,transcriber's ,notes      ,words1      
letters and phrases printed in boldface 
or italics in the    source document    
have been transcribed between equal     
signs and    underscores respectively4  
,small capitals have been transcribed   
as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,phrases between   
tildes represent side notes4 o    stands
 for a superscript o4      ,more        
,transcriber's ,notes may be found at   
the end of this text4            ,,the  
,,book ,,of ,,wonders                   
,illustration3 ,,how ,,man ,,burrows    
,,under ,,the ,,water    ,this is a     
picture of a section of one of the      
world's greatest tunnels1  showing how  
man has learned to construct great tubes
 of steel beneath  the surface of the   
water and land1 in which to run the     
swiftly moving  trains which carry him  
rapidly from place to place4            
,,the    ,,book ,,of ,,wonders          
,,gives ,,plain ,,and ,,simple ,,answers
 ,,to ,,the    ,,thousands ,,of         
,,everyday ,,questions    ,,that ,,are  

,,asked ,,and ,,which ,,all ,,should    
,,be ,,able ,,to1 ,,but ,,cannot        
,,answer      ,,fully ,,illustrated     
,,with ,,hundreds ,,of ,,educational    
,,pictures    ,,which ,,stimulate ,,the 
,,mind ,,and ,,give ,a    ,,bird',s     
,,eye ,,view ,,of ,,the      ,,wonders  
,,of ,,nature    and the    ,,wonders   
,,produced ,,by ,,man      ,edited and  
,arranged by    ,,rudolph ,j4 ,,bodmer  
,fully ,indexed      #aiae    ,,presbrey
 ,,syndicate1 ,,inc4    #def ,fourth    
,avenue    ,,new ,,york                 
,copyright1 #aiad    ,,by    ,,presbrey 
,,syndicate1 ,inc4                      
,introduction      ,no truly great book 
needs an explanation of its aim and     
purpose4 ,a  great book just grows1 as  
has this ,book of ,wonders4    ,it began
 with the attempt of a father to answer 
the natural questions  of the active    
mind of a growing boy4 ,it developed    
into a nightly search  for plain1       
understandable answers to such questions
 as 8,what makes  it night80 8,where    

does the wind begin80 8,why is the sky  
blue80 8,why  does it hurt when ,i cut  
my finger80 8,why doesn't it hurt when  
,i cut my  hair80 8,why does wood       
float80 8,why does iron sink80 8,why    
doesn't an  iron ship sink80 on through 
the maze of thousands of puzzling       
questions  which occur to the child's   
mind4 ,it has grown until the answers to
  the mere questions cover practically  
the entire range of every-day           
knowledge1 and has been arranged in such
 a form that any child may now  find the
 answer to his own inquiries4    ,as the
 mind of the child matures1 the         
questions naturally drift toward  the   
things which the genius of man has      
provided for his comfort and  pleasure4 
,we have become so accustomed to the use
 and benefits of these  wonders produced
 by man that we generally leave out of  
our books the  stories of our great     
industries1 and yet the mind of the     
child wonders  and inquires about them4 
,we have so long worn clothes made of   

wool or  cotton1 that we have forgotten 
the wonder there is in making a bolt  of
 cloth4 ,every industry has a           
fascinating story equal to that of the  
silkworm1 which moves its head          
sixty-five times a minute while spinning
  his thousand yards of silk4    ,can   
you tell ,what happens when we          
telephone8 ,how a telegram gets  there8 
,what makes an automobile go8 ,how man  
learned to tell time8 ,how  a           
moving-picture is made8 ,how a camera   
takes a picture8 ,how rope is  made8    
,how the light gets into the electric   
bulb8 ,how glass is made8  ,how the     
music gets into the piano8 and hundreds 
of others that embrace  the captivating 
tales of how man has made use of the    
wonders of nature  and turned them to   
his advantage and comfort8 ,the ,book of
 ,wonders does  this with illuminating  
pictures which stimulate the mind and   
give a  bird's-eye view of each subject 
step by step4    ,where shall such a    
book begin8 ,shall it begin with the    

,story of ,how  ,man ,learned to ,light 
a ,fire--he could not cook his food1 see
 at night1  or keep warm without a fire2
 or should it begin with ,how ,man      
,learned to  ,shoot--he could not       
protect himself against the beasts of   
the forest1  and1 therefore1 could not  
move about1 till the soil or obtain food
 to  cook until he knew how to shoot or 
destroy4    ,what was the vital thing   
for man to know before he could really  
become  civilized8 ,some means1 of      
course1 by which the things he          
learned--the  knowledge he had          
acquired--could be handed down to those 
who came after  him so that they might  
go on with the intelligence handed down 
to them4  ,this required some means of  
recording his knowledge4 ,man had to    
learn  to write4 ,without writing there 
could be no ,book of ,wonders1 and the  
book1 then1 begins naturally with the   
,story of ,mow ,man ,learned to ,write4 
,,the ,,editor4    ,illustration3       
,,writing ,,by ,,mexican ,,indians      

,,thought ,,to ,,be ,,more ,,than ,,ten 
,,thousand ,,years ,,old4          ,how 
,man ,learned to ,write      ,it is a   
long time between the day of the        
cave-dwellers1 with their  instruments  
of chipped stone1 and the present day of
 the pen4 ,yet wide  apart as are these 
points of time1 the trend of development
 can with  but few obstacles be traced4 
,the story of the pen is a natural      
sequence of ideas between the first     
piece of rock scratched upon rock by    
prehistoric man1 and the bit of  metal  
which now so smoothly records our       
thoughts4    ,there was a time in the   
unwritten history of man when necessity 
prompted the invention of weapons1 and  
the minds of these primitive men  were  
concentrated upon this point4 ,but the  
arts of war did not take up  their      
entire time2 some time must have been   
given to other pursuits4  ,as the mind  
developed1 and as an aid to memory1 we  
find them carving1  engraving1 incising 
upon the rocks their hieroglyphics1     

which took the  form of figures of men1 
habitations1 weapons1 and the animals of
 their  period4    ,illustration3 ,,the 
,,stylus      ,how ,did ,writing ,first 
,come ,about8    ,an apparently         
difficult question to answer1 since     
without writing there  can be no record 
of its origin1 and without records no   
facts2 yet the  deduction is so clear   
that the answer is simple4 ,somewhere   
far1 far  back in the dawn of the world1
 back in the beginning of human history1
  in the epoch which we have now named  
the ,quaternary ,period1 man lived  in a
 dense wilderness surrounded by the     
wildest and most ferocious  beasts4 ,his
 home was a cave1 exposed to the dangers
 incidental to that  time and his       
surroundings1 and he was of necessity   
compelled to look  about for means of   
defense4 ,with this idea in mind1 he    
found that by  striking one stone       
against another he knocked off chips1   
which chips  could be used as           
arrow-heads1 spears and axes4 ,following

 along these  lines he discovered that  
by rubbing one of these chips against   
another  there was left a mark1 which   
was the first imitation of writing2 that
  the sharper the edge of the chip1 the 
deeper was the scratch1 and             
consequently the more distinct the mark4
    ,illustration3 ,,earliest ,,ways    
,,of ,,writing    ,,the ,,first         
,,imitation ,,of ,,writing    ,next it  
was discovered that certain stones1 such
 as flint1 serpentine  and chalcedony1  
marked more readily than others2 that   
the elongated  chip was handled with    
more facility2 that by rubbing one stone
 against  another the finest possible   
points and edges might be obtained4     
,thus in  the ,age of ,stone was the    
long1 tapering instrument of stone1 the 
first  pen1 the ,stylus1 originated4    
,then came the time1 known as the       
,bronze ,age1 when men learned to       
hammer metal into shapes1 and metal     
having many advantages over stone1  the 
stylus of stone gave way to one of iron4

 ,so we find that in the  time of the   
,egyptians1 about fourteen or fifteen   
centuries ,b4,c41 an  iron stylus was in
 use for marking on soapstone1 limestone
 and waxed  surfaces4 ,an improvement in
 this metal stylus was that the blunt   
end  was convex and smooth1 the purpose 
of which was to erase and smooth  over  
irregularities4 ,in some cases it was   
pointed with diamonds1 which  gave it   
greater cutting properties4 ,the iron   
stylus was also used by  the ,egyptians 
of that period1 as well as in later     
times1 with a mallet1  after the manner 
of the modern chisel 7which indeed it   
resembled7 for  cutting out inscriptions
 on their monuments4    ,illustration3  
,,the ,,brush    ,,writing ,,fluids     
,,helped ,,development    ,in course of 
time a marking fluid was discovered1 and
 this made  necessary a writing         
instrument which could spread characters
 on  parchment1 tree-bark1 etc4 ,thus it
 was found that by putting together  a  
small bunch of hairs1 arranging them in 

the shape of an acute cone1  and        
fastening them together in some manner1 
an instrument could be  made which would
 carry fluid in its path1 and thus make 
a mark of the  desired shape4 ,the hair 
best adapted for the purpose was found  
to be  camel's hair1 while that of the  
badger and sable was also used4 ,a tube 
cut from a stalk of grass answered for a
 holder4 ,the hairs were held  together 
by a piece of thread which was then     
drawn through the tube1  thus making the
 first writing instrument to be used in 
conjunction with  ink1 the ,brush4      
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,chinese    
,,improved ,,methods    ,just when the  
,brush came into existence is not       
definitely known1 but  with this        
instrument the great ,chinese           
philosopher ,confucius wrote his        
marvelous philosophy4 ,the ,brush as a  
writing instrument is generally         
associated with the ,chinese1 because   
the ,chinese use this instrument  even  
to the present day1 it being especially 

adapted to their letters  and mode of   
writing4 ,we have now a pen 7brush71 as 
well as an ink1 but  the material upon  
which the people of that age wrote1 in  
lieu of paper1  was still very crude1   
parchment and tree-bark being most      
commonly used4    ,illustration3 ,,the  
,,quill    ,,the ,,earliest ,,forms ,,of
 ,,paper    ,just as the discovery of an
 ink wrought a change from the ,stylus  
to  the ,brush1 so the advent of        
papyrus1 a paper made from the papyrus  
plant1 which was much finer and more    
economical than parchment1 brought  with
 it a pen better adapted for this       
material4 ,it was found that  the ,reed1
 or ,calamo1 as it was called1 which    
grew on the marshes on  the shores of   
,egypt1 ,armenia and the ,persian ,gulf1
 if cut into short  lengths and trimmed 
down to a point1 made an admirable pen  
for this  newly discovered paper4 ,this 
was the true ancient representative and 
precursor of the modern pen4 ,the use of
 the ,reed can be traced to a  remote   

antiquity among the civilized nations of
 the ,east1 where ,reeds  are in use now
 as instruments for writing4            
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,monks ,,did
 ,,their ,,writing    ,the introduction 
of a finer paper rendered necessary a   
finer instrument  of writing1 and the   
quill of the goose1 swan1 and1 for very 
fine  writing1 of the crow1 was found to
 be well adapted4 ,immense flocks of    
geese were raised1 chiefly for their    
quills4 ,the earliest specific  allusion
 to the quill occurs in the writings of 
,st4 ,isadore de ,seville1  seventh     
century1 although it is believed to have
 been in use at an  earlier period4 ,the
 quill was used for many centuries4     
,most of the  writing during its reign  
was done in the monasteries by the      
monks1 and  in the eighteenth century1  
when quill-making became quite an art1  
every monk and every teacher was        
expected to be proficient in the art  of
 making a pen from a quill4 ,the        
preliminary process of preparing the    

quills was first to sort them according 
to their quality1 dry in the  hot sand1 
then clean them of the outer skin1 and  
harden by dipping in  a boiling solution
 of alum and diluted nitric acid4       
,during the last  century many efforts  
were made to improve the quill1 its     
great defect  being speedy injury from  
use4 ,ruby points were fitted to the    
nib1 but  this was found impracticable  
on account of the delicacy of the work4 
,joseph ,bramah devised1 in #ahji1 a    
machine for cutting the quill into      
separate nibs for use in holders1 thus  
making several pens from one  quill and 
anticipating the form of the modern pen4
    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,steel ,,tube 
,,pen    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first   
,,steel ,,pen    ,the quill held sway as
 writing instrument for many years1 and 
with  it the greatest masterpieces in   
literature have been written4 ,many     
attempts1 however1 had been made to     
supersede the quill by a pen not so     
easily injured by use1 but it was not   

until about #aghj that1 after much      
experimenting and numerous failures1    
,mr4 ,samuel ,harrison introduced the   
first metallic pen4    ,,the ,,invention
 ,,of ,,the ,,pen    ,this pen was made 
as follows3    ,a sheet of steel was    
rolled in the form of a tube4 ,one end  
was cut and  trimmed to a point after   
the manner of the quill1 the seam where 
both  edges of the tube met forming the 
slit of the pen4 ,this was soon after   
improved upon by cutting a rough blank  
out of a thin sheet of steel1  which    
blank was filed into form about the nib1
 rounded1 and with a  sharp chisel      
marked inside where the slit was to be  
in the finished  pen4 ,after tempering1 
the nib was ground and shaped to a point
  suitable for fine or broad writing1 as
 required4    ,illustration3 ,,the      
,,modern ,,steel ,,pen    ,illustration3
 ,,the ,,modern ,,writing ,,pen    ,once
 started1 the steel pen made rapid      
strides in improvement4 ,mr4  ,james    
,perry1 in #ahbd1 started in ,england   

the manufacture of pens on a  large     
scale1 and to him as well as ,gillott is
 due the many improvements  which       
followed4    ,perry was the first to    
manufacture 8slip0 steel pens1 up to    
this time  the pen and holder being one 
piece4        8,in times of yore1 when  
each man cut his quill      ,with little
 ,perryian skill2      ,what horrid1    
awkward1 bungling tools of trade        
,appeared the writing instruments1 home 
made60    ,,the ,,modern ,,way ,,of     
,,writing    ,the steel pen of the      
present day has reached the pinnacle of 
perfection1 and the method of           
manufacture of this little but mighty   
instrument of writing1 though of extreme
 interest1 is practically  unknown by   
the general public4 ,to explain in      
detail the development  from the rough  
steel to the finished pen would needs   
make a book  in itself4 ,and as it has  
been our intention to dwell1 not upon   
the  manufacture of the pen1 but to     
trace its history and development from  

its most crude form1 the ,stylus1 to the
 perfect and smooth-writing  steel pen  
of to-day1 we will close our story with 
the well-worn epigram  of old1 grim     
,cardinal ,richelieu3        8,beneath  
the rule of men entirely great1         
,the ,pen is mightier than the ,sword60 
,how a ,steel ,pen is ,made      ,in the
 picture on the following page1 we see  
the various processes    required in    
making a steel pen1 together with a     
description of each    process3         
,illustration3 ,,how ,a ,,steel ,,pen   
,,is ,,made      ,no4 #a4 ,,rolled      
,,steel4      ,no4 #b4 ,,scrap4         
,no4 #c4 ,,blanks4      ,no4 #d4        
,,marking4      ,no4 #e4 ,,piercing4    
,no4 #f4 ,,annealing4      ,no4 #g4     
,,raising4      ,no4 #h4 ,,hardening4   
,no4 #i4 ,,tempering4      ,no4 #aj4    
,,scouring4      ,no4 #aa4 ,,grinding4  
,no4 #ab4 ,,slitting4      ,no4 #ac4    
,no4 #a4 ,,college ,,pen ,no4 #e4       
,,school ,,pen4    7,,finished ,,pens47 
,,coloring ,,and ,,varnishing4      ,the

 pictures herewith printed are by the   
courtesy of the ,spencerian    ,pen     
,company      ,raw ,material4--,the     
sheet steel is cut into strips of a     
convenient    length and width1 and then
 rolled cold to the exact gauge         
necessary1    according to the pen to be
 manufactured4      ,cutting the        
,blank4--,this is a mechanical          
operation1 and is effected    with the  
aid of a screw press1 in which a pair of
 tools corresponding    with the shape  
of the pen has been fixed4 ,on pulling a
 lever the    screw descends1 driving   
the punch into the bed1 which cuts a    
blank    with a scissors-like action1   
from the strip of steel4      ,marking  
the ,name4--,this is done by means of a 
punch fixed in    the hammer of a stamp1
 worked by the foot4 ,the blanks are    
rapidly    introduced between guides    
fixed on the bed of the stamp1 and as   
soon as the hammer has fallen the blank 
is thrown out and a new one             
introduced4      ,piercing4--,the tools 

for this operation are of a delicate    
character4 ,the blanks are fed by hand1 
as above explained1 and the    hole     
punched by a screw press4 ,this is a    
most important process2 the    pierce   
hole and slide slits determine the      
elasticity and regulate the    flow of  
the ink on the pen4      ,annealing or  
,softening4--,the blanks are still      
moderately hard and    before raising1  
it is necessary to soften them by       
heating to a dull    red1 and allowing  
them to gradually cool4                 
,raising4--,the operator places one of  
the soft blanks on a die to    which    
guides are affixed to keep it in        
position2 then by moving the    handle  
of the press1 the screw descends1       
forcing a die which rounds    the blank 
into the form of a pen4                 
,hardening4--,the pen is now too soft1  
and is hardened by heating and    the   
immersing in oil while hot1 after which 
it is thoroughly cleansed    from all   
grease4      ,tempering4--,the pens are 

now hard but very brittle1 and in order 
to correct this defect they are placed  
in an iron cylinder1 and kept           
revolving over a gas or charcoal fire   
until they acquire a proper    temper4  
,scouring4--,after soaking in diluted   
sulphuric acid1 the pens are    placed  
in iron cylinders containing fine stone 
and water1 or fine    sand1 and revolved
 for several hours4 ,when taken from    
these cylinders    they are bright and  
smooth4      ,grinding4--,this is a     
process performed by hand on a 8bob10 or
    wooden wheel covered with leather   
and dressed with emory1 revolving    at 
high speed4 ,a light touch on the emory 
wheel grinds off the    surface between 
the pierce hole and the point1 to obtain
 proper    action and to assist the flow
 of ink4      ,slitting4--,this is a    
hand process performed with a press1 the
    cutters being as sharp as razors4   
,the pen is placed in position by       
means of guides1 and must be cut with   
utmost precision from the    pierce hole

 to the point1 the point must be divided
 exactly in the    middle1 the least    
variation making the pen defective4     
,coloring and ,varnishing4--,the pens   
having been polished to a bright        
silver color are placed in an iron      
cylinder and kept revolving over    a   
gas or charcoal fire until the tint     
required is produced4 ,they are    then 
immersed in a bath of shellac varnish1  
and afterwards dried in    an oven4     
,examination4--,every steel pen passing 
through the factory is most    carefully
 examined before being boxed1 and should
 the least fault be    found1 it is at  
once rejected4      ,why ,does a ,pencil
 ,write8    ,you can use a pencil to    
write with or to make marks1 because the
 pencil  wears off if you are scratching
 it on a surface that is rough enough   
to make it do so4 ,writing1 you know1 is
 only a way of making marks in  such a  
manner as to make them mean something4  
,you cannot write with a  pencil on a   
pane of glass1 because the glass is so  

smooth that when  you move the pencil   
over its surface1 the pencil will not   
wear off4 ,to  prove to yourself that   
the tip of the pencil constantly wears  
off when  you write1 you have only to   
recall that when you write with it a    
pencil  keeps getting shorter and       
shorter4 ,a slate-pencil will wear down 
short  by merely writing with it1 but a 
lead-pencil must be sharpened--that  is1
 you must keep cutting away the wood in 
order to get at the lead  inside4       
,why ,can't ,i ,write on ,paper ,with a 
,slate-pencil8    ,you cannot do so1    
because it takes something with a       
rougher surface  than paper to wear off 
the point of a slate-pencil4 ,a slate is
 used to  write on with slate-pencils1  
because slate wears off the end of the  
pencil easily1 and also because you can 
rub out the writing on a slate  with    
water4 ,lead-pencils are used for       
writing on paper1 but you must  have a  
rough surface on the paper to write on  
even with a lead-pencil4  ,some kinds of

 papers have such a smooth surface that 
you cannot write  on them with a        
lead-pencil4      ,how ,does a ,pen     
,write8    ,writing with a pen1 however1
 is quite different from writing with   
any  kind of pencil1 because in writing 
with ink we do not wear off the end  of 
the pen1 but have the ink flow from the 
pen4 ,for this purpose we  must have a  
surface that will absorb the ink from   
the pen1 and draw  the ink down off the 
pen and make it flow4 ,a slate has no   
power of  absorption and therefore      
cannot draw the ink4 ,a piece of        
blotting paper  is the best kind of     
paper for absorbing ink1 but it is too  
much so for  writing purposes4 ,for     
writing with ink we need a comparatively
 hard  surfaced paper that has absorbent
 qualities1 but not too absorbent4      
,how ,does a ,blotter ,take ,up the ,ink
 of a ,blot8      ,it is because the    
blotter has a very excellent ability to 
absorb some  liquids4 ,the thinner the  
liquid the more easily the blotter will 

absorb  it4 ,ink is thin--being mostly  
water--the blotter is of a loose texture
  and has a rough surface4 ,this gives  
the blotter the ability to pick up  the 
ink1 just as a sponge would do4 ,a      
sponge has what is called the  power of 
capillary attraction and so has the     
blotter4          ,where ,does ,chalk   
,come ,from8      ,deposits of chalk are
 found on some shores of the sea4 ,a    
piece of chalk  such as the teacher uses
 to illustrate something on the         
blackboard  at school consists of the   
remains of thousands of tiny creatures  
that at one time lived in the sea4 ,all 
of their bodies excepting the           
chalk--called carbonate of lime in      
scientific language--has disappeared    
and the chalk that was left was piled up
 where it fell at the bottom  of the    
ocean1 each particle pressing against   
the other with the water  pressing over 
it all until it became almost solid4 ,it
 took thousands of  years to make these 
chalk deposits of the thickness in which

 they are  found4 ,later on1 through    
changes in the earth's surface1 the     
mountain  of chalk was raised until it  
stood out of the water and thus became  
accessible to man and school teachers4  
,how ,did ,men ,learn to ,talk8         
,talking and the words used came into   
being through the desire of men  to     
communicate with each other4 ,before    
words became known and used  man talked 
to those about him by the use of signs1 
gestures and other  movements of the    
body4 ,even to-day when men meet who    
cannot talk the  same language they will
 be seen trying to come to an           
understanding by  the use of signs and  
gestures and generally with fair        
results4 ,the  need of more signs and   
gestures to express a constantly        
increasing  number of objects and       
thoughts led to the introduction of     
sounds or  combination of sounds made   
with the vocal cords to accompany       
certain  signs and gestures4 ,in this   
way man eventually developed a very     

considerable faculty for expressing     
himself4 ,sign by sign1 gesture  by     
gesture and sound by sound language was 
slowly developed4 ,a man  would be      
trying to explain something to another  
by sign or gesture  and to make it more 
clear would make a sound or combination 
of sounds  to put more expression into  
his efforts4 ,finally the other man     
would  understand what was meant and he 
would tell some one else1 using the     
same signs1 gestures and sounds4 ,later 
on it would develop that to  express    
thus any certain thought1 act or the    
name of a thing1 all of  the people in  
the community would make this same      
combination of sounds1  signs and       
gestures to express the same thing4     
,finally the gestures  and signs would  
be dropped and it was found that people 
understood  perfectly what was meant    
when only the sound or combination of   
sounds  was produced4 ,that made a word4
 ,all the other words were made in the  
same way1 one at a time1 until we had   

enough words to express all the         
ordinary things and the combination of  
words became a language4 ,the  children 
learned the language by hearing their   
parents talk it1 and  that is how men   
learned to talk4          ,how ,did     
,shaking the ,head ,come to ,mean 8,no08
      ,the origin of this method of     
indicating 8,no0 is found in the result 
of  the mother's efforts in the animal  
kingdom of trying to feed her young4  ,a
 mother animal would be trying to get   
her young to accept the food she        
brought them and tried to put it in     
their mouths4 ,perhaps1 however1 the    
young animal had had sufficient food or 
did not fancy the kind of food  offered4
 ,the natural thing to do under the     
circumstances would be to  close the    
mouth tight and shake the head from side
 to side to prevent  the mother from    
forcing the food into the mouth4 ,thus  
we get the closed  lips and the shaking 
the head from side to side to mean      
8,no40 ,in other  words1 that kind of a 

way of saying 8,no0 came from an effort 
to say 8,i  don't want any40            
,how ,did a ,nod ,come to ,mean 8,yes08 
,the idea of nodding to mean 8,yes0     
comes from the opposite of the action   
which1 as just described1 indicates a   
8,no40    ,when the young animal was    
anxious to accept the offered food1 it  
made  an effort to get at the food      
quickly4 ,hence1 the pushing forward of 
the  head and the open mouth 7always    
more or less opened when you nod to     
indicate 8,yes07 and an expression of   
gladness4 ,you will notice if you  see  
anyone nod the head to indicate 8,yes0  
that the lips are open rather  than     
closed1 and that there is always a smile
 or an indication of a  smile to        
accompany it4 ,in other words1 the nod  
to mean 8,yes0 is only  another way of  
saying 8,i shall be pleased40           
,why ,do ,we ,count in ,tens8      ,when
 man even in his uncivilized state found
 it necessary to count1 the  only       
implements at hand were his fingers and 

toes1 and as he had ten  toes and ten   
fingers1 he naturally began counting in 
tens1 and has been  doing so ever since4
    ,when we to-day count on our fingers
 we confine ourselves to our fingers    
leaving our toes stay in our shoes1     
where they naturally belong4 ,but  the  
first men who counted used both fingers 
and toes1 and so he was  able to count  
twenty before he had to begin over      
again1 while little  children to-day1   
when they count with their fingers1 must
 begin where  they started after they   
reach ten4          ,what ,does ,man    
,mean by ,counting ,himself8      ,the  
expression 8counting himself0 was       
originated by the first man who         
counted4 ,such a man would count all of 
his fingers and toes and the  result    
would be twenty4 ,then1 so that he would
 remember the number of  times he had   
counted himself1 he made a mark some    
place each time he  reached twenty4 ,the
 mark he made was a mere scratch in the 
dirt or on a  hoe or something else4 ,to

 make a scratch you merely1 of course1  
score  the surface of whatever you      
happen to be scratching on1 and that is 
how  it happened that the word 8score0  
in our language to-day means as a  term 
in counting1 twenty4    ,there has been 
a great effort made to change our system
 of counting in  tens to one where you  
count in twelves4 ,that would fit in    
very well  with our system of measuring 
which is based on the foot of twelve    
inches1 and of our calendar for         
recording the passage of time which has 
twelve months4 ,there are many arguments
 in favor of this change1 among  the    
principal of which is the fact that it  
would make our problems of  division    
much easier1 for our ten can be evenly  
divided by but two of  our single       
figures1 two and five1 whereas twelve   
can be evenly divided  by four of our   
single figures1 viz41 two1 three1 four  
and six4 ,it is  believed that sooner or
 later the system of counting by twelve 
instead  of ten will be adopted by the  

entire world for counting everything4   
,as  it is now we do part of our        
counting by one system and part of it by
  another4          ,where ,did ,all the
 ,names of ,people ,originate8          
,there is no scientific plan by which   
people get their names4 ,there is  not  
much except curious interest to be      
gleaned from the study of how  people   
got their names4    ,in the earliest    
days of the world1 or at least as soon  
as men had  learned to speak by sounds1 
all known persons1 places and groups of 
human beings must have had names by     
which they could be spoken of or  to1   
and by which they were recognized4 ,the 
study of these names and  of their      
survival in civilization enables us in  
certain instances to  tell what tribes  
inhabited certain parts of the earth now
 peopled  by descendants of an entirely 
different race and of another speech    
altogether4 ,we learn such things from  
the names of mountains and other        
things1 for instance1 which still cling 

to them4    ,the story of personal names
 is very complex1 but comes from very   
simple  beginnings4 ,the oldest personal
 names were those which indicated a     
group of people rather than individuals 
who may have been actually  related to  
each other or even bound together for   
reasons of protection  or other         
convenience4 ,in the races of ,asia1    
,africa1 ,australia and  ,america       
examination shows that groups of people 
who considered  themselves to be of the 
same relationship1 attached to          
themselves the  name of some animal or  
other object1 whether animate or        
inanimate1 from  which they claimed to  
be descended4 ,this animal or object was
 called  the 8totem10 and thus the      
earliest and most widely spread class   
and  family names are totemistic4 ,such 
groups called themselves by names  from 
wolves1 turtles1 bears1 suns1 moons1    
birds1 and other objects1 and  these    
people wore badges with pictures of the 
animal or object from  which they took  

their names to identify them to other   
people4    ,when1 then1 we come to      
investigate the giving of personal names
 among  the tribes1 we see that most    
uncivilized races gave a name to each   
new-born infant derived from some object
 or incident4 ,so a new-born  member of 
the 8,sun0 tribe would be named 8,dawn10
 and would be known  as 8,dawn0 of the  
8,sun0 tribe2 or perhaps a new-born son 
of the tribe  of 8,wolf0 would be called
 8,hungry10 and be known as 8,hungry    
,wolf40 ,a  member of the 8,cloud0 tribe
 would be named 8,morning10 because he  
was  born in the morning4 ,he would     
always be known as 8,morning ,cloud40   
,later1 as society became more          
established and paternity became        
recognized1 we find the totem name give 
way to a gentile name4  ,among the      
,greeks and ,romans the system was early
 adopted and proved  satisfactory4 ,thus
 we have ,caius ,julius ,caesar4 ,caius 
indicates that  he is ,roman2 ,julius is
 the gentile name given him and the     

,caesar a sort  of hereditary nickname4 
,on the other hand1 the early ,greeks   
began the  system of introducing a local
 name instead of the gentile name4 ,thus
  ,thucydides 7obtained from the        
grandfather71 the son of ,olorus1 of the
  ,deme 7township7 of ,halimusia4       
,,how ,,different ,,names ,,originated  
,this was all right and suited the      
purposes of the ,greeks and ,romans1    
who had plenty of time to give full     
explanations in this way4 ,but  in      
,europe1 for instance1 civilization     
demanded more speed1 and the  increase  
of population demanded more names1 so   
that nicknames and names  indicating    
personal descriptions and peculiarities 
came into use4 ,such  names as ,long1   
,short1 ,small1 ,brown1 ,white1 ,green  
and others of the  same kind came from  
this source1 and as families grew these 
surnames  stuck to the family and       
parents gave their children ,christian  
names  to further distinguish them as   
individuals4 ,other surnames such as    

,fowler1 ,sadler1 ,smith1 ,farmer1 etc41
 became attached to people because  of  
the occupations in which they were      
engaged1 and yet other names  were      
derived from places4 ,the owner of an   
extensive estate would be  designated by
 a ,christian name which might be       
,george 7after his ,king7  and then to  
indicate his landownership1 von 7meaning
 of7 ,wood1 making  the combination of  
,george von ,wood1 meaning ,george1 the 
owner of the  place called ,wood4 ,on   
the other hand1 he might have working   
for him a  laborer who lived at the     
place and1 if his name was ,hiram1 they 
would1  to indicate where he belonged1  
put the ,wood after the ,hiram2 but1    
lest  there be confusion as to his      
class1 they would put an ,at before the 
,wood and make him ,hiram ,atwood1      
indicating his ,christian name1 where he
  worked and the fact that he was not a 
landowner4    ,many other names were    
invented in similar manner4 ,when ,adams
 became so  common that there would     

likely be confusion on account of there 
being  so many of them1 a son of one of 
the ,adams family would add to the name 
the fact that he was a son by writing   
his name ,adamson1 and thus start  a new
 family name4 ,thus1 in the same way    
also came ,willson1 ,clarkson1  and     
other names of that kind4    ,for a long
 time the ,jews had only one word for a 
name1 such as ,isaac1  ,jacob1 ,moses1  
etc4 ,they became so numerous that it   
was impossible to  distinguish them1 and
 so a commission was named to give      
surnames to  all the ,jews in addition  
to their other names4 ,as the race was  
then1  as now1 held in derision by the  
rulers of many nations into which the   
tribe had become scattered1 the people  
who had charge of the naming of  the    
,jews took advantage of the opportunity 
to make sport of them1 and  gave them   
such names as    ,rosenstock 7,rose     
bush71    ,rosenszweig 7,rose twig71    
,rosenbaum 7,rose tree71    ,blumenstock
 7,flower bush71    ,blumenthal 7,flower

 valley71    etc41 etc4    ,our         
,christian names are from similar       
sources1 and while many of them  are    
well selected because of their beautiful
 meanings1 there are many  of them which
 mean nothing as words as they were only
 invented for the  purpose of giving a  
new name to a new child4          ,why  
,can ,you ,blow ,out a ,candle8         
,when you light a candle it burns1      
because the lighted wick heats the  wax 
sufficiently to turn it into gases1     
which mix with the oxygen in  the air   
and produce fire in the form of light4  
,you know it is not easy  to light a    
candle quickly4 ,you must hold the      
lighted match to the wick  until the wax
 begins to melt and change to gases4 ,as
 long as the wax  continues hot enough  
to melt and turn to gas the candle will 
burn until  all burned up2 but if there 
is a break in the continuous process of 
changing the wax to gas1 the light will 
go out4 ,now1 when you blow at  the     
lighted candle1 you blow the gases which

 feed the flame away from  the lighted  
wick1 and this makes a break in the     
continuous flow of gas  from the wax to 
taper1 and the light goes out4          
,illustration          ,the ,story in a 
,photograph      ,how ,does a ,camera   
,take a ,picture8    ,when we look upon 
the surface of a mirror we see the image
 of ourself  and our surroundings4 ,the 
extent of the view depends upon the size
 of  the mirror and the distance we are 
standing from it4    ,if we hold the    
mirror close to our face we see only the
 face1 or  perhaps but a portion of it1 
and the farther away we are the more    
the mirror will reflect1 only1 of       
course1 the various images will be      
smaller4 ,the mirror reflecting exactly 
what the eye sees1 without doubt  had a 
great influence in inducing the         
experiments that resulted in the        
process we call photography4    ,the    
taking of a photograph with a camera may
 in a way be compared  with the action  
of your eyes1 when you gaze upon your   

reflection in a  mirror1 or look at any 
object or view4 ,any object in a light  
strong  enough to render it visible will
 reflect rays of light from every point4
    ,now1 the eye contains a lens very  
similar in form to that used in a       
camera4 ,this lens collects the rays of 
light reflected from the object  looked 
at and brings them to a focus in the    
back of the eye1 forming an  image or   
picture of whatever we see1 just as the 
mirror collects the  rays of light and  
reflects them back through the lens of  
the eye4    ,certain nerves transmit the
 impression of the image so focused in  
the  back of the eye to the brain and we
 experience the sensation of sight4     
,what ,is the ,eye of the ,camera8      
,the lens is the eye of the camera1 and 
the process we call photography  is the 
method employed to make permanent the   
image the eye or lens of  the camera    
presents to a sensitive surface within  
the camera4    ,fig4 #a shows a simple  
form of camera1 it being merely a light 

tight box  with a lens fitted to the    
front1 and a means for holding a        
sensitive  plate at the back1 the plate 
being placed at just the right distance 
to  focus the rays of light admitted    
through the lens in exactly the same    
manner as the rays of light pass through
 the lens of the eye and come  to a     
focus in the back part of the eye4      
,now1 if we could look inside the camera
 we would note that the image  was      
inverted1 or upside down4    ,fig4 #b   
will explain this4    ,the rays of light
 from 8,a0 pass in a straight line      
through the lens  8,b0 until they are   
interrupted by 8,c10 upon which they    
strike1 forming  an upside down image of
 the object 8,a40 ,but1 you exclaim1 8we
 do not  see things upside down40 ,no1  
we do not1 because some mental process  
readjusts this during the passing of the
 impression from the eye to our  brain4 
,let us suppose we have our camera      
loaded with its sensitive plate or      
film4 ,we select some object or view we 

wish to photograph1 uncover  the lens   
for an instant1 and let the light       
impress the image upon the  sensitive   
surface of the plate or film4 ,now1 how 
are we going to make  this image        
permanent8    ,if we were to examine the
 creamy yellow strip of film upon which 
the  picture was taken there would      
seemingly be no difference between its  
present appearance and before the       
snapshot was made4    ,now let us       
suppose that this strip of film is a    
little trundle bed1 and  in it tucked   
securely away from the light are many   
hundreds of little  chaps called silver 
bromides1 little roly-poly fellows lying
 just as  close together as possible1   
and protected by a coverlet of pure     
white  gelatine4    ,,how ,a            
,,photograph ,,is ,,developed    ,until 
the sudden flash of light in their faces
 when the picture was  taken1 they have 
been content to lie still and sleep     
soundly4 ,now  they are seized with a   
strange unrest1 and each little atom is 

eager  to do his part in showing your   
picture to the world4 ,alone they are   
powerless1 but they have1 all unbeknown 
to them1 some powerful chemical         
friends1 who1 organized and aided by the
 photographer1 will bring  about their  
transformation4 ,these chemicals1 with  
the help of the  photographer1 form     
themselves into a society called the    
developer4    ,the photographer takes   
just so many of the tiny feathery       
crystals of  pyro1 just so many of the  
clear little atoms of sulphite of soda1 
and  just so many little crystals of    
carbonate of soda1 and tumbles them  all
 into a beaker of clear cold water4     
,unaided by each other1 any one  of     
these chemicals would be powerless to   
help their little bromide  of silver    
friends4 ,the first of these chemicals  
to go to work is the  carbonate of soda4
    ,he tiptoes softly over to the      
trundle bed and gently begins turning   
back the gelatine covers over the little
 bromide of silver chaps1 so  that ,pyro

 can find them in the dark4    ,it is   
,pyro's mission to transform the little 
silver bromides into  silver metal1 but 
he is rather an impulsive chap1 so he is
 accompanied  by sulphite of soda1 who  
warns him not to be too rough1 and whose
 sole  mission is to strain his         
eagerness to help his friends4    8,go  
slow now10 says ,sulphite1 8don't       
frighten the little silver  bromides1 or
 else you'll make them cuddle up in     
heaps1 and the picture  won't be as nice
 as if you wake them up gently and each 
little bromide  stayed just where he    
belonged40    ,after all the little     
silver bromides that the light shone on 
have been  transformed into metallic    
silver by the developer1 another        
chemical  friend has to step in and     
carry away all the little bromides that 
were  not awakened by the flash of      
light4    ,this friend's name is        
8,hypo10 and in a few minutes he has    
carried away  all the little bromides   
that are still sleeping1 so that the    

trundle  bed with the now awakened and  
transformed silver bromides will1 after 
washing and drying1 be called a         
negative1 and ready to print your       
pictures from4    ,if we take this      
negative1 as it is called1 and hold it  
up to the  light1 we will see that      
everything is reversed1 not only from   
right to  left1 but also that whatever  
is white or light in color is dark in   
the  negative1 and that what would      
correspond to the darker parts of our   
picture are the lightest in the         
negative1 and it is from these facts    
that we give it the name negative4      
,now1 to get our picture as it should   
be1 we must place this negative in      
contact with a sheet of coated paper    
that is also sensitive to light4    ,so 
we place the negative and the sheet of  
sensitive paper in what is  called a    
printing frame1 with the negative       
uppermost1 so that the light  may shine 
through the negative1 and impress the   
image upon the sheet of  sensitive      

paper4 ,now1 it stands to reason that if
 the lightest parts of  our picture are 
the darkest in the negative that less   
light can pass  through such portions of
 the negative in a given time1 so that  
with the  proper exposure to light the  
image upon the sheet of sensitive paper 
will be a correct picture of whatever   
the lens saw4    ,illustration3 ,the    
swiftest thing that the human race has  
ever put into  motion is the steel      
projectile of a twelve-inch gun4 ,no    
human eye can  follow its flight4       
,released at a pressure of forty        
thousand pounds to  the square inch--in 
a heat at which diamonds melt and carbon
 boils--it  hurls through the air at the
 rate of twenty-five miles a minute1 and
  reaches the mark ahead of its own     
sound6 7,pictures and story by  courtesy
 of ,mc,clure's ,magazine47             
,,twenty-,,five ,,miles ,a ,,minute     
,,an ,,exclusive ,,story1 ,,illustrated 
,,with ,a ,,series ,,of ,,remarkable    
,,photographs  ,,taken ,,with ,,the     

,,fastest ,,camera ,,in ,,the ,,world   
,,by ,,cleveland ,,moffett    ,,how     
,,shooting ,,shells ,,are ,,photographed
    ,one of the most progressive        
branches of our military service is the 
,department of ,coast ,defenses1 which1 
under the far-seeing guidance of        
,general ,e4 ,m4 ,weaver1 holds our     
shores and harbors in a state of alert  
preparedness against foreign aggression4
 ,at ,hampton ,roads sits the  ,coast   
,artillery ,board1 composed of officers 
and consulting engineers  to whom are   
referred all problems relating to coast 
artillery1 and who  have the            
responsibility of testing all new       
instruments proposed for  artillery use4
 ,the purpose of this article is to     
describe one among  several notable     
achievements of the ,hampton ,roads     
,coast ,artillery  ,school1 this        
particular work having been done by     
,captain ,f4 ,j4 ,behr of  the ,coast   
,artillery ,corps1 who1 after years of  
effort1 has recently  developed a system

 that makes it possible to take pictures
 of the  swiftest moving bodies1 the    
great steel projectiles of our biggest  
guns--to seize them with the camera's   
eye as they hurl through the air  at    
enormous velocities or at the very      
moment of their emergence from  the gun 
muzzles1 and to preserve these images1  
never seen before1 for  military study  
and comparison4 ,captain ,behr was ably 
assisted in this  work by ,engineer ,j4 
,a4 ,wilson4    ,illustration3 ,,the    
,,fastest ,,camera ,,in ,,the ,,world   
,the big gun1 equipped with the fastest 
camera shutter in the world1    about to
 be fired and the shell photographed4   
,for years a young officer of the ,coast
 ,artillery has been trying to  devise a
 camera so incredibly swift that it will
 record every stage of  this lightning  
flight from the gun-barrel to the       
target4 ,at last he has  succeeded4 ,his
 photographs--some of them taken one    
hundred thousandth  of a second         
apart--have revealed remarkable and     

unsuspected facts to  the military      
world4 ,the story of his invention had  
never before been  told4      ,reckoning
 in ,millionths of a ,second4    ,some  
of the increments and decrements of time
 involved in the series of  photographs 
herewith published 7several of them for 
the first time7 are  as small as one    
ten-thousandth part of a second4 ,and   
,captain ,behr has  devised a method of 
taking photographs of projectiles as    
they arrive at  a steel target and      
penetrate the target1 inch by inch1 that
 involves  increments or decrements of  
time as small as the one                
hundred-thousandth  part of a second4   
,to the uninitiated it seems incredible 
that such  infinitesimal divisions of   
time can be used in practical           
calculations2  but every trained        
physicist knows that in wireless work   
scientists of  to-day speak casually of 
experiments that take account of        
two-tenths  or one-tenth of a millionth 
part of a second6    ,illustration3     

,,the ,,projectile ,,emerging ,,from    
,,mortar    ,in this photograph--the    
first of a remarkable series showing    
five  stages of a moving projectile--the
 half-ton projectile seems to be        
standing still1 but really it is        
traveling at the rate of #ijj miles an  
hour4 ,the gunners here work in concrete
 pits #cd feet high4 ,underneath  the   
mounts are the powder magazines4 ,each  
pit has four mortars usually  served by 
an entire ,coast ,artillery ,company4   
,the projectiles are the  same as those 
used in the twelve-inch guns1 but less  
powder is required  because mortar      
projectiles are hurled high in the air1 
not straight at  a vessel1 and deliver  
their destructive blows downward from a 
great  height4    ,illustration3 ,,the  
,,smoke ,,rings ,,which ,,appear        
,this second photograph shows the       
projectile almost entirely out of the   
mortar4 ,its sharp nose may be seen     
above the 8gas-ring0 forming at its     
upper end4 ,these 8gas-rings10 or       

8smoke-rings10 come without warning1    
and only occasionally1 perhaps once in  
eight or ten shots4 ,they rise  swiftly 
to the height of fifty or a hundred     
feet1 growing larger  and larger1 and   
giving forth a weird1 shrieking sound   
like a second  projectile4 ,some insist 
that these 8smoke-rings0 are as hard as 
steel1  owing to the enormous           
compression of their composing gases1   
and the  story is told of a bird caught 
in the path of one of them and torn to  
pieces4    ,what happened to the        
projectile after it leaves the gun1 or  
after  the discharge of the gun1 and    
before the projectile has had time to   
issue from the gun-barrel8 ,what is the 
action at the muzzle of gases           
generated8 ,what shape do these gases   
assume as they leave the gun8 ,what     
causes the much-discussed 8gas-rings0   
that sometimes form when a mortar  is   
fired1 and oftener do not form8 ,what   
phenomena attend the arrival  of the    
projectile at a solid steel target8 ,is 

the steel actually fused  by the heat of
 impact8 ,is it vaporized8 ,or what8    
,these are some of  the questions that  
,captain ,behr set himself to solve1 or 
to help in  solving1 as he worked out   
his methods of rapid photography4 ,his  
aims  were strictly military1 but his   
results make fascinating appeal to the  
general imagination4 ,fancy doing       
anything in the one hundred-thousandth  
part of a second6    ,illustration3     
,,the ,,projectile ,,hidden ,,by ,,the  
,,smoke ,,cone    ,in the third         
photograph the smoke-cone is almost     
perfect and gives the  famous           
8powder-puff0 effect4 ,it still hides   
the projectile1 although  the latter is 
traveling at a velocity that would take 
it from ,new ,york  to ,chicago in one  
hour4 ,at night the 8gas-rings0 present 
a startling  and fascinating appearance1
 burning with a reddish orange glow1 and
  whirling with a complicated double    
motion1 strange opalescent balls1  like 
rings of ,saturn4 ,a study of these     

photographs--the first record  ever made
 of the 8gas-rings0--has led some       
experts to the conclusion  that the     
cause of the rings is defective ramming 
of the projectile4    ,illustration3    
,,the ,,projectile ,,emerging ,,from    
,,smoke ,,cone    ,the fourth photograph
 shows the projectile emerging from the 
smoke-cone  about thirty feet above the 
muzzle of the mortar4 ,the men who fire 
these mortars from the mortar-pits never
 see the distant target or  vessel they 
are firing at1 but point their mortars  
according to  directions transmitted to 
them 7usually by telephone7 from        
observers at  distant stations4 ,and so 
great a degree of precision has been    
attained  that1 on certain practice     
occasions at ,hampton ,roads1 a record  
of nine  hits out of ten shots has been 
scored on a moving target five miles out
  in the ocean4 ,this picture shows the 
smoke-cone as first seen by the  human  
eye4    ,captain ,behr's general idea   
was to utilize some phenomena connected 

with the discharge to actuate1 by       
electrical connections1 a mechanism     
that would work a rapid shutter in a    
properly placed camera4 ,the  phenomenon
 of concussion was tried first--the     
smash of air against a  little swinging 
door2 but this was much too slow4 ,the  
projectile was  hundreds of yards away  
before the camera had registered its    
picture4  ,and that chance was gone6    
,illustration3 ,,the ,,projectile ,,high
 ,,in ,,the ,,air    ,in the fifth      
photograph the projectile is seen       
entirely clear of the  smoke-cone and   
well started on its long flight4        
,climbing into the sky  at this steep   
angle1 it will reach a height of from   
three to six miles  before it begins to 
descend4 ,there are harbors on our      
coasts guarded by  so many guns and     
mortars that if these were fired        
simultaneously they  could hurl against 
a given small area a converging rain of 
projectiles  aggregating more than fifty
 tons in their combined mass4 ,a minute 

later  they could hurl another fifty    
tons against the same small area2 and so
  on as long as the ammunition lasted4  
,in the next trial1 several months      
later1 ,captain ,behr arranged to  have 
the electrical connections made or      
broken by the movement of the           
gun-carriage itself in recoiling2 but   
the result was unsatisfactory4  ,nor was
 he more fortunate at the succeeding    
target practice1 when1  having placed   
the apparatus farther forward on the    
parapet1 he had the  camera demolished  
by the force of the concussion and      
several blades of  the rapid shutter    
broken4 ,he was satisfied1 now1 that his
 effort to  actuate the camera mechanism
 from the gun-carriage would never give 
the  requisite precision in results1 and
 he saw that he must work with a  device
 functioning more reliably4    ,in the  
months that followed before the next    
target practice1 the  ,captain did some 
experimenting1 and finally determined   
making the  projectile itself displace a

 length of piano-wire fixed across the  
muzzle of the gun1 and thus actuate the 
electrical system and operate  the      
shutter4 ,in this way he eliminated     
troublesome variables of  recoil1       
elasticity of the carriage1 etc41       
leaving to determine only  the time     
element of the electrical system to     
function4 ,this result was  admirable1  
and1 after taking several similar       
pictures1 the captain  found that he    
could now operate with great            
precision--that is1 he could  get the   
same phase of the discharge with almost 
identical shapes of  gas-cone and       
smoke-cloud1 and he could get these     
every time4    ,in the fall of #aiab    
,captain ,behr succeeded in obtaining a 
series of  extremely rapid photographs  
showing a twelve-inch mortar battery in 
action4 ,in taking these pictures the   
camera was placed on an elevation  about
 ten feet above the concrete floor and  
about sixty feet back of  the mortars4  
,the electrical device for working the  

shutter was actuated  by the mortar     
itself in its recoil4 ,these pictures   
were taken in about  one five-thousandth
 of a second--which is the more         
remarkable as the  last two were taken  
in the shade after #d4cj ,a4,m4 ,the    
first three were  taken about noon1 in  
the sunshine1 as the shadows show4      
,so great was the precision of the      
electrical device as to render  possible
 the photographic recording of these    
mortar projectiles1  moving at great    
velocities1 in almost any desired       
position after the  discharge1 say two  
feet away from the muzzle1 or six feet  
away1 or  twenty feet away1 or right at 
the muzzle1 as shown in the first mortar
  picture1 where the great projectile   
has been caught in its flight half  way 
out of the mortar4      ,pictures ,never
 ,seen ,by the ,human ,eye4    ,a       
,,camera ,,that ,,is ,,faster ,,than    
,,the ,,eye    ,it is interesting to    
note that of these five mortar pictures1
  representing five phases of the       

firing1 only the last two are ever  seen
 by the human eye4 ,the far swifter     
camera1 acting in about one             
five-thousandth of a second1 has caught 
all these phases as reproduced  here2   
but1 to the ordinary observer standing  
by1 the first visible  impression after 
firing is that of the smoke-cone as     
developed in  ,number ,four4 ,the       
strange 8powder-puff0 effect shown in   
,number ,three is  never seen2 nor the  
earlier effects in ,numbers ,one and    
,two4 ,nor is any  sound heard by an    
observer or by the gun crew until the   
third or fourth  phase has been reached4
 ,this is a matter of simple            
calculation4    ,sound travels through  
the air very slowly as compared with    
light1 and  in ,numbers ,one1 ,two1 and 
,three1 although the crashing explosion 
has  taken place and the projectile is  
already started on its long journey1    
the men 7even the lanyard man1 who is   
nearest71 have heard nothing1  since the
 sound-waves have not yet had time to   

reach their ears4 ,nor  has the mortar  
itself had time to recoil1 as it does   
presently1 down  into the well in the   
floor of the pit4    ,the men aboard the
 towing vessels that drag the floating  
targets during  gun and mortar practice 
would seem to be in a dangerous         
position1 since  the tow-line is not    
more than two hundred yards long for    
guns and  five hundred yards long for   
mortars1 and a very slight error in aim 
or adjustment might cause a deviation of
 several hundred yards when  the range  
is eight or ten thousand yards4 ,as a   
matter of fact1 such  errors do not     
occur1 and a gun-pointer who would make 
a right or left  deviation from the     
target of ten yards1 or at the most     
fifteen yards  at a distance of five    
miles1 would be considered unfit for his
 job4  ,in one or two rare instances a  
towing vessel has been struck when a    
projectile has fallen short and then    
ricochetted to the right1 as it         
invariably does owing to its rotation in

 that direction4 ,the rifling of  the   
gun-barrel causes this rotation4        
,illustration3 ,this shows one of       
,captain ,behr's earliest efforts to    
photograph the projectile from a        
twelve-inch gun4 ,the man on the        
platform has been adjusting the         
electrical connections that actuate  the
 camera mechanism4 ,the halo effect at  
the muzzle of the gun is due  to        
compressed air caused by the forward    
rush of the projectile4 ,the  projectile
 has not yet emerged from the muzzle of 
the gun4 ,on the right  is the place    
where the 8,merrimac0 and the 8,monitor0
 had their famous  fight4    ,sometimes 
these great projectiles ricochet several
 times1 and go  bounding over the water 
as a pebble skips along the surface of a
  mill-pond1 only there may be the      
distance of a mile or more between      
these giant leaps4      ,the ,projectile
 ,travels ,faster ,than the ,sound ,it  
,makes4    ,a strange phenomenon is     
witnessed by the observer on a towing   

vessel as  he looks1 rather uneasily    
perhaps1 toward the distant shore       
battery1  that seems to be firing       
straight at him4 ,first there is a flash
 and  a puff of smoke2 then nothing for 
a period of seconds1 while the          
projectile is on its way2 then suddenly 
a great splash as the mass of  iron     
strikes the water4 ,up to this moment   
there has been no sound of  the         
discharge1 no sound of the projectile1  
since it travels faster than  the       
sound-waves2 but now1 after it has      
buried itself in the ocean1 is  heard   
its own unmistakable voice1 a low1      
buzzing um-m-m-m approaching  from the  
shore4 ,the projectile itself has       
arrived before the sound  that it makes 
in transit1 and the sound arrives       
afterward4 ,last of all  is heard the   
boom of the discharge4    ,illustration3
 ,a ,,gun ,,that ,,photographed ,,its   
,,own ,,shot    ,in this beautiful      
picture the hurling projectile was      
itself the  photographer3 that is1 in   

passing out of the gun-barrel1 it broke 
a  length of piano-wire stretched across
 the muzzle and thus automatically      
closed an electrical circuit that       
actuated the camera mechanism4 ,and so  
rapid was the shutter that the great    
shot hurled forth in the discharge      
photographed here has not yet had time  
to issue from the smoke-cone1  where it 
is still hidden4    ,owing to the great 
velocity of gun projectiles1 it is      
almost impossible  for an observer near 
the target to see them as they approach2
 but a  trained eye can discern the     
slower moving mortar projectiles as they
  drop out of the sky1 shrieking as they
 come1 curving downward from a  height  
of four or five miles1 half a ton       
falling from a height of four  or five  
miles4    ,illustration3 ,,exploding ,a 
,,submarine ,,mine    ,this photograph  
illustrates another important form of   
coast  defense--the submarine mine4 ,a  
target about #e by #e feet1 with a red  
flag at its apex1 is towed across the   

mine-field1 the mines being  exploded   
electrically from a shore station       
several miles away4 ,the  methods of    
laying and exploding these mines are    
carefully kept secrets4  ,in this case a
 charge of five hundred pounds of the   
newest explosive  was used4 ,fragments  
of the shattered target and mine-buoy   
are seen at  the right of the picture4  
,tons of water are hurled into the air  
by  these explosions1 and hundreds of   
fish are killed or stunned4    ,it is   
difficult to realize what an enormous   
force is released when one  of these    
twelve-inch guns is discharged4 ,the    
pressure inside of the  gun behind the  
projectile is between thirty-five and   
forty thousand  pounds to the square    
inch4 ,no engine or machine made by man 
produces  anything like this pressure4  
,the boiler pressure in steam-engines1  
or in big turbines driven by superheated
 steam1 does not exceed two  hundred or 
three hundred pounds to the square inch4
 ,the huge hydraulic  presses that would

 crumple up a steel girder do not exert 
a pressure  of more than one thousand   
pounds to the square inch4 ,the only    
reason  a gun-barrel can resist this    
pressure 7forty thousand pounds to the  
square inch7 is that it is built up in a
 series of concentric steel  hoops or   
tubes shrunk one over the other until   
there is a resistance  capacity of from 
seventy thousand to ninety thousand     
pounds to the  square inch4 ,even at    
rest1 the barrels of these great guns   
are under  such enormous compression1   
from being thus squeezed within these   
outer  steel coverings1 that1 if the    
retaining steel jackets were suddenly   
cut1 the tubes would blow themselves    
into pieces from the violent  reaction  
of release4    ,not only does this      
smokeless powder1 burning inside these  
guns1  produce enormous pressure1 but it
 generates inconceivably great heat4    
,water boils at #ajj ,centigrade2 iron  
melts at #adjj2 platinum and  the most  
resistant metals at #bijj2 while the    

hottest thing on earth  is the          
temperature of the electric arc1 in     
which carbon boils4 ,this  temperature  
is between #cjjj and #djjj ,centigrade1 
and is believed to  be the same as that 
of these great powder chambers when the 
gun is  fired4 ,thus a diamond1 the     
hardest substance known1 would melt in  
the  barrel of a twelve-inch gun at the 
moment of discharge4 ,the consequence   
is that at each discharge of a big gun a
 thin skin of metal inside  the barrel  
is literally fused1 and this leads to   
rapid erosion of  the softened surfaces 
under the tearing pressure of gases     
generated4  ,the rifling is worn away2  
the band over the projectile becomes    
loose-fitting2 and soon the huge gun1   
that has cost such a great sum1  is     
rendered unfit for service4 ,the life of
 a twelve-inch gun is only  #dej rounds1
 that is1 the gun would be worn out if  
fired every three  minutes for a single 
day4 ,after that a new life may be given
 it by  boring out the inner tube and   

putting in a new steel lining4      ,a  
,secret for ,which ,foreign ,governments
 ,would ,pay ,millions4    ,a few words 
may be added about the formidable       
smokeless powder used in  these great   
guns4 ,this powder1 in spite of its     
terrible power1 is of  innocent         
appearance1 and a small stick of it may 
be held safely in the  hand while it    
burns with a vivid yellowish flame4     
,there is no danger  of its exploding or
 detonating like gun-cotton1 and yet it 
is made  from gun-cotton1 treated by a  
colloiding process that is one of our   
jealously guarded military secrets4     
,there are foreign governments that     
would give millions to know exactly how 
this powder is made and how it  is      
preserved for years without             
deterioration4 ,the recent destruction  
of  two ships of the ,french navy was   
due1 it is believed1 to deterioration   
of their smokeless powder4              
,illustration          ,why ,do ,some   
,eyes ,in a ,picture ,seem to ,follow   

,us8      ,if a person's picture is     
taken with the eyes of the person       
looking  directly into the lens or      
opening of the camera1 then the eyes in 
the picture will always be directly on  
and appear to follow whoever  is looking
 at it4 ,this is also true of paintings4
 ,if a subject being  painted is posed  
so as to look directly at the painter1  
and the artist  paints the picture with 
the eyes so pointed1 then the eyes of   
the  picture will follow you4 ,when you 
are looking at a picture of a person    
and the eyes do not follow you1 you will
 know at once that he was not  looking  
at the camera or artist when the picture
 was being taken or  painted4           
,illustration          ,where ,does a   
,light ,go ,when ,it ,goes ,out8        
,,why ,,you ,,can ,,blow ,,out ,a       
,,candle    ,to understand the answer to
 this question fully you will first have
 to  learn what light is1 and           
particularly that it is not the flame   
from  the gas jet or of the lamp or     

candle that is actually the light1 but  
that light consists of rays or waves in 
the ether1 which is constantly  in all  
space and even in our bodies1 coming    
from the something that  is burning4    
,this in the instance above mentioned   
would be the gas  burning as it comes   
out of the gas jet1 the oil in the lamp 
as it comes  up through the wick or the 
flame of the candle4 ,we are apt to call
  a lighted gas jet a lamp1 or a candle1
 light1 because it is steady4  ,really1 
however1 there is no such thing as      
keeping light in a room in  an actual   
sense1 for rays of light travel from the
 substance which  produces them faster  
than anything else we know of in the    
world4 ,the  first thing a light wave   
does when it is once created is to go   
some  place1 and it does this at the    
rate of #ahf1jjj miles per second4 ,if  
it  cannot penetrate the walls of the   
room it is either reflected back in  the
 direction from which it came or        
transformed by the objects which it     

strikes into some other kind of energy4 
,when you look at the rays coming from a
 gas jet1 you do not see one ray  for   
more than1 say the millionth part of a  
second1 but because these  rays of light
 come so fast one after the other from  
the burning jet and  spread in all      
directions1 they seem to be continuous4 
,so you see that the rays of light are  
going away as fast as they are  coming  
from the gas jet4 ,they either go on as 
light or1 as said above1  are changed   
into other forms of energy when they    
strike things they  cannot penetrate in 
the form of light1 or rather one thing1 
which is  heat4 ,a large part of it goes
 into the air in the room in the form of
  heat1 as you well know1 now that it is
 called to your attention4 ,some  of it 
goes into the furniture and some of it  
is changed into another  form of heat1  
which1 combining with the chemicals in  
other things it  mixes with1 changes    
their appearance and usefulness4 ,as1   
for instance1  the carpets and hangings 

in the room1 the colors of which become 
faded  when exposed to light rays too   
much4 ,the heat from the light rays is  
responsible for the fading of colors in 
our garments as well4    ,when you 8put 
out the light10 as we say1 or turn off  
the gas1 you cut  off the source of     
light4 ,really1 then1 our expression    
that 8the light  goes out0 is only true 
while the gas is lighted1 for from the  
flaming  gas jet the light is going out 
all the time1 whereas when the gas is   
turned off no light is being produced1  
and when you turn off the gas  you do   
not turn out the light1 but only that   
which makes light4          ,why ,does a
 ,fire ,go ,out8      ,fire will go out 
naturally when there is nothing left to 
burn1 or it  will go out if it cannot   
secure enough oxygen out of the air to  
keep it  going4 ,in the first case it   
dies what we might call a 8natural      
death10  and in the latter case the fire
 practically suffocates4 ,the fire in   
the open fireplace1 if it has plenty of 

air1 will burn up everything  burnable  
that it can reach4 ,the stones of the   
fireplace or other parts  of a stove    
will not burn1 because they have already
 been burned1 and  you cannot burn      
anything a second time1 if all of the   
oxygen in it was  burned out of it the  
first time4    ,now1 then1 to burn up a 
thing1 you must first start a fire under
 it1  and then keep a constant draft of 
air playing on it from beneath1 or  the 
fire will die out4 ,the more difficult a
 thing is to burn1 the more  important  
it is that you have plenty of draft4 ,if
 the ashes accumulate  under the fire   
the air cannot go through them in       
sufficient quantity  and the fire will  
go out4 ,other things which prevent the 
current of air  from going up through   
the fire will cause it to go out4 ,that 
is why we  close the lower door of the  
furnace1 to keep the fire from burning  
out4  ,when we shut off the draft of air
 from below1 the fire in the furnace    
burns slowly1 i4 e41 it just hangs on1  

so to speak4          ,why ,does a ,lamp
 ,give a ,better ,light ,with the       
,chimney ,on8      ,when a lamp is      
burning without a chimney it generally  
smokes4 ,that  is because the oil which 
is coming up through the wick is being  
only  partially burned4 ,the carbon1    
which is about one-half of what the oil 
contains1 is not being burned at all1   
and goes off into the air in  little    
black specks with the gases which are   
thrown off4 ,the reason  the carbon is  
not burned when the chimney is off is   
that there is not  sufficient oxygen    
from the air combining with it1 as it is
 separated  from the oil in the partial 
combustion that is going on4 ,to make   
the  carbon in the oil burn you must mix
 it with plenty of oxygen at a  certain 
temperature1 and this can only be done  
by forcing sufficient  oxygen through   
the flame to bring the heat of the flame
 to the point  where the carbon will    
combine with it and burn4 ,when you put 
the  chimney on the lamp you create a   

draft which forces more oxygen through  
the flame1 brings the heat up to the    
proper temperature and enables the      
carbon to combine with it and burn4     
,when you take the chimney off again    
the heat goes down1 when the draft is   
shut off and the lamp smokes  again4    
,the chimney also protects the flame of 
the lamp from drafts from the  sides and
 above1 and helps to make a brighter    
light1 because a steady  light is       
brighter than a flickering one4    ,the 
draft created by the chimney also forces
 the gases produced by the  burning oil 
up and away from the flame4 ,some of    
these gases have a  tendency to put out 
a light or a fire4          ,does ,light
 ,weigh ,anything8      ,to get at the  
answer to this question we must go back 
to the definition  of light4 ,light is a
 wave in the ether and contains no      
particles of  matter4 ,it1 therefore1   
does not weigh anything at all4    ,when
 men had studied light thoroughly1      
however1 they came to the  conclusion   

that it must have the power of pressure1
 which1 from the  standpoint of results1
 would amount to the same thing as      
having weight4  ,they reasoned that if  
you had a perfect balance and let       
sunlight shine  down on one of the sides
 of the balance1 that side should go    
down under  the pressure of light4 ,in  
their first experiments along this line 
men  failed to show that under such     
conditions the side of the balance on   
which the light shone did go down1 but  
by continuous experiments it was  proved
 finally that the light did exert a     
sufficient pressure to cause  the scales
 to go down1 and in effect this is the  
same as having weight2  but this has    
been found to be a common property of   
rays of various  kinds1 including heat1 
and we1 therefore1 do not speak of this 
quality  as weight1 but as the power of 
radiating pressure4          ,why ,does 
a ,stick ,seem to ,bend ,when ,put in   
,water8      ,when light passes from one
 medium to another1 as for example from 

glass  or water to air1 or from air or  
glass to water1 the rays of light       
change their course1 thus making them   
seem to be bent or broken4 ,the  rays of
 light from the part of the stick in the
 water take a different  direction from 
the rays from the part which is out of  
the water1 giving  the appearance of    
breaking or bending at the place where  
the air and  water meet4 ,it is1 of     
course1 the light rays which are bent   
and not the  object itself4    ,this    
bending or changing of the path of light
 rays is called  refraction4 ,if you    
place a coin in a glass of water so that
 it may be  viewed obliquely1 you can   
apparently see two coins1 a small one   
through  the surface of the water and   
another apparently magnified through the
  side of the glass4    ,this is due    
only to the absolute principle that rays
 of light change  their direction in    
passing from one thing to another1 and  
on this  principle of the rays of light 
our optical instruments1 including the  

microscope1 the telescope1 the camera   
and eyeglasses are based4          ,what
 ,makes the ,stars ,twinkle8      ,i    
might tell you1 just to show how clever 
,i am1 that stars do not  twinkle at    
all1 and leave you with that for an     
answer4 ,but since they  really do seem 
to twinkle1 and that is what causes your
 question1  ,i will tell you4 ,as we    
have already learned in our talks about 
the  stars and the sky in general1 the  
stars are suns which are constantly     
throwing off light1 just as our sun     
gives us light1 and when this light     
strikes the air which surrounds the     
earth it meets many objects--little     
particles of dust and other things      
always floating about in it4 ,the  light
 comes to us in the form of rays from   
the stars and some of  these rays strike
 particles of various kinds in the air  
and are thus  interfered with4 ,if you  
are looking at a lighted window some    
distance  away and there are a lot of   
boys and girls or men and women running 

past the window1 one after the other1   
rapidly1 it will make the  light in the 
window appear to twinkle4 ,the twinkling
 is due to the  interference which the  
rays of light encounter while traveling 
toward  the eye4          ,why ,does an 
,onion ,make the ,tears ,come8          
,that is nature's way of protecting the 
eyes from the smarting which the  onion 
would cause in your eyes if the tears   
did not come quickly and  overcome the  
bad effect so produced4 ,tears are      
provided for washing the  ball of your  
eyes4 ,every time you wink a little tear
 is released from  under the eyelid1 and
 the wink spreads it all over the       
eyeball4 ,this  washes down the front of
 the eyeball and cleanses it of all dust
 and  other things that fly at the eye  
from the air4 ,then the tear runs along 
a little channel1 much like a trough1 at
 the lower part of the eye1  and out    
through a little hole in the eye1 and in
 this case the tear is  really only an  
eye-wash4 ,many things1 but more often  

sadness or injured  feelings1 start the 
tears coming so fast from under the     
eyelid that the  little trough at the   
bottom and the hole in the corner of the
 eye are  too small to hold them or     
carry them off1 so they roll over the   
edge of  the lower eyelid and down the  
face4 ,these are what we call tears4    
,among  other things that will cause    
tear-glands to cause an over-supply of  
eye-wash to come down1 are onions4 ,what
 they give off is very trying to  the   
eyes1 and so1 just as soon as the       
something which an onion throws  off    
hits the eyeball1 the nerves of the eye 
telegraph the brain to turn  on the     
tears quickly1 and they come in a little
 deluge and counteract  the bad effect  
of the onion4    ,illustration3 ,,some  
,,remarkable ,,pictures ,,with ,a ,,fast
 ,,camera    ,illustration              
,illustration    ,illustration          
,illustration    ,illustration3 ,,the   
,,cave ,,man ,,of ,,prehistoric ,,times 
,,who ,,unconsciously  ,,invented       

,,ammunition          ,the ,first       
,missile      ,,how ,,man ,,learned ,,to
 ,,shoot    ,a naked savage found       
himself in the greatest danger4 ,a wild 
beast1  hungry and fierce was about to  
attack him4 ,escape was impossible4     
,retreat was cut off4 ,he must fight for
 his life--but how8    ,should he bite1 
scratch or kick8 ,should he strike with 
his fist8 ,these  were the natural      
defences of his body1 but what were they
 against the  teeth1 the claws and the  
tremendous muscles of his enemy8 ,should
 he  wrench a dead branch from a tree   
and use it for a club8 ,that would      
bring him within striking distance to be
 torn to pieces before he could  deal a 
second blow4    ,there was but a moment 
in which to act4 ,swiftly he seized a   
jagged  fragment of rock from the ground
 and hurled it with all his force at    
the blazing eyes before him2 then       
another1 and another1 until the  beast1 
dazed and bleeding from the unexpected  
blows1 fell back and gave  him a chance 

to escape4 ,he knew that he had saved   
his life1 but there  was something else 
which his dull brain failed to realize4 
,he had invented arms and ammunition6   
,in other words1 he had needed to strike
 a harder blow than the blow of  his    
fist1 at a greater distance than the    
length of his arm1 and his  brain showed
 him how to do it4 ,after all1 what is a
 modern rifle but a  device which man   
has made with his brain permitting him  
to strike an  enormously hard blow at a 
wonderful distance8 ,firearms are really
 but a  more perfect form of            
stone-throwing1 and this early ,cave    
,man took the  first step that has led  
down the ages4    ,this strange story of
 a development has been taking place    
slowly  through thousands and thousands 
of years1 so that today you are able to 
take a swift shot at distant game       
instead of merely throwing stones4      
,illustration3 ,,the ,,sling ,,man ,,in 
,,action    ,,practice ,,developed      
,,some ,,wonderful ,,marksmen ,,among   

,,the ,,users ,,of ,,this  ,,primitive  
,,weapon    ,we do not know the name of 
the man who invented the sling4         
,possibly  he did not even have a name1 
but in some way he hit upon a scheme    
for throwing stones farther1 harder1 and
 straighter than any of his  ancestors4 
,the men and women in the ,cave ,colony 
suddenly found that one  bright-eyed    
young fellow1 with a little straighter  
forehead than the  others1 was beating  
them all at hunting4 ,during weeks he   
had been going  away mysteriously1 for  
hours each day4 ,now1 whenever he left  
the camp  he was sure to bring home     
game1 while the other men would straggle
 back  for the most part empty-handed4  
,was it witchcraft8 ,they decided to    
investigate4    ,accordingly1 one       
morning several of them followed at a   
careful distance  as he sought the shore
 of a stream where water-fowl might be  
found4  ,parting the leaves1 they saw   
him pick up a pebble from the bank and  
then to their surprise1 take off his    

girdle of skin and place the stone  in  
its center1 holding both ends with his  
right hand4    ,stranger still1 he      
whirled the girdle twice around his     
head1 then  released one end so that the
 leather strip flew out and the stone   
shot  straight at a bird in the water4  
,the mystery was solved4 ,they had seen 
the first slingman in action4    ,the   
new plan worked with great success1 and 
a little practice made  expert marksmen4
 ,we know that most of the early races  
used it for  hunting and in war4 ,we    
find it shown in pictures made many     
thousands of  years ago in ancient      
,egypt and ,assyria4 ,we find it in the 
,roman ,army  where the slingman was    
called a 8funditor40    ,surely1 too1   
you remember the story of ,david and    
,goliath when the young  shepherd       
8prevailed over the ,philistine with a  
sling and with a stone40    ,yet slings 
had their drawbacks4 ,a stone slung     
might kill a bird or even  a man1 but it
 was not very effective against big     

game4    ,what was wanted was a missile 
to pierce a thick hide4    ,man had     
begun to make spears for use in a pinch1
 but would you like  to tackle a husky  
bear or a well-horned stag with only a  
spear for a  weapon8    ,no more did our
 undressed ancestors4 ,the invention of 
the greatly  desired arm probably came  
about in a most curious way4    ,long   
ages ago man had learned to make fire by
 patiently rubbing two  sticks together1
 or by twirling a round one between his 
hands with its  point resting upon a    
flat piece of wood4    ,illustration3   
,,the 8,,long ,,bow0 ,,in ,,sherwood    
,,forest    ,,one ,,of ,,robin ,,hood',s
 ,,famous ,,band ,,encounters ,a        
,,savage ,,tusker ,,at ,,close  ,,range 
,in this way it could be made to smoke1 
and finally set fire to a tuft  of dried
 moss1 from which he might get a flame  
for cooking4 ,this was  such hard work  
that he bethought him to twist a string 
of sinew about  the upright spindle and 
cause it to twirl by pulling alternately

 at  the two string ends1 as some savage
 races still do4 ,from this it was  a   
simple step to fasten the ends of the   
two strings to a bent piece  of wood1   
another great advantage since now but   
one hand was needed to  twirl the       
spindle1 and the other could hold it in 
place4 ,this was the  8bow-drill0 which 
also is used to this day4    ,but bent  
wood is apt to be springy4 ,suppose that
 while one were  bearing on pretty hard 
with a well-tightened string1 in order  
to bring  fire quickly1 the point of the
 spindle should slip from its block4    
,naturally1 it would fly away with some 
force if the position were just  right4 
,illustration3 ,,deer ,,stalking ,,with 
,,the ,,crossbow    ,,this ,,compact    
,,arm ,,with ,,its ,,small ,,bolt ,,and 
,,great ,,power ,,was ,,popular ,,with  
,,many ,,sportsmen    ,there was one man
 who stopped short when he lost his     
spindle1 for a  red-hot idea shot       
suddenly through his brain4    ,once or 
twice he chuckled to himself softly4    

,thereupon he arose and  began to       
experiment4 ,he chose a longer1         
springier piece of wood1 bent  it into a
 bow1 and strung it with a longer thong4
 ,he placed the end of  a straight stick
 against the thong1 drew it strongly    
back1 and released  it4    ,the shaft   
whizzed away with force enough to       
delight him1 and lo1 there  was the     
first ,bow-and-,arrow6    ,armed with   
his bow-and-arrow1 man now was lord of  
creation4 ,no longer  was it necessary  
for him to huddle with his fellows in   
some cave to  avoid being eaten by      
prowling beasts4 ,instead he went where 
he would  and boldly hunted the fiercest
 of them4 ,in other words1 his brain was
  beginning to tell1 for though his body
 was still no match for the lion  and   
the bear1 he had thought out a way to   
conquer them4    ,also he was better fed
 with a greater variety of game4 ,and   
now1 free  to come and go wherever he   
might find it1 he was able to spread    
into  various lands and so to organize  

the tribes and nations which at last    
gave us civilization and history4    ,a 
new weapon now came about through       
warfare4 ,man has been a savage         
fighting animal through pretty much all 
his history1 but while he tried  to kill
 the other fellow1 he objected to being 
killed himself4    ,therefore he took to
 wearing armor4 ,during the ,middle     
,ages he piled on  more and more1 until 
at last one of the knights could hardly 
walk1 and  it took a strong horse to    
carry him4 ,when such a one fell1 he    
went over  with a crash like a          
tin-peddler's wagon1 and had to be      
picked up again  by some of his men4    
,such armor would turn most of the      
arrows4 ,hence  invention got at work   
again and produced the ,crossbow and its
 bolt4 ,we  have already learned how the
 tough skin of animals brought about the
  bow2 now we see that man's artificial 
iron skin caused the invention of  the  
crossbow4    ,what was the ,crossbow8   
,it was the first real hand-shooting    

machine4 ,it  was another big step      
toward the day of the rifle4 ,the idea  
was simple  enough4 ,wooden bows had    
already been made as strong as the      
strongest  man could pull1 and they     
wished for still stronger ones--steel   
ones4  ,how could they pull them8 ,at   
first they mounted them upon a wooden   
frame and rested one end on the shoulder
 for a brace4 ,then they took to        
pressing the other end against the      
ground1 and using both hands4 ,next1  it
 was a bright idea to put a stirrup on  
this end1 in order to hold it  with the 
foot4    ,still they were not satisfied4
 8,stronger1 stronger60 they clamored2  
8give us bows which will kill the enemy 
farther away than he can shoot  at us6  
,if we cannot set such bows with both   
arms let us try our backs60  ,so they   
fastened 8belt-claws0 to their stout    
girdles and tugged the bow  strings into
 place with their back and leg muscles4 
,who ,first ,discovered the ,power of   
,gunpowder8      ,probably the ,chinese1

 although all authorities do not agree4 
,strange1  is it not1 that a race still 
using crossbows in its army should have 
known of explosives long before the     
,christian ,era1 and perhaps as far     
back as the time of ,moses8 ,here is a  
passage from their ancient ,gentoo      
,code of ,laws3 8,the magistrate shall  
not make war with any deceitful         
machine1 or with poisoned weapons1 or   
with cannons or guns1 or any kind  of   
firearms40 ,but ,china might as well    
have been ,mars before the age of       
travel4 ,our civilization had to work   
out the problem for itself4    ,it all  
began through playing with fire4 ,it was
 desired to throw fire on  an enemy's   
buildings1 or his ships1 and so destroy 
them4    ,burning torches were thrown by
 machines1 made of cords and springs1   
over a city wall1 and it became a great 
study to find the best burning  compound
 with which to cover these torches4 ,one
 was needed which would  blaze with a   
great flame and was hard to put out4    

,hence the early chemists made all      
possible mixtures of pitch1 resin1      
naphtha1 sulphur1 saltpeter1 etc42      
8,greek fire0 was one of the most       
famous4    ,many of these were made in  
the monasteries4 ,the monks were pretty 
much  the only people in those days with
 time for study1 and two of these       
shaven-headed scientists now had a      
chance to enter history4 ,roger ,bacon  
was the first4 ,one night he was working
 his diabolical mixture in the          
stone-walled laboratory1 and watched1 by
 the flickering lights1 the  progress of
 a certain interesting combination for  
which he had used  pure instead of      
impure saltpeter4    ,suddenly there was
 an explosion1 shattering the chemical  
apparatus and  probably alarming the    
whole building4 ,that explosion proved  
the new  combination was not fitted for 
use as a thrown fire2 it also showed the
  existence of terrible forces far      
beyond the power of all bow-springs1    
even those made of steel4    ,roger     

,bacon thus discovered what was         
practically gunpowder1 as far  back as  
the thirteenth century1 and left        
writings in which he  recorded mixing   
#aa4b parts of the saltpeter1 #bi4d of  
charcoal1 and  #bi of sulphur4 ,this was
 the formula developed as the result of 
his  investigations4    ,berthold       
,schwartz1 a monk of ,freiburg1 studied 
,bacon's works and  carried on dangerous
 experiments of his own1 so that he is  
ranked with  ,bacon for the honor4 ,he  
was also the first one to rouse the     
interest of  ,europe in the great       
discovery4    ,illustration3 ,,the      
8,,kentucky ,,rifle0 ,,with ,,its       
,,flint-,,lock ,,was ,,accurate  ,,but  
,,must ,,be ,,muzzle-,,charged    ,,the 
,,first ,,real ,,fire ,,arms    ,and    
then began the first crude1 clumsy      
efforts at gunmaking4 ,firearms  were   
born4    ,hand bombards and culverins   
were among the early types4 ,some of    
these  were so heavy that a forked      
support had to be driven into the       

ground1  and two men were needed1 one to
 hold and aim1 the other to prime and   
fire4    ,improvements kept coming1     
however4 ,guns were lightened and       
bettered in  shape4 ,somebody thought of
 putting a flash pan1 for the powder1 by
 the  side of the touch-hole1 and now it
 was decided to fasten the slow-match   
in a movable cock upon the barrel1 and  
ignite it with a trigger4 ,these        
matches were fuses of some slow-burning 
fiber1 like tow1 which would  keep a    
spark for a considerable time4 ,formerly
 they had to be carried  separately1 but
 the new arrangement was a great        
convenience and made  the match-lock4   
,the cock1 being curved like a snake1   
was called the  8serpentine40    ,about 
the time sportsmen were through         
wondering at the convenience  of the    
match-lock1 they began to realize its   
inconvenience4 ,they  found that they   
burned up a great deal of fuse1 and were
 hard to keep  lighted4 ,both statements
 were true1 so inventors racked their   

brains  again for something better4     
,they all knew you could bring sparks   
with  flint and steel1 and that seemed  
an idea worth working on4 ,a ,nuremberg 
inventor1 in #aeae1 hit on the          
wheel-lock4 ,in this a notched steel    
wheel was wound up with a key like a    
clock4 ,flint or pyrite was held        
against the jagged edge of the wheel by 
the pressure of the serpentine4  ,you   
pulled the trigger1 then 8whirr10 the   
wheel revolved1 a stream of  sparks flew
 off into the flash-pan1 and the gun was
 discharged4    ,illustration3          
,,wheel-,,lock ,,rifle    ,this gun     
worked beautifully1 but it was          
expensive4 ,wealthy sportsmen  could    
afford them1 and so for the first time  
firearms began to be used  for hunting4 
,some of these sixteenth and seventeenth
 century nabobs had  such guns of       
beautiful workmanship1 so wrought and   
carved and inlaid1  that they must have 
cost a small fortune4 ,you will find    
them in many  large museums to this day4

    ,but now the robbers had their turn4
 ,there are two stories of the          
invention of the flint-lock4 ,both deal 
with robbers1 both have good  authority1
 and both may be true1 for inventions   
sometimes are made  independently in    
different places4    ,one story runs    
that the flint-lock which was often     
styled 8,lock  la  ,miquelet10 from the 
,spanish word1                          
8,miquelitos0--marauders--told its      
origin in its name4 ,the other is1 that 
the flint-lock was invented in  ,holland
 by gangs of thieves1 whose principal   
business was to steal  poultry4    ,in  
either case the explanation is easy4    
,the match-lock showed its fire  at     
night and wouldn't do for thieves1 the  
wheel-lock was too expensive1  so again 
necessity became the mother of a        
far-reaching invention4    ,everybody   
knows what the flint-lock was like4 ,you
 simply fastened a  flake of flint in   
the cock and snapped it against a steel 
plate4 ,this  struck off sparks which   

fell into the flash-pan and fired the   
charge4    ,it was so practical that it 
became the form of gun for all uses2    
thus  gunmaking began to be a big       
industry4 ,invented early in the        
seventeenth  century1 it was used by the
 hunters and soldiers of the next two   
hundred years4 ,old people remember when
 flint-locks were plentiful  everywhere4
 ,in fact1 they are still being         
manufactured and are sold  in some parts
 of ,africa and the ,orient4 ,one       
factory in ,birmingham1  ,england1 is   
said to produce about twelve hundred    
weekly1 and ,belgium  shares in their   
manufacture4 ,some of the ,arabs use    
them to this day in  the form of        
strange-looking guns with long1 slender 
muzzles and very  light1 curved stocks4 
,there were freak inventors in the      
flint-lock period just as there are     
to-day4 ,some of them wrestled with the 
problem of repeating guns1  and put     
together a number of barrels1 even seven
 in the case of one  carbine4 ,others   

tried revolving chambers1 like our      
revolvers1 and still  others1 magazine  
stocks4 ,pistols came into use in many  
interesting  shapes1 but these were too 
practical to be considered freaks4      
,,why ,,we ,,call ,,them ,,pistols      
,pistols1 by the way1 are named from the
 town of ,pistola1 ,italy1 where  they  
are said to have been invented and first
 used4    ,we must not forget that      
rifling was invented about the time that
 the  wheel-lock appeared1 and had a    
great deal to do with the improvement   
of shooting4 ,austrians claim its       
invention for ,casper ,zollner1 of      
,vienna1 who cut straight grooves in the
 barrel's bore4 ,his gun is said  to    
have been used for the first time in    
#adih1 but the ,italians seem  to have  
still better warrant as these           
significant words appear in old  ,latin 
,italian1 under date of ,july #bhth1    
#adgf1 in the inventory of the  fortress
 of ,guastalla3 8,also one iron gun made
 with a twist like a  snail shell40 ,the

 rifling made the bullet spin like a top
 as it flew  through the air1 thus      
greatly improving its precision4    ,in 
the year #ahjg the ,rev4 ,alexander     
,john ,forsythe1 ,,ll4,d41 got his      
patent papers for something far better  
than even the steady old flint4  ,he had
 invented the percussion system4 ,in    
some form this has been used  ever      
since4 ,which is to say that when the   
hammer of your gun falls1 it  doesn't   
explode the powder1 although it seems   
to4 ,instead it sets off a  tiny portion
 of a very sensitive chemical compound  
called the 8primer10  and the explosion 
of this 8primer0 makes the powder go    
off4 ,of course1  the two explosions    
come so swiftly that your ear hears only
 a single  bang4    ,primers were tried 
in different forms called 8detonators10 
but the  familiar little copper cap was 
the most popular4 ,no need to describe  
them4 ,millions are still made to be    
used on old-fashioned nipple guns1  even
 in this day of fixed ammunition4       

,but now we come to another great       
development1 the ,breech-loader4        
,illustration3 ,,the ,,modern           
,,automatic ,,rifle    ,,the ,,modern   
,,sportsman ,,with ,,his ,,automatic    
,,rifle ,,is ,,prepared ,,for ,,all     
,,emergencies    ,perhaps you have had  
to handle an old muzzle-loader4 ,it was 
all right  so long as you knew of       
nothing better1 but think of it now that
 you  have your beautiful breech-loader4
 ,do you remember how sometimes you     
overloaded1 and the kick made your      
shoulder lame for a week8 ,or how1  when
 you were excited you shot away your    
ramrod8 ,the gun fouled too1  and was   
hard to clean1 the nipples broke off1   
the caps split1 and the  breeches rusted
 so that you had to take them to a      
gunsmith4 ,yes1 in  spite of the game it
 got1 it was a lot of trouble1 now you  
come to  think of it4 ,how different it 
all is now6    ,illustration3           
,,assembling ,,repeating ,,shotguns     
,,and ,,rifles    ,breech-loaders were  

hardly new4 ,king ,henry ,,viii of      
,england1 he of the  many wives1 had a  
match-lock arquebus of this type dated  
#aecg4 ,henry ,,iv  of ,france even     
invented one for his army1 and others   
worked a little  on the idea from time  
to time4 ,but it wasn't until fixed     
ammunition  came into use that the      
breech-loader really came to stay--and  
that  was only the other day4 ,you      
remember that the ,civil ,war began with
  muzzle-loaders and ended with         
breech-loaders4    ,illustration3       
,,assembling ,,auto ,,shotguns          
,illustration3 ,,some ,,of ,,the        
,,shooting ,,tests    ,houiller1 the    
,french gunsmith1 hit on the great idea 
of the cartridge4  ,if you were going to
 use powder1 ball and percussion primer 
to get your  game1 why not put them all 
into a neat1 handy1 gas-tight case8     
,,the ,,first ,,american ,,made ,,guns  
,,how ,,the ,,first ,,american ,,gun    
,,was ,,made    ,two men1 a smith and   
his son1 both named ,eliphalet          

,remington1 in  #ahaf1 were working     
busily one day at their forge in        
beautiful ,ilion  ,gorge1 when1 so      
tradition says1 the son asked his father
 for money to  buy a rifle1 and met with
 a refusal4 ,the request was natural for
 the  surrounding hills were full of    
game4 ,the father must have had his own 
reasons for refusing1 but it started the
 manufacture of guns in ,america4       
,eliphalet1 ,jr41 closed his firm jaws  
tightly1 and began collecting  scrap    
iron on his own account4 ,this he welded
 skillfully into a  gun-barrel1 walked  
fifteen miles to ,utica to have it      
rifled1 and  finally had a weapon of    
which he might well be proud4           
,illustration3 ,,types ,,of ,,cartridges
    ,in reality1 it was such a very good
 gun that soon the neighbors ordered    
others like it1 and before long the     
,remington forge found itself hard  at  
work to meet the increasing demand4     
,several times each week the  stalwart  
young manufacturer packed a load of     

gun-barrels upon his back1  and tramped 
all the way to ,utica where a gunsmith  
rifled and finished  them4 ,at this time
 there were no real gun-factories in    
,america1  although gunsmiths were      
located in most of the larger towns4    
,all  gun-barrels were imported from    
,england or ,europe4      ,a ,,visit    
,,to ,a ,,cartridge ,,factory    ,,how  
,,ammunition ,,is ,,made    ,one of the 
first shocks you get when you start your
 visit through a  cartridge factory is  
the matter-of-fact way in which the     
operatives1  girls in many cases1 handle
 the most terrible compounds4 ,we stop1 
for  example1 where they are making     
primers to go in the head of your loaded
  shell1 in order that it may not miss  
fire when the bunch of quail  whirrs    
suddenly into the air from the          
sheltering grasses4 ,that grayish  pasty
 mass is wet fulminate of mercury4      
,suppose it should dry a trifle  too    
rapidly4 ,it would be the last thing you
 ever did suppose1 for there  is force  

enough in that double handful to blow   
its surroundings into  fragments4 ,you  
edge away a little1 and no wonder1 but  
the girl who  handles it shows no fear  
as she deftly but carefully presses it  
into  moulds which separate it into the 
proper sizes for primers4 ,she knows    
that in its present moist condition it  
cannot explode4    ,illustration3       
,,inspecting ,,metallic ,,shells        
,illustration3 ,,examining ,,paper      
,,shells    ,illustration3 ,,weighing   
,,bullets    ,or1 perhaps1 we may be    
watching one of the many loading        
machines4  ,there is a certain          
suggestiveness in the way the machines  
are separated  by partitions4 ,the man  
in charge takes a small carrier of      
powder from a  case in the outside wall 
and shuts the door1 then carefully      
empties it  into the reservoir of his   
machine1 and watches alertly while it   
packs  the proper portions into the     
waiting shells4 ,he looks like a careful
  man1 and needs to be4 ,you do not     

stand too close4    ,illustration3      
,,shooting ,,room ,,of ,,ballistics     
,,department    ,illustration3          
,,chronograph ,,for ,,measuring    ,the 
empty carrier then passes through a     
little door at the side of the          
building1 and drops into the yawning    
mouth of an automatic tube4 ,in the     
twinkling of an eye it appears in front 
of the operator in one of the           
distributing stations1 where it is      
refilled1 and returned to its proper    
loading machine1 in order to keep the   
machine going at a perfectly  uniform   
rate2 while at the same time it allows  
but a minimum amount  of powder to      
remain in the building at any moment4   
,each machine has  but just sufficient  
powder in its hopper to run until a new 
supply can  reach it4 ,greater          
precaution than this cannot be imagined1
 illustrating  as it does that no effort
 has been spared to protect the lives of
 the  operators4    ,illustration3      
,,putting ,,metal ,,heads ,,on ,,paper  

,,shot ,,shells    ,it is remarkable    
that1 in an output of something like    
four million per  day1 every cartridge  
is perfect4    ,such things are not     
accidental4 ,the secret is1 inspection4 
,,testing ,,materials ,,and ,,products  
,let us see what that means4 ,it means  
laboratory tests to start with4  ,here  
are brought many samples of the body    
paper1 wad paper1 metals1  waterproofing
 mixture1 fulminate of mercury1 sulphur1
 chlorate of  potash1 antimony sulphide1
 powder1 wax1 and other ingredients1 and
  even the operating materials such as  
coal1 grease1 oil1 and soaps4  ,in the  
laboratory we see expert chemists and   
metallurgists with  their test-tubes1   
scales1 ,bunsen burners1 retorts1       
tensile machines1  microscopes1 and     
other scientific looking apparatus1     
busily hunting  for defects4    ,for    
example1 one marker is examining a      
supply of cupro-nickel1 such as  is used
 in jacketing certain bullets4 ,a corner
 of each strip is first  bent over at   

right angles1 then back in the other    
direction until it  is doubled1 then    
straightened4 ,it does not show the     
slightest sign of  breaking or cracking1
 in spite of the severe treatment1      
therefore it is  perfect4 ,let but the  
least flaw appear1 and the shipment is  
rejected4    ,illustration3 ,,what ,a   
,,shot ,,tower ,,looks ,,like           
,,shot ,,tower--,,tallest ,,building    
,,in ,,connecticut    ,illustration3    
,,largest ,,cartridge ,,equals ,,more   
,,than #a1jjj1jjj ,,of ,,smallest       
7,,held ,,on ,,hand7    ,two large iron 
cylinders descend in the center1 coming 
down through the  ceiling from above2 we
 are invited to look through an open    
port in one  of these4    ,we see       
nothing but the whitened opposite wall1 
against which a light  burns4    ,it    
appears absolutely empty1 though within 
it is raining such a swift  shower of   
invisible metal that if we were to      
stretch our hands into the  apparently  
vacant space they would be torn from our

 arms4    ,a large water tank below is  
churned into foam with the impact of the
  falling shot1 and as we look downward 
we make out finally the haze of  motion4
 ,it is so interesting that we take the 
elevator and rise ten  stories to the   
source of the shower4    ,here high in  
the air are the large caldrons where    
many pigs of lead1  with the proper     
alloy1 are melted into a sort of        
metallic soup4 ,this  is fed into small 
compartments containing sieves or       
screens1 through  the meshes of which   
the shining drops appear and then plunge
 swiftly  downward4    ,but this only   
begins the process4 ,taken from the     
water tanks and  hoisted up again1 the  
shot pellets1 in a second journey down1 
through  complicated devices1 are       
sorted1 tumbled1 polished1 graded1      
coated with  graphite1 and finally      
stored4      ,the pictures shown in this
 story were prepared especially to      
illustrate this story of 8,how ,man     
,learned to ,shoot0 by the              

