 ,the best way of killing them in my experience1 has been to drop a little arsenic on buttered bread and put it conveniently near their holes1 but so far hidden that no neighbor's dog would be likely to suffer by it4 ,,feeding ,,the ,,crop4 ,besides arguments which are of weight for cultivation of all kind of roots1 there are special ones for the raising of ,mangolds4 ,the vast bulk of yield exceeds that of any annual crop as high as eighty tons of roots having been raised to the acre on the sewerage farms of ,england and when to this is added the weight of leaves that such a crop would carry1 it will be safe to say that a hundred tons have been given to the acre4 ,taken as a whole the ,mangold has less enemies and is less apt to fail than any other root4 ,compared with the ,turnip family1 it has several marked advantages1 being more reliable in dry seasons and less liable to disease2 and in flesh-forming heat-giving and fat-producing elements it surpasses it4 ,while the ,turnip family cannot be raised repeatedly on the same land1 indeed on most soil can be raised only intervals of three or four years1 ,mangolds can be raised many years in succession1 as ,mr4 ,mechi1 the distinguished ,english agriculturist1 has proved by raising sixty tons per annum on the same tract of land of six acres area1 for six successive years4 ,they will keep longer in good condition than any other root1 under favorable circumstances even as late as ,july4 ,experiments in feeding steers made with care1 proved that while a ton of ,mangolds increased their weight sixty-five pounds1 a ton of ,swede increased their weight but forty-eight pounds1 equal quantities of hay having been fed in each experiment4 ,other experiments have established about the same proportionate value between these two roots1 though the general result was not as favorable4 ,mangolds1 like fruit1 undergo a ripening change after they are gathered1 and until this is effected they are not in the best condition for feeding4 ,the ripening process for the most part consists in a change of starch into sugar1 and makes the ,mangolds both more healthful and more nutritious food4 ,before this change is effected they are apt to scour stock if fed to any degree liberally4 ,the time when this chemical change takes place will depend on the degree of ripeness of the crop when stored2 and this1 as has been clearly shown1 is affected by both the soil on which they grew and the manure with which they were fed2 other conditions equal1 those grown on upland ripen earlier than those on lowland1 while rank manures tend to prolong the period of growth and crops so grown come into condition for feeding later in the season4 ,in ,england1 a common practice is to begin feeding the ,mangolds at ,christmas1 while in this country the middle of ,january is considered early enough4 ,experiments carefully made have proved that when fed to fattening animals they should follow and not precede ,turnips4 ,it is a good rule in feeding this as with other roots or tubers1 to begin with a small quantity and gradually increase the amount up to the limit which the appetite of the cow1 her general health and the tale of the milk pail indicate4 ,every farmer who feeds a dairy needs a root cutter4 ,there are several of these in the market1 some designed for sheep only1 which cut the roots into small pieces1 others for neat cattle1 while some manufactured by our ,canada neighbors can be arranged to cut for either class of stock4 ,as good a one as ,i know of for stock purposes1 cheapness1 durability and effectiveness combined1 is one sometimes known as the ,ames machine of which ,i present an engraving4 ,this machine is capable of cutting about two bushels a minute4 ,experiments in ,england have shown that #ei pounds of cooked ,mangolds are equal to #gj of uncooked4 ,leaves of ,mangolds should be fed with care as they are more apt to scour than those of any other root4 ,the reason of this is that they contain comparatively a large quantity of a poisonous acid known by chemists as 8oxalic0 acid1 the same that is developed in ,rhubarb leaves1 when slightly wilted1 and which sometimes causes death when such leaves are eaten as 8greens40 ,illustration3 ,,ames ,,cutter4 ,the practice sometimes followed in ,europe1 of feeding the leaves of the growing crop1 where labor is very cheap1 is thought to pay1 as the leaves are gathered just as they begin to drop from their upright position and when their usefulness as nourishers of the root have ended4 ,but with labor as cheap as may be1 there is no economy in this1 for1 aside from the deleterious effects to animals1 when fed too liberally1 by actual experiment it has been found that the wear and tear to the crop1 incidental to the plucking of these leaves by an average farm hand1 injures it more than the value of the leaves after they are gathered4 ,were it not for the enormous bulk that an acre will produce in roots when compared with its yield in hay or grain1 there would be a serious argument against the growing of them to any extent beyond what might