,searchlight ,library for the ,remington
 ,arms ,company4    ,illustration3      
,,forging ,a ,,monster ,,gun      ,photo
 by ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4    ,this     
photograph shows gun ingots after being 
8stripped0 and 8cored40                 
,illustration3      ,photo by ,bethlehem
 ,steel ,co4    ,this photograph shows a
 gun ingot in the process of being      
forged under  forging press4            
,illustration3      ,photo by ,bethlehem
 ,steel ,co4    ,this photograph shows a
 gun being fired at the ,proving        
,grounds for  test4          ,the ,parts
 of a ,big ,gun      ,,things ,,to      
,,know ,,about ,a ,,big ,,gun    ,before
 going into a description of the        
manufacture of a big gun it  would be   
well to understand the following        
definitions3    ,the 8breech0 of a gun  
is its rear-end1 or that end into which 
the  projectile and powder charge are   
loaded4    ,the 8muzzle0 of a gun is its
 forward end4    ,by 8calibre0 is meant 
the inside diameter of the gun in       

inches4 ,a  #e-;inch gun is one of      
8minor calibre10 and one of #ad-;inches 
a gun of  8major calibre40    ,the      
length of a gun is never expressed in   
inches or feet1 but in the  number of   
times that its calibre is divisible into
 its length2 thus1  when we say a       
#ab-;inch #ej-;calibre gun1 we mean a   
gun of #ab inches in  diameter1 and #ab 
times #ej1 or #fjj inches long4    ,the 
8bore0 is the hole extending through the
 center of the gun1 from  the rear face 
of the liner to its forward end4    ,the
 8powder chamber0 is the rear part of   
the bore1 and extends from the  face of 
the breech plug when closed to the point
 where the 8rifling0  begins4 ,the      
powder chamber is slightly larger in    
diameter than the rest  of the bore4    
,the 8rifling0 is the name given to the 
spiral grooves which are cut  into the  
surface of the bore of the gun1 and give
 to the projectile its  rotary motion   
when the gun is fired4    ,with the     
advent of 8iron-clads0 and heavily      

armored fortresses1 it  became necessary
 to increase the power of the guns in   
use1 until to-day  a #ad-;inch gun of   
#de calibres fires a projectile weighing
 #adjj pounds1  with an initial velocity
 of #bfjj feet per second4 ,an idea of  
this  initial velocity may be better    
obtained by comparison when you realize 
that a train going sixty miles an hour  
is only traveling at the rate  of #hh   
feet per second4 ,now1 in order to      
produce such wonderful power in  a gun1 
great pressure must be generated in the 
bore1 and it was soon  found that a     
one-piece gun1 whether cast or forged1  
could not withstand  such pressures4    
,to begin with1 we may consider this    
one-piece gun1 or any gun1 as a  tube   
which must withstand a great pressure   
from within1 so that when  a gun is     
designed care must be taken to see that 
the material from  which it is          
constructed is strong enough to         
withstand this pressure4  ,and not only 
must the gun be sufficiently strong1 but

 it must not  be too heavy1 so that you 
see you cannot go on forever increasing 
the thickness of the walls of this tube4
 ,besides1 it is generally  acknowledged
 that a simple tube or cylinder cannot  
be made with walls  of sufficient       
thickness to withstand from within a    
continued pressure  per square inch     
greater than the tenacity of a          
square-inch bar of the  same material2  
in other words1 if the tensile strength 
of a metal is  only twelve tons per     
square inch1 no gun of that metal1      
however thick  its walls1 could         
withstand a pressure of twenty tons per 
square inch1  and the modern big guns   
are tested at that great a pressure4    
,and if we  look further into this      
matter of pressures we find that when a 
gun is  fired the pressure exerts itself
 in two ways2 it tends to burst the gun 
longitudinally or down the middle1 and  
it tends to pull the gun apart  in the  
direction of its length4 ,of course1    
some method of strengthening  this      

one-piece gun was sought after1 with the
 result that to-day guns  are either    
8built-up0 or 8wire-wound40    ,a       
8built-up0 gun is one made of several   
layers1 each layer being  separately    
constructed and then assembled together4
 ,the order of  assemblage differs      
somewhat with the different calibres1   
but the method  of assemblage is        
essentially the same1 that is1 the      
outside layers are  heated and shrunk on
 the inner ones4 ,this question will be 
treated at  greater length later on4    
,a 8wire-wound0 gun is one in which the 
necessary additional strength  is       
obtained by winding wire around an inner
 tube of steel1 each layer  being wound 
with a different tension of the wire2   
this type of gun  has found great favor 
with foreign manufacturers4 ,in this    
country1  however1 the 8built-up0 system
 is used almost exclusively1 and so this
  description will deal with the        
manufacture of a 8built-up0 gun4        
,illustration3 ,,how ,a ,,big ,,gun     

,,would ,,look ,,if ,,you ,,were ,,to   
,,cut ,,it ,,in ,,two    ,sketch        
,showing ,construction of a ,modern     
8,built-up0 ,gun4    ,a1 ,,hoop2 ,b1    
,,hoop2 ,c1 ,,jacket2 ,d1 ,,tube2 ,e1   
,,liner2 ,f1 ,,hoop4    ,a modern       
8built-up0 gun is composed of a liner1 a
 tube1 a jacket  and hoops4    ,the     
liner is in one piece and extends the   
entire length of the bore  and carries  
the 8rifling0 and the powder chamber4   
,the tube is in one piece and envelops  
the liner for its entire  length4       
,formerly the tube carried the 8rifling0
 and powder chamber1  but due to the    
wearing out of the 8rifling0 with       
constant firing1 a  liner was decided   
on1 so that now when the 8rifling0      
becomes worn1 the  liner can be removed 
and a new one substituted4    ,the      
jacket is usually in two pieces and is  
shrunk on the tube2 it  extends the     
entire length1 and its rear end is      
threaded in the inside  for the         
attachment of the 8breech bushing40     

,hoops are shrunk on over the jacket and
 in a big gun are sometimes as  many as 
six or seven in number4    ,the liner1  
tube1 jacket and hoops are made of the  
finest quality of  open hearth steel1   
and the steel must conform to           
specifications set by  the government4  
,illustration3      ,photo by ,bethlehem
 ,steel ,co4    ,this photograph shows a
 mould for a gun ingot under hydraulic  
press for  fluid compression4    ,the   
chemical composition having been        
determined1 the necessary elements  are 
weighed out and the whole charged into  
an open hearth furnace4 ,when  the      
furnace is ready to be tapped the molten
 metal is run into a large  ladle1 which
 in turn is taken by a crane to the     
casting pit1 where the  mould is filled4
 ,the ingots for the large calibre guns 
run from #db-;inch  to #dh-;inch in     
diameter1 and after being poured they   
are immediately  run under a hydraulic  
press1 where they are subjected to a    
pressure  of about six tons per square  

inch to drive out the gases1 and then   
lowered to about #aejj pounds pressure  
per square inch for a certain  length of
 time during the cooling4 ,this pressure
 tends to make the  ingot solid1 by     
expelling the gases1 which would cause  
blow-holes1 and  by preventing 8piping0 
and 8segregation40 ,when a metal cools1 
the top  and sides cool first1 and this 
outer layer shrinks and pulls away from 
the centre1 with the result that a      
cavity or 8pipe0 would be formed1  but  
the hydraulic pressure forces fluid     
metal into this cavity and  so prevents 
the 8pipe40 ,the cooling also causes the
 various elements  to solidify          
separately1 and they tend to break away 
from the mass  and collect at the       
centre2 this is called 8segregation10   
and is also  partially prevented by     
fluid compression4 ,a solid ingot1      
however1 is  obtained1 and this is      
absolutely necessary4    ,after the     
ingot has cooled sufficiently it is     
8stripped10 that is1  it is removed from

 the mould1 and then it is sent to the  
shop to have  the 8discard10 or extra   
length1 cut off4 ,when the ingot is     
cast1 an  extra amount of metal is      
poured into the mould to permit this    
discard1  the theory being that the     
poorer metal1 together with gases and   
other  impurities1 rise to the top4 ,the
 government specifications require that 
there shall be a #bj discard from the   
upper end and a #c discard from  the    
lower end4 ,the discard having been cut 
off1 the ingot is 8cored10  that is1 its
 centre is bored out1 the diameter of   
the hole depending on  the size of the  
ingot4    ,illustration3 ,,taking ,,the 
,,bore ,,of ,a ,,big ,,gun      ,photo  
by ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4    ,this      
photograph shows gun ingot in boring    
mill being cored4    ,the ingot is now  
ready for the 8forge10 and on its       
receipt in the forge  shop it is placed 
in a furnace to be heated2 and here     
great care must  be exercised to prevent
 setting up any additional strains in   

the ingot4  ,when the ingot was cooling 
just after casting the metal tended to  
flow  from the centre2 the interior is  
still in a condition of strain1 and if  
the cold ingot is now placed in a hot   
furnace1 cracks are apt to form  in the 
centre1 causing the forging to later    
break in service4    ,however1 the ingot
 having been properly heated1 it is     
ready for either  the forging hammer or 
the press4 ,the present-day practice1   
though1 is  to forge the ingot under a  
press forge1 as the working of the metal
  causes a certain flow1 and as a       
certain amount of time is necessary  for
 this flow1 the continued pressure and  
slow motion of the press  allows the    
molecules of the metal to adjust        
themselves more easily1  and a better   
and more homogeneous forged ingot is    
produced than if the  forging had been  
done with a hammer4    ,when forging a  
hollow ingot1 a mandrel1 merely a       
cylindrical steel  shaft1 is placed     
through the hole in the ingot and the   

ingot forged  on the mandrel1 thereby   
not only is the outside diameter of the 
ingot  decreased1 but the length of the 
ingot is increased4 ,the usual practice 
is to continue the forging until the    
original thickness of the walls  of the 
ingot is decreased one-half and until   
the ingot is within two  inches of the  
required finished diameters4 ,the ingot 
is now known as a  8forging10 and the   
lower end of each ingot as cast will be 
the breech  end of the forging that is  
made from it4    ,the next process is   
that of 8annealing40 ,this consists in  
heating the  forging to a red heat and  
then allowing it to cool very slowly1   
and  is usually done by hauling the     
fires in the furnace after the correct  
temperature has been attained and       
permitting both to cool off together4   
,this process is to relieve the strains 
set up in the metal during  forging1 and
 further1 it alters the molecular       
condition of the steel1  making a finer 
and more homogeneous forging4           

,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,gun ,,tube 
,,is ,,tempered      ,photo by          
,bethlehem ,steel ,co4    ,this         
photograph shows a gun tube ready to be 
lowered into oil bath for  8oil         
tempering40    ,after annealing1 the    
forging is ready to go to the machine   
shop to  be rough bored and turned4 ,the
 forging is set in a lathe1 the breech  
end being held by jaws on the face-plate
 and the muzzle end by a  8pot-centre10 
a large iron ring having several radial 
arms screwed  through it4 ,the lathe can
 now be turned and the forging centered 
by  screwing in or out on the jaws of   
the face-plate or the radial arms of    
the 8pot-centre40 ,when centered1       
several surfaces are turned on the      
forging for 8steady rests0 and then all 
is in readiness for the turning  and    
boring4    ,in both operations of       
8turning0 and 8boring10 the work        
revolves while  the cutting tools are   
fed along4 ,turning is very simple and  
usually  several tools are cutting at   

the same time1 but boring is a more     
delicate operation1 because the workman 
cannot see what he is doing4  ,and in   
boring1 either a 8hog bit0 or a 8packed 
bit0 is used2 a 8hog  bit0 is a half    
cylinder of cast iron fitted with one   
cutting tool and  used for rough cuts1  
while a 8packed bit0 is a full cylinder 
of wood  with metal framing and carrying
 two tools #ahj apart and used for      
finishing cuts4    ,the forging1 having 
been rough machined1 is now ready to    
receive its  heat treatment in order to 
give to the steel its required physical 
characteristics4 ,every piece of steel  
used in gun manufacture must  conform to
 certain specifications as regard both  
its physical and  chemical              
characteristics4 ,the chemical analysis 
was made at the time  the ingot was     
cast2 now for the treatment of the      
forging1 prior to the  physical test as 
to its tensile strength1 elastic limit1 
elongation and  contraction4    ,the    
8tensile strength0 of a metal is the    

unit-stress required to break  that     
metal into parts4 ,if a round bar ten   
inches in cross-section area  will      
fracture under a strain of #abj tons1   
its tensile strength is #abj   #aj or   
#ab tons per square inch4 ,tensile      
strength is usually expressed in  pounds
 per square inch4    ,the 8elastic      
limit0 of a metal is the unit-stress    
required to first  produce a permanent  
deformation of the metal4 ,if a bar of  
metal be  subjected to an increasing    
strain1 up to a certain point that metal
  will be perfectly elastic1 resuming   
its normal shape when the strain  is    
removed2 at the first permanent set or  
deformation1 however1  the elastic limit
 of that metal has been reached4        
,elastic limit is  expressed in pounds  
per square inch4    ,by 8elongation0 is 
meant the increase in length in a bar   
when its  tensile strength is reached4  
,if a bar #aj inches long after rupture 
measures #aa4h inches1 its elongation is
 #ah4    ,by 8contraction0 is meant the 

decrease in cross-section area in a bar 
when its tensile strength is reached4   
,if a bar #a square inch in area  after 
rupture is only 4#ge of a square inch in
 area1 its contraction is  #be4         
,these definitions being understood1 a  
brief description of the heat  treatment
 can be taken up1 because it is after   
this treatment that  standard bars are  
taken from the forgings to undergo the  
physical  tests4 ,the first step        
consists in 8tempering0 or hardening the
 metal4  ,the piece to be tempered is   
placed in an upright position in a high 
furnace and uniformly heated to the     
required temperature4 ,it is then       
lifted from the furnace through an      
opening in the top and carried by a     
crane to an oil tank of suitable depth  
and plunged into the oil4 ,this  rapid  
cooling or 8tempering in oil0 is        
facilitated by having the oil  tank     
surrounded by a water bath1 so arranged 
that a supply of cold  water is         
constantly in circulation to carry the  

heat from the mass  as quickly as       
possible4 ,this operation produces      
exceeding toughness1  increases the     
tensile strength and raises the elastic 
limit of the  metal4    ,now the forging
 is again annealed1 so as to relieve any
 strains set  up by tempering and to    
soften up the metal to the degree       
required by  the specifications4 ,it    
also increases materially the elongation
 and  contraction4 ,great care must be  
exercised in the heat treatment1 as the 
acceptance or rejection of the forging  
depends upon whether or not the  test   
bars pass the required specifications4  
,the forging is now submitted for test  
and the test bars taken4 ,in the        
manufacture of a big gun1 four test bars
 are taken from the breech  end and four
 from the muzzle end of each forging and
 these bars  sent to the physical       
laboratory4 ,quite an elaborate testing 
machine  is provided1 and if the bars   
pass the required tests the forging is  
accepted and is sent to the machine shop

 for finish-boring and turning4         
,,searching ,,for ,,possible ,,defects  
,frequently during finish-boring the    
work is examined to see that the  bit is
 running true1 and great care must be   
exercised to prevent its  running out of
 alignment4    ,after finish-boring     
every forging is 8bore-searched10 that  
is1 the bore  is carefully examined for 
any cracks1 flaws1 streaks or           
discoloration4  ,a special instrument   
called a 8bore-searcher0 is used and    
consists of  a long wooden handle which 
has a mirror inclined at #de at one end1
  together with a light to illuminate   
the bore1 and so shielded as to  obscure
 the light from the observer4 7,see     
sketch47    ,illustration    ,the bore  
is also inspected by the foreman after  
each boring1 but the  final             
8bore-searching0 is done by an          
inspector4    ,now to measure accurately
 the inside diameters of long cylinders1
  such as are used in gun work1 a       
special measuring device called a       

8star-gauge0 is used4 ,its name is      
derived from the fact that it has  three
 measuring points set at #abj apart and 
two measurements are  taken1 one        
,illustration and the other             
,illustration1 making a star            
,illustration4 ,every forging is        
8star-gauged0 after being finish-bored  
and also the liner of the gun after each
 assemblage operation4    ,,putting     
,,the ,,parts ,,of ,a 8,,built-,,up0    
,,gun ,,together    ,in preparation for 
the assembling of the different parts1  
the tube is  the forging to be finished4
 ,it is bored and turned to exact       
dimensions  and carefully               
8bore-searched0 and 8star-gauged40 ,with
 the data at hand  a sketch is made     
showing the external diameters of the   
liner under the  tube1 due allowance    
being made for the shrinkage when       
assembling4    ,the liner is next bored 
to within 4#ce of an inch of the        
finished  diameter1 and turned to the   
dimensions required by the sketch above4

  ,this extra metal in the bore is left 
until the gun is completely  assembled  
and is removed in the finish-boring4    
,the liner is then  carefully           
8bore-searched0 and 8star-gauged0 and   
liner and tube are  ready for           
assembling4    ,the liner is now taken  
to the shrinking pit and carefully      
aligned in an  upright position with the
 breech end down4    ,the shrinking pit 
is merely a well of square section with 
room enough  to permit workmen to move  
freely about the gun when it is in      
position1  and equipped with a movable  
table at its bottom upon which the gun  
rests4 ,in the meantime the tube1 with  
breech end down1 is being heated  in a  
hot-air furnace4 ,this furnace is a     
vertical cylinder built of  fire-brick  
and asbestos and so constructed that air
 which has been  passed in pipes over   
petroleum burners can enter at the      
bottom1 pass  around and through the    
tube and out through the top to be      
reheated4  ,this service permits a      

uniform heat to be transmitted to the   
tube and  when the desired temperature  
has been attained the tube is lifted    
from  the furnace by a crane1 carried to
 the shrinking pit and carefully        
lowered over the liner4 ,great care must
 be exercised in this operation  to     
prevent the tube from sticking while    
being lowered into place4  ,should it   
happen1 the tube should be hoisted off  
at once1 allowed to  cool1 any roughing 
of the liner be smoothed off1 the tube  
reheated and  a second trial made4 ,when
 the tube is properly in place a cold   
spray  may be turned upon any particular
 section where it is desired the tube   
should first grip the liner4 ,the tube  
is then left to cool by itself1  but    
cold water is constantly circulating    
through the liner4    ,when the gun is  
sufficiently cool for handling purposes1
 it is hoisted  out of the shrinking pit
 and taken to the shop for careful      
measurement1  the liner being           
8star-gauged0 to note the compression   

due to the  shrinking on of the tube4   
,the same procedure is followed in the  
case of the jackets and hoops1  until   
the entire gun is assembled4 ,the gun is
 considered completely  8built-up0 when 
the last hoop has been shrunk on and is 
now ready to be  finished4    ,the gun  
is now finish-bored1 as 4#ce of an inch 
of metal was left in the  liner in the  
first boring4 8,packed bits0 are used   
and the greatest care  is exercised to  
keep the bit properly centered and      
running true4 ,after  this step the gun 
is finish-turned and the powder chamber 
is bored4    ,following this operation  
the gun is 8bore-searched0 for any      
defects  that may have shown up in the  
finish-boring and chambering1 and then  
carefully 8star-gauged40 ,the gun is    
then ready to be 8rifled40              
,illustration3 ,,rifling ,a ,,big ,,gun 
,photo by ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4        
,this photograph shows a gun in the     
,rifling ,machine in the process of     
being rifled4    ,the 8rifling0 of a gun

 consists in cutting spiral grooves in  
the  surface of the bore from the powder
 chamber to the muzzle end1 and is  done
 from the muzzle end4 ,rifling is a very
 difficult operation1 and  great care   
must be exercised that the cutting is   
uniform4 ,the grooves  are separated by 
raised portions called 8lands10 and     
after 8rifling10  these grooves and     
8lands0 are carefully smoothed up to    
remove the rough  edges or burrs caused 
by the cutting tools of the 8rifling0   
machine4    ,the necessary holes are now
 drilled for fitting the breech         
mechanism  and the breech block fitted4 
,this operation usually takes some      
little  time1 as quite a bit of hand    
work is necessary to insure a perfect   
fit4  ,the 8yoke10 really another       
8hoop10 is now put on at the breech end 
and  the gun is complete4    ,the centre
 of gravity of gun and breech mechanism 
is now determined  by balancing on knife
 edges and the whole then weighed4 ,the 
breech  mechanism is also weighed and   

the two weights marked on the rear faces
  of the gun and breech mechanism4      
,the gun is now fitted in its 8slide10  
that part of the mount which  carries   
the trunnions and through which the gun 
recoils when it  is fired1 and after it 
is adjusted1 all is in readiness for the
  8proof-firing0 or testing of the gun4 
,what ,is ,motion8      ,there are      
practically but two things we see when  
we use our eyes4  ,one of them is       
matter1 which is a term we apply to the 
things we  see1 speaking of them as     
objects only1 and the other is motion   
which  we observe some of the matter to 
possess4 ,some of the things we see     
confuse us1 if we bear in mind that     
everything is either matter or  motion4 
,for instance1 we see light and know it 
is not matter and are  confused until we
 understand that light is a movement of 
the ether  which surrounds us and is in 
and outside of everything4 ,in the same 
way  we feel heat and may think it is   
matter thrown off by the fire1 when it  

is only another kind of motion of this  
same ether4 ,when we understand  these  
things we see that motion is a very     
important and real part of  the world4  
,when a motion is started it will keep  
on going forever unless some  other     
force which is able to overcome the     
motion stops it4 ,when a ball  is thrown
 in the air it would go on forever were 
it not for the law of  gravitation which
 pulls it to the earth and the friction 
of the air on  the ball as it goes      
through the air4 ,when you stop a thrown
 ball you  sometimes realize that motion
 is a real thing because it stings your 
hands4 ,we do wonderful things with     
motion4 ,many things when you add       
motion to them acquire qualities which  
they did not possess before4 ,for       
instance1 an ordinary icicle thrown     
against a wooden door will break1  but  
if you put it into a gun and give it    
sufficient motion1 it will go  right    
through the door4 ,there is a story of  
how a man killed another  by using an   

icicle as a bullet4 ,the icicle entered 
the man's body and  killed him4 ,then1  
of course1 the ice melted and no one    
could tell how  the man received his    
wound1 for no trace of anything like a  
bullet  could be found4 ,a piece of     
paper has no cutting qualities1 but if  
you  arrange a circular or square piece 
of paper with a rod or stick through    
the center and revolve it fast enough1  
you can cut many things while it  is    
whirling4 ,the motion gives it the      
cutting qualities4 ,you can take a      
piece of strong rope and1 by tying the  
ends together1 making a circle  of it1  
you can make it roll down the street    
like a steel hoop if you  catch it just 
the right way and set it spinning fast  
enough before  starting it on its way4  
,a steam engine has no power to pull the
 train  of cars until the wheels are set
 in motion4 ,so we see that motion is a 
very important thing in the world4      
,motion is the cause of movements of all
 kinds1 the power which takes  things   

from one place to another4          ,is 
,perpetual ,motion ,possible8           
,perpetual motion will never be possible
 unless some one discovers a  way to    
overcome the law of gravitation and also
 the certainty that  materials will     
eventually wear out4 ,many men have     
tried to make a  machine that would keep
 on moving forever without the          
application of  any power1 the          
consumption of fuel within itself1 the  
fall of weights  or the unwinding of a  
spring2 such a machine would be         
absolutely  impossible1 although many   
people have been fooled into investing  
money  in machines that appeared to have
 this power within themselves4          
,how ,can an ,explosion ,break ,windows 
,that ,are at a ,distance8      ,an     
explosion is a sudden expansion of a    
substance like gunpowder or  some       
elastic fluid or other substance that   
has the power to explode  under certain 
conditions with force1 and usually a    
loud report4 ,some  explosions are      

comparatively mild and accompanied by a 
very mild noise1  while others are very 
powerful and accompanied by a very loud 
noise4  ,when an explosion occurs1 the  
air and everything surrounding the thing
  that explodes is very much disturbed4 
,the air surrounding the thing  that    
explodes is thrown back in air waves    
which are powerful in the  exact        
proportion in which the explosion is    
powerful4 ,these air waves  can be so   
suddenly thrown back against the objects
 in the vicinity that  not only the     
windows in the buildings are broken1 but
 often the entire  building blown away4 
,the explosion acts in all directions at
 once  with equal force4 ,a great hole  
may be torn in the earth beneath the    
explosion4 ,if there is anything over   
the explosion1 that is blown away       
unless its power of resistance is       
sufficient to withstand the power of    
the explosion4 ,then1 also1 the air     
surrounding on all sides is forced  back
 against everything in its path4        

,very often this air which is suddenly  
forced back by the power of the         
explosion is thrown against houses at a 
distance4 ,these houses may  be so      
strongly built as to be able to         
withstand the effect of the  explosion1 
but still certain parts of them1 such as
 the windows and  the bricks of the     
chimney1 may not be able to withstand   
this sudden  pressure of air against    
them and they are forced in4 ,the wind  
from such  an explosion acts on the     
outside of the windows just the same as 
though  you stood on the outside with   
your hands against the windows and      
pushed  them in4 ,anything that is      
thrown against a window with more force 
than  the window glass can resist will  
break the window1 and even slight       
explosions may be so powerful as to     
throw the air back and away from  them  
with such force as to break windows at a
 great distance--even a  mile or more   
away4          ,why ,do ,some ,things   
,bend and ,others ,break8      ,when an 

outside force is applied to some        
objects1 some of them will  bend and    
others break4 ,it is due to the fact    
that in some things the  particles have 
the faculty of sticking together or     
hanging on to each  other1 and it is    
very difficult to break them away from  
each other4 ,in  such instances1 as in  
the case of a wire1 the article will    
bend when  we apply the power to it and 
it will not break1 because the particles
  which make up the wire have the       
faculty of hanging on to each other4 ,a 
piece of glass1 however1 can be broken  
right in two by the application  of no  
more force than was used to bend the    
wire1 because the particles  which make 
up the glass haven't the faculty to hang
 on to each other4  ,if you continue to 
bend a wire back and forth1 however1 at 
the same  point1 it will finally break  
apart1 because you eventually overcome  
the  ability of the particles in the    
wire to hang on to each other4    ,it   
all depends upon the hanging-on ability4

 ,sometimes in undergoing  different    
processes an article which will         
ordinarily only bend will  become very  
brittle or breakable4 ,a steel wire may 
bend but if you make  a steel wire very 
hard it becomes brittle4 ,on the other  
hand1 glass is  very brittle ordinarily1
 but if you make it very hot1 you can   
bend it  into any shape you wish1 and   
thus the glass-worker makes different   
shapes to various dishes2 lamp chimneys1
 bottles1 etc41 by heating  glass and   
then bending it4 ,when it becomes cool  
again1 it also becomes  brittle or      
breakable as before4          ,why ,does
 a ,ball ,bounce8      ,when you throw a
 ball against the floor in order to make
 it bounce the  ball gets out of shape  
as soon as it comes in contact with the 
floor4  ,as much of it as strikes the   
floor becomes perfectly flat1 and       
because  the ball has a quality known as
 elasticity1 which means the ability to 
return to its proper shape1 it returns  
to its shape immediately and in  doing  

so forces itself back into the air and  
that is the bounce4    ,of course1 the  
first thing we think of when we consider
 something  that bounces is a ball1 and 
in most cases a rubber ball4 ,we are    
more  familiar with the bouncing        
qualities of a rubber ball4 ,other      
balls1  like standard baseballs1 are not
 so elastic as a rubber ball filled     
with air1 but a solid-rubber ball is    
more elastic and some golf balls  are   
much more elastic than a solid-rubber   
ball4 ,the principle is the  same1 when 
you drive a golf ball1 excepting that   
when you bounce a ball  on the floor the
 floor does the flattening and when you 
drive a golf  ball1 the golf club does  
the flattening4 ,a baseball flies away  
from the  bat for the same reason4 ,when
 you meet a fast-pitched ball squarely  
on  the nose with a good swing1 it goes 
farther and faster than when you  hit a 
slow-pitched ball with an equal swing1  
because in the case of the  fast-pitched
 ball you flatten the ball out more1 and

 it has so much  more to do to recover  
its proper shape that it bounces away   
from the  bat at much greater speed and 
goes much further unless caught than a  
slow-pitched ball under the same        
circumstances4          ,what ,makes a  
,ball ,stop ,bouncing8      ,a bouncing 
ball1 when you first throw it against   
the wall bounces back  at you about as  
fast as you throw it1 but if you do not 
catch it on the  rebound1 it goes to the
 floor again1 because the law of        
gravitation  which is the pulling power 
of the earth1 pulls it down again4 ,when
 it  strikes the floor it is again      
flattened to a certain extent and       
bounces  up again1 but does not come    
back so high4 ,it goes on striking the  
floor  and bouncing back into the air   
again each time a shorter distance1     
until the force of gravity has actually 
overcome its tendency to bounce  back4  
,when you bounce a ball on the floor and
 it bounces up again1 the motion  of the
 ball through the air is affected by the

 friction that the  contact with the air
 produces and this friction of the air  
overcomes  part of the bouncing ability 
in the ball also4          ,what ,makes 
a ,cold ,glass ,crack if ,we ,put ,hot  
,water ,into ,it8      ,hot water will  
not always cause a cold glass to crack1 
but is very apt  to1 especially a thick 
glass4 ,the very thin glasses will not  
crack4 ,the  test tubes used by chemists
 are made of very thin glass1 and will  
not  crack when hot liquids are poured  
into them4    ,when a glass cracks after
 you have poured a hot liquid into it1  
it does  so because1 as soon as the hot 
liquid is put in1 the particles of glass
  which form the inside of the glass    
become heated and expand4 ,they begin   
to do this before the particles which   
form the outside of the glass  become   
heated1 and in their efforts to expand  
the inside particles of  glass literally
 break away from the particles which    
form the outside1  causing the crack4   
,the same thing happens if you put cold 

water into a  hot glass1 excepting in   
this instance the inside particles of   
the glass  contract before the particles
 which form the outside of the glass    
have  had time to become cool and do    
likewise4          ,what ,causes the    
,gurgle ,when ,i ,pour ,water from a    
,bottle8      ,the air trying to get in 
causes the gurgle4 ,air has one strong  
characteristic which stands out above   
everything else4 ,it wants to go  some  
place else all the time4 ,when it learns
 of a place where there  is no air it   
wants to go there above all things1 and 
goes at it with a  rush4    ,now1 when  
you turn a bottle full of water upside  
down1 the water comes  out if the cork  
is out1 of course1 and as soon as the   
water starts out  the air strives to get
 in1 and every time you hear a gurgle   
you know  the air is getting in4 ,every 
gurgle is a battle between the water and
  the air4 ,sometimes the air comes and 
pushes the water back enough to  let it 
slide into the bottle2 sometimes the    

water pushes the air back1  and thus    
they fight back and forth4 ,the water   
always gets out and the  air always gets
 in4 ,in doing so they make the gurgle4 
,where ,does the ,part of a ,stocking   
,go ,that ,was ,where the ,hole ,comes8 
,perhaps this is a foolish question1 but
 many boys and girls have been  puzzled 
for an answer to it4 ,when you put your 
stockings on they have  no holes in the 
feet1 and at night1 when you take them  
off1 there are  often quite large holes 
in them4 ,the answer is the same as in  
the case  of the lead in the            
lead-pencil4 ,the lead in the pencil    
wears away4 ,you  can see it wear away  
because that is what makes the marks4   
,when a hole is coming into your        
stocking1 the stocking on your foot  is 
being rubbed between your foot and      
something else 7probably some  part of  
your shoe7 and this constant rubbing    
will wear through the  yarns with which 
the stocking is knitted4 ,of course1 the
 yarns in  the stocking are stretched   

somewhat when it is on your foot and the
  rubbing finally cuts through the      
threads and releases the tension of  the
 threads of yarn1 so that not always is 
as much stocking lost as  the size of   
the hole4 ,but1 if you were to look     
carefully at your foot  and inside your 
shoe1 when you first take the stocking  
off and see the  hole1 you would find   
little particles of yarn all about4     
,why ,do ,coats ,have ,buttons ,on the  
,sleeves8      ,the practice of putting 
buttons on coat sleeves1 which serve no 
useful  purpose at all and do not add to
 the beauty of the coat1 is a relic of  
very old days4    ,there was a time when
 people did not use handkerchiefs1 and  
it was  common practice for men to wipe 
their noses on their sleeves4 ,they had 
coats also in those days1 but they did  
not have buttons on the sleeves4  ,one  
of the old kings finally developed the  
idea of dressing his  soldiers in fancy 
uniforms and1 as he sat in his palace   
and reviewed  his troops1 he noticed    

many of them using the sleeves of their 
coats as  handkerchiefs4 ,he immediately
 issued a decree that all sleeves should
  have a row of buttons sewed on them1  
but at a point directly opposite  to    
where they are now on the sleeves4 ,this
 was done to remind the  soldiers that  
the sleeves of their beautiful uniforms 
were not to be  used as handkerchiefs1  
and those who attempted to draw their   
sleeves in  front of the nose were      
quickly reminded of the decree by the   
buttons  which scratched them4 ,and so  
the buttons really had a quite useful   
purpose at one time1 and so also all    
sleeves had buttons sewed on to  them at
 this place4 ,later on1 however1 when   
the unsightly practice had  been cured  
and people had learned to use           
handkerchiefs1 the buttons  remained as 
a decoration1 but their former purpose  
was lost sight of4  ,then some tailor or
 leader of fashion had the buttons set  
on the under  side of the sleeves for a 
change1 and it became the fashion to    

have  them there1 and the tailors have  
been sewing them there ever since4      
,why ,has a ,long ,coat ,buttons on the 
,back8      ,the buttons on the back of 
a long coat1 i4 e41 one with skirts1 had
 a  more sensible reason originally4 ,at
 one time the skirts of such coats  were
 made very long1 and when the wearer    
moved quickly the tails of  the coat    
flapped about the legs and interfered   
with progress4 ,so an  ingenious        
gentleman had buttons sewed on to the   
back and buttonholes  made in the corner
 of his coat-tails4 ,then when he was in
 a hurry he  simply buttoned up his     
skirts and went his way comfortably4    
,illustration3 ,,telephone ,,display    
,,board    ,showing in outline the      
apparatus necessary to complete the     
simplest  kind of a telephone call--to a
 number in the same exchange            
,the ,story in the ,telephone           
,,what ,,happens ,,when ,,we ,,telephone
    ,mrs4 ,smith1 at 8,subscriber's     
,station ,no4 #a10 desires to telephone 

to ,mrs4 ,jones at 8,subscriber's       
,station ,no4 #b40 ,when she lifts her  
receiver1 the movement causes a tiny    
white light to appear instantly on  the 
switchboard at the ,central ,office4    
,directly beneath this light is  another
 and larger lamp1 which glows in a way  
to attract the operator's  attention    
immediately4    ,the operator inserts a 
8plug0 in a little hole on the          
switchboard  called a 8jack10 directly  
above the tiny light which appeared when
 ,mrs4  ,smith lifted the receiver4     
,this connects her to ,mrs4 ,smith's    
line4 ,then  she pushes a listening key 
on the board1 connecting her telephone  
set  to the line4 8,number1 please80 she
 calls4    ,mrs4 ,smith gives the       
number2 the operator repeats it to be   
sure there  is no mistake1 places       
another 8plug0 in a 8jack0 corresponding
 to the  number of ,mrs4 ,jones'        
telephone and makes the connection4     
,each subscriber's telephone has a      
particular signal on the switchboard  to

 which it is connected by a pair of     
wires4 ,mrs4 ,smith's wires run  from   
her instrument to the nearest 8cable    
terminal10 a gathering point  for the   
wires of various telephones in her      
neighborhood4 ,here they form  part of a
 group of wires going to the ,central   
,office4 ,these groups1  called cables1 
are made up of from #ej to #fjj pairs of
 wires1 according  to the telephone     
needs of the district the 8terminal0    
serves4    ,when the wires reach the    
,central ,office they pass through the  
8cable  vault0 to the 8main distributing
 frame10 which is the ,central ,office  
terminal of the cable4    ,when the     
wires come to this frame they are in    
numbered order in the  cable4           
,subscribers living next door to ,mrs4  
,smith may have entirely  different call
 numbers and yet use consecutive wires4 
,it is the task  of the main frame to   
redistribute these wires1 so that they  
will be  arranged according to their    
call numbers and to make it possible to 

connect ,mrs4 ,smith's line with the    
line of any other subscriber with  the  
least possible delay4 ,this frame has   
two parts3 the 8vertical  side0 and the 
8horizontal side40 ,before the wires are
 redistributed  they are taken to pairs 
of springs equipped with devices for    
protecting  the lines against outside   
currents4    ,illustration3 ,,asking    
,,for ,a ,,number    ,after leaving the 
main frame they are taken to the        
8intermediate  distributing frame10 the 
central connecting point for various    
branches  of the lines going to the     
switchboard1 signaling and other        
apparatus4  ,from the 8horizontal side0 
of this frame1 wires go to the          
switchboard1  where they terminate in   
little holes known as 8multiple jacks40 
,they  also connect with the line and   
position message registers1 where the   
calls from each ,line and the calls     
handled at each operator's position  at 
the switchboard are recorded4 ,the      
8multiple jacks0 are additional         

terminals placed at necessary intervals 
throughout the switchboard1  where they 
can be used by operators to make        
connections with any other  line on the 
board4    ,from the 8vertical side0 of  
the intermediate frame ,mrs4 ,smith's   
wires  reach the 8line and cut-off      
relay10 an electrically controlled      
switch  which turns on the light signal 
that appears on the switchboard  when   
she lifts the receiver from the hook4   
,this 8line relay0 also  extinguishes   
the light when the operator makes the   
connection1 or when  ,mrs4 ,smith       
returns the receiver to the hook4       
,illustration3 ,a ,,typical ,,pole      
,,line1 ,,with ,,cross ,,arms1 ,,in     
,,the ,,country    ,the swift moving    
electric current that was set in motion 
when ,mrs4  ,smith began the call1      
instantaneously passes through all these
 devices  for safeguarding and          
protecting the subscriber's telephone   
service4 ,the  light announcing ,mrs4   
,smith's desire to make a call is called

 the 8line  lamp10 and is flashing on   
the switchboard4 ,directly beneath it is
 the  8pilot lamp10 which glows whenever
 any 8line lamp0 lights4 ,with the      
8line lamp0 is a 8jack0 or terminal1    
where connection can be made with  ,mrs4
 ,smith's line4 ,this is the 8answering 
jack40    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cable  
,,vault ,,into ,,which ,,the ,,cables   
,,pass ,,when ,,they  ,,enter ,,the     
,,exchange ,,and ,,from ,,which ,,they  
,,are ,,led ,,upward ,,to ,,the ,,main  
,,distributing ,,frame    ,when the     
operator sees the flashing signal of    
,mrs4 ,smith's 8line lamp10  she inserts
 one end of a pair of 8connecting       
cords10 which are on  the board before  
her1 in the 8answering jack0 for ,mrs4  
,smith's line4  ,these 8connecting      
cords0 are flexible conductors that put 
the wires  of subscribers in electrical 
connection4 ,then she pushes forward the
  8operator's key0 directly in front of 
her and is connected with ,mrs4         
,smith's line4    ,the operator         

ascertains the number wanted and places 
the other  8connecting cord0 in the     
8jack0 corresponding to ,mrs4 ,jones'   
line4 ,if  she finds she cannot herself 
connect with ,mrs4 ,jones' 8jack10      
because  it is on another part of the   
board out of her reach1 she makes a     
connection with another operator who can
 reach ,mrs4 ,jones' line4 ,the  second 
operator then makes the connection with 
,mrs4 ,jones' 8multiple  jack0 and      
places her line in connection with ,mrs4
 ,smith's line at the  first operator's 
position4 ,at the same time the first   
operator pushes  the operator's key     
back1 thus ringing ,mrs4 ,jones' bell4  
8,supervisory lamps0 on the board before
 her1 connected with the  8connecting   
cords10 tell the operator when ,mrs4    
,jones answers the  summons4 ,they flash
 when the connection is made and one    
goes out just  as soon as ,mrs4 ,jones  
takes the receiver from the hook to     
answer4  ,if one of these lamps flashes 
and dies out alternately it tells the   

operator that either ,mrs4 ,smith or    
,mrs4 ,jones is trying to attract her   
attention and she connects herself and  
ascertains the party's wishes4  ,when   
both subscribers 8hang up10 both lights 
flash to indicate the  end of the       
conversation4 ,the operator then        
disconnects the cords from  the         
subscribers' 8jacks0 and presses the    
8message register0 button  recording the
 call against ,mrs4 ,smith4             
,illustration3 ,,routine ,,of ,a        
,,telephone ,,call    ,the subscriber1  
after looking up in the directory the   
desired number1  takes the telephone off
 the hook1 which causes a tiny electric 
light to  glow in front of the operator 
assigned to answer his calls4 7,in some 
exchanges equipped with a magneto       
system1 a drop is released by the       
turning of a crank47    ,illustration3  
,the arrow indicates the light as it    
appears on the  switchboard4 ,each      
operator can connect a caller with any  
subscriber  in that exchange1 but she is

 assigned to answer the calls of only a 
limited number of subscribers whose     
signals are these lights showing at  her
 particular position4    ,illustration3 
,she takes up a brass-tipped cord1      
inserts the tip1  or 8plug10 into the   
hole1 or 8jack10 just above the light1  
at the  same time throwing a key with   
the other hand in order to switch her   
transmitter line into direct            
communication with the caller1 and says3
  8,number80    ,illustration3 ,the     
caller replies by giving the name of the
 exchange  and the number he wants1 as  
for example1 8,main #abfh40 ,the        
operator  repeats the number1           
8,one-two-six-eight10 pronouncing each  
digit with  clear articulation1 to      
insure its correctness1 and1 if it be   
from a  subscriber in the ,main         
,exchange1 she--    ,illustration3      
,takes up the cord which is the team    
mate1 or 8pair10 of  the one with which 
she answered the caller1 locates the    
jack numbered  #abfh1 and 8tests0 the   

line by tapping the tip of the plug for 
a moment  on the sleeve of the 8jack0 to
 ascertain if the line is 8busy40 ,if no
  click sounds in her ear she--         
,illustration3 ,pushes in the plug and  
with her other hand operates a  key on  
the desk4 ,the first action connects the
 line of the subscriber  called2 the    
second rings his bell4 ,when either     
party hangs up his  receiver1 a light   
glows on the switchboard desk1 showing  
the operator  that the conversation is  
ended4    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,central
 ,,terminal ,,of ,,your ,,telephone     
,a ,,multiple ,,switchboard             
,illustration3 ,,the ,,back ,,of ,a     
,,multiple ,,switchboard                
,illustration3 ,,the ,,birthplace ,,of  
,,the ,,telephone1 #aji ,,court         
,,street1 ,,boston    ,on the top floor 
of this building1 in #ahge1 ,prof4 ,bell
 carried on his  experiments and first  
succeeded in transmitting speech by     
electricity      ,how the ,telephone    
,came to ,be4    ,it is hard to realize 

that there was once a time1 not so very 
many  years ago1 when the telephone was 
regarded as a scientific toy and  hardly
 anyone could be found willing to invest
 any money in the  development of the   
telephone business4    ,illustration3   
,,alexander ,,graham ,,bell ,,in #ahgf  
,illustration3 ,,thomas ,a4 ,,watson    
,,in #ahgd    ,the story of ,professor  
,alexander ,graham ,bell's wonderful    
invention is  full of romantic interest 
and the early days of its exploitation  
were  replete with dramatic incidents4  
,,the ,,men ,,who ,,made ,,the          
,,telephone    ,young ,bell had come to 
,america in #ahgj in search of health1  
the family  settling at ,brantford1     
,canada4 ,he numbered among his         
forebears many  distinguished           
professional men4 ,for three generations
 the ,bells had  taught the laws of     
speech in the universities of           
,edinburgh1 ,dublin and  ,london4 ,he   
himself was an accomplished elocutionist
 and an expert in  vocal physiology4    

,during the year spent in ,canada in    
regaining his health1 ,bell taught  his 
father's method of visible speech to a  
tribe of ,mohawk ,indians and  began to 
think about the 8harmonic telegraph40   
,in #ahga young ,alexander ,bell        
accepted an offer from the ,boston      
,board  of ,education to teach the      
8visible speech0 method in a school for 
deaf  mutes in that city4    ,for two   
years he devoted himself to the work    
with great success4 ,he was  appointed a
 professor in the ,boston ,university   
and opened a school of  8,vocal         
,physiology0 which was at once          
successful4    ,he might have continued 
his career as a teacher had it not been 
that  his active brain still clung to   
the 8harmonic telegraph0 idea and his   
inventive genius demanded an outlet4    
,illustration3 ,,prof4 ,,bell',s        
,,vibrating ,,reed    ,so we find him in
 #ahgd working out his idea of the      
8harmonic  telegraph10 the perfection of
 which meant a fortune to the young     

inventor4 ,that he never realized his   
goal was due to the fact that  while    
experimenting1 he made a discovery which
 led to a far greater  invention and one
 that was fraught with more benefit to  
mankind than  the 8harmonic telegraph0  
could ever have been4    ,it was while  
working with his faithful man ,friday1  
,thomas ,a4 ,watson1  in the dingy      
little workrooms on ,court ,street1     
,boston1 that ,bell got  the inspiration
 which made him turn from the 8harmonic 
telegraph0 to  devote himself to the    
invention which was destined to make his
 name  famous--the speaking telephone4  
,,the ,,first ,,sound ,,over ,a ,,wire  
,mr4 ,watson has dramatically described 
the incident as follows3    8,on the    
afternoon of ,june #b1 #ahge1 we were   
hard at work on the same  old job1      
testing some modification of the        
instruments4 ,things were  badly out of 
tune that afternoon in that hot garret1 
not only the  instruments1 but1 ,i      
fancy1 my enthusiasm and my temper1     

though ,bell  was as energetic as ever4 
,i had charge of the transmitters1 as   
usual1  setting them squealing one after
 the other1 while ,bell was retuning    
the receiver springs one by one1        
pressing them against his ear as ,i     
have described4 ,one of the transmitter 
springs ,i was attending to  stopped    
vibrating and ,i plucked it to start it 
again4 ,it didn't start  and ,i kept on 
plucking it1 when suddenly ,i heard a   
shout from ,bell in  the next room1 and 
then out he came with a rush1 demanding1
 #8,what did  you do then8 ,don't change
 anything4 ,let me see6' ,i showed him4 
,it was  very simple4 ,the              
make-and-break points of the transmitter
 spring ,i was  trying to start had     
become welded together1 so that when ,i 
snapped the  spring the circuit had     
remained unbroken while that strip of   
magnetized  steel by its vibration over 
the pole of its magnet1 was generating  
that  marvelous conception of ,bell's--a
 current of electricity that varied in  

intensity precisely as the air was      
varying in density within hearing       
distance of that spring4 ,that          
undulatory current had passed through   
the connecting wire to the distant      
receiver which1 fortunately1 was  a     
mechanism that could transform that     
current back into an extremely  faint   
echo of the sound of the vibrating      
spring that had generated it1  but what 
was still more fortunate1 the right man 
had that mechanism  at his ear during   
that fleeting moment1 and instantly     
recognized  the transcendent importance 
of that faint sound thus electrically   
transmitted4 ,the shout ,i heard and his
 excited rush into my room were  the    
result of that recognition4 ,the        
speaking telephone was born at  that    
moment4 ,bell knew perfectly well that  
the mechanism that could  transmit all  
the complex vibrations of one sound     
could do the same for  any sound1 even  
that of speech4 ,that experiment showed 
him that the  complex apparatus he had  

thought would be needed to accomplish   
that  long-dreamed result was not at all
 necessary1 for here was an extremely   
simple mechanism operating in a         
perfectly obvious way1 that could do  it
 perfectly4 ,all the experimenting that 
followed that discovery1 up  to the time
 the telephone was put into practical   
use1 was largely a  matter of working   
out the details4 ,we spent a few hours  
verifying the  discovery1 repeating it  
with all the differently tuned springs  
we had1  and before we parted that night
 ,bell gave me directions for making the
  first electric speaking telephone4 ,i 
was to mount a small drumhead  of       
gold-beater's skin over one of the      
receivers1 join the center of  the      
drumhead to the free end of the         
receiving spring and arrange a          
mouthpiece over the drumhead to talk    
into4 ,his idea was to force the  steel 
spring to follow the vocal vibrations   
and generate a current of  electricity  
that would vary in intensity as the air 

varies in density  during the utterance 
of speech sounds4 ,i followed these     
directions and  had the instrument ready
 for its trial the very next day4 ,i    
rushed it1  for ,bell's excitement and  
enthusiasm over the discovery had       
aroused  mine again1 which had been     
sadly dampened during those last few    
weeks  by the meagre results of the     
harmonic experiments4 ,i made every part
 of  that first telephone myself1 but ,i
 didn't realize while ,i was working  on
 it what a tremendously important piece 
of work ,i was doing4    ,illustration3 
,,what ,,the ,,first ,,telephone        
,,looked ,,like    ,,alexander ,,graham 
,,bell',s ,,first ,,telephone      ,the 
,first ,telephone ,line4    8,the two   
rooms in the attic were too near        
together for the test1 as  our voices   
would be heard through the air1 so ,i   
ran a wire especially  for the trial    
from one of the rooms in the attic down 
two flights to  the third floor where   
,williams' main shop was1 ending it near

 my work  bench at the back of the      
building4 ,that was the first telephone 
line4  ,you can well imagine that both  
our hearts were beating above the normal
  rate while we were getting ready for  
the trial of the new instrument  that   
evening4 ,i got more satisfaction from  
the experiment than ,mr4 ,bell  did1 for
 shout my best ,i could not make him    
hear me1 but ,i could hear  his voice   
and almost catch the words4 ,i rushed   
upstairs and told him  what ,i had      
heard4 ,it was enough to show him that  
he was on the right  track1 and before  
he left that night he gave me directions
 for several  improvements in the       
telephones ,i was to have ready for the 
next trial40    ,then followed many     
heart-breaking months of experimenting  
and it was  not until the following     
,march that the telephone was able to   
transmit  a complete1 intelligible      
sentence4    ,illustration3 ,,telephone 
,,apparatus ,,patented ,,in #ahgf ,,by  
,,prof4 ,,bell1  ,,photographed ,,from  

,,the ,,original ,,instruments ,,in     
,,the ,,patent ,,office ,,at            
,,washington    ,on ,february #ad1      
#ahgf1 ,professor ,bell filed at        
,washington his  application for patents
 covering the telephone which he        
described as  8an improvement in        
telegraphy0 and on ,march #c1 of the    
same year1 the  patent was allowed4     
,that was the year of the ,centennial   
,exposition at ,philadelphia and        
,professor ,bell had a working model of 
the telephone on exhibition4  ,tucked   
away in an obscure corner it had        
attracted but little attention1  until  
on ,june #beth an incident occurred     
which had a tremendous effect  in giving
 to the new invention just the sort of  
publicity it needed4    ,professor ,bell
 himself describes the incident in the  
following  interesting manner3    8,mr4 
,hubbard and ,mr4 ,saunders1 who were   
financially interested in the           
telephone1 wanted this instrument to be 
exhibited at the ,centennial            

,exhibition4 ,in those days--and ,i must
 say even up to the present time  ,i am 
afraid to say it is true--,i was not    
very much alive to commercial  matters1 
not being a business man myself4 ,i had 
a school for vocal  physiology in       
,boston4 ,i was right in the midst of   
examinations4    8,i went down to       
,philadelphia1 growling all the time at 
this  interruption to my professional   
work1 and ,i appeared in ,philadelphia  
on ,sunday1 the #beth4 ,i was an unknown
 man and looked around upon the         
celebrities who were judges there1 and  
trotted around after the judges  at the 
exhibition while they examined this     
exhibit and that exhibit4 ,my  exhibit  
came last4 ,before they got to that it  
was announced that the  judges were too 
tired to make any further examinations  
that day and  that the exhibit could be 
examined another day4 ,that meant that  
the  telephone would not be seen1 for ,i
 was not going to come back another     
day4 ,i was going right back to ,boston4

    ,,how ,,an ,,emperor ,,saved ,,the  
,,telephone    8,and that was the way   
the matter stood--when suddenly there   
was one man  among the judges who       
happened to remember me by sight4 ,that 
was no less  a person than ,his ,majesty
 ,dom ,pedro1 the ,emperor of ,brazil4  
,i had shown  him what we had been doing
 in teaching speech to the deaf in      
,boston1  had taken him around to the   
,city ,school for the ,deaf and shown   
him the  means of teaching speech1 and  
when he saw me there he remembered me   
and came over and shook hands and said3 
#8,mr4 ,bell1 how are the deaf  mutes of
 ,boston8' ,i said they were very well  
and told him that the next  exhibit on  
the program was my exhibit4 #8,come     
along1' he said1 and he  took my arm and
 walked off with me--and1 of course1    
where an ,emperor  led the way the other
 judges followed4 ,and the telephone    
exhibit was  saved4    ,illustration3   
,,the ,,first ,,telephone ,,switchboard 
,,used4 ,,eight ,,subscribers4      ,an 

,emperor ,wonders4    8,well1 ,i cannot 
tell very much about that exhibit1      
although it was  the pivotal point on   
which the whole telephone turned in     
those days4  ,if ,i had not had that    
exhibition there it is very doubtful    
what the  condition of the telephone    
would be today4 ,but the ,emperor of    
,brazil  was the first one to bring that
 situation about at that time4 ,i went  
off to my transmitting instrument in    
another part of the building1 and  a    
little iron box receiver was placed at  
the ear of the ,emperor4 ,i told  him to
 hold it to his ear1 and then ,i heard  
afterward what happened4 ,i  was not    
present at that end of the line4 ,i went
 to the other end and  was reciting1    
#8,to be or not to be1 that is the      
question1' and so on1  keeping up a     
continuous talk40    8,i heard afterward
 from my friend1 ,mr4 ,william ,hubbard1
 that the  ,emperor held it up in a very
 indifferent way to his ear1 and then   
suddenly started and said1 #8,my ,god6  

it speaks6' ,and he put it down2 and    
then ,sir ,william ,thomson took it up  
and one after another in the crowd  took
 it up and listened4 ,i was in another  
part of the building shouting  away to  
the membrane telephone that was the     
transmitter4 ,suddenly ,i  heard a noise
 of people stamping along very heavily1 
approaching1 and  there was ,dom ,pedro1
 rushing along at a very                
un-,emperor-like gait1  followed by ,sir
 ,william ,thomson and a number of      
others1 to see what ,i  was doing at the
 other end4 ,they were very much        
interested4 ,but ,i had  to go back to  
,boston and couldn't wait any longer4 ,i
 went that very  night40    8,now1 it so
 happened there1 that1 although the     
judges had heard speech  emitted by the 
steel disc armature of this receiving   
instrument1 they  were not quite        
convinced that it was electrically      
produced4 ,some one  had whispered a    
suspicion that it was simply the case of
 the thread  telegraph1 the lovers'     

telegraph1 as it was known in those     
days1 and  that the sound had been      
mechanically transmitted along the line 
from  one instrument to the other4 ,of  
course1 ,i did not know about it at that
  time2 but when the judges asked       
permission to remove the apparatus  from
 that location ,i said1 #8,certainly1 do
 anything you like with it4'  ,but ,i   
could not remain to look after it2 they 
had to look after it  themselves40      
8,my friend1 ,mr4 ,william ,hubbard1 who
 had kindly come up from ,boston  to    
help me on this celebrated ,sunday1     
,june #be1 said he would do his  best to
 help them out1 although he was not an  
electrician4 ,he knew  nothing whatever 
about the apparatus1 beyond being in my 
laboratory  occasionally1 knowing me    
well4 ,but he undertook to remove this  
apparatus and set up the line under the 
direction of the judges  themselves4 ,so
 they had an opportunity finally of     
satisfying themselves  that speech had  
really been electrically reproduced40   

8,sir ,william ,thomson's announcement  
was made to the world in ,england1      
before the ,british ,association1 and   
the world believed--and from that  time 
dates the popular interest in the       
telephone40    ,in ,october1 #ahgf1 the 
first outdoor demonstration1 in which   
conversation was carried on over a      
private telegraph wire1 borrowed for    
the occasion1 took place between ,boston
 and ,cambridge1 a distance of  two     
miles4    ,in ,april1 #ahgg1 the first  
telephone line was installed between    
,boston  and ,somerville4    ,a month   
later an enterprising ,boston man put up
 a crude switchboard  in his office and 
connected up five banks1 using the      
system for  telephoning in the day-time 
and as a protection against burglars at 
night4 ,this was the beginning of the   
exchange system1 all previous           
telephoning having been between two     
parties on the same circuit4    ,,nine  
,,million ,,telephones ,,in ,u4 ,s4     
,soon after exchanges sprang up in      

several cities1 and by ,august of that  
year there were #ggh ,bell telephones in
 use4 ,from this modest beginning  the  
telephone has grown until on ,january   
#a1 #aiad1 there were #ac1ejj1jjj       
telephones in the world1 nearly         
#i1jjj1jjj1 or over #fd per cent being  
in  the ,united ,states4                
,illustration3 ,,modern ,,distributing  
,,frame    ,when the wires come to this 
frame they are in numbered order in the 
cable4 ,the main frame redistributes    
these wires so that they are  arranged  
according to their call numbers1 making 
it possible to connect  any wire with   
any other wire anywhere that telephone  
service is  installed4    ,illustration3
 ,,how ,,the ,,wires ,,are ,,put        
,,underground    ,breaking ,up the      
,asphalt ,pavement4 ,first ,step in     
,laying an ,underground  ,cable4        
,illustration3 ,laying ,multiple ,duct  
,tile ,subway ,through ,which the       
,cables ,will ,run4    ,illustration3   
,feeding ,cable ,into ,duct as ,it is   

,being ,pulled ,through  ,subway from   
the ,other ,end4    ,illustration3 ,a   
,,cable ,,trouble    ,the use of the    
telephone instrument is common1 but it  
affords no idea  of the magnitude of the
 mechanical equipment by which it is    
made  effective4    ,,unseen ,,forces   
,,behind ,,your ,,telephone    ,to give 
you some conception of the great number 
of persons and the  enormous quantity of
 materials required to maintain an      
always-efficient  service1 various      
comparisons are here presented4         
,illustration3 ,,telephones4 ,enough to 
string around ,lake ,erie--#h1jjj1jjj1  
which1 with equipment1 cost at the      
factory #de1jjj1jjj4    ,illustration3  
,,wire4 ,enough to coil around the earth
 #fba  times--#ae1dfj1jjj miles of it1  
worth about #ajj1jjj1jjj1 including     
#bfj1jjj tons of copper1 worth          
#hh1jjj1jjj4    ,illustration3 ,,lead   
,,and ,,tin4 ,enough to load #f1fjj coal
 cars--being  #fei1ifj1jjj pounds1 worth
 more than #cg1jjj1jjj4                 

,illustration3 ,,conduits4 ,enough to go
 five times through the earth from  pole
 to pole--#bbe1ggh1jjj feet1 worth in   
the warehouse #i1jjj1jjj4               
,illustration3 ,,poles4 ,enough to build
 a stockade around                      
,california--#ab1dhj1jjj of them1 worth 
in the lumber yard about  #dj1jjj1jjj4  
,illustration3 ,,switchboards4 ,in a    
line would extend thirty-six            
miles--#ee1jjj of them1 which cost1     
unassembled1 #ij1jjj1jjj4               
,illustration3 ,,buildings4 ,sufficient 
to house a city of #aej1jjj--more  than 
a thousand buildings1 which1            
unfurnished1 and without land1 cost     
#dd1jjj1jjj4    ,illustration3 ,,people4
 ,equal in numbers to the entire        
population of  ,wyoming--#aej1jjj       
employes1 not including those of        
connecting companies4    ,the poles are 
set all over this country1 and strung   
with wires and  cables2 the conduits are
 buried under the great cities2 the     
telephones  are installed in separate   

homes and offices2 the switchboards     
housed1  connected and supplemented with
 other machinery1 and the whole system  
kept in running order so that each      
subscriber may talk at any time1        
anywhere4          ,where ,does ,sound  
,come ,from8      ,somebody or something
 causes every sound we hear4 ,sounds are
 the result  of disturbances in the air4
 ,sound is produced by waves in the air4
 ,the  buzz of the bumble-bee is caused 
by the quick movement of his wings  in  
the air4 ,the wings themselves do not   
make the sound1 but their  motion causes
 waves or vibrations in the air which   
produce the sound  of buzzing4 ,every   
motion made by anybody or anything      
produces waves in  the air just like the
 waves you see in the water--a big      
movement makes  a big wave and a tiny   
movement a tiny wave4 ,when you clap    
your hands  you make a disturbance in   
the air which causes a sound--the harder
 you  clap the louder the sound4 ,you   
can hear this sound and anybody else    

near can hear it4 ,if there were no air 
about us1 however1 we would hear  no    
sound1 even if we could live in such a  
condition of things1 for it  is the air 
waves produced striking against the drum
 of our ears that  enable us to discern 
sounds4 ,when we talk we make air waves 
also and  thus produce sound4 ,if you   
were deaf1 and talked1 you could not    
hear  any sound1 because even when there
 are air waves they must still strike   
against a sounding board in order to be 
recognized as sound--and the  drum of   
our ear is our sounding board for       
hearing sounds4    ,when the air waves  
produced are regular we call the sound  
musical1 and  when they are irregular we
 call it noise4 ,some people can make   
musical  sounds when they sing1 while   
others cannot4    ,if you take a piece  
of thin wire and stretch it tightly1    
fastening it  at both ends1 and then    
pull it with your finger and let go1 you
 will  hear a musical sound1 because the
 vibrations produced will be regular    

and will continue for some time4 ,if you
 shorten the distance on the  wire where
 it is fastened at both ends and pull it
 as before1 the  sound produced will be 
in a higher key4 ,if you take a guitar  
and snap  the big ,g string you will    
produce the bass note of ,g4 ,if the    
other  ,g string 7the smaller one7 is in
 tune 7if you watch the smaller one     
closely while you strike the larger one7
 you will notice the smaller  one       
vibrate also4 ,sound waves of the same  
tone1 although in different  octaves1   
produce the same sounds1 although in    
different keys4    ,this is the         
principle on which the piano is made to 
produce music4  ,inside the piano are   
wires of different lengths and the keys 
of the  piano are arranged to operate   
certain little hammers1 each of which   
strikes a certain wire4 ,every time you 
strike a piano key you cause one  of the
 little hammers to hit its wire--the    
wire then makes vibrations  which cause 
air waves4 ,the air waves strike against

 the sounding board  which is located   
behind the wires1 and being thrown back 
into the air1  strike against the drum  
of our ears1 and we can hear the note4  
,why ,can ,we ,make ,sounds ,with ,our  
,throats8      ,the sounds we make when 
we talk are produced in exactly the same
 way  with the exception of the little  
hammers4 ,in our throats are two cords  
which we call our vocal cords4 ,when we 
talk we cause these cords to  vibrate   
and thus we make the sounds of our      
voices4 ,the most wonderful  part of    
this voice of ours is that with only two
 vocal cords or wires1  we can produce  
practically all the notes that can be   
made with a piano1  which has a wire or 
cord for every note1 excepting that we  
cannot make  so many at one time4 ,the  
human throat is so wonderfully          
constructed  that we can lengthen or    
shorten our vocal cords at will and     
produce1  with two strings1 in our      
throats as many notes as it takes the   
piano  many more strings to produce4    

,why ,does the ,sound ,stop ,when ,we   
,touch a ,gong that ,has ,been ,sounded8
      ,when we touch the gong we stop   
the sound waves which the gong gives    
off when it is struck4 ,these sound     
waves continue after the gong has  been 
struck in continuous vibrations until   
something stops them4 ,when  you touch  
the vibrating gong1 you stop its        
vibrating4 ,if you only  touch your     
finger to the vibrating gong you can    
feel the vibrations  which cause a      
little tickling sensation4 ,naturally   
when you stop these  vibrations you stop
 the air waves which the vibrations     
cause1 and thus  also the sound of these
 air waves striking your ear are stopped
 and the  sound ceases4          ,how   
,can ,sound ,come ,through a ,thick     
,wall8      ,a sound will come through a
 thick or thin wall only if the wall is 
a  good conductor of sound4 ,some things
 are good conductors of sound and       
others are not1 just as some things are 
good conductors of electricity  and     

others are not4 ,if a wall is built of  
materials all of which are  good        
conductors of sound1 the sound will come
 through it no matter how  thick4 ,wood 
is an especially good conductor of      
sound4 ,it is even better  than air4    
,you can stand at one end of a long log 
and have another  person at the other   
end hold up his watch in the air1 and   
you cannot  hear the watch tick1 but if 
the watch is 8going0 as we say1 and you 
ask  the person holding it to put the   
watch against his end of the log1 and   
you then put your ear to the other end1 
you can hear the watch ticking  almost  
as well as if you had it to your own    
ear4 ,in like manner you can  hear the  
scratching of a pin at the other end of 
the log4 ,when you put  your ear against
 a telegraph pole you can hear the hum  
of the wires  while you cannot hear it  
through the air4 ,all sound is produced 
by  sound waves and many solids are     
better conductors of sound waves than   
the air4    ,sound waves1 however1 will 

sometimes not be heard as plainly       
through a  wall1 because of the fact    
that the wall may be made of materials  
which  are not equally good conductors  
of sound4 ,when a sound wave strikes a  
poor conductor it loses some of its     
power and the sound1 although it  may be
 heard through the wall1 will be        
fainter4          ,what ,is ,meant by   
,deadening a ,floor or a ,wall8      ,by
 deadening a floor1 for instance1 we    
mean inserting between the  ceiling of  
the room below and the floor above1 or  
in the instance of a  deadened wall1    
between the two sides of the wall1 some 
substance like  felt1 paper or other    
non-conductor of sound1 which will      
prevent the  sound waves from passing   
through4 ,this deadens them to the      
passing of  sound or makes them         
sound-proof4          ,what ,makes the  
,sounds ,like ,waves in a ,sea ,shell8  
,the sounds we hear when we hold a sea  
shell to the ear are not really  the    
sound of the sea waves4 ,we have come to

 imagine that they are  because they    
sound like the waves of the sea1 and    
knowledge that the  shell originally    
came from the sea helps us to this      
conclusion very  easily4          ,what 
,are the ,sounds ,we ,hear in a ,shell8 
,the sounds we hear in the sea shell are
 really air waves or sounds made  by air
 waves1 because all sounds are produced 
by air waves4    ,the reason you can    
hear these sounds in a sea shell is     
because the  shell is so constructed    
that it forms a natural sounding box4   
,the  wooden part of a guitar1 zither or
 violin is a sounding box4 ,they have   
the faculty of picking up sounds and    
making them stronger4 ,we call them     
8resonators10 because they make sounds  
resound4 ,the construction of a  sea    
shell makes an almost perfect resonator4
 ,a perfect resonator will  pick up     
sounds which the human ear cannot hear  
at all and magnify them  so that if you 
hold a resonator to the ear you can hear
 sounds you  could not otherwise hear4  

,ear trumpets for the deaf are built    
upon this  principle4    ,sometimes when
 you1 with your ear alone1 think        
something is absolutely  quiet1 you can 
pick up a sea shell and hear sounds in  
it4 ,but the sea  shell will magnify any
 sound that reaches it4    ,it would be 
possible1 of course1 to take a sea shell
 to a place where  it would be          
absolutely quiet and then there would be
 no sounds4    ,there are such places1  
but very few of them4 ,a room can be    
built which  is absolutely sound proof4 
,illustration3 ,,siberian ,,lambs ,,in  
,,south ,,dakota          ,the ,story in
 a ,suit of ,clothes      ,where ,does  
,wool ,come ,from8    ,we could not     
write the story of a suit of clothes    
without dealing  largely with the sheep1
 for it is only from the wool of the    
sheep  that the best1 warmest and most  
lasting garment can be made4 ,in order  
that we may properly understand the     
development of the great wool and       
clothing industry in ,america we must   

supply a brief history of our  sheep    
industry1 for the sheep must always come
 before the clothing4      ,who ,brought
 the ,first ,sheep to ,america8    ,the 
sheep is not a native of ,america1 but  
it came here with the first  white men4 
,history records that ,columbus on his  
way to this country  stopped at the     
,canary ,islands to take on stores4     
,among other things  he loaded a number 
of sheep1 some of which were later      
landed on the  new continent4 ,what     
became of this early importation history
 does not  record1 but it is probable   
that most1 if not all1 of them perished 
from  the attack of wild animals or at  
the hands of the natives4 ,however1     
when settlers began pouring into the new
 world many of them brought  along their
 sheep1 so that from the earliest       
colonial days the sheep  constituted our
 most numerous domestic animals4 ,this1 
indeed1 was  necessary1 for if the      
colonist was to survive the rigor of our
 climate  he must have an abundant      

supply of woolen clothing4 ,in those    
days  clothing materials were limited to
 wool1 flax and the skins of animals1   
and1 as may be supposed1 wools were in  
very great demand4 ,england and  most   
,european countries prohibited the      
exportation of wool1 in order to        
increase the demand for the clothing    
which she manufactured4 ,however1  as   
our new colonist had ample time and but 
little money1 he desired  to make his   
own clothing rather than send such funds
 as he had to the  mother country4      
,therefore1 the new settler1 as a matter
 of necessity1  was forced to increase  
the domestic supply of wools4      ,who 
,started to ,make ,clothing from ,wool  
in ,america8    ,early records reveal   
that shortly after the year #afjj many  
of the  colonies passed laws for the    
purpose of encouraging the sheep        
industry4  ,in fact1 some of them went  
so far as to prohibit the transportation
  of sheep or wool from one colony to   
another4 ,however1 our new sheep        

industry prospered1 and well it should1 
for it had the backing of every         
prominent patriot of the early days4    
,washington1 ,jefferson1 ,madison1  and 
,franklin all were enthusiastic         
advocates of sheep husbandry1 for  they 
knew that unless a people had a large   
domestic supply of wool they  could not 
long remain independent or hope to gain 
independence from  foreign countries4   
,in fact1 at one time ,washington owned 
as many as one  thousand sheep1 and if  
he lived in the present day he would be 
regarded  as a sheep baron4 ,wool1 next 
to food1 is the most vital necessity of 
a  people1 for when wars come wool      
becomes a contraband1 and all foreign   
supplies are shut off4 ,thus1 in        
stimulating a domestic wool supply the  
great wisdom of our early patriots was  
vindicated with the coming of  the      
,revolutionary ,war4 ,when that great   
struggle came our foreign wool  supply  
was shut off1 but on account of the     
foresight of these patriots  in         

encouraging home production1 our        
colonists had a supply ample for  most  
of their needs4    ,we not only had the 
wool1 but the housewife had learned the 
art of  manufacturing wool into clothing
 by means of the spinning wheel1 so     
that when our soldiers went forth in    
that great struggle1 which was to  bring
 to us independence1 they were clad in  
garments made of ,american  grown wool  
and manufactured by the good housewife  
during her hours of  leisure4    ,when  
affairs became tranquil1 following the  
close of the ,revolution1  settlement1  
which had largely been confined to the  
,atlantic coast1  pushed westward       
farther and farther into the wilderness4
 ,each of  these settlers took with him 
his supply of sheep1 for the purpose of 
furnishing wool for clothing and meat   
for food4 ,in the early days  wool was  
not grown for the purpose of sale1 but  
to be used entirely  by the family of   
the producer4 ,however1 when settlement 
reached the  ,mississippi ,river1       

conditions changed4 ,wool manufacturing 
had then been  established in the land1 
and it became customary to raise wool to
 sell  to these manufacturers1 who had  
located along the ,atlantic seaboard4   
,why ,does the ,sheep ,precede the ,plow
 in ,civilizing a ,country8    ,in all  
countries the sheep has been the pioneer
 of civilization4 ,they  have settled   
and developed practically all new lands4
 ,in fact1 so  firmly established has   
been this rule that it seems almost     
necessary  that the sheep should precede
 the plow1 and thus prepare land for    
agriculture4 ,the reason for this is    
that the sheep is a tractable  animal   
and depends on man to guide its every   
step4 ,it can endure  hardships that    
would destroy other forms of animal     
life4 ,however1 the  maintenance of a   
sheep industry requires an abundance of 
labor1 and in  this way settlement      
always follows the sheep4 ,so has it    
been in foreign  countries1 and so was  
it in this country4      ,where ,does   

,most of ,our ,wool ,come ,from8        
,sheep came into our western states     
early in the seventies1 at a time  when 
these states were thinly settled1 but   
following the sheep came the  labor     
incident to its care1 and thus the      
railroads1 stores1 cities and           
schoolhouses found their way into the   
land4 ,originally all of our sheep      
industry was east of the ,mississippi   
,river4 ,then for a time it was east  of
 the ,missouri ,river4 ,to-day west of  
the ,missouri ,river we have about      
#bc1jjj1jjj aged sheep1 or more than    
one-half of the total in the ,united    
,states4 ,in the pioneer days the       
western sheep skirmished on the range   
for most of the food that it obtained4  
,to-day conditions are different1  and1 
while the sheep is on the range for a   
short time each year1 it  spends its    
summer in the ,national ,forest1 for    
which grazing a fee is  paid to the     
,federal ,government4 ,its winters are  
spent largely around  the hay-stack of  

the farmer1 and about fifty to sixty    
cents' worth of  hay is fed to each     
sheep in the ,west each winter4 ,with   
the coming of  spring the western sheep 
are divided into bands of about #aejj1  
and each  two bands are placed in care  
of three caretakers1 who care for and   
protect the sheep either on the deeded  
land of the owner or on the land  rented
 from the ,federal ,government4         
,illustration3 ,,sheep ,,coming ,,out   
,,of ,,forest      ,how ,much ,wool     
,does ,america ,produce ,yearly8    ,so 
much for the history of our sheep4 ,a   
few words now about wool4 ,the  total   
wool crop of the ,united ,states is     
approximately #cjj1jjj1jjj  pounds per  
year4 ,the value of this crop is around 
#fj1jjj1jjj annually4      ,how ,do ,we 
,get the ,wool ,off the ,sheep8    ,with
 the coming of spring our sheep are     
driven to large central plants1  where  
they are shorn by the use of machines   
driven by electricity or  steam power4  
,one man shears about one hundred and   

fifty sheep per day4  ,for this he      
receives eight cents per head4 ,when the
 wool is taken off  the sheep it is     
gathered up and carefully tied with     
string made of  paper4 ,the tied fleece 
is then dropped into an elevator1 and is
 carried  up about ten feet1 where it is
 dropped into a large sack about three  
feet in diameter and seven feet long4   
,in this sack there is always a  wool   
tramper1 who keeps tramping the fleeces 
down1 so that about forty  fleeces are  
finally put into each sack1 making the  
weight of the sack  approximately three 
hundred pounds4 ,as these sacks are     
filled they are  carefully stored in a  
dry shed1 and1 when shearing is         
completed1 are  hauled to the railroad  
station and shipped to the great wool   
centers of  ,boston or ,philadelphia4   
,while the bulk of the wool in the      
,united ,states  is produced west of the
 ,missouri ,river1 that territory       
manufactures  very little wool4 ,so the 
western sheepman1 who is thus forced to 

grow  his wool in the western states1   
pays about two cents a pound freight on 
it back to the eastern market1 where it 
is sold and later manufactured  into    
cloth4 ,a part of this same clothing is 
then shipped west1 to be  sold to the   
very man1 in some instances1 who        
produced the wool out of  which it is   
made4    ,american wool1 taken as a     
whole1 is the best wool grown in the    
world4  ,it is not as soft as some      
,australian wool1 but all of it         
possesses  a greater strength than      
foreign wools1 and it has long since    
been  determined that clothing made of  
,american wool will give better service 
than that made of foreign wool4 ,of the 
wool used in the ,united ,states  for   
the manufacturing of clothing we produce
 about #gj per cent and  import about   
#cj per cent4      ,how ,much ,does the 
,wool ,in a ,suit of ,clothes ,cost8    
,it is customary for the person who buys
 clothing made of wool to  believe that 
the value of the wool in the cloth is   

what makes the  clothing seem expensive4
 ,however1 if we take a man's suit made 
of  medium-weight cloth1 such as is worn
 in ,november1 we find that it  requires
 about nine pounds of average wool to   
make the suit4 ,for this  wool the      
sheepman receives an average of         
seventeen cents per pound1 so  that out 
of the entire suit the man who produces 
the material out of  which the suit is  
made receives a total of #a4ec4 ,a suit 
such as is  here described would be of  
all wool and free from shoddy or any    
wool  substitute4 ,it would be a suit   
that would be sold by the storekeeper   
at #be4jj1 and if you had it made by the
 tailor he would charge you  #ce4jj4    
,yet the wool-grower furnished all the  
material out of which  the suit was     
made1 and received as his share but     
#a4ec4 ,thus it will  be clear to the   
person who buys clothing and reads these
 lines that no  longer can the blame for
 the high cost of clothing be laid at   
the door  of the wool-grower4    ,while 

the wool-using population of the world  
is increasing very  rapidly1 the number 
of wool-producing sheep in the world is 
decreasing4  ,ordinarily this would mean
 that a point would be reached where the
  supply of wool would be totally       
inadequate to meet the needs of the     
public4 ,however1 this unfortunate      
possibility is being averted by the     
energy and thrift of the sheepmen in    
breeding sheep that produce more  and   
better wool than was the case in the    
past4 ,the sheep which ,columbus        
brought to this country1 and1 in fact1  
all the sheep of the world in  that day1
 produced wool of very coarse1 inferior 
quality1 and but very  little of it4    
,one hundred years ago our sheep did not
 average three  pounds of wool per head1
 but by careful breeding and better     
feeding we  have brought the average    
fleece up to slightly more than seven   
pounds4  ,of course1 some sheep produce 
decidedly more wool than this1 but the  
fact that in one hundred years we have  

more than doubled the amount of  wool   
that a sheep produces and increased its 
quality very materially  speaks well for
 the ingenuity and determination of our 
sheep producers4  ,probably as time goes
 on the average fleece may be still     
further  increased1 so that in the next 
twenty-five years it is not too much to 
hope that our sheep will produce on an  
average of one pound more wool  than    
they now do4    ,of course1 as wool     
comes from the sheep1 it naturally      
contains much  dirt4 ,the sheep have run
 on the range or in the open pasture    
during  much of the year1 and dust and  
dirt has settled into the wool4 ,then1  
besides producing wool1 the sheep       
excrete into the wool a fatty  substance
 known as wool fat4 ,when the fleece is 
taken from the sheep  and sent to the   
market the first thing that the         
manufacturer does with  the fleece is to
 wash out all this foreign matter4 ,the 
foreign matter  is of a considerable    
quantity1 for #fj per cent of wool as it

 comes from  the sheep is dirt and      
grease1 so that only #dj per cent of the
 sheep's  fleece represents wool fibres4
    ,this wool fibre is a very delicate 
affair1 being made up of thousands  of  
little cells1 one laid on top of the    
other4 ,on the surface of the  fibre are
 a lot of scales arranged something like
 the scales on a fish4  ,in the process 
of manufacturing the scales on one fibre
 lock with  scales on another fibre1 and
 in that way the fibres are held        
together  in the piece of cloth4        
,when wool is received at the factory it
 is in fleeces1 and each fleece         
contains different kinds of fibres--long
 and short--coarse and fine1  and it is 
necessary that these should be sorted   
into different kinds  or grades1 as may 
be desired--perhaps six or eight        
different kinds1  according to the      
particular uses to which the different  
qualities are  to be put4               
,illustration3      ,copyright ,american
 ,woolen ,company    ,,wool ,,sorting   

,the fleece is spread out on a table1   
the center of which is covered  with    
wire netting1 and through this netting  
part of the dust and other  matter from 
the wool falls while the sorting is     
going on4 ,sorters tear  with the hands 
the different parts of the fleece from  
each other and  separate them into      
piles1 according to their different     
qualities4    ,all unwashed wool        
contains a fatty or greasy matter called
 yolk1 which  is a secretion from the   
skin of the sheep4 ,the effect of this  
yolk is  to prevent the fibres of the   
wool from matting1 except at the ends1  
where1 of course1 it collects dust1 and1
 forming a sort of a coating1  really   
serves as a protection to the rest of   
the fleece while on the  sheep's back4  
,after the wool is sorted it is next    
cleansed or scoured1 in order to  remove
 all this yolk1 dirt and foreign matter1
 and this is accomplished  by passing   
the wool1 by means of automatic rakes1  
through a washing  machine1 consisting  

of a set of three or four vats or bowls1
 which  contain a cleansing solution of 
warm1 soapy water1 until all the grease 
and dirt have been removed4    ,each    
bowl has its set of rollers1 which      
squeezes out the water from  the wool   
before it passes into the next bowl4    
,having passed through  the last bowl   
and set of rollers the wool is carried  
on an apron made  of slats on chains1 to
 the drying chamber1 called the dryer1  
where is  taken out most of the         
moisture4    ,the wool is now blown     
through pipes or carried on trucks to   
the carding  room4    ,,difference ,,in 
,,woolens ,,and ,,worsteds    ,from this
 point the wool follows one of two      
different processes of                  
manufacture--that of making into        
worsteds or that of making into         
woolens4    ,speaking in a general way1 
worsted fabrics are made of yarns in    
which  the fibres all lie parallel1 and 
woolens are made of yarns in which  the 
fibres cross or are mixed4 ,ordinarily1 

worsteds are made from long  staple     
wools1 and woolens from short staple    
wools4    ,illustration3      ,copyright
 ,american ,woolen ,company    ,,wool   
,,scouring    ,by means of the comb the 
fibre is still further straightened out1
 the  short stock and noil1 or nibs1 are
 removed1 and when the sliver comes     
from the combs most of the fibres are   
parallel to each other4 ,a number  of   
the slivers taken from the comb are then
 put through two further  operations of 
gilling1 and wound into a large ball1   
which is called a  finished top4    ,the
 next process in the manufacture of     
worsteds is carding4 ,in this  process  
the wool is passed between cylinders and
 rollers1 from  which project the ends  
of many small wires4 ,these cylinders   
revolve  in opposite directions4 ,the   
result is the opening1 separating and   
straightening of the fibres2 and the    
wool is delivered in soft strands1      
which are taken off by the doffer comb  
and wound upon a wooden roll  into the  

shape of a large ball1 known as a       
card-ball or card-sliver1 or  put into a
 revolving can4 ,the sliver from a      
number of these balls or  cans is now   
taken and put through what is known as  
the gilling machine1  which to a degree 
straightens the fibres4    ,from the    
gilling machine the wool comes off in   
soft strands4 ,four  strands are then   
taken to the balling machine1 where is  
made a large  ball1 ready for the       
combing4 ,it takes eighteen of these    
balls to make a  set or fill up the     
comb4    ,the dyeing is done in three   
ways--in the top1 in the thread or skein
  after being spun1 or in the piece     
after it is woven4 ,if the wool is to   
be stock dyed--that is1 dyed in the     
top--it is sent to the dyehouse to  be  
dyed the shade required1 and afterwards 
returned to be gilled and  recombed     
ready for the drawing4    ,illustration3
      ,copyright ,american ,woolen      
,company    ,,worsted ,,carding    ,up  
to this point there has been no twist   

given to the wool1 nor any  appearance  
of a thread4 ,the top1 the soft         
untwisted end1 is now run  through the  
drawing machine1 the process sometimes  
consisting of nine  distinct operations1
 and is drawn and redrawn until reduced 
to the size  required for its special   
purpose2 and the stock is then delivered
 to  the spinning room on spools1 and is
 called roving4    ,illustration3       
,copyright ,american ,woolen ,company   
,,gilling ,,after ,,carding             
,illustration3      ,copyright ,american
 ,woolen ,company    ,,combing    ,in   
the spinning the process of drawing     
continues until the twisted  thread is  
reduced to the size required1 which1    
either singly or twisted  together in   
two1 three or four strands1 is to be    
used for weaving4    ,the yarn is then  
very carefully inspected1 and all       
imperfections which  would show in the  
finished goods are removed1 and1 if it  
is to be dyed  in the skein1 the yarn is
 taken to a reel1 where the skeins are  

made  ready for the dyehouse4    ,,how  
,,cloth ,,is ,,made ,,from ,,wool       
,the threads must now be prepared for   
the loom1 in order that the actual      
weaving may be done4 ,the thread is used
 in two ways in weaving--as  warp1 which
 is the thread which runs lengthwise of 
the cloth1 and as  filling1 or woof1    
which runs across the cloth from side to
 side4    ,illustration3      ,copyright
 ,american ,woolen ,company    ,,gilling
 ,,and ,,making ,,top ,,after ,,combing 
,the warp threads--the threads which run
 lengthwise of the cloth--are  sized and
 wound upon large reels1 and from these 
transferred to a large  wooden roll     
called the warp beam1 which holds all   
the warp threads1  usually several      
thousands4    ,the filling threads are  
put on shuttle bobbins and placed in the
  shuttles to be refilled by the        
operatives as required1 and as the      
weaving progresses4    ,the warp beam is
 then taken to the drawing-in room1     
where these several  thousand threads   

are drawn through wire heddles in a     
frame called the  harness1 then drawn   
through a wire reed4 ,the completed warp
 beam is now  ready for the loom4       
,the harnesses are placed in the loom1  
and by means of what is called  the     
8head-motion10 part of the threads are  
raised and part are lowered4  ,this     
allows the filling shuttles to pass     
above some threads and below  others1   
filling out the pattern required4       
,the cloth1 having been made in such    
length as is desired1 is taken from  the
 loom1 and1 by what is known as burling 
and mending1 any knots or  threads woven
 in wrongly are removed1 and any        
imperfections which have  been          
discovered through a careful examination
 are corrected4    ,the web or cloth is 
scoured or washed and the oil and any   
foreign  matter removed4    ,undressed  
fabrics would now be fulled4 ,this      
consists of running cloth  through a    
fulling machine1 where1 moistened with a
 specially prepared  soap1 it is        

subjected to a great pressure and       
pounding1 which aids in  giving the     
required finish4    ,there are different
 kinds of finishes which require        
different  treatments1 and it would be  
impracticable for us to dwell in detail 
upon this matter here4    ,if dyed in   
the piece1 the web or cloth is taken to 
the dyehouse and  dyed4 ,it is          
thoroughly rinsed1 all moisture is      
extracted from it1 and  it is dried4    
,after drying the cloth is run through a
 machine by which it is brushed  and    
sheared1 the brushing lifting the long  
fibres1 and the shearing  cutting them  
off at even length4 ,the cloth is put   
through the press1  which irons it out1 
giving it the lustre or the finish that 
is desired4  ,it is examined again for  
further imperfections1 and if such have 
occurred they are corrected4            
,measuring1 weighing1 rolling and       
tagging follow1 and the cloth is  packed
 and ready for the market4    ,woolens  
are made from short staple wools1 known 

as clothing wools1 and  in the finished 
woolens the fibres of the yarns cross or
 are mingled  together4 ,in the case of 
woolens1 after the scouring1 it is      
frequently  necessary to remove burrs or
 other vegetable matter from the wool4  
,to  accomplish this the wool is dipped 
in a bath of chloride of aluminum or    
sulphuric acid solution1 then the       
moisture is extracted and the wool  is  
put through a drier1 where the          
temperature must be at least #bab       
degrees4 ,this heat carbonizes the      
foreign substance1 but has little       
effect on the animal fibres of the wool4
    ,illustration3 ,,finishing ,,box    
,,english ,,drawing      ,copyright     
,american ,woolen ,company    ,,gilling 
,,english ,,drawing      ,copyright     
,american ,woolen ,company    ,next1 an 
ingenious machine called the burr picker
 removes the burr4    ,sometimes there  
is to be a blend of the wool with other 
stocks1 and in  that case the several   
different wools are mixed together4     

,illustration3 ,,gilling1 ,,first       
,,operation    ,,english ,,drawing      
,copyright ,american ,woolen ,company   
,,reducer    ,,english ,,drawing        
,copyright ,american ,woolen ,company   
,,how ,,woolen ,,cloth ,,is ,,dyed      
,dyeing of woolens is done in three     
ways--in the wool1 in the thread  after 
it is spun1 or in the piece after it is 
woven4 ,if the wool is  to be 8dyed in  
the wool0 it is now conveyed to the     
dyehouse1 dyed the  shade required1 then
 returned to the mixing room4    ,during
 the process of scouring1 when the yolk 
was removed1 a large part  of the       
natural oil of the wool was also        
eliminated1 and1 in order to  restore   
this lubricant1 the wool is sprinkled   
with an oil emulsion1 and  the mixing   
picker thoroughly blends the wools4     
,from here the wool goes to the         
cardroom1 and by means of the carding   
machine the fibres are carded and drawn 
and delivered to the finisher  in a     
broad1 flat sheet4 ,by means of the     

condenser it is divided into  narrow    
bands1 and the wool--free as yet from   
twist--comes out in soft  strands4      
,these strands or threads are called    
roping4    ,illustration3 ,,mending     
,,room      ,copyright ,american ,woolen
 ,company    ,,burling ,,raising ,,knots
      ,copyright ,american ,woolen      
,company    ,,mending ,,perching        
,copyright ,american ,woolen ,company   
,illustration3 ,,drawing ,,in ,,warp    
,,threads      ,copyright ,american     
,woolen ,co4      ,copyright ,american  
,woolen ,co4      ,copyright ,american  
,woolen ,co4    ,,weaving ,,and         
,,scouring    ,now comes the mule       
spinning4 ,the roping passes through    
rolls by which  it is drawn and twisted 
to the size required1 and wound on paper
 cop  tubes or bobbins4 ,such of the    
yarn as is to be used for warp is then  
spooled from the bobbins to dresser     
spools4 ,it is sized and wound upon     
large reels3 from these transferred to  
the warp beam1 as in the case of        

worsteds4    ,the processes of          
drawing-in1 preparation for weaving1    
burling and  mending are practically the
 same as in the case of worsteds4       
,,how ,,the ,,cloth ,,is ,,made         
,,perfect    ,the finishing processes of
 woolens1 like the finishing processes  
of  worsteds1 vary with different       
fabrics1 some fabrics being scoured and 
cleansed in the washers before fulling1 
others going to the fulling  mill       
without cleansing4 ,after fulling1 the  
cloth is again washed  and rinsed1 and  
if necessary to remove any vegetable    
fibres it is  carbonized4    ,napping or
 gigging raises the fibres to the nap   
desired4 ,gigging is  done by means of a
 wire napping machine or teasel gig1    
which raises  the ends of the fibres on 
the face of the cloth4 ,the teasel is a 
vegetable product about the shape of a  
pine cone1 and it is interesting  to    
note that no mechanical contrivance has 
ever been invented to equal  it for the 
purpose4    ,illustration3 ,,spinning   

,,the ,,wool      ,copyright ,american  
,woolen ,company    ,,english ,,cap     
,,spinning    ,the napping which has    
been raised by the teasel is sheared or 
cut to a  proper length by machine4 ,the
 cloth is pressed1 and1 if it is desired
  to finish it with lustre1 it is wound 
upon copper cylinders and steam  is     
forced through it at a high pressure4   
,illustration3      ,copyright ,american
 ,woolen ,company    ,,ring ,,twisting  
,illustration3      ,copyright ,american
 ,woolen ,company    ,,beaming--,,yarn  
,,inspecting    ,illustration3          
,copyright ,american ,woolen ,company   
,,woolen ,,mule ,,spinning              
,illustration3      ,copyright ,american
 ,woolen ,company    ,,finisher ,,woolen
 ,,carding    ,next the cloth is dyed1  
if it is to be piece-dyed--that is1 dyed
 in  the piece4 ,if the cloth is a      
mixture1 the wool was dyed immediately  
after the scouring4 ,in worsteds the    
dyeing is done either just after it  has
 been subjected to the first combing    

processes1 or the yarn is dyed  in the  
skein or hank4    ,illustration3        
,copyright ,american ,woolen ,co4       
,,piece ,,dyeing      ,copyright        
,american ,woolen ,co4    ,,fulling     
,,cloth      ,copyright ,american       
,woolen ,company    ,,finish ,,perching 
,illustration3      ,copyright ,american
 ,woolen ,company    ,,finished ,,cloth1
 ,,ready ,,for ,,the ,,tailor    ,in the
 dry finishing the cloth is finished    
with various kinds of  finishes desired1
 and it is steamed1 brushed1 sheared and
 pressed4  ,another examination for any 
imperfections or defects follows2 the   
cloth  is measured1 packed and tagged   
and is ready for the market4    ,the    
difference between worsteds and woolens 
is principally that in the  threads or  
yarns from which worsteds are made the  
fibres of the wool  lie parallel1 one to
 another1 being made from combed wool1  
from which  the short fibres have been  
removed2 and woolens are made from yarns
 in  which the fibres cross and are     

matted and intermixed4 ,when finished   
the effect of worsteds and woolens is   
materially different4 ,upon  examination
 it will be found that the worsted      
thread resembles a wire  in evenness1   
while the woolen thread is uneven and   
irregular4    ,a worsted fabric when    
finished has a clear1 bright1 well      
defined  pattern1 seems close and firmly
 woven1 and is of a pronounced dressy   
effect2 while woolen cloths are softer1 
they are more elastic1 the  colors are  
more blended1 the threads are not so    
easily distinguishable  and the general 
effect is duller4          ,why ,can't  
,we ,see in the ,dark8      ,we cannot  
see in the dark because there is no     
light to see by4 ,to  understand this we
 must first understand that when we see 
a thing1 as  we generally say1 we do not
 actually see the thing itself1 but only
 the  light coming from it4 ,but we have
 become so used to saying that we see   
the thing itself that for all practical 
purposes we can accept that as  true1   

although it is not scientifically exact4
 ,scientifically speaking1  we see that 
part of the sunlight or other light     
which is shining upon  it1 which the    
object is able to reflect4    ,if there 
were no air about us we could not hear  
any sounds1 no matter  how much         
disturbance people or things created1   
because it requires air  to cause the   
sound waves which produce sound1 and air
 also to carry  the sound waves to our  
ears4 ,in the same way1 if there is no  
light  to produce light rays from any   
given object to our eyes1 we can see    
nothing4 ,it requires light waves to    
produce the reflections of objects  to  
our eyes4 ,without light our eyes and   
their delicate organs are  useless4 ,you
 cannot see yourself in a mirror when   
the quicksilver which  was once on the  
back of the glass has been removed1     
because there is  then nothing to       
reflect the light4 ,we can only see     
things when there is  light enough about
 to reflect things to our eyes4 ,when it

 is dark there  is no light1 and that is
 the reason we cannot see anything in   
the dark4          ,why ,can ,cats and  
,some ,other ,animals ,see in the ,dark8
      ,they cannot see in the real dark 
any more than human beings4 ,these      
animals can find their way in the dark  
and can see more than a human  being1   
because of one distinct difference in   
their eyes1 which may for  them be      
considered an advantage4 ,the pupils of 
their eyes can be made  much larger1 and
 they can1 therefore1 let more light    
into their eyes  than people4 ,the      
result is that when it is so dark that  
you cannot  see a thing and you decide  
it is really dark1 the cat can still    
see1  because there is always a little  
more light left and she can open the    
pupils of her eyes and make them larger1
 thus letting in more light1  and the   
little bit of light there is still left 
gets into her eyes and  she is able to  
see4 ,but in a really dark room a cat   
could see no more  than you can4 ,you   

see1 our eyes open and shut more or less
 just like  those of the cat1 according 
to the intensity of the light4 ,when you
 go  out of the dark and shaded room    
into the bright sunlight and look at    
the sun1 you naturally squint your eyes 
without deliberately intending  to do   
so4 ,this is nature's way of preventing 
too much light getting  into your eyes  
at one time4 ,gradually the pupils of   
your eyes contract  and get smaller1    
until you can see1 without squinting1   
anything in  the sunlight4 ,if1 then1   
you were to go right back into a dark or
  shaded room1 you would have to wait a 
moment or two before you could  see     
things distinctly in the room--until the
 pupils of your eyes had  dilated       
7become larger71 so as to let in enough 
light to enable you to  see normally4   
,the eye automatically enlarges and     
contracts the pupil of  the eye1 to     
enable us to see distinctly in either   
light or less light  places4            
,why ,is ,it ,difficult to ,walk        

,straight with ,my ,eyes ,closed8       
,the reason we cannot do this always is 
because when we walk naturally  the     
steps taken by our right and left feet  
are not of equal length4  ,this         
difference in the length of the steps is
 due to the fact that our  legs are     
never exactly the same length4 ,we think
 of them generally as  of the same      
length1 but they are not1 and this will 
be proven if you  measure them          
accurately4 ,now1 then1 the longer of   
the legs will always  take a longer step
 than the shorter one1 and so1 if our   
eyes are shut1  we walk in circles1     
unless we have something to guide us4   
,when we  walk with our eyes open1 we   
are able to overcome the tendency to    
walk  in circles1 because our eyes help 
the brain to direct the legs on a       
straight course4 ,another reason which  
affects the matter is that our  eyes are
 very necessary in keeping our bodies   
balanced on our feet1 and  it is very   
difficult to learn to keep the body     

balanced with the eyes  closed4 ,now1   
when your eyes are closed and you       
attempt to walk in a  straight line your
 body balances from one side to the     
other1 and this  fact1 coupled with the 
first reason given1 makes your course   
irregular4  ,but1 say you1 the man on   
the tight-rope has his eyes bandaged and
 he  walks a very straight line4 ,yes2  
but remember that he has a straight     
tight-rope to guide him1 and all he     
needs is to maintain his balance4  ,one 
can learn to walk in a straight line    
with the eyes closed1 but it  takes a   
good deal of practice1 as you will learn
 if you try4          ,why ,can't ,we   
,sleep with ,our ,eyes ,open8      ,we  
cannot sleep with our eyes open1 because
 to be asleep involves  losing control  
of most of the functions of the body4   
,when we sleep  the brain sleeps also4  
,perhaps it would be stated more clearly
 to say  that we cannot sleep while the 
part of the brain which controls our    
activities is awake4 ,there is a part of

 the brain which has the power  to open 
our eyes1 i4 e41 lift the eyelids1 and  
when that portion of the  brain ceases  
to exercise its power to keep the eyes  
open1 they go shut4  ,even when we are  
awake that part of our brain cannot keep
 our eyes  from winking1 because there  
is another part of the brain which sees 
to  it that our eyes wink every so      
often4 ,this is done for the purpose of 
washing the eye-ball1 and is the answer 
to another of your questions  which is  
given in another place in this book4    
,when the engineer at the  electric     
light plant shuts off the power all the 
lights go out1 and  when you go to sleep
 you automatically shut off the power   
that opens  your eyes1 and the eyes are 
shut4 ,the brain is asleep also1 and if 
it  is not completely asleep1 you are   
restless4          ,why ,do ,our ,eyes  
,sparkle ,when ,we ,are ,merry8      ,if
 you should watch very closely the eyes 
of a merry person when you  see them    
sparkle you would probably notice that  

the eyelids move up and  down more often
 under such conditions than ordinarily1 
and if you know  what moving the eyelids
 up and down in front of the pupil of   
the eye  does1 you will have your       
answer4    ,every time the eyelid comes 
down it releases a little tear1 which   
spreads over the eyeball and washes it  
clean and bright4 ,it does this  every  
time the eyelid comes down4 ,now1 there 
is something about being  merry which   
has the effect of making the eyelids    
dance up and down1  and thus1 every time
 the lid comes down1 the ball of the eye
 is washed  clean and bright1 and gives 
it the appearance of sparkling1 as we   
say4          ,why ,do ,we ,laugh ,when 
,glad8      ,we laugh when glad because 
the things which make us laugh combine  
together to rouse those parts of the    
body which are involved in a  good laugh
 to act in a certain harmony1 and when  
this combination is  arranged in a      
certain way it produces a laugh4        
,certain things in the  world1 whether  

they are funny1 ludicrous1 or other     
things that produce  the laughing       
effect1 cause the brain to work certain 
muscles and  nerves in a combination    
that produces a laugh4 ,the impression  
which  reaches the brain causes these   
muscles and nerves to act involuntarily 
and the laugh comes4 ,it works just like
 the keys of the piano4 ,some           
combinations of notes produce sad sounds
 and other combinations produce  glad   
sounds1 but the combination when once   
touched will always produce  the same   
sound4 ,it is the impressions made on   
the brain which start the  proper       
combination1 and it does this instantly4
 ,just as a pin prick in  the arm will  
at once send a 8hurt0 message to the    
brain and cause the  brain to jerk the  
arm away1 so a laugh-producing          
combination of sounds1  or things we    
see1 or feel1 sends an impression to the
 brain which at  once sends out the     
8laugh0 order4 ,some things make some   
people laugh  while they do not affect  

others at all4 ,that is because our     
brains are  not always the same in      
regard to recording impressions4 ,some  
things  impress some brains one way and 
others entirely in a different way or   
not at all4 ,you do not laugh so        
heartily the second time you hear a     
funny story1 because the impression the 
brain receives when the story  is told  
the second time is not so vivid4        
,why ,do ,i ,laugh ,when ,tickled8      
,practically the same things happen when
 we are tickled1 and explains  why you  
laugh when tickled4 ,when some one      
tickles the bottom of your  feet or your
 ribs or another part of your body it   
produces1 in most  cases1 the same      
effect on the brain as the              
laugh-producing sound or  sight1 and    
arouses the same combination of muscles 
and nerves to  activity4 ,it is just    
like pushing the button of an electric  
bell4 ,when  you push the button the    
contact produces the spark which sets   
the  machinery of the bell in motion and

 the bell rings and will continue  to   
ring as long as you keep your finger on 
the button1 or until the                
spark-producing power of the battery is 
gone4 ,then1 as in the case  of the     
bell1 you cease to laugh1 because the   
spark that produced the  laugh          
combination is gone4 ,that is why some  
things tickle some people  very much and
 do not affect others4 ,some are not so 
sensitive to the  laugh-producing       
combination as others4 ,after the thing 
that tickles you  has been going on for 
some time you are not tickled into      
laughter any  more1 because the         
impression on the brain ceases to be as 
strong4          ,why ,don't ,i ,laugh  
,when ,i ,tickle ,myself8      ,your    
mind tells you there is no need to laugh
 when you tickle yourself4  ,your mind  
will not respond to the tickling        
sensation when it is aware  that the    
cause of the tickle is yourself4 ,the   
reflex action of the mind  which causes 
laughter and squirming when some one    

else tickles you only  acts when it is  
not conscious of the cause4    ,the     
whole purpose of the sensitive          
organization of our skins is to  give us
 information and cause action which will
 enable us to protect  ourselves when   
any outside influence touches us4 ,an   
injurious touch  causes shock and pain1 
and the harmless tickle arouses the     
laughing and  squirming sensation4      
,what ,happens ,when ,we ,laugh8        
,laughter is what we call a reflex      
action4 ,when something occurs to  make 
us laugh1 whether it is something we    
see1 or feel1 or hear1 it is  because   
certain sensory nerves receive an       
impression in one of three  ways1 carry 
it to the nerve centre and the nerve    
centre then sends  the same impression  
along certain efferent nerves1 which    
connect with  certain muscles or glands1
 and excite them to activity4 ,the      
action is  practically the same as when 
you hold a light before a mirror4 ,the  
rays from the light strike the surface  

of the mirror and are reflected  back   
from the surface1 lighting perhaps      
corners of the room1 which the  direct  
rays from the light could not reach1 all
 depending upon the  angle of           
reflection4 ,light will always reflect  
from a mirror that is  exposed to it4   
,now1 then1 when you see1 hear or feel  
anything that makes you laugh1  the     
sensory nerves have only to receive the 
impression to bring on  the explosion of
 laughter4 ,something touched the laugh 
nerves or the  laugh trigger that caused
 it to go off4 ,you can prove that it is
 a  matter of impression entirely by    
noting that some people can listen  to a
 perfectly funny story1 even when told  
by a clever performer1 and  never crack 
a smile1 while others burst into        
uncontrollable laughter1  and he who    
does not even smile may be listening    
even more intently than  the other--he  
may even be looking for a laugh4 ,it all
 depends upon the  impression that is   
made upon the nerves4 ,the muscles have 

the power  to express the state of      
gladness which is indicated by laughter 
when  certain impressions pass along the
 nerves which operate them1 just as     
they can be made to do other things when
 the proper cause for action is  shown  
them4          ,why ,do ,we ,cry ,when  
,hurt8      ,we cry when we are hurt for
 the same reason that we laugh when we  
are glad4 ,the muscles and nerves1 under
 the direction of the brain1  produce   
the cry just as the muscles and nerves  
produce laughter1  although they are    
probably1 but not necessarily1 a        
different set of  muscles and nerves4   
,when we are hurt in any part of our    
body or feelings the impression  does   
not affect us until it reaches the      
brain4 ,then instantly1 of  course1 the 
body and brain go to work to destroy the
 pain4 ,the first  thing1 of course1 is 
to give a warning to other parts of the 
body that  there is a hurt1 and our     
crying is a warning to other people that
 we  are hurt4 ,that is probably the    

only good that crying does4 ,it does not
  remove the hurt--it only tells others 
of our troubles4 ,we cry with the  lower
 part of the brain--the only portion of 
the brain which is active  in a little  
baby4 ,this is why even a tiny baby can 
cry4 ,crying is the  only thing a baby  
can do to give warning of its distress  
or discomfort4  ,later in life the upper
 part of the brain develops4 ,this is   
the master  of the lower part4          
,therefore1 we do not always cry when   
hurt as we grow  older1 because the     
master brain sometimes tells the lower  
brain that to  cry will not help matters
 in the least1 even though we are       
inclined to  cry4 ,sometimes the hurt or
 shock to older people is so great or   
sudden  that we cry out before the      
controlling part of the brain has had   
time  to get in its work of preventing  
the outcry1 but we are able to stop     
crying when the master brain again      
secures control4          ,where ,do    
,tears ,come ,from8      ,tears are not 

made only when we cry4 ,they seem to    
come only when you  cry1 because it is  
then that they spill over4 ,a little    
part of you  is making tears all the    
time1 and your eyes are constantly      
washing  themselves in them4 ,you have  
often noticed how you wink every few    
seconds8 ,you have often tried to keep  
from winking--to see how long  you could
 keep from winking4 ,boys and girls     
often do that1 and when  you keep from  
winking what seems a long time1 you     
notice how your eyes  ache and feel very
 dry just before you have to let them   
wink1 in spite  of how hard you try not 
to1 and just when you think you are not 
going  to4 ,i will tell you just what   
winking does for the eyes4 ,all of the  
time your eyes are open the front1 or   
the part you see things with1 is        
exposed to the dust and dirt that fills 
the air at all times1 although  we      
cannot always see the dust4 ,the wind1  
too1 is constantly making them  dry4    
,but have you ever noticed that although

 you never wash the inside  of the front
 of the eye1 or pupil1 it is always     
clean8 ,well1 it is  because your eye   
washes itself every time you wink4 ,i   
will tell you how  this is done4 ,up    
above each eye1 inside1 of course1 there
 is a little  gland called the          
tear-gland4 ,this gland is busy all the 
time you are  awake making tears4 ,as   
soon as the front of your eye becomes   
dry1 or  if a particle of dust or       
anything else strikes it1 the nerves you
 have  there tell the brain1 and almost 
at once the eyelid comes down with a    
tear inside of it1 and so washes the    
front of your eye clean again4 ,it  does
 its work perfectly and as often as     
necessary4 ,there is always a  tear     
ready to be used in this way4           
,where ,do the ,tears ,go8      ,let me 
show you4 ,look right down here at the  
inner corner of my eyelid1  where you   
will see a little hole4 ,that is where  
the tears get out of  the eye1 when they
 have washed your eyeball clean4 ,where 

do they go  then8 ,did you ever notice  
how soon after you cry you have to blow 
your  nose8 ,the reason for that is that
 when the tears go through the little   
hole they run down into the nose4 ,this 
making of tears and winking  goes on all
 the time while you are awake1 and after
 they wash your eye  off they go on out 
through this little hole4 ,but when you 
cry you make  more tears come than you  
need1 so many1 in fact1 that they cannot
 all  get away through this little hole1
 and as there is no place else for  them
 to go1 and as there is no place to keep
 them inside the eye1 they  simply spill
 themselves right over the edge of your 
lower eyelid and  run down your cheek4  
,story in a ,barrel of ,cement          
,what ,is ,cement8    ,the dictionary   
tells us that cement is 8any adhesive   
substance which  makes two bodies       
cohere40 ,thus any material performing  
this function  may be called cement1    
such1 for example1 as the cement used in
 mending  broken china4 ,glue also is a 

form of cement4 ,this story has to do   
with  ,portland cement1 which is a      
structural or building material used in 
countless ways4      ,why ,is ,cement   
,called ,portland ,cement8    ,after    
being wet with water it hardens into    
stone1 and it was given the  name       
8,portland0 because1 when first         
manufactured in ,england1 and mixed     
with sand and stone1 it resembled a     
celebrated building stone called        
,portland1 which was obtained from the  
,isle of ,portland4 ,compared with      
other ,american industries1 the         
manufacture of ,portland cement is of   
recent origin4 ,formerly all ,portland  
cement was brought from foreign         
countries4 ,after successful manufacture
 became established in this  country1   
however1 the industry advanced with     
great rapidity4 ,a few  years ago the   
entire ,united ,states did not use as   
much cement as is  now used in any one  
of our large cities4 ,at the time these 
facts were  written 7#aiad7 the         

manufacturers were making more than #ij 
millions of  barrels a year4      ,what 
,is ,cement ,made ,of8    ,portland     
cement is composed chiefly of lime1     
alumina and silica4 ,it  is manufactured
 from rocks1 marl1 clay and shale       
containing these  ingredients4 ,if any  
one of them is lacking in the raw       
material as it  is taken from the earth1
 it is supplied during process of       
manufacture4  ,the greatest cement      
district in ,america is in              
,pennsylvania1 and is  known as the     
8,lehigh ,district40 ,a rock containing 
proper constituents  for making         
,portland cement was found there in vast
 quantities1 and for  a number of years 
the ,lehigh ,district was the center of 
the industry4  ,in time it was found    
that certain clays1 marls and shale     
could also be  manufactured into        
,portland cement1 and thus mills have   
been erected  in all sections of the    
,united ,states4 ,one of the largest    
companies  in the ,united ,states found 

that cement could be manufactured from a
  combination of blast-furnace slag and 
limestone1 and this is now made  by the 
company in large quantities1 the product
 being a true ,portland  cement4        
,what ,is ,concrete8    ,portland cement
 is the strongest and most lasting of   
all modern mortars  or binding          
materials4 ,when mixed with sand and    
stone the resulting  mixture is called  
concrete4 ,being a plastic material when
 first mixed1  it cannot be used as we  
use brick or stone1 but must be poured  
into  molds or forms1 which hold it in  
place until it hardens into rock4 ,it   
may be cast in any form or shape1 and   
thus it is useful for a vast  number of 
purposes4 ,it will harden under water1  
and time and exposure  to the elements  
merely increase its strength4 ,the most 
common form in  which it is used1 one   
familiar to everybody1 is in the        
construction  of sidewalks4 ,it is used 
in all great engineering projects1 such 
as  the building of dams1 bridges1      

retaining walls1 sewers1 subways and    
tunnels4 ,being fireproof1 large        
quantities of it are used in buildings  
and likewise on our farms1 where it is  
extremely valuable as an  enduring and  
sanitary material4      ,what ,is       
,cement ,used ,for8    ,it has been said
 that concrete is a plastic material1   
meaning that  it is soft and pliable in 
the sense that clay or putty are        
plastic4  ,for this reason it is cast in
 forms or molds4 ,sometimes it is used  
in  the form of plain concrete1 and on  
other occasions it is reinforced1       
meaning that iron rods1 steel bars or   
woven wire mesh are imbedded  in the    
concrete4 ,when we speak of a           
8reinforced0 concrete building1  imagine
 a huge wire bird cage encrusted within 
and without with  concrete4 ,place a    
block1 beam or column of concrete upon  
the ground and  it will bear a          
tremendous load1 meaning that it has    
great strength in  compression4 ,on the 
other hand1 if we were to place a long  

beam upon  supports at either end1      
leaving the greater length of it        
suspended and  without support1 it would
 carry but a small load compared with   
concrete  in compression4 ,therefore1 in
 making concrete beams or girders in a  
building1 strong steel bars are embedded
 in the concrete to take up  what are   
termed the tensile strains4             
,illustration3 ,,what ,a ,,cement ,,mill
 ,,looks ,,like    ,this is a picture of
 a cement mill4 ,millions of dollars are
 invested in  these great mills1 which  
are now located in practically all      
sections of  the country4 ,material is  
brought from the quarry to the mills1   
where it  passes through various stages1
 such as grinding1 burning and bagging4 
,expert chemists are employed to see    
that the cement is made exactly  right4 
,it is a very scientific matter to make 
a thoroughly good cement4  ,there must  
be no guess work4 ,some mills are very  
large1 the plant  comprising a number of
 buildings1 and some companies operate  

several  mills in different localities4 
,a single company supplied all of the   
cement used in the ,panama ,canal1 which
 great project required more than  six  
million barrels4    ,illustration3 ,this
 picture shows a quarry in the famous   
,lehigh cement  district4 ,the giant    
steam shovel or excavator burrows into  
the hill  like some great animal1 and   
when the bucket is full it is dumped    
into  the cars shown on the track1 which
 convey the rock or the raw material  to
 the mill4    ,illustration3 ,,where    
,,the ,,material ,,is ,,obtained        
,this is an illustration of a method of 
excavating and loading marl  and clay to
 be manufactured into ,portland cement4 
,the large bucket  suspended over the   
cars does not gouge into the hillside as
 shown in  the preceding picture1 but   
descends like a huge steel hand1 the    
metal  parts opening and closing like   
fingers4 ,the long derrick elevates the 
bucket and swings it over the train of  
cars4    ,illustration3 ,this is a view 

of a powerful rock crusher1 which is    
operated by the electric motor shown at 
the right4 ,the cement rock is  brought 
from the quarry and dumped into the     
machine1 from which it  issues in broken
 fragments1 as shown in the             
illustration1 this being  the first or  
preliminary crushing process4           
,illustration3 ,,the ,,huge ,,rock      
,,grinders    ,this is a view of the    
electric motors operating the grinding  
machines  which reduce the raw material 
to a very fine powder4 ,there are       
various  types of mills or grinders1 to 
which the material comes after going    
through the rock crusher4 ,they grind it
 in preparation for the kilns4          
,illustration3 ,the kiln is a very      
important feature of the cement  plant4 
,the finely ground raw material must be 
calcined or burned before  it becomes   
,portland cement4 ,these kilns range    
from #fj to #bdj feet in  length4 ,they 
are slightly inclined and revolve upon  
rollers4 ,the finely  ground material   

enters the kiln at the upper end and    
travels throughout  its length as the   
kiln slowly revolves4 ,powdered coal    
dust is fed into  the kiln at the lower 
end1 where it is ignited and generates  
intense  heat4 ,when the finely ground  
raw material comes into contact with the
  heat1 which reaches #bhjj degrees ,f41
 it is transformed into what is  known  
as clinker1 which issues from the lower 
end of the kiln and is  passed on to    
other machinery1 which grinds it into   
impalpable powder or  ,portland cement4 
,illustration3 ,,how ,,concrete ,,is    
,,mixed    ,this is an ingenious machine
 which bags and weighs the cement4 ,the 
bags are suspended as shown1 and when   
filled and weighed by the  machine are  
placed in barrels and shipped to their  
destination4 ,every  device of this kind
 that will save time and labor cheapens 
the cost of  manufacture4               
,illustration3 ,in mixing cement1 sand  
and stone together in order that        
concrete may be obtained1 it is         

customary to use1 if the operation  is a
 large one1 what are known as mechanical
 mixers4 ,these are large  iron         
cylinders into which the three materials
 are put and water added4  ,the cylinder
 or iron drum revolves until the        
contents are thoroughly  mixed1 when    
they issue from the mixer through a     
chute or spout4 ,a mixer  of this type  
is shown on a succeeding page describing
 the making of a  concrete road4 ,this  
picture shows mixing concrete by hand4  
,the sand and  cement are first         
thoroughly mixed in the dry state and   
subsequently the  stone and water are   
added4 ,concrete should be thoroughly   
mixed in order  that every grain of sand
 may be entirely coated with cement1 and
 then  these two combined make a rich   
mortar1 which should surround entirely  
every piece of stone4    ,illustration3 
,,how ,,concrete ,,buildings ,,are      
,,made    ,this picture shows how       
concrete houses or walls are built      
through the  use of what are known as   

forms4 ,in building a wall we have an   
inside  and outside form1 as shown in   
the picture1 between which the concrete 
is placed4 ,after it hardens the forms  
are removed4 ,in some operations1  such 
as the construction of a large factory  
building or great bridge1  there is such
 a vast array of timber construction as 
to make the scene  quite impressive1    
especially when bridge arches of great  
span and  height are under construction4
    ,illustration3 ,this is a view of an
 arch built of concrete during the      
,jamestown ,exposition4 ,it is a        
striking illustration of how concrete   
may be used for both ornamental and     
practical purposes4 ,in no field  has   
concrete proved to be of more value and 
economy than in the  construction of    
bridges1 whether large or small4 ,some  
of the largest  bridges in the world are
 built of concrete1 and in many cases   
iron  bridges are incased in concrete to
 keep them from rusting4                
,illustration3 ,,concrete ,,houses      

,,cannot ,,burn    ,this is a curious   
example of concrete construction4 ,it is
 a coal  pocket1 from which locomotives 
are supplied with fuel4 ,railroad       
companies have adopted it because of its
 great strength and durability4         
,illustration3 ,just as mammoth         
structures are created with poured      
concrete1 so we may produce the most    
delicate and ornamental patterns4       
,these are usually cast in plaster molds
 and often in molds of wood or  iron4   
,where undercut work is required1 such  
as in the sun-dial shown1 a  wood or    
metal mold could not be removed without 
injury to the concrete1  and so         
sculptors have invented the pliable glue
 mold1 which can be  easily removed and 
which will spring back to its original  
shape if  necessary to use it a second  
time4    ,illustration3 ,concrete in    
dwelling construction means the         
elimination  of fire danger and also    
cost of painting and repairs4 ,this     
picture  shows a solid concrete house1  

parts of which have been encrusted with 
beautiful tiles4 ,concrete has been     
successfully used in all types of       
dwellings1 from the humble abode of the 
workingman to the palace of  the        
multimillionaire4 ,an entire house may  
be made of concrete1 even to  the roof  
and stairways1 and where a dwelling is  
constructed of this  material           
throughout1 it is proof against fire and
 decay4    ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the   
,,farmer ,,uses ,,concrete    ,this is  
an interesting example of concrete      
construction4 ,it is a  large water     
tower which will never warp1 rust or    
decay4 ,in this field  concrete has been
 of great service1 whether reservoirs   
are constructed  in the form of towers  
or tanks4 ,as already stated1 water does
 not  affect the life or strength of    
concrete1 except to improve it4         
,illustration3 ,this is a concrete silo4
 ,a silo made of concrete is  merely a  
huge stone jar in which green food for  
cattle is preserved4  ,the crop is      

gathered and placed in the silo1 thus   
insuring abundance  of green and        
wholesome food throughout dry seasons   
and during the  winter4 ,the contents of
 the silo is known as silage or         
ensilage1 and is  merely corn fodder cut
 when green4 ,concrete silos are both   
storm- and  fire-proof4                 
,illustration3 ,it is usual to consider 
concrete in connection with  great      
engineering enterprises1 but            
nevertheless many millions of  barrels  
are used each year by the farmers of the
 ,united ,states4 ,this  picture shows a
 clean1 sanitary and durable concrete   
stable4 ,in  buildings of this character
 concrete is rapidly supplanting wood1  
which  soon goes to decay1 to say       
nothing of accumulation of filth4       
,illustration3 ,,how ,,concrete ,,roads 
,,are ,,built    ,,mechanical ,,cement  
,,mixer    ,illustration3 ,a ,,concrete 
,,road    ,our two last pictures relate 
to an exceedingly important and rapidly 
increasing use of cement4 ,it is the    

construction of concrete roads4  ,the   
first picture shows a concrete road in  
course of construction4  ,the mechanical
 mixer referred to above is shown in    
this picture4 ,it  is a self-propelling 
machine and mixes the concrete very     
rapidly4 ,as  it comes from the mixer in
 a wet and mushy mass it is placed      
between  rigidly staked side forms1     
where it hardens into imperishable rock4
  ,the road is brought to its shape by  
working to and fro a long plank  called 
a template1 after which the surface of  
the road is troweled with  wooden       
floats1 giving it a texture which       
prevents horses and cars from  slipping4
 ,the last picture shows a narrow       
concrete road in the state of           
,maryland4 ,wherever these roads have   
been built they mean much to the  women 
and children of the community4 ,they    
never grind up into mud or  dust1 and   
are as pleasant to walk upon as the     
sidewalks of the city4  ,children1      
especially1 delight in them4 ,in ,wayne 

county1 ,mich41 where  they have the    
most celebrated concrete roads in the   
world1 the children  go to and from     
school on roller skates1 and various    
games are played on  the concrete road4 
,why ,don't ,we ,make ,roads ,perfectly 
,level8      ,roads are made with a     
curving upper surface1 i4 e41 higher in 
the  middle1 in order that the rain will
 drain away from the road into the      
gutters or ditches which you find at the
 sides4 ,you see water has the  faculty 
of running only in one direction1 and   
that is downward4 ,if it  cannot go down
 on one side or the other1 it will      
collect in puddles  and make the road   
impassable4 ,for this reason we build   
our roads so  they are higher in the    
middle than at the sides--not much      
higher2 only  about six inches or       
so--giving them just the gentle slope   
toward each  side that is necessary to  
allow the water to run off gradually1   
but  sufficiently sloping to keep the   
water from collecting in puddles in  the

 road4 ,thus after the dust has been    
settled by the first rain that  falls1  
most of the surplus rain that falls on  
the roads finally runs  into the ditches
 at the side of the road4          ,why 
,are ,some ,roads ,called ,turnpikes8   
,undoubtedly the name turnpike as       
applied to some roads arose from the    
fact that pikes or gates were set across
 the roads by the keeper or             
toll-collector4 ,in addition to         
collecting tolls1 it was a part of the  
toll-keeper's business to keep the road 
in repair4 ,his wages and other         
expenses for doing this were received   
from the tolls collected from the       
people who used the road to ride on in  
carriages1 wagons1 etc4 ,in the  early  
days the toll-collector was armed with a
 pike1 a long-handled  weapon with a    
sharp iron head1 which he used to       
prevent people who  travelled his road  
from going by without giving up their   
toll4 ,later on  a swinging gate was    
built across the road1 which made it    

unnecessary to  use the pike1 though the
 name was retained1 for no one could    
pass while  the gate barred the way4    
,when the passerby had paid his tolls1  
the  toll-collector opened the gate and 
let him pass4 ,if he did not pay the    
gate remained closed and the driver had 
to turn back or decide to pay4  ,hence  
comes the name turnpike4 ,in some parts 
of the country they call  these toll    
roads4          ,what ,is ,dust8      ,a
 large part of the dust we see in the   
roadway when the horses kick it  up1 or 
when an automobile passes1 is made up of
 the pulverized dirt of  the roadway4   
,it becomes mixed with other things1    
such as the street  deposits of animals1
 particles of carbon1 etc4 ,particles of
 this dust  get into our throats1 and as
 there are many germs in it1 they are   
very  liable to cause sickness1         
especially the colds from which we      
suffer4          ,what ,becomes of the  
,dust8      ,the dust of the roadway is 
generally blown away by the wind1 to    

come  down to earth again wherever the  
wind happens to carry it--on the  lawns1
 the doorsteps or back to the road1     
perhaps4 ,in any event1 the  rain which 
is certain to come sooner or later1     
washes this dust back  into the soil1 or
 into the sewers4 ,part of it mixes with
 the soil4 ,the  organic matter in dust 
helps to fertilize the soil1 and is     
therefore  useful4 ,other parts of the  
dust are oxidized and consumed by the   
air1 through the heat of the sun4 ,so   
you see the dust is continually         
changing from one thing to another4     
,are ,stones ,alive8      ,real stones  
are not alive4 ,they do not become      
stones until they have  been burned     
out--until they have become what is     
known as dead matter4  ,this is meant   
entirely in the sense that we commonly  
think of the  meaning of the word       
8alive10 which is to be able to breathe 
and grow4  ,stones can neither breathe  
nor grow4 ,they belong to the inanimate 
kingdom of things on the earth4         

,particles of this dead matter1 found in
  stones1 etc41 are in many cases taken 
up by things that are actually  alive1  
and help to form the bodies of living   
things4    ,the most common thing to be 
found in rocks and stones is what is    
called 8silicon10 and we find this      
silicon in the straws of the wheat1     
oats and corn1 and in many other things1
 but not in a way that can be  detected 
except by chemical analysis4 ,a great   
many of the things found  in stones are 
found in living things1 but rocks and   
stones are not  alive in any sense4     
,what and ,why ,is ,smoke8      ,smoke  
is produced only when something which is
 being burned is burning  imperfectly4  
,if we were to put anything burnable    
into the fire and  establish just the   
right amount of draft1 and knew how to  
build our  fires properly1 there would  
be no smoke and very little ashes4      
,in the case of the black coal smoke    
which we think of mostly when  we think 
of smoke at all1 the black portion is   

principally little  unburned particles  
of coal which pass up the chimney with  
the gases  which are thrown off when the
 coal is being burned4 ,these gases     
would  be invisible--they really are    
invisible--if it were not for the little
  particles of coal which are drawn up  
the chimney with them4 ,if you look  at 
the chimney from which a wood fire      
expels the gases you find the  smoke    
very light in color--showing that not so
 much unburned matter is  being thrown  
off4 ,a charcoal fire makes no smoke1   
because the charcoal  has had the       
unburnable things taken out of it       
beforehand1 and the  charcoal stove is  
almost perfect in construction from the 
standpoint of  combustion4    ,of       
course1 the thickness of the smoke from 
a coal fire is often  increased by the  
fact that there are unburnable things   
mixed in with  the coal1 some of which  
also pass off through the chimney4      
,why ,can't ,we ,burn ,stones8      ,we 
cannot burn anything that has already   

been burned1 and a stone has  already   
been burned4 ,to understand how this is 
we must first find out  what takes place
 when a thing is burned4 ,when a thing  
is burning it  means merely that that   
particular thing is taking into its     
system all  of the oxygen of the air    
that it can combine with4 ,when it has  
done  this it cannot be burned any more4
 ,of course1 in doing this the thing    
originally burned changes its character4
 ,the elements in a candle when  lighted
 mix with the oxygen in the air and     
disappear in the form of  gases4 ,the   
elements in coal mix when fired with    
oxygen and change into  ashes1 gases and
 smoke4 ,a stone1 however1 is the result
 of a burning  that has already taken   
place4 ,the original element of most of 
the rocks  and stones we see was        
silicon1 and when that combines with    
oxygen1  the result is some form of     
rock1 which you may be able to break up 
or  throw1 but which you cannot burn    
again4          ,what ,is ,fog8         

,the fog which we generally think of    
when we speak this word is the  fog at  
or on the sea or other body of          
water--the one that makes the  ships    
stand by and blow their fog horns4 ,a   
fog of this kind is nothing  more nor   
less than a cloud1 come right down to   
earth and spread out a  little more4    
,people who have gone up into the air in
 balloons and other  airships through   
the clouds1 say that the clouds are only
 fogs1 and  that above them it is as    
clear as it is on a sunshiny day on the 
water  when there is no fog4    ,there  
is another kind of fog which settles    
down over the land1  especially in the  
cities4 ,it is a damp mist which        
combines with the  smoke and other      
impurities in the air and forms a black 
and dirty cloud  about everything4 ,this
 occurs when the upper air prevents the 
smoke  which rises from a city with all 
its people and fires in the furnaces    
from passing up and away4 ,the upper air
 acts like a blanket and keeps  the     

misty1 smoky air down1 until the wind   
comes along and blows it away4          
,what ,becomes of the ,smoke8           
,there are a number of things in smoke1 
and when we know what they are1  we will
 find a natural answer to this question4
 ,first1 there are1 of  course1 the     
little unburned particles of fuel which 
get carried up  the chimney by its      
drawing power4 ,these naturally fall to 
the ground  of their own weight1 once   
they get beyond the drawing power of the
  chimney and out of the current of air 
so formed4 ,some of the gases  are      
already quite burned out when they pass 
up the chimney4 ,there is  a lot of     
carbonic acid gas which1 of course1     
mixes with the air and  eventually      
becomes food for the plants4 ,then there
 are some gases which  are not entirely 
burned1 and the air burns them still    
more until they1  too1 become carbonic  
acid gas1 or water which is also thrown 
off by a  burning fire4          ,why   
,does an ,apple ,turn ,brown ,when ,cut8

      ,the reason is that when you cut  
an apple1 the exposure to the air of    
the inside of the apple causes a        
chemical change to take place1 due to   
the effect the oxygen in the air has on 
what is scientifically known as  the    
enzymes in the apple1 or what are       
commonly called the 8ferments40  ,when  
the peel is unbroken it protects the    
inside of the apple against  this action
 by the oxygen4 ,the brown color happens
 to be due to the  chemical action4 ,the
 action is similar to the action of the 
air on wet  or damp iron or steel1 in   
which case we call it rust4             
,why ,does a ,piece of ,wood ,float in  
,water8      ,a piece of wood will float
 in water because it is lighter than the
  same amount of water4 ,we do not mean 
that a piece of wood weighing one       
pound1 for instance1 would weigh any    
more than a pound of water1 of  course1 
but if you took the measurements of each
 you will find that  it took less bulk  
to make a pound of water than of wood4  

,if you had a  piece of wood so shaped  
that it just filled a glass completely1 
and  then took another glass and filled 
it with water1 you would find that  the 
glass containing the water weighed the  
most4 ,another name to give  to this    
difference would be to say that the     
water was more dense than  the wood4 ,by
 the law of gravitation the denser thing
 will always go  to the bottom1 and as  
wood is less dense than water1 it will  
stay at  the top if put in water4 ,the  
piece of wood has more air in it than   
the  water4 ,if you could expel the air 
from the piece of wood and then put  it 
in water1 it would sink4          ,why  
,does ,iron ,sink ,in ,water8      ,the 
explanation in regard to the piece of   
wood floating in water is the  beginning
 of the answer to this question4 ,a     
piece of iron is heavier  than an equal 
bulk of water1 and will therefore go to 
the bottom1 as  will all things which   
are more dense than water4 ,a piece of  
iron has no  air in it4 ,the particles  

of a piece of iron are so close together
 that  there is no room for air in it   
and it will therefore sink in water4 ,a 
piece of wood from which all of the air 
had been expelled would also  sink4     
,why ,doesn't an ,iron ,ship ,sink8     
,this is a very natural question for you
 to ask right after you were  told why  
iron sinks in water4 ,the explanation is
 that by making an  iron ship in the way
 we do1 we fix it so that it holds a lot
 of air in  between the bottom and      
sides1 making the combination of the    
two--the  iron ship and the air in      
it--lighter than the water on which it  
sails4  ,men thought at one time that a 
ship would sink if made of iron1 and    
therefore built all of their ships of   
wood4 ,finally one inventor made a  ship
 of iron and it was one of the wonders  
of the world4 ,when we found  that iron 
ships would float if they were built to 
retain sufficient air  to keep them from
 sinking1 we made the hulls of most     
ships of iron for  a time4 ,now1        

however1 the best ships are made of     
steel1 which is even  better4    ,if you
 bore a hole in the bottom of a ship1   
the water will run in if  the ship is in
 the water1 and the ship will sink1     
because the water  coming in drives out 
the air2 and when the ship is full of   
water1  the water in it1 with the ship  
itself1 are heavier than the water on   
which it sails1 and the ship will go    
down4 ,filling a ship with water  makes 
the iron part of the ship just like a   
bar of iron1 so far as its  sinking     
qualities are concerned4    ,of course1 
an iron ship must be made long enough   
and broad enough so  that when it is    
completed there will be sufficient air  
contained within  the hull to make the  
combination lighter than water4 ,always1
 therefore1  when a ship is to be built1
 competent engineers must go over the   
plans  of the vessel and calculate the  
air capacity1 so as to make sure she    
will float4    ,nowadays it would be    
difficult to sink a modern vessel by    

boring one  small hole in the bottom1   
because the bottom and sides are lined  
with  enclosed steel air-chambers1 and a
 ship will keep afloat even if one  or a
 number of holes are made4 ,the reason  
is1 of course1 that when you  bore a    
hole into one of these air-chambers the 
water rushing in will  fill that        
air-chamber with water1 but as there is 
no connection from  the inside with the 
rest of the ship1 the water can get no  
further4          ,why ,does a ,poker   
,get ,hot at ,both ,ends if ,left in the
 ,fire8      ,both ends of the poker    
become heated because the poker is made 
of iron1  and iron is a particularly    
good conductor of heat4 ,to understand  
this  we must look into the question of 
what a good conductor of heat is4  ,in  
this case the particles of iron1 which  
combined form the poker1  are so close  
together that when those at the end of  
the poker which  is in the fire get hot1
 the particles at that end hand the heat
 on to  the particles next to them1 and 

so on until the whole poker is hot4     
,the difference between a thing which is
 a good conductor of heat and  a thing  
which is not a good conductor1 lies in  
the ability of the  different particles 
which compose it to hand the heat on to 
the others4  ,did you ever notice that  
the handle of a solid silver spoon will 
become hot if the spoon is left in hot  
coffee8 ,solid silver is a good         
conductor of heat4 ,a plated spoon is   
not a good conductor1 however1 and  will
 not become hot if left in the cup of   
hot coffee as a solid silver  spoon     
will4          ,would a ,wooden ,spoon  
,get ,hot8      ,a wooden spoon would   
not get hot1 because wood is not a good 
conductor  of heat4 ,the atoms which    
compose the wood have not the power to  
transmit the heat to each other4 ,this  
is strange1 too1 when we think  that a  
poker is a good conductor of heat1 but  
will not burn1 while  wood is not a good
 conductor1 but will burn readily4      
,perhaps you have  already discovered   

this in connection with a wood fire4    
,one end of a  stick of wood may be     
burning fiercely1 and yet you can pick  
it up by  the other end and find it is  
not even warm4 ,this proves to you that 
wood is not a good conductor of heat1   
and explains why the handle of a  wooden
 spoon in a bowl of hot soup will not   
get hot while the handle of  a silver   
spoon will4          ,why ,does ,iron   
,turn ,red ,when ,red ,hot8      ,the   
answer is that the piece of iron has    
been heated to the point where  it gives
 off light of its own4 ,the red you see 
is only one stage in  the development of
 iron to the point where it makes its   
own light4 ,if  you heat it still more  
it will make a white light4 ,you know   
that it  produces the light itself1     
because if you take a piece of iron into
 a  perfectly dark room and heat it to a
 white heat it will show better  than   
where there is other light4 ,if you     
continue the process the iron  will melt
 and change in form4 ,therefore1 the    

8red hot0 name for a piece  of iron in  
that state is a perfect name4 ,it is a  
warning that the iron  is coming to a   
point where if the heating process is   
continued1 it will  change its form and 
in this state1 when treated according to
 known  methods1 the iron is turned into
 steel1 which has many characteristics  
that iron does not possess4 ,now1 ,i    
can1 of course1 hear you ask why        
doesn't an iron kettle get red hot8 and 
,i can answer that easily4 ,if  you     
treat the kettle the same way as you do 
the piece of iron1 it  will get red hot4
 ,the difference is that you are        
thinking of an iron  kettle with water  
in it4 ,as long as there is any water in
 the kettle1  that keeps it from getting
 hot4 ,the water inside keeps the kettle
 from  becoming red hot4 ,if you took a 
hollow rod of iron and filled it with   
water1 it would not become red hot as   
long as any water remained in the       
hollow portion4          ,how ,did the  
,sand ,get on the ,seashore8      ,the  

sand on the seashore is nothing more or 
less than ground-up  sandstone4 ,in     
dealing with the inanimate things in the
 world we find  that a very important   
element of all of them has been given   
the name  silicon4 ,when the crust of   
the earth1 which is the part we call the
  land and rocks1 and includes the part 
under the sea1 was a molten mass1  this 
silicon was burned1 combining with the  
oxygen which surrounded  everything1 and
 produced what is known as silica4      
,silica is the name  given to the thing 
which is left after you burn silicon4 ,a
 very large  part of this silica was    
deposited in parts of the earth1 and    
when the  crust of the earth cooled off 
it was sand4 ,by pressure and contact   
with  other substances it became stuck  
together1 just as you can take wet  sand
 at the seashore to-day and make bricks 
and houses and tunnels1  excepting that 
in the case we speak of it was something
 besides water  that pressed and stuck  
the little particles of sand together4  

,they  stuck together more permanently4 
,then when the oceans were formed1 as   
shown in another part of this book1 much
 of the sandstone was found to  be at   
the bottom and on the shores of the     
oceans4 ,the action of the  water       
continually washing against the         
sandstone gradually broke the  sandstone
 up into the tiny particles of sand     
again1 and this is what  makes the sand 
on the seashore4          ,what ,makes a
 ,soap ,bubble8      ,a bubble is merely
 a hollow ball of water with air inside4
 ,the air  in coming up through the     
water in trying to rise out of the water
 is  caught in the water in such a way  
as to form the bubble1 and since the    
ability of the air inside of the bubble 
to rise is greater than that of  the    
water which forms the bubble1 and which 
has a tendency to pull it  down1 the    
bubble rises into the air4 ,the water   
ball is very thin and  keeps running    
down to the bottom of the ball1 where   
you see it form  into drops1 and soon   

this makes the walls of the water bubble
 so thin  that the air bursts through   
the ball of water1 and that is          
,what ,makes the ,bubble ,explode8      
,sometimes we blow soap bubbles4 ,we mix
 soap in the water and that makes  the  
walls of the water ball which we produce
 a little tougher1 and it  requires a   
great deal more effort for the air to   
escape from it1 as the  soap keeps the  
water in the walls of the bubble from   
running down to  the bottom for quite   
some time1 and1 therefore1 soap bubbles 
will often  travel in the air for some  
distance4 ,the colors we see on soap    
bubbles  are produced by the rays of    
sunlight1 which strike the bubble and   
reflect them back to us in colors very  
similar to those of the rainbow4        
,why ,are ,bubbles ,round8      ,bubbles
 are round because the air which forms  
the inside of the bubble  exerts an     
equal pressure in all directions4 ,it   
presses equally against  all sides of   
the bubble at the same time4            

,the ,story in a ,yard of ,silk         
,god's ,creation and ,man's ,invention4 
,,where ,,does ,,silk ,,come ,,from8    
,silk in its finished state is an ideal 
product4 ,it is at once durable1        
magnificent to the eye1 tender to the   
touch1 and its rustle is soft  music to 
the ear4 ,hence it is easy to understand
 why the silkworm1  from the earliest   
times1 has been an object of much       
consideration and  concern from a       
commercial and industrial point of view4
 ,in this country  alone1 we annually   
expend as much for silk goods as we do  
for public  education and thirty times  
as much as we do for foreign missions4  
,such  an indomitable producer of wealth
 is the silkworm1 and a producer of     
wealth it has been from an age as remote
 as when ,joseph was down in old        
,egypt1 interpreting the dreams of ,king
 ,pharaoh's butler and baker and  later 
that of the ,king himself4    ,to-day we
 speak of twenty centuries1 and our     
minds can hardly  comprehend such a     

lapse of time4 ,what shall we think of  
the silkworm1  that for twice twenty    
centuries has furnished practically all 
the  raw material for the world's silk  
supply8 ,because man's ingenuity is  at 
present actively engaged in the attempt 
to displace it by cheaper  substitutes1 
the thought has come to us that1 without
 going too  minutely into mechanical    
processes1 a good opportunity is        
presented  to give some interesting     
information in regard to the silkworm as
  the creation of the ,divine ,hand1 in 
contrast to the silkworm as the         
creation of man4    ,according to       
,chinese authority1 the use of silk     
dates from #bfej ,b4,c41  and it is     
generally conceded that1 in point of    
age1 it stands midway  among the great  
textiles1 wool and cotton having        
preceded it1 while  flax1 hemp and other
 fibrous plants followed shortly in its 
train4    ,the first patron of the      
silkworm was ,hoang-,ti1 ,third ,emperor
 of ,china1  and his ,empress1          

,si-,ling-,chi1 was the first practical 
silkworm breeder  and silk reeler4 ,it  
is related of her that she was once     
walking in the  palace gardens when she 
discovered a strange and repulsive      
looking  worm4 ,it was small1 of a pale 
green color1 and was feeding greedily on
  a mulberry leaf4 ,she interested the  
,emperor in this strange creature1  and1
 at the ,emperor's suggestion1 took the 
fine silken web which the  worm finally 
spun1 and was the first to successfully 
reel the new  filament and weave it into
 cloth4 ,so beneficial to the nation was
 her  work considered that her gratified
 subjects bestowed upon her the  divine 
title of 8,goddess of the ,silkworms10  
and to this day the ,chinese  celebrate 
in her honor the 8,con-,con ,feast10    
which takes place during  the season in 
which the silkworm eggs are hatched4    
,in accounting for the presence of      
silkworms in the garden of this  early  
empress1 we can rightly conclude that   
certain parts of ,china  have always    

abounded in forests of mulberry trees1  
and that the worms  themselves had      
existed in great numbers in a wild state
 and attached  their cocoons to the     
trees for ages before any use was       
discovered  for their web4 ,in fact1    
such wild silkworms not only abound in  
,china  to-day1 but have also been found
 in ,southern and ,eastern ,asia1       
inhabiting the jungles of ,india1 ,pegu1
 ,siam and ,cochin ,china1 but the      
cocoons of these worms are1 naturally1  
of a very inferior quality1 and  are    
only used for the crudest kind of work4 
,illustration3      ,illustration by    
courtesy ,the ,brainerd  ,armstrong     
,silk ,co4    ,,the ,,introduction ,,of 
,,silk ,,into ,,europe    ,pilgrims     
brought silkworm eggs in their staffs1  
together with the  branches of mulberry 
trees1 from ,china to the ,court of     
,justinian at  ,byzantine1 ,a4,d4 #eee4 
,the penalty for taking silkworm eggs   
out of ,china  was death4    ,the       
accompanying illustration is a          

reproduction of a mural painting  on rep
 in the ,royal ,textile ,museum at      
,crefeld1 ,germany1 one of the  great   
silk textile centers of the world4 ,the 
artist shows the pilgrims  presenting   
the silkworm eggs and the mulberry      
branches to ,justinian1  beside whom1   
just in the act of rising1 is his famous
 queen ,theodora4    ,silk culture from 
the time of ,hoang-,ti became one of the
 cherished  secrets of ,china4 ,the     
headquarters of the industry was in the 
,province  of ,chen ,tong1 where was    
produced the silk for the royal family4 
,in  time the silk and stuffs of ,china 
became articles of export to various    
portions of ,asia4 ,long journeys were  
made by caravans1 occupying  two-thirds 
of a year in going from the cities of   
,china to those of  ,syria1 but the     
price obtained there exceeded the       
expense of the  journey1 and thus left a
 large margin of profit to the          
merchants4 ,in  this manner1 for one    
thousand years1 the ,chinese sent their 

silk to the  ,persians who1 without     
knowing how or from what it was made1   
carried it  to the ,western nations4    
,so carefully did the ,orientals guard  
their secret1 that there is reason  to  
believe that ,aristotle was the first   
person in the occidental world  to learn
 the true origin of the wrought silk    
from ,persia4 ,in commenting  on the    
silk which was brought from that country
 on the return of  ,alexander's         
victorious army1 he described the       
silkworm as a 8horned  insect10 passing 
through several transformations1 which  
produced  8bomby-kia10 as he called the 
silk4 ,but the classics must convince   
one  that ,aristotle's discovery did not
 at once become matter of current       
knowledge4 ,in fact1 for five hundred   
years after ,aristotle's time the       
common theory of the origin of silk     
among the ,greeks and ,romans was  that 
it was either 8a fleece which grew upon 
a tree0 7thus confounding  it with      
cotton71 or a fibre obtained from the   

inner bark of a tree2 and  some1        
deceived by the glossy and silky fibres 
of the seed vessels of  the plant that  
corresponds to our milk or silk weed1   
believed it to be  the product of some  
plant or flower4 ,so ,virgil1 in        
speaking of silk1  says1 8the ,seres    
comb the delicate fleecings from the    
leaves40    ,in the ,sixth ,century1    
,a4,d41 all the raw silk was still being
 imported  from ,china by way of        
,persia1 when the ,emperor ,justinian1  
having engaged  in war with ,persia1    
found his supply of raw silk cut off and
 the  manufacturers in great distress4  
,his foolish legislation did not help   
the situation1 and a crisis was averted 
only by two ,nestorian monks1  who came 
from ,china with seed of the mulberry   
tree and a knowledge  of the ,chinese   
method of rearing worms4 ,no one1 on    
pain of death1  was allowed to export   
the silkworm eggs from ,china1 but      
,justinian  bribed the monks to return  
to that country1 and in #eee they came  

back1 bringing with them a quantity of  
silkworm eggs concealed in  their       
pilgrim's staffs4 ,and here let us say  
that there has only once  since been an 
important importation of eggs from      
,asia4 ,that was about  #ahfj1 when ,dr4
 ,pasteur was making a study of a germ  
disease which was  threatening the      
industry4 ,consequently1 it can truly be
 said that  practically all the         
silkworms of the ,western world are     
descended from  those brought in the    
eggs by the monks to ,constantinople4   
,justinian  gave the control of the silk
 industry to his own treasurer4         
,weavers1  brought from ,tyre and       
,berytus1 were employed to manufacture  
the silk1  and the whole production was 
a monopoly of the emperor1 he fixing its
  prices4 ,under his management1 the    
cost of silk became eight times as      
great as before1 and the ,royal ,purple 
was twenty-four times its former  price4
 ,but this monopoly was not of long     
duration and1 at the death of           

,justinian in #efe1 the monopoly ceased1
 and the spread of the industry         
commenced in new and diverse directions4
    ,while every detail of the growth of
 the industry has an unusual  interest1 
as showing how such an insignificant    
thing as a worm may  become a potent    
factor in ,nature's economy1 the scope  
of this article  will hardly allow us to
 more than sketch some of the other more
 salient  points of the history of the  
silkworm4    ,about the year #iaj1 the  
silkworms made their appearance in      
,cordova1  ,spain1 being brought there  
by the ,moors4 ,from ,spain silk culture
 soon  extended to ,greece and ,italy4  
,,when ,,silk ,,culture ,,was           
,,introduced ,,in ,,america    ,silk was
 introduced on this continent through   
the ,spanish ,conquest of  ,mexico1 and 
the first silkworm eggs sold for #fj4jj 
an ounce4    ,a century later royal     
orders were issued requiring mulberry   
trees to  be planted in the ,colony of  
,virginia1 and a fine of twenty pounds  

of  tobacco was imposed for neglect1 and
 fifty pounds of tobacco was given  as a
 bounty for every pound of reeled silk  
produced4    ,silk culture spread       
rapidly in the other ,colonies1 and     
to-day the story  of the ineffectual    
attempts to profitably rear the silkworm
 in this  country is as voluminous as it
 is interesting4 ,suffice it to say1 as 
a sop to our inherent ,yankee pride1    
that silk culture was introduced  into  
,connecticut as early as #agcg1 the     
first coat and stockings made  from ,new
 ,england silk being worn by ,governor  
,law in #agdg1 and the first  silk dress
 by his daughter1 in #agej4 ,this       
,state1 for the eighty-four  years      
following1 led all the others in the    
amount of raw silk produced4  ,in       
,connecticut also1 was built the first  
silk mill to be erected on  this        
continent for the special purpose of    
manufacturing silk goods4  ,this        
building was constructed in #ahaj by    
,rodney and ,horatio ,hanks1 at         

,mansfield1 and is still standing as an 
heirloom which has come to us  from the 
infant days of the industry4    ,the    
silkworm has become domesticated1 since1
 during the long centuries  in which it 
has been cultivated1 it has acquired    
many useful  peculiarities4 ,man has    
striven to increase its silk producing  
power1  and in this he has succeeded1   
for1 by comparing the cocoon of the     
silkworm of to-day with its wild        
relations1 the cocoon is found to be    
much larger1 even in proportion to the  
size of the worm that makes  it or the  
moth that issues from it4 ,the moth's   
loss of the power of  flight and the    
white color of the species are probably 
the results of  domestication4          
,illustration3 ,,japan ,,the ,,natural  
,,home ,,of ,,the ,,silk ,,worm         
,,gathering ,,mulberry ,,branches4#a    
,this picture shows a grove of mulberry 
trees from which branches  are being    
gathered as food for the worms4 ,this is
 often done by the  children4           

,illustration3 ,,female ,,moths         
,,depositing ,,eggs4#a    ,the moths are
 placed upon pieces of cardboard1 upon  
which they deposit  their eggs4    ,the 
cards with the eggs are kept in a cool  
place until the season for  hatching    
arrives4    ,illustration3 ,,preparing  
,,cocooning ,,beds4#a    ,this picture  
shows two boys preparing a bed of twigs 
or branches upon  which the worms may   
spin their cocoons4      #a             
,illustrations by courtesy ,the         
,brainerd  ,armstrong ,co4              
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,silkworms  
,,are ,,cared ,,for    ,,hatching ,,the 
,,eggs4    ,as the eggs hatch on the    
cards1 the young worms are removed to   
other  cards or trays1 where they are   
fed and cared for4    ,illustration3    
,,removing ,,silkworms ,,from ,,cards   
,,where ,,they ,,were ,,hatched4        
,every few days the young worms are     
changed to new and clean cards4         
,illustration3 ,,method ,,of ,,reeling  
,,raw ,,silk4    ,the cocoons are soaked

 in hot water in the basins shown in the
 front  to loosen the gum4 ,the silk    
threads then pass through the hands of  
the  operators and are reeled on swifts 
in the cabinet shown in the rear4    ,a 
more modern appliance for reeling the   
silk is shown on one of the  following  
pages4      ,the foregoing pages and    
pictures by courtesy of ,brainerd       
,armstrong    ,silk ,company1 from their
 book entitled1 8,silk1 the ,real versus
 the    ,imitation40    ,illustration3  
,,full ,,grown ,,larva--,,showing       
,,position ,,in ,,molting4#b            
,illustration3 ,,male ,,moth4#b         
,illustration3 ,,female ,,moth4#b       
,illustration3 ,,side ,,view ,,of       
,,chrysalis4#b    ,illustration3        
,,bottom ,,view ,,of ,,chrysalis4#b     
#b ,the cuts on this page and balance of
 cuts in the story of silk    copyright 
by the ,corticelli ,silk ,mills4    ,the
 silk moth exists in four states--egg1  
larva1 chrysalis1 and adult4  ,the egg  
of the moth is nearly round1 slightly   

flattened1 and closely  resembles a     
turnip seed4 ,when first laid it is     
yellow1 soon turning  a gray or slate   
color if impregnated4 ,it has a small   
spot on one end  called the micropyle1  
and when the worm hatches1 which in our 
climate  is about the first of ,june1 it
 gnaws a hole through this spot4 ,black 
in color1 scarcely an eighth of an inch 
in length1 covered with long  hair1 with
 a shiny nose1 and sixteen small legs1  
the baby worm is born1  leaving the     
shell of the egg white and transparent4 
,,the ,,silkworm--,,how ,,he ,,does     
,,his ,,work    ,small and tender leaves
 of the white mulberry or osage orange  
are fed  the young worm which simply    
pierces them and sucks the sap4 ,soon   
the  worm becomes large enough to eat   
the tender portions between the veins   
of the leaf4 ,in eating they hold the   
leaves by the six forward feet1  and    
then cut off semi-circular slices from  
the leaf's edge by the  sharp upper     
portion of the mouth4 ,the jaws move    

sidewise1 and several  thousand worms   
eating make a noise like falling rain4  
,the worms are kept on trays made of    
matting1 that are placed on racks  for  
convenience in handling4 ,the leaves are
 placed beside the worms1  or upon a    
slatted or perforated tray placed above 
them1 and those that  crawl off are     
retained1 while the weak ones are       
removed with the old  leaves4 ,the worms
 breathe through spiracles1 small holes 
which look  like black spots1 one row of
 nine down each side of the body4 ,they 
have  no eyes1 but are quite sensitive  
to a jar1 and if you hit the rack  they 
stop eating and throw their heads to one
 side4 ,they are velvety1  smooth1 and  
cold to the touch1 and the flesh is     
firm1 almost hard4 ,the  pulsation of   
the blood may be traced on the back of  
the worm1 running  towards the head4    
,the worm has four molting seasons1 at  
each of which it sheds its old  skin for
 a new one1 since in the very rapid     
growth of the worm the old  skin cannot 

keep pace with the growth of the body4  
,the periods between  these different   
molts are called 8ages10 there being    
five1 the first  extending from the time
 of hatching to the end of the first    
molt1 and  the last from the end of the 
fourth molt to the transformation of the
  insect into a chrysalis4 ,the time    
between the four 8molts0 will be  found 
to vary1 depending upon the species of  
worm4    ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the     
,,silkworms ,,are ,,reared4#b    ,when  
the worm molts it ceases eating1 grows  
slightly lighter in color1  fastens     
itself firmly by the ten prolegs1 and   
especially by the last  two1 to some    
object1 and holding up its head and the 
fore part of its  body remains in a     
torpid state for nearly two days4    ,by
 each successive molt the worm grows    
lighter1 finally becoming a  slate or   
cream white color1 and the hair1 which  
was long at first1  gradually           
disappears4 ,the gummy liquid which     
combines the two strands  hardens       

immediately on exposure to the air4     
,the worm works incessantly1 forcing the
 silk out by the contraction  of its    
body4 ,the thin1 gauze-like network     
which soon surrounds it  gradually      
thickens1 until1 twenty-four hours after
 beginning to spin1  the worm is nearly 
hidden from view4 ,however1 the cocoon  
is not  completed for about three days4 
,,sixty-,,five ,,motions ,,of ,,his     
,,head ,a ,,minute    ,the cocoon is    
tough1 strong1 and compact1 composed of 
a firm1  continuous thread1 which is1   
however1 not wound in concentric        
circles1  but irregularly in short      
figure eight loops1 first in one place  
and  then in another4 ,in doing this the
 worm makes sixty-five elliptical       
motions of his head a minute or a total 
of #cjj1jjj in an average  cocoon4 ,the 
motion of the worm's head when starting 
the cocoon is very  rapid1 and nine to  
twelve inches of silk flow from the     
spinneret in  a minute1 but later the   
average would be about half this amount 

per  minute4    ,illustration3          
,,silkworm ,,eating4#b    ,illustration3
 ,,silkworm--,,one ,,of ,,the ,,world',s
 ,,greatest ,,workers    ,,silkworm     
,,preparing ,,to ,,form ,,its ,,cocoon4 
,having attained full growth1 the worm  
is ready to spin its cocoon4 ,it  loses 
its appetite1 shrinks nearly an inch in 
length1 grows nearly  transparent1 often
 acquiring a pinkish hue1 becomes       
restless1 seeks  a quiet place or       
corner1 and moves its head from side to 
side in an  effort to find objects on   
which to attach its guy lines within    
which  to build its cocoon4 ,the silk is
 elaborated in a semi-fluid condition   
in two long1 convoluted vessels or      
glands between the prolegs and  head1   
one upon each side of the alimentary    
canal4 ,as these vessels  approach the  
head they grow more slender1 and finally
 unite within the  spinneret1 a small   
double orifice below the mouth1 from    
which the silk  issues in a glutinous   
state and apparently in a single thread4

    ,illustration3 ,,cocoon             
,,begun--,,silkworm ,,can ,,still ,,be  
,,seen4    ,the color of the worm's     
prolegs before spinning indicates the   
color the  cocoon will be4 ,this varies 
in different species1 and may be a      
silvery  white1 cream1 yellow1 lemon1 or
 green4    ,illustration3 ,,completed   
,,cocoon4    ,,when ,,the ,,silkworm',s 
,,work ,,is ,,done    ,when the worm has
 finished spinning1 it is one and a     
quarter inches  long4 ,two days later1  
by a final molt1 its dried-up skin      
breaks at the  nose and is crowded back 
off the body1 revealing the chrysalis1  
an oval  cone one inch in length4 ,it is
 a light yellow in color1 and           
immediately  after molting is soft to   
the touch4 ,the ten prolegs of the worm 
have  disappeared1 the four wings of the
 future moth are folded over the        
breast1 together with the six legs and  
two feelers1 or antenn4 ,it soon  turns 
brown1 and the skin hardens into a tough
 shell4 ,nature provides  the cocoon to 

protect the worm from the elements while
 it is being  transformed into a        
chrysalis1 and thence into the moth4    
,illustration3 ,,moths ,,emerging ,,from
 ,,cocoons4    ,with no jaws1 and       
confined within the narrow space of the 
cocoon1 the  moth has some difficulty in
 escaping4 ,after two or three weeks the
  shell of the chrysalis bursts1 and the
 moth ejects against the end of  the    
cocoon a strongly alkaline liquid which 
moistens and dissolves  the hard1 gummy 
lining4 ,pushing aside some of the      
silken threads and  breaking others1    
with crimped and damp wings the moth    
emerges2 and the  exit once effected1   
the wings soon expand and dry4          
,illustration3 ,,cocoons ,,from ,,which 
,,the ,,moths ,,have ,,emerged4    ,the 
escape of the moth1 however1 breaks so  
many threads that the  cocoons are      
ruined for reeling1 and consequently1   
when ten days old1  all those not       
intended for seed are placed in a steam 
heater to stifle  the chrysalis1 and the

 silk may then be reeled at any future  
time4    ,the moths are cream white in  
color4 ,they have no mouths1 but do have
  eyes1 which is just the reverse of the
 case of the worm4 ,from the time  it   
begins to spin until the moth dies1 the 
insect takes no nourishment4  ,the six  
forward legs of the worm become the legs
 of the moth4 ,soon  after mating the   
eggs are laid4    ,the male has broader 
feelers than the female1 is smaller in  
size1 and  quite active4 ,the female    
lays half her eggs1 rests a few hours1  
and  then lays the remainder4 ,her two  
or three days' life is spent within a   
space occupying less than six inches in 
diameter4    ,one moth lays from three  
to four hundred eggs1 depositing them   
over an  even surface4 ,in some species 
a gummy liquid sticks the eggs to the   
object upon which they are laid4 ,in the
 large cocoon varieties there  are full 
thirty thousand eggs in a single ounce  
avoirdupois4 ,it takes  from twenty-five
 hundred to three thousand cocoons to   

make a pound of  reeled silk4 ,do you   
wonder that1 centuries ago1 silk was    
valued at its  weight in gold8          
,growers of silk in the ,united ,states1
 by working early and late every  day   
during the season1 which lasts from six 
to eight weeks1 could  scarcely average 
fifteen cents for a day's labor of ten  
hours4 ,silk1  once regarded as a       
luxury1 is now considered a necessity4  
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,cocoon ,,is
 ,,unwound    ,,reeling ,,the ,,silk    
,,from ,,cocoons ,,by ,,foot ,,power1   
,,called 8,,re-,,reel0 ,,silk4    ,the  
cocoons are first assorted1 those of the
 same color being placed  by themselves1
 and those of fine and coarse texture   
likewise4 ,the  outside loose silk is   
then removed1 as this cannot be reeled1 
after  which the cocoons are plunged    
into warm water to soften the 8gum0     
which  sticks the threads together4 ,the
 operator brushes the cocoons with a    
small broom1 to the straws of which     
their fibers become attached1 and  then 

carefully unwinds the loose silk until  
each cocoon shows but one  thread4      
,these three operations are called      
8soaking10 8brushing10 and  8cleansing40
    ,into one or two compartments in a  
basin of warm water below the reel  are 
placed four or more cocoons1 according  
to the size of the thread  desired4 ,the
 threads from the cocoons in each       
compartment are gathered  together and1 
after passing through two separate      
perforated agates a  few inches above   
the surface of the water1 are brought   
together and  twisted around each other 
several times1 then separated and passed
  upward over the traverse guide-eyes to
 the reel4 ,the traverse moves  to and  
fro horizontally1 distributing the      
thread in a broad band over  the surface
 of the reel4 ,the rapid crossing of the
 thread from side to  side of the skein 
in reeling facilitates handling and     
unwinding without  tangling1 the natural
 gum of the silk sticking the threads to
 each  other on the arms of the reel1   

thus securing the traverse4 ,silk reeled
  by hand or foot power is known as     
8,re-reel0 silk1 while silk reeled by   
power machinery is called 8,filature40  
,illustration3 ,a ,,filature--,,reeling 
,,the ,,silk ,,from ,,cocoons ,,by      
,,power  ,,machinery4#b                 
,illustration3 ,,drying ,,skeins ,,of   
,,silk4    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,silk  
,,is ,,wound ,,on ,,spools    ,,winding 
,,frames--,,winding ,,the ,,silk ,,on   
,,bobbins4    ,,where ,,man',s ,,work   
,,on ,,the ,,silk ,,begins    ,the raw  
silk is first assorted1 according to the
 size of the fiber1 as  fine1 medium1   
and coarse4 ,the skeins are put into    
canvas bags and then  soaked over night 
in warm soapsuds4 ,this is necessary to 
soften the  natural gum in the silk1    
which had stuck the threads together on 
the  arms of the reel4 ,following the   
soaking1 the skeins are straightened    
out and hung across poles in a          
steam-heated room1 as shown in the      
accompanying photograph4 ,when the      

skeins are dry1 they are ready for  the 
first process of manufacturing4 ,the    
room we now step into is filled  with   
8winding frames10 each containing two   
long rows of 8swifts10  from which the  
silk is wound on to bobbins4 ,the       
bobbins are large  spools about three   
inches long4 ,the bobbins filled with   
silk1 as wound  from the skeins1 are    
next placed on pins of the 8doubling    
frames02  the thread from several       
bobbins1 according to the size of the   
silk  desired1 is passed upward through 
drop wires on to another bobbin4        
,should one of the threads break1 the   
8drop wire0 falls1 which action  stops  
the bobbin4 ,by this ingenious device   
absolute uniformity in the  size of silk
 is secured4 ,the 8doubling frame0 is   
shown in one of the  photographs        
herewith4    ,illustration3 ,,doubling  
,,frames--,,the ,,silk ,,thread ,,is    
,,made ,,uniform4    ,the bobbins taken 
from the 8doubling frame0 are next      
placed on a  8spinner40 ,driven by an   

endless belt at the rate of over six    
thousand  turns a minute1 the bobbins   
revolve1 the silk from them being drawn 
upward on to another bobbin4 ,this spins
 the several strands brought  together  
by the 8doubling process0 into one      
thread1 the number of turns  depending  
on the kind of silk--,filo silk being   
spun quite slack1 and  ,machine ,twist  
just the reverse4    ,illustration3     
,,spinning ,,silk4#b    ,illustration3  
,,twisting ,,silk4#b    ,a transferring 
machine combines two or three of these  
strands2 two for  sewing silk and three 
for machine twist2 and the bobbin next  
goes on  to the 8twisting machine0--a   
machine that is similar to a 8spinner10 
but the silk is twisted in the opposite 
direction from the spinning4 ,to  stand 
before these machines and watch how     
rapidly and how accurately  they do the 
work assigned them is a revelation4 ,no 
one realizes how  nicely the parts are  
adjusted4 ,if but one tiny strand breaks
 that  part of the machinery is stopped 

by an automatic device which works      
instantaneously4 ,after twisting1 the   
silk is stretched by an ingenious       
machine called a 8water-stretcher40     
,this smooths and consolidates the      
constituent fibers1 giving an evenness  
to the silk not to be obtained  by any  
other known process4 ,the bobbins are   
placed in water and the  silk is wound  
on to the lower of the two copper rolls4
 ,from the lower  roll it passes upward 
to the upper roll1 which turns faster   
than the  lower one1 thereby stretching 
the silk4 ,from the upper roll it passes
  again on to a bobbin4                 
,illustration3 ,,silk ,,threads ,,ready 
,,for ,,the ,,weaver    ,,water         
,,stretcher--,,making ,,the ,,silk      
,,thread ,,smooth4    ,the dyeing       
process is a very important one1 and    
upon its success  depends the permanency
 of the various colors4    ,vast tubs1  
tanks1 and kettles surround you on every
 side1 and the  hissing steam seems to  
spring from all quarters4 ,the 8gum0 of 

the silk  is first boiled out by        
immersion in strong soapsuds for about  
four  hours4 ,the attendants1 standing  
in heavy 8clogs0 7big shoes with wooden 
soles two inches thick71 turn the silk  
on the sticks at intervals  until the   
gum is removed4 ,after the silk is dyed 
it is put into a  8steam finisher10 a   
device looking like a long1 narrow box  
with a  cover opening on the side1 set  
upright on top of an iron cylinder4 ,the
  hanks of silk are placed upon two pins
 in the steam chest1 the cover          
fastened1 and the live steam rushes in  
around the silk4 ,this brightens  the   
silk1 giving it the lustrous1 glossy    
appearance4      ,the editors are       
indebted to the ,corticelli ,silk       
,mills1 ,florence1    ,mass41 for this  
story of how silk is made1 as well as   
for permission    to use their splendid 
life-like copyrighted photographs of the
    silkworm4 ,many teachers will be    
glad to know that they can obtain       
from the ,corticelli ,silk ,mills1 at   

slight expense1 specimen cocoons    and 
other helps for object lesson teaching4 
,what ,animal ,can ,leap the ,greatest  
,distance8      ,the galago1 or flying  
lemur4 ,this singular animal is a native
 of  the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,it is   
from #b ft4 to #c ft4 in length1 and is 
furnished with a sort of membrane on    
each side of its body connecting  its   
limbs with each other2 this is extended 
and acts as a parachute  while taking   
its long leaps1 which measure about #cjj
 ft4 in an inclined  plane4 ,the        
kangaroo can leap with ease a distance  
of between #fj ft4 and  #gj ft4 and can 
spring clean over a horse and take      
fences from #ab ft4 to  #ad ft4 in      
height4 ,the animals that can leap the  
greatest distance in  proportion to     
their size are the flea and the         
grasshopper1 the former  being able to  
leap over an obstacle five hundred times
 its own height1  while the grasshopper 
can leap for a distance measuring #bjj  
times its  own length4 ,the springbok   

will clear from #cj ft4 to #dj ft4 at a 
single  bound4 ,the flying squirrel1 in 
leaping from tree to tree often clears  
#ej ft4 in a leap4 ,this animal also has
 a broad fold of skin or membrane       
connecting its fore and hind legs4 ,a   
steeplechase horse1 called ,the         
,chandler1 is reported to have covered  
#ci ft4 in a single leap at  ,warwick   
some years ago4 ,some species of        
antelopes can make a leap #cf  ft4 in   
length and #aj ft4 in height4 ,a lion   
and a tiger each clear from  #ah ft4 to 
over #bj ft4 at a bound while springing 
on their prey4 ,a  salmon often leaps   
#ae ft4 out of the water in ascending   
the falls of  rivers4          ,why ,do 
,we ,call ,voting ,balloting8      ,the 
term covers all forms of secret voting1 
as in early times such  votes were      
determined by balls of different colors 
deposited in the  same box1 or balls of 
one color placed in various boxes4 ,the 
,greeks  used shells 7ostrakon71 whence 
we derive the term ostracism4 ,in #aci  

,b4,c4 the ,romans voted by tickets4    
,the ballot was first used in ,america  
in #afbi1 when the ,salem ,church thus  
chose a pastor4 ,it was employed in  the
 ,netherlands in the same year1 but was 
not established in ,england  until      
#ahgb1 although in ,scotland it was used
 in cases of ostracism in  the #agth    
century4 ,in #afcd the governor of      
,massachusetts was elected by  ballot1  
and the constitutions of ,pennsylvania1 
,new ,jersey and ,north  ,carolina      
adopted in #aggf1 made this method of   
voting obligatory4 ,the  ballot         
progressed slowly in the ,southern      
,states1 ,kentucky retaining the  viva  
voce method until a comparatively recent
 date4 ,in certain states1  the         
constitutions stipulate that the        
legislature shall vote viva voce1  i4   
e41 cast their votes orally4 ,since     
#ahge all congressmen have been  elected
 by ballot4 ,in #ahhh the ,australian   
ballot system1 which requires  the names
 of all the candidates for the various  

offices to be placed  on one large sheet
 of paper1 commonly known as a 8blanket0
 ticket1 was  adopted in ,louisville1   
,ky41 and some sections of              
,massachusetts4 ,it is  now in very     
general use in this country4 ,the voter1
 in the privacy of  an individual booth1
 indicates his preference by making a   
mark opposite  a party emblem or a      
candidate's name4 ,this system          
originated in #ahea  with ,francis ,s4  
,dutton1 of ,south ,australia1 and      
,henry ,george1 in a  pamphlet1         
8,english ,elections10 published in     
#ahhb1 was the first to  advocate it in 
the ,united ,states4 ,the first bill    
enacting it into a law  here was        
introduced in the ,michigan legislature 
in #ahhg1 but it did not  pass until    
#ahhi4          ,why ,do ,we ,call a    
,cab a ,hansom8      ,the term is       
applied usually to a public vehicle1    
known in ,england as  a 8two-wheeler10  
or 8,hansom0 7from the name of the      
inventor71 and  drawn by one horse4 ,in 

a hansom cab1 the passenger or hirer of 
the  vehicle sits immediately in rear of
 the dashboard1 the driver sitting  on  
an elevated perch behind1 the reins     
being passed over the top4 ,the  term   
cab is sometimes also applied to a      
four-seated1 closed or open  carriage1  
drawn by one or two horses1 the driver  
sitting in front4 ,the  term is also    
applied to the covered part of a        
locomotive1 in which the  engineer and  
fireman have their stations4 ,the word  
cab is derived from  the cabriolet1 a   
light one-horse carriage1 with two seats
 and a calash  top4 ,in ,london1        
,england1 the cab or hansom was called  
the 8gondola0 of  the ,british          
metropolis by ,disraeli4          ,where
 ,did the ,name ,calico ,come ,from8    
,a fabric of cotton cloth1 the name     
being derived from the city of          
,calicut1 in ,madras1 where it was first
 manufactured1 and in #afca  brought to 
,england by the ,east ,india ,company4  
,calico-printing1 an  ancient ,indian   

and ,chinese art1 has become a great    
industry in this  country and in        
,britain1 as well as in ,holland4       
,who ,made the ,first ,postage ,stamp8  
,the stick on postage stamps so         
generally used today was invented by  an
 ,englishman ,james ,chalmers in #ahcd4 
,the ,english ,government passed a  bill
 calling for uniform postage of ,one    
,penny in #ahdj and furnished  envelopes
 bearing stamps printed on them4 ,the   
people did not like them1  however1 and 
the adhesive stamp invented by ,chalmers
 was substituted4  ,the first stamps    
used in ,america were introduced in     
#ahdg4 ,people have1  it seems1 always  
preferred to lick their postage stamps4 
,how ,many ,languages ,are ,there8      
,it is said that there are more than    
#c1djj languages1 including  dialects1  
in the world4 ,most of them belong1 of  
course1 to savage  or uncivilized       
people4 ,there are said to be more than 
#ijj languages  used in ,asia1 almost   
#fjj in ,europe1 #bge in ,africa and    

more than #a1fjj  languages and dialects
 which are ,american4          ,what ,is
 the ,deepest ,mine ,in the ,world8     
,the mine that goes farther down than   
any other in the world is the rock  salt
 mine near ,berlin1 ,germany which is   
#d1age feet4 ,it is not1 however1       
straight down but somewhat slanting4    
,the ,calumet ,copper ,mine near ,lake  
,superior is at a depth in some places  
of #c1ijj feet4    ,the deepest boring  
in the world is an artesian well at     
,potsdam1  ,missouri1 which is #e1ejj   
feet deep or more than one mile straight
 down4          ,what ,is ,color8       
,,what ,,produces ,,the ,,colors ,,we   
,,see8    ,what is termed the           
color-sense is the power or ability to  
distinguish  kinds or varieties of light
 and their distinctive tints4 ,we owe   
the  faculty of doing this to the       
structure of the eye and its elaborate  
connecting nerve machinery4 ,the eye in 
man is specially sensitive to  light1   
and the sensations we feel through it   

enables us to distinguish  the different
 colors4 ,over #a1jjj monochromatic     
tints are said to  be distinguishable by
 the retina of the eye1 though these    
numerous  tints are1 in the main1 merely
 blendings or combinations of the three 
primary color-sensations1 the sense of  
red1 of green and of violet4  ,each of  
these colors1 it has been demonstrated1 
is produced by light  of a varying wave 
length1 while white light is only light 
in which the  primary colors are        
combined in proper proportion4 ,colored 
light1 on the  other hand1 as ,newton   
proved1 may be produced from white light
 in one  of three ways3 ,first1 by      
refraction in a prism or lens1 as       
observed in  the rainbow2 second1 by    
diffraction1 as in the blue color of the
 sky1  or in the tints seen in          
mother-of-pearl2 and third1 by          
absorption1  as in the red color of a   
brick wall1 or in the green of          
grass--the  white light which falls upon
 the wall being wholly absorbed1 save by

  the red1 and all that falls upon the  
grass being absorbed except the  green4 
,in art1 color means that combination or
 modification of tints  which is        
specially suited to produce a particular
 or desired effect in  painting2 in     
music1 the term denotes a particular    
interpretation which  illustrates the   
physical analogy between sound and      
color4          ,where ,did the ,term   
,dixie ,originate8      ,the term was   
applied originally to ,new ,york ,city  
when slavery existed  there4 ,according 
to a myth or legend1 a person named     
,dixie owned a  tract of land on        
,manhattan ,island and had a large      
number of slaves4 ,as  ,dixie's slaves  
increased beyond the requirements of the
 plantation1  many were sent to distant 
parts4 ,naturally the deported negroes  
looked  upon their early home as a place
 of real and abiding happiness1 as did  
those from the 8,ole ,virginny0 of later
 days4 ,hence 8,dixie0 became the       
synonym for a locality where the negroes

 were happy and contented4 ,in  the     
,south1 ,dixie is taken to mean the     
,southern ,states4 ,there the word  is  
supposed to have been derived from      
,mason and ,dixon's line1 formerly      
dividing the free states from the slave 
states4 ,it is said to have  first come 
into use there when ,texas joined the   
,union1 and the negroes  sang of it as  
,dixie4 ,it has been the theme of       
several popular songs1  notably that of 
,albert ,pike1 8,southrons1 ,hear ,your 
,country ,call02 that  of ,t4 ,m4       
,cooley1 8,away ,down ,south where      
,grows the ,cotton10 and that  of ,dan  
,emmett1 the refrain usually containing 
the word 8,dixie0 or the  words         
8,dixie's ,land40 ,during the ,civil    
,war1 the tune of 8,dixie0 was to  the  
,southern people what 8,yankee ,doodle0 
had always been to the people  of the   
whole ,union and what it continued1 in  
war times1 to be to the  ,northern      
people1 the comic national air4 ,the    
tune is 8catchy0 to the  popular ear and

 it was played by the bands in the      
,union army during  the war as freely as
 by those on the other side4 ,during the
 rejoicing  in ,washington over the     
surrender of ,lee at ,appomattox1 a band
 played  8,dixie0 in front of the ,white
 ,house4 ,president ,lincoln began a    
short  speech1 immediately afterward1   
with the remark1 8,that tune fairly     
belongs to us now2 we've captured it40  
,how ,big ,is the ,earth8      ,the     
third planet in order of distance from  
the sun1 ,mercury and ,venus  being     
nearer to it4 ,it is in shape a sphere  
slightly flattened at the  poles and    
bulged at the equator1 hence it is      
called an oblate spheroid4  ,the        
equatorial diameter or axis measures    
#g1ibf miles and #a4jda yds41  and the  
polar diameter is #g1hii miles and      
#a4jbc yds4 ,the earth revolves  upon   
its axis1 completing its diurnal or     
daily revolution in a sidereal  day1    
which is #c minutes and #ee4i seconds   
shorter than a mean solar day4  ,it     

revolves around the sun in one sidereal 
year1 which is #cfe days1 #f  hours1 #i 
minutes1 and #i seconds4 ,its orbit or  
path around the sun is an  ellipse1     
having the sun in one of the foci4 ,the 
earth's mean distance  from the sun is  
#ic1jjj1jjj miles4 ,its axis is inclined
 to the plane  of its orbit at an angle 
of #bc #bg #ab4fh4 ,the circumference at
 the  equator measures #bd1hii miles4   
,the total surface is #aif1ijj1bgh sq4  
miles1 and the solid contents is        
#bfj1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic miles4 ,as we    
descend into the earth the temperature  
rises at the rate of #a ,fahr4  for     
every #ej ft4 ,at the depth of #aj or   
#ab miles the earth is red-hot1  and at 
a depth of #ajj miles the temperature is
 such that at the surface  of the earth 
it would liquefy all solid matter in the
 earth4          ,what ,causes ,hail8   
,hail is the name given to the small    
masses of ice which fall in  showers1   
and which are called hailstones4 ,when a
 hailstone is examined  it is found     

usually to consist of a central nucleus 
of compact snow1  surrounded by         
successive layers of ice and snow4 ,hail
 falls chiefly in  ,spring and ,summer1 
and often accompanies a thunderstorm4   
,hailstones  are formed by the gradual  
rise and fall1 through different degrees
 of  temperature 7by the action of      
windstorms71 and they then take on a    
covering of ice or frozen snow1         
according as they are carried through a 
region of rain or snow4    ,with regard 
to rain1 it may be said1 in popular     
language1 that under  the influence of  
solar heat1 water is constantly rising  
into the air by  evaporation from the   
surface of the sea1 lakes1 rivers1 and  
the moist  surface of the ground4 ,of   
the vapors thus formed the greater part 
is  returned to the earth as rain4 ,the 
moisture1 originally invisible1  first  
makes its appearance as cloud1 mist or  
fog2 and under certain  atmospheric     
conditions the condensation proceeds    
still further until  the moisture falls 

to the earth as rain4 ,simply and       
briefly1 then1 rain  is caused by the   
cooling of the air charged with         
moisture4          ,why ,does a ,human  
,being ,have ,to ,learn to ,swim8       
,it is strange1 isn't it1 that almost   
every animal1 excepting man and         
possibly the monkey1 knows how to swim  
naturally2 others such as birds1        
horses1 dogs1 cows1 elephants1 can swim 
as soon as they can move about  alone4  
,the trouble with man in this connection
 is that his natural motion is          
climbing4 ,he has been a climber ever   
since he was developed from the  monkey1
 and when you throw him into the water  
before he has learned to  swim1 he      
naturally starts to climb and as a      
climbing motion won't do1  for swimming1
 the man will drown4    ,this climbing  
motion is as much of an instinct in man 
and monkeys as  the instinct in dogs    
which causes him to turn round once or  
twice  before he lies down just as his  
forefathers used to do ages ago when1   

as wild dogs1 they first had to trample 
the grass before they could lie  down   
comfortably4          ,why ,do ,i ,get  
,cold in a ,warm ,room8      ,i suppose 
you mean the instances when you get cold
 while in a warm room  even when you are
 perfectly well4 ,this will happen often
 when all of  the moisture in the room  
outside of what is in your body1 is     
evaporated  by the heat in the room4    
,the remedy is1 of course1 to keep a pan
 of  water some place in the room as the
 air has become too dry4    ,while heat 
is necessary to evaporate water1 the    
process of evaporation  produces cold4  
,the quicker the evaporation the sharper
 the cold feeling  produced4 ,now your  
body is continually evaporating the     
water from your  body which comes out in
 the form of perspiration through the   
pores of  the skin4 ,this is one of     
nature's ways of taking the impurities  
and  waste out of the body4 ,you know1  
of course1 don't you1 that more than    
one-half the waste material which the   

body expels from the system comes  out  
through the pores of the skin rather    
than through the canals4    ,when the   
air in the room becomes too dry1 the    
evaporation on the  outside of the body 
proceeds faster and makes you cold4 ,by 
keeping  water in some vessel in the    
room you keep the air of the room from  
becoming too dry4          ,why ,do     
,they ,call ,them ,wisdom ,teeth8       
,the wisdom teeth are the two last molar
 teeth to grow4 ,they come one  on each 
side of the jaw and arrive somewhere    
between the ages of  twenty and         
twenty-five years4 ,the name is given   
them because it is  supposed that when a
 person has developed physically and    
mentally to  the point where he has     
secured these last two teeth he has also
 arrived  at the age of discretion4 ,it 
does not necessarily mean that one who  
has cut his wisdom teeth is wise1 but   
that having lived long enough  to grow  
these1 which complete the full set of   
teeth1 the person has  passed sufficient

 actual years that1 if he has done what 
he should to  fit himself for life1 he  
should have come by that time at the age
 of  discretion or wisdom4 ,as a matter 
of fact these teeth grow at about the   
same age in people whether they are wise
 or not4          ,what ,makes ,freckles
 ,come8      ,freckles are generally    
caused by the exposure of unprotected   
parts of  the body to the sun1 but this 
will not cause freckles on all people4  
,only people with certain kinds of      
sensitive skins freckle4 ,what happens  
when freckles are produced in this way  
is this3 ,the sunlight shining on  the  
face1 neck or arms of anyone who has a  
tendency to freckle1 has a  peculiar    
action on certain cells of the skin     
which produces a yellowish  brown       
coloring pigment1 which remains for a   
time4    ,then again the skins of some  
people are so peculiarly sensitive the  
cells develop this kind of coloring     
matter in almost any kind of light  and 
such people are1 so to speak1 apt to be 

freckled for life4    ,illustration3    
,first successful power-driven          
aeroplane4 ,the ,langley  monoplane with
 steam engine1 which flew over the      
,potomac ,river in #ahif4          ,the 
,flying ,boat      ,when ,did ,man      
,first ,try to ,fly8    ,,how ,,man     
,,learned ,,to ,,fly    ,man's desire to
 conquer the air is older than recorded 
history4 ,when a  kite was flown for the
 first time the principle of aviation1  
or dynamic  flight1 was uncovered4 ,for 
centuries man has sought the mechanical 
equivalents for the things that keep a  
kite flying steadily in the  air1--the  
power that lies in the cord that keeps a
 kite headed into the  wind2 an         
equivalent for the wind's own power2 an 
equivalent for the  tail which controls 
the kite's lateral and longitudinal     
balance4    ,each separate part of the  
modern flying machine1 or aeroplane1 was
  worked out long ago1 with the         
exception of the gas engine light enough
  and reliable enough to be used for    

this work4 ,the present generation      
knows dynamic flight as a commonplace   
thing1 not because we are so much  more 
clever than previous generations in     
designing flying machines1  but because 
of the development of the modern        
gasoline or internal  combustion engine4
      ,who ,invented ,flying8    ,no one
 invented flying1 nor did any one man   
invent all the separate  parts of the   
flying machine4 ,they are the result of 
evolution1--of the  combined work and   
thought of hundreds of men1 many of     
whose names are  unrecorded4 ,to attempt
 to find the true beginning of the      
modern flying  machine would be as      
difficult as attempting to discover who 
planted  the seed of the tree from which
 one has gathered a rose4 ,but the tree 
from which all the flying machines1 or  
aeroplanes1 of today have sprung        
undoubtedly is ,dr4 ,samuel ,pierpont   
,langley1 third secretary of the        
,smithsonian ,institution4      ,some of
 the ,men ,who ,helped4    ,taking the  

most conspicuous names of scientists who
 worked out various  details of the     
aeroplane during the past century we    
find that a century  ago ,sir ,george   
,cayley built a machine on lines very   
similar to those  accepted today1 and he
 went so far as to foretell the         
necessity of  developing the internal   
combustion engine before dynamic flight 
could  be a success4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,h4       
,wenham1 in #ahff1 also built a flying  
machine  along conventional lines and   
tried to fly it with a steam engine1    
which  of course1 proved too heavy4     
,illustration3 ,one of ,dr4 ,langley's  
first models2 a biplane with  flexible  
wing-tips and twin propellers4 #ahhi4   
,,early ,,types ,,of ,,flying ,,machines
    ,m4 ,a4 ,penaud1 a ,frenchman1 in   
experimenting with models1 seems to have
  been the first to discover the        
necessity of vertical and horizontal    
rudders in maintaining balance4 ,mr4    
,horatio ,phillips1 an ,englishman1     
discovered1 and patented1 the use of    

curved instead of flat surfaces  for the
 planes4 ,otto and ,gustav ,lilienthal  
are said to have been the  first to     
attempt to balance aeroplanes by flexing
 or bending the wings4  ,various others1
 including ,messrs4 ,richard ,harte1    
,boulton1 ,mouillard1  worked out ideas 
for balancing machines by the use of    
auxiliary planes  which could be set at 
different angles with regard to the line
 of  flight1 thus forcing the machines  
to different positions by the force  of 
the air rushing against them4    ,dr4   
,langley1 trained in scientific         
investigation1 conducted an  elaborate  
series of experiments covering many     
years and costing  thousands of dollars 
to test and prove the value of the      
claims of  the earlier investigators4   
,some things which he thought he was    
the first to discover1--such as the     
effect of the vertical and  horizontal  
rudders1--he later found had already    
been proven by others4  ,independently  
he covered the entire field of          

experiment and after  building hundreds 
of small models he succeeded1 in #ahif1 
in making a  machine weighing several   
pounds equipped with a very light steam 
engine  which flew safely as long as the
 fuel lasted4 ,for his early experiments
  ,dr4 ,langley was afforded financial  
assistance by ,mr4 ,william ,thaw of    
,pittsburg4 ,after the success of his   
small machines ,dr4 ,langley was  asked 
to undertake the construction of a      
large1 man-carrying machine1  and       
,congress voted him #ej1jjj to carry on 
the work4 ,a large share of  this was   
spent on the development of a very light
 gasoline engine4 ,the  machine finally 
was completed1 but was twice broken     
through defective  launching apparatus4 
,congress and ,dr4 ,langley were so     
ridiculed by the  public press that the 
machine was temporarily abandoned4 ,not1
 however1  until after ,dr4 ,langley had
 successfully flown a steam driven      
machine  much larger than many of the   
racing aeroplanes of today4    ,but     

eight years after ,dr4 ,langley's death1
 which is said to have been  due to the 
heart-breaking disappointment he        
suffered in trying to  demonstrate the  
large machine1 ,glenn ,h4 ,curtiss1 at  
the request of the  ,smithsonian        
,institution1 rebuilt the old ,langley  
machine and succeeded  in making a      
flight with it at ,hammondsport1 ,n4    
,y41 on ,may #bh1 #aiad4                
,illustration3 ,,the ,,first            
,,man-,,carrying ,,aeroplane    ,first  
successful man-carrying aeroplane4      
,designed by ,dr4 ,langley in  #ahih2   
flown by ,glenn ,h4 ,curtiss at         
,hammondsport1 ,n4 ,y41 #aiad4          
,illustration3 ,front view of big       
,langley machine in #aiad4    ,while    
longer flights probably will be made    
with this machine none  will attain     
greater importance1 because this first  
flight with it was  sufficient to       
establish for all time the fact that    
,dr4 ,langley built  the first          
man-carrying machine equipped with a    

gasoline engine and able  to fly and    
raise itself with its own power4 ,this  
was considerably  more than was         
accomplished by other machines for some 
time after ,dr4  ,langley's death4 ,the 
,langley machine not only lifted the    
weight it was  designed to fly with1 but
 also carried pontoon and other         
fittings1  added by ,mr4 ,curtiss to    
make flight from the water possible1    
which  added #cdj pounds to the original
 weight of the machine4                 
,illustration3 ,,the ,,machine ,,with   
,,which ,,bleriot ,,flew ,,in ,,europe  
,copy of early ,langley model with which
 ,bleriot made first circular  flight in
 ,europe4    ,the connection between    
,dr4 ,langley's work and present        
machines is now  very easy to trace1    
though not obvious until #aiaa1 when the
 ,smithsonian  ,institution published   
memoirs written by ,dr4 ,langley in     
#ahig1 and  some memoirs of ,mr4 ,octave
 ,chanute1 a ,french engineer who       
resided in  ,chicago1 and who forms one 

of the main connecting links4 ,the chain
  is practically completed by notes left
 by the late ,lieut4 ,thomas            
,selfridge1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,america's     
first martyr to aviation4    ,dr4       
,langley's knowledge is represented in  
modern aviation by three  distinct      
lines4 ,the central and most direct line
 is through ,dr4  ,alexander ,graham    
,bell1 inventor of the telephone1 to the
 ,aerial  ,experiment ,association1 and 
thence to ,mr4 ,glenn ,h4 ,curtiss1 and 
finds  its expression in what is known  
as the ,curtiss type of machines4       
,another line is that carried by a ,mr4 
,a4 ,m4 ,herring to ,mr4 ,chanute and   
by him transmitted to ,mr4 ,wilbur      
,wright1 finding expression in the      
,wright type of biplane4    ,the third  
line is that leading to the modern      
monoplane school2 ,m4  ,bleriot having  
first copied in toto the tandem         
monoplane form1  generally known as the 
,langley type1 and later1 with the      
development of  better gasoline engines1

 developing into the monoplane as known 
today4    ,with the exception of ,m4    
,bleriot it is doubtful if the others   
fully  realized the source of their     
inspiration1--not to call it            
information4    ,dr4 ,bell was          
interested in ,dr4 ,langley's work for  
more than ten years  before ,dr4        
,langley gave up4 ,he observed many of  
the trials1 and his  reports of the     
first successful flights are            
incorporated in the  official           
publications of the ,smithsonian        
,institution4 ,dr4 ,bell began  some    
independent experiments1 but following  
,dr4 ,langley's death he  formed the    
,aerial ,experiment ,association1 to    
carry on the work left by  ,dr4         
,langley4 ,the members of this          
organization were1 ,mr4 ,curtiss1 at    
that time the most successful builder of
 light motors2 ,lieut4 ,thomas  ,h4     
,selfridge1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a42 ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4   
,d4 ,mc,curdy and ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,baldwin1
 two  young ,canadian engineers4 ,mrs4  