be needed for medicinal purposes1 in the fact that the manure made from them is of so low a value2 and the practical weight of this argument would grow in proportion as farmers acquire a knowledge of the most important department of farming4 ,to most farmers a cord or load of manure of cow or horse1 is a cord or load of equal value2 now this is far1 very far from being the fact1 as will be seen by the following table which ,i take from the ,scientific ,farmer1 compiled by the celebrated ,mr4 ,lewes1 who1 by his careful experiments1 has laid the agricultural world under lasting obligation4 ,in this table a ton of ,english hay is taken as the standard and were all the manure saved1 both solid and liquid1 from a ton of each of these varieties of food1 the ingredients at the market value of the ,ammonia1 ,potash and ,phosphoric ,acid would be worth as follows3-- ,hay1 #aj4jj ,clover ,hay1 #ae4jj ,oat ,straw1 #d4ej ,wheat ,straw1 #d4af ,barley ,straw1 #c4ej ,decorticated ,cotton ,seed ,cake1 #dc4cc ,linseed ,cake1 #cj4ff ,malt ,dust1 #bh4cc ,malt1 #aj4ej ,oats1 #aa4ej ,wheat1 #aa4jj ,indian ,corn1 #aj4ej ,barley1 #i4hc ,potatoes1 #b4cc ,mangolds1 #a4ff ,swedes1 #a4da ,turnips1 7common17 #a4cc ,carrots1 #a4cc ,this table is very suggestive in many ways3--by it we see that there are varieties of food1 the manure from which is worth more than the cost of the food itself4 ,in its application to the feeding of ,mangolds1 it at a glance suggests the wisdom of feeding at the same time a portion of something richer and more concentrated4 ,by so doing the quality of the manure is vastly improved and the crops will not be slow to discover it4 ,there is still another reason for feeding these rich foods while using roots2 it enables the farmer to feed with profit his straw or inferior varieties of hay4 ,says ,prof4 ,stockhardt1 8,the full benefit to animals derivable from feeding roots is secured only when the proper proportion of substances rich in nitrogen are fed with them2 accordingly1 about two pounds of oil-cake should be fed with each hundred pounds of beet root1 or other foods may be substituted in the same proportion as they are rich in nitrogen40 ,recent researches have determined a fact of great value to agriculture3 that to get the most profitable results from food the ,albuminoid and ,carbohydrate elements should bear a certain proportion to each other1 and that while a decrease in either of them from this proper proportion means insufficient food1 and a consequent loss of flesh1 fat or milk1 an excess of either means money wasted4 ,the proportion for cows that are dry and oxen when not at work is about one of ,albuminoids to eight of ,carbohydrates2 for oxen at work and cows in milk1 one of ,albuminoids to from four to six of ,carbohydrates4 ,the following table taken from ,prof4 ,johnson's excellent work1 8,how ,crops ,grow10 gives the proportion of the ,albuminoids1 ,carbohydrates and other elements in roots and tubers4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,water4 ,organic ,matter4 ,ash4 ,albuminoids4 ,carbohydrates4 ,crude ,fibre4 ,fat1 c4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,roots ,,and ,,tubers4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,potato4 #ie4jbd4aj4ib4jba4ja4aj4c ,,jerusalem ,,artichoke4 #hj4jah4ia4ab4jae4fa4cj4e ,,kohl-,,rabi4 #hc4jaj4ha4bb4c #g4ca4bj4b ,,field ,,beets 7#c lbs4 weight74#hh4jaa4aj4ia4a #i4aj4ij4a ,,sugar ,,beets 7#a to #b lbs474 #ha4eag4gj4ha4jae4da4cj4a ,,ruta ,,bagas 7about #c lbs474 #hg4jab4ja4ja4f #i4ca4aj4a ,,carrot 7about lb474 #he4jad4ja4ja4eaj4ha4gj4b ,,giant ,,carrot 7#a to #b lbs474 #hg4jab4bj4ha4b #i4ha4bj4b ,,turnips4 #ib4j #g4bj4ha4a #e4aa4jj4a ,,parsnip4 #hh4caa4jj4ga4f #h4da4jj4b ,,pumpkin4 #id4e #d4ea4ja4c #b4ha4jj4a ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,to give the tables necessary to develop this interesting subject to its full capacity1 would be altogether beyond the scope of my little treatise4 ,i will refer my readers to the appendix of that excellent work by ,prof4 ,johnson1 8,how ,crops ,grow40 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,the ,,crop4 ,an average crop of ,mangolds may be set down at #bb tons4 ,to grow this crop would cost the farmer who depends on barn manure mainly1 about as follows3-- ,,debtor4 ,ploughing twice1 harrowing and dragging1 #i4jj ,seed1 #aj lbs41 #c4ej ,planting1 #a4jj ,sliding1 weeding and thinning crop1 #af4jj ,gathering1 topping and storing1 #ab4jj ,manure1 and handling of #g cords1 #ch4jj ,refuse salt1 #af bushels1 at #a4be per hogshead1 #b4ej ,interest1 taxes and wear and tear of implements and teams1 #ae4jj ------ ,total cost1 #ig4jj ,,creditor4 ,by crop of #bb tons roots1 at #h4ej per ton1 #ahg4jj 8 tops1--#d tons1 at #e4jj1 #bj4jj 8 value of manure left in soil1 #ad4jj ------- #bba4jj ,balance1 #abc4jj ,in the above estimate ,i have assumed most of the labor to be by boys1 who at hand weeding1 if they are reliable1 can get over the ground faster than men4 ,i have made no allowance for the cost of cutting up the roots when feeding1 as