,bell financed the project1 furnishing  
the sum of #ce1jjj for the experiments4 
,,what ,,two ,,brothers ,,accomplished  
,,for ,,flying    ,the ,wright          
,brothers1 for ,wilbur ,wright was      
joined by his brother  ,orville in the  
experiments1 were the first to reap     
success from the  seeds of ,dr4         
,langley's sowing4 ,mr4 ,chanute had    
been experimenting  with a biplane form 
of motorless glider with little success1
 because  of lack of means for balancing
 the machines in the air1 until he was  
joined by a former employe of ,dr4      
,langley4 ,he appears to have imparted  
to ,mr4 ,chanute the secret of the      
stabilizing effect of the ,penaud  tail1
 or combination of vertical and         
horizontal rudders4 ,thereafter         
hundreds of successful gliding flights  
were made with the ,chanute  biplane1   
though ,chanute seems not to have       
grasped the full significance  of the   
rudders1--though it was well understood 
by ,dr4 ,langley4 ,to  the ,chanute     

machine1 as described to him1 ,mr4      
,wright added first the  idea of flexing
 or warping the wings1 after the fashion
 set by the  ,lilienthals4 ,he found1   
however1 as ,dr4 ,langley had found     
years before1  that in attempting to    
correct lateral balance in this way     
caused the  aeroplane to swerve to such 
an extent that the fixed vertical       
rudder1  as originally employed1 did not
 correct the upsetting tendency that was
  developed4 ,mr4 ,wright then arranged 
his rudder in such a way that when  the 
wing was warped the rudder turned in a  
way to offset the swerve4  ,this        
combination was patented all over the   
world and has resulted in  much         
complicated litigation4    ,to this     
machine the ,wright ,brothers added a   
gasoline motor in ,december1  #aijc1 and
 with it made numerous flights during   
#aijd-e4 ,their claims  were not        
generally credited however until a later
 date for their  experiments had been   
conducted with considerable secrecy1 and

 during  #aijf1 #aijg and until late in 
#aijh they did no more flying4    ,in   
the meantime ,m4 ,bleriot had made a    
copy of one of the early ,langley       
tandem monoplane models and made some   
fairly successful flights with it  in   
,europe4 ,later1 as gasoline motors     
developed in power for weight1 he       
reduced the rear surface until the      
modern monoplane evolved4    ,while     
,bleriot was working in ,europe1 ,dr4   
,bell's ,aerial ,experiment             
,association in ,america was evolving   
still another type of machine1 and  the 
members of the association made the     
first successful public flights  in     
,america4 ,mr4 ,curtiss won the         
,scientific ,american ,trophy for the   
first time on ,july #dth1 #aijh1 by a   
straightaway flight of more than a      
kilometer4 ,the balancing system        
employed by the ,a4 ,e4 ,a4 differed    
from  that employed by the ,wrights and 
by ,bleriot in that small auxiliary     
planes took the place of warping planes 

for righting the machine4 ,this  they   
claimed to be a superior method1 first1 
because it eliminated the  use of the   
rudder as being absolutely essential to 
the balance of the  machine2 second1    
because it enabled them to make the main
 planes rigid  throughout1 and          
consequently stronger than the flexible 
planes4    ,there are several other     
names that must be mentioned in         
connection  with the early history of   
successful flight2 these are the        
,frenchmen1  ,messrs4 ,henri ,farman1   
,maurice ,farman1 the brothers ,voisin1 
and ,santos  ,dumont4 ,these produced   
some of the first notably successful    
aeroplanes  in ,europe but seem to have 
discovered nothing which has had any    
marked  effect upon the later           
development of flying machines4 ,m4     
,farman adopted  the auxiliary planes   
used by the ,a4 ,e4 ,a4 and modified    
them to suit his  ideas4    ,,wonderful 
,,records ,,of ,,aeroplanes    ,volumes 
could be1 in fact1 have been written    

about the exploits of  the first        
demonstrators of the practical          
heavier-than-air flying  machines1--of  
the crossing of the ,english ,channel by
 ,bleriot1 of the  flights by ,wilbur   
,wright at ,rheims1 ,france2 of ,mr4    
,curtiss' winning of  the first ,gordon 
,bennet ,international speed trophy and 
his flight down  the ,hudson from       
,albany to ,new ,york2 of ,orville      
,wright's flight at ,fort  ,meyer1 and  
the death of ,lieut4 ,selfridge who was 
flying with him4 ,the  barest record of 
these interesting accomplishments would 
fill volumes4  ,of the aeroplane proper 
it is enough to say here that since     
#aijh its  development has been too     
rapid for accurate recording4 ,in       
strength1 in  speed1 in reliability1 in 
size and carrying capacity1 it has      
developed  at a remarkable rate4 ,at    
this writing the speed record is about  
#acj  miles per hour2 the duration      
record is more than #bd hours1 non-stop2
  the distance record is some #a1cjj    

miles in one day2 the altitude record   
some #bf1jjj feet4 ,new records succeed 
the old ones with such rapidity  that   
probably before this can be printed all 
these present records will  have been   
greatly eclipsed4    ,illustration3     
,,aeroplane 8,,red ,,wing0              
,,hammondsport1 ,n4,y4      ,,first     
,,american ,,public ,,flight1 ,,mar #ab 
#aijh    ,illustration3 ,the biplane in 
which ,g4 ,h4 ,curtiss flew from ,albany
 to  ,new ,york in #aiaj4    ,meantime  
the aeroplane has developed greatly in  
other directions4 ,in  flying over land 
with the early types of machines many   
fatal accidents  occurred1 particularly 
to the fliers who gave exhibitions      
everywhere  during #aiji1 #aiaj and     
#aiaa4 ,a majority of these accidents   
were  indirectly due to the fact that a 
very smooth surface is required for     
landing a fragile machine running at    
high speed4 ,the obvious expedient  was 
to develop machines capable of rising   
from and alighting upon the  water4     

,illustration3 ,,some ,,famous ,,foreign
 ,,monoplanes    ,a modern ,german      
monoplane4    ,illustration3 ,the       
machine in which ,bleriot crossed the   
,english ,channel  in #aiji4 ,a modified
 ,langley type4    ,illustration3       
,rolland ,garros and monoplane in which 
he flew across the  ,mediterranean ,sea 
in #aiad4    ,,the ,,wonderful ,,flying 
,,boat    ,during the winter of #aiaj   
and #aiaa ,mr4 ,curtiss1 who had        
continued  independent experiments upon 
the disbandment of the ,aerial          
,experiment  ,association1 succeeded in 
producing the first machine to safely   
leave  and return to the water4 ,for the
 development and demonstration of  this 
type of flying machine he was awarded   
the ,aero ,club of ,america  ,trophy1   
and when during #aiab he produced still 
another type of water  flying machine1  
the ,curtiss ,flying ,boat1 he was again
 awarded the ,aero  ,club ,trophy and   
also voted a ,langley ,medal by the     
directors of the  ,smithsonian          

,institution4    ,illustration3         
,different views of flying boat4    ,not
 until the development of the flying    
boat did the general public  begin to   
take a participative interest in        
aviation1 but as soon as the            
comparative safety of this type of      
machine became apparent the new  sport  
began to be taken up rapidly both in    
this country and in ,europe4  ,the      
experiences of naval fliers and amateurs
 alike went to show that  water flying  
offered not only the fastest and most   
comfortable mode  of rapid travel1 but  
also the safest1 for during #aiac       
several hundred  thousand miles were    
flown by navy aviators and amateur      
enthusiasts in  ,curtiss water flying   
machines without a single serious       
accident4    ,what aviation will mean to
 future generations1--even to this      
generation  in the course of a few      
years1--it would be foolhardy to try to 
guess4  ,mr4 ,rodman ,wanamaker already 
has agreed to furnish the financial     

support for ,mr4 ,curtiss' attempt to   
build a machine to fly across the       
,atlantic ,ocean1 from ,america to      
,europe4 ,if the venture is successful  
it  is expected the crossing will be    
made in a fraction of the time taken  by
 the fastest ,transatlantic liners4 ,the
 discovery of new metals and  new       
manufacturing methods will certainly    
result in the development of  light     
motors that may be relied upon to run   
for days without stopping1  and         
automatically stable aeroplanes seem to 
be not far away4 ,this will  result in  
overland flight as safe and sure as we  
now enjoy over water4    ,illustration3 
,,inside ,,of ,a ,,modern ,,flying      
,,boat    ,interior arrangement of      
modern flying boat1 showing fuel tank   
and  instrument board4    ,illustration3
 ,six-passenger flying boat hull4 ,this 
machine will fly  #a1jjj miles without  
stopping for fuel4    ,illustration3    
,,fun ,,in ,a ,,flying ,,boat    ,flying
 at speed of a mile a minute4           

,illustration3 ,monoplane flying boat1  
built for ,r4 ,v4 ,morris4              
,illustration3 ,in a flying boat on     
pleasure bent4    ,,greatest ,,present  
,,value ,,of ,,aeroplane    ,at present 
the greatest value of the aeroplane     
seems to be for  military reconnaissance
 and all the great powers are striving  
their  utmost to secure supremacy in the
 air4 ,france1 ,germany1 ,russia and    
,england have to date spent millions in 
developing aeroplane fleets4  ,only the 
government of the ,united ,states has   
failed as yet to  appreciate the        
military significance of the flying     
machine4 ,if the  relative aeronautical 
strength of the world's nations were    
represented  alphabetically the ,u4 ,s4 
would naturally scarce have to change   
its  initial1 ,u being slightly in      
advance of ,z which would stand for     
,zululand4 ,but even with its modest    
equipment the navy fliers of the        
,united ,states proved the great worth  
of the aeroplane and the flying  boat1  

when during the recent trouble in       
,mexico the air scouts gathered  in a   
few minutes information that could only 
have been secured by days  of cavalry   
scouting before the advent of the flying
 machine4 ,indeed1  the name of ,lieut4 
,p4 ,n4 ,l4 ,bellinger1 the most able of
 the naval  fliers at ,vera ,cruz1 has  
figured more prominently in the         
despatches  from the front than that of 
any other officer connected with the    
expedition4    ,flying seems certain in 
the very near future to take its place  
as the  fastest1 safest and most        
comfortable mode of conveyance4 ,the    
flying  boat will render quickly        
accessible the vast country lying along 
the  great rivers of ,south ,america1   
,africa1 and ,australia2 it will bridge 
the great lakes and the oceans2 bring   
near together the islands of the        
,pacific and ,indian oceans4 ,it will   
make imperative1 because of the  speed  
with which distances will be traversed1 
of a language common  to all peoples2   

and treble man's life without extending 
his years by  making it possible to see 
and do three times as much in the same  
length  of time4    ,,ten ,,years ,,of  
,,flying    ,ten years ago on that day1 
,december #ag1 #aiac1 ,wilbur and       
,orville ,wright  made four flights on  
the coast of ,north ,carolina near      
,roanoke ,island1  a spot historic in   
,america's history as the site of the   
first ,english  settlement in the       
,western ,hemisphere4    ,illustration3 
,flying over military post in ,curtiss  
biplane4    ,the first flight started   
from level ground against a #bg-mile    
wind4  ,after a run of #dj feet on a    
monorail track1 the machine lifted and  
covered a distance of #abj feet over the
 ground in #ab seconds4 ,it had  a speed
 through the air of a little over #de   
feet per second1 and the  flight1 if    
made in calm air1 would have covered a  
distance of over #edj  feet4            
,altogether four flights were made on   
the #agth4 ,the first and third by      

,orville ,wright1 the second and fourth 
by ,wilbur ,wright4 ,the last flight    
was the longest1 covering a distance of 
#heb feet over the ground in #ei        
seconds4 ,after the fourth flight1 a    
gust of wind struck the machine         
standing on the ground and rolled it    
over1 injuring it to an extent  that    
made further flights with it impossible 
for that year4    ,illustration3        
#aijj      #aija      #aijb      #aije  
#aijd      #aijc    ,the gliding        
experiments of ,lilienthal in #ahif led 
the ,wright ,brothers  to become        
interested in flight4 ,the next four    
years were spent in  reading and        
theorizing4 ,in the ,fall of #aijj      
practical experiments were  begun with a
 man-carrying glider4 ,these experiments
 were carried on  from the sand hills   
near ,kitty ,hawk1 ,north ,carolina4    
,the first glider  was without a tail1  
the lateral equilibrium and the right   
and left  steering were obtained by     
warping of the main surfaces4 ,a        

flexible  forward elevator was used4    
,this machine was flown as a kite with  
and  without operator1 and several      
glides were made with it4    ,a second  
machine was designed of larger size1 and
 many glides were  made with it in      
#aija4 ,this machine was similar to the 
one of #aijj but  had slightly deeper   
curved surfaces4 ,experiments with this 
machine  demonstrated the inaccuracy of 
all the recognized tables of air        
pressures1 upon which its design had    
been based4    ,in #aijb a third glider 
was constructed1 based upon tables of   
air  pressures made by the ,wright      
,brothers themselves4 ,the lateral      
control  was maintained by warping      
surfaces1 and a vertical rear rudder    
operated  in conjunction with the       
surfaces4 ,nearly a thousand gliding    
flights  were made with this machine4   
,in #aijc1 the ,wright ,brothers        
designed a machine to be driven with a  
motor4 ,they also designed and built    
their own motor4 ,this had four         

horizontal cylinders1 #d in4 by #d in41 
and developed #ab h4p4 ,two  propellers1
 turning in opposite directions1 were   
driven by chains from  the engine4      
,after many delays the machine was      
finally ready and was  flown on the     
#agth of ,december1 #aijc1 as related   
above4    ,in the ,spring of #aijd1     
power flights were continued near       
,dayton with a  machine similar to the  
one flown in #aijc1 but slightly        
heavier4    ,the first complete circle  
was accomplished on the #bjth of        
,september1  #aijd1 in a flight covering
 a distance of about one mile4          
,altogether #aje  flights were attempted
 during the year1 the longest of which  
were two  of five minutes each1 covering
 a distance of about three miles4 ,all  
of  the flights were started from a     
monorail4    ,after ,september a derrick
 and a falling weight were used to      
assist in  launching the machine4       
,illustration3      #aijh-i      #aiaj  
#aiaj      ,,model ,r1 #aiaj            

,,interesting ,,governments ,,in        
,,flying ,,machines    ,it was not till 
#aijh that the ,wright ,brothers found  
purchasers for  their invention4 ,in    
that year they made a contract to       
furnish one  machine to the ,signal     
,corps of the ,united ,states ,army and 
to sell the  rights to their invention  
in ,france to a ,french company4 ,in    
both cases  they agreed to carry a      
passenger in addition to the operator1  
fuel  sufficient for a flight of #ajj   
miles1 and to make a speed of #dj miles 
an hour4    ,after making some          
preliminary practice flights at their   
old experiment  grounds near ,kitty     
,hawk in ,may1 #aijh1 ,wilbur ,wright   
went to ,france to  give demonstrations 
before the ,french ,syndicate and       
,orville ,wright to  ,washington to     
deliver the machine to the ,united      
,states ,signal ,corps4  ,the machines  
used by ,wilbur ,wright had been        
standing in bond in the  warehouse at   
,havre since ,august of the year before4

 ,owing to damage  done to the machine  
in shipment1 it was not ready for the   
official  demonstrations until late in  
the year4    ,meanwhile ,orville ,wright
 in ,september1 #aijh1 started          
demonstrations  of the machine          
contracted for by the ,united ,states   
,government4 ,on the  #ith he made two  
flights1 one of #eg minutes1 and the    
other one hour  and #b minutes1 world's 
records4 ,on the #ajth and #aath1 these 
records  were increased and on the #abth
 a flight of #a hour and #ae minutes was
  made4 ,on the #agth1 the tests were   
terminated by an accident in which      
,lieutenant ,selfridge met his death and
 ,mr4 ,wright was severely injured1  so 
that he was not able to complete the    
tests until the following year4    ,four
 days after the accident1 on the #bast  
of ,september1 ,wilbur ,wright  made a  
flight of #a hour and #ca minutes at ,le
 ,mans1 ,france1 which record  he       
improved several times during the       
following months1 and on the #cast  of  

,december1 won the ,michelin ,trophy by 
a flight1 in which he remained  in the  
air #b hours and #bd minutes4           
,where ,is the ,wind ,when ,it ,is ,not 
,blowing8      ,the answer is1 of       
course1 that there isn't any wind then4 
,to understand  this perfectly we must  
study a little and find out what wind   
is4 ,in  plain words it is nothing more 
than moving air4    ,if you make a hole 
in the bottom of a pail of water the    
water will run  out slowly4 ,if you     
knock the whole bottom out of the pail  
filled with  water1 the water will rush 
out before you know it4    ,that is     
about what happens to make the wind4    
,the air is constantly  full of air     
currents1 like the currents you can see 
in a river4 ,down  the middle of the    
river you may notice a softly-flowing   
current going  straight4 ,along the     
shores there will be little side        
currents going  in all directions1 and  
you may find some little whirlpools4    
,that is  exactly what we should see in 

the air if we could see air currents4   
,where ,does the ,wind ,begin8      ,the
 movement of these currents of air      
leaves many pockets of space  where     
there is no air1 and when one of these  
is uncovered the air  rushes in and     
creates a wind in doing so4 ,these air  
currents are  continually pressing      
against each other to get some place    
else4 ,they  change their direction     
according to the pressure that is being 
applied  to them4 ,sometimes the        
pressure will be very light in one part 
of the  air1 many miles away perhaps1   
and then the air in another part1 which 
is under great pressure1 will rush with 
great force into the part where  the    
pressure is light1 and thus form a big  
wind4 ,when the pressure  stops the wind
 stops4    ,we have probably felt the   
wind which comes out of the valve of the
  automobile tire when the cap is taken 
off to pump up the tire4 ,it is a  real 
wind that comes out4 ,the reason is that
 the air in the tube of the  tire is    

under great pressure1 and when the      
opportunity is given to get  where the  
pressure is light it starts for that    
place with a rush and  comes out of the 
valve a real wind4          ,what       
,causes the ,wind's ,whistle8      ,the 
whistle of the wind is caused very much 
like the whistle you make  with your    
mouth or the noise made by the steam    
escaping through the  spout of the      
kettle4 ,you do not hear the wind       
whistle when you are  out in it4 ,you   
can hear it when you are in the house   
and the wind is  blowing hard4 ,when the
 wind blows against the house it tries  
to get  in through all the crevices1    
under the cracks of the doors1 down the 
chimneys1 wherever it finds an opening4 
,and whenever it starts through  an     
opening that is too small for it1 it    
makes a noise like the steam  coming out
 of the spout of the kettle1 provided   
the opening is of a  certain shape4     
,not all the noises made by the wind1   
however1 are made in this way4 ,the     

wind in blowing against things makes    
them vibrate like the strings of a      
piano or violin1 and when things        
vibrate1 as we have already seen1 they  
produce sound waves1 which1 when they   
strike our ears1 produce sounds  of     
various kinds4 ,the wind even on        
ordinary days makes the telegraph  and  
telephone wires hum1 as you can prove to
 yourself by placing your  ear against a
 telegraph or telephone pole1 and       
whenever the wind makes  anything       
vibrate1 a great many queer sounds are  
produced1 which often  frighten us more 
than they should4          ,why ,does   
the ,air ,never ,get ,used ,up8         
,simply because it is constantly being  
replenished4 ,the three gases1  oxygen1 
nitrogen and carbonic acid gas1 which   
are found in the air  about us1 are     
constantly being used up4 ,all living   
animal creatures are  at all times      
taking oxygen out of the air to live on4
 ,certain microbes  are using up        
quantities of the nitrogen all the time1

 and the plants  live on the carbonic   
acid gas4 ,but while these different    
kinds of life  between them use up the  
air1 they give back something also4 ,the
 plants  give off oxygen4 ,the bodies of
 the animals and plants when they die   
decompose1 and as they are full of      
nitrogen1 that is given back to the  air
 in that way1 and then all living       
creatures are always throwing off       
carbonic acid gas through their lungs1  
and thus everything that is  taken out  
of the air is put back again4 ,the      
plants live on carbonic  acid gas1 and  
give us back oxygen4 ,the living        
creatures live on oxygen  and give off  
carbonic acid gas1 and when they die    
their bodies put  back in the air the   
nitrogen which the microbes take out1   
and so1  consumption and production are 
about equal all the time4          ,why 
,can't ,we ,see ,air8      ,we cannot   
see air because it has no color and is  
perfectly transparent4  ,if at times it 
appears that there is color in the air  

it is not the  air you see1 but some    
little particles of various substances  
in it4  ,sometimes you think when you   
look off toward a range of mountains or 
hills1 for instance1 that the air is    
blue4 ,you know the grass and trees  on 
the mountains are green1 so it cannot be
 they that have turned blue1  and so you
 think the air is blue4 ,but it is only 
the sunlight reflected  to your eyes    
from the little particles of dirt and   
other substances  which fill the air at 
all times which makes the blue that you 
see1 and  not the air4    ,pure air is a
 mixture of gases without any color and 
is perfectly  transparent4 ,air is      
nearly entirely composed of a gas called
  nitrogen--the remainder being oxygen  
with a little water and carbonic  acid  
gas1 which latter is thrown off in      
breathing4 ,this is1 however1  but a    
very small percentage4    ,air has been 
and still can be reduced to a liquid    
state1 and with  the use of it in this  
form many seemingly wonderful things can

 be  done1 which are interesting to look
 at1 but have not as yet become         
commercially practical4          ,why   
,does ,thunder ,always ,come ,after the 
,lightning8      ,this occurs simply    
because lightning or light travels so   
much more  quickly than sound4 ,light   
travels at the rate of #ahf1jjj miles   
per  second1 and sound travels only at  
the rate of #ajij feet per second when  
the temperature is at #cb degrees4 ,now1
 the thunder and lightning come  at the 
same time and place in the air1 but the 
light travels so much  faster that you  
see the lightning often quite some      
seconds before you  hear the thunder4   
,in fact1 you can tell quite accurately 
how far away  from you the flash of     
lightning and clap of thunder are by    
taking a  watch and noting the number of
 seconds which elapse between the flash 
of the lightning and the time when you  
hear the roll of the thunder4  ,if as   
much as five seconds elapse you can     
figure that it was about a  mile away   

from you1 since sound travels only about
 #aajj feet per second  and there are   
#ebhj feet in a mile4 ,when the thunder 
and lightning come  close together you  
may know that it is near by1 and when   
they come at  the same time you may be  
sure it is very close4 ,when1 therefore1
 you  see the lightning and then have to
 wait several seconds for the noise  of 
the thunder1 you may rest easy about the
 lightning hurting you1  because you    
know then it is too far away to harm    
you1 and when it is so  close that the  
lightning and thunder come              
simultaneously1 there is no  use being  
afraid1 because if you were to be struck
 you would have been  struck at the same
 instant or before you would have had   
time to notice  that the lightning and  
thunder come together4          ,how    
,big ,is the ,sun8      ,it is very     
difficult to gain a clear idea of how   
very large the sun  really is4 ,we know 
from the scientists who have measured it
 with their  accurate measuring         

instruments that it is #hfe1jjj miles   
through it1 and  that at its largest    
part it is #b1gbb1jjj miles around4     
,now1 you can  see why ,i said it is    
very difficult to get a clear conception
 of the  sun's size4 ,a mile is quite a 
long distance to walk on a hot day4     
,now1  the earth is #hjjj miles through4
 ,if there were a tunnel right through  
the earth1 like the subway1 and you     
started to walk it1 it would take  you  
#hc days if you walked day and night    
without stopping to rest or  eat1 if you
 kept going at the rate of four miles   
every hour4 ,this would  be a long1 hot 
walk1 for1 of course1 the inside of the 
earth is hot1  as we have already       
learned4 ,it would take an automobile1  
going at the  rate of #dj miles an hour 
night and day1 about nine days to make  
the  trip through such a subway from one
 side of the earth to the other4  ,that 
makes it look like a pretty big old     
earth1 doesn't it8 ,but let us  see what
 would happen if we started to do the   

same thing on the sun4  ,the sun is     
#hfe1jjj miles through4 ,if you were to 
walk through a similar  tunnel on the   
sun at four miles per hour it would take
 you #bj years1  not counting the stops1
 and an automobile going #dj miles an   
hour day  and night would take two years
 and a half to make the trip one way4   
,the sun is ninety million miles from   
the earth and an automobile  travelling 
at the rate of forty miles per hour day 
and night on a  straight road1 without  
stopping1 would be #beg years in getting
 there4    ,when we stop to think of how
 big the bulk of the sun is it is       
altogether beyond us4 ,we have a general
 idea that our earth is a pretty  large 
affair as worlds go1 and yet we cannot  
conceive how much the  bulk of the earth
 amounts to4 ,still1 the sun is so large
 that it could  contain a million worlds
 like our own4          ,how ,hot ,is   
the ,sun8      ,we think the sun is     
pretty hot in summer when the           
thermometer goes  up to #ij degrees in  

the shade or out4 ,we begin to get      
sunburned long  before it reaches that  
high4 ,but right on the sun's surface it
 is  between #aj1jjj and #ae1jjj degrees
 hot4 ,that is1 of course1 a degree  of 
heat which we cannot conceive4 ,how much
 hotter still it is on the  inside of   
the sun we don't as yet know4 ,it must  
be awfully hot there4          ,why ,is 
,it ,warm in ,summer8      ,it is warm  
in summer because at that season of the 
year the heat rays  of the sun strike   
our part of the earth through less air4 
,the blanket  of air which surrounds the
 earth is very much in comparison as to 
thickness like the peeling of an orange 
and surrounds the earth in  just the    
same way4 ,if you stick a pin straight  
into an unpeeled orange  you only have  
to stick it in a little way before you  
reach the juicy  part of the orange1 but
 if you stick the pin in at an angle the
 pin  will travel a much longer ways    
through pure peeling before it strikes  
the juicy part4 ,now1 then1 in summer   

the rays of the sun come down  to us    
straight through the peeling of air1 and
 less of the heat is  lost by contact   
with the air1 and that makes it warmer  
in summer4 ,the  explanation also       
accounts for your next question4        
,why ,is ,it ,cold in ,winter8      ,in 
winter the heat rays of the sun strike  
at our part of the earth at  the angle  
at which you stick the pin into the     
orange when you wish to  make it travel 
through the most peeling4 ,in winter the
 rays strike  the earth at such an angle
 that a great deal of the heat is lost  
in  travelling through the air1 because 
they have to come through so much  more 
of the air4 ,of course1 the sun's rays  
strike some part of the  earth straight 
down through the peeling of air at all  
times1 and at the  equator this occurs  
all the year round1 so it is always     
summer there1  while at the ,north and  
,south ,poles the rays always strike the
 earth at  the greatest possible angle1 
and it is always very cold winter there4

  ,in between1 when it is neither hot   
nor cold1 we have spring and fall1  due 
to the fact that the rays come down at  
an angle1 but not so great  an angle4   
,why ,have ,we ,five ,fingers on ,each  
,hand and ,five ,toes on ,each ,foot8   
,all animals1 it seems1 from a study of 
nature were started with ten  fingers   
and ten toes1 the fingers originally    
having been the toes of  the fore legs4 
,in a good many cases the environment in
 which animals  have lived has caused a 
change in the formation of the ends of  
the  limbs as well as in the limbs      
themselves4 ,the horse1 for instance1   
has  developed into a one toe or one    
finger animal1 while a cow is a two     
finger animal4 ,the hen has only three  
toes on each foot and a part of         
another4 ,but if we go back into the    
history and examine how the horses'     
foot used to look we will find that he  
originally had five toes4 ,the  same is 
true of the cow and also the hen4       
,something happened to cause  the       

change1 for the rule of five fingers and
 five toes on the end of  each limb has 
been universal4 ,if you examine a       
chicken in a shell just  before it is   
ready to come out1 you can distinctly   
count five toes on  each foot and at the
 ends of the wings you will see five    
little points1  which under other       
conditions would develop into fingers1  
perhaps4  ,some of these toes of the    
new-born chicken do not develop4 ,it can
 be  accepted as a rule that creatures  
were intended in the original plan to   
have five fingers on each hand and five 
toes on each foot1 making our  count of 
tens1 which is the world's basis for    
counting1 and has always  been4         
,why ,do ,we ,have ,finger ,nails8      
,finger nails and toe nails are only    
another phase of the development  of man
 from the animal that originally walked 
on four feet4 ,animals  that walk on all
 fours use the finger and toe coverings 
which in man  is the nail1 to scratch in
 the ground1 to attack enemies1 and to  

climb  with1 and our nails of the       
present day are what the development of 
man  into a civilized being has changed 
them to4 ,at that1 there are still  uses
 for finger nails and toe nails1 or man 
in his changing to a higher  plane would
 have found a way to develop away from  
them4 ,they are useful  to-day in making
 our fingers and toes firm at the end1  
and enable us  to pick up things more   
easily4 ,the time may come when man will
 have  neither finger nails nor toe     
nails4          ,why ,are ,our ,fingers 
of ,different ,lengths8      ,there is  
no known reason why our fingers should  
be of different lengths  to-day2 in     
fact1 it is thought by some people that 
the hand would  be stronger if the      
fingers were all of the same length4    
,certainly1  however1 the hands would   
not then be so beautiful1 and it might  
not be  so useful4 ,the human hand      
to-day is perhaps the most versatile    
thing  in the world4 ,you can do more   
things with the hand than with any other

  thing in the world4 ,the probability  
is that the shape of the hand  to-day   
and the length of the fingers are the   
result of the different  things the     
human being has called upon the hand to 
do during man's  development up to the  
present time4    ,we must go back to the
 time1 however1 when man walked on      
fours1 for  that is probably the real   
explanation4 ,originally man's fingers  
were  of different lengths because all  
four-footed animals had the same        
peculiarities4 ,the shape and length of 
the toes and their arrangement  were the
 ideal arrangement for giving the proper
 balance and support  to the body1 and  
in moving about and in climbing produced
 the best toe  hold4          ,why ,does
 ,it ,hurt ,when ,i ,cut ,my ,finger8   
,it hurts when you cut your finger1 or1 
rather1 where you cut it1  because the  
place you have cut is exposed to the    
oxygen in the air1 and  as soon as it is
 so exposed a chemical action begins to 
take place1  just as when you cut an    

apple and lay it aside you come back and
 find  the cut surface all turned brown4
 ,if the apple could feel it would  hurt
 also1 because the chemical action is   
much the same4 ,the apple has  a skin   
which protects its inside from the      
oxygen in the air1 and you  have also a 
skin which protects you from the oxygen 
as long as it is  unbroken4    ,what    
happens1 of course1 is this3 ,when you  
cut your finger you sever  the tiny     
little veins and nerves which are in    
your finger4 ,they are  spread all over 
your body like a net-work under the     
skin1 close to the  surface in most     
places4 ,the nerves when cut send a     
quick message to the  brain1 with which 
they are connected1 telling that they   
are damaged1  and the brain calls on the
 heart and other functions to get busy  
and  repair the damage along the line4  
,there may be some hurt while this      
process of repairing is going on1 but   
the principal part of your hurt1        
outside of what we call your feelings1  

is due to the fact that the  inside of  
you is thus exposed to the chemical     
action of the air4 ,then ,i  can hear   
you say next3          ,why ,don't ,my  
,hair ,hurt ,when ,it ,is ,being ,cut8  
,it does not hurt to cut anything that  
has no nerves4 ,there are no  nerves in 
the hair which the barber cuts4 ,if he  
pulls out a hair it  hurts1 because the 
root of the hair has nerves1 which      
telegraph notice  of the damage to the  
brain4 ,when a dentist takes out or     
kills the nerve  in your tooth you      
cannot have any more toothache in that  
tooth1 because  there is no nerve there 
to send the message to the brain4 ,you  
can cut  your finger nails without      
feeling pain1 because they have no      
nerves at  the ends1 but underneath1    
where they join the skin of the finger1 
there  are a great many nerves1 and it  
hurts very much to bruise the nails at  
that location4          ,of ,what ,use  
,is ,my ,hair8      ,,why ,,we ,,have   
,,hair    ,your hair is a relic of the  

days when the entire body was covered   
with  hair1 just like some animals      
to-day1 to protect the body from the    
heat1  cold and wet4 ,man has1 however1 
for so long a time worn clothes over    
most of his body that the need of the   
hair to protect him from these  elements
 has all but disappeared1 and so also   
has the hair1 excepting  in such places 
as the top of the head and face and     
other exposed  parts4 ,if you were to go
 out into the woods without clothes and 
live  a long time your body would       
probably again become covered with      
hairs4  ,the time is coming1 however1 it
 is believed1 when human beings will    
have no hair at all on their bodies4    
,you have hair on your head1 but  if you
 were to wear a hat or cap all the time 
you would soon be bald4  ,hair is of no 
use to us to-day excepting to adorn our 
bodies and add  to our appearance4 ,this
 it seems to do to-day1 probably because
 we  are accustomed to seeing it1 and   
will make no difference in our looks    

relatively if the time comes when we    
have no hair at all4          ,why ,does
 ,my ,hair ,stand ,on ,end ,when ,i ,am 
,frightened8      ,it does this under   
certain conditions1 because there is a  
little  muscle down at the root of each 
hair that will make each hair stand  up 
straight when this muscle pulls a       
certain way4 ,it is difficult to  say   
just how these muscles are caused to act
 in this way when we are  frightened4   
,we know that when thoroughly frightened
 our hair will  sometimes stand straight
 up1 and we know that it is this muscle 
at the  root of each hair that makes it 
possible1 but why it is that a big      
scare will make this muscle act this way
 we do not as yet know4          ,what  
,makes ,some ,people ,bald8      ,the   
chief cause of baldness is the lack of  
care of the hair4 ,it is as  necessary  
for the roots of the hair to have a free
 circulation of  the blood and that the 
hair itself should have plenty of air as
 it is  necessary for the brain to have 

a good circulation4 ,a great many men   
become bald through wearing their hats  
most of the time4 ,the hat pulled  down 
tight over the head presses against the 
scalp and interferes with  the          
circulation of the blood in the scalp4  
,then1 also1 many hats do  not have any 
means of ventilation1 and that keeps the
 pure air away  from the hair4 ,the hair
 then becomes sick and dies1 just as    
flowers  wilt if you keep them away from
 the air4 ,you will notice that women   
do not become bald so easily4 ,one      
reason is that even when the women  wear
 large hats1 as they often do1 there is 
plenty of room for the air  to circulate
 through the hair1 even when the hat is 
on1 and women's  hats are not pulled    
down tightly on the scalp4 ,therefore1  
they do not  press on the arteries and  
veins in the scalp and interfere with   
the  circulation of the blood4 ,another 
reason why women do not become bald  is 
that the hair of women has long been    
their 8crowning glory02 a man  likes to 

see a fine head of hair on a woman1 and 
as women have long  tried to please men 
in every possible way1 they take better 
care of  their hair than men do1 because
 they like to have the men consider it  
beautiful4          ,what ,makes ,some  
,things in the ,same ,room ,colder than 
,others8      ,the objects in a room    
which has been kept at a given even     
temperature  of heat will be all the    
same temperature1 because heat spreads  
from one  thing to another equally4     
,still1 if you put your hands on various
 objects in such a room some  of them   
will feel colder than others4 ,you touch
 the tiling of the  fireplace and that  
will feel cool to you4 ,on the other    
hand1 the  upholstered furniture will   
feel quite warm4 ,the piano keys feel   
cool1  while the wood of the piano and  
case is warm4 ,the difference is due to 
the fact that heat or cold will run     
through some objects more quickly  than 
through others4 ,it will run through the
 tiling on the hearth  and the piano    

keys more quickly than through the      
upholstering on the  furniture or the   
wood of the piano case4 ,when you touch 
a thing with  your finger you supply    
some of the heat of your body to the    
object  through your finger4 ,if the    
object is the tiling on the hearth or   
the keys of the piano the heat runs     
through it quickly and you get a  cold  
impression in your finger4 ,on the other
 hand1 if you touch the  upholstery on  
the furniture1 through which the heat   
runs slowly1 you  get a warm feeling for
 the very same reason4 ,thus1 anything  
which  carries the heat away from our   
contact quickly we call a cold feeling  
object1 and if the object touched does  
not carry the heat away so  quickly we  
call it a warm feeling object4          
,why ,does the ,hair ,grow ,after the   
,body ,stops ,growing8      ,the hair on
 our bodies is one of the things that is
 continually wearing  or falling away1  
and since1 like the skin1 it is         
necessary to protect  certain portions  

of the body1 the hair keeps on growing  
long after the  grown up period has     
arrived4 ,the skin is a very necessary  
protection  of the whole body1 but is   
constantly being worn away1 and is all  
the  time being replaced4 ,your hair    
falls out when it is not healthy4       
,unless  proper care is given to it1 it 
will fall out and not grow in again1 and
  then we become bald4          ,will   
,people ,all ,be ,bald ,sometime8       
,there is a theory that before many     
years have passed human beings  will    
lose all of the hairs which now grow on 
different parts of their  bodies1 due to
 the fact that we wear so much clothing 
and keep so much  of our bodies away    
from the sunlight4 ,if that time comes  
we shall have  a hairless race of men   
and women4          ,,the ,,story ,,in  
,a ,,lump ,,of ,,sugar                  
,illustration3 ,,preparing ,,the        
,,ground4--,,plowing ,,and ,,harrowing  
,,with ,a  ,,caterpillar ,,engine4      
,sugar beets require deep plowing1 ten  

to fourteen inches1 or twice the  usual 
depth4 ,when using horses1 farmers are  
inclined not to plow deeply  enough to  
secure maximum results1 and some of the 
factories have put  in power plows which
 turn six furrows and harrow the land at
 the same  time4 ,they plow and harrow  
the land of beet farmers for #b4ej per  
acre1  which is about one-half of what  
it costs the farmers to plow equally    
deep with horses4 ,the traction engines 
also are used for hauling train  wagon  
loads of beets to the factory4 ,in some 
localities farmers are  banding together
 and purchasing engines for plowing and 
hauling beets4  ,the outfit illustrated 
above costs about #d1ejj4               
,illustration3 ,,drilling ,,the ,,seed4 
,beets are drilled in rows1 usually     
eighteen inches apart1 #ah to #be       
pounds of seed being drilled to each    
acre4 ,practically all the beet  seed   
used in ,america is grown in ,europe1   
principally in ,germany1 but it  has    
been demonstrated that superior seed can

 be produced in the ,united  ,states4   
,sugar-beet seed growing requires five  
years of the utmost  skill1 care and    
patience1 from the planting of the      
original seed to  the maturing of the   
commercial crop which is sold to the    
trade4 ,the  factories contract for     
their seed for three to five years in   
advance1  sell it to farmers at cost    
price1 and deduct the amount from the   
payment for beets4    ,illustration3    
,,how ,,the ,,beets ,,are ,,grown       
,,blocking ,,and ,,thinning4    ,when   
the beets are up and show the third leaf
 they should be 8thinned40  ,unless     
thinned at the proper time the pulling  
up of the superfluous  beetlets injures 
the roots of the remaining ones4        
,scientific  experiments in ,germany1   
where all other conditions were         
identical1  showed that one acre thinned
 at the proper time yielded #ae tons2   
the  next acre1 thinned a week later1   
yielded #ac tons2 the third acre1       
thinned still a week later1 yielded #aj 

tons2 and the fourth acre1  thinned     
three weeks after the first1 yielded #g 
tons4    ,the men in the foreground are 
8blocking0 the beets1 leaving a bunch of
  them every eight inches4 ,those in the
 rear are 8thinning10 or pulling  up the
 superfluous beetlets1 leaving one in a 
place1 eight inches  apart4             
,illustration3 ,,ready ,,for ,,the      
,,harvest4    ,this field of beets      
yielded #bj tons to the acre4           
,ex-,secretary of  ,agriculture ,james  
,wilson is convinced that when ,american
 farmers become  expert in beet culture 
they will average to produce more than  
#bj tons  per acre because of the       
superiority of our soils4 ,the ideal    
factory  beet weighs about two pounds1  
and a perfect 8stand0 of such beets1 one
  every eight inches1 in rows eighteen  
inches apart1 would yield #dc  tons per 
acre4 ,the present average yield in the 
,united ,states is about  #aj tons per  
acre1 while the hitherto 8worn-out      
soils0 of ,germany yield  #ad tons per  

acre1 or #dj more than is secured from  
our 8virgin soils40    ,illustration3   
,,huge ,,bins ,,to ,,hold ,,the ,,beets 
,,at ,,factory    ,,topping ,,the       
,,beets4    ,after the beets are plowed 
out they are topped or cut off by hand  
and  the tops are fed to stock1 for     
which purpose they are worth #c4jj per  
acre4 ,they are topped just below the   
crown and the factories require  that   
they be so topped as to remove any      
portion which grew above the  ground1 as
 such portion of the beet contains but a
 small percentage of  sugar4 ,the beet  
will grow in length1 and1 if as a result
 of shallow  plowing or coming in       
contact with a rock it cannot grow      
downward1 it  will grow upward and out  
of the ground1 thus necessitating a     
deeper  topping and consequent loss to  
the farmer4    ,illustration3 ,,dumping 
,,cars ,,at ,,factory ,,with ,,hydraulic
 ,,jack4    ,beets arriving at the      
factory by rail from receiving stations 
either  are stored in bins until needed 

or are floated directly to the beet     
washers4 ,if to be used at once1 they   
are dumped1 as shown above1 and  slide  
directly into a cement flume filled with
 warm water1 which has  been pumped to  
its upper end1 and is flowing in the    
direction of the  beet end of the       
factory4 ,in whatever manner they may be
 received1 they  first are weighed1 and 
as they are dumped1 a basket is held    
under them  to catch a fair sample of   
both beets and the loose dirt1 which the
  car or wagon contains4 ,these samples1
 properly tagged1 are conveyed  to the  
beet laboratory1 where they are washed1 
and trimmed if not  properly topped1 and
 the difference in the weight of the    
sample beets  as received and their     
weight when washed is called the 8tare40
 ,whatever  percentage this amounts to  
is applied to and deducted from the     
weight  of the car or wagon load4 ,a    
sample of these beets then is tested by 
the  polariscope for its sugar content  
and its purity2 farmers often being     

paid a stipulated price per ton for a   
beet of a given sugar content and  #be  
to #cc cents per ton additional for each
 extra degree of sugar  which they      
contain4 ,the tare rooms and the        
beet-testing laboratories  are open to  
any one1 and in some localities the     
farmers' associations  employ experts to
 tare and analyze each sample of beets4 
,illustration3 ,,millions ,,of ,,bushels
 ,,of ,,beets    ,,factory ,,beet ,,bins
 ,,filled ,,to ,,capacity4    ,as they  
arrive by rail from receiving stations1 
or by team1 or traction  engines from   
the farm1 beets are stored in bins or   
sheds1 the capacity  of which ranges    
from #fjjj to #ce1jjj tons per factory1 
depending upon  location and general    
climatic conditions4    ,the bins are ,v
 shaped1 about #c feet wide at the      
bottom1 #bj to #cj feet  at the top1 and
 they are #bj to #cj feet high4 ,as     
beets are needed1  beginning at one end 
of the bin the loose three-foot planks  
at the  bottom are removed one at a     

time1 and with hooks attached to long   
poles  the beets are rolled into the    
flume or cement channel below1 in which 
they are floated into the factory4 ,this
 is not only to save labor1  but to     
loosen up the dirt which attaches to the
 beets1 thus partially  washing them4   
,the water which is used in the flumes  
is warm water from  the factory4        
,illustration3 ,,typical ,,american     
,,beet ,,sugar ,,factory4    ,these     
factories cost from half a million to   
three million dollars4  ,they consume   
from #ejj to #c1jjj tons of beets per   
day1 and during the  8campaign10 which  
usually lasts about three months1 will  
produce from  #ab to #ge million pounds 
of granulated sugar4 ,there are #gc of  
these  factories1 located in #af        
,states1 from ,ohio to ,california4     
,during the  operating season they give 
employment to from #djj to #ajjj men    
each4    ,illustration3 ,,washing ,,the 
,,sugar ,,beets    ,,chemical           
,,laboratory4    ,in a beet-sugar       

factory each set of apparatus for       
performing a given  process is termed a 
8station40 ,in the chemical laboratory  
the juices  and products from each      
station are tested hourly to check up   
the  correctness of the work and to     
determine the losses of sugar in each   
process in the factory4                 
,illustration3 ,,circular ,,diffusion   
,,battery4    ,after being floated in   
from the sheds the beets are elevated   
from the  flume to a washer1 where they 
are given an additional washing before  
being sliced4 ,from the washer they are 
elevated and dropped into an  automatic 
scale of a capacity of #gjj to #aejj    
pounds4 ,from the scale  they pass to   
the slicers1 where with triangular      
knives they are cut  into long1 slender 
slices1 which look something like       
8shoestring0  potatoes4 ,these slices   
drop through the upright chute seen at  
the right  side of the picture1 and are 
packed tightly into cylindrical vessels 
holding from two to six tons each2 the  

battery consisting of eight to  twelve  
vessels arranged either in a straight   
line or in circular form4  ,warm water  
is run into these slices1 and coaxes out
 the sugar as it  passes from one vessel
 to the succeeding ones4 ,after passing 
through  the entire series of vessels   
the water has become rich in sugar1 of  
which it contains from #ab to #ae per   
cent1 depending upon the richness  of   
the beets4 ,it then is drawn off and is 
called diffusion juice or  raw juice4   
,this is carefully measured into tanks  
and recorded4 ,as this  juice is drawn  
off the vessel over which the water     
started is emptied  of the slices from  
the bottom1 the exhaust slices          
containing in the  neighborhood of  to  
per cent of sugar4 ,these slices are    
carried  out from the factory in the    
form of pulp and fed to stock1 as       
explained  later4    ,illustration3     
,,how ,,the ,,sugar ,,is ,,taken ,,from 
,,the ,,beet    ,,carbonatation ,,and   
,,sulphur ,,station4    ,warm raw juice 

is drawn into the carbonatation tanks   
and treated with  about #aj per cent    
milk of lime--about like ordinary       
whitewash4 ,this  lime throws out       
impurities1 sterilizes the juice and    
removes coloring  matter4 ,carbonic acid
 gas from the lime kiln is forced       
through the  lime juice in the tank1    
throwing out the excess of lime1        
converting it  into a carbonate of lime 
or chalk4 ,tests are taken here by the  
station  operator to show when the      
process is finished4    ,illustration3  
,,filter ,,presses4    ,from the        
carbonatation tanks the juice is pumped 
or forced through  filter presses       
consisting of iron frames so covered    
with cloth that the  juice passes       
through the cloth as a clear liquid1    
leaving the lime and  impurities        
precipitated by it1 in the frame1 in the
 form of a cake4  ,this cake1 after     
washing1 is dropped from the presses and
 conveyed out  of the factory4 ,it      
contains from one to two per cent of its

 weight  in sugar1 which constitutes one
 of the large losses of the process4    
,it also contains organic matter1       
phosphate and potash1 besides the       
carbonate of lime1 which makes it an    
excellent fertilizer1 all of which  is  
used in ,europe on the farm1 but so far 
to too small an extent in  ,america4    
,illustration3 ,,evaporating ,,the      
,,water ,,from ,,the ,,sugar            
,,evaporators4    ,after a second1 and  
sometimes a third carbonatation and     
filtration1 the  juice is carried to the
 evaporators1 commonly called the       
8effects10  usually four 7#d7 large     
air-tight vessels furnished with heating
 tubes  running from #cjjj to #gjjj     
square feet in each vessel4 ,a partial  
vacuum  is maintained in these          
evaporators which makes the juice boil  
out at a  low temperature1 thus         
preventing discoloration1 and to a large
 degree  the destruction of sugar which 
will come about by high temperature4    
,there always is1 however1 some         

unavoidable loss of sugar in this       
apparatus4 ,the juice passes along      
copper pipes from first to last  vessel1
 becoming thicker as it does so4 ,it    
comes into the first vessel  at #aj to  
#ab sugar and is pumped out of the last 
one so thick that it  contains about #ej
 of sugar4    ,illustration3 ,,vacuum   
,,pans4    ,after a careful filtration1 
the juice that comes from the           
evaporators1  and is called thick juice1
 is pumped to large tanks high up in the
  building1 and from these is drawn into
 vacuum pans4 ,these are large          
cylindrical vessels from #aj to #ae feet
 in diameter and from #ae to #be  feet  
high1 with conical top and bottom1 built
 air-tight4 ,around the  inner          
circumference they are furnished with   
#d- to #f-;inch copper coils1  which    
have a heating surface of #hjj to #bjjj 
square feet4 ,exhaust steam  is used in 
the evaporators1 live steam in the pans1
 the juice in both  being boiled in a   
vacuum to prevent discoloration and     

reduce losses4    ,after considerable   
thickening by this evaporation1 minute  
crystals  begin to form4 ,when          
sufficient of these have formed1 fresh  
juice is  drawn in and the crystals     
grow1 the operator governing the size of
  the crystals to suit the trade4 ,if   
small crystals be desired1 a large      
quantity of juice is admitted at the    
outset1 while if large crystals  are    
desired1 a small quantity of juice first
 is admitted1 and1 as it  boils to      
crystals1 fresh juice gradually is added
 to the pan1 and the  crystals are built
 up to the desired size4 ,the operator  
of this pan1  known as the 8sugar       
boiler10 is one of the must important   
men in the  factory4 ,the water         
furnished the condensers of these vacuum
 pans and  the evaporator goes to the   
beet sheds and is used for floating in  
the  beets4 ,it amounts to from         
#c1jjj1jjj to #h1jjj1jjj gallons every  
#bd  hours1 depending upon the size of  
the factory1 and must be very pure4     

,illustration3 ,,how ,,sugar ,,is       
,,granulated    ,,front ,,view ,,of     
,,centrifugal ,,machines4    ,the mass  
of crystals with syrup around them and  
containing about #h per  cent to #aj per
 cent of water is let out of the vacuum 
pan into a large  open vessel called a  
mixer1 beneath which are the centrifugal
 machines4  ,these are suspended brass  
drums perforated with holes and lined   
with a  fine screen4 ,they are made to  
revolve about #ajjj times to a minute1  
and  the crystal mass of sugar rises up 
the side like water in a whirling       
bucket4 ,the centrifugals force the     
syrup out through the screen holes1     
leaving the white crystals of sugar in a
 thick layer on the inner  surface4     
,these are washed with a spray of pure  
warm water and then are  ready for the  
dryer4    ,illustration3 ,,sugar        
,,granulator ,,or ,,dryer4    ,the damp 
white crystals from the centrifugal     
machine are conveyed  to horizontal     
revolving drums about #be feet long by  

#e to #f feet  in diameter4 ,these drums
 are furnished with paddles on the      
inside  circumference1 the paddles      
picking the sugar up and dropping it in 
showers as the drum revolves4 ,warm dry 
air is drawn through and takes  the     
moisture out of the sugar1 which now is 
ready to be put in bags or  barrels for 
the market4    ,illustration3           
,,by-,,products ,,of ,,the ,,sugar      
,,beet    ,,crystallizers4    ,the syrup
 that was thrown off from the crystals  
in the centrifugal  machines is taken   
back to the vacuum pan1 evaporated in   
the same  manner as previously          
described1 and from the vacuum pan goes 
into the  crystallizers to carry the    
process of crystallization as far as it 
will  go4 ,these contain from #ajjj to  
#afjj cubic feet of the crystallized    
mass which remains in them from #cf to  
#gb hours1 during which time it  is kept
 in constant motion by a set of slowly  
revolving paddles1 or  arms1 to         
facilitate further crystallization4     

,from the crystallizers it  goes to the 
centrifugal machines1 where the syrup is
 separated from the  crystals as before4
 ,the crystals are remelted and go in   
with the thick  juice for white sugar4  
,the syrup1 still containing a large    
amount of  sugar1 goes out to be sold as
 cattle feed or to an ,osmose or        
,steffens  process1 where a portion of  
the remaining sugar may be recovered4   
,this  lost syrup constitutes the       
largest loss in the entire process4 ,it 
contains all the impurities of the beet 
juice not removed by the lime4  ,these  
impurities prevent more than one and    
one-half times their weight  of sugar   
from crystalizing1 and make what is     
called molasses4    ,illustration3 ,a   
,,sea ,,of ,,beet ,,pulp4    ,for a     
century the high feeding value of       
sugar-beet pulp has been  recognized in 
,europe1 but until a few years ago      
millions of tons of  this valuable      
by-product rotted about ,american       
beet-sugar factories1 as  shown above1  

because ,american farmers could not be  
made to believe it  possessed sufficient
 value to pay for hauling it back to the
 farm4    ,illustration3 ,,machine      
,,that ,,fills1 ,,weighs ,,and ,,sews   
,,the ,,bags ,,of ,,sugar    ,,sacking  
,,room4--,,showing ,,automatic ,,scales 
,,and ,,sewing ,,machine4    ,after the 
moisture has been thoroughly removed in 
the granulators  or dryers1 the sugar   
drops directly to the sacking room      
through  a chute1 at the lower end of   
which the top of the double bag is      
attached4 ,the sugar flows directly into
 the sack1 the flow being cut  off      
automatically with each #ajj pounds1    
when an endless belt conveyor  passes   
the upright sack past the sewing machine
 at the proper speed and  the product is
 sealed ready for storage or shipment4  
,while it requires from #djj to #ajjj   
men to man a factory1 not a human  hand 
has touched either beets or product     
since the beets were topped in  the     
field1 and at no stage of the operation 

could flies or vermin or  filth come in 
contact with the product1 which from the
 beginning has  been subjected to       
continuous high temperatures4           
,pictures herewith by courtesy of       
,united ,states ,beet ,sugar ,industry4 
,how ,can ,we ,smell ,things8      ,you 
do not need to be told what organ of the
 body we use in exercising  the sense of
 smell4 ,you can prove that easily to   
yourself by getting  the nose within    
range of a distasteful smell4    ,we do 
not use all of the nose to smell with1  
and the nose is useful to  us in other  
ways besides this4 ,we use the nose a   
great deal in the act  of respiration or
 breathing1 and it is also useful in    
helping us to  make sounds1 form words1 
and1 though you may not have known it1  
helps  our sense of taste4    ,we smell 
things by means of the olfactory nerves 
which are located  within the nose4 ,the
 entire interior surface of the nose is 
covered  with a membrane4 ,the ends of  
olfactory nerves1 or the nerves which   

give  us the sensation of smell1 are in 
this membrane1 and the air1 which is    
filled with the odor of things we smell1
 passes over this membrane1 and  thus   
the ends of the nerves feel the odor and
 cause sensation of smell  in the brain4
 ,the nerves of smell do not1 however1  
go all through this  membrane4    ,there
 are other nerves in the nose1 however1 
besides those which give  us the        
sensation of smell4 ,these are also very
 sensitive and serve to  make the nose  
exercise other functions when the inside
 of the nose is  hurt or tickled4 ,when 
a foreign substance1 one of the many    
smaller  particles which are constantly 
floating in the air1 gets into the      
membrane in the nose1 it irritates these
 nerves and often causes us  to sneeze1 
which is only nature's effort to drive  
out this foreign  substance and clean   
out the nose4 ,smell is one of the      
lesser of the  five senses which we     
possess4 ,it is one of what has been    
called the  chemical senses4 ,the sense 

of smell does not act at any great      
distance4  ,this sense could be made of 
more value to us if we developed it4    
,some  people have a more highly        
developed sense of smell than others4   
,the  lower animals have a much keener  
sense of smell than people4 ,a great    
many of them can follow a trail for     
miles merely by the smell of the        
foot-prints1 and it is said that a deer 
will note the presence of man  or any   
other animal that may subject him to    
danger even when miles  away1 the odor  
being carried to him through the air4   
,how ,do ,we ,taste ,things8      ,the  
sense of taste is closely associated    
with the sense of smell4 ,in  fact we do
 a good deal of what we think is tasting
 by using our sense  of smell4 ,a cold  
in the nose will sometimes destroy      
almost altogether  the taste of food1 so
 that there is a very close connection  
between the  sense of taste and the     
sense of smell4    ,the sense of taste  
comes to us through the tongue1 which is

 the  principal organ of taste4 ,the    
remainder of our sense of taste lies in 
the surface of the palate and in the    
throat4 ,as in the case of the  other   
senses1 the sensation of taste is given 
us through nerves1 the  ends of which   
are all through those parts of the      
tongue1 the palate  and the throat1     
which contribute to this sense4 ,more   
nerves of taste  are located in the back
 part of the tongue than on the front1  
and it  is said that when you have to   
swallow a bad dose of medicine it won't 
taste so much if you put it on the front
 part of your tongue and then  swallow1 
because there are so few tasting nerves 
there4 ,the extreme tip  of the tongue1 
however1 is very thickly covered with   
the ends of the  taste nerves4 ,in like 
manner one could have the front end of  
the tongue  cut off and still retain    
most of the sense of taste4    ,now1 in 
order to produce the sensation of taste1
 the substance to be  tasted must come  
in contact with something which mixes   

with it and  causes the sensation of    
taste4 ,this is what happens when we    
taste  anything4 ,the juices or liquids 
which are caused to flow when anything  
is put into the mouth act on the        
substances which enter and give the     
taste nerves a chance to taste them4    
,really the nerves of taste are so      
placed in the mouth as to be regular    
guards or inspectors of what shall  go  
into the stomach4 ,you can see how well 
they are arranged4 ,in the tip  of the  
tongue quite a few of them2 in the back 
part of the tongue a  great many nerves1
 for from there the food goes into the  
throat1 which  delivers it to the       
stomach2 then those in the palate and in
 the throat4  ,they are arranged so that
 the taste nerves have ample opportunity
 to  test what comes in and to give     
warning to the brain of what is being   
sent to the stomach4 ,sometimes the     
things that come into the mouth  are so 
distasteful to the nerves of taste that 
they refuse to hand it  over to the     

stomach1 but instead cause the          
distasteful substance to be  thrown out 
again immediately4    ,it is said that a
 good rule to follow in eating would be 
to swallow  only such things as are     
pleasing to the sense of taste4 ,on this
  principle many children would decide  
to eat nothing but candy1 but do  you   
know1 if you tried that1 the continuous 
tasting of sweets by our  sense of taste
 nerves would cause them to repel       
further insertion of  candy after a     
while4 ,you know that too much of a good
 thing is bad for  you1 and that is what
 makes you feel badly when you have     
eaten too much  of one thing4           
,what ,happens ,when ,we ,see8          
,,how ,,we ,,see ,,things    ,of course1
 it is the eyes with which we see       
things4 ,when we think of  the things   
with which we see1 we think only of     
eyes1 which give us our  sense of       
vision1 but there are certain forms of  
animal life which have  no eyes but     
which have what are called eye spots or 

eye points1 which  are sensitive to     
light and which are merely spots4 ,these
 eye spots  may be located in any part  
of the body1 and are often found in     
great  numbers on the same body4 ,these 
rude eyes are1 however1 not real eyes4  
,they are1 as has already been said1    
sensitive to light1 but are found  only 
in some of the very low forms of animal 
life which live in the  water4 ,a real  
eye is an organ in which the parts are  
so arranged that  optical images may be 
formed4    ,as animal life becomes      
developed to a higher scale1 the parts  
which  contain the making of real eyes  
become more distinct although1 of       
course1 the eyes themselves are not so  
highly developed as in man4 ,one  of the
 first kinds of life which has eyes with
 a definite structural  character are   
the worms1 snails1 etc41 though their   
sense of vision is  more or less dim4   
,when we come to the family of mollusks1
 however1 low down in the scale  of life
 though they are1 we find them to       

possess eyes which enable them  to see  
almost as well as animals which have a  
backbone1 although this  kind of eyes is
 constructed in a very different manner 
than the eyes  of vertebrate animals    
referred to4 ,as we ascend the scale of 
animal  life in the study of eyes1 we   
come next to the crustaceous1 which is  
an  important division of animal life   
that embraces the crabs and lobsters1   
shrimps1 crawfish1 and insects such as  
sand-hoppers1 beach-fleas1  wood-lice1  
fish-lice1 barnacles4 ,the eyes of such 
animals are quite  developed1 but the   
number that each will have varies4 ,some
 have only a  single eye and others two1
 four1 six or eight1 but only certain   
kinds  of this class of life have more  
than two eyes4 ,the spiders generally   
have the most4    ,in vertebrates1 which
 is the class of animal life to which we
 belong1  the number of eyes is almost  
always two and no more4 ,the eyes are   
formed in special sockets in the skull1 
which are called eye sockets  or orbits4

 ,this arrangement of placing them in a 
socket is of great  advantage because   
the eye is thus protected from chance of
 injury  except from one direction--the 
front4 ,these animals have also eyelids1
  eyebrows and eyelashes1 which serve as
 a further protection to the eyes4      
,the principal parts of the eye are     
arranged in a globe-like ball called    
the eyeball4 ,this eyeball is movable in
 the socket under control of  various   
muscles4 ,the eyeball is almost         
surrounded by a membrane which  is      
opaque in most parts1 but very          
transparent at the front4 ,this         
transparent portion of the surrounding  
membrane is called the cornea1  and is  
quite hard4 ,this is the outside coat of
 the eye4 ,the second  coat of membrane 
consists of parts of various names and  
contains the  iris4 ,the third coat is  
the retina1 which is the end of the     
optic nerve  entering the eye full from 
behind and expanded into a membrane     
which  spreads out over the second coat4

    ,the retina or optic nerve receives 
optical impressions focused upon it  by 
the crystalline lens4 ,these impressions
 are carried along the optic  nerve to  
the brain1 and the brain then receives  
the sensation of seeing  the image4 ,the
 eyeball is hollow1 and its three       
surrounding coats  form what is         
practically the same as the interior of 
a camera4 ,the  crystalline lens of the 
eye acts the same as the lens in the    
camera4  ,this crystalline lens is      
suspended within the eyeball right in   
front of  the transparent opening in the
 front of the eyeball1 and when the rays
  of light strike this lens it focuses  
them on the retina1 which is the  same  
as the film in your camera4             
,why ,can ,we ,hear8      ,we can hear  
because nature has provided us with a   
very wonderful organ  called the ear and
 which catches the sound waves that come
 through the  air into the ear and make 
a part of the ear vibrate4    ,in man   
and mammals the ear is generally found  

on the outside of the  body1 but the    
principal part of the ear is located    
within the skull4  ,what we call ears   
are only the funnel-shaped extensions on
 the outside  of the head which are not 
so very important so far as hearing is  
concerned1 because they only help the   
real ear to hear more easily4 ,the      
outside of the ear gathers in the sound 
waves and1 because it is much  larger   
than the little hole which takes the    
sounds in to the real ear1  we can      
detect more sounds by having this       
funnel-shaped arrangement on  the       
outside4    ,the inside of the ear      
contains an eardrum or tympanum which is
  separated from the outside part of the
 ear by a membrane4 ,behind this        
eardrum is the real hearing part of the 
ear in a labyrinth containing  the      
nerves of hearing4    ,now1 when a sound
 wave strikes the membrane which hangs  
over the  opening before the eardrum1   
the membrane vibrates and transmits the 
sound wave through the eardrum into the 

inner ear which contains the  ends of   
the nerves by which we hear4 ,these     
nerves1 on receiving the  sensation1    
transmit it to the brain which thus     
records the impression  of sounds4      
,as we descend the scale of animal life 
from the mammals downward1 the  ear     
becomes a more and more simple organ4   
,in the vertebrates which  are not      
mammals1 there is no external ear at    
all1 and we find great  simplifications 
of the ear the lower down in the scale  
we go4          ,what ,is a ,totem ,pole
 ,for8      ,before people had          
individual names1 the savage people who 
lived in  clans or tribes referred to   
themselves in the name of some natural  
object1 usually an animal which they    
assumed as the name or emblem  of the   
clan or tribe4 ,these names never       
applied to one individual  more than    
another1 but only to the clan or tribe1 
so that everyone  in a tribe which had  
taken the 8wolf0 for its emblem was     
known as  8,wolf40 ,later on they began 

to distinguish individuals by giving    
them  additional names characteristic of
 the individual1 such as 8,lonely       
,wolf10 8,growling ,wolf10 or other     
names4 ,the name of this animal was     
then the emblem of one tribe4 ,they1    
therefore1 placed this emblem upon      
their bodies1 their clothes1 utensils1  
etc4 ,through this1 these emblems  also 
became at times idols of worship and so 
they erected poles upon  which their    
emblems were engraved4 ,the word totem  
is a ,north ,american  ,indian word     
meaning 8family token40 ,the tribes     
called themselves after  animals from   
which they believed themselves          
descended4          ,where ,does a      
,flower ,get ,its ,perfume8      ,the   
perfume or smell of the flower comes    
from within the plant itself4  ,the     
perfume arises from an oil which the    
plant makes1 and just as there  are many
 kinds of flowers1 so almost every      
flower has a different  smell4 ,of      
course1 flowers belonging to the same   

family or species are  likely to develop
 different smells4 ,the oils produced   
are what are  known as the volatile     
oils1 which means 8flying oils10        
because1 if  extracted from the flower  
and placed in a bottle and the cork left
 out1  they will vanish into the air4   
,without this quality we could not1 of  
course1 smell them at all4          ,why
 ,do ,flowers ,have ,perfumes8      ,man
 uses these oils to provide himself with
 perfumes1 but the plant or  flower has 
another purpose than this4 ,the perfume 
is not made for man's  use1 but for the 
use of the plant itself4 ,in the plant  
and flower world  the smell of the plant
 which is in the flower is a part of the
 scheme  whereby plants reproduce       
themselves4    ,every plant in order to 
reproduce itself must produce a seed4   
,the  flowers are in most cases the     
advance agent of the coming seed4 ,each 
flower produces within itself a little  
powder called the pollen1 but as  plants
 are like people--also male and         

female--they are dependent upon  each   
other for the production of a perfect   
seed4 ,some of the pollen  from the male
 plant must be mixed with the pollen of 
the female plant  before a perfect seed 
results4          ,how ,do ,flowers     
,produce ,seeds8      ,naturally1 the   
nearest male plant to a female plant may
 be quite some  distance off4 ,how1     
then1 is the pollen from the male plant 
to mix with  the pollen of the female   
plant8 ,in some cases it is the wind    
which  blows the pollen powder from one 
to the other1 and this thus leaves the  
development of a perfect seed from a    
perfect flower open to chance4 ,in  the 
case of perfumed flowers1 however1 which
 are mostly low-growing  plants1 the    
wind cannot be depended upon4 ,so nature
 gives to such  plants the power to make
 the perfumed oil and the busy bee does 
the  rest4 ,the perfume being a flying  
oil rises up into the air and attracts  
the bee4 ,he is gathering honey and     
visits in turn all the flowers to  which

 he is attracted4 ,he lights on a male  
flower and gathers in his  honey1 and   
incidentally acquires on his legs1      
without intending to do  so1 some of the
 pollen of the male flower4 ,then he    
flies about to the  next flower1 and to 
others1 and sooner or later he will come
 across a  female flower of the same    
kind as that from which he secured the  
pollen  on his legs4 ,when he thus      
enters the female flower1 the pollen on 
his  legs mixes with the pollen of the  
same kind of the female flower1 and     
quite unintentionally the bee helps thus
 to make the perfect seed4 ,it  is not a
 part of a bee's business to do this    
carrying4 ,it only happens  that he does
 this in connection with his regular    
business of gathering  honey4 ,it is a  
wonderful thing which may be noted here 
that the pollen  from a male of any     
flower will not mix with the pollen of  
the female of  any other kind of flower1
 but that the same kinds only have      
attractions  for each other4 ,flowers   

are given these attractive perfumes in  
order  that they may attract the bees   
and other insects in this way4 ,the     
plants or flowers which grow closest to 
the ground have generally the  strongest
 and most far-reaching smells4 ,this is 
so that they will not  be overlooked4   
,why ,are ,leaves ,not ,all the ,same   
,shape8      ,leaves are of different   
shapes because they belong to different 
families of plants or trees4 ,they are a
 good deal like people in this  respect4
 ,hardly two people in the world look   
exactly alike1 but there  is a distinct 
family resemblance in members of the    
same family4 ,it is  difficult to say   
just what happens inside the tree to    
determine the  shape of the leaf and    
that causes them to possess different   
shapes  from others4 ,the shape of the  
leaf is a mark of identification of the 
family to which the tree or plant       
belongs1 just as you can tell from a    
dog's ears and from other               
characteristics what his breeding has   

been4  ,in the case of plants and trees 
however it is quite probable that the   
shape and texture of the leaves has been
 developed as the result of  the        
conditions under which the plant grows4 
,a plant or tree throws  off oxygen and 
takes in carbonic acid gas through the  
surface of the  leaves4 ,to thrive and  
be healthy it must secure just the      
proper amount  of this food and as the  
quantity of food taken in depends upon  
the  amount of surface exposed through  
the leaves1 each particular tree or     
plant has developed in its own direction
 in this respect until this  feature of 
their structures has been adjusted      
properly to their needs4  ,it is a good 
deal like the radiation of heat in your 
home4          ,why ,are ,some          
,radiators ,longer ,than ,others8       
,when the plumber gets ready to put in  
the radiators in the home he  figures   
the cubic measurements of the room and  
then puts in a radiator1  the outside   
surface of whose pipes1 is in the right 

proportion to throw  off sufficient heat
 to fill the room or heat all the air in
 the room4  ,it requires a certain      
number of square inches of radiator     
surface to  heat each cubic foot of air 
space and a good plumber can figure this
  to a nicety4 ,if he puts in a radiator
 however that has not sufficient  number
 of square inches on the outside of the 
pipes1 the room will  not be heated     
properly4 ,in the same way1 the trees1  
require that  their leaves have a       
certain amount of square inches of      
surface space  in proportion to the size
 of the tree1 to enable them to do what 
is  required of them and this is        
arranged by nature so that the trees    
grow  naturally1 and no doubt the shape 
of the leaves has something to do  with 
this4          ,what ,makes ,roses ,red8
      ,all roses are not red4 ,some are 
white and others pink or of still       
another color4 ,the color of the rose1  
and in fact the color of all  flowers is
 due to the way they absorb and reflect 

the sunlight4 ,in the  case of the red  
rose1 the something in the plant that   
determines the  color1 absorbs all the  
other colors in the sunlight and        
reflects the  pure red rays and that    
makes the color of the red rose4 ,you   
cannot see  the color of any flower when
 it is perfectly dark4 ,that is because 
they  have no color of their own1 but   
only the colors which they reflect when 
in the sunlight or some other light4    
,the question of colors is more  fully  
explained in another part of the book4  
,why ,do ,plants and ,trees ,grow ,up   
,instead of ,down8      ,as a matter of 
fact plants and trees do grow downward  
as well as up4  ,there is a part of each
 called the root whose business it is to
 grow  down and take certain things     
necessary to the life of the tree out of
  the ground4 ,but the part we see above
 the ground and which is the part  we   
generally think of only when we think of
 plants or trees4    ,the tree or plant1
 in order to grow properly1 and         

eventually produce  flowers and perfect 
seeds1 must have sunshine and carbonic  
acid gas1  and it is the business of the
 leaves and other parts above the ground
  to get these out of the air for the   
good of the plant or tree4 ,so they     
start to grow toward the sun4 ,it is    
easy to prove how a plant will turn     
toward the light4 ,take notice of the   
plants in the flower pots at home4  ,set
 one of them on the window sill inside  
the window where the sun can  shine on  
it and notice how quickly the leaves and
 branches will be bent  over against the
 window pane4 ,turn it completely around
 then so that  the plant leans away from
 the sunlight and watch it for a day or 
two4  ,before long you will find that it
 has not only straightened itself       
completely out but started to lean      
toward the window glass again so  as to 
get as near the sun as possible4 ,most  
plants1 if kept where the  sunlight     
cannot touch them1 will die4 ,the       
sunlight is a necessary part  of their  

lives4          ,what ,becomes of the   
,plants and ,flowers in ,winter8      ,a
 great many1 in fact the large          
percentage of plants1 live only during  
one season4 ,this kind of plant actually
 dies completely after1 in the  natural 
course of growth and flowering1 it has  
produced its seed which  is the method  
by which such plants are reproduced4    
,other plants only  appear to die in the
 winter4 ,parts of them1 such as the    
leaves and  flowers actually die1 but   
the roots and stalks of such plants do  
not  die in winter4 ,the part that      
represents the life in them goes to     
sleep  and lies dormant until the light 
and warmth of summer bring forth the    
leaves and flowers again4    ,the       
flowers1 however1 always die and the    
same flowers never appear  again but    
others just like them appear in their   
places4    ,even in hot countries where 
there is no winter1 the plants must go  
through a period of rest or sleep1      
although this change is not so  marked  

in plants which grow in these hot       
countries4          ,how ,can ,some     
,plants ,climb a ,smooth ,wall8      ,to
 get at the answer to this question1 we 
should pick out one kind  of plant like 
the creeping ivy vine4 ,if we examine   
same as it climbs  a brick wall1 we find
 that it sends out little shoots which  
attach  themselves around the little    
rough places in the bricks of the wall  
which1 if examined under a microscope   
are quite large apparently--at  least   
they are large enough for the tiny      
creepers of the ivy to hold on  to4 ,of 
course1 if there were only one little   
8shoot0 to reach out and  take hold of  
the rough spots in the wall1 the vine   
could not cling to  the wall1 but the   
vine puts out a great many of these     
shoots--which it  would perhaps be best 
to call 8clingers0 and as each helps a  
little to  hold on1 the great number all
 holding on together enable a quite     
heavy  vine to hang on to an apparently 
smooth wall4    ,some vines have        

actually the ability to send out little 
suckers which  are made on the same     
principle as the boys' sucker 7a        
circular piece of  leather with string  
attached to the middle with which a boy 
can pick up  stones7 and such plants can
 cling to and climb up an almost        
perfectly  smooth wall4          ,what  
,are the ,thorns on ,roses and ,other   
,plants ,good ,for8      ,the thorns of 
roses and other plants which have thorns
 originally grew  for the purpose of    
enabling the plants to fasten themselves
 on to  other things thus helping them  
to climb4 ,many plants with thorns are  
permitted to grow now in places where   
they can use their thorns for  climbing 
but many others with thorns are cut down
 by the gardener to  make the plants    
shapely and to make them produce more   
flowers and less  branches1 but they    
keep on growing their thorns just the   
same4          ,do ,plants ,breathe8    
,yes1 indeed1 plants do breathe4 ,to    
breathe is just as important to the     

life of a plant as it is to a boy or    
girl4 ,plants do not have lungs  like   
boys and girls and grown up people1 but 
they find it necessary to  breathe4 ,you
 know1 of course1 that fishes breathe1  
but they haven't any  lungs either1 even
 though they belong to the animal       
kingdom4 ,fishes  do not1 however1      
breathe the air in the same form as we  
do because  they must use the air which 
they find in the water4 ,that is why we 
say  fishes drown when on the land4     
,they cannot breathe air in the form in 
which we are able to use it any more    
than people can breathe the air in  the 
water4    ,breathing1 however1 is       
necessary to all living things and the  
gas which  we take in when breathing is 
oxygen4 ,there is oxygen in the water as
  well as in the air4 ,things which live
 in the air take their oxygen out  of   
the air and things which live in the    
water get their oxygen out of  the      
water4 ,for this purpose it is necessary
 for plants and animals that  live under

 the water to have a breathing apparatus
 especially adapted  for getting oxygen 
out of the water4          ,what        
,happens ,when ,breathing ,occurs8      
,the act of breathing consists really of
 two actions4 ,taking something  into   
the body and expelling something4 ,every
 living thing inhales and  expels in    
breathing4 ,we take in oxygen and expel 
it again but when it  comes out it has  
added something to it and the           
combination or result is  carbonic acid 
gas--so we take in oxygen and expel     
carbonic acid gas4          ,how ,do    
,plants ,breathe8      ,the lungs of a  
plant1 or what the plant breathes with  
corresponding to  our lungs1 are located
 in the leaves of the plant4 ,under a   
magnifying  glass we can see the lungs  
of the leaf quite clearly4 ,in addition 
to  this we know that plants breathe1   
because if we put them in a vacuum      
where there is no air they die very     
quickly4 ,the plant needs air or  it    
will suffocate just as any animal will  

suffocate under similar  conditions4    
,plants1 however1 do not make use of the
 oxygen as they  find it in the air4    
,they live on the carbon which they find
 in the  air mixed with oxygen4 ,what   
happens then is this4 ,the plants take  
in  through their lungs in the leaves   
carbonic acid gas from which they  take 
the carbon and use it as food1 and throw
 off the oxygen which  they cannot use4 
,human beings and other animals take the
 oxygen into  their lungs and use it and
 expel carbonic acid gas4 ,the result is
 that  each kind of life is dependent   
upon the other4 ,if it were not for the 
plant life1 men and other animals would 
find it difficult perhaps to  find      
sufficient oxygen in the air to keep    
them alive1 and if it were  not for the 
carbonic acid gas which the animals     
throw off1 plants and  other vegetable  
life would have great difficulty in     
finding sufficient  carbonic acid gas to
 go around4          ,why ,do ,plants   
,need ,sunlight8      ,most plants1 if  

placed where no light from the sun can  
reach them1 will  die very quickly4 ,to 
prove that a plant needs the sunlight we
 have  only to place it in a dark corner
 of the cellar and notice how soon it   
dies4 ,in fact if it were not for       
sunlight there would be no life on      
earth at all4 ,the plant or tree drinks 
in sunlight through the surface  of the 
leaves4 ,in fact the ability to take in 
sunlight constitutes the  real life of  
the tree or plant4 ,leaves grow thin and
 flat in order  that as much surface as 
possible may be exposed to the sunlight4
 ,if  a leaf were curled up like a hoop 
only a part of the outside surface      
would be exposed to the sunlight and the
 amount of life that a leaf  could      
supply to the rest of the tree would be 
much less4 ,the leaf is so  constructed 
that when the sunlight strikes down upon
 its green surface1  it changes the     
carbonic acid gas which it drinks in1   
into its elements1  i4e41 it takes out  
the carbon which goes into the body of  

the plant and  combining with other food
 and water supplied by the roots causes 
the  plant or tree to grow and then     
returns the oxygen part of the carbonic 
acid gas to the air4          ,why ,does
 ,milk ,turn ,sour8      ,the milk turns
 sour because a little microbe1 known as
 the milk microbe  gets into it1 and    
being very fond of the sugar which is in
 the milk1  turns this sugar into an    
acid4    ,if we could keep milk entirely
 away from the air after the cow is     
milked1 it would not turn sour1 but as  
soon as it is exposed to the air  these 
microbes which are constantly in the    
air1 drop into the milk4  ,they are     
alive1 although invisible to the naked  
eye4 ,if when they drop  into the milk  
it is warm enough for them to get in    
their work so to  speak1 they fall upon 
the sugar in the milk and turn it into  
the acid4  ,their attempt to sour the   
milk can be overcome by keeping the milk
 at a  low temperature in the           
refrigerator1 but as soon as the milk is

 taken  out of the refrigerator and left
 out long enough to become warm1 the    
microbe begins to work and the milk     
cannot be made sweet again4 ,if the     
milk is boiled as soon or shortly after 
the cow is milked1 the sugar in  the    
milk is changed in such a way that the  
microbe cannot feed upon it4            
,illustration3 ,a ,,persian ,,rug       
,,weaver ,,at ,,work4#c      #c         
,pictures and descriptions by courtesy  
of ,hartford ,carpet ,co4          ,the 
,story in a ,rug      ,what ,are        
,carpets and ,rugs ,made ,of8    ,the   
choicest wool of the world is used in   
the manufacture of carpet4  ,in order to
 give satisfactory service carpet must  
be made of wool that  is of a tough     
quality and has a long fiber4 ,such wool
 is not produced  in ,america1 and the  
markets of the distant lands that supply
 it are  practically exhausted to supply
 the ,american manufacturers4 ,most of  
the  wool used comes from ,northern     
,russia1 ,siberia and ,china4 ,it is    

shipped  in bales4 ,when it arrives at  
the mill there is much to be done before
  the wool is ready for any process of  
manufacturing4      ,how ,long ,have    
,people ,used ,carpets8    ,the art of  
weaving stands foremost among the       
ancient industries4 ,it  came into being
 in the sunrise lands of the ,east where
 color has  endless charm and variety   
and where figure is made to serve the   
purpose  of fact and fancy4 ,the art of 
weaving rugs is older than ,egyptian    
civilization4 ,stone carvings made when 
,egypt was yet unborn were  reproduced  
in rugs4    ,at what period the loom was
 first used is impossible to tell4 ,an  
ancient ,jewish legend claims that      
,naamah1 daughter of ,tubal-,cain1 was  
the inventor of the process of weaving  
threads into cloth4 ,there are  other   
indications that the ancient ,hebrews   
were the first weavers4  ,mythology also
 tells of beautiful maidens weaving     
exquisite patterns  for the gods4 ,most 
of us are familiar with the story of    

,jason who set  sail on the ,argo in    
search of the ,golden ,fleece1 arrived  
at the kingdom  of ,aeetes1 won the hand
 of ,medea1 the daughter of ,aeetes1 who
 eloped  with him after he had secured  
the coveted fleece4    ,the first hands 
busy at the weaving craft undoubtedly   
were those of  women4 ,chaldean gossip1 
repeated in history relates that        
,sardanphulees1  an ancient ,greek king1
 was often seen in woman's garb carding 
purple  wool from which his wives       
wrought rugs for floor coverings for the
  palace4 ,homer shows ,helen of ,troy  
setting the tale of her people's  war in
 the woof of her web1 and also tells    
with ,virgil of rugs that  were laid    
under the thrones of kings or upon      
chariot horses4 ,ancient  ,hindu hymns  
show that these people made their       
textile fabrics studies  of great       
beauty4 ,the woman in the ,proverbs of  
,solomon says3 8,i have  woven my bed   
with cords2 ,i have covered it with     
painted tapestry from  ,egypt40 ,one    

learns from the writings of ,pliny of   
the large money value  of rugs in       
ancient times4 ,he wrote at length of a 
vast rug displayed at  a banquet of     
,ptolemy ,philadelphius1 the value of   
which was placed at a  fabulous sum4    
,a later writer tells of the love of    
,cleopatra for rich rugs and  tapestries
 that were woven in her palace or in the
 countries to the  ,east4 ,on the       
occasions of her meeting with ,csar and 
,antony1 the  ,egyptian queen enveloped 
herself in a superb rug which she had   
woven  especially for the purpose of    
showing her renowned beauty to the best 
advantage4 ,akhar1 emperor of           
,hindostan1 spread a knowledge of the   
art  of weaving throughout ,india4      
,the earlier phases of the art of       
weaving may be traced through the  land 
of the ,pharaohs to ,northern ,africa1  
,southwestern ,asia1 and  finally into  
the dawn of the ,aryan civilization4    
,the loom has not been  materially      
changed1 and it may be seen to-day as it

 was in the time  when the priests of   
,heliopolis decorated the shrines of    
their gods with  magnificent carpets and
 when ,delilah wove the hair of ,samson 
with her  web and fastened it with a    
wooden pin4 ,the ancient weavers        
attained  high artistic standards in    
their fabrics4 ,pliny tells of          
,babylonian  couch covers that had all  
the beauty of paintings and sold for    
great  fortunes to the ancient ,asiatic 
kings4    ,in all ages fine rugs have   
been used for religious purposes4 ,early
  writings describe the use of rugs on  
the holy cars of pilgrimage to  ,mecca1 
at the tomb of the prophet at ,medinah  
and throughout the mosques  of the      
,orient4 ,the abbot ,egelric gave to the
 church at ,croyland1 before  the year  
#hib1 two large rugs to be laid before  
the high altar on great  festivals4 ,at 
later periods rugs were used for similar
 purposes in the  cathedrals of         
,southern ,europe4    ,the ,oriental    
people ever have been devoted to symbols

 and naturally  wove them into their    
fabrics4 ,their textiles were made to   
reproduce  mythological stories in which
 the fauna and flora of a country       
figured  prominently4 ,there was the    
symbolism of form1 color and animal     
life1  of trees and flowers1 of faith1  
and earthly and heavenly existence4     
,the symbols were made to illustrate the
 conflict between light and  darkness1  
the evolution of life1 the decay of     
death and the immortality  that awaits  
the blessed in paradise4      ,what ,do 
the ,designs in ,rugs ,mean8    ,since  
many of the figures of ancient          
rug-weaving are retained in modern  rug 
designs1 the following list of meanings 
of ancient ,oriental symbols  used in   
rug-weaving may be interesting as a key 
to the stories that are  said to appear 
in many rugs of ,oriental design3       
,asp--intelligence    ,bat--duration    
,bee--immortality    ,beetle--earthly   
life    ,blossom--life    ,boat--serene 
spirit    ,butterfly--soil              

,crescent--celestial virgin             
,crocodile--deity    ,dove--love        
,eagle--creation    ,egg--life          
,feather--truth    ,goose--child        
,lizard--wisdom    ,palm                
tree--immortality    ,sail of           
vessel--breath    ,wheel--deity         
,lion--power    ,ass--humility          
,butterfly--beneficence of summer       
,jug--knowledge    ,ox--patience        
,hawk--power    ,lotus--the sun         
,pine-cone--fire    ,zigzag--water      
,leopard--fame    ,sword--force         
,serpent--desire    ,bird--spirit       
,owl--wisdom    ,pig--kindness    ,such 
are the traditions that the makers of   
modern rugs must live up to4  ,the art  
of the centuries has been revealed in   
the rugs of many nations1  and the      
rug-maker of to-day must uphold the     
standards of an art that  undoubtedly   
takes rank with the great arts4 ,where a
 valuable painting  goes into the home  
of one millionaire1 thousands of rugs   
made from  an original design of        

unquestioned art and beauty go into     
homes the  country over to give warmth1 
comfort and beauty1 delighting          
housewives  and imparting a sense of    
coziness and elegance4    ,according to 
students of the art of weaving1 the     
perfection of this  art was attained    
about the sixteenth century1 after many 
centuries of  slow growth4 ,since then  
weaving as an art has been broadened and
 given  a wider scope by means of       
processes invented for a cheaper        
production  of rugs in all the beauty of
 their original designs4 ,but there also
 has  developed a modern school of rug  
and carpet designing that in itself     
represents no mean standard of art4     
,many of the less expensive grades  of  
,american rugs and carpets1 for example1
 are of designs created by  artists of  
this modern school of weaving designs   
whose work is of a  high degree of      
artistic excellence4    ,illustration3  
,,how ,,our ,,grandmothers ,,made ,,rag 
,,carpets    ,,making ,,the ,,old ,,rag 

,,carpet4    ,a quarter of a century ago
 many homes had rugs woven by the       
housewives  with their spinning-wheels1 
or no floor coverings1 except crude     
cloths made of rags4 ,these homes1 of   
course1 were those of families  in      
moderate circumstances1 which to-day can
 have their attractive and              
comfort-giving rugs of the less         
expensive grades of tapestry carpet1    
,axminster or of the various other      
grades of carpet manufactured at a      
range of prices within the financial    
reach of people of modest means4    ,it 
is only a step from the ancient weaving 
of rugs1 with all the color1  glamor and
 romance that attached to rug-weaving in
 the ancient days1 to  the manufacture  
of rugs in ,america to-day4 ,there is no
 romance attached  to the making of rugs
 and carpets in ,america1 except the    
romance of  industrial achievement2 but 
the ,american rug-maker is as careful of
 the  quality and beauty of his product 
as was the ancient weaver1 and the  best

 standards of ancient weaving have been 
realized in the manufacture  of rugs and
 carpets in ,america to-day4      ,why  
,did the ,ancients ,make ,rugs8    ,it  
is only a rug1 several yards of woven   
threads1 a design that few  can         
understand--a simple thing1 to be sure2 
yet what a lot of history  and memories 
and traditions it carries6 ,merely a    
strip of carpet1 with  strange figures1 
beautiful though meaningless1 a product 
of modern  invention like many another1 
some may think4 ,but the story of a rug 
may  go back through many centuries to  
ancient times of opulent splendor1  when
 wars were waged and kingdoms created   
and shattered for the beauty  of a      
woman2 when gorgeous palaces were raised
 and great spectacles of  art were shown
 to inspire the world for thousands of  
years4    ,only a rug1 but a relic of a 
rich and glowing past6 ,for in those    
distant days of war and pageantry1 an   
era more classic than our own1  history 
and romance were woven into the rug4    

,the patterns and designs  told great   
stories of wars and loves that swept    
nations away and  created great new     
empires and related vivid accounts of   
intrigue and  tragedy that determined   
history and inspired the immortal works 
of  poets and dramatists4 ,the rug in   
the ancient times was also used for     
religious symbolism1 and sacred         
doctrines were inscribed in the woven   
figures4    ,of all the arts none has   
been as close to the lives and history  
of the  peoples of the earth as the art 
of weaving4 ,songs and stories of these 
peoples and their national achievements 
have been immortalized through  their   
woven fabrics4 ,generations have learned
 of the great deeds of  their           
forefathers through the historical      
accounts woven into rugs4 ,and  in the  
days of the early ,greeks1 ,hebrews and 
,egyptians and on through  the          
succeeding centuries until the middle   
ages the rug was used as a  symbolical  
part of state1 religious and romantic   

ceremonies4      ,what ,makes ,some     
,rugs so ,valuable8    ,the reason many 
rugs are valued at so high a price in   
money is largely  due to the skill of   
the artist or designer1 just as a       
painting becomes  valuable because the  
artist who painted it has succeeded in  
producing a  remarkable result4 ,the    
question of rarity also enters largely  
into the  value of rugs4 ,the great     
artist weavers of the past who worked   
for love  of their art rather than for  
the money they might secure by disposing
  of their masterpieces1 are dead1 and  
they have had no successors4  ,then1    
also1 the rug becomes valuable by reason
 of the amount of time  and labor put   
into it4 ,many valuable rugs take years 
to produce1  because the artist must do 
all his work by hand practically and tie
 his  different colored yarns together  
just so1 or the pattern will not come   
right4 ,these knots may occur every inch
 or sometimes even less than an  inch1  
and there will be thousands of hand     

knots in one rug4    ,illustration3     
,,making ,,turkish ,,rugs4              
,illustration3 ,,the ,,older ,,they     
,,are ,,the ,,more ,,highly ,,prized    
,the above is a typical ,chinese rug1   
containing symbolical emblems4    ,this 
is an antique and is of a class that    
sells sometimes as high as  #e1jjj1 its 
rarity of design1 beauty in colors1 and 
scarcity enhances  its value4           
,illustration3 ,this is an ,american    
machine-made interpretation of a        
,chinese rug4 ,the ground is a rich gold
 coloring1 the figures being in  ecru1  
dark blue1 terra cotta and light blue4  
,it is a beautiful rug1 and  one of the 
finest examples of loom-tufted goods    
ever produced4    ,illustration3 ,,where
 ,,the ,,best ,,persian ,,rugs ,,are    
,,made    ,this antique ,persian was    
made in the district of ,kurdistan1 in  
,western  ,persia4 ,the general effect  
is handsome1 although the design is     
crude4  ,the ground is of a deep rich   
red1 and top colors of dark blue and    

ecru4    ,the most valuable ,persian    
rugs come from ,kurdistan1 ,khurasan1   
,peraghan  and ,karman4 ,the most highly
 prized come from ,kurdistan4 ,the      
pattern  does not show a uniform ground 
of flowers or other objects1 but  looks 
more like a field of wild flowers in the
 spring1 which is very  appropriate as a
 design for anything that is to be      
walked upon4 ,it  is astonishing what   
wonderful artistic ability is displayed 
by some  of the members of these wild   
nomadic ,persian people4 ,the carpets   
and  rugs are woven on a simple frame on
 which the warp is stretched4 ,the      
woof1 or cross threads1 consist of short
 threads woven into the warp  with the  
fingers and without the use of a        
shuttle4 ,then a sort of comb  is       
pressed against the loose row of cross  
threads to tighten it4 ,the  weaver sits
 with the back of the rug towards him1  
so that he depends  entirely on his     
memory to produce a perfect pattern4    
,illustration3 ,this rug is an ,american

 copy of a typical ,kurdistan4 ,it  is  
marvellous how well the effect in colors
 and design are reproduced  in this     
domestic rug4    ,illustration3 ,,how   
,,we ,,imitate ,,popular ,,designs ,,by 
,,machinery    ,this ,tabriz            
reproduction has all the characteristics
 of the genuine rug  in both design and 
color4 ,the ground is of a soft rose    
with figures  olives1 ivory and deep    
blue4    ,illustration3 ,this is a copy 
of an old piece of a rug in the         
,kensington ,museum1 ,london1 which is  
#ejj to #fjj years old4 ,the design is  
very interesting on account of the      
symbolical figures which cover the      
ground4    ,illustration3               
,,wool-,,picking ,,machine4             
,the ,making of ,carpets      ,how ,are 
,modern ,rugs and ,carpets ,made8       
,the best way to learn of this is for us
 to take a brief visit to one  of the   
largest carpet factories1 where we will 
assume we have already  arrived4        
,there is a sharp whistle1 then an      

outlet of steam1 the clang of a bell    
and a locomotive rolls around the curve 
of the spur-track into the  factory     
yard4 ,attached to it are several       
freight cars that only the  day before  
received their cargoes at the ,new ,york
 docks fresh from  steamships coming    
from foreign lands4 ,inside the yard1   
the engine comes  to a stop alongside a 
warehouse4 ,sturdy men unlock the doors 
of the  cars and begin pulling out bales
 of the imported wool4    ,this is the  
first step in the evolution of a rug4   
,between the arrival  of the rough wool 
at the warehouse and the placing in the 
stock room  of the finished rug1        
splendidly woven after an artistic      
design shown  in attractive colors1 many
 interesting processes are followed4 ,it
 is  sufficient to state that few people
 looking at rugs of the ,saxony1  or    
,axminster or ,tapestry type realize the
 high degree of mechanical  science and 
artistic perception that have been      
brought to bear in the  manufacture of  

these rugs4    ,after the arrival of the
 wool there are many steps to be taken  
until  the skeins of yarn receive their 
coloring treatment in the dye-house     
and1 at the bidding of the great        
machine1 assemble themselves in the     
beautiful designs that the artists have 
created4 ,though there are  many details
 of work in the development of a rug1   
they have been so  well mastered that   
the employes in charge of every stage of
 the rug's  evolution give to their work
 a nicety of attention in little time   
that  careful training and scientific   
understanding alone can supply4    ,the 
travel-stained covers of the bales are  
removed4 ,the heavy bulk is  broken and 
the tightly-compressed bales loosened4  
,then the wool is fed  into the         
washing-machine1 and after that goes    
into the picking-machine4  ,the process 
of cleansing the wool is an elaborate   
one1 for it is so  full of dirt and     
grease that several waters and several  
operations are  necessary to its final  

appearance in a white and fleecy        
condition4  ,after the last washing the 
wool is lifted to a drying-room1 where  
the  heat from steam-coils is forced    
through it by means of blowers4    ,the 
wool now passes to the sorting-room1    
where the blends are carefully  made    
before it goes to the machine which     
tears the wool fibers apart1  and gets  
them in shape for the carding and       
combing processes4 ,next  the wool is   
blown into a spinning mill4 ,the wool is
 now ready to be  converted into yarn4  
,it passes through a picking-machine1   
which blends  the different grades of   
the raw material1 selecting the strands 
as to  fiber and color4 ,then it is     
refined and purified4    ,illustration3 
,,carding ,,machine    ,through tubes   
the wool is forced to the carding-room  
by means of air  pressure4 ,in passing  
through the cards it is carefully       
weighed to  secure evenness in the yarn4
 ,leaving the carding machine1 the wool 
is taken to the floor above1 where the  

big spools of yarn reach the  combing   
machine for the next process4 ,this     
machine separates the long  from the    
short fibers4 ,the strands of wool are  
still thick and must go  through another
 process before they are ready to be    
made into yarn4  ,they are finally      
united and given sufficient strength to 
stand the  weaving process4 ,as the     
visitor sees the strands of yarn first  
appear  on the machine they resemble    
rolls of smoke4    ,illustration3       
,,dyeing ,,the ,,yarn    ,,how ,,the    
,,yarn ,,for ,,carpets ,,is ,,dyed      
,the yarn next appears on rows of       
spindles in the mule-room1 six hundred  
feet long1 where the yarn is twisted and
 brought to its final stage4  ,the yarn 
now is ready for the dye-house4 ,here   
the atmosphere is very  dense4 ,clouds  
of steam rise from the many vats of     
boiling dyes4 ,the  yarn receives the   
coloring for which it is intended1 or is
 bleached  in an adjoining department1  
and then is transferred on poles to the 

drying-room1 after passing through a    
steaming process which sets the  color4 
,next it passes on an electric conveyor 
to the weave-shop4    ,considerable     
skill is required in the weaving        
process4 ,the assembling  of the yarns  
and matching of colors require expert   
attention4 ,the  skeins of yarn are     
wound on spools1 which are put in sets  
back of the  looms1 each color or set   
representing one 8frame0 of color in the
 rug4  ,by the famous ,jacquard motion  
of cards each color wanted in the       
surface  of the rug is pulled up in its 
proper place1 the other frame color     
laying in the back of the rug4 ,the     
mechanical process is a remarkable      
sight4 ,as the pattern forms itself from
 the mechanical devices1 the  onlooker  
is struck with the wonder of it4        
,illustration3 ,,how ,a ,,carpet ,,is   
,,woven ,,by ,,machinery    ,,weaving ,a
 ,,rug ,,by ,,machinery                 
,illustration3 #aj1jjj1jjj ,,yards ,,of 
,,carpet ,,per ,,year ,,from ,,one      

,,factory    ,this picture shows the    
plant of one of the largest carpet      
factories in  the ,united ,states at    
,thompsonville1 ,conn4 ,from the looms  
of these mills  are annually produced   
ten-million yards of the twenty-five    
different  grades of carpet manufactured
 by this concern4    ,imagine a strip of
 carpet across the ,united ,states at   
its widest  part1 the ,forty-second     
latitude--a strip of 8,hartford         
,saxony01 say1  stretching from the     
,atlantic seaboard to the ,pacific      
coast2 and then  another carpet strip   
the length of the ,united ,states1 where
 this  country is the longest--i4 e41   
from the ,northern boundary of the      
state of ,minnesota to the ,southern    
boundary of the state of ,texas2  then  
imagine one more strip stretching from  
,chicago to ,new ,orleans1  and finally 
a connection between the two latter     
strips at about the  vicinity of ,st4   
,louis4    ,with a mental picture of    
this vast country thus stripped with    

carpet1  you wonder if there is that    
much carpet in the world4 ,it seems     
incredible that this great sweep of land
 could be measured with  carpet--and yet
 enough material comes every year from  
the looms of one  carpet factory alone  
in this country to strip the ,united    
,states ,east  and ,west1 and ,north and
 ,south as indicated above4    ,the     
weave is now completed2 the rug comes   
out4 ,but it is rough and  has to be    
finished4 ,it is passed through a       
machine that removes the  roughness of  
the face as a lawn-mower cuts away the  
top-grass4 ,the ends  are finished1 and 
the carpet is complete4    ,,some       
,,designs ,,stamped ,,on ,,yarn ,,before
 ,,weaving    ,the pattern of tapestry  
carpet is obtained by printing the      
colors  to appear in the design on the  
yarn which forms the face before the    
weaving is started1 by means of large   
drums4 ,after all rugs leave the        
weave-shop a force of skilled women     
examine them carefully to make sure     

that there are no defects4 ,every yard  
of the annual output of carpet  and rugs
 is inspected five times before it      
leaves the factory4    ,illustration3   
,,examining ,,and ,,repairing           
,illustration3 ,,packing ,,for          
,,shipment          ,why ,do ,i ,yawn8  
,when you yawn1 you do so because you   
have not been breathing quite  properly 
and for some reason or other your blood 
supply has not been  getting sufficient 
oxygen through the air which has been   
taken into  your lungs4 ,nature's way1  
in this instance1 is to call for a big  
intake  of air all at one time1 and     
since it is important at such times that
 a  large quantity of air should be     
supplied to the lungs at once1 nature   
has so arranged matters that certain    
muscles shall cause you to open  your   
mouth wide and take in as much air as   
you can at one time1 and  also has      
arranged so that it is almost impossible
 to keep from yawning  when the demand  
for it is once made4 ,the yawn is       

controlled by a part  of our nerve      
structure which looks after the         
breathing apparatus4    ,the            
satisfaction we feel after a wholesome  
yawn is due to the fact that  having    
replied to nature's demand that we bring
 in more air1 our blood  secures the    
oxygen which it needs and we feel the   
effect of better  blood in our arteries 
at once4    ,a peculiar thing about the 
process of yawning is that one person in
  a room yawning will quite likely set  
all or nearly all the others to  yawning
 also4 ,there seems to be no explanation
 of this excepting that  when a number  
of people are in one room and one of    
them begins to  yawn1 the others do so1 
not because they perceive the first yawn
 so  much as the probable fact that the 
air in the room has become so poor  that
 there is not enough good air for all   
the people in it1 breathing  normally1  
and many of them are forced to yawn at  
about the same time4          ,where ,do
 ,living ,things ,come ,from8      ,this

 is a big subject1 but a very           
interesting one4 ,to understand it      
fully we must begin at the very         
beginning of the world4    ,god made    
first of all the rocks1 the mountains1  
the sun1 the moon1 the  stars1 the soil1
 and put the water in the lakes1 rivers 
and oceans4  ,this took a long time1 but
 they had to be there before the living 
things could begin to be4          ,what
 is ,inorganic ,matter8      ,this thing
 we have spoken of is called inorganic  
matter1 which means  8without life10 and
 everything in the world which has no   
life is called  inorganic matter4 ,these
 things do not die1 and for that reason 
do not  have to be replaced4 ,the form  
and appearance of inorganic matter and  
its location is often changed by man or 
other causes1 but even when man  burns  
the coal which he has dug up out of the 
ground in the furnace1 no  part of it is
 destroyed4 ,some of it is turned into  
smoke and gas and  some of it is turned 
into ashes1 while every other particle  

which went  to make up the coal         
originally is still in existence4 ,it   
remains as  inorganic matter in some    
form or other4          ,where ,did     
,life ,begin on ,earth8      ,after the 
inorganic things had been made and the  
earth was ready for  life1 the different
 kinds of living things which we find on
 the earth  began to exist4 ,these are  
called organic objects1 which means     
objects  8with life40 ,the first living 
things to appear were the bushes1 the   
grass1 the garden vegetables1 the       
flowers1 trees1 and all the kinds of    
life which we ordinarily think of as    
growing things4    ,this division of    
living things makes up what we call the 
vegetable  kingdom1 and in a general way
 of classing it is the kind of life     
which cannot move about from place to   
place and which has not a sense  of     
feeling1 or any of the other senses1    
seeing1 hearing1 tasting or  smelling4  
,after this division of life had been   
established the world was ready  for the

 other and more important form of       
life--the fishes1 the birds1  cats1     
dogs1 horses1 cows1 with others that we 
call domestic animals1  and also the    
lions1 tigers1 elephants and others     
which constitute the  division of wild  
animals4    ,this kind of life was given
 some or all of the five senses1 but not
  all classes of animal life possess all
 these senses4 ,some of the lower  forms
 of animal life1 like the oysters1      
clams1 in the fish family1  cannot see1 
hear1 smell or taste4 ,they can only    
feel2 others are able  to do more of    
these things1 and many have all of the  
five senses4          ,when ,did ,man   
,begin to ,live8      ,man was not      
created until all the other living      
things on earth had been  started1 and  
he was given additional powers so that  
he might become the  ruler of all the   
other living things1 principally because
 he was given  a brain with power to    
think1 reason and originate4            
,why ,must ,life ,be ,reproduced8       

,life must be reproduced because living 
things die4 ,they have power to  live   
only for a certain length of time4 ,the 
other life in the world is  used to     
provide food for man1 and if there were 
no way of reproducing  life it would not
 be long before man had eaten all the   
vegetables and  the animals too1 and    
would himself then starve to death4     
,to avoid such a calamity ,god put into 
each living thing1 both  vegetables and 
animals1 a power to cause other things  
of the same kind  as itself to grow4    
,this is called the power of            
reproduction4 ,with this  power each    
kind of living thing can bring other    
specimens of the same  kind into the    
world and each kind of living thing can 
do this without  aid from any other kind
 of life4    ,the trees1 the flowers1   
and other kinds of vegetable life would 
reproduce themselves without the aid of 
man1 as would also the fishes  and other
 kinds of animal life4 ,man1 however1   
just to have things  conveniently at    

hand1 uses his power over other life to 
cause his  vegetables to grow near where
 he lives1 and keep the animals which he
  wishes to use as food in some place   
where he doesn't have to hunt for  them 
every time he wishes meat for his table4
 ,this1 however1 he does  only with the 
animals which he has domesticated or    
tamed4 ,when he wants  meat from the    
animals which are still wild he must    
hunt for them as he  used to do4        
,each kind of life has the power1       
however1 to reproduce only its own      
kind4 ,if you plant a peach stone you   
will sooner or later have a peach  tree 
which will bear peaches1 and these      
peaches from the young tree  will look  
and taste just like the peach whose pit 
or stone you planted4  ,there may be    
other kinds of fruit trees all about1   
and also trees which  do not bear fruit4
 ,all of the trees secure the food upon 
which they  live and grow from the same 
soil4 ,even the grass under your peach  
tree  eats the same things as your peach

 tree1 but it remains always true  that 
things in the vegetable kingdom will    
grow only to be like the  thing from    
which it came4          ,have ,plants   
,fathers and ,mothers8      ,the little 
trees grow up to be exactly like their  
fathers and mothers  7for they have     
fathers and mothers71 which is something
 all living  things must have4 ,these   
are not the same kind of fathers1 or    
mothers  either1 that a boy or girl has1
 exactly1 but they are parents just the 
same4 ,so far as the trees1 flowers and 
plants are concerned we call the        
parents father and mother natures1 which
 is a term used merely to keep  you from
 confusing vegetable life fathers and   
mothers with the regular  kind4    ,in  
the vegetable kingdom you cannot always 
see these father and mother  natures1   
which enable them to reproduce their    
kind of life1 but  everything in the    
vegetable and also in the animal kingdom
 has them4          ,how ,do ,plants    
,reproduce ,life8      ,in the spring we

 put seeds into the ground and later on 
plants grow up  where the seeds were    
planted1 and later the flowers come4    
,the seeds  contain the baby plants1    
which come to life1 and after bursting  
the  covering of the seed1 unfold and   
grow up into plants if placed in the    
ground1 where they can obtain the proper
 amount of warmth and moisture  to give 
them a start4          ,why ,do ,plants 
,have ,seeds8      ,to get at this      
subject in the best manner we must study
 first how  plants produce seeds and    
what happens4 ,the power in a plant to  
make  another plant like it grow comes  
from the flower4 ,ordinarily we think   
of the flowers as beautiful to look at  
and delightful to smell1 but  the       
flowers do not grow for the mere purpose
 of being beautiful1 but  are for a more
 useful purpose--to develop a seed      
which1 when planted1  will produce      
another plant4 ,the machinery for       
producing a perfect  seed is in the     
flower or blossom4 ,every flower has a  

definite plan of  construction4 ,the    
leaves and colors vary1 but the plan for
 a perfect  flower is always there4 ,the
 petals which are generally colored are 
called the crown4 ,when you pluck off   
the petals you see a number  of green   
leaves at the bottom where the petals   
were attached4 ,these  form what is     
called the calyx1 and help to hold the  
petals in place4  ,inside the flower are
 little stems which grow to the petals4 
,these are  called stamens4 ,every one  
of these little stems is hollow1 and if 
you split one open you will discover a  
fine powder4 ,this powder is  called    
pollen1 and is the 8father0 nature of   
the plant4 ,in the calyx1  the part we  
had left after we plucked off the       
petals1 is the 8mother0  nature of the  
plant4 ,the main part of the mother     
nature is the stem of  the flower called
 the ovary1 and this is where the seeds 
grow4 ,these  seeds in the ovary1       
however1 will not become perfect seeds  
unless some  of the pollen from the     

8father0 nature of the plant touches    
them and  fertilizes them4    ,at the   
proper age of the flower some of this   
pollen powder passes into  the ovary and
 fertilizes the seeds and makes them    
good seeds4 ,this is  only one kind of  
flower1 however4 ,in this kind the      
father and mother  natures are in the   
same flower4 ,in other kinds of plants  
the father and  mother natures are found
 on different parts of the same plant4  
,why ,does an ,ear of ,corn ,have ,silk8
      ,the corn plant is one of this    
kind4 ,you know what it looks like--a   
tall  plant1 generally six or seven feet
 high4 ,the ears of corn grow out of    
the side of the corn stalk4 ,the ear is 
covered with husks and out of  the end  
of the ear hangs a bunch of brown silk  
threads which we term  corn silk4 ,up at
 the top of the plant you will see the  
tassel1 but  you may not have known that
 this is the flower of the corn plant4  
,the  tassel or flower in this case     
contains the 8father nature0 of the corn

  plant1 and the ear of corn contains   
the 8mother nature40 ,the husks on  the 
outside of the ear of corn protect the  
grains of corn on the ear  inside and   
keep them tender4 ,the ear of corn is   
really the ovary of  the corn plant1    
because that is where the seeds grow4   
,you will guess1  of course1 that the   
grains of corn on the ear are but seeds 
of the  plant4 ,were you to examine one 
of these ears of corn on the plant when 
it had just started to form you would   
find no kernels on the cob1 but  only   
little marks which indicated where the  
grains of corn are expected  to grow1   
but if you want to know1 then1 how many 
grains of corn were  expected to grow on
 the ear1 you could easily tell by      
counting the  little silk threads which 
you see on the cob and which stick out  
over  the end4 ,there will be a thread  
of silk for each grain of corn that is  
expected to grow4    ,every grain of    
corn must receive some of the pollen    
powder from the  tassel or father nature

 at the top of the corn plant or it will
 not  develop into a nice large1 juicy  
kernel4          ,how ,does the ,pollen 
,touch the ,grain of ,corn8      ,before
 the kernels of corn grow the tassel is 
in bloom4 ,the wind blows  and shakes   
the pollen powder off of the tassel and 
the powder falls  on the ends of the    
silk which stick out of the little ear  
of corn to  be4 ,each thread of silk    
then carries a little of the powder down
 to  the spot on the ear where it is    
attached and thus the grain of corn     
receives the fertilizing necessary to   
develop it into a ripe seed4  ,if you   
leave the ear of corn alone the kernel  
will eventually become  yellow and hard 
and can then be planted and will produce
 other corn  plants4 ,man1 however1     
finds the ear of corn a delightful food1
 if taken  at a time when the seeds are 
fully grown but not yet ripened into    
perfect seeds4 ,at this stage the grains
 of corn would not grow up again  if    
planted1 because they have not yet      

become perfect seeds4          ,do      
,father and ,mother ,plants ,always     
,live ,together8      ,we come now to   
the kinds of plants on which the        
8father0 and 8mother0  natures are on   
different plants of the same kind4 ,at  
times they will  grow side by side1 at  
other times they will be in the same    
field1 but  very often they grow at     
quite a distance from each other4 ,in   
some  instances the nearest father tree 
will be even miles away from the  mother
 tree of the same kind4 ,but in any     
event the pollen from the  father nature
 must reach the mother nature of the    
plant or tree before  a perfect seed can
 be produced4 ,in cases of this kind the
 father nature  will be on one tree or  
plant and the ovary or mother nature on 
another4  ,the wind helps out nature in 
some of these cases by blowing the      
pollen  of the father plant to the ovary
 of the mother plant4 ,in many other    
instances the bees and insects help4    
,why ,do ,flowers ,have ,smells8        

,where the bees do this it is because   
the bee has been visiting the  flowers  
in his search for honey4 ,they do not   
fly from flower to flower  for the      
purpose of uniting the mother and father
 natures of plants1 but  they help the  
flowers incidentally while getting the  
honey for which  they are searching4 ,in
 gathering his honey the busy bee will  
go all  over the father flower and get  
his legs all covered with pollen powder4
  ,sooner or later he comes to a mother 
flower of the same kind of plant  or    
tree from which he has father pollen on 
his legs1 and1 still bent on  gathering 
honey1 he incidentally rubs the pollen  
powder on to the ovary  of the mother   
flower and the fertilization takes      
place4 ,the wonderful  thing about this 
is that the father pollen of one kind of
 a plant will  not fertilize the mother 
nature of another kind of plant4 ,to    
illustrate  this1 if a bee carrying     
pollen on his legs from a walnut blossom
 visits  the mother blossom of a hickory

 tree the pollen of the walnut would not
  affect the hickory blossom1 but would 
still have the proper effect on  the    
first walnut mother blossom he visited4 
,this is how life in general is         
reproduced among the plants and trees4  
,life in the vegetable kingdom has no   
sense of feeling or any of the  other   
senses1 but this kind of life is still  
true to its own nature  and is a wise   
thing in the plan of creation1 because1 
since all seed  will produce only plants
 like those from which the seed came1   
man can  control the growth of the      
vegetables and fruits he needs as food4 
,he  knows when he plants corn that he  
will get corn in return1 because        
perfect seed never makes a mistake4 ,it 
would mix things up terribly for  man if
 this were not so1 because man might    
then plant one thing and  find another  
thing growing4 ,it would be a sad thing 
to plant wheat and  find thistles       
growing4    ,in order that seeds may    
grow they must be planted under         

conditions that  suit the kind of       
vegetable life in the seed4 ,man has to 
study and learn  what these conditions  
are4    ,if a seed is planted too deeply
 the sun may not have a chance to warm  
the ground to that depth1 and if it is  
planted too near the surface it  may    
become too warm and be killed by the    
sun4 ,when planted under the  proper    
conditions the seed soon begins to grow4
 ,it grows upward toward  the sun to get
 light and air1 and it sends roots down 
into the ground  to get food and        
moisture4    ,the life in the vegetable 
kingdom is soon able to take care of    
itself4          ,how ,are ,fishes      
,born8      ,the next step in the study 
of the reproduction of life brings us to
  the animal kingdom4 ,the first thing  
we discover in this section is  that in 
the animal kingdom father and mother    
natures are almost always  separated4   
,in plants and trees these parent       
natures are sometimes in  the same      
flower1 often separated1 but on the same

 plant1 and in other  instances on      
different plants miles apart4 ,what we  
must remember1 then1  is that in the    
case of plants it is given more or less 
to the chance of  wind or other         
circumstances to bring the parent       
natures together4    ,in the animal     
kingdom there are a few cases where the 
mother and father  natures are found in 
the same living object1 as in the oyster
 and  clam families1 one of the lowest  
forms of animal life4 ,these have but   
one of the five senses--that of feeling4
 ,this class of animals--the            
cold-blooded animals--includes the      
fishes1 and in most members of this     
class the father and mother natures are 
separated and in different  bodies4     
,step by step from now on we enter      
higher forms of animal life1  and       
through each step we find a greater     
difference between the father  and      
mother natures1 and in the animal       
kingdom we speak of the father  and     
mother natures as 8male and female40 ,in

 the animal kingdom1  too1 what we have 
previously called the seed is known as  
the egg4  ,seeds and eggs are the same  
so far as their usefulness is concerned1
  but we say eggs in the animal kingdom 
to distinguish from seeds in the        
vegetable kingdom4    ,fish have eggs1  
then1 and it is from the eggs that      
little fish are born  into the world and
 grow to be of eatable size4 ,you       
recognize the eggs  of the fish in the  
8roe10 which is eaten as food4 ,not all 
fish eggs are  used as food1 however4   
,in the fish world the eggs are         
developed in the body of the female     
fish4 ,each little round speck in a     
8shad roe0 is one egg1 and there  are   
many thousands in a single 8roe40 ,each 
egg will produce a little  fish1 under  
favorable conditions4 ,these eggs       
develop in the body of  the female fish 
in winter4 ,in the spring1 which is the 
time in which  most living things are   
born1 and1 therefore1 the time for      
hatching out  fish eggs1 all of the fish

 swim from the deep water where they    
live in  winter to the places where the 
water is shallow and warm1 and in these 
shallow waters the female fish expels   
the eggs from her body where the  sun   
can get at them and hatch them by       
warming them4 ,after the female  fish   
has thus laid the eggs1 the male fish   
swims over the eggs as they  lay in the 
water1 and expels from his body over    
them a fluid which is  white in         
appearance and which fertilizes the fish
 eggs4 ,if any of this  fluid fails to  
reach some of the eggs it is not        
possible for the sun to  bring them to  
life4    ,when the eggs are laid and    
fertilized the mother and father fishes 
swim  away and they never see their     
children or recognize them as such1 even
  if they meet them later in life4 ,the 
parent fish do not act like other       
fathers and mothers1 and they do not    
need to1 because as soon as a baby  fish
 is born he is able to find his own food
 and needs no help from  father or      

mother to teach him how to find it or   
enable him to grow into  a real fish4   
,of course1 many of the tiny fish are   
eaten by other fish and not all  the    
eggs which the mother fishes lay hatch  
into live fish1 because1 if  they did1  
the waters would be so crowded with fish
 that there would not  be any room for  
the water4 ,a single female fish will   
lay millions of  eggs in a year1 and if 
each egg developed into a fish there    
would be  far too many4    ,this order  
of animals1 which includes turtles1     
frogs1 etc41 is the  cold-blooded class 
of animal life4 ,they have only part of 
the five  senses4 ,they all can feel and
 some of the fishes can see and hear1   
but  a great many of them1 particularly 
those kinds which live on the bottom  of
 the ocean1 cannot either see or hear1  
and some members of the fish  family    
cannot even swim4    ,the thing to      
remember about fishes in connection with
 the reproduction  of life is that the  
mother fish must select a place which is

 favorable  to deposit the eggs1 but    
after that her responsibility ceases4   
,the  father merely fertilizes the eggs1
 and then his responsibility ceases4    
,the little fish look out for themselves
 as soon as they are born and  never    
know what it is to have a father or     
mother to look after them4    ,when we  
study the next higher form of animal    
life we find that the  young ones have  
to be looked after1 and that this       
becomes more  necessary as we ascend the
 scale of animal life until we reach    
man1 the  most intelligent of all       
animals and yet the most helpless of all
 at  birth4          ,how ,birds ,are   
,taught to ,fly4      ,the next step    
brings us to the birds4 ,before they can
 look after  themselves the little birds
 must learn how to search for food and  
the  kinds of food good for them4 ,they 
have to learn the habits of their  kind 
of life4 ,the higher you go in the study
 of animal life the greater  seem to be 
the dangers which surround the young    

animals and the longer  it takes to     
teach them how to look after themselves 
and what to do for  themselves4    ,the 
bird family includes not only the       
robins1 larks1 sparrows and  pigeons1   
but also the ducks1 geese1 and chickens1
 etc4 ,we are all more  or less familiar
 with birds' eggs1 and if not we know   
what a hen's egg  looks like4 ,the eggs 
of the bird family are laid in nests1   
which is the  first sign of home        
building in the animal kingdom4    ,the 
birds are the first of the large class  
of warm-blooded animals4  ,the egg here 
represents again the reproductive power4
 ,the eggs1 too1  form in the body of   
the female bird1 but are laid in a nest 
which the  parent birds build together4 
,now this is the first step away from   
the  fish family4 ,the fish looks for a 
suitable place to lay the eggs and  then
 goes off and leaves them4 ,the birds1  
however1 have to make a  nest in which  
to deposit the eggs4 ,the fish1 as you  
remember1 depended  upon the warm sun   

shining on the shallow water to hatch   
out the eggs1  thus depending on an     
outside force to supply the necessary   
warmth4 ,in  the bird family the mother 
bird must cover the eggs with her own   
body  and keep them warm until they     
hatch out4 ,then1 too1 the father and   
mother birds feed the young until they  
are strong enough to fly and  find food 
for themselves1 and so the mother and   
father birds look after  their babies   
until they are old enough to look after 
themselves4 ,when  this time arrives the
 old birds cease to bother about the    
young ones  altogether4 ,the fishes     
never act like parents after the baby   
fishes  are born1 because the little    
fish are able to look after themselves  
right away4 ,the parent birds are a good
 deal like fathers and mothers  for a   
time1 but only so long as it takes them 
to teach their little  bird children to 
look out for themselves4 ,then they     
forget the children  completely4    ,it 
requires but a few days and no parental 

care to hatch out a family  of baby     
fishes and no attention at all after    
birth4 ,it requires several  weeks and  
much patience for the parent birds to   
hatch out their eggs1  and it involves  
care and attention for several weeks to 
teach baby  birds to take care of       
themselves4    ,this being a father or  
mother in the animal kingdom becomes a  
greater  responsibility in every step as
 we get closer to man1 and when we reach
  man we find him to be the most        
helpless offspring of all at birth1 and 
that it takes more time1 care and       
attention to bring up a human child  to 
maturity than any other animal4         
,what ,makes the ,hollow ,place at ,one 
,end of a ,boiled ,egg8      ,this      
hollow place on the end of the boiled   
egg 7sometimes it shows on  the side7 is
 the air which is put inside of the egg 
when it is formed  so that the little   
chicken will have air to breathe from   
the time it  comes to life within the   
egg until it becomes strong enough to   

break  the shell and go out into the    
world4 ,there is also food in the egg   
for  him4 ,when you boil the egg this   
pocket of air within the shell1 which   
would have been used up by the chick if 
the egg had been set to hatch  instead  
of being cooked for breakfast1 begins to
 fight for its space  and pushes the    
boiling egg back and forms the hollow   
place4    ,the purpose of the air in the
 egg is a good thing to remember when we
  come to study the higher forms of     
animal life from the standpoint of  how 
they reproduce themselves4    ,the      
mammals are the next higher form of     
animals4 ,the babies of this  class of  
animals must be fed for several weeks or
 months before they  are ready to come  
into the world4    ,a little chicken is 
ready to come out of the egg almost as  
soon as it  comes to life1 and1         
therefore1 needs only a little air and  
food before  it is strong enough to peck
 its way out1 but the babies of mammals 
begin to live months before they are    

ready to come into the world1 and  they 
need a great deal of air and food during
 this time4 ,this class  includes the   
dogs1 horses1 cows1 cats and all other  
animals in the  ,zoo and in the woods4  
,the name mammals means the same as     
8mamma10 and  indicates an animal which 
must be fed from the body of a female   
mammal  even after it is born4    ,in   
this class the eggs are retained within 
the body of the female  animal instead  
of being laid in a nest or some other   
place1 as in  animals of lower classes1 
after being fertilized by the male      
animal1  so that the baby animal may    
secure its food and air from within the 
mother's body after the life within the 
egg is begun4    ,the mother's body     
supplies the necessary warmth to develop
 the life  of the little animal in the  
egg1 just as the birds supplied this    
with  their bodies4 ,in the bird class  
it only takes a few hours to give  the  
little bird sufficient strength to peek 
his way out1 but in the  mammal class it

 is a long time before the baby animal  
is strong enough  to come out into the  
world1 and even after it is born the    
babies of  mammals require a great deal 
of care and attention before they are   
able  to look out for themselves4       
,during this period the animal secures  
all  of its food from the breast of the 
mother animal4    ,another reason why   
the eggs of mammals are retained within 
the bodies  of the females is the need  
for protecting the young animals from   
enemies4 ,in the animal kingdom each    
kind of animal preys upon another  kind4
 ,they attack and devour each other and 
are constantly in danger4  ,if1 then1   
mammals laid eggs in nests and sat upon 
them to hatch them  out1 the mother     
animals sitting on the nests would be   
continually in  danger of attack from   
their enemies4 ,they would either have  
to flee  and subject the nest and its   
contents to the danger of destruction or
  else stay and fight1 and perhaps be   
destroyed4 ,but by carrying her egg     

within her body the mother mammal is    
able to move about from place to  place 
and protect her baby4          ,is ,man 
an ,animal8      ,men1 women and        
children belong to the 8mammal0 class of
 animals4 ,the  offspring of the human  
family is the most helpless of all      
animals at  birth4 ,the young of most   
kinds of mammals can stand on their legs
  shortly after being born1 but the     
human baby requires months before it    
can stand up4 ,a baby horse can also    
walk within a few hours1 but human      
children do not begin to walk until they
 are more than a year old4          ,why
 ,cannot ,babies ,walk as ,soon as      
,born8      ,the human baby has a great 
many more things to learn than a horse  
baby  before it is safe for him to go   
about alone4 ,it takes time for the     
brain to develop1 and if a baby could   
walk before the brain had even          
partially developed it would only get   
into trouble4    ,this1 then1 is what we
 have learned about the reproduction of 

life  and the reasons for its being     
different in different classes of life4 
,first1 we had the division of organic  
life into the vegetable and  animal     
kingdoms4 ,life in the vegetable kingdom
 has none of the five  senses1 for      
plants cannot see1 hear1 feel1 smell or 
taste4 ,they cannot  move from place to 
place1 but remain where they grow until 
destroyed  or removed4 ,on the other    
hand1 all animal life has at least one  
of  the five senses--feeling4 ,the      
oysters and clams belong to this class4 
,starting with this level of life in the
 animal kingdom we find that as  we go  
on up through the different classes we  
find each class able to  do things which
 make it superior to the class below it1
 until we reach  the human mammal1 who  
can do most of all4 ,and1 further1 that 
since each  class as we go up in the    
scale of life has greater ability to do 
things  than the class beneath it1 so in
 each case the task of the parents  in  
preparing their offspring for their kind

 of life becomes greater1  and the      
period during which the offspring is    
learning becomes longer  and longer     
until we reach the human family1 in     
which we find that  parents have the    
greatest responsibility1 and the        
children are the most  helpless of all  
animals1 but that in the final result   
man has a right1  on account of his     
superior qualities1 to be the ruler of  
the other  creatures of the world4      
,what ,are ,ball ,bearings8      ,some  
years ago a gentleman in trying to find 
some way to reduce the  friction1 which 
is constantly developed to a certain    
extent1 even when  the axle is oiled1   
discovered that if between the axle and 
the inside  of the hub a circle of steel
 balls were arranged1 so that the hub of
  the wheel did not touch the axle at   
all1 but rested on the little balls     
which in their turn touched the axle1   
that a great deal of the friction  was  
eliminated4 ,this proved to be a        
wonderful invention1 and when this      

combination is arranged and oiled1 there
 is hardly any friction4          ,why a
 ,gasoline ,engine ,goes                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4    ,as you    
know1 gasoline is a very inflammable    
fluid1 and will explode if  placed too  
close to fire4    ,this explosive       
quality is the basic principle of the   
gasoline engine4  ,by admitting a small 
quantity of gasoline vapor into an      
enclosed  cylinder1 and exploding it by 
means of an electric spark1 repeating   
this operation continuously1 the engine 
is given a regular rotary  motion4      
,look at ,fig4 #a4 ,starting from the   
gasoline tank1 the fluid is fed  into   
the #8carburetor'1 which is a sort of   
atomizer4 ,here the gasoline  is mixed  
with air1 and broken up into a very fine
 spray1 in which  condition it will     
explode readily4    ,the engine will not
 start of itself4 ,its fly-wheel must   
first be turned  by hand1 or by some    
other outside force1 until the first    
explosion  takes place4 ,after this its 

action is automatic4    ,as shown in    
,fig4 #a1 the fly-wheel is being turned1
 and is drawing the  piston down the    
cylinder1 which in turn sucks gasoline  
vapor1 7shown by  little arrows7 through
 the #8intake valve'4 ,this #8intake    
valve'1 and the  #8exhaust valve' on the
 opposite side of the cylinder1 are     
opened and  closed at the proper time   
through the action of the gears shown in
 the  illustration4    ,passing to ,fig4
 #b1 the fly-wheel in turning has drawn 
the piston to  its lowest point1 and is 
now shown forcing it up the cylinder4   
,this  compresses the gasoline vapor in 
the cylinder to a density at which its  
explosion produces the greatest amount  
of power4 ,the intake and exhaust       
valves are both closed4    ,,what       
,,causes ,,the ,,explosion ,,in ,a ,,gas
 ,,engine    ,fig4 #c shows the         
explosion4 ,the cylinder has been filled
 with  compressed gas1 and the piston   
has again started on its downward       
travel4 ,the spark plug1 set in the top 

of the cylinder1 makes a spark  every   
time an electrical current passes       
through it4 ,a switch on the  engine    
permits the current to pass to the spark
 plug only when the  engine is at this  
position in its action4 7,fig4 #c47 ,the
 consequent  explosion drives the piston
 downward with great force1 turning the 
fly-wheel1 which by its weight continues
 the rotary motion after the  downward  
impulse of the piston has been expended4
    ,fig4 #d shows the fly-wheel1 still 
turning1 forcing the piston up and  thus
 expelling the burned gases from the    
cylinder through the exhaust  valve1    
held open for this purpose4 ,from this  
position the engine  goes again to that 
of ,fig4 #a1 and through #b1 #c1 and #d1
 continuously1  exploding every second  
revolution1 and giving a regular rotary 
motion  to the fly-wheel4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4    ,the       
illustrations show a one-cylinder motor1

 but these engines can be  built with   
two or more cylinders1 arranged to      
explode at different  times1 thus giving
 very smooth action to the fly-wheel and
 main shaft4    ,aeroplanes1 almost all 
automobiles1 various pumps and other    
machinery  are driven by gasoline       
engines4 ,the rotary motion can readily 
be  transmitted by chains or gears to   
the propellor of an aeroplane or  motor 
boat1 or the wheels of an automobile4   
,it is only in the past few  years that 
the gasoline engine has reached its     
present high state of  perfection4      
,illustration3 ,,the ,,beginning ,,of   
,,an ,,automobile    ,,crankcase        
,,showing ,,bearings4    ,the heart of  
the automobile is the engine4 ,it is    
built around the  crankcase1 which is   
its foundation or base4                 
,illustration3 ,,crankcase ,,with       
,,crankshaft ,,and ,,fly-,,wheel        
,,added4    ,the crankshaft serves the  
same purpose in an automobile as the    
pedals  do on a bicycle4    ,the        

fly-wheel on the end helps it to keep   
turning at an even speed4               
,illustration3 ,gasoline vapor is       
exploded in the cylinders4 ,this pushes 
the piston down1 and as the piston is   
connected to the crankshaft it  starts  
the crankshaft turning4    ,the piston  
and the rod that connect it to the      
crankshaft are just like  the feet and  
limbs of any one riding a bicycle4      
,cylinders showing piston in place and  
connected to crankshaft4                
,illustration3 ,the gears or            
8cog-wheels0 are for running the fan1   
the  pump and other parts4              
,illustration3 ,,the ,,heart ,,of ,,the 
,,automobile    ,cylinder added to      
crankcase4    ,the cylinders are next   
bolted down to the crankcase1 the       
pistons and  crankshaft having been     
connected1 as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,a     
cover is placed  over the gears to keep 
them clean4    ,illustration3 ,an oil   
pan or reservoir is attached to the     
bottom of the  crankcase to hold oil for

 the engine4    ,illustration3 ,the     
carburetor furnishes the gasoline vapor 
for the  cylinders4 ,it is connected to 
the engine by a crooked pipe called the 
intake manifold4    ,after the gasoline 
has been exploded a valve opens and     
allows the  burned gases to escape      
through another pipe1 called the exhaust
  manifold4    ,illustration3 ,oil is   
poured in the spout which is at the left
 of the  carburetor4 ,it runs down into 
the reservoir and is pumped up through  
the engine a little at a time4    ,oil  
pump and filler added to motor4         
,illustration3 ,,the ,,power ,,plant    
,,of ,,an ,,automobile    ,the electric 
generator makes electricity to be used  
for starting the  engine and lighting   
the car4    ,illustration3 ,the magneto 
gives an electric spark1 which explodes 
the  gasoline in the cylinders4    ,the 
water pump keeps water flowing around   
the cylinders to prevent them  from     
getting too hot4 ,this water comes back 
to the pump through the  radiator at the

 front of the car4 ,wind blows through  
the radiator and  cools off the water4  
,the tire pump on up-to-date cars is run
 by the  engine4 ,it does not pump      
except when the gears1 which are shown  
in the  picture1 are pulled together4   
,illustration3 ,an electric motor starts
 the engine by turning the  fly-wheel4  
,this makes it unnecessary to get out   
and crank the car by  hand4             
,illustration3 ,,second ,,stage ,,of    
,,construction    ,the transmission is  
added4    ,the transmission makes it    
possible to reverse the car4 ,it also   
enables  the driver to go into          
high-speed gear when on level roads and 
low-speed  gear for starting and for    
pulling hills4    ,illustration3        
,double-drop pressed steel frame4       
,the frame on which the car is built4   
,illustration3 ,addition of             
semi-elliptic and three-fourths-elliptic
  springs to frame4    ,large springs   
are placed at the front and rear of the 
frame4 ,they make  the car ride         

smoothly4    ,illustration3 ,adding the 
front axle4    ,illustration3 ,,ready   
,,for ,,the ,,wheels    ,showing        
addition of full-floating rear axle4    
,illustration3 ,completed engine and    
transmission is next fastened to  the   
frame and connected to the rear axle by 
the drive shaft4    ,illustration3      
,showing addition of gasoline tank and  
gas lead to  carburetor4                
,illustration3 ,showing how steering    
gear is connected4    ,illustration3    
,,what ,,the ,,completed ,,chassis      
,,looks ,,like    ,wheels are next added
 to chassis4    ,illustration3          
,completed chassis with radiator added4 
,the water which keeps the engine from  
getting too hot is pumped around  the   
cylinders and then through the radiator4
 ,the wind blows through  the little    
openings in the radiator1 and cools off 
the water4 ,then the  water is pumped   
around the cylinders again4             
,illustration3 ,the steps and fenders   
are next attached4    ,illustration3    

,,the ,,marvellous ,,growth ,,of        
,,twenty ,,years    ,the finished car4  
,illustration3 ,,gasoline ,,automobile4 
,the first ,american-built automobile1  
now in ,smithsonian ,institute1         
,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 where this        
photograph was taken4 ,the rude carriage
  that was a curiosity twenty years ago 
and less--the vehicle that vied  with   
the two-headed calf and the wild man of 
,borneo at the county  fairs--was the   
beginning of the greatest transportation
 aid since the  birth of civilization4  
,because of it our standards of living  
have  become higher4 ,it has broadened  
the horizon of all of us4    ,built by  
,elwood ,haynes1 in ,kokomo1 ,indiana1  
#ahic-ahid4 ,equipped with              
one-horse-power engine4 ,successful     
trial trip made at speed of six  or     
seven miles an hour1 ,july #d1 #ahid4   
,gift of ,elwood ,haynes1 #aiaj4        
#bfb1ace4    ,illustration3 ,when an    
automobile passed you twenty years ago4 
,illustration3 ,,how ,,automobiles      

,,have ,,improved    ,,left ,,side      
,,view    ,,right ,,side ,,view    ,a   
new exhibit in the ,smithsonian         
,institute1 officially known as         
8,exhibit ,number #ef1hfj10 is          
attracting a great deal of attention    
from  visitors to the ,national ,museum4
 ,it consists of a complete ,haynes     
six-cylinder unit power plant1 and has  
been given a position at the  side of   
the original ,haynes 8horseless         
carriage10 where the striking  contrast 
shows the remarkable improvement that   
has been made in motor  design and      
construction during the past twenty-two 
years4    ,the most important features  
of the power plant are shown clearly and
  comprehensively by having sections cut
 away from the various parts1 so  that  
the visitors to the ,institute are      
enabled to see the mechanical           
construction1 and the relation of the   
component devices4    ,on the right side
 of the engine1 the intake and exhaust  
manifolds  are shown in their natural   

position4 ,a full vertical section of   
the  ,stromberg carburetor gives a good 
idea of how the gasoline is mixed  with 
the air and supplied to the cylinders4  
,the ,leece-,neville generator  has its 
casing cut away to give a view of the   
windings and cores4  ,numerous windows  
have been cut into the crankcase to     
disclose the  crankshaft construction   
and the oil reservoir4 ,the transmission
 gears  are also shown in this manner4  
,most of the electrical equipment is    
shown clearly on the left side of  the  
motor4 ,here an interesting feature is  
the full vertical section  of the       
,american ,simms high-tension dual      
magneto4 ,a half section has  been      
removed from the rear cylinder1 and the 
piston as well1 to  give a glimpse of   
the interior construction4 ,a large     
portion of the  ,leece-,neville starting
 motor casing has been cut away4 ,the   
cover-plate  on the switch controlling  
the starting motor has been replaced    
with a  glass cover to display the      

method of completing the circuit from   
the  battery to the motor4 ,a skeleton  
selector switch is mounted at the rear  
of the transmission case1 instead of its
 usual position on the steering  wheel4 
,the electric gear-shifting mechanism is
 made visible by using a  glass plate   
for the top cover-plate on the          
transmission4          ,why ,does the   
,heart ,beat ,when the ,brain ,is       
,asleep8      ,under ordinary conditions
 the heart beats are controlled by      
certain  nerve cells which are located  
within the heart itself1 and these cause
  the heart to beat even while the brain
 is asleep4 ,this explains why  the     
heart beats when the brain is asleep1   
and the fact that the brain  when asleep
 does not exercise its functions1 shows 
how necessary this  arrangement and the 
control of ordinary heart beats is4 ,if 
this were  not so1 we should not be able
 to live while asleep4 ,it is just like 
the management of a great business in   
this sense4 ,the general manager  of a  

great business has control of the entire
 works1 but there are  occasions when he
 must be thinking of only one thing in  
connection with  the business1 and so he
 must have his organization so complete1
 that  the parts which he cannot be     
thinking about at the time will do their
  work just the same4 ,so he surrounds  
himself with competent assistants1  who 
look after certain departments while he 
is busy or away or asleep1  and if      
anything goes wrong while he is away1 he
 calls on special forces  to set things 
right4 ,now1 the brain is the general   
manager of the whole  body and has these
 nerve cells in the heart as a sort of  
assistant  manager to look after the    
heart beats in ordinary conditions1 and 
to  keep the heart going while he is    
asleep4 ,but1 by reason of his office   
as general manager1 the brain has a     
special way of sending orders to  the   
heart through special nerves which run  
from the brain down each  side of the   
neck to the heart4 ,there are two pairs 

of these special  nerves4 ,one pair1 if 
set in motion1 will make the heart beat 
faster1  and the other pair will make   
the heart beat more slowly4             
,why ,do ,our ,hearts ,beat ,faster     
,when ,we ,are ,running8      ,when you 
start running1 the brain knows at once  
that your legs and  other parts of the  
body will need more blood to keep them  
going1 and  so the brain sends down     
orders through his special nerves which 
make  the heart beat faster1 to get     
busy1 and they do4 ,then when you stop  
running1 your heart is beating faster   
than necessary--there is really  an     
oversupply of blood being pumped through
 your system for the time  being1 and   
that makes you uncomfortable1 until the 
brain sends word  through the other set 
of nerves to the heart to slow down the 
heart  beat4 ,it is better to stop      
running gradually1 to give the heart a  
chance to get back to its normal beat   
gradually also4          ,why ,do ,i    
,get ,out of ,breath ,when ,running8    

,this is also caused by your brain in   
its efforts to keep up your supply  of  
good blood4 ,we breathe to take air into
 the lungs1 where the blood  which has  
once been through the arteries and comes
 back on its return  trip to the heart1 
is exposed to the air in the lungs1     
before going  back into the heart4 ,the 
air which we take into our lungs        
purifies the  once used blood and makes 
it into good blood again4 ,when you run 
the  heart pumps blood into your        
arteries faster to enable you to run4   
,thus  also1 the arteries send much more
 blood back to the heart through the    
veins1 and this must be purified by the 
lungs before going back into  the heart4
 ,to attend to purifying this extra     
amount of spoiled blood  the lungs need 
more air1 and thus you are made to      
breathe in more air  for the purpose4   
,unless you are in good training--your  
wind in good  condition as we say--it is
 almost impossible for you to supply the
  lungs with enough air for the purpose1

 but whether you can do it or  not1 the 
lungs call upon you for more air1 and   
cause you to try to get  it1 and that is
 what makes you get out of breath4      
,why ,does ,my ,heart ,beat ,faster     
,when ,i ,am ,scared8      ,the natural 
tendency of a scared creature is to run 
or fly4 ,the effect  of being scared has
 the same effect on the brain that your 
starting  to run has4 ,the brain is     
always as quick as you are1 and knowing 
that  when you are scared your actual or
 natural inclination is to run1 it is   
merely getting you in shape so that you 
can move or run fast4          ,why     
,does ,cold ,make ,our ,hands ,blue8    
,your hands appear blue when cold       
because the veins which are near the    
surface are filled with impure blood    
which is purplish in color4 ,your  hands
 become cold because there is not       
sufficient circulation of warm  red     
blood going on to keep them warm4 ,the  
blood in circulating through  your body 
sends warm red blood through the        

arteries1 and this is  returned to the  
heart through the lungs by way of the   
veins4 ,the veins  carry only used-up   
blood or what is left of the good red   
blood when the  arteries are through    
with it4 ,its color is a purplish blue4 
,when your hands are blue it means that 
circulation of good red blood  has      
practically stopped--the red blood is   
not flowing from the heart  through the 
arteries in sufficient quantity and     
there is no color in  the arteries1 as  
the blood from the arteries has         
practically all gone  into the veins4   
,the veins are full to purplish blue    
blood1 and this  makes the hands look   
blue1 because there are a great many    
veins in the  hands close to the        
surface4          ,why ,do ,i ,get ,red 
in the ,face8      ,now1 when you rub   
your cold blue hands together1 you start
 the  circulation going again1 and that 
brings the red blood into the  arteries1
 giving you the healthy red color again4
 ,when you run hard to  get red in the  

face because you are causing an unusual 
amount of red  blood to flow through    
your whole body by your violent         
exercise4 ,some  people with an         
extraordinary amount of circulation are 
red in the face  all the time4 ,this is 
because of the presence of a great deal 
of blood  in the arteries1 or because   
the walls of their arteries are so much 
thinner than others that the red blood  
shows through more easily4          ,is 
,yawning ,infectious8      ,yawning is  
infectious to the extent that other     
habits are4 ,the desire  to yawn which  
comes to us when we see some one else   
does so comes under  the heading of     
suggestion4 ,the power of suggestion is 
greater than many  of us realize4 ,we   
are great imitators of each other4 ,when
 one of us is  downhearted1 we are apt  
to become happy and glad simply by being
 with  other people who are happy and   
glad4 ,if enough people one at a time   
tell a perfectly well man that he looks 
sick1 he will actually feel  ill1       

provided he does not suspect a game is  
being played on him4 ,so a  good actor  
carries his audience with him4 ,he can  
make them laugh or cry  almost at will1 
and if he yawns1 his audience will begin
 yawning4    ,often1 however1 there is  
no acting connected with the yawning of 
the  first person4 ,then the yawn is    
caused because the person is not sending
  enough good air into the lungs for    
purifying the blood1 and the yawn is    
only nature's way of making us take an  
exceptionally deep breath of air  in at 
one time4 ,this lack of sufficient good 
air in the lungs may not  be due to the 
poor breathing1 but to the amount of bad
 air in the room4  ,in such cases it is 
quite likely that other people in the   
room yawn  when one of them starts it   
because they all begin to feel the need 
of  more good air at about the same     
time4          ,what ,makes ,me ,want to
 ,stretch8      ,the necessity or desire
 to stretch comes to us because certain 
parts of  the body are not receiving the

 proper amount of blood circulation and 
it is these parts that we stretch at    
such times4 ,if you have ever been  to a
 ball game1 you know1 of course1 that it
 has become customary for  the crowd1 no
 matter how large1 to stretch its legs  
and arms during the  last half of the   
seventh inning4 ,in fact1 that has come 
to be a fixture  at ball games and is   
universally known as the 8stretch       
inning40 ,now1  it is not so much the   
result of a desire to encourage the home
 team as  the natural following out of  
nature's laws that originally started   
this  practice4 ,the end of the seventh 
inning at a ball game generally means   
that the crowd has been sitting quite   
still for the greater part of an  hour  
and a half1 just long enough for the    
circulation to become poor  in parts of 
the body1 and the custom of stretching  
at a ball game thus  comes from the     
necessity of getting a little more speed
 into the action  of the heart to       
increase the blood supply4    ,in other 

words1 the stretching constitutes a mild
 form of exercise4 ,you  will notice the
 ball players themselves do not stretch 
themselves in  the last half of the     
seventh inning4 ,they are getting enough
 exercise  without that4    ,it is      
natural1 however1 for us to stretch as  
we wake up from sleep  after having lain
 quietly in one position for one or more
 hours4 ,it is  nature's way of causing 
the heart to work faster4          ,what
 ,happens ,when ,i ,stretch8      ,what 
happens is simply this4 ,when you       
stretch your arms and legs1 you  squeeze
 the arteries and veins which are a part
 of your arms and legs1  much as happens
 when you pull on a piece of rubber     
tubing4 ,the tubing  becomes flat       
instead of perfectly round1 and it is   
not so easy to send  water through a    
flat tube as through a round one4 ,just 
so with the  heart4 ,it is the heart's  
business to send blood through the      
arteries  at all times1 and when you    
make them flat the heart's job becomes  

just  a little harder1 and it goes to   
work beating just a little faster to    
overcome this extra difficulty4 ,by that
 time you are through stretching  and   
the heart is busy pumping blood a little
 faster than ordinarily1  and that is   
what makes you feel so good after you   
have stretched4          ,why ,can ,we  
,think of ,only ,one ,thing at a ,time8 
,if you are asking the question         
intelligently1 you must know that to    
think means to concentrate1 and in that 
sense we can only think of one  thing at
 a time1 because it takes all of that   
part of the brain which  is used for    
thinking for just one thing4 ,to give   
close attention to any  one subject     
means to turn the entire brain force    
practically in one  direction4 ,to let  
other things pass through the mind at   
the same time  may appear not to        
interfere with the one thought1 but they
 do1 and our  conclusions suffer        
accordingly4    ,you can be doing       
something with one part of your body1   

while engaged  in thinking of one thing1
 but only such things as are more or    
less  mechanical as the result of habit1
 such as walking1 or moving the         
arms--things which the parts have done  
so often that actual attention  by the  
brain is not absolutely essential4 ,take
 for instance1 the fact  that a man in  
deep thought on one subject will        
sometimes walk up and  down the room or 
along the sidewalk4 ,he can do this     
walking and still  think concentratedly1
 but if he stubs his toe on the leg of a
 chair or  on a rough place in the walk1
 his thought is broken1 because the     
brain  immediately takes itself out of  
the thought and pays its attention to   
the toe that was stubbed4          ,why 
,do ,i ,turn ,white ,when ,scared8      
,simply because1 when you are scared or 
frightened1 the blood almost  leaves    
your face entirely4 ,under normal       
conditions1 the red blood which  is     
flowing through the arteries of your    
face1 gives the face a reddish  tinge1  

and your face becomes white when you are
 frightened1 because  then the blood    
leaves the face4 ,it is quite singular1 
but when you are  really frightened1    
whatever the cause may be1 the human    
system receives  such a shock that the  
heart just about stops beating all      
together4 ,when  your heart stops       
beating of course the flow of the blood 
from the heart  stops and then there is 
no supply of fresh red blood coming     
through the  arteries under the skin of 
your face4 ,therefore you look          
white--the  color your face would be if 
no blood ever flowed through your       
arteries  and veins4 ,some people have  
faces so white they look as though they 
were scared all the time4 ,this is not  
because they have no blood  flowing     
through the veins and arteries in their 
faces1 but because  their supply of     
blood is less than other peoples1 and   
sometimes because  the walls of their   
arteries and veins are much thicker than
 the average  that the color of the     

blood does not show through4 ,there are 
also many  people who have so much blood
 in their systems all the time1 and the 
walls of whose arteries are so thin1    
that they look at all times as  though  
they might be blushing4          ,what  
,makes ,me ,blush8      ,anything that  
will make your heart send an extra      
supply of blood into  the arteries and  
veins which supply your face with blood1
 will make you  blush4 ,embarrassment   
will do this4 ,so will anger generally1 
although  sometimes people get so angry 
that the blood is driven out of their   
faces4 ,in this case they are so angry  
that their heart has stopped  beating1  
practically4          ,what ,occurs     
,when ,we ,think8      ,when we think   
the mind is acting on sensations2 it is 
receiving1 in  conjunction with memories
 of sensations it has previously        
received4  ,sensations as they reach the
 mind arouse the mind to activity and1  
as  soon as the sensation is received1  
the mind begins to compare the new      

sensation with sensations received at   
previous times1 and by putting  things  
together reaches a conclusion4    ,when 
you are thinking you are really trying  
to call upon memory to  help you4 ,you  
know the thought of one thing calls up  
another1 and this  leads to something   
else4 ,this association of ideas is the 
faculty which  enables us to think      
consecutively and accurately4 ,it is the
 business of  the mind to receive the   
sensations that enter it and arrange    
them in  their proper places4 ,that     
memory of past sensations is the        
important  part of thinking1 is proven  
by the fact that when we have forgotten 
a  thing we are unable to think what it 
was4          ,can ,animals ,think8     
,for this reason if animals have memory 
they should be able to think4 ,it  is   
now believed that many animals have to a
 certain extent the power to  remember4 
,a dog will recognize his master even   
though he has not seen him for  years4  
,we might think he does this by his     

highly developed power of  smell1 but if
 his master has come from a direction   
opposite to that  from which the dog    
first sees him1 he could not have       
tracked him by his  smell4 ,a dog will  
recognize his master from quite a       
distance1 so he  must have to a certain 
extent the ability to remember or the   
power of  association of ideas1 which   
amounts to the same thing4 ,again1 a    
horse  that once belonged to the fire   
department1 even though now hitched to a
  milk wagon1 will have the impulse to  
run to the fire when he hears the  fire 
gong4 ,and an old war horse will prick  
up his ears as he used to  when he hears
 the bugle call4          ,why ,do ,i   
,sneeze8      ,you sneeze sometimes when
 you look up at the sun or at a bright  
light4  ,there does not seem to be any  
real good explanation of why looking at 
a  bright light should make you sneeze4 
,it is due to the connection there  is  
between the nerves of the eyes and the  
nose4 ,you generally blink if  you look 

at a bright light suddenly1 and the     
blinking process stirs the  nerves      
inside of the nose to make you sneeze4  
,you know1 of course1 that the start of 
the sneeze is inside of your  nose4 ,the
 nose is1 besides being the organ of    
smell1 the channel  through which we    
take air into the lungs1 when we breathe
 properly4  ,the nose is lined with     
membranes1 back of which are a net of   
very  small nerves which are extremely  
sensitive4 ,the membranes are placed    
there to catch and hold the impure      
particles of matter which come into  the
 nose when we take in a breath of air1  
and sneezing is only one  effective way 
of cleaning out the nose4 ,it is brought
 on only when some  particularly        
difficult job of nose-cleaning has to be
 done4 ,pepper up  the nose will make   
you sneeze quickly1 because pepper      
produces a very  great irritation inside
 the nose1 and the nose goes to work at 
once to  get rid of it in the quickest  
possible manner as soon as the pepper   

comes in4 ,other things have the same   
effect4 ,sometimes a cold in the  head  
causes you to sneeze4 ,the sneeze in    
that event is merely nature's  effort to
 clean out the nose when other efforts  
have failed4    ,there are many         
suggestions for stopping a sneeze before
 it takes place1  after you feel it     
coming on1 such as putting the finger on
 each side of  the nose1 and many       
others4 ,but a half sneeze does not     
remove the cause  of the sneeze1 so it  
is much better to sneeze it out1 and    
many people  enjoy the after effects of 
sneezing so much that they take snuff   
into  the nose to produce it4           
,what ,happens ,when ,i ,swallow8       
,the muscles of your throat act in the  
form of a ring when food passes  into   
your throat4 ,the food does not drop    
directly into your stomach4 ,in  other  
words1 the action is not quite the same 
as when you drop a stone  out of the    
window4 ,when you do the latter1 the    
stone hits the sidewalk  or whatever is 

below at the time1 with a smash4 ,it    
would hardly do to  have our food drop  
into the stomach1 so the muscles of the 
throat are  arranged to contract in     
rings which push or squeeze the food    
downward1  and the food is passed from  
one ring of muscles to the other4 ,it is
  just like pushing a ball down into the
 foot of a stocking that is  apparently 
too small for it to drop down4 ,you put 
the ball in the top  of the stocking and
 then by making a ring of your fingers  
around the  stocking you can push the   
ball down4 ,when you swallow1 you start 
the  muscles of your throat to making   
these rings4 ,the upper ring squeezes   
the food on to the ring below it and so 
on down to the stomach4          ,what  
,makes the ,lump ,come ,in ,my ,throat  
,when ,i ,cry8      ,the 8lump0 which   
comes up into your throat when you cry  
is caused  by a sort of paralysis of the
 rings of muscles in your throat4 ,the  
muscles of your throat can make these   
rings or waves upward also1 but  it is  

more difficult upward than              
downward--probably because of lack  of  
practice1 as we say4 ,when you have put 
something into your stomach  that makes 
you sick and causes you to vomit1 the   
throat muscles take  the matter from    
your stomach and bring it back to the   
mouth in the same  way1 except1 of      
course1 that this action begins at the  
bottom4    ,sometimes when you cry1 or  
lose control of yourself in some other  
way 7you know1 of course1 that in crying
 you always lose control of  yourself1  
don't you7 practically the same effect  
is produced as when  you have something 
in your stomach that should come out4   
,crying1 or the  thing that happens     
sometimes when we cry1 makes the throat 
muscles act  just as if we were         
vomiting1 and as the action is an       
unnatural one1  when the ring or wave   
reaches the top of the throat1 we feel  
the lump  or ball as we call it4 ,we    
feel the lump because the throat has    
been  made to go through the motion of  

eliminating something in an unnatural   
way1 just as your arm will hurt if you  
pretend to have a ball or a  stone in   
it1 and in throwing the imaginary ball  
or stone1 you put the  same force into  
your movements as you would if you had  
an actual ball  or stone in your hand   
and were seeing how far you could throw 
it4          ,why ,do ,we ,stop         
,growing8      ,we eventually stop      
growing because certain of the cells of 
the body  lose their ability of         
increasing in size and producing other  
cells4 ,it  is one of the marvels of the
 construction of the human body that    
this  is so and one of the wisest       
provisions also4 ,at first the cells of 
the  body crave lots of food and        
increase in size1 divide and then the   
parts  go on growing until they become  
of a certain size1 when they again      
divide and each part goes on growing1   
etc41 and thus we grow4 ,a growing  boy 
needs more fond than a mature man1      
because he needs some of it to  grow    

with1 while the man only has to keep    
what growth he has going1 i4  e41 alive4
    ,we say this limit of growth is a   
wise provision of nature because if     
there were no limit to the size we might
 become1 we would not know how  large to
 build houses1 barns1 etc41 or else we  
would have to build them  so large to   
start with that we would be lost in them
 for a long time4  ,we would constantly 
be forced to change these things and    
there would  be no basis to reckon from4
 ,dogs might be as big as elephants and 
then  they would be of no use to us1 or 
of what use would a dog as big as an    
elephant be to a boy of five years4 ,you
 see it would not do at all to  have    
this rule changed4          ,why ,do ,we
 ,grow ,aged8      ,we age directly in  
accordance with the lives we lead4 ,you 
can bend  a wire back and forth a number
 of times at the same point without     
breaking it1 but eventually it will     
break4 ,just so with the human body4    
,you can use each part of it for its own

 purposes a number of times1 but        
eventually the break will come4 ,or1 you
 can fail to make a part of it  perform 
its regular functions1 and it will      
die--the break will come4  ,the human   
body is the most wonderful machine in   
the world1 but even it  will eventually 
wear out4 ,every time you move your arm1
 leg or some  other part of your body1  
you destroy some tissues4 ,the body     
replenishes  and builds up those tissues
 again for a certain time4 ,when you    
bend a  joint in your body1 the body    
oils the joint naturally1 but as you    
grow  older1 or rather1 as you use the  
different parts of your body more and   
more1 it brings nearer always the time1 
when the body cannot1 of its  own       
accord1 build up again the tissues you  
have destroyed4 ,that is why  some      
people become very old at forty and     
others are still comparatively  young at
 seventy4 ,it requires a great deal of  
care and attention and  the elimination 
of all abuse of the body to keep us     

young when we  are old4 ,the use of     
drink1 lack of sufficient sleep and     
other abuses  prevent the body from     
restoring the tissues which have been   
destroyed4  ,worry and sorrow age us    
very rapidly1 because these things      
affect the  nerves4 ,if the nerves are  
not quiet we cannot get any rest and    
without  rest we grow old very rapidly4 
,what ,causes ,wrinkles8      ,wrinkles 
come to us in several ways4 ,an easy way
 to cause wrinkles is  to scowl and     
frown and get into the habit of doing   
this4 ,when you scowl  or frown you     
pucker up the skin on your forehead into
 wrinkles and if  you continue the habit
 the skin on your forehead makes the    
wrinkles  permanent4 ,you have given    
your skin the wrinkle habit4 ,this acts 
just  the same way as your arm would1 if
 you tied it up in a sling and held  it 
close to your side for a very long      
time--a number of weeks4 ,when you  took
 the sling off you would find your arm  
useless--a dead arm4 ,it had  developed 

the habit of doing nothing4    ,in old  
people1 however1 wrinkles come more     
naturally4 ,there it is the  case of the
 skin not receiving the proper          
nourishment and attention to  keep the  
circulation of the blood right4 ,when   
people become old they  are apt to lose 
the fat which has accumulated under     
their skins4 ,if  they had taken just   
the right amount of exercise all of     
their lives and  kept their circulation 
perfect in all parts of the body1 there 
would  have been no fat there4 ,but when
 the fat accumulates1 it makes the  skin
 grow larger1 and then when the fat     
disappears and people get thin  again1  
the skin is too large and makes the     
wrinkles4          ,does ,thunder ,sour 
,milk8      ,milk will sour in any kind 
of warm and moist temperature and1      
because  just before and during a       
thunderstorm the air is generally quite 
warm  and moist1 it is only natural that
 it should turn sour4 ,it is wrong1     
however1 to say or think that thunder   

makes milk sour4 ,thunder is only  a    
noise and noise cannot do anything but  
make itself heard4 ,the fact  that it is
 generally warm and moist1 however1 when
 it thunders1 coupled  with the fact    
that these conditions of the air sour   
milk very rapidly1  have led people to  
connect the two in their minds and      
caused them to  fall into the error of  
believing that the thunder is           
responsible for  the change in the milk4
          ,what ,makes the ,rings in the
 ,water ,when ,i ,throw a ,stone ,into  
,it8      ,every movement has a         
beginning4 ,when a movement on the earth
 is once  started it keeps on going     
until something stops it4 ,if nothing   
stops it  it will go on forever4        
,when you shout you start air waves     
going in every direction1 which  keeps  
on going until stopped by something     
which has the power to break  up their  
waves4    ,when you throw a stone into  
the ocean you start a series of ripples 
or waves which spread out in every      

direction and if you dropped your  stone
 into the exact middle of the           
ocean--half way from each side--in  a   
perfectly calm sea undisturbed by other 
forces1 your ring of ripples  would go  
on getting larger until it landed on the
 beach or shore on  each side of the    
ocean at the exactly the same time and  
there the beach  or shore would stop it4
    ,the original ring of ripples is    
caused by the fact that when you drop  a
 stone into the water it disturbs the   
water where it goes in and  the water   
moves away from the stone to the sides1 
and as the stone  goes down1 over and up
 above it1 and the whole body of the    
water is  disturbed in such a way that  
makes the ripple appear on the surface  
and  spread out in every direction4 ,as 
the stone goes down into the water      
further and further the disturbance is  
repeated and ring after ring  appears on
 the surface4    ,of course there are   
many disturbances in the water at all   
times4 ,many  things may happen to break

 up your little ring of ripples before  
they  touch the sides of the ocean--a   
ship--a fish--the wind--or one of many  
other things1 and because this is true  
you would have difficulty in  sending   
the waves made by your little pebble    
across the ocean1 but you  can take a   
dishpan from the kitchen and after      
filling it with water  drop pebbles into
 it as nearly the middle as possible1   
and you will see  the ripples or waves  
your pebble makes spread out from the   
point where  the pebble entered the     
water in all directions4          ,why  
,are ,there ,many ,languages8           
,different languages developed in       
different parts of the world  because   
there was no inter-communication between
 people in different  communities1 and  
each was really developing a language   
for itself4  ,in doing so they developed
 their language without knowing that    
other  communities were working out the 
same problems for themselves4 ,so  they 
first developed their own sign and      

gesture language and later  on their    
word or sound language and kept on using
 it4 ,while they may  thus have         
developed the use of some of the same   
signs and sounds or  combination of     
sounds to express one thing perfectly   
understandable to  themselves1 these    
sounds or combinations of sounds might  
mean something  entirely different to   
another community1 where that particular
 sound or  combination of sounds may    
have been hit upon to mean something    
entirely  different4    ,of course1 not 
all languages were developed in this    
way4 ,there are1  you know1 a great many
 languages used in the world4 ,some of  
them are  offshoots of others1 where    
part of a community moved to another    
part of  the world1 taking their        
language with them1 but developing it   
further  along new lines1 and using new 
combinations of sounds for new words4   
,then also1 there are many words which  
mean the same thing in different        
languages and are spoken with           

practically the same sounds4 ,this is   
due  to the movement of people from one 
nation to another and bringing their    
own words with them1 so to speak4 ,in   
many instances a stranger would  come to
 another nation1 and use his own word   
for expressing a certain  thing and that
 would eventually be taken up and used  
as a better word1  and the old word     
dropped4 ,it is strange that this should
 be true1 but  this accounts for the    
fact that many words are the same in    
sound and  meaning in numerous          
languages4          ,what ,makes a      
,match ,light ,when ,we ,strike ,it8    
,the match lights when we rub it along a
 rough substance1 because the  rubbing  
produces sufficient heat on the end of  
the match to set fire  to the head1 as  
we call it1 which is made of chemicals  
that light more  easily than the stick  
of wood1 which is the rest of the match4
 ,the fire  thus started is hot enough  
and burns long enough to set fire to the
  wooden part of the match4    ,to      

explain this more fully1 let me say     
this4 ,rub your finger quickly  along   
your coat sleeve or along the seat of   
your trousers1 long a  favorite place   
for men to strike matches1 pretending   
that your finger  is a match4 ,you find 
the end of your finger becomes warm1    
don't you8  ,not warm enough to set your
 finger on fire1 of course1 but if you  
had  the same combination of chemicals  
on the end of your finger that there  is
 on the match1 you would set the        
chemicals afire and this would burn     
your finger1 just as it sets fire to the
 wooden part of the match4    ,it took a
 great many years to discover the       
combination of chemicals of  which the  
head of the match is made4 ,before that 
discovery was made it  was far from easy
 to light the light in the evening as it
 is now4 ,it  must have been a serious  
thing to let the fire go out in the     
furnace in  those days4          ,what  
,makes the ,kettle ,whistle8      ,the  
kettle whistles only when the water     

boils and the steam or gas  which is the
 form the water turns into when boiling 
is trying to  escape through the spout  
of the kettle4 ,you see1 when the water 
starts  boiling1 the inside of the      
kettle is at once filled with steam and 
more  is coming out of the water all the
 time4 ,this steam must get out some    
way1 so it rushes for the spout of the  
kettle1 and because so much of  it is   
trying to get out of a comparatively    
small opening at once there  is quite a 
pressure and this results in making the 
whistle out of the  spout of the kettle4
 ,it is just the same process as when   
you whistle  yourself4 ,to whistle you  
fill your mouth with air and force it   
out  through your lips1 which you have  
closed excepting for a small opening1   
by the pressure you can bring to bear   
with the roof and sides of your  mouth1 
and if you have learned to make your    
lips into the proper shape  and apply   
the pressure steadily you can sound a   
very long note and make  different notes

 by making the opening in your lips     
large or small4 ,the  kettle spout has  
only one size of opening so the sound is
 practically  the same at all times     
though louder at sometimes than at      
others4 ,this  is caused by the varying 
pressure at which the steam in the      
kettle is  being forced out4            
,what ,makes the ,water ,from a         
,fountain ,shoot ,into the ,air8        
,the water from the fountain shoots into
 the air because water anywhere  will   
run down if given a chance4 ,to produce 
a fountain you must have  a source of   
water supply for the fountain which is  
higher than the  openings of the        
fountain out of which the water shoots4 
,the water comes  out of the holes in   
the fountain for the same reason that it
 comes out  of the faucet in the kitchen
 or bath room4 ,in the latter case the  
water  comes from the waterworks        
reservoir in which the level of the     
water is  much higher than the opening  
in the faucet in your home4 ,being      

higher  the water in the reservoir is   
trying to get away through the pipes all
  the time and all the pipes leading    
from the reservoir are full of this     
water trying to get away4 ,just as soon 
as you turn the valve in the  faucet the
 water comes out and runs down into the 
bowl4    ,if you were to turn the       
opening of the faucet up instead of down
 as  it is1 the water would shoot up    
instead of down4 ,not very much1 it  is 
true1 but it would act much like the    
water from the fountain4 ,the  reason it
 does not shoot up high in the air like 
a fountain is because  the opening in   
the faucet is the same size as the      
opening in the  little pipe which leads 
the water from the street into the      
house4 ,if  you would turn the opening  
of the faucet up and attach to it a pipe
  which made the opening much smaller   
7the size of the opening in the         
fountains71 you would see the water     
shoot into the air just as it does  from
 the fountain4 ,when you reduce the size

 of the opening you increase  the       
pressure of the water coming from the   
pipes in proportion to the  reduction   
you have made in the size of the        
opening4    ,water from the fountain    
will not1 however1 shoot as high as the 
level  of the water in the reservoir    
because1 as soon as it leaves the pipes1
  it encounters the pressure of the air 
outside the pipes and the law of        
gravitation which pulls all things      
toward the center of the earth4    ,it  
is not natural for water to shoot into  
the air as it does in a  fountain4 ,the 
only way water can go naturally is down1
 and it only goes  up a little way from 
a fountain because of the pressure of   
the water in  the pipes behind the      
openings in the pipes in the fountain4  
,what ,keeps a ,balloon ,up8      ,a    
balloon stays up in the air1 because of 
the air in it1 together with  the weight
 of the balloon1 is less than an equal  
bulk of the air in  which it floats4    
,in former days of ballooning the       

balloons were filled with hot air and   
were then found to rise and stay up     
until the air inside of the balloon     
became of the same temperature as that  
in which it floated4 ,when this  stage  
was reached1 the balloon itself would   
fall because the material  of which it  
was made was denser than air4    ,today 
balloonists fill their balloons with gas
 which is lighter than  air1 even when  
as cool as the air in which they rise   
and are thus able  to stay up a long    
time4    ,you1 of course1 have seen many
 of the red1 white and blue paper       
balloons which are sent up on the       
,fourth of ,july4 ,you will remember    
that father1 or whoever it is that is   
sending them up1 lights the  oil-soaked 
knot of cloth that is attached to the   
balloon immediately  below the opening  
at the bottom4 ,he first lights this and
 then holds  the balloon for a time with
 his hands4    ,soon1 however1 you will 
remember that the balloon starts upward 
with  father still holding it4 ,this is 

because the air inside the balloon  is  
becoming heated4 ,you will notice also  
that at first he has to hold  out the   
sides of the top of the balloon with his
 hands or has some  one help him do     
this1 but that even so the balloon does 
not stand out  round and full as it     
should4 ,when the balloon starts to     
rise1 however1  you will notice that it 
is round and full4 ,this is because the 
air in  the balloon has become heated   
and is expanding4 ,soon the balloon is  
tugging to get away and father lets go  
and it rises and sails away with  the   
wind4 ,as long as the fire below it     
burns1 and if the wind does not  upset  
it so as to make the paper part catch   
fire1 the balloon will stay  up2 but1   
when the fire burns out1 the balloon    
will come down4    ,the balloon merely  
rises because the air inside1 and held  
there by the  covering of the balloon1  
is warmer air and lighter than the air  
on the  outside4          ,why ,did     
,people of ,long ,ago ,live ,longer     

,than ,we ,do ,now8      ,when reading  
of people who lived long years ago and  
especially when  reading about the      
length of their lives1 we are told that 
in the old  days people lived longer    
than they do now4 ,some of the early    
historical  records speak of single     
individuals who lived hundreds of years4
 ,there  is great doubt as to whether   
these statements are founded on fact4   
,in  thinking about this we must first  
take into consideration that these      
records of long ages were recorded at a 
time when man had no accurate  ideas of 
the actual passage of long periods of   
time such as a year4  ,they did not have
 our calendar as a basis for figuring at
 all4 ,learned  men now tell us that the
 actual age of men who lived at the time
 these  records of great ages were      
recorded probably lived shorter lives   
than we do now1 and that what they      
record as a period of one year was      
probably a much shorter period than one 
year4    ,it is true beyond the question

 of a doubt that the people of today    
live  longer on the average than people 
who lived ten1 twenty or more years     
ago4    ,in other words1 the average    
period of life has increased steadily4  
,this is due to the fact that we have   
taken great care of our bodies2  have   
improved the conditions in which we     
live1 and made them more  sanitary2 have
 learned to fight and check and         
eradicate diseases1 which  only a few   
years ago we could not prevent people   
dying of when they  once contracted     
them1 and we know from the records which
 we keep that  actually people live     
longer on the average today than only a 
few years  ago1 and it is safe to say   
that they live longer now on the average
  than at any time in the world's       
history4          ,is ,there a ,reason  
for ,everything8      ,the world is so  
constructed that there must be a reason 
or cause for  everything4 ,there are so 
many forces in the world that man has   
not yet  been able to locate the        

original cause of every one of them4    
,concerning  other things1 he sees the  
effects without having any knowledge of 
the  forces which are their cause4      
,other things he has never even bothered
  to inquire about1 but simply takes    
them for granted4 ,but every force1     
which means1 of course1 everything in   
the world1 must have had a  beginning   
and therefore something or a combination
 of things must have  caused it to      
begin1 and the thing or things that     
caused it to be is the  reason for its  
being4 ,every little while someone makes
 a discovery of  some new force1 and    
then we suddenly realize that this force
 has been  in existence all the time    
although not known to man1 and we       
discover  through this the reason for   
many other things being as they are4    
,the other thing or side of the question
 is also true4 ,we cannot have  a cause 
without an effect4 ,you cannot do       
anything without causing  something to  
happen and producing an effect on one or

 more other  objects either animate or  
inanimate4 ,you cannot move your hand   
without  creating some disturbance in   
the air4 ,when you make a noise1 low or 
loud1 you produce sound waves4 ,when you
 burn a stick of wood1 you  create      
smoke1 ashes and gases of various kinds4
 ,you change the whole  nature of what  
was the piece of wood1 and yet no       
particle of what made  the stick of wood
 is ever destroyed or lost1 but appears 
in some other  thing in the air or on or
 in the earth4          ,what ,makes an 
,echo8      ,an echo is caused when the 
waves of air which you create when you  
shout  are thrown back again when they  
are stopped by something they encounter 
and are turned back without changing    
their shape4 ,any kind of a sound  wave 
will make an echo in this way4    ,you  
see1 you can have no sound of any kind  
without sound waves4 ,you  could not    
make a sound if there were no air4 ,now1
 when you shout1 you  start a series of 
sound waves that go out from you in     

every direction  and they spread away   
from you in circles just like the rings 
of ripples  that are caused when you    
drop a stone into a pool of water4 ,you 
can  prove this to yourself easily by   
having one1 two1 three or more of your  
friends stand around you in a large     
circle4 ,you can place them as far  away
 from you as your shout can be heard if 
you wish4 ,when you shout1  each of your
 friends will hear the shout at the same
 time1 provided1 of  course1 they are at
 equal distances from you4    ,sometimes
 these sound waves as they go away from 
you in circles strike  objects that turn
 the waves back unbroken just as they   
came to them4  ,the waves will bounce   
back just like a rubber ball from a wall
 against  which it has been thrown and  
this is the echo4 ,however1 some things 
that the sound waves strike break up    
these waves entirely and others         
partially4    ,no doubt you have        
sometimes noticed when you shout you    
hear a distinct  echo and that at other 

times1 standing in the same place1 you  
cannot  hear any echo1 although you     
shout in the same way4 ,this is         
explained by  the fact that at times    
conditions of the air are such that no  
echo is  produced while at other times a
 perfect echo results4          ,what is
 a ,whispering ,gallery8      ,the      
possibilities of an echo have to be     
taken into account by the  architects   
and builders of all public buildings1   
such as theaters1  halls and churches1  
where anyone is to speak or entertain   
others4  ,unless they are very careful  
the walls and ceilings may be so        
arranged  that when any one sings or    
speaks in the room1 there is such an    
echo  that it interferes with the music 
or speaking4 ,it sometimes happens  also
 that through some peculiarity in which 
the walls and ceiling of  a building are
 constructed there will be certain      
places in the room  where an echo can be
 heard1 even a whisper1 and which cannot
 be heard  in other parts of the room at

 all4 ,this is likely to occur in rooms 
where there is a dome-shaped ceiling4   
,there will be certain spots in  the    
room hundreds of feet apart1 where if   
you stand on one spot and  another      
person is on another definite spot clear
 across the room1 the  tiniest whisper  
can be heard1 while the people in       
between cannot hear  at all4 ,this is   
called a whispering gallery4 ,of course1
 loud talking  would produce the same   
effect4 ,a whispering gallery is a      
gallery with  an echo which can be heard
 from certain positions4 ,there are a   
number  of famous whispering galleries  
of the world4 ,in the room beneath the  
great dome of our ,capitol at           
,washington is an almost perfect        
whispering  gallery4 ,there are quite a 
number of points at which you can stand 
and  hear the whispers across the room  
which is more than a hundred feet4      
,these whispering galleries come        
accidentally1 of course4 ,it would be   
difficult to deliberately construct a   

building in such a way as to  produce a 
whispering gallery4          ,why ,do   
,we ,get a ,bump ,instead of a ,dent    
,when ,we ,knock ,our ,heads8      ,when
 you knock your head against a sharp    
corner1 or if some one hits  you on the 
head with anything with a sharp edge1   
you do receive a dent  in your head1 but
 it does not last4 ,in other words1 the 
head has one of  the qualities of a     
rubber ball4 ,you can press your finger 
against the  sides of the rubber ball   
and push it in1 but when you take your  
finger  off the ball resumes its shape4 
,just so with your head--it resumes its 
shape after a blow4    ,after doing     
this1 however1 a bump or lump is formed4
 ,i will endeavor to  tell you how the  
bump is formed or rather what causes it 
to form4 ,you  cannot knock your head   
against anything that is harder than    
your head  without causing some injury  
to the parts which received the bump4   
,now1  what happens then is just what   
happens to any other part of your body  

when it is injured whether as a result  
of a bump1 a cut or a bee or  mosquito  
sting4    ,as soon as the injury occurs 
the brain starts the 8repair crew0 to   
work4 ,the result is that first a great 
supply of blood is rushed to the        
injured part with the result that the   
blood vessels are filled up and         
extended with blood4 ,certain parts of  
the blood cells find their way  through 
the walls of the blood vessels at the   
part of the injury and  other fluids    
from the body are piled up there1 so to 
speak1 to form a  congestion4 ,this     
8piling up or congestion0 distends the  
skin and raises  the bump4 ,on the head 
where the layer of muscular structure is
 thinner  and where there is less space 
between the bones of the skull and the  
outside skin1 the bump will be larger   
and more noticeable1 because a  good    
deal of blood and other fluids are piled
 up in a comparatively  small space1 and
 so the skin gets pushed out further to 
accommodate  this great congestion1     

whereas in other parts of the body the  
bump may  be quite as large but not so  
noticeable4    ,illustration3 ,,how     
,,men ,,go ,,down ,,to ,,the ,,bottom   
,,of ,,the ,,sea    ,,putting ,,on ,,the
 ,,suit4    ,socks1 trousers and shirt  
in one1 and a copper breastplate4       
,illustration3 ,,putting ,,on ,,the     
,,iron-,,soled ,,shoes4    ,they are    
purposely made heavy1 to help the diver 
sink4          ,the ,deep ,sea ,diver   
,what ,does the ,bottom of the ,sea     
,look ,like8    ,it looks very much like
 the land on which we live4 ,there are  
mountains  and valleys1 rocks and crags1
 trees and grass1 just the same as we   
see  on land1 except1 of course1 that   
there are no human beings to be seen4   
,instead of birds flitting about the    
tree-tops1 fish swim about them1  and   
where the squirrel and rabbit bound     
through the woods on land1 the  great   
king crab and sea turtle drag their     
unwieldy forms on the ocean's  bottom4  
,some of the scenes at the bottom of the

 sea are like fairyland1  and in        
tropical waters are often as beautiful  
and spectacular as those  we see in     
theatrical pantomimes4 ,delicately      
tinted sea-shells1 great  trees of      
snow-white coral1 sea foliage of every  
tint and shape1 and  deep dark caverns1 
in which lurk the devil-fish and other  
odd looking  fish4      ,the ,diver's   
,outfit4    ,the armor of to-day        
consists of a rubber and canvas suit1   
socks1  trousers and shirt in one1 a    
copper breastplate or collar1 a copper  
helmet1 iron-soled shoes1 and a belt of 
leaden weights to sink the  diver4      
,illustration3 ,,adjusting ,,the        
,,telephone4    ,this enables the diver 
to talk at all times to those above him4
    ,illustration3 ,,putting ,,on ,,the 
,,helmet4    ,it is made of tinned      
copper1 with three glass-covered        
openings1 to  enable the diver to look  
out4    ,illustration3 ,,telephoning    
,,from ,,the ,,bottom ,,of ,,the ,,ocean
    ,,testing ,,the ,,telephone4        

,every precaution is taken to see that  
everything is in order before the  diver
 goes down4    ,illustration3 ,,the     
,,final ,,test4    ,the least error in  
the adjustment may mean death to the    
diver4    ,the helmet is made of tinned 
copper1 with three circular glasses1 one
  in front and one on either side1 with 
guards to protect them4 ,the  front     
eye-piece is made to unscrew and enable 
the diver to receive  or give           
instructions without removing the       
helmet4 ,one or more outlet  valves are 
placed at the back or side of the helmet
 to allow the  vitiated air to escape4  
,these valves only open outwards by     
working  against a spiral spring1 so    
that no water can enter4 ,the inlet     
valve  is at the back of the helmet1 and
 the air on entry is directed by  three 
channels running along the top of the   
helmet to points above the  eye-pieces1 
enabling the diver to always inhale     
fresh air4 ,the helmet  is secured to   
the breastplate below by a segmental    

screw-bayonet joint1  securing          
attachment by one-eighth of a turn4 ,the
 junction between the  water-proof dress
 and the breastplate is made watertight 
by means of  studs1 brass plates and    
wing-nuts4    ,a life or signal-line and
 also a modern telephone enables the    
diver to  communicate at all times with 
those above him4    ,the cost of a      
complete diving outfit ranges from      
#gej4jj to #a1jjj4jj4  ,the weight of   
the armor and attachments worn by the   
diver is #bef  pounds1 divided as       
follows3 ,helmet and breastplate1 #eh   
pounds2 belt of  lead weights1 #abb     
pounds2 rubber suit1 #ai pounds2        
iron-soled shoes1 #bg  pounds each4     
,the air which sustains the diver's life
 below the surface is pumped  from above
 by a powerful pump1 which must be kept 
constantly at work  while the diver is  
down4 ,a stoppage of the pump a single  
instant while  the diver is in deep     
water would result almost in his instant
 death  from the pressure of the water  

outside4    ,the greatest depth reached 
by any diver was #bjd feet1 at which    
depth  there was a pressure of #hh      
pounds per square inch on his body4 ,the
  area exposed of the average diver in  
armor is #gbj inches1 which would  have 
made the diver at that depth sustain a  
pressure of #ff1ifj pounds1  or over #cc
 tons4    ,the water pressure on a diver
 is as follows3       #bj feet          
#h lbs4     #cj feet        #ab lbs4    
#dj feet        #ag lbs4     #ej feet   
#ba lbs4     #fj feet        #bf lbs4   
#gj feet        #cj lbs4     #hj feet   
#cd lbs4     #ij feet        #ci    lbs4
    #ajj feet        #dc lbs4    #abj   
feet        #eb lbs4    #acj feet       
#ef lbs4    #adj feet        #fj lbs4   
#aej feet        #fe lbs4    #afj feet  
#fi lbs4    #agj feet        #gd    lbs4
    #ahj feet        #gh    lbs4    #aij
 feet        #hb lbs4    #bjd feet      
#hh lbs4    ,the dangers of diving are  
manifold1 and so risky is the calling   
that  there are comparatively few divers

 in the ,united ,states4 ,the cheapest  
of them command #aj4jj a day for four or
 five hours' work1 and many of  them get
 #ej4jj and #fj4jj for the same term of 
labor under water4    ,the greatest     
danger that besets the diver is the risk
 he runs every  time he dives of        
rupturing a blood-vessel by the         
excessively compressed  air he is       
compelled to breathe4 ,he is also       
subject to attacks from  sharks1        
sword-fish1 devil-fish1 and other       
voracious monsters of  the ocean's      
depths4 ,to defend himself against them1
 he carries a  double-edged knife as    
sharp as a razor4 ,it is the diver's    
sole weapon  of defense4    ,just how   
far back the art of submarine diving    
dates is a matter of  conjecture1 but   
until the invention of the present armor
 and helmet1  in #ahci1 work and        
exploration under water was1 at best1   
imperfect1 and  could only be pursued in
 a very limited degree4      ,feats of  
,divers4    ,,the ,,greatest ,,diving   

,,feat    ,millions of dollars' worth of
 property has been recovered from the   
ocean's depth by divers4 ,one of the    
greatest achievements in this line  was 
by the famous ,english diver1 ,lambert1 
who recovered vast treasure  from the   
8,alfonso ,,xii10 a ,spanish mail       
steamer belonging to the ,lopez  ,line1 
which sank off ,point ,gando1 ,grand    
,canary1 in #bf fathoms of  water4 ,the 
salvage party was dispatched by the     
underwriters in ,may1  #ahhe1 the vessel
 having #ajj1jjj in specie on board4    
,for nearly six  months the operations  
were persevered in before the divers    
could reach  the treasure-room beneath  
the three decks4 ,two divers lost their 
lives  in the vain attempt1 the pressure
 of water being fatal4 ,the diver       
recovered #ij1jjj from the wreck1 and   
got #d1ejj for doing it4    ,one of the 
most difficult operations ever performed
 by a diver was the  recovering of the  
treasure sunk in the steamship          
8,malabar10 off ,galle4  ,on this       

occasion the large iron plates1 half an 
inch thick1 had to be  cut away from the
 mail-room1 and then the diver had to   
work through  nine feet of sand4 ,the   
whole of the specie on board this       
vessel--upward  of #a1ejj1jjj--was      
saved1 as much as #hj1jjj having been   
gotten out in  one day4    ,it is an    
interesting fact that from time to time 
expeditions have been  fitted out1 and  
companies formed1 with the sole         
intention of searching  for buried      
treasure beneath the sea4 ,again and    
again have expeditions  left ,new ,york 
or ,san ,francisco in the certainty of  
recovering tons of  bullion sunk off the
 ,brazilian coast1 or lying undisturbed 
in the mud  of the ,rio de la ,plata4   
,illustration3 ,the last look just      
before going down4    ,illustration3    
,coming up after a successful trip4     
,at the end of #ahhe1 the large steamer 
,imbus1 belonging to the ,p4  ,o4  ,co41
 sank off ,trincomalee1 having on board 
a very valuable ,east-,india  cargo1    

together with a large amount of specie4 
,this was another case  of a fortune    
found in the sea1 for a very large      
amount of treasure was  recovered4      
,another wreck from which a large sum of
 gold coin and bullion was  recovered by
 divers1 was that of the ,french ship   
8,l',orient40 ,she  is stated to have   
had on board specie to the value of no  
less than  #c1jjj1jjj1 besides other    
treasure4    ,a parallel case to        
8,l',orient0 is that of the 8,lutine10 a
 warship of  thirty-two guns1 wrecked   
off the coast of ,holland4 ,this vessel 
sailed  from the ,yarmouth ,roads with  
an immense quantity of treasure for the 
,texel4 ,in the course of the day it    
came on to blow a heavy gale2 the       
vessel was lost and went to pieces4     
,salvage operations by divers1  during  
eighteen months1 resulted in the        
recovery of #djj1jjj in specie4         
,humorous scenes do not play much of a  
part on the ocean's bottom1 and  the    
sublime and awe-inspiring are far more  

in evidence there than the  ludicrous1  
yet even beneath the waves there are    
laughable scenes at  times4 ,a diver had
 been engaged to inspect a sunken vessel
 off the  coast of ,cuba4 ,arriving on  
the scene he discovered a number of     
native  sponge-divers1 who descend to   
considerable depths1 diving down from   
their canoes to the sunken vessel trying
 to pick up something of value4  ,they  
paid little attention to the arrival of 
the wrecking outfit1 and  did not notice
 the diver descend1 until suddenly what 
seemed to them to  be a horrible        
human-shaped monster1 with an immense   
head of glistening  copper and three    
big1 round1 glassy eyes1 came walking   
around the  vessel's bow and made a big 
salaam to them4 ,that was enough4 ,they 
shot  surfaceward like sky-rockets1     
climbed frantically into their canoes   
and  hurriedly rowed away4              
,what ,happens ,when ,anything          
,explodes8      ,by explosives are meant
 substances that can be made to give off

 a large  quantity of gas in an         
exceedingly short time1 and the shorter 
the time  required for the production of
 the gas the greater will be the        
violence  of the explosion4 ,many       
substances that ordinarily have no      
explosive  qualities may be made to act 
as explosives under certain             
circumstances4  ,water1 for example1 has
 caused very destructive boiler         
explosions when  a quantity of it has   
been allowed to enter an empty boiler   
that had  become red hot4 ,particles of 
dust in the air have occasioned         
explosions  in saw mills1 where the air 
always contains large quantities of     
dust4  ,a flame introduced into air that
 is heavily laden with dust may cause  a
 sudden burning of the particles near   
it1 and from these the fire may  be     
conveyed so rapidly to the others that  
the heat will cause the air  to expand  
suddenly1 and this1 together with the   
formation of gases from  the burning1   
will cause an explosion4    ,it must not

 be thought1 however1 that fine sawdust 
or water would  ordinarily be classed as
 explosives4 ,the term is generally     
applied only  to those substances that  
may be very easily caused to explode4   
,the oldest1 and most widely known1     
explosive that we possess is  gunpowder1
 the invention of which is generally    
credited to the ,chinese4  ,it is a     
mixture of potassium nitrate1 or        
saltpeter1 with powdered  charcoal and  
sulphur4 ,the proportions in which these
 substances are  mixed vary in different
 kinds of powder1 but they usually do   
not differ  much from the following3    
,sulphur        #aj per cent4           
,charcoal       #af per cent4           
,saltpeter      #gd per cent4    ,the   
explosive quality of gunpowder is due to
 the fact that it will burn  with great 
rapidity without contact with the air1  
and that in burning  it liberates large 
volumes of gas4 ,when a spark is        
introduced into it1  the carbon1        
charcoal1 and sulphur combine with a    

portion of the oxygen  contained in the 
saltpeter to form carbonic acid gas and 
sulphurous  acid gas1 and at the same   
time the nitrogen contained in the      
saltpeter  is set free in the gaseous   
form4 ,this action takes place very     
suddenly1  and the volume of gas set    
free is so much greater than that of the
  powder that an explosion follows4     
,in the manufacture of gunpowder all    
that is absolutely necessary is to  mix 
the three ingredients thoroughly and in 
the proper proportions4  ,but to fit the
 powder for use in firing small arms and
 cannon it is  made into grains of      
various sizes1 the small sizes being    
used for the  small arms with short     
barrels1 and the large sizes for cannon4
 ,the  reason for this is that if the   
powder is made in very small grains it  
all burns at once1 and the explosion    
takes place so suddenly that an         
exceedingly strong gun is required to   
withstand the explosion1 while if       
larger grains are employed the burning  

is slower and continues until  the      
projectile has traveled to the muzzle of
 the gun4 ,in this way the  projectile  
is fired from the gun with as much force
 as if the explosion  had taken place at
 once1 but there is less strain on the  
gun4          ,what ,causes the ,smoke  
,when a ,gun ,goes ,off8      ,powder of
 this latter kind always produces a     
considerable quantity of  smoke when it 
is fired1 because there is a quantity of
 fine particles  formed from the        
breaking up of the saltpeter and from   
some of the  charcoal which is not      
completely burned4 ,this smoke forms a  
cloud that  takes some time to clear    
away1 which is a very objectionable     
feature4  ,in order to get rid of it1   
efforts were made to produce a substance
  that would explode without leaving any
 solid residue1 and that could be  used 
in guns4 ,these efforts were finally    
successful1 and there are now  several  
brands of smokeless powder in use4      
,what is ,smokeless ,powder ,made ,of8  