this does not belong under this head4 ,should the land be old the item of weeding would have to be increased one-half4 ,the salt ,i have priced at its cost along the sea-coast4 ,i have estimated the value of the crop at the average value of several years past1 while the manure charge is higher than it should be where farmers have access to the fertilizing wastes of great cities4 ,now1 if instead of being contented with a crop of #bb tons to the acre1 the farmer strives for double that quantity1 he will get it by additional expense in but two directions1 viz43 his manure bill and the cost of gathering and storing4 ,if we now double the cost of each of the latter1 and credit the results with double the crop1 which every practical farmer who has had experience in root culture will allow is but reasonable1 we shall have the following results3-- ,extra cost of crop of #dd tons over one of #bb3 ,manure1--#g cords1 #ch4jj ,gathering1 topping and storing1 #ab4jj ------ #ej4jj ,now adding-the credit side we shall have for ,extra #bb tons roots1 #ahg4jj ,six tons tops1 #cj4jj ,value of manure left in ground1 #ad4jj ------- #bca4jj ,deduct extra cost1 #ej4jj ------- ,profits cleared1 #aha4jj ,in other words1 by investing #fh4jj for six months1 we clear #afc4jj1 which1 as any farmer boy can figure1 is at the rate of about five hundred per cent4 a year4 ,mr4 ,fearing of ,hingham1 with the same amount of manure raised over sixty tons to the acre1 and the instances are numerous where over forty tons have been the crop when even a less quantity has been used4 ,can any farmer who has accumulated a small surplus of money do better than invest it in manure8 ,there is altogether too much money1 for the prosperity of their farming1 invested by farmers in ,savings ,banks4 ,these banks pay from four per cent4 on money1 but here is an instance where an investment made in manure pays over four hundred per cent4 ,merchants don't do so foolish a thing as to put their earnings into ,savings ,banks4 ,no2 they invest in their business and so keep it and its money making capacity under their own control2 when will farmers be as wise and become their own bankers8 ,let me remark that the farmer who is so wise as to attempt to get the most from his land will do well to follow ,prof4 ,voelcker's advice and drill in four or five hundred weight of dissolved bone to the acre1 in place of the same value in stable manure4 ,in the above estimates of the value of ,mangolds we have assumed that the farmer sold his crop4 ,now it is true of this as of every other crop that the farmer can use on his premises1 that it is of more value to him than the general market price indicates4 ,under this head an intelligent farmer of large experience writes3-- 8,from experiments made in feeding beets1 their value has been made to range from #ac to #bj cents per bushel1 with hay at twenty dollars per ton4 ,an exact estimate of the practical value of beets for cattle food1 is a difficult matter1 as it is now1 and ever will be1 hid from mortal ken4 ,the improved condition of the cow 7when fed to cows during the winter71 her increased usefulness during the entire season1 her lessened liability to sickness and disease which high feeding with any one of the different kinds of grain induces1 her lengthened lease of life1 her evident satisfaction and perfect contentment1 which is so plainly manifested while eating her daily ration of roots1 are each and every one legitimate items to be taken into the account in estimating the practical1 the actual value of beets as food for dairy stock4 8,after carefully looking at the subject in all its bearings1 so far as my experience has given me opportunity to do so1 ,i have come to the conclusion that beets for cattle food are well worth fully as many cents per bushel as good hay is worth dollars per ton1 without taking into consideration the increase of the manure2 and that the average cost1 when stored in the cellar or put into pits1 with every item of expense included1 need not exceed eight cents per bushel40 ,i will close my little treatise by remarking that while ,i cannot expect to have exhausted so prolific a subject1 yet ,i hope and trust that it may prove of value as a guide and a stimulus to some of my many friends in the great community of farmers4 ,,cabbages3 ,,how ,,to ,,raise ,,them4 ,price1 #cj ,cents1 by ,mail4 ,,squashes3 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,them4 ,price1 #cj ,cents1 by ,mail4 ,each of these treatises is amply illustrated and gives full particulars on every point1 including keeping and marketing the crops4 ,,onion ,,raising4 ,,what ,,kinds ,,to ,,raise ,,and ,the ,way to ,raise ,them4 ,this work1 issued by me in #ahfe1 has been recommended by some of the best authorities in the country and has gone through sixteen editions4 ,,price ,,by ,,mail1 #cj ,,cents4 ,,james ,j4 ,h4 ,,gregory1 ,,marblehead4 ,,our ,,large ,,illustrated ,,catalogue ,,of ,,vegetable and ,,flower ,,seeds1 ,,sent ,,free ,,to ,,all ,,applicants4 ,james ,j4 ,h4 ,gregory ,son1 ,,marblehead1 ,,mass4