,the most satisfactory forms of         
smokeless powder are all made from      
guncotton or nitrocellulose4 ,this      
substance1 which is made by treating    
cotton with a mixture of nitric and     
sulphuric acids1 is a chemical          
compound1 not a mixture like gunpowder2 
and when it is exploded it is  all      
converted into gases1 of which the chief
 ones are carbonic acid  gas1 nitrogen1 
and water-vapor4 ,to cause the explosion
 of guncotton it  is not necessary to   
burn it1 but a mere shock or jar will   
cause it to  decompose with explosive   
violence4 ,of course1 such a violent    
explosive  as this could not be used    
either in small arms or in cannon1 but  
guncotton can be converted into less    
explosive forms which are suitable  for 
use in guns1 and the majority1 of       
smokeless powders are made in  this way4
 ,the methods used in producing the     
smokeless powders are kept  secret by   
the various countries that use them4    
,what is ,nitroglycerine8      ,another 

very powerful explosive1 which is       
closely related to guncotton1  is       
nitroglycerine4 ,this compound is made  
by treating glycerine with the  same    
sort of acid mixture that is used in    
making guncotton4 ,it explodes  in the  
same way that guncotton does and yields 
the same products4 ,it is  an oily      
liquid of yellow color1 and on account  
of its liquid form it is  difficult to  
handle and use4 ,the difficulty in      
handling nitroglycerine  led to the plan
 of mixing it with a quantity of very   
fine sand called  infusorial earth4     
,when mixed with this a solid mass      
called dynamite is  formed1 which is    
easier to handle and more difficult to  
explode1 but  which has almost as much  
explosive force as nitroglycerine4    ,a
 more powerful explosive than either    
nitroglycerine or guncotton is  obtained
 by mixing them together4 ,when this is 
done the guncotton  swells up by        
absorbing the nitroglycerine and becomes
 a brownish1  jelly-like substance that 

is known as blasting gelatin4 ,this is  
generally considered the most powerful  
explosive obtainable4          ,what    
,makes ,nitroglycerine and ,guncotton   
,explode ,so ,readily8      ,let us now 
consider for the moment what it is that 
makes guncotton1  nitroglycerine1 and   
blasting gelatin explode so readily4    
,the  explanation is found in the       
presence in them of nitrogen4 ,as you   
remember from what you learned about    
air1 nitrogen is an extremely  inactive 
element4 ,it has no strong tendency to  
combine with other  elements1 and when  
it does enter into combination with them
 the  compounds formed are almost always
 easily decomposed4 ,in the compounds   
that have just been described a shock   
causes a loosening of the bonds  that   
hold the nitrogen1 and the whole        
compound goes to pieces just as  an arch
 falls when the keystone is removed4    
,what ,is ,silver8      ,since the      
earliest time recorded in history1      
silver has been the  most used of the   

precious metals1 both in the arts and as
 a medium  of exchange4 ,even in the    
prehistoric times silver mines were     
worked  and the metal was employed in   
the ornamental and useful arts4 ,it was 
not so early used as money1 and when it 
began to be adopted for this  purpose1  
it was made into bars or rings and sold 
by weight4 ,the first  regular coinage  
of either gold or silver was in         
,phrygia1 or ,lydia1  in ,asia ,minor4  
,silver was used in the arts by the     
,athenians1 the  ,phnicians1 the        
,vikings1 the ,aztecs1 the ,peruvians1  
and in fact by all  the civilized and   
semi-civilized nations of antiquity4 ,it
 is found  in almost every part of the  
globe1 usually in combination with other
  metals4 ,the mines in ,south ,america1
 ,mexico1 and the ,united ,states are   
especially rich4 ,silver is sometimes   
found in huge nuggets4 ,a mass  weighing
 #hjj pounds was found in ,peru1 and it 
is claimed that one of  #b1gjj pounds   
was extracted in ,mexico4 ,the ratio of 

the value of silver  and gold has varied
 greatly4 ,at the ,christian era it was 
#i to #a2 #ejj  ,a4,d4 it was #ah to #a2
 but in #aajj ,a4,d4 it was only #h to  
#a4 ,in #ahic  it was as high as #b1egg 
to #a4 ,the subject has entered largely 
into  ,american politics as a disturbing
 element1 and in #ahif the ,democratic  
party1 in its national convention1      
declared for the free coinage of the    
metals at #af to #a4 ,the ,republican   
party adhered to the gold standard  and 
declared against the free coinage of    
silver4 ,each party reaffirmed  in #aijj
 this plank in its platform4 ,in both   
years the ,democrats were  defeated4    
,what ,is ,worry8      ,worry is a      
feeling of fear1 but is never of the    
present4 ,it is always  about something 
that may happen or that has happened4   
,it is generally  in the future1        
sometimes in the past1 but never in the 
present4    ,an animal that knows       
neither future nor past cannot worry4   
,babies1  living only as they do in the 

present1 cannot worry4 ,all creatures1  
excepting human beings1 live only in the
 present and therefore they do  not     
worry1 for such creatures cannot        
remember what happened in the past  or  
guess what is going to happen4    ,a    
human being after arriving at a certain 
age is given such powers  that his mind 
can go back to the past and cast itself 
forward into the  future as he thinks it
 will be1 because he has imagination4   
,as a matter  of fact we live less in   
the present than in the past or future4 
,why ,do ,we ,worry8      ,we worry     
because we are able through a power     
called self-consciousness  to place     
ourselves through our minds for the time
 being4 ,either--back  somewhere in the 
past without carrying our physical      
bodies with us2 for  if we could take   
our bodies with us1 we would be in the  
present again1  and then worry is       
impossible2 or1 we use our imagination  
and project  the future entirely apart  
from our bodies1 for we cannot project  

our  bodies into the future1 and if we  
could we would again be in the  present4
 ,we worry over going to have an        
operation performed which may  or not be
 dangerous1 but quite necessary4 ,we may
 still think we worry  when the         
operation begins1 but as soon as that   
occurs the time becomes  the present1   
and though we may fear1 we cannot worry 
in the present4    ,illustration3       
,back ,view of ,shield                  
,longitudinal ,section through ,shield  
,tunnel      ,diagram showing method of 
tunnel construction by shield and       
compressed air4      ,scale2  inch  #a  
foot      ,jacobs  ,davies ,inc4 #cj    
,church ,st4 ,n4,y4      ,oct4 #ae4     
#aiaj4    ,,figure #a4          ,the    
,story in a ,tunnel      ,how a ,tunnel 
,is ,dug ,under ,water4    ,fig4 #a4 ,on
 the left is a cross section showing1 in
 diagram1 the back  view of a shield4   
,the heavy black circle is the 8tail0 or
 8skin40  ,the small circles within the 
tail are the hydraulic rams which at a  

pressure of #e1jjj pounds to the square 
inch force the shield forward4  ,the    
square compartments within the shield   
are the openings through  which the men 
pass to dig away the ground4 ,in the    
middle of the shield  is shown the      
swinging 8erector0 which picks up the   
iron lining plates  and puts them in    
position4    ,the view on the right is a
 longitudinal section of the tunnel     
showing  the shield and the bulkhead    
wall across the tunnel with the air     
locks  built into it4 ,the front of the 
shield ahead of the doors is made with  
a sharp edge called the 8cutting edge0  
and this makes it easier for the  shield
 to advance in case all the ground in   
front has not been removed4  ,this view 
shows how the tail overlaps the last    
portion of the iron  lining4    ,some   
distance behind the shield comes the    
concrete bulkhead wall with  the air    
locks contained in it4 ,there are two   
shown in the view4 ,the  upper one is   
the emergency air lock1 always kept     

ready so that in case  of an accident   
the men have a means of escape even     
though the lower  part of the tunnel is 
filled with rushing water or mud4 ,the  
lower air  lock is for the passage of   
men and materials during ordinary       
working4  ,this view also shows that all
 the tunnel ahead of the bulkhead wall  
is under compressed air while the       
finished tunnel behind the bulkhead     
wall is under the ordinary or normal air
 pressure4 ,when the tunnel is  finished
 the air locks and bulkhead walls are   
removed4    ,illustration3 ,,front      
,,view ,,of ,a ,,driving ,,shield       
,this shows the front of one of the     
shields used on the ,pennsylvania       
,railroad tunnels crossing the ,north   
,river at ,new ,york4 ,the cutting edge 
is clearly seen and the various         
compartments1 each with its door1 which 
divide up the front of the shield4      
,these shields weighed about #bjj tons  
each4      ,,how ,,tunnels ,,are        
,,built4    ,these notes describe very  

generally the way in which tunnels are  
built  through mud and gravel under     
parts of the sea or large rivers in such
  a way that the men who build them are 
protected and as safe as the  carpenter 
who is building a house4    ,the way    
these tunnels are built is called the   
8shield0 way because  the machine used  
is called a shield4 ,it is given this   
name because it  shields the tunnel     
builders from the water and the mud     
which are ready  at every moment to     
overwhelm them and kill them4    ,the   
shield was invented in #ahah by a great 
,engineer1 ,marc ,isambard  ,brunel1 who
 was a ,frenchman living in ,england4   
,the idea of the shield  came to him as 
he saw how the sea worm which attacks   
the wooden piles  of docks along the    
shore bores the holes it makes in the   
wood4 ,the head  of this worm is very   
hard and can bite its way through the   
hardest  woods4 ,as it goes through the 
wood its body makes a hard shelly       
coating  which lines the holes which its

 head has made and prevents the hole    
from getting filled up4 ,this is the    
general idea of a tunnel built by a     
shield4    ,the first shield was used by
 ,mr4 ,brunel to make a tunnel across   
the  ,thames ,river at ,london1         
,england4 ,this is still the biggest    
tunnel  ever built by a shield1 although
 not the longest1 and is still  used by 
railroad trains4 ,this tunnel was begun 
in #ahbe and was  finished in #ahdc1 and
 provides a history of almost unexampled
 and  not-to-be-excelled courage in     
attacking difficulties and skill in     
defeating them4    ,since the days of   
,brunel many great improvements have    
been made in the  shield and in the way 
of working it but the same idea is still
 there4    ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the   
,,shield ,,is ,,pushed ,,forward        
,this shows the rear end or tail end of 
one of the smaller shields1 used  on the
 ,hudson and ,manhattan ,railroad       
tunnels under the ,north or ,hudson     
,river at ,new ,york4 ,it shows the     

skin1 the hydraulic jacks within the    
skin and the piping and valves for      
working them4 ,it also shows the  doors 
leading to the front or 8face40 ,the    
erector is not shown1 but the  circular 
hole in the middle shows where it would 
be attached4    ,illustration3 ,this    
shows one side of an air lock bulkhead  
wall with  the air lock in place4 ,the  
boiler-like appearance of the lock is   
clearly visible1 as well as the door and
 the pressure gauge to tell the  air    
pressure inside the lock4               
,illustration3 ,this is a rear view of  
one of the ,pennsylvania ,tunnel        
shields1 taken after a length of tunnel 
had been completed4 ,all the  details of
 construction are shown1 but in this    
case the erector is  clearly seen also4 
,the valves which control the erector   
and the rams  which push the shield     
forward are seen near the top of the    
shield4 ,the  rods across the tunnel are
 turn-buckles used to keep the iron     
lining  from getting out of shape in the

 soft mud4 ,these are removed later4    
,the  floor and tracks in the bottom are
 temporary and are used for bringing    
materials to and from the shield4       
,after the days of ,brunel's shield     
another great help was given to  tunnel 
builders by the invention of the use of 
compressed air to hold  back the water  
which saturates the ground in which the 
tunnel is being  built4    ,,who        
,,invented ,,the ,,compressed ,,air     
,,method    ,the first real invention of
 compressed air for this purpose was    
made  by ,admiral ,sir ,thomas ,cochrane
 who1 in #ahcj1 took out a patent for   
the  use of compressed air to expel the 
water from the ground in shafts and     
tunnels and1 by this means1 to convert  
the ground from a condition of          
quicksand to one of firmness4 ,this     
patent covers all the essential         
features of compressed air working4     
,as suggested above1 the thing which    
compressed air does in a tunnel  is to  
push the water out from all the spaces  

which it fills in the  ground1 so that  
the men who are digging away the ground 
for the tunnel  are working in firm dry 
ground instead of a mixture of earth and
 water  which will run into and fill the
 hole they dig as soon as it is dug4    
,whenever a tunnel is being built below 
a body of water through ground  which is
 porous1 or in other words through any  
ground except solid  rock or dense clay1
 the water fills every crevice and space
 in the  ground and is exerting a       
pressure of about half a pound per      
square inch  above the ordinary pressure
 of the air1 7which is #ae pounds to the
  square inch7 for every foot of depth  
below the surface of the water2  so that
 supposing the tunnel is #dj feet below 
the water the water has  a pressure of  
nearly #bj pounds per square inch on    
every square inch  of the surface of the
 tunnel4 ,this pressure causes the water
 to flow  violently into any hole or    
opening that is made in the ground1 and1
  unless the water is prevented from    

moving by some means or other1 the      
opening made would be very quickly      
filled with water and also with  ground 
as the rush of water will carry the     
sand1 gravel or mud with it4    ,by     
,cochrane's invention the whole tunnel  
is filled with air under  a pressure    
equal to the pressure of the water4     
,this compressed air  therefore balances
 the pressure of the water and holds it 
back from  moving1 and if the pressure  
of the air is made slightly greater than
  that of the water the water is driven 
back from the tunnels for a short       
distance so that when the tunnel is     
being dug the ground instead of  being  
wet is quite dry4    ,this explains the 
principles of the shield and compressed 
air way of  making a tunnel4    ,the    
following describes very shortly how    
these principles are put to  actual use4
    ,most tunnels which are built by    
shield and compressed air under rivers  
or arms of the sea are lined with cast  
iron plates to protect the  railway or  

roadway which is in the tunnel4    ,the 
tunnel is a circular tube1 or shell1 and
 the plates have flanges  on all sides  
which are bolted together4 ,this shell  
is put into place1  plate by plate1 by  
means of the shield which not only      
protects the  workmen and the work under
 construction1 but which helps to build 
the  iron shell4 ,in fact it corresponds
 to the sea worm which bores through    
the wood and lines the hole with a      
shell4 ,in the case of the tunnel  the  
shell is made of iron4 ,the shield      
itself consists of a steel tube  or     
cylinder slightly bigger in diameter    
than the tube or tunnel it  is intended 
to build4 ,the front edge of this shield
 is made up of a  ring of sharp edged   
castings which form what is called the  
8cutting  edge40 ,just behind the       
cutting edge is a bulkhead or wall of   
steel1 in  which are openings which may 
be opened or closed at will4 ,behind    
this  bulkhead are placed a number of   
hydraulic jacks or presses arranged     

around the shield and within it1 so that
 by thrusting against the last  erected 
ring of iron lining the whole shield is 
pushed forward4 ,the  rear end of the   
shield is a continuation of the cylinder
 which forms  the front end1 and this   
part1 called the 8tail10 always overlaps
 the  last few feet of the built up iron
 shell4    ,illustration3 ,this is a    
photograph of a model of the            
,pennsylvania  ,tunnels to ,new ,york   
,city1 made for the ,jamestown          
,tercentenary  ,exposition of #aijg4 ,it
 is given because it illustrates1 as no 
photograph of actual work could do1 the 
relationship between the  shield1 the   
tunnel itself and the air lock4 ,this   
view shows the rear  part of the shield 
on the extreme left1 with the erector   
picking up an  iron plate4 ,it shows a  
man bringing a car with two of the iron 
plates  up to the shield4 ,behind this  
man comes the bulkhead wall with the    
emergency air lock in the top and the   
ordinary air lock for passing  in and   

out at the bottom4 ,it also shows the   
upper platform to the  emergency lock   
along which the men can get to the      
emergency lock in  case of an accident4 
,illustration3 ,this is another view of 
the same model1 but showing the  front  
view of the shield4 ,the doors on the   
air locks are clearly shown4            
,illustration3 ,this is a photograph    
taken in one of the ,pennsylvania       
tunnels under the ,hudson ,river4 ,it   
shows the soft mud1 through which  the  
tunnel is being built1 flowing in a     
thick stream through one of  the doors  
of the shield4 ,the mud under the       
,hudson1 where these tunnels  are1 is so
 soft that often the shield was pushed  
through the mud with  all the doors     
shut1 so that no mud came into the      
tunnel and no digging  had to be done1  
but the shield pushed its way bodily    
through the mud1  the rings of iron     
lining being built up behind as usual4  
,generally1  however1 a certain amount  
of mud was brought in and had to be     

removed4  ,this photograph shows how it 
looked4    ,,how ,,the ,,shield ,,cuts  
,,through ,,the ,,ground    ,the        
diagram1 ,fig4 #a1 shows more clearly   
what is meant4 ,from an  inspection of  
,figure #a it is clear that1 when the   
openings in the  shield bulkhead are    
closed1 the tunnel is protected from an 
inrush  of either water or earth2 the   
openings in the bulkhead may be so      
regulated that control is maintained    
over the material passed through4       
,after a ring of iron lining has been   
erected within the tail of the  shield1 
the shield doors are opened and men go  
through them and dig  out enough earth  
for the shield to go ahead4 ,the rams   
are then thrust  out thus pushing the   
shield ahead4 ,another ring of iron is  
built up  within the tail for which     
purpose an hydraulic swinging arm1      
called the  8erector10 is mounted on the
 shield face4 ,this erector picks up the
  plates and puts them into position1   
one by one1 while the men bolt them     

together4 ,excavation is then carried on
 again and the whole round of  work     
repeated1 gaining every time the jacks  
are rammed or thrust out  a length equal
 to the length of one ring of iron      
lining4 ,in carrying  out this work in  
ground charged with water the shield is 
assisted by  introducing compressed air 
as described before4 ,to use the        
compressed  air thick bulkhead walls of 
masonry are built across the tunnel     
behind  the shield and into the space   
between the shield and the bulkhead wall
  air is pumped1 compressed to the same 
pressure as that of the water in  the   
ground1 or in other words the pressure  
of the air in pounds per  square inch is
 about half the number of feet the      
tunnel is below the  water surface4     
,this dries the ground and simplifies   
enormously the  difficulty of working in
 it4 ,the diagram1 7,fig4 #a7 shows a   
bulkhead  wall across the tunnel4 ,in   
order to pass from the ordinary air     
outside  the bulkhead into the          

compressed air inside it1 all the men   
and the  materials have to pass through 
the 8air locks0 which are built into    
the wall4 ,they are called air locks    
because they are like the locks on  a   
canal which raise the water from a lower
 to a higher level or lower  it from a  
higher to a lower level as the case may 
be4 ,the difference  is that an air lock
 enables one to pass from air at a low  
pressure to  one of a higher1 or vice   
versa4 ,an air lock is made like a large
 boiler  with a door at each end4 ,if we
 wish to enter the compressed air we    
enter the lock from the outside4 ,the   
door at the end has been tightly  closed
 to prevent the compressed air from     
rushing out4 ,we close the  door behind 
us and are now tightly shut in the      
boiler-like lock4 ,we now  open a valve 
and compressed air begins to flow       
quickly into the air  lock and the air  
gets hotter and hotter1 due to the      
compression of the  air4 ,very likely an
 intense pain begins to make itself felt

 in the ears  but by swallowing hard and
 blowing the nose it may be relieved4   
,it is  caused by the air pressure being
 greater on the outside of the ear drum 
than on the inside4 ,if the delicate ear
 passages are choked1 because  of a cold
 or some such reason1 it is unsafe to go
 further or the ear  drum may burst4    
,when the pressure in the air lock has  
reached that in  the working chamber1   
the door leading to the shield may be   
opened and  we can pass to the working  
space and note the work going on4 ,there
 is  no especial bodily sensation to be 
felt except a slight exhilaration  and  
it is curious to find that one cannot   
whistle4 ,on leaving the  compressed air
 we enter the air lock by the door we   
left2 a valve is  turned and the air    
begins to escape and the pressure in the
 air lock  begins to go down4 ,as it    
does so the air becomes colder and      
colder  and the whole lock is filled    
with a wet fog due to the chilling by   
expansion of the air4 ,the air has to be

 allowed to escape very slowly1  as     
bubbles of air and gas otherwise form in
 the blood vessels and  tissues of the  
body giving rise to the very painful    
complaint known to  tunnel builders as  
8the bends10 and in very serious cases  
to paralysis  and even death4 ,the      
higher the air pressure the more slowly 
must one  come out into the ordinary    
air4    ,illustration3 ,,making ,,the   
,,joints ,,water ,,tight    ,this shows 
the erector building up the iron lining 
in one of the  ,pennsylvania tunnels at 
,new ,york4 ,it shows clearly how the   
iron plates  are bolted together to make
 the rings of iron lining4              
,illustration3 ,the last1 or closing1   
plate of each iron ring is called  the  
8key10 and is much shorter than the     
others4 ,this photograph shows  the     
shield erector on one of the            
,pennsylvania tunnels picking up and    
putting into place a key plate4 ,this   
picture gives an idea of the mud  and   
dirt and wet in which the men who work  

in tunnels have to do their  work4      
,illustration3 ,wherever possible1 every
 space and crevice outside the  iron    
lining is filled with cement forced1 in 
a liquid state1 through  the iron lining
 by compressed air4 ,this photograph    
shows the operation  of 8grouting10 as  
it is called4 ,the man at the left is in
 control of  the grouting4 ,he has the  
hose1 through which the grout is forced1
  screwed to a pipe which passes through
 a hole made for the purpose in  the    
iron lining plates and called a 8grout  
hole40 ,the two men in the  middle of   
the picture are attending to the        
8grouting machine0 by which  the work is
 done4 ,water and cement are fed into   
the small boiler-like  tank1 the tank   
closed and compressed air admitted thus 
blowing the  liquid cement through the  
hose and behind the iron lining4 ,when  
no  more grout can be forced behind the 
iron lining all the space has been      
filled4 ,the man on the right is the    
engineers' inspector taking note of  how

 much grouting is done1 and seeing that 
the work is properly carried  out4      
,illustration3 ,this shows the process  
by which the iron lining is made        
perfectly water-tight1 so that1 when the
 compressed air is taken off1  no water 
at all can get into the tunnel4 ,two    
operations are shown here4  ,one is     
called 8grommetting the bolts10 the     
other is called 8caulking  the joints40 
,the two men on the left1 hanging on to 
the wrench1 are  tightening up the bolts
 as tight as they can after having put  
on1  underneath the washers at the head 
and nut of each bolt1 a ring of  spun   
yarn dipped in red lead and oil or tar  
or some such water-proof  material4 ,a  
few of these 8grommets0 may be seen at  
the feet of the  third man from the     
left4 ,the other four men are caulking  
the joints  between the iron plates by  
driving into the joints a mixture of sal
  ammoniac and iron borings4 ,this sets 
as hard as iron and if properly  done   
makes a perfectly water-tight joint4    

,illustration3 ,,the ,,remarkable       
,,accuracy ,,of ,,engineering           
,usually when crossing1 with a tunnel1 a
 wide river or estuary the  tunnel is   
started from each shore and the shields 
are pushed through  the ground until    
they meet somewhere about the middle of 
the river4  ,this shows two of the      
,pennsylvania tunnel shields which have 
met far  below the ,hudson ,river4 ,the 
white arrow shows where each shield     
ends4  ,the platform of one shield on   
which the man stands corresponds exactly
  with the platform of the other shield4
 ,as may be imagined1 it takes  very    
careful and skillful engineering and    
surveying work1 both before  the work is
 begun and while it is being carried    
out1 to enable tunnel  shields to meet  
like this4 ,this part of the art of     
tunnelling would  take an article to    
itself4    ,when the shield has been    
pushed across the entire length of the  
water  way which has to be tunnelled1   
and the whole of the iron tube or shell 

is in place1 a thick lining of concrete 
is placed inside the iron shell  to     
protect it and make the tunnel stronger4
 ,as an added safeguard  wherever the   
tunnel is in rock1 gravel1 strong clay  
or other ground  which is not so soft   
that it does not close tightly in on the
 outside  of the tube1 liquid cement is 
forced by compressed air through holes  
made in the iron plates for this        
purpose4 ,this liquid cement enters     
every pore or crevice in the surrounding
 ground and when it has set  hard it    
still further protects the iron with a  
coating of cement4  ,pieces have been   
cut out of the iron lining of a tunnel  
built under the  river ,thames at       
,london1 ,england1 in #ahfi1 which      
showed that the iron  at all places was 
as good as the day it was first put in  
forty years  before1 and iron put in the
 lining of the ,hudson ,river ,tunnel   
about  #ahgh when removed after thirty  
years was in perfect condition4         
,illustration3 ,,shield ,,at ,,end ,,of 

,,journey    ,sometimes1 however1       
shields are not driven to meet one      
another1 but end  their journey at some 
shaft or in some other tunnel previously
 built1  after having gone through      
thousands of feet of all kinds of       
ground1  from the hardest rock1 which   
had to be blasted out foot by foot      
before  the shield could advance1       
through hard pan1 gravel1 boulders1     
piles1  rip-rap1 made ground and mud so 
soft that it flows like melted butter4  
,naturally1 after an experience like    
this a shield does not look as  spick   
and span as when it started in life4    
,this photograph shows one  of the      
shields of the ,hudson and ,manhattan   
,railroad in ,new ,york just  reaching  
the end of its journey1 battered and    
bent but still in the  ring4            
,illustration3 ,this shows a piece of   
curved tunnel near ,morton ,street1  on 
the ,hudson and ,manhattan ,railroad1   
and is given because of the clear       
showing it gives of the iron lining4    

,the track and floor are only the       
temporary roads for use during          
construction4    ,illustration3         
,sometimes it is necessary to make      
borings of the ground  below the        
tunnels4 ,in some of these bore holes   
vast quantities of water  are found at a
 much higher pressure than the tunnel   
compressed air4  ,this picture shows a  
spouting bore hole in one of the        
,pennsylvania  tunnels during           
construction4    ,illustration3 ,the    
last thing to do before laying the track
 is to put  the concrete inside the iron
 lining4 ,this picture shows this work  
going  on and the wooden forms or ribs  
for holding up the concrete while it is 
setting4    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,land 
,,end ,,of ,a ,,great ,,tunnel ,,under  
,,the ,,hudson    ,this view is given to
 show how complicated an underground    
structure  may have to be made to take  
care of the requirements of traffic4    
,this  view shows the three great       
reinforced concrete caissons sunk       

through  the earth at ,jersey ,city in  
order to contain the switches and       
crossings  required to form the ,new    
,jersey connections of the uptown and   
downtown  tunnels of the ,hudson and    
,manhattan ,railroad4    ,these caissons
 were sunk under air pressure by        
excavating below them  just as though   
they were tunnels turned up on end4 ,in 
sinking these  caissons the material    
passed through was water-logged made    
ground1 and  the hulls of two sunken    
canal boats were encountered and had to 
be cut  into pieces small enough to be  
taken out through the locks4    ,the    
usual passenger rushing at high speed in
 the trains between ,jersey  ,city and  
,newark and ,new ,york has little idea  
of the very complicated  structure      
necessary to allow of his doing so4     
,the information in this article was    
supplied by ,jacobs  ,davies1 ,inc41    
,consulting ,engineers1 #cj ,church     
,street1 ,new ,york1 the ,engineers for 
the  ,pennsylvania ,railroad1 ,hudson   

,river ,tunnels1 the ,hudson and        
,manhattan  ,railroad1 and many other   
tunnels in various parts of the world4  
,the illustrations were kindly supplied 
by the ,pennsylvania ,railroad and  the 
,hudson and ,manhattan ,railroad4       
,,dangers ,,of ,,tunnel ,,building      
,this account of tunnelling by shield   
and compressed air is very  short and   
gives no more than a bare statement of  
the principles and  chief methods of    
such work4 ,nothing has been said of the
 engineering  difficulties involved in  
the design of such work1 nor of the     
delicate  surveying work necessary if   
one should hope to start two shields a  
mile or two apart and have them meet as 
shown in ,fig4 #ac like two  great glass
 tumblers placed rim to rim after having
 travelled through  thousands of feet of
 every kind of ground4 ,nothing has been
 said of the  men who work on this most 
arduous form of subterranean navigation1
 how  they cheerfully face the dark and 
the water ever threatening above them   

and the unseen but not less deadly ally1
 and yet foe1 the compressed  air1 with 
its dreaded result1 the bends1 or the   
men on the surface  who keep the air    
compressors running without pause or    
stop day in and  day out until the work 
is done so that their comrades below may
 work  in safety4 ,nothing has been said
 of the curious accidents that are      
liable to occur as when the air pressure
 in the tunnel gets too high1           
overbalances the water pressure and     
blows a hole through the river-bed  and 
forms a geyser in the river above4 ,it  
gives no account of the  special        
difficulties which arise when special   
conditions are found2  for example1 when
 the lower part of the tunnel is in rock
 and the  upper part is in soft         
material4 ,in fact it is nothing more   
than a bare  outline but it hoped that  
some1 who may not be clear in their     
minds as  to how tunnels are built1 may 
learn some of the first principles of   
this most romantic kind of work from    

this bald narrative4          ,why ,do  
,my ,teeth ,chatter8      ,your teeth   
chatter because when you are cold in a  
way that makes your  teeth chatter the  
little muscles which close the jaw act  
in a series of  quick little            
contractions which pull the jaw up1 and 
then let it fall  by its own weight4    
,this is repeated many times and1 as the
 action is  quick1 the chattering       
occurs4 ,it is a peculiar thing that    
this occurs  in spite of the will or    
brain1 when1 as a matter of fact1 these 
muscles  which operate the jaws are     
especially under the control of the     
brain4  ,the chattering is really a     
spasm caused by the cold1 and all spasms
 act  independent of the will4 ,cold    
seems to act on the jaw muscles a good  
deal like some poisons which cause      
spasms4          ,where ,did ,all the   
,water in the ,oceans ,come ,from8      
,no1 it did not come from the rivers    
which empty themselves into the  oceans1
 because the oceans were there before   

the rivers existed4 ,part  of it comes  
from the rivers now1 but only a little  
in comparison to all  the water there is
 in the ocean4 ,i will try to tell you  
simply how all  the water got into the  
ocean4    ,there was a time when there  
was no water on the earth at all4 ,that 
was  when the earth was red hot1 just as
 it is to-day on the inside1 and at     
that time all the water we have to-day  
was up in the air in the form of  gases4
 ,strange as it may seem to you1 if you 
take two gases1 one called  hydrogen and
 the other oxygen1 and mix them the     
right way1 they will  turn into water1  
and if you had the right kind of        
chemical apparatus  you could take water
 and turn it into these gases again4    
,when1 then1  the earth was still all   
red hot1 all of our water was up in the 
air in  the form of these two gases4    
,then1 later on1 when the amount of heat
 on  the earth was just right to make   
these gases mix together1 the water     
came down out of the air in great       

quantities1 and there was so much of  it
 that it completely covered the whole   
earth and no land was visible4  ,later  
on1 for various reasons1 mountains were 
thrown up on the earth's  surface by    
great earthquakes1 and every time a     
mountain or a high place  was formed    
there had to be a hole or low place some
 place else1 and the  water ran into    
these low places and stayed there1 and  
that uncovered  more of the land1       
because there wasn't enough water to    
fill all the  holes and cover the land  
too1 and that is what makes our         
continents  and islands and all of the  
land we see4 ,there is now about three  
times  as much earth covered with water 
as there is land4 ,of course1 the sun   
is always picking up water through what 
is called evaporation1 which  means that
 it is taken into the air in the form of
 gases4 ,later it  comes down again in  
the form of rain and falls into the     
oceans or on  the land1 where it sinks  
in1 finally finding a stream or river1  

and  sooner or later gets back into the 
ocean again4          ,why ,don't the   
,water in the ,ocean ,sink ,in8         
,this is due to the fact that there is a
 kind of substance at the  bottom of the
 ocean which the water cannot penetrate1
 in spite of the  tremendous pressure   
which the great body of deep water      
exerts4 ,in all  places where the bottom
 of the ocean has a covering which water
 can  sink into it does so1 but there   
are such a few places where this is     
possible1 by comparison1 that the amount
 that gets out that way is not          
noticeable4 ,this water1 if it can keep 
on going1 will eventually reach  the    
inside of the earth1 where it is red    
hot1 and is turned into steam4          
,where ,does the ,water in the ,ocean   
,go at ,low ,tide8      ,to get to the  
answer of this you must know something  
about the tides4  ,the tide is caused by
 the pull of the moon on the waters in  
the ocean4  ,the moon revolves about the
 earth once each day and has the ability

 to  draw up the waters in the ocean    
toward it1 as we have seen in our study 
of the tides4    ,now1 when it is high  
tide in one place it is low tide in     
another4 ,the  moon does not make more  
water1 but only pulls it toward it from 
side to  side4 ,when it is low tide     
where we are the water has simply moved 
as a  body toward the place where it is 
high tide4    ,the tides act a good deal
 like a see-saw1 except that they move  
from  side to side instead of up and    
down4 ,when one end of the see-saw goes 
up the other end goes down1 and when the
 8down0 end comes up the other  end goes
 down4 ,so the answer to your question  
really is that at low  tide the water   
which made it high tide a few hours     
before has gone to  some place where it 
is at that moment high tide4            
,why ,does the ,ocean ,look ,blue at    
,times and at ,other ,times ,green8     
,sometimes when we look at the ocean    
from the pavilion or while on the  sand 
of our favorite bathing beach the water 

in the ocean looks very  beautifully    
blue1 and on other days will look dark  
green from the same  point4 ,why is it8 
,if you will stop to think that at night
 when there is  no moon or other light  
the water in the ocean looks black1 ,i  
think you  will soon be on the right    
track to answer the question yourself4  
,when the sky is blue--the kind of blue 
we like to see in the sky when  we are  
at the beach--the water in the ocean is 
blue1 because the sea  reflects the     
color of the sky1 and when the sky is   
overcast and gray  the color reflected  
by the sea will be gray also4    ,but1  
say you1 sometimes the water in the     
ocean is dark green1 and yet  the sky is
 never green4 ,quite true1 and ,i will  
try to tell you what  produces the green
 color4 ,this happens sometimes where   
the water is  shallow1 either near the  
shore or out further where there is a   
sandbar  or other shallow place4        
,sometimes at such points the sunlight  
strikes  the water at such an angle that

 the rays go clear to the bottom and are
  reflected from that point--the        
bottom--to our eyes4 ,in such a case the
  light will be changed through a       
combination of the color of the bottom  
at that point and the color of the sky  
itself at the time to make the  color   
green as it is reflected to our eyes    
from the bottom4          ,why ,does    
,water ,run8      ,water runs because it
 has not enough of anything in it to    
make it stick  together4    ,in school  
language we call this                   
sticking-together-thing 8cohesion40     
,the principle of cohesion makes all the
 difference there is1 so to  speak1     
between solids1 liquids and gases4 ,a   
brick1 a stone1 a stick  of wood1 or a  
piece of iron and all other solid       
substances have a  certain amount of    
this property of cohesion1 and the      
particles stick  together1 enabling us  
to build buildings and other things     
which become  permanent structures4     
,these solid substances are either      

naturally  cohesive or else man1 as in  
the case of the brick1 has brought      
together  certain things with little or 
no cohesion and made them stick together
  permanently4 ,in the case of the      
brick1 he takes a quantity of clay1     
which is cohesive only to a certain     
degree1 bakes it in an oven and  it     
becomes hard enough--more cohesive--so  
that he can pile one on top  of the     
other and make a building4 ,then he puts
 sand1 mixed with other  things--lime   
and water--between the bricks to hold   
the bricks together1  and makes a       
structure that will last4 ,two bricks   
have no natural  cohesion for each other
 and1 therefore1 they can only be held  
together  by something that has cohesion
 within itself and also for the bricks4 
,the lime1 sand and water make mortar   
which is cohesive when properly  mixed1 
while in themselves neither lime nor    
sand have much cohesive  property1 and  
water has none at all4    ,liquids have 
little or no cohesion4 ,water has none1 

or very little4  ,syrup has a good deal 
more1 but will run over the edge of a   
piece of  bread and butter if you are   
not careful4    ,gases have no cohesive 
properties at all and1 therefore1 fly   
all over  the place1 through any opening
 they can find1 either at the top of the
  room or under the crack of the door4  
,they are always trying to get to  some 
place else and will keep moving as long 
as not confined4 ,gases can  move in any
 direction4    ,liquids1 however1 while 
they are inclined to be constantly on   
the move1  can only go in one           
direction--down hill1 and they go down  
fast or slow  if there is a chance1 in  
proportion to the amount of             
stick-together  properties they have4   
,liquids can never go up of their own   
accord1  excepting in the process of    
evaporation1 and then only when changed 
into gases4 ,a lake of water will dry up
 completely by evaporation  unless fed  
by streams of water constantly flowing  
in1 because  evaporation is constantly  

taking place wherever water is exposed  
to the  air4          ,what ,makes the  
,water ,boil8      ,what we call boiling
 in the water we see when water is put  
over a hot  fire long enough to make it 
boil1 is the changing of the water from 
what we generally regard it--a          
liquid--into gases4 ,water consists of  
two gases--hydrogen and oxygen--in fact1
 two parts of hydrogen gas and  one part
 of oxygen gas when mixed will always   
make pure water4 ,now1  then1 if liquid 
water is heated to a certain point or   
temperature it  turns into the two      
gases1 oxygen and hydrogen1 and comes to
 the top of  the water1 which still     
remains in liquid form1 in the form of a
 bubble  and explodes into the air--not 
a very loud explosion1 but still an     
explosion4 ,the process of turning      
liquid water into gases is a gradual    
one1 and that is why the water does not 
all turn into one large bubble  at once 
and explode away4 ,if you keep the fire 
going long enough1 all  the water in the

 vessel will explode away into the air1 
a few bubbles  at a time4 ,if you hold a
 cold plate over the vessel as the      
bubble  explodes you can catch some of  
these gases in the form of bubbles on   
the under side of the plate1 which are  
again liquid water4 ,when the  water    
becomes hot enough it turns into bubbles
 and as bubbles rise  that is what makes
 the boiling you see4 ,when the same    
gases then come  together again in a    
certain proportion under proper         
temperature they  turn into liquid      
water4          ,at ,what ,point of     
,heat ,does ,water ,boil8      ,the     
boiling point of water is the           
temperature at which it begins to  pass 
into the form of gases4 ,this varies in 
different altitudes4 ,at  the sea level 
the boiling point is at #bab            
,fahrenheit4 ,on the top of  mountains1 
for instance1 water would boil at a much
 lower temperature4  ,it would be       
possible to go high enough in a balloon 
so that the water  would fly from the   

pan in the form of gas without making   
the water hot4  ,also1 a mile below the 
level of the sea it would take many more
 degrees  of heat to make the water     
boil4 ,it is said that high up in a     
balloon  you could not boil an egg hard 
in a pan of boiling water if you kept it
  in the boiling water for an hour or   
more1 whereas we know that an egg  will 
be hard-boiled if we keep it in boiling 
water down where we live  for more than 
five minutes4    ,the degree of heat at 
which water passes away into the form of
 gases  is regulated by the pressure of 
the air on the water and other things   
about us4 ,at the average level in the  
,united ,states where people  live the  
pressure of the air on everything is    
fifteen pounds to the  square inch1 and 
at this pressure water boils only after 
it reaches a  temperature of #bab       
,fahrenheit4 ,as we go up the mountains 
the pressure  becomes less and less as  
we go up4 ,at the top of ,mount ,blanc1 
which is  #ae1gha feet high1 water boils

 at #ahe ,fahrenheit4 ,if we took a     
balloon  from the top of the mountain we
 would come to a height where there was 
no air pressure at all4          ,what  
,do ,we ,mean by ,fahrenheit8      ,the 
name ,fahrenheit is used to distinguish 
the kind of scale most  commonly used on
 thermometers in ,great ,britain and the
 ,united ,states4  ,gabriel ,daniel     
,fahrenheit1 a native of ,dantzic1 made 
the first  thermometer on which this    
scale was used1 and it is named after   
him4 ,in  this scale for thermometers   
the space between the freezing point and
  the boiling point is divided into #ahj
 degrees--the point for freezing  being 
marked #cb degrees and the boiling point
 #bab degrees4          ,why ,can't ,we 
,swim as ,easily in ,fresh ,water as in 
,salt ,water8      ,our bodies are      
heavier than fresh water1 i4 e41 a bulk 
of fresh water  equal to the size of our
 body would weigh less than our body1 so
 that  the first tendency is to sink to 
the bottom if we find ourselves in      

fresh water4 ,if man had not learned to 
swim that is what he would  always do1  
sink to the bottom2 but having learned  
how to keep from  sinking1 he is able to
 swim in fresh water4 ,however1 we find 
that an  amount of salt water equal to  
the bulk of a man in size is heavier    
than  an equal amount of fresh water1   
although such a bulk of ordinary salt   
sea water will still weigh less than the
 man4 ,a man will sink in salt  water   
also if he has not learned to swim or   
float1 but he can keep up  with less    
effort in salt water1 and also swim in  
it more easily4 ,in  a nutshell1 then1  
the answer to this question is that salt
 water is  heavier than fresh water4    
,you can make salt water so full of salt
 that  it becomes heavier than a man4   
,great ,salt ,lake in ,utah is so salty 
that  one cannot sink in it for this    
reason4 ,you could drown yourself in it1
  of course1 by keeping your head under 
water1 but whether in shallow  water or 
deep water you would not sink in ,great 

,salt ,lake4          ,why ,do ,we ,say 
,some ,water ,is ,hard and ,other ,water
 ,soft8      ,what we call hard water   
contains certain salts which soft water 
does  not contain4 ,this salt in hard   
water is lime or some other salts which 
the water has picked up out of the      
ground as it passed through either      
coming up or going down4 ,on the other  
hand1 we can guess after having  been   
told this much that if we can find any  
water that has not passed  through the  
ground1 and1 therefore1 not had a chance
 to pick up any  salts1 we will have    
soft water4 ,from that point it is easy 
to guess1  then1 that rain water must be
 soft water1 and so it is4 ,the water in
  the cisterns1 which is rain water1 is 
soft water1 and the kind we get  out of 
the wells is hard water4    ,we do not  
like to wash either our faces or our    
clothes in hard water1  especially when 
it is necessary to use soap1 because    
when we use soap  with hard water the   
soap undergoes chemical change which    

prevents its  dissolving in the water4  
,therefore1 you cannot easily do a good 
job  of washing in hard water4 ,on the  
other hand it is easy to dissolve  the  
soap in pure rain water or soft water   
and that is the kind we1  therefore1    
prefer for washing4          ,how ,does 
,water ,put a ,fire ,out8      ,this is 
at first a puzzling question1 because   
back in your mind is the  thought that  
since hydrogen and oxygen are necessary 
to make a fire  burn1 it seems strange  
that water1 which is composed of oxygen 
and  hydrogen1 will also put it out4    
,a burning fire throws off heat1 but if 
too much of the heat is taken  from the 
fire suddenly the temperature of the    
fire is sent down so far  below the     
point at which the oxygen of the air    
will combine with it  that the fire     
cannot burn4 ,we speak commonly as      
though water thrown on  a fire drowns   
it4 ,that is practically what happens4  
,scientifically what  happens is that   
the water thrown upon the fire absorbs  

so much of the  heat to itself that the 
temperature of the fire is reduced below
 the  point where oxygen will combine   
with the carbon in the burning material 
and the fire goes out4    ,to answer the
 unasked part of your question at the   
same time ,i will  say that hydrogen and
 oxygen when combined as water will put 
the fire  out rather than make it burn1 
more because when these gases take the  
form of water they are already once     
burned1 and you know that anything1     
substance or gas1 which has already been
 burned cannot be burned again4  ,it    
required great heat to make oxygen and  
hydrogen combine and form  water1 and it
 also takes great heat to separate them 
again4 ,so they are  really burned once 
before they become water4               
,where ,does the ,rain ,go8             
,eventually almost all of the rain that 
falls runs into the rivers  and lakes   
and later finds its way into the ocean1 
where it is again  taken up into the air
 by the sun's rays4 ,but many other     

things happen  to parts of the rain     
which do not find their way into the    
ocean4 ,in  the paved street1 of course1
 where the water cannot sink in1 it     
flows  into the gutter and thence into  
the sewer and on down to the river or   
wherever it is that the sewers are      
emptied4 ,you see1 it depends very  much
 on what the earth's surface is covered 
with at the place where  the rain falls4
 ,when it strikes where there is        
vegetation a great deal  of it stays in 
the soil at a depth of comparatively few
 feet4 ,if it is  soil where trees and  
other plants grow a great deal of it is 
sucked up  from the ground by this      
vegetation and given back into the air  
through  the leaves and flowers4 ,some  
of the rain keeps sinking on down into  
the  earth until it strikes some        
substance like rock or clay1 through    
which  it cannot sink1 and then it      
follows along this until it finds       
something  it can get through and       
collects in a pool and forms an         

underground  lake1 and may cause a      
spring to flow4 ,then there are also    
worms and  other forms of animal life in
 the earth which use up some of the     
water4  ,but it all gets back into the  
air eventually to come down some time   
again in the form of rain4          ,why
 ,does ,rain ,make the ,air ,fresh8     
,the main answer to this question must  
be that the rain in coming down  through
 the air drives the dust and other      
impurities which are in the  air before 
it1 and so cleans the air and makes it  
absolutely clean4  ,in addition to this 
it is now stated that since very often  
rain is  produced by electrical changes 
in the air1 and that these electrical   
changes produce a gas called ozone1     
which has a delightfully fresh  smell1  
it is this ozone that makes us say the  
air has become fresh4    ,the air above 
our cities is almost constantly filled  
with smoke1  containing various         
poisonous gases1 and these are driven   
away by the  falling rain4    ,then1    

too1 there is always a greater or less  
accumulation of dirt1  garbage and other
 things in the cities which give off    
offensive smells  constantly1 but which 
we do not notice always because we      
become used to  them4 ,when the rain    
comes down it washes the streets and    
destroys these  smells1 and that makes  
the air fresh and delightful to take    
into the  lungs4    ,in the country the 
air is more nearly pure all the time1   
because the  things which spoil the air 
in the city are not present4            
,is a ,train ,harder to ,stop ,than to  
,start8      ,the answer is yes4 ,it is 
harder to stop a train than to start it1
 or  rather it takes more power4 ,the   
speed of a train depends upon the       
motive power4 ,when a train is stopped  
and you wish to start it1 you  must     
apply enough motive power to start it   
going4 ,there must be enough  power to  
move the weight of the train and        
overcome the friction of the  wheels on 
the track4 ,it is1 of course1 easier to 

move a thing that  weighs less than a   
heavier one4 ,if you throw a ball ten   
feet into the  air1 it will perhaps not 
sting your hand when you catch it on its
  return2 but1 if you throw it one      
hundred feet into the air1 it will      
sting your hands when you catch it4     
,besides1 it will come down faster  the 
last ten feet of the way than the ball  
which you threw only ten  feet into the 
air4 ,this is because when movement is  
applied to anything  you add power to   
it4 ,the ball which comes down from one 
hundred feet  in the air acquires more  
power in falling and it takes more power
 to  stop it4 ,a train in motion has not
 only the power of the weight of the    
train behind it1 but also the additional
 weight which the movement of  the train
 has given it4 ,therefore1 it takes more
 power to stop it than  to start it4 ,to
 stop a train you must apply the same   
amount of power as  is in the moving    
train because the power to stop any     
moving thing must  always be at least as

 great as the power which is moving it4 
,what ,makes the ,knots ,in ,boards8    
,we find knots in the boards which we   
notice in a lumber pile or in any  other
 place where boards happen to be1       
because the smaller limbs which  grow   
away from the larger limbs of trees grow
 from the inside as well  as the outside
 of the tree4    ,when you see a knot in
 a board it means that before the tree  
was cut  down and the log sawed up into 
boards1 a limb was growing out from the 
inside of the tree at the spot where the
 knot occurs4    ,you will also find    
that the wood in the knot is harder     
generally than  the rest of the board4  
,this is because more strength is       
required at the  base of a limb and in  
the part of the limb which grew inside  
the tree  than in other parts1 for the  
limb must be strong enough to support   
not  only the limb itself1 but also the 
smaller limbs which grow out of it4     
,how ,many ,stars ,are ,there8      ,man
 may never know how many stars there    

are4 ,the best we can do is  to figure  
on the number that can be seen with the 
largest telescopes  which have been     
invented1 for1 of course1 you know there
 must be many  millions of them which to
 us are invisible4 ,we have counted the 
stars  so far as we can see them2 or1   
rather1 so far as we can photograph     
them4 ,astronomers have found that a    
photographic plate exposed to the  stars
 will show more of them than can be seen
 by the naked eye4 ,this  is because the
 materials on a photographic plate are  
more sensitive  to the light of the     
stars than the human eye4 ,by this      
method man has  been able in a way to   
count the stars he can see4 ,it adds up 
to more  than a hundred million of them4
 ,astronomers found this out by taking  
photographs of the heavens at night1    
devoting one picture to each  section1  
until the entire heavens had been       
covered1 and then counting  them4       
,illustration3 ,,where ,,paint ,,comes  
,,from    ,,making ,,lead               

,,buckles--,,the ,,first ,,step ,,in    
,,paint ,,making4          ,the ,story  
in a ,can of ,paint      ,paint such as 
is most frequently used is the material 
used for painting  buildings1 such as   
houses1 barns1 stores1 and many others  
which we need  not mention here4 ,this  
paint is used on these buildings mostly 
for two  very important reasons--one    
being to beautify the buildings1 the    
other  being to protect them from the   
ravages of the weather1 much in the same
  way that your clothes protect you from
 the weather4    ,paint such as we      
mention here may be regarded as the most
 simple  and useful form4 ,you have no  
doubt frequently seen the painter-man   
spreading paint on some building1 or    
perchance1 you have seen your  father   
doing it1 and have noticed that paint is
 a fluid substance  looking something   
like cream1 which is applied to the     
surface to be  painted with a suitable  
brush and is brushed out smoothly4      
,after the  first coat is dry1 other    

coats are put on in the same way until  
enough  paint has been put on to        
thoroughly hide the unevenness of the   
lumber  and making it of a uniform      
color4    ,this paint is made by simply 
mixing together dry powder1 which is    
usually called pigment1 with a thin1    
yellowish liquid which is called        
linseed oil4 ,in the earlier days1 the  
painter-man mixed this paint  himself   
whenever he desired to use it4 ,in these
 more modern times1 he  usually buys    
this paint already prepared4    ,perhaps
 a little history of the preparation of 
the package of a can of  paint which he 
buys may be interesting to you4    ,let 
us imagine that the can of paint is     
white4 ,in this case1 the  pigment which
 is used is a white powder and is made  
of either metallic  lead or metallic    
zinc4 ,the preparation of this fine     
white powder is  very interesting and   
requires considerable time to perfect4  
,let us consider the pigment known as   
white lead first4 ,this is produced  by 

causing metallic lead1 which is of a    
bluish-gray color and very  heavy1 to   
change from its original form by a      
process which is known  as 8corrosion40 
,this corrosion is brought about by     
first taking the  metallic lead1 which  
at this stage exists in large pieces    
known as  8pigs40 ,these pigs of lead   
are melted in a furnace and then molded 
into  small1 thin shapes which are      
buckles4    ,illustration3 ,,how ,,white
 ,,lead ,,is ,,made    ,,filling ,,the  
,,stack ,,with ,,lead ,,buckles4        
,illustration3 ,,lead ,,being ,,taken   
,,out ,,of ,,the ,,stacks4    ,the next 
step is to take an earthenware vessel1  
which resembles an  ordinary stone      
crock1 and first pour into it a small   
quantity of acetic  acid1 which is about
 the same as table vinegar4 ,then the   
crock or pot  is filled up with the lead
 buckles4    ,where this white lead is  
made in a large way many thousands of   
these  pots are placed in a building1   
the sides of which are walled up tight1 

the spaces between the crocks being     
filled in with tan bark4 ,after  the    
floor has been covered with a layer of  
these crocks1 the layer is  covered with
 boards1 in order to provide a          
foundation for setting in  the next     
layer of crocks and tan bark4 ,the layer
 of boards also serves  as a floor to   
keep the tan bark from falling into the 
open crocks on  the tier below4 ,this   
procedure is followed with tier after   
tier until  the building is completely  
filled4    ,corrosion of the metallic   
lead in the pots now begins1 because the
 tan  bark generates some heat1 becoming
 finally quite warm4 ,this heat causes  
the acetic acid or vinegar to throw off 
vapor or steam1 which attacks  the      
metallic lead1 causing it to decompose  
or corrode4 ,this process  goes on for  
many weeks 7sometimes as much as fifteen
 or sixteen weeks71  until those buckles
 of metallic lead have become a mass of 
white powder  and nearly all trace of   
the original metallic lead has          

disappeared4    ,illustration3 ,a ,,lead
 ,,buckle ,,after ,,corrosion4          
,illustration3 ,a ,,lead ,,buckle       
,,before ,,corrosion4    ,illustration3 
,,how ,,oxide ,,of ,,zinc ,,is          
,,obtained    ,,washing ,,the ,,lead4   
,,screens ,,covered ,,with ,,cloth      
,,remove ,,all ,,foreign ,,matter4      
,after these many weeks have passed1 the
 pots containing the white  powder of   
carbonate of lead1 as it is called1 is  
taken out of the  building where        
corrosion took place1 and the white     
deposit is put  through an elaborate    
system of refining1 which is called     
8washing10  and1 in fact1 is really     
washed in water1 and is then dried in   
very  large copper pans4 ,after being   
dried it is in the form of large white  
cakes1 resembling pieces of chalk4      
,these cakes are then passed through  a 
mill1 which grinds them to very fine    
powder1 which is packed in  barrels     
ready to be shipped and used by the     
paint-maker4    ,illustration3 ,,furnace

 ,,where ,,the ,,sulphur ,,is ,,roasted 
,,out ,,of ,,the ,,ore4    ,now that we 
have followed through the process of    
making the white-lead  powder1 or       
pigment1 let us take a little time to   
study the preparation  of the other     
white powder1 known to the paint trade  
as 8oxide of zinc40  ,this is prepared  
in a manner quite different from that of
 the white  lead4    ,first the ore     
which is mined from the earth containing
 the metallic  zinc is carefully        
selected by expert workmen and placed in
 a special  kind of furnace1 being mixed
 with hard coal1 such as we use in our  
heating stoves4    ,illustration3 ,a    
,,zinc ,,smelter--,,the ,,men ,,keep    
,,their ,,mouths ,,covered ,,so ,,as    
,,not ,,to ,,inhale ,,the ,,vapor1      
,,which ,,is ,,poisonous    ,the burning
 of the coal causes an intensely high   
temperature1 sometimes  being several   
thousand degrees4 ,this causes the zinc 
ore to be consumed  as it were or to    
pass into a form of vapor4 ,this vapor  

is carried  through huge pipes which are
 several feet in diameter and extend for
  a long distance4 ,while these vapors  
are passing through these pipes  it     
becomes cooled4 ,after becoming cooled  
it takes on the form of very  fine white
 powder1 coming from the pipes in much  
the same way that  snow falls from the  
sky in the winter4 ,this is collected   
and placed in  barrels1 after which it  
is ready for the paint-maker without    
further  preparation4    ,,where        
,,linseed ,,oil ,,comes ,,from    ,since
 we have followed the preparation of the
 two important white  pigments used in  
making our can of paint1 it is now      
important that  we devote a little      
thought to the liquid which is to be    
used4 ,this  is called 8,linseed ,oil40 
,linseed oil is of a golden yellow      
color1  resembling the appearance of    
thin syrup which we sometimes have on   
the  table4 ,this oil is taken from the 
seed of the flax plant4 ,it might       
better be called 8,flaxseed ,oil10 yet  

it is not commonly known by that  name1 
but is nearly always referred to as     
8,linseed ,oil40 ,flax is grown  in many
 parts of the world1 the most important 
places being the ,united  ,states of    
,america1 ,dominion of ,canada1         
,ireland1 ,india and the ,argentine     
,republic4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the 
seed is sown early in spring1 much  the 
same as is done with other crops1 and   
ripens and is harvested early  in the   
fall of the year4 ,the harvesting and   
separation of the seed from  the plant  
or straw is done very much in the same  
way that other crops1  such as wheat and
 oats1 are harvested4 ,the seed is then 
taken to market  and is ready for the   
extraction of the oil1 which is done by 
men who  are known as 8oil crushers40   
,illustration3 ,,pressing ,,oil ,,out   
,,of ,,flaxseed4    ,illustration3      
,,removing ,,oil ,,cake ,,from ,,press4 
,the oil is extracted from the seed by a
 very simple process4 ,usually  the     
seeds are heated by steaming them1 after

 which they pass through  a mill1 being 
ground to a coarse mass1 which is then  
placed in very  powerful machines called
 8,hydraulic ,oil ,presses10 which      
squeeze the oil  from the seed1 leaving 
the remainder in the form of large cakes
 which  are then ground to a mealy-like 
powder which is used as food for cattle 
and is very much prized4    ,the oil    
which has been extracted by this process
 is put into large  tanks where it is   
clarified and is then ready for the     
paint-maker4  ,this oil is often        
referred to as 8,vegetable ,oil0 and it 
has one very  peculiar and very         
important characteristic which makes it 
useful and  necessary for use in paint4 
,this property is that of drying or     
becoming  solid1 losing all tendency to 
stickiness after it has been spread out 
thinly and exposed to the air for a     
short time4    ,illustration3 ,,where   
,,lead ,,is ,,ground ,,in ,,oil4        
,illustration3 ,,where ,,paints ,,are   
,,mixed4    ,now that we have given     

attention to the preparation of the most
  important things used in the making of
 our can of paint1 let us look a  little
 to the manner in which they are put    
together1 and the result4    ,the oil is
 necessary in making paint in order to  
make it fluid1 so that  the paint may be
 brushed on to the wood or other        
surface1 and also so  that the pigment  
or powdered material which has been put 
into the paint  will have something to  
hold it to the surface4 ,the oil or     
other liquid  which may be used is      
usually called 8,binder0 by the paint   
man because  it binds the pigment in the
 paint and to the surface on which it   
has  been spread or applied4    ,in a   
large paint factory1 the two white      
pigments1 lead and zinc1 are  mixed with
 linseed oil in large machines known as 
8,mixers0 into a  smooth paste which is 
then run through other machines called  
8,mills10  where the paste is ground    
very fine into large tubes where the    
paint  is finished by mixing in enough  

more oil to make it of the proper       
thickness or consistency for brushing4  
,in this state it can be used1  but     
would not be entirely satisfactory      
because it would dry very  slowly4 ,for 
that reason1 the paint-maker adds in a  
small amount of what  is known as       
8,drier10 which causes the paint to dry 
much more rapidly  after it is spread   
out on any surface4    ,the paint-maker 
may also add in a small amount of thin  
liquid called  8,turpentine10 which also
 aids in the drying and the working of  
the  paint4 ,turpentine is a very thin  
liquid which looks like water1 and it   
is derived from the sap of one species  
of pine which grows abundantly  in the  
southern portion of the ,united ,states4
 ,the sap is taken from the  tree by    
tapping the tree or making an incision  
called a box1 at certain  seasons4      
,after the sap is collected it is put   
through a heating process  called       
8distilling10 which separates the       
water-white liquid1 called  turpentine1 

leaving a large mass of heavy material  
which is commonly  known as 8,rosin40   
,this turpentine is very useful to the  
paint-maker and  the painter4 ,it is    
also used for many other purposes4      
,,what ,,makes ,,the ,,different        
,,colors ,,of ,,paint    ,the paint     
which we have described is the most     
simple kind and is white4  ,there are   
many other kinds of paint used1 being of
 many different  colors4 ,all of these  
different kinds require different       
treatment and  preparation and would    
require many large books to explain even
 in a  brief way4    ,the white paint   
which we have described may be colored  
or tinted to  many different hues by    
adding suitable color pigments4 ,these  
color  pigments are of many kinds and   
are derived from many different         
sources4 ,the vegetable kingdom is      
represented as well as the mineral  and 
animal kingdoms4 ,the linseed oil which 
we have already mentioned1  is derived  
from the vegetable kingdom4 ,this also  

applies to some few  of the pigments4 ,a
 very important instance which we might 
mention  is a beautiful rich brown      
called 8,vandyke ,brown40 ,this is made 
from  decayed vegetation which is found 
in swampy districts4 ,there are many    
pigments derived from the mineral       
kingdom4 ,white lead and zinc oxide     
have already been described as useful4  
,among colored pigments coming  from    
this kingdom1 we might mention yellow   
ochre1 sienna1 umber1 cobalt  blue1 and 
many others4    ,the animal kingdom     
supplies quite a number1 one of which is
 a beautiful  red known as 8,carmine40  
,this is taken from a small insect or   
fly which  is found in certain tropical 
climates4 ,the production of carmine is 
very expensive and the product is highly
 prized4    ,another important          
development of the animal world is what 
is called  8,bone ,black40 ,this is made
 by taking ordinary animal bones1       
putting  them into a suitable furnace   
and burning them1 which really produces 

bone charcoal1 which is refined by      
powdering and washing1 and finally      
produces a beautiful black1 such as used
 for painting fine coaches and          
carriages4          ,why ,does a ,dog   
,turn ,round and ,round ,before ,he     
,lies ,down8      ,away back in the     
history of the animal kingdom1 when the 
ancestors of  our domestic dog were     
wild1 they slept in the woods or open4  
,when they  were ready to lie down1 they
 first had to trample the grass about   
them  flat to make a place to lie down4 
,this became a habit and one of the     
instincts of the animal which has been  
transmitted to the dogs of today  who   
keep it up4 ,it is an inherited habit   
quite useless to the dogs of  to-day4   
,how ,is ,light ,produced8      ,you    
already learned that a substance called 
ether is found in all  substances1      
filling the spaces between the          
molecules4 ,when the  molecules are made
 to vibrate1 the ether naturally also   
vibrates4 ,as  soon as the vibrations   

become sufficiently rapid1 they produce 
the  sensation of light4 ,these         
vibrations also produce heat4 ,in heated
  bodies the molecules are always found 
to be in vibration1 and a body  may     
become so hot that it gives off light4  
,we notice this when iron  becomes red  
hot4 ,heat and light are found together 
in bodies in many  instances4 ,in fact1 
most of the light we have comes from    
bodies which  are hot4 ,the sun is so   
hot1 that it is surrounded by the gases 
of many  substances that exist as solids
 on earth4    ,we have some bodies which
 produce light which is not accompanied 
by  much heat4 ,the glow-worm1 or       
firefly1 seems to make light with little
  or no heat2 but we do not yet know how
 this is done4 ,almost all  sources of  
artificial light require that heat be   
produced before light  obtained4 ,only  
such vibrations of the ether which are  
sufficiently  rapid produce enough light
 to enable us to see4 ,for this reason1 
a piece of red hot iron1 which is made  

luminous by heat and whose  particles   
vibrate less rapidly produce little     
light4          ,what ,makes ,rays of   
,light8      ,whenever the ether is made
 to vibrate rapidly enough at any point1
  the vibrations go in straight lines   
from the source of light in all         
directions4 ,a single line of vibrating 
particles in the ether1 is known  as a  
ray4 ,a number of rays1 that issue from 
one point1 are said to form  a pencil4  
,a pencil of light may be produced by   
holding near a candle a  screen1 with a 
hole in it4 ,sometimes rays of light are
 brought together  in a point1 as may be
 done by means of a burning glass1 and  
one of  these bundles of rays is known  
as a convergent pencil4    ,a bundle of 
rays that lie parallel to each other    
forms a beam4 ,the rays  that come to us
 from the sun are practically parallel  
and are called  sunbeams4          ,why 
,does a ,nail ,get ,hot ,when ,i ,hammer
 ,it8      ,when we are in the sunshine1
 or standing before a fire1 we feel hot2

  when we take snow or ice in our hands1
 they feel cold4 ,the thing which       
produces these sensations is called     
heat4 ,when we feel heat1 it is  because
 heat is absorbed by our bodies1 and    
when we feel cold1 it is  being thrown  
off by them4    ,to answer this         
question1 we must see how heat may be   
produced4 ,if we  draw a cord rapidly   
through our fingers1 they feel hot1 and 
if we rub  a coin briskly with a cloth  
or our hands1 it becomes warm2 if we    
take  a nail and hammer it on a hard    
substance1 it becomes too warm for us   
to hold4 ,in these instances heat is    
produced by retarding or checking  the  
motion of a body4 ,when we draw a cord  
through our fingers1 it moves  less     
easily2 we retard its motion by gripping
 it and this is what makes  the heat we 
feel4 ,when we strike the nail with a   
hammer1 the motion of  the hammer is    
checked by the nail1 and the faster we  
pound with the  hammer1 the hotter the  
nail becomes4 ,from these experiments we

 learn  that whenever the motion of a   
substance is checked1 or retarded1 heat 
is generated1 and the substance made    
hot4    ,in explaining this method of   
producing heat1 it was at one time      
thought  that all bodies contained a    
substance which produced the heat and   
that1  when rubbed or hammered1 this    
substance was thrown off4 ,about the    
end of the #ahth century1 however1 it   
was shown by ,benjamin ,thompson        
7,count ,rumford71 that substances when 
rubbed give off heat4 ,from this  we    
learned that heat is not a substance1   
because the quantity of  any substance1 
present in a body1 cannot be limitless4 
,if it were a  substance which produced 
the heat1 the supply would sooner or    
later be  exhausted1 and rubbing could  
no longer produce heat4    ,heat        
produced by rubbing1 or by striking     
substances together1 is  caused as      
follows3 ,if two substances are struck  
upon each other1  the whole of those    
substances are checked1 but the         

molecules of the  substances are made to
 vibrate very rapidly1 and these        
vibrations  produce the heat we feel4   
,how ,do ,we ,obtain ,heat8      ,we get
 most of our heat from the sun4 ,if the 
heat from the sun did  not reach us1 no 
living thing would exist on the earth4  
,no plants or  animals could live2 the  
oceans and rivers would be solid ice4   
,another important source of heat1 is   
chemical action4 ,chemical action  is   
what causes fire4 ,even when it does not
 cause fire1 it produces a  great deal  
of heat4 ,when we breathe to keep our   
bodies warm1 it is  a chemical action   
that occurs4 ,fire is the most important
 form of  chemical action1 as a source  
of heat4          ,why ,does a          
,glow-,worm ,glow8      ,a glow-worm is 
a kind of beetle which may be found in  
the yards and  hedges in the summer     
time4 ,the name applies only to the     
female of  the species which is wingless
 and whose body resembles that of a     
caterpillar somewhat and emits a shining

 green light from the end of  the       
abdomen4 ,the male of this species has  
wings but does not show any  light as   
does the female and resembles an        
ordinary beetle4 ,the male  flies about 
in the evenings looking for the female  
and she makes her  light glow in order  
that the male may find her4 ,glow-worms 
are found  mostly in ,england4 ,there   
are1 however1 some members of the same  
species  of beetle common to the ,united
 ,states4 ,we speak of them as fireflies
  or lightning bugs4 ,the female of     
these also is the only one carrying a   
light1 although unlike the glow-worm she
 has wings and can fly4          ,why   
,do ,they ,call ,it ,pin ,money8        
,this expression originally came from   
the allowance which a husband gave  his 
wife to purchase pins4 ,at one time pins
 were dreadfully expensive  so that only
 wealthy people could afford them and   
they were saved  so carefully that in   
those days you could not have looked    
along the  pavement and found a pin     

which you happened to be in need of as  
you can  and often do today4    ,by a   
curious law the manufacturers of pins   
were only allowed to sell  them on      
,january #ast and #bnd each year and so 
when those days came  around the women  
whose husbands could afford it1 secured 
pin money from  them and went out and   
got their pins4    ,pins have become so 
very cheap in these days that we are    
rather  careless with them1 but the     
expression has continued to live        
although  today when used1 it means any 
allowance of money which a husband gives
  a wife for her personal expenses4     
,pins were known and used as long ago as
 #acdg ,a4 ,d4 ,they were introduced    
into ,england in #aedj4 ,in #ahbd an    
,american named ,might invented a       
machine for making pins which enabled   
them to be manufactured cheaply4  ,about
 #a1ejj tons of iron and brass are made 
into pins every year in the  ,united    
,states4          ,why ,do ,people      
,shake ,hands ,with the ,right ,hand8   

,in the days of very long ago when all  
men were prepared to fight at any  and  
all times because one could not know    
whether another approaching  was a      
friend or an enemy1 all men went armed4 
,this was before the day  of guns when  
the sword was the great weapon of       
defense4    ,upon occasion when one man 
approached another1 each had to decide  
whether the other came on a peaceful    
mission or not4    ,people in those days
 were mostly right handed as they are   
now and when  fighting carried their    
swords in their right hands4    ,if1    
then1 a man wished to speak with a      
stranger or1 as might easily  be        
necessary1 to one who may even be known 
to be unfriendly1 he put  out his right 
hand upon approaching to show that he   
had no deadly or  dangerous weapon in   
it4 ,the other man could see this and   
knew from the  extended open hand that  
no harm was intended and that the       
approach was  peaceful4 ,if1 then1 he   
was willing to meet the other1 he also  

extended  his right arm with the hand   
open to show him who was approaching    
that  his fighting hand was empty also2 
and when they met each would grasp  the 
hand of the other so that neither one   
could change his mind and  assume a     
fighting attitude without the other     
having an equal warning4          ,how  
,did the ,custom of ,clinking ,glasses  
,when ,drinking ,originate8      ,in the
 days of the ,roman gladiators1 before a
 duel with swords1 it  became the custom
 of each of the participants to drink a 
glass of wine  before fighting4 ,just   
before the fighting commenced two       
glasses of wine  were brought and the   
gladiators drank4 ,these two glasses of 
wine were  provided by the friends of   
either one or the other of the          
gladiators4  ,to guard against          
treachery1 through some over zealous    
friend of the  fighters furnishing      
poisoned wine was necessary4 ,so before 
drinking and  to show there was no      
treachery1 the gladiators came close    

together and  poured wine from one glass
 into the other back and forth until the
 wine  in the glasses was thoroughly    
mixed4 ,if the wine in one glass then   
had  been poisoned1 the poisoned wine   
would thus be in both glasses1 and if   
there had been any treachery1 both      
gladiators would be poisoned if they    
drank4 ,the wine was poured from one    
glass to the other to show that  there  
was no treachery4    ,this custom       
continued in use for a long time until  
the idea of  drinking before a fight was
 abandoned4 ,the custom1 however1 of    
showing  friendliness in this way while 
drinking continued for a long time4     
,later it became a mere custom1 however1
 to show a friendly spirit  toward the  
one who was drinking with you1 and when 
the danger of  poisoned wine was past1  
the actual act of pouring the wine from 
one  glass to another was changed to    
merely touching the glasses together4   
,thus today we have the friendly custom 
of touching glasses together  long after

 the necessity of guarding against      
treachery while drinking  has passed4   
,why ,cannot ,fishes ,live ,in the ,air8
      ,it is a curious thing isn't it   
that if a boy falls into the water1 he  
will drown if he cannot swim or someone 
does not help him out1 and that  if a   
fish falls out of the water onto the    
land1 he will drown also1  even though  
he knows how to swim1 better than       
anything else he does4 ,a  boy cannot   
secure the air which he needs to live on
 if he is under the  water1 because     
there is not enough air for him there   
and a fish cannot  secure enough air for
 him to live on when he is on land where
 the air  is plentiful1 because1 the boy
 takes his air from the air itself and  
the fish gets his air out of the water4 
,to live by breathing the air we find on
 or above the land1 it is  necessary to 
have lungs and fishes do not have lungs4
 ,in the case of  the boy under the     
water he would have to have gills to    
enable him to  make use of the air which

 is in the water to live by and he has  
no  gills4    ,a fish can only live a   
little while out of the water1 but even 
so he  can live longer out of the water 
than a boy can under the water4    ,lest
 you read sometime of the flying fish   
and think they must be able  to live out
 of the water1 ,i will tell you before  
you ask the question  that the flying   
fish never stays out of the water for   
more than a few  seconds at a time4 ,his
 flying leaps amount to little more than
 long  leaps from wave to wave4 ,he     
swims along very fast in the water1     
coming  right up to the surface and out 
into the air and the speed at which he  
has been swimming regulates the distance
 he will go when he shoots into  the    
air1 as he has no means of propelling   
himself through the air1 but  only into 
it4 ,he has1 however1 wing-like fins1   
which he spreads out  when in the air   
and which enables him to glide through  
the air and thus  remain in the air     
longer4          ,what ,makes a ,fish   

,move in ,swimming8      ,this is a     
puzzling question1 ,i am sure4 ,of      
course1 you at once cause  several other
 questions as soon as you ask this one  
such as the  following3 ,does the water 
in front of him move out of the way and 
then  close in behind him8 ,if so1 where
 does it go in the meantime8 ,does the  
fish move the water forward or up or    
down or what does he do8    ,the answer 
is1 of course1 in the movements of the  
fish's tail4 ,the fish  in swimming is  
surrounded with water1 top1 bottom and  
all sides of him4  ,the pressure of the 
water on the fish is the same at all    
points so that  any motion made by him  
would have a tendency to make him move4 
,as a  matter of fact the tail in moving
 from side to side creates a current  in
 the water from the head to the tail1 or
 rather would produce an  actual current
 if the fish remained perfectly still4  
,instead of making  an actual current of
 water1 the body of the fish is moved   
forward4    ,as to whether the water    

ahead of him opens up first and then the
 water  behind him is a more difficult  
question to answer4 ,to the appearance  
it  would seem as if the water moved at 
both ends and sides at once1 but        
according to scientific theory1 the     
water at the head of the fish is        
displaced first4          ,why ,are     
,birds' ,eggs of ,different ,colors8    
,this is a wise provision of nature to  
help the mother birds hide her  eggs    
away from the eyes of her enemies4 ,in  
the animal kingdom every  kind of life  
is the natural prey of some other kind  
of animal4 ,a bird  will have enemies   
which try to catch her as food4 ,a bird 
cannot fight  back1 so must fly away    
when danger threatens1 in order to save 
her  life4 ,this means that she must    
leave the eggs in the nest for the  time
 being4 ,at certain times she must also 
leave her nest and search  for food for 
herself4 ,in order that the eggs so left
 alone may have a  better chance of not 
being discovered1 nature has arranged   

matters so  that the eggs take the color
 very much of the surroundings in which 
they are laid4 ,eggs of some birds are  
spotted or look like pebbles1  because  
the mother bird lays them in the sand4  
,some of them are green1  almost the    
color of the materials from which the   
bird builds the nest1  and so the colors
 have a real1 and to the birds1 a       
valuable purpose4          ,why ,does a 
,hen ,cackle ,after ,laying an ,egg8    
,the hen cackles because she is glad4   
,she is glad because she has just       
accomplished something1 which she was   
put on earth to do4 ,if you study  the  
life on the earth carefully with this in
 mind1 you will discover  that all kinds
 of life give expression in some form of
 gladness1 when  they have performed the
 things they are on earth for4 ,it's the
 hen's  way of expressing herself and   
letting the chicken world know4 ,the dog
  wags his tail when he is pleased2 boys
 and girls jump up and down when  they  
are pleased1 whether they have been     

doing anything commendable or  not4 ,no 
doubt also the actual laying of the egg 
causes some discomfort  to the hen and  
the corresponding feeling of gladness   
would come  naturally after the         
discomfort disappeared4          ,why   
,will ,water ,run ,off a ,duck's ,back8 
,the reason that water runs of a duck's 
back1 is that the feathers of  ducks are
 oily and1 as water and oil will not    
mix1 the water runs off  instead of     
soaking in4 ,the feathers on a duck are 
so thick on the body  of the duck1 top  
and bottom1 that even if it were not for
 the oil which  is on the feathers the  
water would have some difficulty in     
soaking  through the feathers4 ,but the 
main reason why the feathers on a duck's
  back cause water striking them to run 
off is that the duck has an oil  gland  
which is constantly producing grease or 
oil and which the duck  uses in giving  
his feathers a thin coating of oil to   
make them slick  with oil and when any  
water strikes the duck it runs off4     

,other birds  which live in the water a 
great deal have this oil gland for the  
same  reason4          ,,the ,,story    
,,in ,a ,,steel ,,rail                  
,illustration3 ,a ,blast ,furnace4      
,molten iron is brought from the blast  
furnaces to the open-hearth  furnaces1  
and dumped into a receptacle called a   
mixer1 the capacity of  which ranges    
from #djj tons to #ajjj tons1 depending 
upon the number of  furnaces to be      
served4    ,illustration3               
,one-thousand-ton ,mixer4      ,pictures
 in this story by courtesy of ,bethlehem
 ,steel ,co4    ,illustration3 ,,inside 
,,of ,,open ,,hearth ,,furnace          
,charging ,side of an ,open-hearth      
,furnace4    ,an open-hearth furnace    
consists of a long1 shallow hearth1     
suitably  enclosed in fire-brick1 and   
bound together with steel binding4 ,the 
furnace is heated by burning gas and    
air1 which have previously been         
preheated1 so that a temperature is     
obtained in the furnace ranging  from   

#bijj to #cjej degrees ,fahrenheit4     
,illustration3 ,pouring ,side of an     
,open-,hearth ,furnace4    ,the         
open-hearth process consists of the     
purification of iron by  oxidizing out  
the impurities and burning out the      
carbon of the iron  until a tough and   
ductile steel is produced1 which can be 
made of any  desired composition by the 
addition of the necessary quantities of 
alloys just previous to tapping and     
pouring4 ,the impurities in the iron    
are oxidized by the slag lying on top of
 the metal1 and the burning  out of the 
carbon1 which is a very slow operation1 
is hastened by the  addition of iron    
ore1 the oxygen of which combines with  
the carbon of  the iron and passes off  
is a gas going up the stack4    ,when an
 open-hearth furnace is ready for a     
charge1 a variable amount  of scrap1 say
 #cj per cent of the total weight of    
material used for  the heat1 is charged 
into the furnace4 ,with this scrap is   
charged  sufficient lime or limestone to

 make the slag1 as well as some iron ore
  to assist in reducing the carbon of   
the iron4 ,in about two or three  hours 
the required amount of molten iron is   
brought from the mixer in  ladles1 and  
poured into the furnace on top of the   
scrap1 lime and ore4      ,illustration3
 ,,molten ,,steel ,,being ,,poured      
,,like ,,water    ,molten ,steel ,being 
,poured ,into ,ladle4    ,when the scrap
 has all been melted1 a test is taken to
 determine the  amount of carbon        
remaining in the bath4 ,iron ore is     
added from time  to time until the      
carbon in the bath has been reduced to  
the desired  point1 and the metal is    
sufficiently hot to pour4 ,at this point
  8recarburizers0 7consisting of        
,ferro-,manganese1 ,ferro-,silicon1 and 
pig-iron1 or coal7 are added to get the 
required composition4 ,the tap  hole at 
the back of the furnace is opened1 and  
the steel is allowed to  run out into a 
ladle1 the slag coming last and forming 
a blanket over  the steel in the ladle4 

,illustration3 ,crane ,carrying ,ingot  
and ,soaking ,pit ,furnaces4    ,the    
ladle is picked up by an electric crane 
and carried over cast-iron  moulds1     
which are set on cars1 the steel being  
poured into the moulds1  resulting in   
steel ingots4 ,a sufficient amount of   
time is allowed for  the steel to become
 chilled or set1 when the cars are      
pushed under an  electric stripper1     
where the moulds are removed from the   
ingots4 ,after  the ingots leave the    
stripper they are taken to the scales   
and weighed1  and after weighing are put
 into the soaking pits4 ,the pits get   
their  name from the part they play in  
the heating of the steel for rolling4   
,when the steel ingot is stripped the   
outside of the ingot is cool  enough to 
hold the inside1 which is still in a    
liquid state1 and the  steel is put into
 the soaking pits to allow the inside to
 settle into a  solid mass1 after which 
the ingot is reheated for rolling4 ,the 
length  of time in the soaking pits     

depends upon the size of the ingot1 as  
the  larger the ingot1 the greater      
length of time is required to set4      
,when the steel is ready for rolling it 
is taken from the pits by  overhead     
electric cranes1 and placed into a dump 
buggy at the end of a  roller line1     
which leads to the blooming mill4 ,the  
dump buggy derives  its name from the   
fact that when the ingot is placed into 
same in  an upright position1 the buggy1
 in order to place the ingot into a     
horizontal position on the roller line1 
dumps over1 in the same way as  if one  
were to rock too far forward in a       
rocking-chair1 the dump buggy  operating
 on the same principle4                 
,illustration3 ,,getting ,,ready ,,to   
,,make ,a ,,rail    ,blooming ,mill and 
,engine4    ,the ingot travels down the 
movable-roller line to the blooming-mill
  rolls1 which roll it down from a piece
 #ai inches by #bc inches to what  is   
known as an #h inch by #h inch bloom1   
which is the size usually used  in the  

manufacture of rails4 ,the blooming mill
 derives its name from  the fact that   
after an ingot is rolled in same it is  
no longer called  an ingot1 but a bloom4
    ,after leaving the blooming mill the
 bloom travels along another roller     
line to the shears1 where it is cut into
 two or three pieces1 the  number of    
pieces depending on the size of the rail
 which is to be  rolled4 ,the blooms are
 then lifted over the roller line at the
 shears  by a transfer crane1 and placed
 on a traveling roller line which       
connects with the rear of the reheating 
furnace4 ,this furnace is about  #ce    
feet long1 and is so constructed that   
when the bloom is pushed in  at the rear
 of the furnace1 another bloom drops    
from the front or  discharge end of the 
furnace4    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ingot
 ,,becomes ,a ,,rail    ,the ,ingot     
,becomes a ,rail4    ,the bloom dropping
 out1 being sufficiently hot to roll    
into rails1  travels along another      
roller line to the roughing or first set

 of  rolls4 ,here the bloom is given    
five passes in the rolls1 and is then   
transferred to the strand or second set 
of rolls1 where it receives  five       
additional passes2 after this operation 
it is transferred to  the finishing or  
third set of rolls1 in which it is given
 one pass4  ,the bloom has now been     
converted into a rail1 and the rail     
travels  on another roller line to the  
hot saw1 where it is cut into #cc-;foot 
lengths1 this being the standard length 
in this country for all rails4  ,the    
rails when hot are cut by the hot saw to
 lengths of about #cc feet  #f inches1  
the allowance of inches being made for  
shrinkage in  cooling4 ,it is difficult 
to believe that steel shrinks to this   
extent1  but this is a fact1 and while  
the rails are cooling on the hotbeds    
they have the appearance of being       
animated1 as they move first one way    
and then the other4 ,after the rails are
 on the hotbed a sufficient  length of  
time to cool1 they are taken from the   

hotbed and placed  on a traveling roller
 line1 which takes them to an endless   
chain  conveyor4 ,the statement that    
rails are put on hotbeds for cooling    
seems  paradoxical1 but the hotbeds are 
so called because the rails are placed  
on them while hot1 and are left there   
until they have cooled4    ,the         
endless-chain conveyor places the rails 
on another bed1 from  which they are    
picked up by an electric crane and      
distributed to the  straightening       
presses1 where all burrs 7which have    
been caused by the  hot-sawing          
operation7 are removed before the rails 
are straightened4  ,after straightening 
they are transferred to drill presses1  
where they  have holes drilled into them
 for the accommodation of the splice    
bar1  after which they are placed on the
 loading docks4    ,illustration3 ,after
 being carefully examined by the        
railroad  company's inspectors they are 
picked up from the loading docks by     
electric magnets attached to a crane1   

and are placed in cars ready for        
shipment4          ,who ,made the ,first
 ,felt ,hat8      ,the felt hat is as   
old as ,homer4 ,the ,greeks made them in
 skull-caps1  conical1 truncated1       
narrow- or broad-brimmed4 ,the ,phrygian
 bonnet was  an elevated cap without a  
brim1 the apex turned over in front4 ,it
 is  known as the 8cap of liberty40 ,an 
ancient figure of ,liberty in the  times
 of ,antonius ,livius1 ,a4,d4 #aae1     
holds the cap in the right hand4  ,the  
,persians wore soft caps2 plumed hats   
were the headdress of the  ,syrian corps
 of ,xerxes2 the broad-brim was worn by 
the ,macedonian  kings4 ,castor means a 
beaver4 ,the ,armenian captive wore a   
plug hat4  ,the merchants of the        
fourteenth century wore a ,flanders     
beaver4  ,charles ,,vii1 in #adfi1 wore 
a felt hat lined with red1 and plumed4  
,the ,english men and women in #aeaj    
wore close woolen or knitted caps2  two 
centuries ago hats were worn in the     
house4 ,pepys1 in his diary1  wrote3    

8,september1 #affd1 got a severe cold   
because ,i took off my hat at  dinner02 
and again1 in ,january1 #affe1 he got   
another cold by sitting  too long with  
his head bare1 to allow his wife's maid 
to comb his hair  and wash his ears2 and
 ,lord ,clarendon1 in his essay1        
speaking of the  decay of respect due   
the aged1 says 8that in his younger days
 he never  kept his hat on before those 
older than himself1 except at dinner40  
,in the thirteenth century ,pope        
,innocent ,,iv allowed the cardinals the
  use of the scarlet cloth hat4 ,the    
hats now in use are the cloth hat1      
leather hat1 paper hat1 silk hat1 opera 
hat1 spring-brim hat1 and straw  hat4   
,what ,is the ,hottest ,spot on ,earth8 
,the hottest regions on earth is said to
 be along the ,persian ,gulf1  where    
little or no rain falls4 ,at ,bahrein   
the arid shore has no fresh  water1 yet 
a comparatively numerous population     
contrive to live there1  thanks to the  
copious springs which break forth from  

the bottom of the  sea4 ,the fresh water
 is got by diving4 ,the diver1 sitting  
in his boat1  winds a great goat-skin   
bag around his left arm1 the hand       
grasping  its mouth2 then he takes in   
his right hand a heavy stone1 to which  
is  attached a strong line1 and thus    
equipped he plunges in1 and quickly     
reaches the bottom4 ,instantly opening  
the bag over the strong jet of  fresh   
water1 he springs up the ascending      
current1 at the same time  closing the  
bag1 and is helped aboard4 ,the stone is
 then hauled up1 and  the diver1 after  
taking breath1 plunges in again4 ,the   
source of the  copious submarine springs
 is thought to be in the green hills of 
,osman1  some #ejj or #fjj miles        
distant4          ,where ,do ,we ,get   
,ivory8      ,ivory is a hard substance1
 not unlike bone1 of which the teeth of 
most mammals chiefly consist1 the       
dentine or tooth-substance which in     
transverse sections shows lines of      
different color running in circular     

arcs4 ,it is used extensively for       
industrial purposes and is derived  from
 the elephant1 walrus1 hippopotamus1    
narwhal1 and some other  animals4 ,the  
ivory of the tusks of the ,african      
elephant is held in the  highest        
estimation by manufacturers2 the tusks  
vary in size1 ranging  from a few ounces
 in weight to #agj pounds4 ,holtzapffel 
states that  he saw fossil tusks on the 
banks of rivers of ,northern ,siberia   
which  weighed #ahf pounds each4 ,ivory 
is simply tooth-substance of exceptional
  hardness1 toughness1 and elasticity1  
due to the firmness and regularity  of  
the dentinal tubules which radiate from 
the axial pulp-cavity to the  periphery 
of the tooth4          ,how ,did ,trial 
by ,jury ,originate8      ,,why ,,juries
 ,,have ,,twelve ,,men    ,a jury       
consists of a certain number of men     
selected according to law  and sworn to 
inquire into and determine facts        
concerning a cause or  an accusation    
submitted to them1 and to declare the   

truth according  to the evidence4 ,the  
custom of trying accused persons before 
a jury1  as practised in this country   
and ,england1 is the natural outgrowth  
of  rudimentary forms of trial in vogue 
among our ,anglo-,saxon ancestors4  ,the
 present system of trial by jury is the 
result of a gradual growth  under the   
,english ,common ,law4 ,there is no     
special reason why twelve is  the usual 
number chosen for a complete jury except
 the necessity for  limiting the number4
 ,in a grand jury the number according  
to law must  not be less than twelve nor
 more than twenty-three1 and twelve     
votes  are necessary to find an         
indictment4 ,the ancient ,romans also   
had a form  of trial before a presiding 
judge and a body of judices4 ,the right 
of  trial by jury is guaranteed by the  
,united ,states ,constitution in all    
criminal cases1 and in civil cases where
 the amount in dispute exceeds  #bj4 ,a 
petit or trial jury consists of twelve  
men1 selected by lot  from among the    

citizens residing within the            
jurisdiction of the court4  ,their duty 
is to determine questions of fact in    
accordance with the  weight of testimony
 presented and report their finding to  
the presiding  judge4 ,an impartial jury
 is assured by drawing by lot and then  
giving  the accused1 in a criminal case1
 the right to dismiss a certain number  
without reason and certain others for   
good cause4 ,each of the jurymen  must  
meet certain legal requirements as to   
capacity in general and  fitness for the
 particular case upon which he is to    
sit1 and must take  an oath to decide   
without prejudice and according to the  
testimony4  ,a coroner's jury or jury of
 inquest is usually composed of from six
  to fifteen persons1 summoned to       
inquire into the cause of sudden or     
unexplained deaths4          ,can       
,animals ,foretell the ,weather8        
,certain movements on the part of the   
animal creation before a change of      
weather appear to indicate a reasoning  

faculty4 ,such seems to be the  case    
with the common garden spider1 which1 on
 the approach of rainy or  windy        
weather1 will be found to shorten and   
strengthen the guys of his  web1        
lengthening the same when the storm is  
over4 ,there is a popular  superstition 
that it is unlucky for an angler to meet
 a single magpie1  but two of the birds 
together are a good omen4 ,the reason is
 that the  birds foretell the coming of 
cold or stormy weather1 and at such     
times1  instead of searching for food   
for their young in pairs1 one will      
always  remain on the nest4 ,sea-gulls  
predict storms by assembling on the     
land1  as they know that the rain will  
bring earthworms and larv to the        
surface4 ,this1 however1 is merely a    
search for food1 and is due to the  same
 instinct which teaches the swallow to  
fly high in fine weather1  and skim     
along the ground when foul is coming4   
,they simply follow  the flies and      
gnats1 which remain in the warm strata  

of the air4 ,the  different tribes of   
wading birds always migrate before rain1
 likewise  to hunt for food4 ,many birds
 foretell rain by warning cries and     
uneasy  actions1 and swine will carry   
hay and straw to hiding-places1 oxen    
will  lick themselves the wrong way of  
the hair1 sheep will bleat and skip     
about1 hogs turned out in the woods will
 come grunting and squealing1  colts    
will rub their backs against the ground1
 crows will gather in  crowds1 crickets 
will sing more loudly1 flies come into  
the house1  frogs croak and change color
 to a dingier hue1 dogs eat grass1 and  
rooks soar like hawks4 ,it is probable  
that many of these actions are  due to  
actual uneasiness1 similar to that which
 all who are troubled  with corns or    
rheumatism experience before a storm1   
and are caused  both by the variation in
 barometric pressure and the changes in 
the  electrical condition of the        
atmosphere4          ,nearest ,approach 
,ever ,made to ,perpetual ,motion in    

,mechanics4      ,an inventor has       
patented a double electric battery which
 seems to  come exceedingly near to     
perpetual motion4 ,instead of using the 
zinc  battery1 he professes to have hit 
upon a solution which makes a battery   
seven times as powerful as the zinc     
battery1 with absolutely no waste  of   
material4 ,the power of the battery     
grows gradually less in a few  hours of 
use1 but returns to its original unit   
when allowed to rest a  few hours4 ,he  
has two batteries so arranged that the  
power is shifted  from one to the other 
every three hours4 ,a little machine has
 been  running for some years in the    
patent office at ,new ,york4 ,certain   
parts  of the mechanism are constructed 
of different expansive capacities1 and  
the machine is worked by the expansion  
and contraction of these under  the     
usual variations of temperature4 ,in the
 ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford  there is
 an apparatus which has chimed two      
little bells continuously  for forty    

years1 by the energy of an apparently   
inexhaustible  8dry-pile0 of very low   
electrical energy4 ,a church clock in   
,brussels is  wound up by atmospheric   
expansion induced by the heat of the    
sun4 ,as  long as the sun shines this   
clock will go till its works wear out4  
,mr4  ,d4 ,l4 ,goff1 a wealthy          
,american1 has in his hall an           
old-fashioned clock1  which1 so long as 
the house is occupied1 never runs down4 
,whenever the  front door is opened or  
closed1 the winding arrangements of the 
clock1  which are connected with the    
door by a rod with gearing attachments1 
are given a turn1 so that the persons   
leaving and entering the house  keep the
 clock constantly wound up4          ,do
 ,plants ,breathe8      ,plants1 like   
animals1 breathe the air2 plants breathe
 through their  leaves and stems just as
 animals do by means of their           
respiratory  organs4 ,when a young plant
 is analyzed it is found to consist     
chiefly  of water1 which is all removed 

from the soil2 there is about #ge per   
cent or more of this fluid present1 and 
the rest is solid material4  ,of this   
latter by far the most abundant         
constituent is carbon1 almost  every    
atom of which is removed from the       
atmosphere by the vital  action of      
minute bodies contained in the green    
leaves4 ,the carbon is  taken into the  
plant as carbonic acid gas4 ,plants also
 absorb oxygen1  hydrogen1 and nitrogen 
from the atmosphere in different        
quantities  through their leaves1 and   
also by means of their roots4 ,these new
  products stored are in turn used in   
building up the different organs  of the
 plant4 ,plants give off used-up        
moisture through their leaves1  just as 
animals perspire through the pores of   
their skins4 ,calculations  have been   
made as to the amount of water thus     
perspired by plants4 ,the  sunflower1   
only #c ft4 high1 with #e1faf square    
inches of surface  exposed to the air1  
gives off as much moisture as a man4    

,what ,depth of ,snow ,is ,equivalent to
 an ,inch of ,rain8      ,newly fallen  
snow having a depth of about #aa inches 
is equivalent to  one inch of rain4 ,a  
cubic foot of newly fallen snow weighs  
#e pounds  and a cubic foot of fresh or 
rain water weighs #fb pounds or #a1jjj  
ounces4 ,an inch of rain means a gallon 
of water spread over every two  square  
feet1 or about a hundred tons to every  
acre4 ,the density of  snow naturally   
varies a good deal according to the     
speed with which  it falls4             
,temperature1 also1 has much to do with 
its bulk4 ,in cold1  crisp weather1 when
 the thermometer registers several      
degrees of frost1  snow comes down light
 and dry2 but in moist1 cold weather1   
when the  temperature is only just below
 thirty-two degrees1 the snow falls in  
large1 partially thawed flakes1 and     
occupies much less space where it  falls
 than that which reaches the earth      
during the prevalence of a  greater     
degree of cold4          ,how ,are the  

,stars ,counted8      ,stars are counted
 by means of the telescope and          
photography4 ,the  ,astronomer-,royal   
for ,ireland1 ,sir ,robert ,s4 ,ball1 in
 one of his  lectures mentioned a       
photograph which had been obtained by   
,mr4 ,isaac  ,roberts representing a    
small part of the constellation of the  
,swan4  ,the picture is about as large  
as the page of a copy-book1 and it  is  
so crowded with stars that it would     
puzzle most people to count  them2 but  
they have been counted by a patient     
person1 and the number  is about        
#af1jjj4 ,many of these stars are too   
faint ever to be seen  in the greatest  
of telescopes yet erected4 ,attempts are
 now being  made to obtain a number of  
similar photographs which shall cover   
the whole extent of the heavens4 ,the   
task is indeed an immense one4          
,assuming the plates used to be the same
 size as that above mentioned1  it would
 require at least #aj1jjj of them to    
represent the entire  sky4 ,the counting

 of stars by the telescope was first    
reduced to a  system by the ,herschels1 
who introduced 8star-gauges10 which were
  simply a calculation by averages4 ,a  
telescope of #ah in4 aperture1 #bj  ft4 
focus1 and a magnifying power of #ahj1  
giving a field of view #ae  in4 in      
diameter1 was used for the purpose4 ,the
 process consisted in  directing this   
instrument to a part of the sky and     
counting the stars  in the field4 ,this1
 repeated hundreds of times1 gave a fair
 idea of the  average number of stars in
 a circle of #ae in4 diameter in all    
parts of  the sky4 ,from this as a basis
 it is possible to reckon the number of 
stars in any known area4          ,how  
,is the ,volume of ,sound ,measured8    
,sound arises from vibrations giving a  
wave-like motion to the  surrounding    
atmosphere1 the wave gradually enlarging
 as it leaves the  source of            
disturbance1 while at the same time the 
motion of the air  particles becomes    
less and less4 ,the simplest method of  

determining the  number of vibrations of
 a sound is by means of ,savart's       
apparatus4 ,this  consists of two       
wheels--a toothed or cog-wheel and a    
driving-wheel4  ,they are so adjusted   
that the cog-wheel is made to revolve   
with great  rapidity1 its teeth hitting 
upon a card fixed near it4 ,the number  
of  revolutions is indicated by a       
counter attached to the axis of the     
cog-wheel4 ,suppose that sound is       
traveling in the air at the rate  of    
#a1jjj ft4 per second1 and that         
,savart's wheel is giving a sound       
produced by #bjj taps on the card per   
second1 it follows that in #a1jjj  ft4  
there will be #bjj waves or vibrations1 
and if there be #bjj waves in  #a1jjj   
ft4 each wave or vibration must be #e   
ft4 in length4 ,the velocity  of sound  
through air varies with the temperature 
of the latter1 but is  usually reckoned 
at #a1acj ft4 per second4          ,at  
,what ,rate ,does ,thought ,travel8     
,thought travels #aaa feet per second1  

or about a mile and a quarter per       
minute4 ,elaborate experiments have been
 made by ,professors ,heimholtz1        
,hersch1 and ,donders1 to ascertain the 
facts on this question1 the  result of  
which was that they found the process of
 thought varied in  rapidity in         
different individuals1 children and old 
persons thinking  more slowly than      
people of middle age1 and ignorant      
people more slowly  than the educated4  
,it takes about two-fifths of a second  
to call  to mind the country in which a 
well-known town is situated1 or the     
language in which a familiar author     
wrote4 ,we can think of the name  of the
 next month in half the time we need to 
think of the name of  the last month4   
,it takes on the average one-third of a 
second to add  numbers containing one   
digit and half a second to multiply     
them4 ,those  used to reckoning can add 
two to three in less time than others2  
those  familiar with literature can     
remember more quickly than others that  

,shakespeare wrote 8,hamlet40 ,it takes 
longer to mention a month when a  season
 has been given than to say to what     
season a month belongs4 ,the  time taken
 up in choosing a motion1 the 8will     
time10 can be measured as  well as the  
time taken up in perceiving4 ,if it is  
not known which of  two colored lights  
is to be presented1 and you offer to    
lift your right  hand if it be red and  
your left if it be blue1 about          
one-thirteenth of  a second is necessary
 to initiate the correct motion4        
,what ,is the ,largest ,tree ,in the    
,world8      ,in ,san ,francisco1       
encircled by a circus tent of ample     
dimensions1 is a  section of the largest
 tree in the world--exceeding the       
diameter of the  famous tree of         
,calaveras by five feet4 ,this monster  
of the vegetable  kingdom was discovered
 in #ahgd1 on ,tule ,river1 ,tulare     
,county1 about  seventy-five miles from 
,visalia4 ,at some remote period its top
 had  been broken off by the elements1  

or some unknown forces1 yet when it  was
 discovered it had an elevation of #bdj 
feet4 ,the trunk of the tree  was #aaa  
feet in circumference1 with a diameter  
of #ce feet #d inches4  ,the section on 
exhibition is hollowed out1 leaving     
about a foot of  bark and several inches
 of the wood4 ,the interior is #ajj feet
 in  circumference and #cj feet in      
diameter1 and it has a seating capacity 
of about #bjj4 ,it was cut off from the 
tree about twelve feet above the  base1 
and required the labor of four men for  
nine days to chop it down4  ,in the     
center of the tree1 and extending       
through its whole length1  was a rotten 
core about two feet in diameter1        
partially filled with a  soggy1 decayed 
vegetation that had fallen into it from 
the top4 ,in the  center of this cavity 
was found the trunk of a little tree of 
the same  species1 having perfect bark  
on it1 and showing regular growth4 ,it  
was  of uniform diameter1 an inch and a 
half all the way2 and when the tree     

fell and split open1 this curious stem  
was traced for nearly #ajj feet4  ,the  
rings in this monarch of the forest show
 its age to have been #d1hdj  years4    
,where ,did the ,term ,yankees          
,originate8      ,this is a word said to
 be a corruption of ,yengees1 the       
,indian  pronunciation of ,english1 or  
of the ,french 8,anglais10 when         
referring  to the ,english ,colonists4  
,it was first applied to the ,new       
,englanders  by the ,british soldiers as
 a term of reproach1 later by the       
,english to  ,americans generally1 and  
still later to the people of the ,north 
by the  ,southerners4          ,how ,far
 ,does the ,air ,extend8      ,it is1   
perhaps1 generally known that enveloping
 the earth is a layer  of air fifty or  
more miles in thickness4 ,just how thick
 this layer is  we do not know1 but we  
do know that it extends many miles from 
the  earth4 ,you may assure yourselves  
of this in a very simple manner by      
watching the shooting stars that may be 

seen on any clear night4 ,these  are    
nothing but masses of rocks that give   
off light only when they  have been made
 red-hot by friction with the air in    
their rapid flight4  ,the fact that we  
often see these stars while they are    
still many miles  from the earth proves 
to us that the air through which they   
are passing  extends to that height4    
,what ,makes ,us ,feel ,hungry8         
,hunger is a peculiar craving which we  
are accustomed to say comes  from the   
stomach4 ,it is the business of the     
stomach to change such  food as we take 
into it in such a way that the rest of  
the organs of  the body which we have   
for the purpose can make blood out of   
it4 ,when  you feel the sensation of    
hunger1 it means that the               
blood-producing  system is calling on   
the stomach to furnish more blood-making
 material4  ,the stomach prepares the   
food for blood production by mixing with
 it  certain juices which the stomach is
 able to supply4 ,as soon as the        

stomach is then called upon to supply   
more blood-making material1 it  goes to 
work on what is in the stomach and      
begins mixing things4 ,if1  however1    
there is nothing in the stomach1 the    
craving which we call  hunger is        
produced4 ,it is1 therefore1 then not   
altogether the stomach  which makes us  
hungry1 but the parts of our body which 
actually turn  the food into blood after
 the stomach has prepared it4    ,to    
prove this it is only necessary to say  
that the sensation of hunger  will stop 
if food which is easily absorbed and1   
therefore1 does not  need the           
preparation which the stomach generally 
gives1 is introduced  into the system   
through other parts of the body1 as1 for
 instance1 by  injecting it into the    
large intestine1 which is a part of the 
body1 the  food passes through after it 
leaves the stomach ordinarily4          
,what ,makes ,us ,thirsty8      ,thirst 
is a sensation of dryness and heat which
 is generally  communicated to us       

through the tongue and throat4 ,the     
sensation of  thirst can be artificially
 produced by passing a current of air   
over the membranes which cover the      
tongue and throat1 but thirst is        
naturally due to a shortage of water in 
the body4 ,the human body  requires a   
great deal of water to keep it in       
condition1 and when the  supply becomes 
low a warning is given to us by making  
the membranes of  the tongue and throat 
dry4    ,in connection with thirst1     
however1 as in the case of hunger1 where
  the warning is given by the stomach1  
thirst will be appeased by the          
introduction of water1 either into the  
blood1 the stomach or the large         
intestine1 without having touched either
 the tongue or throat1 which  proves    
that it is not our tongue or throat that
 is thirsty1 but the  body itself4      
,what ,is ,pain and ,why ,does ,it      
,hurt8      ,pain is the result of an   
injury to some part of our bodies1 or a 
disturbed condition--a change from the  

normal condition4 ,pain is caused  by   
nerves in the body4 ,the network of     
nerves coming in big nerves from  the   
back bone or spinal chord branches out  
in all directions1 and near  the surface
 of the skin they spread out like the   
tiny twigs of a tree1  covering every   
point of the body4 ,some parts of our   
bodies are more  sensitive than others4 
,that is because the nerves are then    
nearer the  surface or else there are   
more nerves in that part4 ,the heel is  
perhaps  the least sensitive part of the
 body1 as the nerves do not lie so near 
the surface there4    ,pain is not a    
thing which you can make a picture of or
 describe in  words4 ,pain is a         
sensation of the brain caused by a      
disturbance of  conditions in some part 
of the body4 ,if you cut your finger1   
you cut  certain veins or arteries and  
also the tiny nerves in the finger4     
,the nerves immediately let the brain   
know that they are injured1 and  the    
brain sets to work to have the damage   

repaired4 ,but there is a  congestion   
right where the cut is4 ,the veins being
 cut1 the blood which  would ordinarily 
flow through them back to the heart1    
pours out into  the cut and the inside  
of your finger is thus exposed to the   
oxygen of  the air1 and the action of   
the air on the exposed part helps to    
make  the pain4 ,it is not your finger1 
however1 that hurts4 ,it is the shock   
that your brain gets when you cut your  
finger that hurts4    ,a pain in your   
stomach is a pain caused by something   
else than a cut4  ,if the stomach could 
always digest everything or any amount  
of stuff  you put in it1 you would not  
have a stomach pain4 ,but sometimes you 
put things into your stomach through    
your mouth1 of course1 that the  stomach
 cannot handle4 ,or1 it may be a        
combination of a number of  things that 
cause this unusual condition in your    
stomach4 ,the stomach  makes a special  
effort to get rid of this troublesome   
substance and  generally succeeds       

eventually1 but while the fight is going
 on1 it  pains or hurts you4    ,pain is
 the result of a disturbance of the     
nerves4 ,it is just the  opposite of    
gladness4 ,we sometimes are so glad we  
feel good all over4  ,pain is just the  
opposite4 ,you can prove that pain is   
not a real thing  but only a sensation4 
,perhaps you have had toothache4 ,you go
 to the  dentist and he kills the nerve 
or takes it out4 ,after that you cannot 
have the toothache in that tooth again1 
because there is no nerve there  to     
telegraph to the brain1 even though the 
cause of the hurt still  exists4 ,you   
cannot feel pain unless the brain knows 
about the injury4          ,what ,is the
 ,horizon8      ,of course you know what
 the horizon is4 ,it is easiest to see  
the  horizon at sea when out of sight of
 land4 ,there1 when you look in  any    
direction from the ship to the place    
where the sea and the sky  meet you see 
a line which1 if you follow with your   
eye as you turn  completely around1     

makes a perfect circle4 ,it looks as    
though it marked  the boundary of the   
earth4 ,on land it is not easy to see as
 much of  the horizon at one time1      
because of buildings and trees and hills
 in  the woods and elsewhere1 but if the
 land were perfectly smooth like  the   
sea and there were no trees or buildings
 or hills in the way1 you  could see    
just as perfect a circle on land as on  
sea4 ,this proves that  the horizon is a
 movable circle4 ,on land it is where   
the earth and sky  appear to meet1 and  
on water it is where sky and water      
appear to meet4          ,how ,far ,away
 ,is the ,horizon8      ,the actual     
distance of the horizon away from us    
depends altogether upon  the height     
above the sea level from which we are   
looking as far as we  can4 ,the horizon 
is always as far away as we can see4 ,at
 the seashore1  where we are practically
 on a level with the water1 we cannot   
see so  far as when we are up on a bluff
 or hill overlooking the sea4 ,the      

higher we go up straight from a given   
point the greater the distance  we can  
see up to a certain point and the       
farther away the horizon will  appear4  
,the height of the person looking1 of   
course1 figures in this1  because when  
you are at sea level it is only your    
feet really that are  at sea level 7if  
you are standing up straight7 and the   
distance of the  horizon is measured    
from the eye of the person looking4 ,a  
boy or girl  of ten would be1 say1 a    
little over four feet high1 and the eyes
 of  such a person would be about four  
feet above the level of the sea4 ,at    
that height the horizon would be about  
two and a half miles away4 ,if  the eyes
 are six feet above sea level the       
distance of the horizon will  be about  
three miles1 so that practically every  
one sees a different  horizon1 that is1 
one that appears at a different         
distance4 ,a hundred  feet above the    
level of the sea the horizon will be    
more than thirteen  miles away1 while at

 #ajjj feet altitude it would be #db    
miles away1 and  if you could go a mile 
into the air the horizon would appear   
#if miles  from where you are4 ,the     
higher you go the farther away the      
circle which  apparently marks the      
joining of the earth and sky appears4   
,why ,can ,we ,see ,farther ,when ,we   
,are ,up ,high8      ,remember that the 
earth is round and you will probably be 
able to  answer the question yourself4  
,this one1 like most questions boys and 
girls ask1 only requires a little       
thought4 ,the earth1 of course1 as we   
have learned long ago1 is a globe4 ,when
 you look out on the land or the  sea   
from a high place you can see more of   
the earth's round surface  before the   
curve of the earth's surface takes      
things beyond the range  of vision4 ,if 
you are on a bluff #ajj feet high at the
 seashore and  looking toward a point   
where a ship is coming toward shore1 you
 will be  able to see the ship much     
sooner than if you were at the sea      

level4 ,in  exact words1 you actually   
see more of the earth's surface the     
higher  up you are1 because1 as you go  
up your position in relation to the     
curvature of the earth's surface        
changes4          ,what ,makes ,lobsters
 ,turn ,red8      ,when a lobster is    
taken out of the lobster trap with which
 the  fisherman traps him1 he is green1 
but when he comes to the table as a     
choice morsel of food his shell is red4 
,we know that he has been boiled  and we
 know that he goes into the boiling     
water green and comes out  red4 ,this   
change in the color of the shell of the 
lobster is the result  of the effect of 
boiling water on the coloring material  
in the shell4  ,when the lobster is put 
in the boiling water the process of     
boiling  produces a chemical change in  
the color material in the lobster's     
shell4 ,there is no particular reason   
why the lobster should turn red1        
excepting that that is the effect       
boiling water has on the coloring       

matter in the shell4          ,why ,do  
,we ,have to ,die8      ,death must come
 to all things that have life4 ,all     
matter in the world  is either living   
7animate7 or dead 7inanimate74          
,inanimate things do not  change4 ,they 
remain always the same4 ,we can change  
the form and size of  inanimate things1 
and particles of them even help to make 
up the bodies  of the living things1 but
 what they are made of always remains   
what it  was4    ,death is one of the   
things that must occur if we are to     
continue to  have more life4 ,the whole 
plan of living things includes the      
ability to  reproduce themselves4 ,every
 kind of life has the power to produce  
life  like itself and this process of   
reproduction is continuous4 ,if there   
were no death1 then the world would soon
 be crowded with living things  to the  
point where there would be neither room 
nor food4    ,illustration3 ,,where     
,,window ,,glass ,,comes ,,from         
,pictures herewith by courtesy of       

,pittsburgh ,plate ,glass ,co4          
,making ,plate ,glass      ,what ,is the
 ,difference ,between ,plate ,glass and 
,window ,glass8    ,how is plate glass  
made8 ,these questions are asked very   
frequently4 ,the  two products are      
wholly unlike each other2 and we wish to
 show wherein  lies the difference4 ,we 
shall tell how plate glass is made2 and 
we hope  to make it clear that great    
care1 time and expense are involved in  
its  manufacture4    ,the raw materials 
may be said to be virtually the same in 
plate glass  as in window glass2 the    
main difference being that in plate     
glass  greater care is exercised in     
selecting and purifying the ingredients4
  ,window glass is made with a          
blow-pipe4 ,the work requires skill on  
the  part of the operator2 but the      
process is quite simple and rapid4 ,and 
the result is1 naturally1 a             
comparatively ordinary and indifferent  
product4 ,on the other hand1 the superb 
quality of plate glass is owing  to the 

elaborate method of producing it4       
,commercial plate glass was first made  
in ,france somewhat more than two       
hundred years ago2 although glass in one
 form or another has been in  use for   
many centuries4 ,apparently glass was   
known in ,egypt fully four  thousand    
years ago4    ,illustration3 ,,mining   
,,silica    ,the materials used are     
silica 7white sand71 carbonate of soda  
7soda  ash71 and lime4 ,other materials1
 as arsenic and charcoal1 are used in   
small proportions1 but the main         
ingredients are the first three named4  
,probably it is little imagined that in 
the production of plate glass1  mining  
is involved in two or more forms 7namely
 silica and coal71 also  the quarrying  
of limestone1 the chemical manufacture  
of soda ash on  a large scale1 the      
reduction and treatment of fire clay to 
its right  consistency1 an elaborate and
 expensive system of pot making2 and the
  melting1 casting1 rolling1 annealing1 
grinding and polishing of the  glass4   

,in special uses1 as in beveled plates  
and mirrors1 two more elaborate         
processes must be added--beveling and   
silvering--all of which are  performed  
under the direction of experts aided by 
a large amount of  labor and expensive  
machinery4    ,pots of fire clay take so
 important a part in the successful     
manufacture of plate glass that the     
subject deserves especial notice4  ,the 
different clays after being mined are   
exposed to the weather for  some time to
 bring about disintegration4    ,,the   
,,clay ,,must ,,be ,,trampled ,,with    
,,bare ,,feet    ,at the proper stage   
finely sifted raw clay is mixed with    
coarse1 burned  clay and water4 ,this   
reduces liability of shrinkage and      
cracking4 ,it  is then 8pugged10 or     
kneaded in a mill2 kept a long time     
7sometimes  a year7 in storage bins to  
ripen2 and afterwards goes through the  
laborious process of 8treading40        
,nothing has thus far been found in     
machinery by which the right kind of    

plasticity can be developed as  does    
this primitive treading by the bare feet
 of men4 ,the clay must be  treaded1 not
 once or twice1 but many times4 ,the    
building of pots is a  slow1 tedious and
 time-killing affair2 but this is most  
essential4    ,,how ,,melting ,,pots    
,,are ,,made    ,without extreme care1  
some elements used in the making of the 
pots  might be fused into glass while   
undergoing the intense heat of the      
furnace2 or they might break in the     
handling4 ,the average pot must hold    
about a ton of molten glass1 and the    
average furnace heat necessary is  about
 #c1jjj ,fahrenheit4 ,the work is not   
continuous4 ,each workman has  several  
pots in hand at a time1 and passes from 
one to another adding  only a few inches
 a day to each pot1 so that a proper    
interval for  seasoning be given4 ,after
 completion1 comes the proper drying out
 of  the pots2 and this is another      
feature in which the greatest scientific
  care is required4 ,no pot may be used 

until it has been left to season  for at
 least three months1 and even a year is 
desirable4 ,and after all  this trouble1
 the pot has but #be days of usefulness4
 ,the pots form one  of the heavy items 
of expense in plate glass manufacture2  
and upon  their safety great things     
depend4    ,illustration3 ,,pot         
,,making4    ,illustration3 ,,mixing    
,,the ,,clay4    ,,trampling ,,the      
,,clay4    ,illustration3 ,,skimming    
,,the ,,pot4    ,illustration3 ,,casting
 ,,plate ,,glass4    ,,how ,,the ,,huge 
,,plates ,,of ,,glass ,,are ,,cast      
,the pot1 having been first brought to  
the necessary high temperature1  is     
filled heaping full with its mixed      
8batch0 of ground silica1 soda1  lime1  
etc4 ,melting reduces the bulk so much  
that the pot is filled  three times     
before it contains a sufficient charge  
of metal4 ,when the  proper molten stage
 is reached the pot is lifted out of the
 furnace  by a crane2 is first carefully
 skimmed to remove surface impurities1  

and then carried overhead by an electric
 tramway to the casting table4  ,this is
 a large1 massive1 flat table of iron1  
having as an attachment  a heavy iron   
roller which covers the full width1 and 
arranged so as  to roll the entire      
length of the table4 ,the sides of the  
table are  fitted with adjustable strips
 which permit the producing of plates of
  different thicknesses4 ,the pasty1 or 
half-fluid glass metal is now  poured   
upon the table from the melting pot1 and
 the roller quickly  passes over it1    
leaving a layer of uniform thickness4   
,the heavy roller  is now moved out of  
the way1 and then by means of a stowing 
tool the  red hot plate is shoved into  
an annealing oven4 ,all of these stages 
of the work have to be performed with   
remarkable speed1 and by men of  long   
training and experience4 ,the plates    
remain for several days in  the         
annealing oven1 where the temperature is
 gradually reduced from an  intense heat
 at first1 until at the end of the      

required period it is  no hotter than an
 ordinary room4    ,illustration3       
,,preparing ,,the ,,grinding ,,table4   
,when the plate is taken from the       
annealing oven it has a rough1 opaque1  
almost undulating appearance on the     
surfaces4 ,it is only the surface1      
however1 for within it is as clear as   
crystal4 ,first1 it is submitted  for   
careful inspection1 so that bubbles or  
other defects may be marked  for cutting
 out4 ,it then goes to the cutter who   
takes off the rough  edges and squares  
it into the right dimensions2 and thence
 to the  grinding room4                 
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,glass      
,,plates ,,are ,,ground    ,,grinding   
,,the ,,plates    ,the grinding table is
 a large flat revolving platform made of
 iron1  twenty-five feet or more in     
diameter4 ,the plate must be carried    
from  the annealing oven to the grinding
 machines1 and thence to the racks1  by 
men skilled in the art4 ,twenty men are 
required to carry the larger  plates of 

glass1 ten on each side1 using leather  
straps and stepping  together in perfect
 time4 ,the lock-step is absolutely     
essential to  prevent accident4 ,the    
grinding table is prepared by being     
flooded with  plaster of ,paris and     
water2 then the glass is carefully      
lowered1 and a  number of men mount upon
 the plate and tramp it into place until
 it is  set4 ,after this1 greater       
security is obtained by pegging with    
prepared  wooden pins2 and then the     
table is set in motion4 ,the grinding is
 done  by revolving runners4 ,sharp sand
 is fed upon the table1 and a stream of 
water constantly flows over it4 ,after  
the first cutting by the sand1  emery is
 used in a similar manner4    ,the      
plates are inspected after leaving the  
grinding room1 and if any  scratches or 
defects of any kind are found they are  
marked4 ,some of  these can be rubbed   
down by hand4 ,there are also1 not      
infrequently1  nicks and fractures found
 at this stage2 and in such case the    

plate  must again be cut and squared4   
,afterward comes the polishing1 which   
is done on another special table4 ,the  
polishing material is rouge1 or  iron   
peroxide1 applied with water1 and the   
rubbing is done by blocks  of felt4     
,reciprocating machinery is so arranged 
that every part of the  plate is brought
 underneath the rubbing surface4    ,the
 grinding and polishing has taken away  
from the original plate half  of its    
thickness1 sometimes more4 ,there is no 
saving of the material2  it has all been
 washed away4 ,when to this waste is    
added the fact that  fully half of the  
original weight of lime and soda has    
been released  by the heat of the       
furnace1 escaping into the atmosphere in
 fumes and  acids1 one may begin to     
understand something of the cost of     
converting  the rough materials of sand1
 limestone and soda into beautiful plate
  glass4    ,,how ,,mirrors ,,are ,,made
    ,in preparing plate glass for       
mirrors great care must be exercised in 

the selection of the plates4 ,this      
selection bears reference not only to   
surface defects1 but to the quality in  
general2 defects which cannot           
ordinarily be seen are magnified many   
fold after the glass has received  a    
covering of silver4    ,illustration3   
,,beveling ,,plates    ,in the process  
of beveling1 the plate passes through   
the hands of  skilled workmen of five   
different divisions1 namely3 roughers1  
emeriers1 smoothers1 white-wheelers and 
buffers2 and different abrasive         
materials are used in the order         
indicated by the titles4 ,these         
materials are sand1 emery1 natural      
sandstone imported from ,england1       
pumice and rouge4    ,the roughing mill 
is a circular cast-iron disk about #bh  
inches in  diameter1 constructed so that
 the face or top of the mill revolves   
upon  a horizontal plane at a speed of  
about #bej revolutions per minute4 ,the 
sand is conveyed to the mill from above 
through a hopper simultaneously  with a 

stream of water which is played upon the
 sand to carry it to  the mill4 ,the    
rougher places the edge of the plate    
upon the rapidly  revolving mill1 and   
the cutting of the bevel is done by the 
passage  of the sand between the mill   
and the plate of glass4 ,a bevel of any 
desired width may be produced4 ,pattern 
plates containing incurves1  mitres1    
etc41 require a practiced eye and great 
skill upon the part of  the operator4   
,when the plate leaves the rougher's    
hands the surface of the bevel has  been
 ground so deep by the coarse sand that 
polishing at this stage is  impossible4 
,consequently1 in order to produce a    
surface fine enough  to render it       
susceptible of a high and brilliant     
polish it must go  through the various  
treatments we have mentioned4 ,the      
emerier uses a  fine grade of emery on a
 mill similar in construction to a      
roughing  mill1 which takes away        
considerable of the coarse surface given
 by the  first cutting4 ,then it goes to

 the smoother1 who reduces the roughness
  slowly by using a fine sandstone from 
,england2 then it goes to the           
white-wheeler who operates an upright   
poplar-wood wheel using powdered  pumice
 stone as an abrasive2 and then1 as a   
last stage it reaches the  buffer1 whose
 method of operation is shown in the    
illustration4 ,the  buffer brings a high
 polish to the bevel by the use of rouge
 applied to  thick felt which covers his
 wheel4    ,illustration3 ,,silvering   
,,mirror ,,plates4    ,illustration3    
,the two photographs here are of the    
same building taken  under contrasting  
conditions4 ,the first picture was taken
 through a  window glazed with common   
window glass4 ,it is an extreme example1
 to  be sure1 but of a sort not         
infrequently seen4 ,the second view     
shows  the same building taken through a
 window of polished1 flawless plate     
glass4 ,an observing person can see this
 startling contrast any day as  he walks
 along a residence street4 ,at intervals

 a front window will  be seen which     
gives a twisted1 distorted reflection of
 the houses or  trees on the opposite   
side3 this is window glass4 ,the other  
kind--the  window that gives a sharp    
brilliant reflection--is plate glass4   
,it  is practically impossible to obtain
 superior reflecting quality from       
window glass4 ,it can only be had from  
surfaces which have been ground  and    
polished4    ,the plate1 after leaving  
the beveling room1 is again carefully   
examined  for surface defects4 ,these   
defects may consist of scratches caused 
inadvertently by permitting the surface 
of the plate to come into  contact with 
the abrasive material4 ,these scratches 
are removed by hand  polishing1 which   
must be skillfully done2 otherwise the  
reflection will  become distorted       
through over-polishing in a given area  
or spot4 ,the  plate is then taken to a 
wash table where the surface to be      
silvered  is thoroughly washed with     
distilled water2 after which it is taken

  to a table that is covered with       
blankets1 and which is heated to a      
temperature of from #ij to #aaj4 ,the   
blanketing is to protect the plate  from
 being scratched1 and also to catch all 
of the silver waste4 ,the  silvering    
solution is nitrate of silver liquefied 
by a certain formula1  and is poured    
over the plate2 the fluid having an     
appearance which to  the ordinary       
observer looks like nothing other than  
pure distilled  water4 ,within a few    
minutes the silver1 aided by a reactory1
 added  prior to pouring1 begins to     
precipitate upon the glass2 the liquids 
remaining above1 and thus preventing air
 and impurities from coming  into       
contact with the silver4 ,such contact  
would produce oxidation4  ,after the    
silver is precipitated the plate is     
thoroughly dried1  shellacked and       
painted2 after which it is ready for    
commercial use4    ,until about #be     
years ago1 practically all mirrors were 
silvered with  mercury4 ,there have been

 two reasons for discouraging the use of
  mercury for silvering2 one being its  
injuriousness to the health of  the     
workmen4 ,in some ,european countries   
stringent laws were enacted1            
stipulating that men should work only a 
certain number of hours4    ,other      
hygienic stipulations1 added to the fact
 that the use of mercury  was already   
very expensive1 have tended to replace  
that process by the  use of nitrate of  
silver4          ,why ,is the ,sky      
,blue8      ,this question puzzled every
 one who thought of it for a long time4 
,even astronomers1 the men who make a   
business of studying the skies1  and    
other learned men1 puzzled their brains 
about it and searched for  the answer   
long ago1 until finally1 as always      
happens when a lot of  people study a   
subject1 ,professor ,john ,tyndall1 a   
noted scientist of  the last century1   
discovered the answer4 ,the explanation 
follows3 ,all  the light we have is     
sunlight1 which is pure white light4    

,this white  light is made up of rays of
 light of different colors4 ,these rays 
are  red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1  
indigo and violet4 ,it takes all of     
these different rays of light to make   
our white sunlight1 and when  you       
separate sunlight into its original rays
 you always produce the  rays of light  
in the above colors and in the same     
order4 ,this is only  true1 however1    
when the sunlight is passed through an  
object which does  not absorb any of its
 rays4 ,this is the arrangement of the  
different  colors of light found in the 
rainbow4 ,the rainbow is formed by      
sunlight  passing into raindrops or     
vapor in such a way as to divide the    
sunlight  into the different colored    
rays of light4 ,when the rainbow is     
formed  none of the rays are absorbed by
 raindrops or vapor through which the   
sunlight passes4 ,some of these rays of 
light are known as short rays  and      
others as long rays4 ,but when sunlight 
meets other things besides  those which 

make a pure rainbow1 these other objects
 have the ability  to absorb some of the
 rays of colored light1 and they throw  
off the  remainder4 ,when these rays    
have been thrown off those which have   
been  absorbed make many different      
combinations1 and thus are produced all 
of  the different colors we know1 the   
various tints and shades of color1      
according to composition and size4      
,now1 then1 to get back to the color of 
the sky1 which is blue as we  know4 ,the
 sky or air which surrounds the earth is
 filled with countless  tiny specks of  
what we may call dust--particles of     
solid things hanging  or floating in the
 air4 ,these specks are of just the size
 and quality  that they catch and absorb
 part of the rays of light which form   
our  sunlight and throw off the rest of 
the rays1 and the part which has  been  
absorbed forms the combination of color 
which makes our sky so  beautifully     
blue4 ,sometimes you notice1 of course1 
that the sky is a  lighter or darker    

blue than at other times4 ,this         
difference is due  to the kind and      
condition of tiny specks in the air at  
the time1 and  to the direction or angle
 at which the sunlight strikes these    
tiny  particles4 ,this fact brings up a 
question which you have not asked1 but  
which would come naturally as the result
 of your first4          ,what ,makes   
the ,colors of the ,sunset8      ,the   
direction of the sun's rays when they   
meet these large and small  particles in
 the air has a great deal to do with the
 combination of  colors that result as  
these objects absorb part of the rays   
and throw  off others4 ,the sky is the  
most beautiful blue when the sun is high
 in  the sky4 ,but when the sun is      
setting the light has a greater distance
  to travel through the belt of air     
which surrounds the earth than  when it 
is high up over our heads4 ,you know    
that if you stick a pin  straight down  
into an orange it won't go in very far  
before it is clear  through the peel1   

but if you stick the pin into an orange 
along the  edge it will go through a    
great deal more of the peel than the    
other  way4 ,that is the way it is with 
the sunset colors4 ,the peel of the     
orange is a good representation of the  
belt of air which surrounds the  earth4 
,at sunset the light instead of coming  
straight down through the  belt of air1 
thus meeting the eye through the        
shortest possible amount  of air1       
strikes the air on a slant1 and1        
therefore1 travels through  a great deal
 more air and closer to the earth to    
reach it1 with the  results that it     
meets a great many more of these little 
specks1 besides  all the smoke and other
 things that hang in the air near the   
ground1  and we thus get many more      
colors1 because some of the things in   
the air  absorb some of the rays and    
others absorb very different rays when  
the  light comes in this slanting way1  
and that is what makes the different    
colors in the sunset4 ,for this reason  

sunsets are often richer and more       
beautiful in color when the air is not  
so pure1 but has much dirt and  other   
matter floating about in it4            
,are ,there ,two ,sides to the ,rainbow8
      ,no1 there is only one side to the
 rainbow4 ,the rainbow is made by       
reflection of the rays of sunlight      
through drops of water in the air1  but 
you can never see a rainbow unless you  
are between it and the sun4  ,you could 
never see a rainbow if you were looking 
at the sun1 and so  if you are looking  
at a rainbow you can be certain that    
anyone on  the other side of it could   
not see it1 because they would have to  
be  looking right at the sun4 ,the      
rainbow is always opposite to the sun   
and  there can never be two sides to it4
          ,do the ,ends of the ,rainbow 
,rest on ,land8      ,the ends of the   
rainbow do not rest on anything4 ,you   
see1 the rainbow  is only the reflection
 of the sun's rays thrown back to us by 
the  inside of the back of the          

raindrops1 which are still in the sky   
after  the rain4 ,of course1 if any of  
the drops of water touched the ground   
they would cease to be raindrops and1   
therefore1 could not reflect the  rays  
of the sunlight4 ,so1 what we think of  
as the ends of the rainbow  do not      
really exist at all4 ,the rainbow is    
only a reflection of the  rays of       
sunlight from countless drops of water  
in the air1 which the  sun's rays must  
strike at a certain angle in order to   
reflect back the  light so we can see   
it4 ,where the sun's rays do not strike 
the drops of  water at the right angle  
no light is reflected1 and there is the 
end of  the rainbow4          ,what     
,causes the ,different ,colors of the   
,rainbow8      ,the colors of the       
rainbow1 which are always the same1 and 
are shown in  this order--red1 orange1  
yellow1 green1 blue and violet--are     
sunlight  broken up into its original   
colors4 ,it takes all of these colors in
 the  proportions in which they are     

mixed in the rainbow to make the pure   
sunlight4 ,these are known as the       
prismatic colors4 ,as shown in another  
answer to one of your puzzling          
questions1 the rainbow is caused by the 
rays of the sun passing into drops of   
water in the air and reflected  back to 
us with one part of the drop of water   
acting on it in such a  way as to break 
up the pure sunlight into these         
prismatic colors4 ,when  a rainbow      
appears at a time when there is a great 
deal of sunlight1 you  will generally   
see two rainbows4 ,the inner rainbow is 
formed by the  rays of the sun that     
enter the upper part of the falling     
raindrops1 and  the outer rainbow is    
formed by the rays that enter the under 
part of  the raindrops4 ,in the inner or
 primary bow1 as it is called1 the      
colors  beginning at the outside ring of
 color are red1 orange1 yellow1 green1  
blue and violet1 and being exactly      
reversed in the outer or secondary  bow4
 ,the secondary bow is also fainter4    

,you may sometimes see smaller          
rainbows1 even if it has not been       
raining1 when looking at a fountain  or 
waterfall4 ,these are caused in exactly 
the same way4          ,what ,makes the 
,hills ,look ,blue ,sometimes8          
,this is due to the fact that when the  
hills look blue you are looking  at them
 at a distance1 and there is a long     
stretch of air between you  and the     
hills4 ,this air is filled with         
countless particles of dust  and other  
things1 and what you see is not really  
blue hills1 but the  reflection of the  
sun's rays from the little particles in 
the air  striking your eye4 ,the color  
is due to the angle at which the light  
from the sun strikes these particles1   
and is reflected back to your eye  and  
partially due to the character of the   
particles in the air4          ,do the  
,stars ,really ,shoot ,down8      ,the  
answer is 8,no40 ,we have come to use   
the expression 8shooting stars0         
commonly1 but we should probably be more

 correct if we said 8shooting  rocks10  
for the things we refer to commonly as  
8shooting stars0 are  more like rocks   
than anything else4 ,if any of the real 
stars were to  fall into the air        
surrounding the earth we should all be  
burned up by  the great heat developed  
long before it actually hit the earth1  
which  it would undoubtedly destroy4    
,the things that fall and leave a streak
 of light are really only  pebbles1     
stones1 rocks or pieces of iron and     
other substances that fall  from some   
place into the earth's air belt4 ,when  
they strike the air  at the speed at    
which they are falling the friction of  
the air makes  a heat that causes them  
to become luminous1 and by far the      
greater  part of them is burned up      
before they get very near the earth4 ,we
 call  them meteorites4 ,sometimes1     
though rarely1 one will manage to strike
  the earth1 coming at such great speed 
and being so large that the air  has not
 been able to burn it up completely1 and

 it will strike the  earth and sink deep
 down into the soil4 ,in most museums   
can be seen  such meteorites that have  
been dug up after striking the earth4   
,these  are constantly falling into the 
air surrounding the earth1 but in the   
day-time their light is not strong      
enough to be seen while the sun is      
shining4          ,will the ,sky ,ever  
,fall ,down8      ,no1 the sky can never
 fall down1 because it is not made of   
the kind of  things that fall4 ,we have 
become used to thinking of it as the    
roof  of the earth1 a great dome-shaped 
roof1 because in our little way of      
looking at things we compared the earth 
and what is above it with the  houses in
 which we live4 ,the sky is just space  
in which the heavenly  bodies revolve in
 their orbits4 ,we cannot really ever   
see sky4 ,we see  only the sun's light  
reflected by the air belt which         
surrounds the  earth4 ,in this air belt 
are the clouds which do come closer to  
the  land at times than at others1 and  

this is apt to aid in giving us an      
incorrect impression of this4           
,what ,is the ,milky ,way8      ,the    
8,galaxy10 or 8,milky ,way10 as it is   
popularly called1 is a luminous  circle 
extending completely around the heavens4
 ,it is produced by  myriads of stars1  
as can be seen when you look at it      
through a  telescope4 ,it divides into  
two great branches at one point1 which  
travel for some distance separately and 
then reunite4 ,it has also  several     
branches4 ,at one point it spreads out  
very widely into a  fanlike shape4      
,why ,do ,they ,call ,it the ,milky     
,way8      ,the stars in the group are  
so numerous that they present to the    
naked  eye a whiteness like a stream of 
milk4 ,to produce this effect there are 
not hundreds of stars1 nor thousands of 
them1 but actually millions of  them4   
,when you stop to think that each one of
 these stars in the ,milky ,way  is a   
sun like our own--some of them smaller1 
of course1 but many of  them much       

larger--you begin to realize how        
impossible it is for man to  form any   
real idea of the magnitude and wonders  
of the earth4 ,here in  the ,milky ,way 
are so many suns like our own sun that  
they together as  we look at them form  
the particles of a path which makes the 
circle of  the heavens1 and yet are so  
far away that to the naked eye each of  
them  looks to us like only one of      
countless drops of milk in a very large 
stream of milk that goes around the     
whole sky4          ,why ,don't the     
,stars ,shine in the ,day-time8         
,the stars do shine in the day-time4 ,if
 you will go down into a deep  well or  
the open shaft of a deep mine and look  
up at the sky1 of which  you can see a  
circular patch at the top of the well1  
you will be able  to see the stars in   
the day-time4 ,the moon also shines in  
the day-time1  on some part of the      
earth4 ,at certain times during the     
month you can  notice that the moon     
rises before the sun sets1 and sometimes

 in the  morning you can still see the  
moon in the sky after the sun is up4    
,usually you cannot see either the moon 
or the stars in the day-time1  because  
the light from the sun is so bright and 
strong that the light  of the stars and 
moon are lost in the brightness of the  
sun's rays4  ,when the moon is visible  
before the sun sets or after the sun has
 risen  it is because the light of the  
sun is not so bright and strong at the  
beginning or close of daylight4 ,if you 
are fortunate enough some time  to      
witness a total eclipse of the sun you  
will be able to see the stars  in       
day-time without having to go down into 
a deep well or mine shaft4          ,how
 ,far ,does ,space ,reach8      ,space  
surrounds all earths1 planets1 suns1 and
 extends for an infinite  distance      
beyond each of them in all directions4  
,it is impossible to  measure in terms  
of human knowledge how far space        
extends4 ,it is one  of the things      
beyond the comprehension of the human   

mind1 and for that  reason man can never
 know in miles or the number of millions
 of miles  how far it extends4 ,man has 
been able to measure the distance from  
the earth of some of the stars1 and some
 of the nearest of them are  millions of
 miles from the earth4 ,most of them are
 hundreds and even  thousands of million
 miles away1 and when we stop to think  
that space  extends at least as far on  
the other sides of the stars as it does 
on  this side1 and even beyond that1 we 
can readily understand that it is  not  
only impossible to measure space1 but   
also impossible to give in  words any   
conception of what its limits might be4 
,there is one word--infinite--which we  
are forced to use in speaking of  the   
extent of space4 ,infinite means        
8without end10 unbounded1 and so  man   
has come to use the word 8infinite0 in  
describing the extent of  space1 and    
that is as near as any one can describe 
it4          ,what ,does ,horse ,power  
,mean8      ,the term 8horse power0 is  

used in describing the amount of power  
produced by an engine or motor4 ,when   
man made the first engines he  needed   
some term to use in describing the      
amount of power his engine  could       
develop4 ,up to that time man had used  
the horse for turning the  wheels of his
 machinery and the horse to him         
naturally represented the  most powerful
 animal working for man4 ,when engines  
came into use they  replaced the horses 
because they were capable of developing 
many times  the power of the horse4 ,in 
finding an expression which would       
accurately  convey to the mind of       
another the power of a particular       
engine1 it  was natural to say that this
 engine would do the work of five1 ten  
or  more horses1 and as this described  
it accurately and in a way that was     
entirely clear1 it became customary to  
describe the power of an engine  as so  
many times the power of one horse4      
,to-day we still cling to the term      
8horse power0 in describing the         

strength of the engine1 although the    
horse-power unit used to-day is  greater
 than the power of an average horse4 ,to
 speak of an engine of  one horse power 
to-day means an engine that has the     
power to lift  #cj1jjj pounds one foot  
in one minute4    ,illustration3 ,,where
 ,,our ,,coal ,,comes ,,from    ,a      
,,coal ,,breaker4    ,coal is brought in
 mine cars from several mine shafts and 
slopes1  dumped onto a conveyor that    
runs on the inclined framework shown at 
the right of the picture4 ,at the top it
 is broken in rolls1 sorted and  sized  
as it slides through the different      
screens1 pickers1 etc41 and is  finally 
delivered into railroad cars4           
,the ,story in a ,lump of ,coal         
,how ,did the ,coal ,get ,into the ,coal
 ,mines8    ,the heavy black mineral    
called coal1 which we burn in our stoves
  and furnaces1 and use to heat the     
boilers of our engines was formed  from 
trees and plants of various sorts4 ,most
 of the coal was formed  thousands of   

years ago at a time when the atmosphere 
that envelopes the  earth contained a   
much larger proportion of carbonic acid 
gas than it  does now1 and the climate  
of all regions of the earth was much    
warmer  than it now is4 ,this period was
 known as the carboniferous age1 that   
is1 the coal-making age1 and its        
atmospheric conditions1 favored the     
growth of plants1 so that the earth was 
covered with great forests1  of trees1  
giant ferns1 and other plants1 many of  
which are no longer  found on the earth4
 ,in the warm1 moist1 and carbon-laden  
atmosphere of  that period the growth of
 all kinds of plants was rapid and      
luxuriant1  and as fast as old trees    
fell and partially decayed1 others grew 
up in  their places4 ,in this way1 thick
 layers of vegetable matter were formed 
over the soil in which the plants grew4 
,in many places1 where these  beds were 
formed1 the surface of the earth became 
depressed and the  water of the sea     
flowed over the beds of vegetable       

matter4    ,sediment of various kinds   
was deposited over the vegetable matter1
 and  in the course of centuries the    
sediment was transformed into rock4     
,after the formation of the covering of 
sediment1 the decay of the  vegetable   
matter was checked1 but a slow change of
 another kind was  brought about by the 
pressure of the sedimentary deposits and
 the heat  to which the plant remains   
were subjected4 ,the hydrogen and oxygen
  which constituted the greater part of 
the plant substance was driven  off and 
the carbon left behind4 ,this change    
took place very gradually1  through     
periods so long that we can only guess  
at their duration1 but  we know that    
many beds of coal were formed from      
layers of vegetable  matter that were   
covered up many thousand years ago4     
,illustration3 ,,mine ,,workers ,,that  
,,never ,,see ,,daylight    ,underground
 stable constructed of concrete and     
iron1 with natural rock  roof to avoid  
danger of fire4 ,mules are only taken to

 surface when  mines are idle4    ,the  
coal first formed and submitted longest 
to pressure is known as  hard coal1 or  
anthracite4 ,it is pure black1 or has a 
bluish metallic  luster4 ,its specific  
gravity is #a4df2 which is about the    
same as that  of hard wood4 ,anthracite 
contains from #ij to #id per cent4 of   
carbon1  the remainder being composed of
 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and ash4             
,illustration3 ,the ,mules and their    
drivers4--,an important part of the     
haulage system4 ,mules are kept in      
stables on surface at this mine and     
driven in every day through slope or    
drift4    ,hard coal may be called the  
ideal fuel and is especially adapted to 
domestic heating purposes4 ,it burns    
without smoke and produces great  heat4 
,there is no soot deposit upon the walls
 of chimneys1 and in good  stoves or    
furnaces the small amount of gas given  
off by it is consumed4  ,anthracite is  
the least abundant of all the varieties 
of coal and is  much more costly than   

the other varieties4 ,for this reason it
 is not  much used in manufacturing4    
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,slate      
,,pickers ,,work    ,boy slate pickers4 
,coal slides down the chutes4 ,boys pick
 out the slate  and rock and throw into 
chute alongside4    ,illustration3      
,spiral slate pickers do work of many   
boys4 ,coal and rock  start together at 
the top in the small inner spiral4 ,the 
coal being  lighter slides faster1 and  
in going around is carried over the edge
  into the outer spiral1 while the rock 
continues in the bottom4    ,the coal   
formed later is very different in       
composition and is called  bituminous or
 soft coal4 ,its name is derived from   
the fact that it  contains a soft       
substance called bitumen1 which oozes   
out of the coal  when heat is applied to
 it4 ,soft coal contains from #ge to #he
 per cent4  of carbon1 some traces of   
sulphur1 and a larger percentage of     
oxygen  and hydrogen than anthracite4   
,when soft coal is heated in a closed   

vessel or retort1 the hydrogen and      
oxygen1 in combination with some        
carbon1 are driven off4                 
,illustration3 ,,how ,a ,,coal ,,mine   
,,looks ,,inside    ,shaft gate4 ,one of
 the two cages in the shaft has just    
brought the men  to the surface2 the    
other is at the bottom4 ,safety gate    
resting on top  of cage covers top of   
shaft when cage is down1 as shown at    
right4    ,illustration3 ,section       
showing ,anthracite ,seams4 ,coal is    
shown black2  rock and dirt lighter2    
shaft tunnels and workings1 white4      
,upper part of  8,mammoth0 seam is      
stripped and quarried4    ,illustration3
 ,lignite mine in ,texas4 ,loaded mine  
cars ready to go to  surface4           
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,miners     
,,loosen ,,the ,,coal    ,undercutting  
with pick4 ,the man lying on his side   
cuts under the coal4  ,a light charge of
 powder exploded in a drill hole near   
the roof breaks  the coal down in large 
pieces4    ,soft coal is black1 and upon

 smooth surfaces it is glossy4 ,it lacks
 the  bluish luster sometimes seen in   
hard coal and is much softer and more   
easily broken4 ,when handled it blackens
 the hands more than hard coal  does4   
,in this kind of coal are frequently    
seen the outlines of leaves  and stems  
of plants that enter into its formation4
 ,occasionally1 trunks  of trees with   
roots extending down into the clay below
 the bed of coal  have been found4      
,illustration3 ,undercutting in seam4 ,a
 compressed air driven machine          
undercuts deeper and faster than the man
 with a pick4    ,soft coal has a       
specific gravity of #a4bg4 ,it burns    
with a yellow flame  which is larger    
than the flame from hard coal1 but it   
does not emit so  high a degree of heat4
 ,combustion1 generally imperfect1 gives
 rise to  offensive gases and to black  
smoke that concentrates in the air and  
falls to the ground as soot1 which      
blackens buildings1 and1 in winter1     
noticeably discolors the snow4    ,the  

formation of lignite has been observed  
in the timbers of some  old mines in    
,europe4 ,in some of these mines wooden 
pillars have been  supporting the rocks 
above for four hundred years or longer1 
and in  that time the pressure of the   
rocks and other influences acting upon  
the wood of the pillars have caused it  
to become transformed into a  brown     
substance resembling lignite4 ,this fact
 tends to confirm the  theory of coal   
formation stated at the beginning of    
this article4 ,the  proportion of carbon
 in lignite is never above #gj per      
cent41 and the  ash indicates the       
presence of considerable earthy matter4 
,it is chiefly  used in those forms of  
manufacture where a hot fire is not     
required4 ,in  ,europe it is used1 to   
some extent1 in heating the houses of   
the poorer  classes4    ,peat is        
regarded as the latest of the coal      
formations4 ,in it1 the  change in the  
vegetable matter has not extended beyond
 merely covering  it1 and subjecting it 

to slight pressure4    ,peat is formed  
in marshy soils where there is a        
considerable growth  of plants that are 
constantly undergoing partial decay and 
becoming  covered by water4 ,it consists
 of the roots and stems of the plants   
matted together and mingled with some   
earthy material4 ,when freshly  dug out 
of the bog or marsh in which it was     
formed there is always a  quantity of   
water in it1 the amount being greatest  
in the peat found  nearest the surface  
and least in that at the bottom of the  
bed1 where  the peat is not very        
different in appearance from lignite4   
,peat is used for fuel where wood is    
scarce and coal is high in price4       
,recent experiments in saturating peat  
with petroleum1 have shown that  in this
 way a form of fuel may be produced for 
which considerable value  is claimed4   
,its manufacture is confined to         
,southern ,russia1 where peat  is       
plentiful and petroleum is cheap4       
,why ,does ,firedamp ,explode in a      

,safety ,lamp ,without ,producing an    
,explosion of the ,gas ,with ,which the 
,lamp ,is ,surrounded8    ,the passing  
of the flame from the lamp to the       
outside air is prevented  by the gauze4 
,this splits the burning gas into little
 streamlets 7#ghd  to each square inch  
of gauze71 which are cooled below the   
point of  ignition1 that is1 are        
extinguished by coming in contact with  
the metal  of the gauze1 so that the    
flame does not pass outside the lamp4   
,in some  cases the explosion may be so 
great as to force the flame through the 
gauze and thus ignite the gas outside4  
,are ,there ,any ,conditions ,under     
,which it ,would ,not ,be ,safe to ,use 
a  ,safety ,lamp8    ,,the ,,dangers    
,,to ,,the ,,miners    ,the underground 
conditions affecting the safety of the  
lamp are  exposure in air-currents of   
high velocity by reason of which the    
flame  may be blown through or against  
the gauze1 or exposure for too great  a 
time to mixtures of air and gas which   

will burn within the lamp and  thus heat
 the gauze4 ,the dangerous velocity of  
air-currents begins at  about #ejj feet 
a minute1 but varies with the type of   
lamp1 some being  much less sensitive to
 air-currents of high velocity than     
others4 ,other  conditions under which  
the lamp is not safe concern the lamp   
itself or  the one using it4 ,the lamp  
is dangerous in the hands of            
inexperienced  persons or when the gauze
 is dirty or broken4 ,if the gauze is   
dirty1  that portion absorbs the heat   
and may become hot enough to ignite the 
outside gas2 naturally any holes in the 
gauze will pass the flame4    ,the      
safety lamp when left too long in air   
containing much explosive gas  may cause
 an explosion1 and it is extinguished by
 certain unbreathable  gases4 ,the      
electric lamp burns safely regardless of
 the atmosphere1  but gives no warning  
of poisonous or explosive gases4 ,it is 
often used  by rescue men wearing oxygen
 helmets to enter mines full of         

poisonous  gases after explosions4      
,illustration3 ,,the ,,lamp ,,which     
,,saves ,,many ,,lives    ,the safety   
lamp4 ,the sheet iron bonnet or covering
 of the upper part  protects the gauze  
within from strong currents of air1     
while the glass  permits the light to be
 diffused4 ,the above is a modern lamp  
similar to  a bonnetted ,clanny lamp4   
,the safety lamp is dangerous when there
 is a hole in the gauze that  will      
permit the passage of flame to the      
outside1 or when the gauze  is dirty1 so
 that any particular spot may be        
overheated1 or when the  velocity of the
 air is so great that the flame is blown
 through the  gauze1 or 7generally7 when
 in the hands of an inexperienced       
person4 ,the  unbonneted ,davy lamp is  
not safe where the velocity of the air  
exceeds  #cfj feet per minute4 ,the     
velocity with which the air strikes a   
lamp  carried against it is increased by
 the amount equal to the rate at  which 
the fireboss travels4 ,if he walks at   

the rate of1 say1 #d miles an  hour or  
#ceb feet a minute 7on the gangways he  
will usually have to move  faster than  
this to make his rounds on time7 he will
 create by his own  motion 7and in still
 air7 a velocity practically the same as
 that at  which the unbonneted ,davy is 
considered unsafe4    ,illustration3    
,open oil lamp commonly worn on hat4    
,wick is inverted in  spout4            
,illustration3 ,acetylene or carbide    
lamp for cap or hand4      ,history of  
the ,safety ,lamp4    ,the safety lamp1 
the miner's faithful and indispensable  
companion at  his dangerous work1 has   
been1 heretofore1 considered as the     
invention  of the famous ,english       
scientist1 ,humphrey ,davy1 though the  
name of  ,george ,stephenson1 of        
locomotive fame1 has also been mentioned
 in  this connection4 ,both came out    
with their inventions about the same    
time1 but neither of them is the real   
inventor of the safety lamp2 for  there 
was1 as proven by ,wilhelm ,nieman1 a   

safety lamp in existence two  years     
before ,davy's invention became known4  
,it was not inferior to the  latter1 but
 rather surpassed it in illuminating    
power4 ,previous to  this1 all the      
precaution employed for the prevention  
of the threatening  dangers of firedamp 
had been quite incomplete4 ,one tried to
 thoroughly  ventilate the mines by     
fastening a burning torch to a large    
pole1 which  was pushed ahead and       
exploded the gases4 ,this was extremely 
dangerous  work which1 in the ,middle   
,ages1 was generally done by a criminal1
  in order that he might atone for his  
crimes1 or by a penitent for  the       
benefit of mankind4 ,the attempt to     
substitute for the open light           
phosphorescent substances1 encased in   
glass1 was not much of a success4  ,an  
improvement was the so-called steel     
mill1 invented about #agej by  ,carlyle 
,spedding1 manager of a mine4 ,this     
steel mill consisted of a  steel wheel  
which was put into rapid motion by means

 of a crank4 ,by  pressing a firestone  
against the fast revolving wheel1 an    
incessant  shower of sparks was produced
 giving a fairly good and absolutely    
safe  illumination4 ,however1 the       
running expenses of his apparatus1 which
  necessitated the continual services of
 one man1 were very high2 for  instance1
 the expenditure for light in a coal    
mine near ,newcastle in  the year #ahaf 
amounted to about #bjj per week4        
,nevertheless1 the steel  mill was very 
much appreciated and in use for a long  
time1 only to be  slowly supplanted by  
the safety lamp4    ,illustration3      
,,electric ,,cap ,,lamp ,,and ,,battery4
    ,the safety lamp when left too long 
in air containing much explosive gas    
may cause an explosion1 and it is       
extinguished by certain unbreathable    
gases4 ,the electric lamp burns safely  
regardless of the atmosphere1  but gives
 no warning of poisonous or explosive   
gases4 ,it is often used  by rescue men 
wearing oxygen helmets to enter mines   

full of poisonous  gases after          
explosions4    ,,the ,,man ,,who        
,,invented ,,the ,,safety ,,lamp    ,at 
the beginning of the nineteenth century 
the existing coal mines  were worked to 
the limit and the catastrophies1 caused 
by firedamp1  increased in an alarming  
manner4 ,in fact the distress was so    
great that  in #ahab a society for the  
prevention of mine disasters was formed 
at  ,sutherland1 and the origin of the  
safety lamp can be traced back to  the  
efforts and labors of this organization4
 ,dr4 ,william ,reid ,clanny1  a retired
 ship's surgeon1 was probably the first 
to undertake the task  7in the year     
#ahjh71 which he successfully finished  
with energy and  skill4 ,he concentrated
 his efforts at first on the separation 
of the  flames from the surrounding     
atmosphere1 but he did not succeed till 
the  latter part of #ahab1 when he      
constructed a lamp that seemed to meet  
all requirements4 ,the report of this   
invention was submitted to the  ,royal  

,society of ,london1 ,may #bj1 #ahac1   
and was printed in the minutes  of that 
academy4 ,the casing of this original   
safety lamp was closed  at the top and  
bottom by two open water tanks2 the air 
was pumped in  by means of bellows and1 
passing in and out1 had to go through   
both  these reservoirs which acted as   
valves1 so to speak4 ,the lamp proved to
  be absolutely safe and was            
successfully introduced by the          
management  of ,herrington ,mill pit    
mine4 ,the clumsy parts of this         
apparatus were  eliminated by its       
inventor by various improvements4 ,the  
so-called steam  safety lamp was        
completed in ,december1 #ahae1 and      
installed in several  mines4 ,in the    
meanwhile1 two competitors made their   
appearance4 ,george  ,stephenson had    
finished his lamp ,october #ba1 #ahae1  
and ,davy published  his first          
experiments ,november #i1 #ahae1 in the 
,transactions of the  ,royal ,society of
 ,london4 ,clanny's lamp1 nevertheless1 

stood the test in  the face of this     
competition1 through its much superior  
illuminating  power1 and more           
particularly as it still continued to   
burn when the  ,davy and ,stephenson    
lamps had gone out4 ,to ,clanny1        
therefore1 belongs  the distinction1 in 
the history of invention1 of having     
constructed the  first reliable safety  
lamp4          ,what ,is a ,metal8      
,the oldest known metals in the world   
are gold and silver1 copper1 iron1  tin 
and lead4 ,they are to-day still the    
most useful and widely-used  metals4    
,some of the properties by which we     
distinguish metals are the  following3  
,they are solid and not transparent2    
they have luster and  are heavy4        
,mercury is an exception to the rule2 it
 is a liquid1 though  yet a metal1 and  
there is another1 sodium1 which is      
solid1 though very  light4              
,what ,is the ,most ,valuable ,metal8   
,if you were guessing you would         
naturally say that gold is1 of course1  

the most valuable of the metals4 ,but   
you would be wrong4 ,the proper  answer 
to this is iron4 ,we do not mean the    
pound for pound value1 for  you could   
get much more for a pound of gold than  
for a pound of iron4  ,we mean in useful
 value--iron is in that sense the most  
valuable metal  known to man4 ,this is  
true because iron is of such great      
service to man  in so many ways1 and it 
is very fortunate that there is such a  
great  amount of it available for man's 
purposes4 ,iron is not generally found  
in a pure state in the mines4 ,it is    
generally found compounded with  carbon 
and other substances1 and we obtain pure
 iron by burning these  other substances
 out of the compound4    ,iron is put   
upon the market in three forms1 which   
differ very much in  their properties4  
,first1 there is cast-iron4 ,iron in    
this form is hard1  easily fusible and  
quite brittle1 as you will know if you  
ever broke a  lid on the kitchen range4 
,in the form of cast-iron it cannot be  

forged  or welded4    ,next comes       
wrought-iron1 which is quite soft1 can  
be hammered out flat  or drawn out in   
the form of a wire and can be welded1   
but fusible only  at a high temperature4
 ,third comes steel1 the most wonderful 
thing we  produce with iron4 ,it is also
 malleable1 which means that it is      
capable  of being hammered out flat and 
can easily be welded1 and this is the   
great property of steel--it acquires    
when tempered a very high degree  of    
hardness1 so that a sharp edge can be   
put on it1 and when in that  shape it   
will easily cut wrought-iron4           
,ordinarily we make wrought-iron  and   
steel from iron that has been changed   
from its original state to  cast-iron4  
,the term cast-iron is generally given  
to iron which has been melted and  cast 
in any form desired for use4 ,stoves are
 made in this way4 ,the iron  is melted 
and then poured into a mold2 while the  
product out of which  wrought-iron and  
steel are made is technically cast-iron1

 the term  pig-iron is used in speaking 
of iron which is cast for this purpose4 
,the process by which pig-iron is       
changed into wrought-iron is called     
puddling4 ,the object of puddling1 which
 is done in what is called a            
reverberatory furnace 7which is a       
furnace that reflects or drives back    
the flame or heat7 is to remove the     
carbon which is in the pig-iron4  ,this 
is done partly by the action of the     
oxygen of the air at high  temperature  
and partly by the action of the cinder  
formed by the  burning furnace4 ,when   
this has been done the iron is made into
 balls of  a size convenient for        
handling4 ,these are 8shingled0 by      
squeezing or  hammering and passed      
between rolls by which the iron is made 
to assume  any desired form4    ,now we 
come to steel1 the most wonderful       
product or form in which we  take       
advantage of the value of iron4 ,steel  
was formerly made from  wrought-iron1 so
 that you first had to get cast-iron1   

from which  you made wrought-iron1 and  
eventually got steel by changing the    
wrought-iron4 ,now we make steel direct 
from pig-iron4 ,this is known as  the   
,bessemer process4    ,the most         
noticeable feature in the chemical      
composition of the  different grades of 
iron and steel is found in the          
percentages of  carbon they contain4    
,pig-iron contains the most carbon2     
steel the next  lowest1 and wrought-iron
 the least4    ,iron has been known to  
men from early historical times4 ,the   
smelting  of iron ores is not any       
indication of advanced civilization     
either4  ,savage tribes in many parts of
 the world practiced the art of         
smelting1  even before they could have  
learned it from people who had become   
civilized4          ,why ,is ,gold      
,called ,precious8      ,gold is called 
one of the precious metals because of   
its beautiful  color1 its luster1 and   
the fact that it does not rust or       
tarnish when  exposed to the air4 ,it is

 the most ductile 7can be stretched out 
into  the thinnest wire71 and is also   
the most malleable 7can be hammered  out
 into the thinnest sheet74 ,it can be   
hammered into leaves so thin  that light
 will pass through them4 ,pure gold is  
so soft that it cannot  be used in that 
form in making gold coins or in making  
jewelry4 ,other  substances1 generally  
copper1 are added to it to make the gold
 coins  and jewelry hard4 ,sometimes    
silver is also added to the gold with   
copper4 ,the gold coins of the ,united  
,states are made of nine parts of  gold 
to one of copper4 ,the coins of ,france 
are the same1 while the  coins of       
,england are made of eleven parts of    
gold to one of copper4  ,the gold used  
for jewels and watch-cases varies from  
eight or nine to  eighteen carats fine4 
,another reason why gold is called a    
precious metal is that it is very       
difficult to dissolve it4 ,none of the  
acids alone will dissolve gold1  and    
only two of them when mixed together    

will do so4 ,these are nitric  acid and 
hydrochloric acid4 ,when these two acids
 are mixed and gold put  into the       
mixture the gold will disappear4        
,what ,do ,we ,mean ,by #ah-;,carat     
,fine8      ,we often hear people in    
speaking of their watches say1 8,it is  
an  #ah-;carat case40 ,others speak of  
#ad-;carat watches or #bb-;carat or     
solid-gold rings4    ,when you see the  
marks on a watch-case or the inside of a
 gold ring  they read #ah ,k or #ad ,k1 
or whatever number of carats the maker  
wishes  to indicate4 ,a piece of gold   
jewelry marked #ah ,k or #ah carats     
means  that it is three-fourths pure    
gold4 ,in arranging this basis of       
marking  things made of gold1 absolutely
 pure gold is called #bd carats4 ,then  
if  two1 six or ten twenty-fourths of   
alloy has been added1 the amount of  the
 alloy is deducted from twenty-four1 and
 the result is either #bb1 #ah  or #ad  
carats fine1 and so on4 ,on ordinary    
articles made by jewelers the  amount of

 pure gold used is seldom over #ah      
carats1 or three-fourths4  ,weddings    
rings 7and these are considered solid   
gold7 are generally made  #bb carats    
fine1 that is1 there are only two       
twenty-fourth parts of  alloy in them4  
,why ,does ,silver ,tarnish8            
,silver is a remarkably white metal1    
which is associated with gold as  one of
 the precious metals4 ,it is harder than
 gold and will not rust1  although it   
will tarnish1 which gold will not1 when 
exposed to certain  kinds of air4       
,the silver tarnishes when it is exposed
 to any kind of air that has  sulphur   
mixed in it4 ,it ranks below gold as a  
precious metal for use in  making       
ornaments and is not so costly1 because 
there is a great deal  more of it to be 
found in the world4    ,while silver is 
somewhat harder than gold1 it is still  
not sufficiently  hard to use pure for  
making coins1 so1 as in the case of the 
gold  coins1 it is mixed with something 
else--copper--to harden it4 ,otherwise  

our dimes and quarters would wear out   
too rapidly4 ,our silver coins are  made
 of nine parts of silver to one of      
copper4 ,the coins of ,france are  in   
the same proportion1 while the silver   
coins of ,england are made of  #ib parts
 of silver to #g parts of copper4       
,german silver coins are  made of three 
parts of silver and one of copper4      
,why ,do ,we ,use ,copper ,telegraph    
,wires8      ,one of the characteristics
 which distinguishes copper is its      
color--a  peculiar red4 ,it stands next 
to gold and silver in ductility and     
malleability1 and comes next to iron and
 steel in tenacity--which  means the    
ability of its tiny particles to hang on
 to each other4  ,that is why copper    
wire bends instead of breaking when you 
twist  it4 ,but that is not the only    
reason1 although an important part of   
the reason1 why we use copper for       
telegraph wires4 ,copper is an          
extremely good conductor of electricity 
when it is pure4 ,so are gold  and      

silver1 but we cannot afford to buy gold
 and silver wires for the  telegraph1   
telephone and other wires1 and if we    
used such wires the  cost of the        
equipment would be so great that we     
could not afford to  have telephones in 
our homes4 ,but there is a great deal of
 copper in  the world and it is very    
cheap1 and so it makes an ideal element 
for  use in things through which        
electricity is to pass4 ,when you       
compound  it with other substances it   
loses some of its conductivity4 ,copper 
is used extensively in many ways in the 
world4 ,this book is printed1  for      
instance1 from copper electrotype       
plates4 ,the whole business of          
electrotyping is based on the use of    
copper4          ,why ,is ,lead ,so     
,heavy8      ,lead is a white metal and 
is noted for its softness and           
durability4 ,it  has a luster when      
freshly cut1 but becomes dull quite soon
 after the  freshly-cut surface is      
exposed to the air4 ,lead is the softest

 metal in  general use4 ,it can be cut  
with an ordinary knife4 ,it can be      
rolled out  into thin sheets1 but cannot
 be drawn out into wire4    ,lead is a  
very dense metal1 that is1 its particles
 are very compact  and there is no room 
for air to circulate in between these   
particles4  ,a piece of wood is lighter 
than a piece of lead of exactly equal   
bulk1  because the little particles     
which make up the piece of wood are not 
very close together1 and there is a lot 
of air in the ordinary piece of  wood1  
while this is not true of the lead4     
,a great deal of lead is used in making 
pipes for plumbing4 ,this is  because   
lead pipe is comparatively cheap1       
although you might not think  so when   
you think of the general conclusions we 
have been brought to  form about        
plumbers and everything connected with  
them4 ,lead pipe is  easily bent in any 
direction also1 and is particularly good
 for use in  plumbing for that reason4  
,another wide use of lead is in making  

paints--white lead being the base  used 
in making oil paints4 ,the process of   
making white lead for paint  is quite   
interesting and pictures of it are shown
 in 8,the ,story ,in a  ,can of ,paint0 
in another part of 8,the ,book of       
,wonders40          ,why ,are ,cooking  
,utensils ,made of ,tin8      ,tin is   
the least important of the six useful   
metals4 ,it is also  inferior in many   
ways to the others in this group of     
elements1 but is  tougher than lead and 
will make a better wire1 though not a   
really good  one4 ,it has a whiteness   
and a luster that are not tarnished by  
ordinary  temperature and is cheap4     
,that is why it is used in making       
cooking  utensils1 pans1 etc41 and for  
roofs4 ,but the pans1 roofs1 etc41 are  
not  pure tin4 ,they are thin sheets of 
iron coated with tin4 ,pure tin would   
not be strong enough for these purposes1
 so a sheet of iron is first  taken to  
supply the strength and then covered    
with tin to improve the  appearance of  

the tin pans and keep them from rusting 
rapidly4          ,what ,is             
,gravitation8      ,gravitation is the  
result of the attraction which every    
body1 no matter  what its size1 has for 
every other body4 ,it is a strange force
 and  difficult to explain in plain     
words4 ,it is what keeps the heavenly   
bodies in their paths4 ,every one of the
 planets is held in its path  by        
gravitation and every object on each of 
the planets is kept on the  planet by   
gravitation4 ,we can come nearer        
understanding gravitation by  studying  
the effect of the attraction of         
gravitation on our own earth  and the   
objects on it4 ,when you throw a ball or
 a stone into the air  it is the        
attraction of gravitation that causes it
 to come back4 ,if  this were not so the
 stone would go on up and up and would  
keep on  going forever4 ,if it were not 
for this wonderful force you could jump 
into the air and just keep on going up  
with nothing to bring you back4  ,the   

reason you do not pull the earth toward 
you is because the body or  mass with   
the greater bulk has always the greater 
pulling power4    ,this is a wonderful  
force4 ,it cannot be produced nor can it
 be  destroyed or lessened4 ,it just is4
 ,it acts between all pairs of  bodies4 
,if other bodies come between any pair  
of bodies the attraction  of gravity    
between the two outside bodies is       
neither lessened or  increased1 and yet 
each of the outside bodies will have an 
independent  attraction or pull on the  
body which is in between4    ,no        
particle of time is spent by the        
transmission of the force of  gravity   
from one body to another1 no matter how 
far apart they may be4  ,the only effect
 that distance has on the attraction of 
gravitation is  to lessen its force4    
,any body which is being pulled through 
gravity  toward another body would fall 
toward the center of the attracting body
  if all the force of attraction from   
all other bodies were removed4          

,what ,is ,specific ,gravity8           
,specific gravity is the ratio of weight
 of a given bulk of any  substance to   
that of a standard substance4 ,the      
substances taken as  the standard for   
solids and liquids is water1 and air or 
hydrogen for  gases4 ,since the weights 
of different bodies are in proportion to
 their  masses1 it follows that the     
specific gravity of any body is the same
  as its density1 and we now generally  
use the term 8density0 instead of       
specific gravity4    ,to find1 for      
instance1 the specific gravity of a     
given bulk of silver1  we must take an  
equal bulk of water and weigh it4 ,then 
we also weigh  the silver4 ,we find that
 the silver weighs ten and a half times 
as much  as the water1 and so the       
specific gravity of silver is #aj4e4 ,if
 you  will bear in mind that water is   
the standard used for measuring the     
specific gravity of solids and liquids1 
and that air or hydrogen are  used as   
standards for the gases1 you will always

 know what the figures  after the words 
specific gravity mean4          ,why ,do
 ,we ,see ,stars ,when ,hit ,on the     
,eye8      ,we do not really see stars1 
of course1 when we are hit on the eye or
  when we fall in such a way as to bump 
the front of our heads4 ,what we  do    
see1 or think we see1 is light4    ,to  
understand this we must go back to the  
explanation of the five  senses--sight1 
hearing1 feeling1 tasting and touching4 
,now1 each of  these senses has a       
special set of nerves through which the 
sensations  received by each of the     
senses is communicated to the brain and1
 as  a rule1 these special nerves       
receive no sensations excepting those   
which occur in their own particular     
field of usefulness4 ,the eye then  has 
nerves of vision2 the nose1 nerves of   
smell2 the ear1 nerves of  hearing2 the 
mouth1 nerves of taste1 and the entire  
body nerves of  touch4 ,as we have seen 
then1 these special nerves are          
susceptible of  receiving impressions or

 sensations only in their particular    
field4  ,but1 if you should be able to  
rouse the nerves of smell in an entirely
  artificial way and give them a        
sensation1 they might easily act very   
much as though they smelled something4  
,we find this often in the nerves  of   
touch when we think we feel something   
when we do not4    ,now1 when some one  
hits you in the eye1 the nerves of      
vision are  disturbed in such a way as  
to produce upon the brain the sensation 
of  seeing light4 ,in other words1 you  
cannot affect the eye nerves without    
causing the sensation of light1 and that
 is just what happens when some  one    
hits you in the eye4    ,illustration3  
8,,argonaut1 ,,junior40    ,experimental
 ,boat1 #ahid4    ,illustration3        
8,,argonaut ,,the ,,first40    ,built   
#ahif-ahig4          ,the ,story in a   
,submarine ,boat      ,how ,can a ,ship 
,sail ,under ,water8    ,up to a few    
years ago the stories we could tell     
about the ships that  sail beneath the  

water were the creations of the minds of
 writers of  fiction1 like the author of
 8,twenty ,thousand ,leagues ,under the 
,sea10  but to-day we can read of many  
actual trips beneath the water by the   
brave men who man our submarines4 ,we   
never dreamed that the great story  of  
,jules ,verne would be realized in the  
little but very destructive  ships of   
war which can be seen to-day in the     
naval ports of the nations  of the      
world4    ,we might have had these      
submarines long ago but for the fact    
that the  men who were trying to invent 
them would not give up the secrets which
  they had discovered4 ,many men in     
different parts of the world worked on  
this problem and each discovered one or 
more things which were valuable  in     
working out a solution1 and if they had 
all gotten together and  compared notes 
between them they could have produced a 
submarine boat  almost as good as those 
we have to-day4      ,how ,does the     
,submarine ,get ,down ,under the        

,surface8    ,the first essential in a  
vessel to enable it to navigate below   
the  surface of the water is that it be 
made sufficiently strong to  withstand  
the surrounding pressure of water1 which
 increases at the  rate of 4#dc of a    
pound for each foot of submergence4     
,a boat navigating at a depth of #ajj   
feet would therefore have #dc pounds    
pressure per square inch of surface1 or 
#faib pounds for every square  foot of  
surface4 ,it will readily be seen1      
therefore1 that the first  essential is 
great strength4 ,therefore1 the         
submarine boats are usually  built      
circular in cross section with steel    
plating riveted to heavy  framing1 as   
that is the best form to resist external
 pressure4 ,these  boats are built for  
surface navigation as well1 therefore   
they have a  certain amount of buoyancy 
when navigating on the surface1 the same
 as  an ordinary surface vessel4 ,when  
it is desired to submerge the vessel    
this buoyancy must be destroyed1 so that

 the vessel will sink under the         
surface4    ,now1 the submerged         
displacement of a submarine vessel is   
its total  volume1 and1 theoretically1 a
 vessel may be put in equilibrium with  
the  water which it displaces by        
admitting water ballast into            
compartments  contained within the hull 
of the vessel1 therefore1 if a vessel   
whose  total displacement submerged was 
#ajj tons1 the vessel and contents must 
weigh also #ajj tons4 ,if it weighed one
 ounce more than #ajj tons it  would    
sink to the bottom4 ,if it weighed one  
ounce less than #ajj tons it  would     
float on the surface with a buoyancy of 
one ounce4 ,if it weighed  exactly #ajj 
tons it would be in what submarine      
designers specify as  being 8in perfect 
equilibrium40    ,it is possible to give
 a vessel a slight negative buoyancy to 
cause  her to sink to1 say1 a depth of  
#ej feet and then pump out sufficient   
water to give her a perfect equilibrium1
 and thus cause her to remain  at a     

fixed depth while at rest4 ,in practice1
 however1 this is seldom  done4 ,most   
submarine boats navigate under the water
 with a positive  buoyancy of from #bjj 
to #ajjj pounds and are either steered  
at the depth  desired by a horizontal   
rudder placed in the stern of the       
vessel1 or  are held to the depth by    
hydroplanes1 which hydroplanes          
correspond to  the fins of a fish4 ,they
 are flat1 plane surfaces1 extending out
 from  either side of the vessel1 and   
when the vessel has headway1 if the     
forward ends of these planes are        
inclined downward1 the resistance of    
the water acting upon the planes is     
sufficient to overcome the reserve  of  
buoyancy and holds the vessel to the    
desired depth4 ,if the vessel's         
propeller is stopped1 the boat1 having  
positive buoyancy1 will come to  the    
surface4    ,by manipulating either the 
stern rudders or the hydroplanes1 the   
vessel  may be readily caused to either 
come nearer to the surface or go to  a  

greater depth1 as the change of angle   
will give a greater or less  downpull to
 overcome the reserve of buoyancy4      
,the above description applies to       
navigating a vessel when between the    
surface of the water and the bottom4    
,another type of vessel which is used   
for searching the bottom in  locating   
wrecks1 obtaining pearls1 sponges1 or   
shellfish1 is provided  with wheels4 ,in
 this type of vessel the boat is given a
 slight negative  buoyancy1 sufficient  
to keep it on the bottom1 and it is then
 propelled  over the water bed on       
wheels1 the same as an automobile is    
propelled  about the streets4 ,this type
 of vessel is also provided with a      
diver's  compartment1 which is a        
compartment with a door opening outward 
from  the bottom4 ,if the operators in  
the boat wish to inspect the bottom1    
they go into this compartment and turn  
compressed air into the  compartment    
until the air pressure equals the water 
pressure outside  of the boat2 i4 e41 if

 they were submerged at a depth of #ajj 
feet they  would introduce an air       
pressure of #dc pounds per square inch  
into the  diving compartment4 ,the door 
could then be opened and no water could 
come into the compartment1 as the diving
 compartment would be virtually  a      
diving bell4 ,divers can then readily   
leave the boat by putting on a  diving  
suit and stepping out upon the bottom4  
,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,first 
,,practical ,,submarines                
8,,protector40 ,,built #aija-aijb1      
,,bridgeport1 ,,conn4    ,this was the  
pioneer ,submarine ,torpedo ,boat of the
 level-keel type1 and  was built in     
,bridgeport in #aija-aijb4 ,it was      
shipped to ,st4 ,petersburg1  ,russia1  
during the ,russian-,japanese war4 ,from
 ,st4 ,petersburg it was  shipped to    
,vladivostok1 #fjjj miles across        
,siberia1 special cars being  built for 
its transport4    ,illustration3 ,this  
picture illustrates the same vessel1    
also at full  speed under engines1 with 

the conning-tower entirely awash and    
with  the sighting-hood and the         
,omniscope alone above water4           
,notwithstanding  the limited areas     
exposed above the surface1 still        
observation could  be had well-nigh     
continuously either through the         
dead-lights in the  sighting-hood or by 
means of the ,omniscope4    ,in neither 
condition is it necessary to have       
recourse to electrical  propulsion--the 
boats can still be safely and speedily  
driven as here  shown under their       
engines4    ,illustration3 ,,the        
,,inside ,,of ,a ,,submarine    ,,the   
8,g-#a0 ,,recently ,,delivered ,,to     
,,the ,,united ,,states ,,government4   
,the largest1 fastest submarine in the  
,united ,states and the most  powerfully
 armed submarine torpedo boat in the    
world4    ,in addition to the usual     
fixed torpedo tubes arranged in the bow 
of the  vessel1 which requires the      
vessel herself to be trained1 the 7seal7
  8,g-#a0 carries four torpedo tubes on 

her deck which may be trained while  the
 vessel is submerged1 in the same manner
 as a deck gun on a surface  vessel is  
trained1 and thus fired to either       
broadside1 which gives many  technical  
advantages4    ,illustration3 ,the above
 view gives a general idea of the       
interior  of a submarine torpedo boat   
and the method of operation when running
  entirely submerged with periscope only
 above the surface4    ,the commanding  
officer is at the periscope in the      
conning tower  directing the course of  
the submarine through the periscope1    
which  is a tube arranged with lenses   
and prisms which gives a view of the    
horizon and everything above the surface
 of the water1 the same as if  the      
observer in the submarine was himself   
above water4 ,the steersman is  shown   
just forward of the commanding officer  
and steers the vessel by  compass under 
the direction of the commanding officer1
 the same as when  navigating above the 
surface4 ,in the larger type boats the  

steersman  also has a periscope which   
enables him to see what is going on     
above  the surface4 ,below decks two of 
the crew are shown loading a torpedo    
into the torpedo tube2 each torpedo is  
charged with gun-cotton and  will run   
under its own power over a mile and will
 explode on striking  the enemy4 ,the   
crew live in the compartment aft of the 
torpedo room4  ,aft of this is the      
engine room1 in which are located       
powerful internal  combustion engines   
for running on the surface and electric 
motors for  running submerged4 ,the     
electric motors are driven by storage   
batteries  located under the living     
quarters4 ,wheels are shown housed in   
the keel1  which may be lowered for     
navigating on the bottom in shallow     
water4  ,a diving compartment in the bow
 permits divers to leave the vessel     
when on the bottom1 to search for and   
cut or repair cables or to plant  mines4
    ,illustration3 ,a ,,submarine       
,,sailing ,,close ,,to ,,the ,,surface  

,a submarine running partly submerged   
with the conning tower hatch  open1     
showing the remarkable steadiness of    
this type of boat in  a semi-submerged  
condition1 a thing no other craft could 
safely  accomplish4    ,illustration3   
,another submarine running entirely     
submerged1 periscope  only showing4 ,the
 flag is attached to top of periscope to
 show her  position in maneuvers when   
periscope goes entirely under water4    
,illustration3 ,a ,,photograph ,,taken  
,,with ,,the ,,periscope ,,universal    
,,lens4      ,,an ,,all-,,seeing ,,eye  
,,for ,,the ,,submarine    ,vision under
 water is limited to but a few yards at 
best1 and hence  a submarine boat1 when 
submerged1 would be as blind as a ship  
in a  dense fog and would have to grope 
its way along guided only by chart  and 
compass1 were it not for a device known 
as a periscope1 that  reaches upward and
 projects out of the water1 enabling the
 steersman  to view his surroundings    
from the surface4 ,of course the height 

of the  periscope limits the depth at   
which the craft may be safely sailed4   
,nor  can the periscope tube be extended
 indefinitely1 because the submarine    
must be capable of diving under a vessel
 when occasion demands4 ,but  when      
operating just under the surface1 where 
it can see without being  seen1 the     
craft is in far greater danger of       
collision than vessels  on the surface1 
because it must depend upon its own     
alertness and  agility to keep out of   
the way of other boats4 ,the latter can 
hardly be  expected to notice the       
inconspicuous periscope tube projecting 
from the  water in time to turn their   
great bulks out of the danger course4   
,the foregoing article describes the    
type of periscope now in common  use on 
submarines and one of the engravings on 
this page clearly  illustrates the      
principles of the instrument4 ,a serious
 defect of this  type of instrument is  
that the field of vision is too limited4
 ,the man  at the wheel is able to see  

under normal conditions only that which 
lies immediately before the boat4 ,it is
 true that he can turn the  periscope   
about so as to look in other directions1
 but this1 of course1  involves         
considerable inconvenience4 ,on at least
 two occasions has a  submarine boat    
been run down by a vessel coming up     
behind it4    ,illustration    ,,seeing 
,,in ,,all ,,directions ,,at ,,once     
,as long as the submarine has but a     
single eye it would seem quite          
essential to make this eye all-seeing2  
and since the two lamentable  accidents 
just referred to1 an inventor in        
,england has devised a  periscope which 
provides a view in all directions at the
 same time4  ,this has been attempted   
before1 but it has been found very      
difficult  to obtain an annular lens    
mirror which would project the image    
down  the periscope tube without        
distortion4 ,the accompanying           
illustrations  show how this difficulty 
has now been overcome4 ,while we will   

not  attempt to enter into a            
mathematical explanation of the precise 
form  of the mirror lens1 it will       
suffice to state that it is an annular  
prism4 ,the prism is a zonal section of 
a sphere with a conoidal central        
opening and a slightly concave base4    
,all the surfaces1 however1 are         
generated by arcs of circles owing to   
the mechanical inconvenience  of        
producing truly hyperboloidal surfaces4 
,the lens mirror is shown  in section at
 ,a in ,fig4 #a4 ,the arrows indicate   
roughly the course  of the rays into the
 lens and their reflection from the     
surface ,b1  which is preferably        
silvered4 ,the tube is provided with two
 objectives  ,c and ,d 7,fig4 #c7       
between which a condenser ,e is         
interposed at  the image plane of the   
lens ,c4 ,at the bottom of the periscope
 tube  the rays are reflected by means  
of a prism ,f into the eyepiece4 ,two   
eyepieces are employed4 ,one of lower   
power1 ,g1 is a ,kelner eyepiece1  the  

purpose of which is to permit inspection
 of the whole image1 while  a           
high-powered eccentrically placed       
,huyghenian eyepiece1 ,h1 enables  one  
to inspect portions of the image4 ,the  
two eyepieces are mounted in  a         
rectilinear chamber1 ,i1 which may be   
rotated about the prism at  the end of  
the periscope1 thus bringing one or     
other of the eyepieces  into active     
position4 ,the plan view1 ,fig4 #d1     
shows in full lines the  high-powered   
eyepiece in operative position1 while   
the dotted lines  indicate the parts    
moved about to bring the low-powered    
eyepiece into  use4 ,a small catch1 ,j1 
shown in ,fig4 #b1 serves to hold the   
chamber in  either of these two         
positions4 ,the high-powered eyepiece is
 mounted on  a plate1 ,k1 which may be  
rotated to bring the eyepiece into      
position  for inspecting any desired    
portions of the annular image4 ,the     
parts  are so arranged that when the    
eyepiece is in its uppermost position1  

as indicated by full lines in ,fig4 #b1 
the observer can see that which  is     
directly in front of the submarine1 and 
when the eyepiece is in its  low        
position1 as indicated by dotted lines1 
he sees objects to the  rear of the     
submarine4 ,with the eyepiece at the    
right or at the left  he sees objects at
 the right or left1 respectively1 of the
 submarine4  ,the high-powered eyepiece 
is slightly inclined1 so that the image 
may  be viewed normally and to equal    
advantage in all parts4 ,mounted above  
a plain unsilvered portion of the mirror
 is a scale of degrees which  appears   
just outside of the annular image4 ,a   
scale is also engraved on  the plate ,k 
with a fixed pointer on the chamber1    
making it possible  to locate the       
position of any object and rotate the   
plate ,k so as  to bring the eyepiece ,h
 on it4 ,the scale also makes it        
possible to  locate the object with     
respect to the boat4    ,illustration3  
,,how ,,we ,,look ,,through ,a          

,,periscope    ,,the ,,periscope ,,top4 
,illustration3 ,,periscope ,,in         
,,general ,,use4    ,illustration3 ,,the
 ,,universal ,,observation ,,lens4      
,this improved periscope is applicable  
not only to submarine boats but  for    
other purposes as well1 such as         
photographic land surface work1 in      
which the entire surroundings may be    
recorded in a single photograph4  ,the  
accompanying photograph1 taken through a
 periscope of this type1  shows the     
advantages of this arrangement and gives
 an idea of its value  to the submarine 
observer when using the low-powered     
eyepiece4 ,of  course1 by using the     
other eyepiece any particular part of   
the view may  be enlarged and examined  
in detail4    ,illustration3 ,,inside   
,,of ,a ,,mine-,,planting ,,submarine   
,,mine-,,planting ,,submersible4    ,a  
,lake type vessel designed for planting 
contact mines4 ,in naval  warfare it is 
sometimes of advantage to plant mines1  
either to defend  harbors1 or in some   

cases the mines are planted in the      
course of the  approaching enemy4 ,this 
is a vessel designed for that purpose4  
,the  enemy is seen approaching1 and the
 mine-planting submarine runs in  ahead 
of them in a submerged condition and    
drops a number of contact  mines on     
their course2 the enemy strikes the mine
 and is blown up4 ,a  number of vessels 
were blown up by contact mines of this  
type in the  ,russian-,japanese war4    
,accidents and ,their ,causes4    ,the  
accidents which submarine vessels must  
guard against are as  follows3          
collision1 foundering1 explosions and   
asphyxiation4 ,the  first danger is1    
however1 no greater than those to which 
vessels that  run entirely on the       
surface of the water are exposed4 ,the  
eye of the  submarine places the        
commander on a practical level with the 
commander  of other vessels1 so that if 
a collision occurs it is due to the same
  lack of watchfulness which causes     
collisions on the surface of the  water4

    ,the submarine boat is less liable  
to founder than an ordinary vessel1     
because she is built to withstand a     
greater pressure of water than  other   
kinds of vessels4 ,of course1 if a      
submarine springs a leak1 she  is in    
grave danger of sinking to the bottom1  
and there is less chance  of the crew   
being rescued from a submarine1 because 
no one but those on  board know of the  
danger if the boat is under the water4  
,how ,explosions ,may ,occur4    ,in    
submarine vessels explosions may occur  
either through a collection  of gases   
from the batteries or by reason of leaks
 in the pipes or  tanks of the fuel     
supply system1 or through the bursting  
of the air  flasks belonging to the     
boat1 or the air reservoirs in the      
automobile  torpedoes4 ,the greatest    
danger is from explosive gases and have 
been  the cause of all explosions in    
modern submarine craft1 and the greatest
  danger in this connection is the      
liability of a leak in the gasolene     

pipes or tanks4 ,this gas is a heavy gas
 and so goes to the bottom of  the      
vessel1 where it is not so easily       
detected as a gas which rises4  ,there  
is no certain way of guarding against   
leaks of gasolene4 ,a leak  may occur at
 any time in a pipe or tank of gasolene 
through some cause  or other no matter  
how carefully inspected1 and the gas    
from this is  so active that it will go 
through the tiniest hole                
imaginable--even  through a hole which  
water will not penetrate4 ,the crew of a
 submarine  is always subject to this   
danger unless the tanks are built       
outside the  hull of the ship4      ,how
 the ,air ,may ,become ,poisoned4       
,there is a constant danger of          
asphyxiation to the men in the          
submarine4  ,a very small leakage of gas
 or the exhaust from an internal        
combustion  engine may make the air so  
impure that those aboard will be        
overcome4 ,a  great deal of care must be
 taken to keep the air pure and to warn 

the  crew at the first sign of danger   
from this4    ,when submarines first    
came into practical use1 it was found a 
good idea  to take a number of little   
white mice down with the vessel to warn 
all  if the air began to become impure4 
,as soon as this occurred1 the mice     
became distressed and squealed as loudly
 as they could1 thus warning  those     
aboard the ship of danger4 ,the mice    
felt the impurity of the air  quicker   
than the men1 not because they had any  
special gift to discover  when the air  
was bad1 but because they breathe much  
more quickly than  man--take shorter and
 many more breaths4    ,now1 however1 a 
chemical device has been invented which 
is affected in  such a way as to ring a 
loud bell1 if the air in the vessel     
becomes  impure to such an extent that  
there is any danger4    ,breathing the  
same air over and over may fill the     
vessel with carbonic  acid gas4 ,there  
should be no great danger from this1    
however1 as  submarines are now built   

sufficiently large to provide enough    
actually  pure air for each man aboard  
for forty-eight hours1 and it is hardly 
conceivable that a submarine need be    
submerged more than half that  length of
 time under any conditions4    ,of      
course1 then1 too1 there is the danger  
of accident due to  carelessness or     
ignorance4 ,in other words1 it is just  
as difficult to  make a fool-proof      
submarine as a fool-proof anything else4
 ,wherever  anything is constantly      
dependent upon the continuous careful   
attention  of human beings1 there is    
constant danger of accident1 whether it 
be on  board a submarine1 a railroad    
train1 steamship or in connection with  
anything else4    ,illustration3 ,a     
,,submarine ,,under ,,the ,,ice         
,,under-,,ice ,,submarine ,,torpedo     
,,boat4    ,submarine designed to       
navigate submerged under the ice1 in    
ice-bound  countries4 ,vessels of this  
type could enter harbors and destroy the
  enemy's shipping at will4 ,a vessel of

 this type would also be of value  in   
transporting mails1 passengers and      
cargoes between ice-bound ports  where  
navigation by surface vessels is closed 
for several months in the  year4        
,story of ,how the ,submarine ,has ,been
 ,developed4    ,it is only within the  
past twenty years that man has been able
 to  successfully navigate under the    
surface of the water4    ,,who ,,made   
,,the ,,first ,,submarine ,,boat8    ,it
 has been a dream of inventors and      
engineers for the past three  hundred   
years4    ,during the reign of ,king    
,james ,i4 a crude submarine vessel was 
built of  wood1 and was designed to be  
propelled by oars extending out through 
holes in the side of the vessel1 the    
water being prevented from coming  in   
through the openings by goat skins tied 
about the oars and nailed  to the sides 
of the boat1 which made a water-tight   
joint1 but at the  same time gave       
flexibility to the oars1 so that by     
feathering them on  the return stroke   

they could be manipulated to give head  
motion4 ,very  little1 if any1 success  
could have attended this effort4        
,nearly a hundred years later a man by  
the name of ,day built a submarine  and 
made a wager that he could descend to   
#ajj yards and remain there  #bd hours4 
,he built a boat and submerged it in a  
place where there was  a depth of #ajj  
yards4 ,he succeeded in remaining the   
#bd hours1 and  according to latest     
advices is still there1 as he never     
returned to the  surface4    ,there is  
very little information as to the       
construction of these early  craft4 ,the
 first really serious attempt at        
submarine navigation was  made by a     
,connecticut man1 a ,dr4 ,david         
,bushnell1 who lived at ,saybrook       
during the ,revolutionary ,war4 ,he     
built a small submarine vessel which  he
 called the 8,american ,turtle10 and    
with it he expected to destroy the      
,british fleet1 anchored off ,new ,york 
during its occupation by ,general       

,washington and the ,continental ,army4 
,thatcher's ,military ,journal gives a  
description of this vessel and          
describes an attempt to sink the        
,british frigate 8,eagle0 of #fd guns   
by attaching a torpedo to the bottom of 
the ship by means of a screw            
manipulated from the interior of this   
submarine vessel4    ,a sergeant who    
operated the 8,turtle0 succeeded in     
getting under the  ,british vessel1 but 
the screw which was to hold the torpedo 
in place  came in contact with an iron  
scrap1 refused to enter1 and the        
implement  of destruction floated down  
stream1 where its clockwork mechanism   
finally caused it to explode1 throwing a
 column of water high in the  air and   
creating consternation among the        
shipping in the harbor4  ,skippers were 
so badly frightened that they slipped   
their cables and  went down to ,sandy   
,hook4 ,general ,washington complimented
 ,dr4 ,bushnell  on having so nearly    
accomplished the destruction of the     

frigate4    ,if the performance of      
,bushnell's 8,turtle0 was such as       
described1 it  seems strange that our   
new government did not immediately take 
up  his ideas and make an appropriation 
for further experiments in the  same    
line4 ,when the attack was made on the  
8,eagle10 ,dr4 ,bushnell's  brother1 who
 was to have manned the craft1 was sick1
 and a sergeant who  undertook the task 
was not sufficiently acquainted with the
 operation  to succeed in attaching the 
torpedo to the bottom of the frigate4   
,had  he succeeded the 8,eagle0 would   
undoubtedly have been destroyed and the 
event would have added the name of      
another 8hero0 to history and might     
then have changed the entire art of     
naval warfare4 ,instead of ,bushnell    
being encouraged in his plans1 however1 
they were bitterly opposed by  the naval
 authorities4 ,his treatment was such as
 finally to compel him  to leave the    
country1 but he returned after some     
years of wandering1  and under an       

assumed name1 settled in ,georgia1 where
 he spent his  remaining days practicing
 his profession4    ,robert ,fulton1 the
 man whose genius made steam navigation 
a success1  was the next to turn his    
attention to submarine boats1 and       
submarine  warfare by submerged mines4  
,a large part of his life was devoted to
  the solution of this problem4 ,he went
 to ,france with his project and        
interested ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 who    
became his patron and who was the  means
 of securing sufficient funds to build a
 boat which was called  the 8,nautilus40
 ,with this vessel ,fulton made numerous
 descents1 and  it is reported that he  
covered #ejj yards in a submerged run of
 seven  minutes4    ,,how ,,submarines  
,,were ,,developed    ,in the spring of 
#ahja he took the 8,nautilus0 to ,brest1
 and experimented  with her for some    
time4 ,he and three companions descended
 in the harbor  to a depth of #be feet  
and remained one hour1 but he found the 
hull  would not stand the pressure of a 

greater depth4 ,they were in total      
darkness during the whole time1 but     
afterward he fitted his craft with  a   
glass window #a inches in diameter1     
through which he could see to  count the
 minutes on his watch4 ,he also         
discovered during his trials  that the  
mariner's compass pointed equally as    
true under water as above  it4 ,his     
experiments led him to believe that he  
could build a submarine  vessel with    
which he could swim under the surface   
and destroy any  man-of-war afloat4     
,when he came before the ,french        
,admiralty1 however1  he was met with   
blunt refusal1 one bluff old ,french    
admiral saying3  8,thank ,god1 ,france  
still fights her battles on the surface1
 not beneath  it10 a sentiment which    
apparently has changed since those days1
 as  ,france now has a large fleet of   
submarines4 ,after several years of     
unsuccessful efforts in ,france to get  
his plans adopted1 ,fulton finally  went
 over to ,england and interested        

,william ,pitt1 then chancellor1  in his
 schemes4 ,he built a boat there1 and   
succeeded in attaching a  torpedo       
beneath a condemned brig provided for   
the purpose1 blowing her  up in the     
presence of an immense throng4 ,pitt    
induced ,fulton to sell  his boat to the
 ,english government and not bring it to
 the attention of  any other nation1    
thus recognizing the fact that if this  
type of vessel  should be made entirely 
successful1 ,england would lose her     
supremacy as  the 8,mistress of the     
,seas40    ,fulton consented to do so1  
but would not pledge himself regarding  
his  own country1 stating that if his   
country should become engaged in war1   
no pledge could be given that would     
prevent him from offering his  services 
in any way which would be for its       
benefit4    ,the ,english ,government   
paid him #ge1jjj for this concession4   
,fulton  then returned to ,new ,york and
 built the 8,clermont0 and other        
steamboats1 but did not entirely give up

 his ideas of submarine  navigation1 and
 at the time of his death was at work on
 plans for a  much larger boat4         
,fulton had a true conception of the    
result of submarine warfare1 and in  a  
letter he says3 8,gunpowder has within  
the last three hundred years  totally   
changed the art of war1 and all my      
reflections have led me to  believe that
 this application of it will1 in a few  
years1 put a stop  to maritime wars1    
give that liberty on the seas which has 
been long  and anxiously desired by     
every good man1 and secure to ,americans
 that  liberty of commerce1             
tranquillity1 and independence which    
will enable  citizens to apply their    
mental and corporeal facilities to      
useful and  humane pursuits1 to the     
improvement of our country and the      
happiness of  the whole people40        
,after ,fulton's death spasmodic        
attempts were made by various inventors 
looking to the solving of the difficult 
problem1 but no very serious  efforts   

were put forth until the period of the  
,civil ,war1 and then a  number of      
submarine boats were built by the       
,confederates4 ,these boats  were       
commonly called 8,davids10 and it was   
one of them that sank the  ,united      
,states steamship 8,housatonic0 in      
,charleston ,harbor on the night  of the
 #agth of ,february1 #ahfd4 ,this       
submarine vessel drowned four  different
 crews1 a total of thirty men1 during   
her brief career4 ,at the  time she sank
 the 8,housatonic0 her attack was       
anticipated1 and sharp  lookout was kept
 at all times2 but1 notwithstanding     
their vigilance1  she succeeded in      
getting sufficiently close to plant a   
torpedo on the  end of a spar1 and sink 
this fine1 new ship of #adjj tons       
displacement4    ,it will be seen from  
the above description that these        
vessels1 while  able to go under water1 
were not controllable4    ,after the    
,civil ,war several other inventors took
 up the problem of  trying to design a  

submarine vessel that could be          
controlled as to  maintenance of depth  
and direction under water4    ,in       
,europe1 ,gustave ,zede1 ,goubet and    
,drzwiezki1 and in this country ,mr4    
,baker and ,mr4 ,john ,p4 ,holland1     
built experimental vessels4    ,in #ahgg
 ,mr4 ,holland built a small boat which 
was called the 8,fenian  ,ram40 ,it is  
stated that this vessel was built with  
capital furnished by  the               
8,clan-na-,gael10 with the idea of using
 it against the ,british fleet  in an   
attempt to free ,ireland4    ,while some
 slight success was met with by these   
inventors1 it was not  until about #ahig
 that any real progress was made4       
,,the ,,first ,,successful ,,submarine  
,,with ,,hydroplanes    ,in #ahic1      
,simon ,lake1 an ,american inventor1    
submitted plans to the  ,united ,states 
,naval authorities at ,washington for a 
submarine boat that  would navigate     
between the surface and the bottom by   
the use of what  he called              

8hydroplanes10 which were designed to   
cause the vessel to  submerge on an even
 keel4 ,mr4 ,lake's design of vessel was
 also provided  with wheels to enable it
 to navigate on the water bed4 ,it was  
also  provided with a diving compartment
 to enable the crew to don diving  suits
 and leave the vessel1 in working on    
wrecks1 cutting cables1  planting mines1
 etc4    ,in #aijd and #aije he built a 
small vessel to demonstrate his         
principles  and succeeded in            
successfully navigating the vessel on   
the bottom  of ,new ,york ,bay4 ,he then
 built a larger vessel of about #ej tons
  displacement for further experimental 
purposes4 ,this vessel was called  the  
8,argonaut10 and was built in ,baltimore
 in #aijf and #aijg4 ,this boat  was    
successful from the start and covered   
thousands of miles in the  ,chesapeake  
,bay and along the ,atlantic ,coast1    
,new ,york ,bay and ,long  ,island      
,sound1 and was the first successful    
submarine boat to navigate  in the open 

sea and on the water bed of the ocean4  
,mr4 ,holland had1 in #ahid1 received a 
contract for a submarine vessel  for the
 ,united ,states ,navy1 and her         
construction was started in #ahie4      
,this vessel was called the 8,plunger40 
,this was the first official            
recognition given to a submarine boat in
 the ,united ,states4    ,the           
,government of ,france had also given an
 order for a submarine boat  which was  
under construction at this period4      
,the 8,plunger0 was never submerged1 her
 construction covering a period  of     
several years1 and she was finally      
abandoned4 ,mr4 ,holland had1  however1 
in the meantime prepared the designs of 
another vessel which  he called 8,the   
,holland40 ,this vessel was accepted by 
the ,united ,states  ,government in     
#aijj1 and a number of other vessels of 
this type were  built4 ,these vessels   
were known as submarines of the diving  
type4 ,they  were controlled by means of
 a horizontal and vertical rudder placed

 at  the stern of the vessel and the    
boat was1 by means of these rudders1    
inclined down by the bow1 and driven    
under the water by the force of  their  
screw propeller4    ,england also built 
a number of submarines of the diving    
type4    ,in #aija ,mr4 ,lake brought   
out a larger vessel of his type1 which  
was  controlled by hydroplanes1 which   
vessel was sold to the ,russian         
,government1 was shipped across the     
,atlantic to ,kronstadt1 and from  there
 by rail to ,vladivostok1 and was in    
commission off ,vladivostok  just before
 the close of the ,russian-,japanese    
,war4    ,mr4 ,lake then received orders
 from the ,russian and other            
,governments  for a number of additional
 boats of the even keel type1 to be     
controlled by hydroplanes4    ,mr4      
,lake's principles of control have been 
now generally adopted by all            
,governments1 as providing the safest   
and most reliable means of control  of  
the vessel when navigating under the    

surface4    ,the ,united ,states        
,government has recently adopted this   
type to be  built in their ,navy ,yards1
 and most other builders have adopted   
the  hydroplanes as the means of        
maintaining depth when running beneath  
the  surface4    ,illustration3         
,,clearing ,a ,,channel ,,of ,,buoyant  
,,mines    ,this is one of the services 
to which submarine boats of this type   
lend  themselves with peculiar fitness4 
,it is possible for them to carry on    
this work with deliberation and to      
success1 under the very guns and        
searchlights of a vigilant foe1 without 
the slightest danger of being  detected4
    ,this would be accomplished         
preferably by the co-operation of two   
boats4  ,they would take opposite sides 
in the channel1 with a connecting rope  
extending out through the diving        
compartment4 ,it is obvious that as     
they move along the rope will sweep the 
whole mine-field and gather in  the     
connecting cables4 ,this would be       

indicated at once to the operators  in  
the diving compartment by the load upon 
the sweeping line4 ,a grapple  may then 
be attached to the rope and sent out of 
one boat and hauled  into the other1 and
 thus drag the mine so near that a diver
 could go  out and destroy its          
electrical connections or cut it adrift4
 ,should  the latter operation be the   
aim1 the grapple may be so fashioned as 
to accomplish this without the diver    
leaving the compartment4 ,this  latter  
method is one strongly recommended by   
some of the most prominent  military    
authorities on submarine defense4       
,illustration3 ,this picture indicates  
the manner in which the boats  have     
traveled many miles over all kinds of   
bottom4 ,in the present  instance the   
boat is shown systematically searching  
the bottom with  her diving door open   
and strong lights being used to         
facilitate a more  perfect examination4 
,there is no trim or equilibrium to     
maintain4 ,when the propelling          

machinery stops the boat comes to rest4 
,a cyclometer attached to  these wheels 
gives a fairly reliable reading of the  
distance traveled  under normal         
circumstances4 ,as the currents do not  
carry her out of  her course1 and as her
 gauges give an absolute record of      
changing  depths1 it is possible to so  
navigate upon the bottom with remarkable
  precision4 ,in shallow waters this    
method has many advantages4             
,illustration3 ,a ,,machine ,,which     
,,makes ,,the ,,diver',s ,,task ,,easy  
,,showing ,,tube ,,handling ,,cargo ,,in
 ,,sunken ,,ship4      ,recovering      
,cargo or ,submerged ,objects ,without  
the ,aid of ,divers4    ,the operating  
tube is here shown within the body of a 
hulk and  co-operating with the lifting 
derrick on the surface craft in the     
removal of the submerged cargo4 ,a      
grab-dredge bucket of well-known        
construction is used1 the jaws of which1
 when being lowered by one  rope1 open1 
and when strain is brought on the       

lifting rope1 the  jaws close4 ,the     
working end of the tube is placed in the
 immediate  neighborhood of the cargo to
 be lifted and1 as the grab is being    
lowered from the boat above1 the        
operator in the compartment controls    
the grab by means of the guide line     
shown attached to the small derrick     
boom1 and leads it directly over the    
cargo to be lifted4 ,the grab is  then  
dropped and the signal sent to the      
vessel above to hoist4 ,the  moment the 
lifting line tautens the bucket grasps a
 load and fills  itself with material in
 the manner common to this type of      
dredge4 ,this  method of directing      
intelligently and deliberately the      
dredge bucket  may be applied as well to
 the removal of rock or any other       
obstruction  or to any of those various 
services of kindred character familiar  
to submarine engineers4 ,the great and  
prime advantage of the system  is the   
fact that no divers are required1 and   
the work is under the  perfect control  

of an operator subject only to          
atmospheric pressure4 ,in  consequence1 
therefore1 the only limit to the        
effective operating of  this apparatus  
is the length of the tube1 and1 as has  
been said1 this  can be made long enough
 to reach depths denied to the diver    
simply by  interposing additional       
sections4    ,illustration3 ,,life      
,,aboard ,a ,,submarine    ,,living     
,,quarters ,,aboard ,a ,,submarine4     
,where ,do ,sponges ,come ,from8        
,until within comparatively recent      
years1 the sponge was regarded as  a    
plant2 it is now known to belong to the 
animal kingdom1 and to the  order       
spongida of the class of rhizopoda4     
,sponge is an elastic1 porous           
substance1 formed of interlaced horny   
fibers1 which produce by their  numerous
 inosculations1 a rude sort of network1 
with meshes or pores  of unequal sizes1 
and usually of a square or angulated    
shape4 ,besides  these pores there are  
some circular holes of large size       

scattered  over the surface of most     
sponges1 which lead into sinuous canals 
that  permeate their interior in every  
direction4 ,the oscula1 canals1 and     
pores1 communicate freely together4 ,the
 characteristic property of the  sponge 
is the facility with which it absorbs a 
large quantity of any  fluid1 more      
especially of water1 which is retained  
amid the meshes  until forced out again 
by a sufficient degree of compression1  
when the  sponge returns to its former  
bulk4 ,from this peculiarity1 combined  
with  its pleasant softness1 arises the 
value of the sponge for the purposes  to
 which it is applied4 ,in domestic      
economy and in surgical practice1  there
 is no other product that can be        
satisfactorily substituted for it4      
,sponge is an aquatic production1       
indigenous to almost every sea and      
shore4 ,it is abundant and varied       
between the tropics1 but becomes  less  
so in temperate latitudes and continues 
to diminish in quantity1  variety1 and  

size1 as it is traced into ,european and
 colder seas1 until  it almost          
disappears in the vicinity of the polar 
circles4 ,some sponges  are known to be 
hermaphrodite1 but that the individual  
at one period  produces chiefly male    
elements1 and later1 chiefly female     
elements4  ,fertilization takes place in
 the body of the mother1 and the egg    
here  undergoes its early development4  
,the embryo eventually bursts the       
maternal tissue and1 passing into one of
 the canals1 is caught by the  current  
sweeping through the canal system and is
 discharged into the  surrounding water 
through one of the large apertures on   
the surface  of the sponge4 ,in the     
,bahama ,islands and along the coast of 
,florida1  the breeding time of many    
sponges covers the period from          
mid-summer on  through early ,autumn4   
,there is propagation sometimes by      
ciliated gemmules1 yellowish and  oval1 
arising from the sarcode mass1 and      
carried out by the currents4  ,these are

 mostly formed in the spring1 and after 
swimming freely about  for a time1      
become fixed and grow4 ,in its natural  
state1 the sponge  is a very different  
looking object from the article of      
commerce4 ,the  entire surface is       
covered with a thin1 slimy skin1 usually
 of a dark  color1 and perforated to    
correspond with the apertures of the    
canals4  ,the sponge of commerce is in  
reality only the home or the skeleton of
  the sponge4    ,there are a few       
sponges that inhabit ponds and sluggish 
rivers2 the  others are marine4 ,of     
these1 many of the calcareous and       
siliceous kinds  inhabit the shores     
between tide-marks1 preferring a site   
near the low  ebb1 where1 nevertheless1 
they are daily alternately submerged1   
and  left exposed to the atmosphere4    
,the figured sponges with a fibrous     
texture1 to whatever genus they belong1 
are denizens of deeper water1  and are  
never left uncovered4 ,they grow usually
 in groups1 on rock  shells1 shellfish1 

corallines1 and seaweeds1 and either    
have no power  of selection1 or the     
quality of the site is indifferent to   
them4          ,how ,do ,sponges ,grow8 
,in their growth1 some sponges assume a 
determinate figure or at least  one     
whose variations are confined within    
certain limits4 ,the greater  number are
 irregular and variable1 their shape    
depending in a great  measure upon the  
peculiarities of their state1 to which  
they easily  accommodate themselves4    
,they will incrust a shell1 or a crab1 a
 rock1  or seaweed1 following every     
projection and sinuosity4 ,the offshoots
  will spring up with a more luxuriant  
growth in the deeper sheltered  places  
until the original shape of the         
foundation they grow upon is  lost to   
sight4    ,sponges are unmoving and     
inirritable4 ,they never remain rooted  
to the  places of the germination1 and  
are incapable either of contracting or  
dilating themselves or even of moving   
any fiber or portion of their  mass4    

,the functions which distinguish them as
 living beings are few1  and faintly    
imaged4          ,how ,do ,sponges ,eat8
      ,although sponges lack the power  
of motion possessed by most animals1    
being nearly always attached1 in one    
position or another1 to some  object1   
the study of their habits in captivity  
brings out many of their  animal        
characteristics in a striking manner4   
,small specimens taken  from the sea and
 placed in dishes of salt water may be  
kept alive for  several hours if well   
cared for2 and by using finely powdered 
coloring  matter1 such as carmine or    
indigo1 the manner of their feeding may 
be  readily observed4 ,sponges are more 
active in fresh sea water than in       
stale2 they cannot be kept alive out of 
water and soon die if exposed  to the   
air4 ,being unable to go in search of   
food1 as a natural result1  they can    
grow only in places where there is      
always an abundance of  food suited to  
their wants4 ,the great sponging grounds

 of the world  are wholly confined      
within waters having a relatively high  
temperature  during the entire year4    
,the ,old ,world sponges grow           
principally in  the ,mediterranean and  
the ,red seas2 the ,new ,world sponges  
are found  about the ,bahamas1 southern 
and western ,florida1 and parts of the  
,west  ,indies4 ,the finest sponges come
 from the ,east1 but one of the         
,american  species1 the so-called       
8sheep's wool10 stands high in favor4   
,the commercial sponges are separated   
into six species1 three of which  are   
,european and three ,american4 ,they are
 all referred to a single  genus called 
spongia1 and though having much in      
common as regards  structure1 their     
texture varies to such an extent as to  
make them of  very unequal value for    
domestic purposes4    ,the ,old ,world  
species may be arranged as follows1 in  
order of their  grade of excellence1    
beginning with the best quality3 ,the   
,turkey cup  sponge1 ,levant toilet     

sponge1 the horse1 honey comb1 or bath  
sponge1  and the ,zimoca sponge4 ,the   
,american species include the sheep's   
wool  sponge1 the yellow glove1 violet1 
and grass1 sponges4 ,a very close       
relationship exists between the species 
of the two continents4    ,all known    
regions in which useful specimens abound
 contribute to the  world's supply4 ,the
 trade is extensive4 ,the demands upon  
the fisheries  are great4 ,in the       
,mediterranean1 the fishing is carried  
on in some  places at a depth of forty  
fathoms4 ,divers1 naked1 or in armor1 go
 down  to the bottom and tear off the   
sponges from their places of growth4 ,in
  some places drag dredges are employed4
          ,how ,are ,sponges ,caught8   
,in the past quarter-century the        
sponge-fishery of the ,florida coast has
  grown remarkably4 ,its headquarters is
 at ,key ,west and several hundred      
sailing vessels are engaged in the      
industry4 ,the fishing appliances       
consist of a small boat1 a long hook1   

and a waterglass4 ,the hook is  in      
reality a three-pronged spear attached  
to a pole thirty-five feet  long4 ,in   
searching for sponge the fishers row    
about in the small  boat4 ,by holding   
the glass on the surface of the water   
the bottom is  plainly seen and small   
objects are readily discerned4 ,when a  
sponge is  sighted the pole with the    
hook attached is shot down and the      
product  deftly gathered4 ,the boat-load
 is brought to the deck of the schooner1
  allowed to remain there a few hours1  
and then is carried down into the  hold4
 ,on ,friday nights1 the fishing        
generally ends for the week1 and  the   
vessel sails for some spot on the       
neighboring coast where there  are      
established crawls1 or places for curing
 the catch4 ,these crawls  are about #h 
x #aj feet square1 their purpose being  
to hold the sponges  while maceration   
and decomposition take place4 ,the      
resulting refuse is  carried off by the 
tide4    ,the fishermen go away for     

another catch and the sponges are left  
in the  crawls until the end of the     
following week when a new cargo is      
brought  in4 ,the returning fishermen   
beat the decomposed sponges with clubs1 
removing the impurities4 ,the water is  
squeezed out1 then the sponges  are     
allowed to dry on the ground4    ,after 
drying1 the hold of the large vessel is 
loaded to the utmost  with the product  
and the voyage to ,key ,west is made4   
,buyers from ,new  ,york look over the  
sponges1 and make offers for entire     
cargoes4 ,the  fishermen dispose of     
their goods rapidly and sail away for   
more4 ,the  buyers store the sponges in 
some dry building1 and cause them to be 
bleached by lime4 ,a popular manner of  
bleaching is to wash the sponges        
thoroughly in water1 and then to immerse
 them in diluted hydrochloric  acid to  
dissolve any of the calcareous          
substance4 ,having again been  washed   
they are placed in another bath of      
dilute hydrochloric acid to  which six  

per cent4 of hyposulphite of soda1      
dissolved in a little warm  water1 has  
been added4 ,in this bath the sponges   
remain for twenty-four  hours1 or until 
the bleaching process is completed4     
,after bleaching1  the sponges are      
pressed until their bulk is greatly     
reduced2 they are  then baled1 and      
shipped to ,new ,york1 which is the     
distributing point  for the entire      
,florida product4    ,sponges are by far
 the most important fishery products of 
,florida1  representing about one-third 
of the annual value of the fishing      
industry4 ,in #ahii1 the yield was over 
#cej1jjj pounds of sponges of  which the
 first value was nearly #djj1jjj4       
,why ,does ,yeast ,make ,bread ,rise8   
,there is a lot of sugar in the dough   
from which bread is made4 ,sugar        
contains three things--carbon1 hydrogen 
and oxygen4 ,when sugar is  fermented it
 amounts practically to burning it4 ,to 
make good bread  from the dough it is   
necessary to ferment the sugar which is 

in the  ingredients from which it is    
made4 ,yeast1 which is a simple living  
plant1 has the power to ferment sugar4  
,when sugar ferments1 two things  are   
produced4 ,one thing is the formation of
 carbonic acid gas4 ,a great  deal of   
this carbonic acid gas is caught in the 
dough in the form of  large or small    
bubbles and some of it escapes into the 
air4 ,the other  part tries to escape   
into the air also but cannot1 and causes
 the dough  to rise1 which makes the    
bread light1 as we say4 ,the holes you  
see in  the bread after it is baked are 
the little pockets where the carbonic   
acid gas was retained in the dough4     
,these bubbles of gas all through  the  
dough act like a lot of little balloons 
and lift the dough up with  themselves  
as they try to get to the top and escape
 into the air4          ,what ,is       
,yeast8      ,yeast is a living plant   
that is used for the purpose of causing 
fermentation4 ,the yeast we use in      
baking bread is an artificial           

yeast--really a dough made of flour and 
a little common yeast and made  into    
small cakes and dried4 ,if kept free    
from moisture it retains the  power of  
causing fermentation for some time4 ,the
 flour and other matter  in a cake of   
yeast are only used to keep the yeast in
 a form where it  can be preserved4 ,it 
is necessary to add water to start      
fermentation  and that is why we add hot
 water when we stir in the yeast for a  
baking4          ,is a ,moth ,attracted 
,by a ,light8      ,it seems to be a    
strange contradiction of the nature of  
living things  that a moth should fly   
deliberately into a light or dash itself
 to  death against the glass surrounding
 a strong light4 ,this is contrary  to  
the usual law of nature which gives the 
living thing an instinct to  protect    
itself against enemies4    ,for a long  
time we thought that moths did not      
deliberately burn  themselves up by     
flying right into a light1 but our      
naturalists  have proven that not only  

moths but certain birds1 bees1 flies and
  butterflies1 burn themselves up by    
flying into the flame of a light or     
fire4    ,illustration3 ,,how ,,man     
,,learned ,,to ,,make ,a ,,fire         
,,sawing    ,this was probably man's    
first method of producing fire4 ,by     
rubbing two  sticks together in this way
 sufficient heat was produced to set    
fire to  easily burnable material such  
as dried grass1 etc4    ,illustration3  
,,drilling    ,an improvement came when 
man learned that by twirling a dry stick
 in  a hole in another piece of dry wood
 the fire could be started more         
quickly4          ,how ,man ,discovered 
,fire      ,fire was probably one of    
man's first1 if not the first1 great    
discoveries1 and has been one of his    
greatest servants as well as  one of his
 greatest dangers4 ,we do not know who  
discovered fire1 or  what nation first  
used it4 ,it is1 however1 one of the    
signs that  distinguishes man from the  
other animals4 ,not any of the lower    

animals  was acquainted with the use of 
fire1 while probably the earliest races 
of mankind seem to have been acquainted 
with it4    ,mythology tells us         
wonderful stories of the origin of fire3
 according  to these tales it was stolen
 from the sun1 or the gods1 and given to
  man2 and ,pandora1 the first woman1   
was sent down to earth to punish man    
for his theft4    ,the most popular of  
these stories is the legend of          
,prometheus4  ,according to this legend1
 fire1 in the early days1 was under the 
exclusive control of the gods4          
,prometheus1 brother of ,atlas1 the god 
who supported the world on his          
shoulders1 determined that the use of   
fire should be given to the people4 ,he 
decided by some means to send  a spark  
of fire to the earth1 believing that one
 spark caught by man  would start a     
burning flame that would never go out4  
,with this idea in mind1 ,prometheus    
visited ,zeus1 the great ruler1 to      
carry out his purpose1 for ,zeus        

controlled fire4 ,while ,zeus was not   
looking1 ,prometheus 8stole some brands 
of fire from the hearth1 which  he hid  
in the stalk of a fennel and sent it    
down to the earth40 ,through  this      
,prometheus gave to man his first       
knowledge of fire4    ,but while this   
story of fire may or may not be true1   
the use of fire  rests entirely with man
 and his ingenuity4 ,through his        
ingenuity man  was able to subject fire 
to his will2 making it perform certain  
of his  labors2 and to a certain extent 
making it his servant2 although it      
always did and always will get beyond   
his control at times4    ,our ancestors 
were not satisfied with preserving the  
fire which the  gods gave them2 they    
tried and succeeded in producing it4    
,one day one  of them discovered that by
 rubbing two sticks together rapidly1   
the  friction would create a fire4 ,it  
was a most useful discovery4 ,before    
long the whole of mankind had learned   
this trick2 others improved on  this    

crude method until step by step men     
learned that by striking two  pieces of 
flint or other hard mineral together1   
quicker action was  obtained4           
,illustration3 ,,drilling ,,with ,,bow  
,,string    ,man's ingenuity soon taught
 him that if he tied one end of a string
 to  something and wrapped it around his
 drilling stick1 one end of which  was  
in a hole as in the first drilling      
picture1 he could increase the  rapidity
 of making fire4    ,illustration3      
,,drilling ,,with ,,help    ,with some  
other to hold the drilling stick while  
he operated the string  he was able to  
produce fire more quickly than he had   
ever done before4    ,all kinds of      
methods were devised to increase        
knowledge of producing  fire4 ,the early
 ,greeks found out how to catch the rays
 of the sun on a  burning-glass and     
produce fire2 the ,romans achieved the  
same results  through the use of        
mirrors4    ,illustration3 ,,plowing    
,this is another method man used for    

rubbing two pieces of wood  together4   
,in following this plan he usually used 
one stick of bamboo  and rubbed it back 
and forth in a slot he had made in      
another piece of  bamboo4               
,illustration3 ,,flint ,,and ,,pyrites  
,in some places it was discovered that  
if you struck a piece of hard  stone1   
like flint1 against another1 a spark was
 produced which could be  caught on a   
bunch of dry grass or moss and so start 
a fire4    ,in about ,a4,d4 #ijj1 an    
,arab1 named ,bechel1 discovered        
phosphorus1 but it  took almost #hjj    
years more for ,haukwitz to learn that  
when phosphorus  was brought into       
friction with sulphur1 fire would       
result4 ,in another  hundred years the  
world was benefited by the invention of 
the friction  match--and since that time
 about one-half the people have been    
carrying  matches about with them1 able 
thus to start a fire easily any time4   
,,fire ,a ,,mark ,,of ,,civilization    
,fire and man's knowledge of it have had

 much to do with man's progress  in     
civilization4 ,before man had fire1 his 
life and movements were much  like those
 of other animals4 ,when man had learned
 to make a fire he was  free to move and
 live anywhere and1 therefore1 people   
began to cover  more territory4         
,illustration3 ,,the ,,flint ,,and      
,,steel ,,method ,,of ,,making ,,fire   
,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,the ,,flint 
,,and ,,steel ,,method    ,because fire 
was so important to him1 man kept on    
trying to make this  task easier4 ,he   
finally contrived a tinder box when iron
 and steel  became known4 ,the tinder   
box is where he kept his flint and the  
piece  of steel which he struck upon the
 flint4 ,he also kept in the box pieces 
of cloth or paper on which he caught the
 sparks so produced4    ,illustration3  
,,pistol ,,tinder ,,box    ,this is a   
picture of a tinder box in the form of a
 pistol4 ,it enabled  man to produce    
sparks in greater numbers and more      
rapidly4    ,illustration3 ,,producing  

,,spark ,,with ,,flint ,,and ,,steel    
,this shows the method for striking the 
piece of steel against the flint  to    
make the sparks fall on the cloth or    
paper in the box4    ,illustration3 ,a  
,,complete ,,tinder ,,box ,,set    ,this
 picture shows a very complete tinder   
box set used by the wealthy  people in  
the old days4 ,a man carried this outfit
 with him just as  today he carries     
matches4    ,illustration3 ,this tinder 
box set is very neat and compact4 ,it is
 said  still to be used among the       
,himalayan tribes where it was          
discovered4    ,illustration3 ,,the     
,,first ,,matches    ,,the ,,oxymuriate 
,,match    ,this match1 the first1 was  
introduced in #aeje4 ,it was a slip of  
wood  tipped with a chemical mixture4   
,to light it it was necessary to stick  
its head into a bottle containing acid4 
,illustration3 ,,promethean ,,match     
,this was a paper cigarette dipped in a 
mixture of sugar and potash4  ,rolled   
within the paper was a tiny glass bulb  

filled with sulphuric  acid4 ,to light  
the match you pressed the bulb with     
pincers hard enough  to break the bulb4 
,this released the acid which set fire  
to the paper4      ,what ,would ,we ,do 
,without ,matches8    ,if one were to   
ask the man in the street what invention
 of the  nineteenth century is his most 
constant and invaluable ally he might be
  mystified for the moment1 but the     
undoubted answer would surely come  in  
the single word 8,matches40 ,these      
familiar objects1 apart from their      
luxurious use by smokers1 are the       
indispensable servants of mankind  from 
the moment of rising in the morning till
 the household is wrapped  in sleep1 and
 it is to them we turn when disturbed in
 the hours of  darkness4                
,illustration3 ,,first ,,lucifer ,,match
    ,invented by ,john ,walker in #ahbg4
 ,it consisted of a stick of wood tipped
  with sulphur and then with a chlorate 
mixture4 ,to ignite it the match  was   
drawn rapidly through a folded piece of 

sandpaper4    ,illustration3 ,,modern   
,,safety ,,match    ,the first practical
 match was made less than a century ago4
    ,no doubt 8familiarity breeds       
contempt10 and it is difficult to       
imagine  how man would fare1 bereft of  
his box of matches4 ,it might help the  
world to realize how much it owes to the
 inventors of the ,lucifer  ,match1 were
 it possible to cut off the supply of   
these magic fire  producers for only one
 brief day4 ,it requires no very vivid  
imagination  to picture the             
consternation and confusion that such a 
step would  produce1 and there is a grim
 humor in wondering how the primitive   
methods of obtaining a light would serve
 the public convenience in  these days  
of strenuous hustle4    ,seeing that    
fire has been employed by man since     
prehistoric days1 one  would expect that
 easy means of obtaining it would have  
been devised  in the early ages4 ,we    
find1 however1 that until the beginning 
of the  nineteenth century nothing in   

the nature of a match was available1 and
  the crudest methods were still in use4
 ,we know from ,virgil that in the      
reign of the ,emperor ,titus fire was   
obtained by rubbing decayed wood  with a
 roll of sulphur between two stones1 but
 it is not till ,saxon  times that we   
have evidence of the use of the tinder  
box with its flint  and steel4 ,that    
this latter was still regarded as       
something remarkable1  as late as the   
fifteenth century1 is proved by its     
representation in  the collar of the    
,order of the ,golden ,fleece1 which was
 founded in  #adbi4 ,burning glasses    
had1 of course1 been employed from the  
most  primitive times1 but one can      
imagine the despair of an early ,briton 
who  had to wait for a sunny day before 
he could boil his kettle4    ,incredible
 as it may seem1 it was not a time well 
within the memory  of many people living
 to-day that matches in anything        
approaching  the form now familiar were 
offered to the public4 ,the way for     

their  manufacture had been prepared by 
two discoveries2 one by a ,german who   
isolated phosphorus in #affi2 the other 
by a ,frenchman who produced  chlorate  
of potash in #aghf4 ,from this latter   
date the production of  fire was much   
facilitated1 and a few years before     
,queen ,victoria came  to the throne1   
,john ,walker--a chemist of             
,stockton-on-,tees--produced the  first 
friction matches of which there is any  
certain record4 ,these1  called         
8,congreves10 were sold in boxes of     
fifty for #b_/f1 and their  success soon
 led others to experiment in match      
manufacture1 so that  improvements were 
rapidly invented and factories sprang up
 in all parts  of the country4    ,it   
would be a difficult task to compute    
accurately the value to the  human race 
of the introduction to general use of   
this little article4  ,at the present   
writing1 in ,america the consumption of 
matches amounts  to over a billion of   
matches a day4      ,how ,matches ,are  

,made4    ,to-day matches are in such   
demand that the ingenuity of man has    
devised  a machine which makes complete 
matches without the help of the human   
hand4    ,at the very start of          
operations a man feeds blocks of wood   
into the  jaws of the machine1 and      
thenceforth the mechanical monster does 
its  own work4 ,seizing the block from  
the man's hand1 the machine grips it    
between rollers and forces it against   
rows of keen-edged cutters1 which  are  
so arranged that there is little or no  
waste4 ,each of these cutters  7and     
there are usually forty-eight in a      
machine7 severs a piece of wood  of     
exact size and shape4 ,at the same      
moment a plate rises from beneath1      
which thrusts these little pieces of    
wood into a moving flexible  cast-iron  
band1 or rather into small holes in this
 band1 from which the  embryo matches   
project like bristles4 ,this traveling  
band is about #gjj  feet in length1 and 
follows a serpentine course in its      

journey1 which  occupies about an hour  
from start to finish1 the speed being   
regulated  according to temperature so  
that the matches may be quite dry when  
they  reach the boxes4    ,when the band
 arrives at the finishing point1 a steel
 bar punches out  the matches stuck in  
its surface and they fall into the      
inside boxes  placed ready to catch     
them4 ,these boxes are kept continually 
shaking1  to that no spaces are left and
 the matches fill them completely4 ,as  
the  inside boxes fill1 a steel arm     
presses them forward into their covers1 
and they are passed along a trough in   
dozens1 quickly wrapped in paper  and   
sealed by a machine4 ,quick-fingered    
girls then wrap twelve of these  dozen  
packages and we have the gross packages 
of boxes so familiar in  the stores4 ,it
 will be seen1 that in spite of the     
marvellous machines  which do so much1  
there is still plenty of work for human 
hands4      ,how ,match ,boxes ,are     
,made4    ,the machines for making the  

wooden box which contain the matches are
  in themselves wonderful4 ,first1 a    
section of the trunk of an aspen  tree1 
about #cj inches in length1 is made to  
revolve in what is known  as a peeling  
machine4 ,after a few revolutions the   
rough outer surface  is removed1 and    
thin rolls of smooth-surfaced wood are  
peeled off  or veneered4 ,the machine at
 the same time scores the wood ready for
  folding by the boxmaking machine4 ,cut
 into skillets1 i4 e41 into pieces  of  
the size required for box covers or     
insides1 the ends are next  dipped in   
pink dye to cover the edge of the wood  
which is not covered  by the label4 ,the
 skillets then go to the box machines1  
which fold and  label them1 and after   
half an hour in a cleverly devised      
drying chamber  they are ready for use4 
,in one room alone sixty machines are   
labelling  and folding the skillets to  
the number of several thousand gross a  
day4  ,to see these machines take a     
strip of wood1 push it forward to       

receive  the pasted label1 fold it1     
fasten the joint1 wipe off the          
superfluous  paste1 and1 finally1 toss  
the finished 8outside0 into a receiving 
basket1 is as fascinating an example of 
mechanical ingenuity as the  industrial 
world can afford4      ,are ,matches    
,poisonous8    ,a non-poisonous 8strike 
anywhere0 safety match1 made from       
selected1  clear1 strong cork pine is   
now made in this country1 and is the    
first  satisfactory non-poisonous match4
 ,it is also the first match to be      
endorsed by the country's recognized    
leaders and authorities in fire         
prevention and the conservation of human
 life and property4    ,the             
,hughes-,esch ,anti-,white ,phosphorus  
,match ,bill1 which became a  law during
 the administration of ,president ,taft1
 was drafted by the  attorneys of the   
,american ,association of ,labor        
,legislation1 and is  the most drastic  
that our ,national ,constitution will   
permit4 ,it would  be unconstitutional  

to absolutely prohibit the manufacture  
of white  phosphorus matches1 but the   
,hughes-,esch bill obtains the same     
result1  viz43 absolute prohibition by  
means of excessive taxation4 ,no match  
manufacturer in these days of keen      
competition can afford to pay a tax  of 
ten cents on each box of white          
phosphorus matches made1 and place  his 
factory under government surveillance1  
for this tax of ten cents is  over three
 times as much as his present selling   
price to the wholesale  trade4    ,as   
soon as man learned to make fire and    
light1 he began to appreciate  how much 
more comfortable he could be if he could
 keep his lights  burning and to have   
his light independent of his fire1      
because it was  at times very           
uncomfortable to sit by a fire on a hot 
night simply  because he wished to use  
the light which it made4 ,the first     
schemes  devised for lighting purposes  
merely were the camp-fire torch and the 
rushlight4 ,with these as a basis1 man  

was enabled to fashion more  convenient 
forms of lighting4 ,he invented the     
candle and the lamp1 and  grown         
8enlightened10 boxed his light in iron  
and in other metals4          ,did      
,candles ,come ,before ,lamps8      ,the
 candle is in appearance a primitive    
affair1 yet there is little  doubt that 
its predecessor was the lamp4 ,those old
 ,egyptian tombs1  which have unlocked  
many mysteries1 held lamps1 and through 
them  evidence of ancient burial        
customs4 ,lamps played a part in the    
solemn  feasts of the ,egyptians1 who on
 such occasions placed them before their
  houses1 burning them throughout the   
night4 ,herodotus1 in one of his        
numerous references to ,xerxes1 alludes 
to the hour of lamp-lighting1  and      
evidences abound regarding the use of   
lamps among the ancient  ,greeks4       
,lamps1 indeed1 are pictured upon some  
of their oldest vases1  indicating the  
symbolic significance which attached to 
them4    ,illustration3 ,a ,french watch

 tower of the fifteenth century in time 
of siege4 ,the tower is lighted by means
 of beacons and is protected by  dogs4  
,ruins of such a tower can still be seen
 at ,godesberger on the  ,rhine4        
,what ,were the ,earliest ,lamps8       
,it is probable that the earliest lamps 
were nothing more than  convenient      
vessels1 filled with oil and fired by   
means of rushes4 ,among  the ,romans    
pine splinters1 the torch and the       
flambeau1 supplied light  until the     
fifth century before ,christ1 and even  
when the ,roman began to  use the lamp1 
it was by no means common1 finding a    
place only in the  homes of the rich1 or
 on special festival days4    ,the      
custom of burning funeral lights beside 
the dead before interment  is a very old
 one4 ,gregory1 interpreting its        
significance for the  ,christian1 says  
that departed souls1 having walked here 
as the children  of light1 now walk with
 ,god in the light of the living4 ,the  
,roman1  ,pliny1 refers to the use of   

the pith of brittle rushes in making    
funeral lights and watch-candles1 which 
were probably the ancient  prototype of 
the old rushlight of ,england4 ,again1  
in speaking of flax1  ,pliny states that
 the part of the reed that is nearest to
 the outer  skin is called tow1 and is  
good for nothing but to make            
lamp-matches or  candlewicks4           
,what ,were the ,lamps of the ,wise and 
,foolish ,maidens ,made ,of8      ,when 
lamps had come into general favor1      
better attention was given  to their    
form and construction4 ,the first seem  
to have been made of  baked clay1       
moulded by hand into elongated vessels  
to contain the oil1  and provided at one
 end with a lip to admit the wick4      
,these are the  lamps which artists have
 pictured in the hands of the wise and  
foolish  virgins1 though in the opinion 
of some scholars they were merely rods  
of porcelain and iron1 covered with     
cloth and steeped in oil4 ,another      
early type1 which was less common1      

presents a simple disc with an  aperture
 in the centre for the oil1 and a hole  
for the wick1 at one or  both of the    
sides4    ,under the ,empire1 when the  
light of the lamp had become general1   
the  better ones were made of bronze1   
ornamented with heads1 animals1 and     
other decorations1 attached to the      
handles1 while as life in ,rome  partook
 more of luxury and extravagance1 gold1 
silver1 or ,corinthian  brass were the  
materials1 the designs being more       
elaborate and  complicated4 ,many and   
beautiful examples of these ancient     
lamps have  been unearthed from the     
ruins of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4     
,when ,were ,street ,lamps ,first ,used8
      ,dark must have been the lives of 
those people who1 until comparatively   
recent times1 lived1 in the absence of  
sunlight1 by the feeble1  uncertain     
light of the primitive illuminants borne
 by these lamps4 ,and  as for street    
lighting--that was a luxury but seldom  
indulged in1 and  then1 not for public  

benefit1 but to enhance the glory of a  
potentate1  or grace the obsequies of   
some great man4 ,even ,rome1 at the     
height of  her luxury and beauty1 rarely
 exhibited more than one or two lanterns
  in her streets4 ,these were suspended 
over the baths and places of  public    
resort4 ,occasionally1 however1 the     
streets were illuminated  during        
festivals and other public occasions1   
while the ,forum was  sometimes lighted 
for a midnight exhibition4 ,with these  
glittering  exceptions1 and that        
memorable one when1 to satisfy the      
homicidal  impulses of a bad emperor1   
the bodies of ,christians were made     
living  torches1 ,rome was a city of    
darkness4    ,illustration3 ,,the       
,,first ,,street ,,light ,,in ,,america 
,the first street light in ,america4    
,early in #agie several large cressets  
were placed on the corners of ,boston's 
most frequented street4  ,pine-knots    
were placed in these fire baskets by the
 night watchman4          ,when ,were   

,candles ,introduced8      ,historical  
records indicate the prevalent use of   
candles in the  earliest days of ,rome1 
but these candles were of the simplest  
sort--mere string or rope which had been
 smeared with pitch or wax4  ,in the    
early ,christian centuries it was the   
custom to dip rushes in  pitch and coat 
them with wax1 a method of candle-making
 that was long  continued1 for it was   
not until the fourteenth century that   
dipped  tallow candles were introduced4 
,in the ,middle ,ages wax candles       
provided  the usual means of            
illumination1 and these were made1 not  
by common  craftsmen1 but by monks1 or  
by the servants of the rich4 ,until the 
fifteenth century their use was confined
 to churches1 monasteries and  the      
houses of nobles1 but the demand for    
them had become so great that  the      
chandlers of ,london obtained an act of 
incorporation4 ,as late as  the         
eighteenth century the candles were made
 by dipping the wicks  into melted wax  

or tallow1 but about this time an       
ingenious ,frenchman  conceived the idea
 of casting them in metal moulds4       
,illustration3 ,a part of the 8,amende  
,honorable0 of ,jacques ,coeur before   
,charles ,,vii of ,france4              
,illustration3 ,a pagan votive lamp of  
bronze1 now in the museum at  ,naples4  
,it is only within a modern period that 
the state or city has assumed           
responsibility in the matter of public  
lighting1 which for the most  part had  
been left to the good will and public   
spirit of citizens4  ,but in ,england a 
proclamation was issued to the effect   
that every  individual should place a   
candle in each of the lower windows of  
his  house1 and keep it burning from    
nightfall until midnight4               
,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,oil      
,,lantern    ,the first 8,rverbre0--oil 
lantern--with a metal reflector1 used   
to light the streets of ,paris4 ,it was 
invented by ,bourgeois de  ,chteaublanc 
in #agfe1 and used until the            

introduction of gas4    ,paris was the  
first city to improve upon this method  
of street  lighting1 and in #afeh huge1 
vase-like contrivances1 filled with     
resin  and pitch1 were set up in the    
principal thoroughfares4 ,the           
improvement  proving1 as may readily be 
seen1 both dangerous and expensive1 the 
falct1 so-called1 were replaced by the  
lantern4 ,this was at first  simply a   
rude frame1 covered with horn or        
leather1 within which a  candle burned4 
,for more than one hundred years this   
was the extent of  the illumination     
which the authorities could provide4    
,but of course  it was understood that  
no honest man would venture abroad      
without his  torch or flambeau1 and as  
,london1 ,berlin1 ,vienna1 and all      
leading  cities of ,europe1 were in like
 case1 the darkness of ,paris could be  
borne4    ,illustration3 ,argand got his
 first suggestion for his               
burner--invented  in #aghj--;from this  
style of alcohol lamp1 then in general  

use  throughout ,france4    ,but        
progress had been made1 and early in the
 eighteenth century the  ,corporation of
 ,london entered into contract with a   
certain individual  to set up public    
lights1 giving him permission to exact a
 sum of six  shillings from every       
householder whose actual rent exceeded  
ten pounds4  ,in the middle of the same 
century the ,lord ,mayor and ,common    
,council  applied to ,parliament for    
power to light the streets of ,london   
better4  ,from the granting of this     
permission dates improvement in public  
lighting4          ,where ,did the ,word
 8,gas0 ,originate8      ,a ,belgium    
chemist1 ,van ,helmont1 coined the word 
8gas0 in the first half  of the         
seventeenth century4 ,the ,dutch word   
8geest10 signifying 8ghost10  suggested 
the term to him1 and his superstitious  
neighbors hounded him  into obscurity   
for talking of ghosts4    ,illustration3
 ,hanging lamp from ,nushagak in        
,southern ,alaska4 ,it is  suspended    

from the framework of the tent by cords4
 ,oils and fats from  northern animals  
give a clear and steady light1 and      
,eskimo lamps are  frequently praised by
 travelers4    ,illustration3 ,,what    
,,the ,,big ,,tank ,,near ,,the         
,,gasworks ,,is ,,for    ,,six ,,million
 ,,cubic ,,foot ,,gas ,,holder4         
,almost every boy and girl has seen the 
big tank near the gas works1 and  most  
of them have wondered what was in it and
 what it is for4 ,this big  tank is a   
8holder0 in which the gas is stored     
after it is manufactured4    ,the giant 
holders are reservoirs from which gas is
 constantly being  taken and the        
quantity on storage constantly          
replenished1 as the  ordinary gas plant 
never ceases manufacturing its product4 
,there is little or no danger of an     
interruption of the supply by reason  of
 accident1 as gas plants are always     
equipped with duplicate apparatus  for  
emergencies4      ,when ,illuminating   
,gas ,was ,discovered4    ,the first    

practical demonstration of the value of 
gas made from  coal for lighting was    
made by a ,scotchman--,robert           
,murdock--who in  #agig1 after some     
years of experimenting1 fitted up an    
apparatus in  the workshop of ,boulton  
and ,watt1 in ,birmingham1 ,england1    
which  successfully lighted a portion of
 that establishment4 ,the advantages  of
 this kind of lighting were so apparent 
that its use was rapidly  extended1     
although in many instances the people   
were afraid of it4 ,for  a time this    
kind of lighting was confined to street 
lights4 ,one of the  first great        
structures to be lighted by gas was     
,westminster ,bridge in  ,london1 and   
great crowds gathered to watch the      
burning jets nightly4 ,it  was difficult
 to remove from the minds of the people 
the belief that  the gas-pipes were     
filled with fire and the jets were only 
openings  through which the flame in the
 pipes escaped4 ,people sometimes       
touched  the pipes expecting to find    

them hot1 and when the pipes were put in
  buildings they made sure that they    
were placed several feet from the  walls
 lest the fire in them set fire to the  
buildings4    ,the use of illuminating  
gas for lighting private houses         
developed quite  slowly because of this 
fear of the fire in the gas-pipes4 ,this
 was not  entirely unwarranted1 however1
 because at first the plumbers did not  
know1 as they do now1 how to prevent    
leakage of gas from the pipes4  ,the    
methods of joining the pipes were       
oftentimes imperfect and1 not  realizing
 the dangers which would follow leaks1  
causing explosions1 the  workmen were   
often careless in installing the pipes4 
,the first ,american house in which gas 
was used for lighting was the  home of  
,david ,mellville at ,newport1 ,r4 ,i4  
,baltimore1 ,maryland1 was the  first   
,american city to use gas for lighting4 
,it was introduced there in  #ahag4     
,how ,does ,gas ,get ,into the ,gas     
,jet8    ,if you hold a cool drinking   

glass over a burning gas jet for a      
moment1  a film of moisture will form on
 the inside of the glass and remain     
until the tumbler becomes warm1 and then
 disappear4 ,now1 then1 you will        
remember that water is a mixture of     
oxygen and hydrogen1 and that when      
hydrogen is burned in the air1 water is 
formed4 ,it is also true that  whenever 
water is formed by burning anything1    
hydrogen is present in  it4 ,you see1   
therefore1 that the gas used for        
lighting purposes must  contain         
hydrogen4    ,let us now learn something
 more about what gas is made of4 ,wet a 
piece  of glass with a little fresh lime
 water and hold this over the lighted   
gas jet4 ,in a few moments a change     
takes place in the water4 ,the water    
turns somewhat milky4 ,this indicates   
the presence of carbonic acid gas1  and 
the formation of carbonic acid gas1 when
 burning is going on1 means  the        
presence of carbon4    ,from these two  
experiments we gather that the gas in   

the jet contains  hydrogen and carbon4  
,all kinds of illuminating gas contain  
these two  substances4 ,sometimes there 
are small quantities of other substances
  present1 but the value of gas for     
lighting depends on hydrogen and        
carbon4    ,we have already learned     
about hydrogen1 but it would be well to 
re-learn about carbon4    ,carbon is an 
element1 and an extremely important one1
 for a large part  of the composition of
 every living thing is carbon4 ,it is   
found in  more compounds than any other 
element4 ,almost pure carbon can easily 
be obtained by heating a piece of wood1 
in a covered utensil1 until it  is      
turned into charcoal4 ,charcoal1 which  
is black1 is composed almost  entirely  
of carbon4 ,it is a very interesting    
product in all ways2 in  connection with
 gas we are particularly interested in  
the fact that  carbon will burn when    
heated in the air or in oxygen4         
,charcoal is very much like hard coal1  
both being formed in practically  the   

same way4 ,ages of years ago many large 
forests of trees were buried  under a   
layer of soil and rocks1 during changes 
that occurred in the  earth's surface1  
and the hot inside earth slowly heated  
the wood1 until  almost nothing was left
 but the carbon4    ,illustration3      
,,where ,,the ,,gas ,,is ,,taken ,,from 
,,the ,,coal    ,,generator ,,house     
,,and #age-;,,ft4 ,,stack4    ,in the   
process of gas making1 coal is placed in
 the generator and  heated to an        
incandescent state1 then from the top or
 bottom steam is  admitted and forced   
through the heated coal1 producing a    
crude water  gas which is passed on to  
the carbureter4 ,in this shell enriching
 oil  is produced1 but as the oil and   
the water gas do not effectually unite1 
they are passed on to the superheater1  
where1 as its name implies1 they  are   
subjected to a high temperature which   
thoroughly gasifies them into  a        
permanent gas4    ,illustration3 ,,an   
,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,generator      

,,house4    99 ,pictures on ,gas        
,manufacture by courtesy of the         
,consolidated ,gas1  ,electric ,light   
and ,power ,co4 of ,baltimore4          
,illustration3 ,,illuminating ,,gas     
,,must ,,be ,,scrubbed    ,,shaving     
,,scrubbers4    ,after passing into the 
scrubbers the gas is cooled1 passed into
 the  scrubbers1 and by contact with    
wooden slat trays1 made up like screens2
  a large portion of the tar is removed 
from the gas1 the tar passing off  to   
large receptacles4    ,soft coal was    
formed in much the same manner1 but the 
process was not  so completely finished4
 ,mixed with the carbon in soft coal we 
find  quite a good deal of other        
substances1 of which hydrogen forms the 
principal part4 ,this is what makes soft
 coal valuable in the making of         
illuminating gas4    ,when soft coal is 
heated in a closed receptacle a gas is  
formed which  will burn4 ,to show this  
we have only to take an ordinary clay   
pipe1  put a little piece of coal in the

 bowl1 close the top with wet clay1  and
 put the bowl part of the pipe in the   
fire4 ,when it is quite hot1 a  gas will
 be found coming out of the stem of the 
pipe1 which will1 when  lighted1 burn4  
,the ,story ,in a ,gas ,jet4    ,,how   
,,illuminating ,,gas ,,is ,,made        
,soft coal is heated in large tubes of  
fire clay called retorts1 and the  gas  
that is formed is then collected in a   
large tank and sent through  pipes to   
our homes after being purified4 ,the    
part of the coal that is  left consists 
largely of carbon and is what we call   
coke4    ,while the gas that comes      
directly from coal will burn if lighted1
 it is  not a desirable gas to burn in  
our homes1 because it contains a number 
of substances that should be eliminated 
before it is used for lighting4         
,how the ,gas ,is ,purified4    ,from   
the clay retorts the gas passes through 
horizontal pipes  containing water4     
,this cools it and takes out of it most 
of the tar  and water vapor that are    

driven off with the gas when formed4    
,these  substances settle in the water4 
,the gas then goes through a series  of 
curved pipes1 which are air cooled4     
,these pipes constitute what  is known  
as an atmospheric condenser4 ,from these
 the gas goes into  a series of         
receptacles containing wooden slat      
trays1 made up like  screens4 ,these    
receptacles are called the scrubbers1   
and they take out  of the gas the last  
traces of tar and some of the other     
compounds found  present4 ,the removal  
of the sulphur is very important1 for   
burning  sulphur gives off a gas which  
is not only extremely impure to breathe1
  but also injurious to the health4     
,from the scrubbers the gas goes on     
through pipes to the purifiers--boxes   
which contain wood shavings coated with 
iron rust upon which the sulphur  is    
deposited by chemical action4 ,at the   
same time the lime absorbs a  small     
quantity of carbonic acid gas1 which is 
formed with the other  gases4 ,from the 

purifiers the gas passes into the great 
iron tanks1 in  which it is stored until
 needed4    ,the gas in the tanks       
consists chiefly of hydrogen1 a number  
of  compounds of hydrogen and carbon1   
and a small amount of a compound  of    
carbon and oxygen containing less oxygen
 than carbonic acid gas1  known as      
carbon monoxide4 ,the hydrogen and      
carbon monoxide burn with  a very pale  
flame1 which gives but little light and 
much heat4 ,the  light-giving quality of
 the gas is found in the compounds of   
carbon and  hydrogen4 ,when these burn1 
the particles of carbon are heated white
 hot  and glow very brightly1 making a  
luminous flame4    ,there are1 of       
course1 some impurities in the purified 
gas4 ,these are  compounds containing   
sulphur and ammonia4 ,the quantities of 
these  substances1 however1 are so small
 that they are harmless2 but the        
compounds taken out in the process of   
purifying the gas are saved1 as         
considerable use is made of them4 ,the  

water used for washing the gas is       
heavily charged with ammonia and is1 in 
fact1 the chief source of the  ammonia  
sold by druggists4    ,illustration3    
,,how ,,the ,,impurities ,,are ,,taken  
,,from ,,the ,,gas    ,,purifying       
,,boxes4    ,the principal impurity to  
be removed is sulphur1 and this is      
accomplished by passing the gas through 
large iron rectangular boxes  filled    
with wood shavings coated with iron rust
 upon which the sulphur  is deposited by
 chemical action4    ,illustration3     
,,station ,,meter ,,house1 ,,showing    
,,construction ,,of ,,two ,,new         
#ac-;,,ft4 ,,meters4    ,illustration3  
,,how ,,the ,,meter ,,measures ,,the    
,,gas    ,fig #a    ,fig #c    ,fig4 #b4
    ,fig #d    ,gas first enters inlet  
pipe ,a 7,fig4 #c7 passing along ,a#a   
into  covered valve chamber ,b up       
through orifice ,o4 ,it then passes down
  through two of the valve ports at the 
same time1 ports ,c and ,d#a  7,fig4    
#b74 ,before ,c#a 7,fig4 #c7 has gotten 

to its extreme opening1 the  valve on   
the opposite side has moved to allow gas
 to pass down port  ,d4 ,on every       
quarter turn of tangent ,p1 one port is 
opening to  receive gas which passes    
down through the valve ports into the   
chambers  below 7see arrows on ,fig4    
#b71 which shows the gas passing into   
chamber  ,f4 ,the pressure being greater
 on the outside of the diaphragm1 forces
  the diaphragm inward and expels the   
gas from the inside of ,d#b through  ,d 
and passes over the cross-bar into the  
fork channel 7see ,fig4  #a74 ,on the   
other side gas is passing down through  
port ,d#a 7,fig4 #b7  entering diaphragm
 ,d#c1 the pressure being greater on the
 inside of  ,d#c therefore forces the   
diaphragm outward and expels the gas    
from  the outside of diaphragm ,d#c2 out
 through port ,c#a into fork channel    
same as shown in 7,fig4 #a74 ,all       
exhaust gas from the chambers below  is 
checked from entering the chamber ,b by 
the slide valve ,g and  ,g#a 7,fig4 #b74

 ,instead of passing into chamber ,b it 
passes over the  cross-bars between     
,d#a;,e#a and ,c#a;,e#a into the fork   
channels1 then to  outlet pipe ,n 7,fig4
 #c7 to house pipe4    ,,note3 ,all gas 
registered must pass through outlet ,n4 
,in addition to coal gas made in the way
 just described1 there is  another form 
of illuminating gas1 in the manufacture 
of which coal is  indirectly employed4  
,this gas1 known as water gas1 because  
it is formed  by the decomposition of   
water1 is produced by passing steam over
 red  hot carbon1 in the form of hard   
coal or coke4 ,when this is done1 the   
hydrogen in the steam is set free and   
the oxygen combines chemically  with the
 carbon1 to form the carbon monoxide1   
that was mentioned as  being present1 in
 small proportions1 in ordinary coal    
gas4 ,this carbon  monoxide is          
poisonous1 if much of it is breathed1   
and as it has no  odor it is difficult  
to detect when escaping4 ,a number of   
deaths have  resulted from water gas for

 this reason1 and in some states the    
laws  forbid its use for lighting       
purposes4    ,when water gas is used it 
must be enriched with some other        
substances  before it will yield much   
light4 ,you have already learned that   
neither  hydrogen nor carbon monoxide   
burns with a bright flame1 and you will 
see that water gas must have something  
added to it to fit it for  lighting     
purposes4 ,the substance usually added  
is the vapor of some  light1 volatile   
oil1 like gasoline4 ,this vapor is      
composed of compounds  of carbon and    
hydrogen1 and when it is mixed with the 
water gas it  forms a gas that yields a 
very satisfactory light2 and that may be
  produced more cheaply than common coal
 gas4    ,there remains one more form of
 illuminating gas which has been the    
subject of much discussion in recent    
years1 namely1 acetylene4 ,this is  a   
compound of carbon and hydrogen1 in     
which there is twelve times as  much    
carbon as hydrogen4 ,it has not been    

discovered recently1 for it  was known  
early in the nineteenth century1 but its
 possible use for  lighting purposes was
 not considered then4    ,attention was 
directed to it a few years ago by the   
discovery of a  substance called calcium
 carbide4 ,this is a compound of carbon 
and the  metal calcium1 formed by       
heating to a very high temperature a    
mixture  of coal and lime4 ,it has the  
peculiar property of decomposing1 when  
treated with water4 ,the calcium present
 combines with the oxygen and  half the 
hydrogen of the water1 to form common   
slacked lime or calcium  hydrate1 while 
the carbon and the remainder of the     
hydrogen combine to  form acetylene gas4
    ,the gas formed in this way needs no
 purifications before burning2 it  can  
be produced in small generators1 and the
 production can be checked  at any time4
 ,when burned in the proper form of     
burner it yields the  brightest of all  
gas flames4 ,for these reasons it is    
adapted for use in  small villages and  

for lighting single houses4 ,it is also 
frequently  used in magic lanterns1     
where a strong and steady light is      
necessary4  ,but the cost of producing  
acetylene in large quantities is greater
 than  that of coal gas1 and it seems   
extremely unlikely that it will ever be 
much used for lighting large cities and 
towns4          ,how the ,light ,gets   
,into the ,electric ,light ,bulb4       
,the incandescent lamp was invented in  
#ahgi and the patents were granted  to  
,thomas ,a4 ,edison4 ,there were1       
however1 a number of electrical men  who
 were working on the idea at this time  
who deserve a great deal of  credit for 
developing the lamp4    ,the            
incandescent lamp1 which is used chiefly
 for house lighting1  consists of a     
glass bulb from which the air has been  
exhausted by  pumps and chemical        
processes--in which there is a thin     
filament of  tungsten metal wound on    
what is called an arbor 7as shown in    
,fig4 #d74  ,this filament opposes high 

resistance to the passage of the current
  of electricity1 and1 consequently1 is 
heated to incandescence when  a current 
passes through it4 ,the removal of the  
air from the bulb  prevents the tungsten
 metal from burning up1 as it would do  
if oxygen  were present4    ,the        
filaments of the first lamps were made  
of vegetable fibre4 ,the next           
development was the cellulose process1  
which is still used in carbon  and      
metallized lamps1 although a number of  
processes are used now which  improve   
the filament considerably4    ,the      
discovery that tungsten metal could be  
used in incandescent lamps  was made in 
#aijf4 ,the first tungsten lamp         
manufactured in ,america was  made in   
#aijg4    ,illustration3 ,,the          
,,development ,,of ,,incandescent       
,,lamps    ,edison's first lamp with a  
filament of bamboo fibre4               
,illustration3 ,the carbon lamp--the    
oldest form of incandescent lamp4       
,illustration3 ,standard ,mazda         

lamp--the highest development of the    
incandescent lamp4    ,illustration3    
,the ,tantalum lamp developed just      
before the ,mazda lamp4                 
,illustration3 ,improved ,mazda lamp for
 lighting large areas--the most         
efficient lamp ever made4    ,the       
filaments of the first tungsten lamps   
were composed of two or  three short    
pieces of wire4 ,in #aiaj1 however1 a   
lamp with a continuous  tungsten        
filament was invented which increased   
the strength of the lamp  wonderfully4  
,mazda is a trade name given to all     
metal filament lamps made by the        
prominent ,american lamp manufacturers4 
,the reason that the ,mazda lamp is so  
much more efficient than the  carbon    
filament lamp is because the tungsten   
filament can be burned at  a much higher
 temperature than the present carbon    
filament1 without  seriously blackening 
the bulb4          ,how ,does an ,arc   
,light ,burn8      ,in the arc light a  
current of electricity is made to leap  

across from  the tip of one rod of      
carbon to the tip of another that is    
held a short  distance from the first4  
,in passing across the current does not 
follow  a straight path1 but makes a    
curve1 or arc1 whence comes the name    
8arc  light40    ,in this form of light 
the carbons are not enclosed in a space 
from  which air is excluded1            
consequently there is some destruction  
of the  carbon4 ,the light is due to the
 fact that the air between the tips of  
the carbon rods opposes a high degree of
 resistance to the current1 so  that the
 rods become intensely hot at their     
tips4 ,the high degree of  heat causes a
 slow burning of the carbon at the tips1
 and the small  particles that burn are 
heated white hot before they are        
consumed1 thus  producing light4    ,in 
order to keep the light from an arc     
light uniform in strength1 it is        
necessary to keep the tips of the carbon
 rods always the same distance  apart4  
,this is practically impossible1 and1 as

 a result1 the arc light  does not      
produce light that is well adapted for  
reading or for other  purposes that     
require constant use of the eyes4 ,the  
light produced by  the arc light is very
 powerful1 however1 and for that reason 
it is much  used for street lighting4   
,what ,are ,x-,rays8      ,it was       
discovered by ,professor ,conrad        
,roentgen in #ahie1 that if a  current  
of electricity be passed through a      
certain form of glass  bulb1 from which 
most of the air has been exhausted1 a   
disturbance  is produced in the ether   
that bears some resemblance to light    
waves4  ,for want of a better name to   
give to a disturbance which was not well
  understood1 ,roentgen called his      
discovery the ,x-,ray1 but it is now    
frequently called in his honor the      
,roentgen ray4 ,the nature of this      
disturbance is not yet known1 but as it 
does not affect the eye it  is not      
light4 ,these rays are produced with a  
glass vacuum tube and a  battery from   

which a current of electricity is sent  
through the tube4  ,the wires of the    
battery are connected with two          
electrodes1 one of  which consists of a 
concave disk of aluminum1 and the latter
 of a  flat disk of platinum4 ,the      
,x-rays are discharged in straight lines
 as  shown in the figure4 ,the most     
striking properties of the ,x-ray is its
  power to penetrate many substances    
that are impermeable to light4 ,all     
vegetable substances1 and the flesh of  
animals1 are penetrated by it  very     
readily4 ,glass1 metals1 bones1 and     
mineral substances generally  are opaque
 to it4 ,consequently1 when a limb1 or  
even the body of an  animal1 is exposed 
to ,x-rays they pass through the fleshy 
parts1  but are stopped by the bones4   
,certain substances have the property   
of glowing1 or becoming fluorescent1    
when exposed to the ,x-ray1 and  when   
screens of paper are coated with these  
substances they form a  convenient means
 of detecting the presence of ,x-rays4  

,by holding the  hand between a tube    
that is giving off ,x-rays and a screen 
of this  kind1 the bones of the hand    
will be outlined in shadow on the       
screen1  and the rest of the surface    
will glow with a greenish light4 ,if a  
bullet or other piece of metal has      
become imbedded in the body1 it may     
easily be located1 if it is not in a    
bone1 and the extent of an injury  to a 
bone or a joint may be plainly shown4   
,for this reason the ,x-ray is  now     
widely used by surgeons4          ,how  
,man ,learned to ,fight ,fire4          
,when you see the modern fire engine    
racing through the streets1 gongs       
ringing1 with the firemen hanging on and
 the police clearing the track1  you    
should remember that it has taken man a 
long time to learn as much  as he has   
about fighting fire4    ,no sooner did  
man learn to make fire than he found it 
necessary to  learn how to put it out4  
,the first fire apparatus of record is  
found in ,rome4 ,the ,gauls burned  the 

city in #cij ,b4 ,c41 each citizen was  
ordered to keep in his house a  8machine
 for extinguishing fire40 ,this         
consisted of a syringe4    ,the first   
record of an actual machine for putting 
out fire is by ,hero  of ,alexandria4   
,this contrivance1 a 8siphon used in    
conflagrations10 was  used in ,egypt    
about a hundred and fifty years before  
,christ4    ,the first record of what we
 would call a fire department is also   
found  in ,rome4 ,a disastrous fire1    
occurring in the reign of ,augustus     
called  his attention to the benefit of 
a regular fire brigade would bring4 ,so 
he organized a fire department4 ,it     
consisted of seven companies of a       
thousand men each4    ,the first real   
fire engines were used in #afcc at a big
 fire on ,london  ,bridge4 ,the first   
fire hose was invented by the two ,van  
der ,heydes in  #afgb4 ,one of the      
earliest engines used consisted of a    
tank drawn by two  horses1 which threw a
 stream an inch in diameter to a height 

of eighty  feet4 ,an improved engine was
 invented in #agba by ,newsham1 of      
,london1  and the first engine used in  
the ,united ,states was made by         
,newsham4 ,the  first steam fire engine 
was invented by ,john ,braithwaite1 of  
,london1 in  #ahbi4    ,fire alarms came
 into use in medieval times4 ,it was the
 custom1 in many  of the towns to have a
 watchman stationed on a high building  
whose duty  it was to look for fires4   
,as soon as he saw one1 he gave warning 
by  blowing a horn1 firing a gun1 or    
ringing a bell4    ,the first ,london   
fire department consisted of ten men of 
each ward4    ,the first municipal      
,american fire department was created in
 ,boston in  #afgh4 ,the fire engine was
 a hand pump bought in ,england4    ,the
 first leather fire hose was made in    
,america in #ahjh in  ,philadelphia4    
,rubber hose was first made in ,england 
at about #ahbj4          ,how ,did ,man 
,learn to ,cook ,his ,food8      ,the   
primitive man lived on raw food--raw    

flesh1 roots1 fruits and nuts4  ,there  
must have been a time when he lived thus
 because there was a time  when he had  
no fires and no knowledge of how to make
 a fire4 ,there are  no records1        
however1 to show when man learned that  
cooked food was best4    ,it must have  
come about almost simultaneously with   
his knowledge of  fire1 for the art of  
cooking goes back to the first knowledge
 of fire4  ,we do not know either how   
man learned to make a fire4 ,the        
earliest  nations of which we have any  
record seem to have been acquainted with
  fire and certain methods for producing
 it4 ,not only one but all early        
nations seem to have been possessed of  
this knowledge4 ,occasionally           
travellers have reported that people    
have been found who were  unacquainted  
with either fire or cooking1 but        
investigation has always  proven these  
reports unauthentic4 ,cookery has always
 been found in  practice where people   
knew about fire4    ,it is strange how  

man has lost track of the beginning of  
his knowledge  of fire and cookery1     
because fire represents the beginning of
 man's  culture and cookery goes hand in
 hand with it4    ,there are many       
legendary accounts of how man learned   
the value of  cooked food1 all of which 
are based upon the accidental burning or
  roasting of animals or birds4         
,perhaps1 therefore1 ,charles ,lamb's   
8,roast  ,pig0 story1 which we read with
 much laughter in our school readers1   
was  quite accurate from a historical   
standpoint4 ,according to the story  a  
man's house burned and he cried more    
over the fate of his pet pig  than about
 the loss of his house4 ,he kept his pig
 in the house you will  remember and as 
soon as the fire died away he rushed    
into the debris  to look for his pet    
pig1 hoping still to rescue him4 ,he    
found him in a  corner and made haste to
 pick him up and carry him into the open
 air4  ,but the poor pig had been       
roasted to a turn and was still hot4    

,the  man's fingers went right into the 
well done roast pig and were burned4    
,with a cry he withdrew his fingers and 
put them into his mouth to blow  on them
 and thus he secured his first taste of 
roast pig1 which he  found so much to   
his taste that he repeated the operation
 of licking  his fingers4    ,while this
 is but a story1 it is quite likely     
historically correct as  to this        
discovery of the value of cooked food to
 some of the early  nations4 ,no doubt  
,fire and ,cookery were developed       
together4    ,when man had learned to   
make fire1 he found that it often got   
beyond  his control4 ,here and there he 
would set the woods on fire quite       
without intention perhaps1 but with     
damaging results4 ,he would watch  the  
conflagration and1 when it was passed1  
he would find the baked  bodies of deer 
or other animals which had been overcome
 by the fire  and learned that baked    
meats were good to the taste and more   
easily  digestible than raw meats4      

,why ,does a ,sponge ,hold ,water8      
,a sponge will hold water because it    
has1 on account of the plan on  which it
 is grown the power of capillary        
attraction4 ,the sponge is made  up of  
little hair like tubes4 ,if you take a  
glass tube1 open at both  ends and      
immerse one end in a vessel of water1   
you will find that the  water will rise 
in the tube to a level higher than the  
surface of the  water in the vessel4    
,the smaller the hole through the glass 
tube1 the  higher the water will rise4  
,this is caused by the cohesion of the  
water  against the inside surface of the
 hole in the tube and causes a pull     
upward4 ,the water is pulled up into the
 tube because the surface of the  tube  
has a greater cohesive attraction for   
the water than for the air  which was in
 it and the air is forced out partly4   
,some liquids1 such  as mercury will not
 rise in the same way1 but is depressed 
in a glass  tube1 since it cannot adhere
 to glass4 ,mercury however will run or 

rise  in a tin tube1 just as water in a 
glass tube1 because it adheres to the   
tin4    ,now a sponge is merely a lot of
 capillary tubes which have the same    
power of pulling up the water as the    
glass tube4 ,the tubes in a sponge  are 
so fine that the water will rise to the 
entire length of the tubes4  ,in        
addition1 this adhesive quality of water
 to the inside of the tubes  in the     
sponge is so strong1 that the sponge can
 be taken entirely out  of the water and
 the water will remain in it4           
,why ,is the ,right ,hand ,stronger     
,than the ,left8      ,the right hand is
 stronger than the left only in case you
 are  right-handed4 ,if you have the    
habit of being left-handed1 your left   
hand becomes stronger4 ,if you are truly
 ambidextrous1 your strength  will be   
the same in both hands4    ,we get our  
strength by moving the various parts of 
the body1 i4 e41 by  using them4 ,when a
 little baby stretches his arms and legs
 and kicks1  he is only exercising      

naturally1 making the blood circulate4  
,you can prove that the fact that your  
right hand is stronger than your  left  
because of the greater use or exercise  
you give it1 by tying your  right arm   
close to your side and keeping it in    
that condition without  using it for    
several weeks4 ,when you remove the     
bands which held it  tight1 you will    
find your arm has lost its strength and 
that now your  left hand is stronger4   
,if1 however1 you are left-handed and   
tie that  hand down for the same length 
of time1 your right hand would be the   
stronger4 ,this shows that the strength 
we have in our arms and legs1  and other
 parts of the body1 is developed by     
using them and giving them  rational    
exercise4 ,of course1 it is possible to 
over-use a part of  the body1 but you   
will notice that nature always gives us 
a warning by  making us tired before we 
come to the point where further use of  
that  particular part of the body would 
cause injury4          ,why ,do ,my     

,muscles ,get ,sore ,when ,i ,play ,ball
 ,in the ,spring8      ,they do this    
because you have probably not been      
exercising the  particular muscles which
 you employ in throwing a ball enough in
 the  winter to keep you in good        
condition4 ,muscles which have been     
developed  through use or work need more
 work to keep them in condition4 ,in a  
sense certain of the muscles which you  
employ in playing ball have  been       
treated during the winter very much as  
if you had tied them down1  as we       
suggested you might do with your arm4   
,you have not been using  them--they    
have not been doing enough work1 and    
they begin to lose  their strength when 
for any period they have not been used  
enough4 ,the  soreness that you feel is 
the natural condition that arises when  
you  begin to use a muscle that has been
 idle for some time4          ,why ,does
 a ,barber's ,pole ,have ,stripes8      
,in early years the barber not only cut 
hair and shaved people1 but he  was also

 a surgeon4 ,he was a surgeon to the    
extent that he bled people4  ,in early  
times our knowledge of surgery was      
practically limited to  blood letting4  
,a great many of the ailments were      
attributed to too much  blood in the    
body1 and when anything got wrong with a
 man or woman1 the  first thing they    
thought of was to reduce the amount of  
blood in the  body by taking some of it 
out4    ,the town barber was the man who
 did this for people and his pole       
represented the sign of his business4   
,the round ball at the top which was    
generally gilded represents the         
barbering end of the business4 ,it stood
 for the brass basin which the  barber  
used to prepare lather for shaving      
customers4    ,the pole itself          
represents the staff which people who   
were having blood  taken out of their   
bodies held during the operation4 ,the  
two spiral  ribbons1 one red and one    
white1 which are painted spirally on the
 pole1  represented the bandages4 ,the  

white one stood for the bandage which   
was  put on before the blood was taken  
out and the red one the bandage which   
was used for binding up the wound when  
the operation was completed4            
,how ,was the ,flag ,made8      ,the    
design of our flag was outlined in a    
congressional resolution  passed on     
,june #ad1 #aggg1 which stated 8that the
 flag of the thirteen  ,united ,states  
be thirteen alternate stripes red and   
white2 that the  union be thirteen      
stars1 white in a blue field1           
representing the new  constellation40   
,after ,vermont and ,kentucky had been  
admitted to the  ,union1 ,congress made 
a decree in #agid that after ,may #a1   
#agie1 8the flag  of the ,united ,states
 be fifteen stripes alternate red and   
white and  that the ,union be fifteen   
stars white on a blue field40 ,this made
 the  stars and stripes again equal and 
it was the plan to add a new stripe  and
 a new star for each new state admitted 
to the ,union4 ,very soon1  however1 it 

was realized that the flag would be too 
large if we kept on  adding one stripe  
for each new state admitted to the      
,union1 so on ,april  #d1 #ahah1        
,congress passed a resolution reducing  
the number of stripes to  thirteen once 
more to represent the original colonies1
 and to add only  a new star to the     
field when a new state was admitted to  
the ,union4 ,at  this time there were   
twenty states in the ,union4 ,since that
 time none  of the flags of the ,united 
,states have more than thirteen stripes 
while  a new star has been added for    
each state until now we have forty-eight
  stars1 representing the forty-eight   
states4          ,why ,are ,some ,guns  
,called ,gatling ,guns8      ,a gatling 
gun is a kind of gun invented by        
,richard ,jordan ,gatling  in #ahfa and 
#ahfb and so it receives its name from  
its inventor4 ,the  original gatling gun
 had ten parallel barrels and was       
capable of firing  #a1jjj shots per     
minute when operated by hand power4 ,it 

was discharged  by turning a crank and  
would shoot in proportion to the        
rapidity with  which the crank was      
turned4 ,it was at first not a huge     
success but has  from time to time been 
improved so that the crank is now turned
 by  electric power and about fifteen   
hundred shots per minute can be fired   
with it4          ,how ,did ,hobson's   
,choice ,originate8      ,as used today1
 this expression means a choice with    
only one thing to  choose4 ,tobias      
,hobson was a livery stable keeper at   
,cambridge1 ,england1  during the reign 
of ,king ,charles ,i4 ,he kept a stable 
of forty horses  which he hired out by  
the hour or day1 and was famous in his  
day so far  as a livery stable keeper   
could be4    ,when you went to ,hobson  
to hire a horse1 you had the privilege  
of  looking over all the horses in the  
stable to decide which one you would    
like to drive1 but he always made you   
take the one in the stall nearest  the  
door4 ,in this way all the horses in the

 stable were worked in turn  and while  
you might pretend to choose your own    
horse1 you really had no  choice--you   
had to take the one nearest the door or 
none4 ,as soon as a  horse was hired1   
the other horses in the stable were     
moved up1 each one  to the stall next   
towards the door so there was always a  
horse in the  stall nearest the door4   
,why ,do ,they ,call ,it a ,honeymoon8  
,the word ,honeymoon which is commonly  
used to describe the first  few weeks   
after marriage1 has always meant the    
first month or moon  after marriage1 but
 does not have any reference to the     
month or moon  excepting as that        
describes a certain period of time4     
,the word originated in an old custom   
quite common among newly married        
couples among the ancient ,teutons of   
drinking a kind of wine made from  honey
 during the first thirty days after     
being married4    ,in these days newly  
married couples generally take a trip   
away from  home for a short or longer   

period after their wedding day and this 
is  called the honeymoon whether it is  
but a few days or three months or  more4
 ,the custom of drinking wine made from 
honey has been abandoned so  that the   
word is now used in an entirely         
different sense than formerly4          
,why ,is a ,horseshoe ,said to ,bring   
,good ,luck8      ,the luck of the      
horseshoe comes from three lucky things 
always  connected with horseshoes4      
,these consist of the following facts3  
,it is  the shape of a crescent2 it is a
 portion of a horse2 it is made of iron4
    ,each of these has from time        
immemorial been considered lucky4       
,anything  in the shape of a crescent   
was always considered a thing to bring  
luck4  ,from the earliest times1 too1 at
 least since the world knew something   
of the qualities of iron1 iron has been 
regarded as a thing to give  protection 
and incidentally that would involve good
 luck4 ,and lastly  the horse1 since the
 days of ,english mythology1 has been   

regarded as  a luck animal4 ,when1 then1
 we had a combination of the three--the 
crescent1 the iron and the horse in one 
object1 it became a true lucky  sign in 
the eyes of the people4          ,some  
,wonders of the ,human ,body4           
,there are said to be more than two     
million little openings in the skins  of
 our bodies to serve as outlets for an  
equal number of sweat glands4  ,the body
 contains more than two hundred bones4  
,it is said that as much  blood as is in
 the entire body passes through the     
heart every minute1  i4e41 all the blood
 in the body goes in and out of the     
heart once every  minute4 ,the lung     
capacity of the average person is about 
#cbe cubic  inches4    ,with every      
breath you inhale about two-thirds of a 
pint of fresh air  and exhale an equal  
amount if you breathe normally4    ,the 
stomach of the average adult person has 
a capacity of about five  pints and     
manufactures about nine pounds of       
gastric juice daily4    ,there are over 

five hundred muscles in the body all of 
which should be  exercised daily to keep
 you in the best condition4 ,the average
 adult  human heart weighs from eight to
 twelve ounces and it beats about       
#ajj1jjj times every twenty-four hours4 
,the perspiration system in the  body   
has only very small ducts or pipes1 but 
there are about nine miles  of them4    
,the average person takes about one ton 
of food and drink each  year4 ,we       
breathe about eighteen times a minute1  
which amounts to about  #c1jjj cubic    
feet an hour4          ,where ,did the  
,expression 8,kick the ,bucket0         
,originate8      ,the expression        
originally came from the method used in 
stringing a  hog after killing it4 ,the 
pig after being slaughtered was hung by 
the  hind legs4 ,a piece of bent wood   
was passed in behind the tendons of     
each of the hind legs and the pig hung  
up by this stick of wood much  like we  
hang up clothes with a clothes hanger   
today4 ,the piece of wood  was called a 

bucket4 ,the 8bucket0 part of the       
expression does not1  therefore1 refer  
to a bucket at all but to this bent     
piece of wood4 ,all  are not agreed on  
this explanation1 however1 as it does   
not explain  where the 8kick0 comes in4 
,many investigators hold to the belief  
that  a man named ,bolsover was the     
first to 8kick the bucket0 literally and
  that the expression came from the     
manner of his death4 ,he stood on a     
pail or bucket while arranging to hang  
himself by tying a rope around  his neck
 and to a beam which he could not reach 
without standing on the  bucket4 ,when  
ready he kicked the bucket out from     
under his feet and  so succeeded in     
carrying out his own wishes and in so   
doing coined a  famous expression which 
still means 8to die40          ,how ,did
 the ,word 8,news0 ,originate8      ,the
 word 8,news0 which was created to      
describe what newspapers are  supposed  
to print1 came from the four letters    
which have for ages  been used as       

abbreviations of the directions of the  
compass4 ,in this  ,n stands for ,north1
 ,e for ,east1 ,s for ,south and ,w for 
,west1 and in  illustrating the points  
of the compass the following diagram has
 long  been used3         ,n            
,w----,e              ,s    ,the        
earliest newspapers always printed this 
sign on the front pages of  their papers
 in every issue4 ,this was done to      
indicate that the paper  printed all the
 happenings from four quarters of the   
globe4    ,later on some enterprising   
newspaper man who may have forgotten the
  original significance of the letter in
 the diagram1 arranged the  letters ,n4 
,e4 ,w4 ,s4 in a straight line at the   
head of the paper and  that is how what 
we read in the papers came to be known  
as news4    ,almost one-half the whole  
number of newspapers published in the   
world  are published in the ,united     
,states and ,canada4          ,who ,made
 the ,first ,umbrella8      ,no one     
knows who made the first umbrella but we

 know that ,jonas ,hanway  of ,london   
was the first man to carry one over his 
head to keep off the  rain4             
,umbrellas seem to have been known as   
far back as the days of ,ninevah  and   
,persepolis1 for representations of them
 appear frequently in the  sculptures of
 those early days4 ,the women of ancient
 ,rome and ,greece  carried them but the
 men never did4    ,mr4 ,hanway is said 
to be the first man who walked in the   
streets of  ,london with an open        
umbrella over his head to keep off the  
rain4 ,he is  said to have used it for  
thirty years before they came into      
general use  for this purpose4          
,illustration3 ,,how ,,man ,,learned    
,,to ,,tell ,,time    ,the first picture
 shows what was probably man's first    
method of telling  time4 ,the principle 
was the same as that of the sun-dial4   
,it provides  to-day an accurate method 
of telling time4    ,of course1 man in  
the early days needed to find some other
 means of  noting the passing of time at

 night1 for then the sun cast no shadow 
for him4 ,his ingenuity taught him to   
make a candle which was light and  dark 
in alternate rings1 and as each section 
burned he made a mark to  record the    
passing of a certain length of time4    
,before candles were  invented he used a
 rope in which he tied knots at equal   
spaces apart  and which he burned as    
shown in the third picture4             
,the ,story in a ,time ,piece      ,what
 ,is ,time8    ,time1 as a separate     
entity1 has not yet been defined in     
language4  ,definitions will be found to
 be merely explanations of the sense in 
which we use the word in matters of     
practical life4 ,no human being can     
tell how long a minute is2 only that it 
is longer than a second and  shorter    
than an hour4 ,in some sense we can     
think of a longer or shorter  period of 
time1 but this is merely comparative4   
,the difference between  #ej and #ge    
steps a minute in marching is clear to  
us1 but note that we  introduce motion  

and space before we can get a conception
 of time as a  succession of events1 but
 time1 in itself1 remains elusive4      
,in time measures we strive for a       
uniform motion of something and this    
implies equal spaces in equal times2 so 
we here assume just what we  cannot     
explain1 for space is as difficult to   
define as time4 ,time  cannot be        
8squared0 or used as a multiplier or    
divisor4 ,only numbers  can be so used2 
so when we speak of 8the square of the  
time0 we mean  some number which we have
 arbitrarily assumed to represent it4   
,this  becomes plain when we state that 
in calculations relating to pendulums1  
for example1 we may use seconds and     
inches--minutes and feet--or  seconds   
and meters--and the answer will come out
 right in the units  which we have      
assumed4 ,still more1 numbers themselves
 have no meaning  till they are applied 
to something1 and here we are applying  
them to  time1 space and motion2 so we  
are trying to explain three abstractions

  by a fourth6 ,but1 happily1 the       
results of these assumptions and        
calculations are borne out in practical 
human life1 and we are not  compelled to
 settle the deep question as to whether 
fundamental  knowledge is possible to   
the human mind4      ,what ,was ,man's  
,first ,division of ,time8              
,evidently1 man began by considering the
 day as a unit and did not  include the 
night in his time-keeping for a long    
period4 8,and the  evening and the      
morning were the first day10 ,gen4 i1   
#e2 8,evening and  morning and at       
noonday10 ,ps4 lv1 #ag1 divides the day 
78sun up07 in two  parts4 8,fourth part 
of a day10 ,neh4 ix1 #c1 shows another  
advance4 ,then  comes1 8are there not   
twelve hours in a day10 ,john xi1 #i4   
,the 8eleventh  hour10 ,matt4 xx1 #a to 
#ab1 shows clearly that sunset was #ab  
o'clock4 ,a  most remarkable feature of 
this #ab-;hour day1 in the ,new         
,testament1 is  that the writers        
generally speak of the third1 sixth and 

ninth hours1  ,acts ii1 #ae2 iii1 #a2 x1
 #i4 ,this is extremely interesting1 as 
it shows  that the writers still thought
 in quarter days 7,neh4 ix1 #c7 and had 
not yet acquired the #ab-;hour          
conception given to them by the ,romans4
  ,they thought in quarter days even    
when using the #ab-;hour numerals6      
,note1 further1 that references are to  
8hours02 so it is evident that  in ,new 
,testament times they did not need      
smaller subdivisions4 8,about  the third
 hour0 shows the mental attitude4 ,that 
they had no conception  of our minutes1 
seconds and fifth-seconds becomes quite 
plain when  we notice that they jumped  
down from the hour to nowhere1 in such  
expressions as 8in an instant--in the   
twinkling of an eye40    ,before this   
the night had been divided into three   
watches 7,judges vii1  #ai74 ,poetry to 
this day uses the 8hours0 and the       
8watches0 as symbols4    ,this twelve   
hours of daylight gave very variable    
hours in latitudes  some distance from  

the equator1 being long in summer and   
short in  winter4 ,the amount of human  
ingenuity expended on time measures so  
as  to divide the time from sunrise to  
sunset into twelve equal parts is       
almost beyond belief4 ,in               
,constantinople1 to-day1 this is used1  
but in a  rather imperfect manner1 for  
the clocks are modern and run           
twenty-four  hours uniformly2 so the    
best they can do is to set them to mark 
twelve  at sunset4 ,this necessitates   
setting to the varying length of the    
days1  so that the clocks appear to be  
sometimes more and sometimes less  than 
six hours ahead of ours4 ,a clock on the
 tower at the ,sultan's  private mosque 
gives the impression of being out of    
order and about six  hours ahead1 but it
 is running correctly to their system4  
,hotels in  ,constantinople often show  
two clocks1 one of them to our twelve   
o'clock  noon system4 ,evidently the    
,jewish method of ending a day at sunset
 is  the same and explains the command1 

8let not the sun go down upon thy       
wrath10 which we might read1 8do not    
carry your anger over to another  day40 
,this simple line of steps in dividing  
the day and night is taken  principally 
from the ,bible because every one can   
easily look up the  passages quoted and 
many more1 while quotations from books  
not in  general use would not be so     
clear4      ,how ,did ,man ,begin to    
,measure ,time8    ,now1 as to the      
methods of measuring time1 we must use  
circumstantial  evidence for the        
prehistoric period4 ,the rising and the 
going down of  the sun--the lengthening 
shadows1 etc41 must come first1 and we  
are on  safe ground here1 for savages   
still use primitive methods like setting
  up a stick and marking its shadow so  
that a party trailing behind can        
estimate the distance the leaders are   
ahead by the changed position of  the   
shadow4 ,men notice their shortening and
 lengthening shadows to this  day4 ,when
 the shadow of a man shortens more and  

more slowly till it  appears to be      
fixed1 the observer knows it is noon1   
and when it shows  the least observable 
lengthening then it is just past noon4  
,now1 it is  a remarkable fact that this
 crude method of determining noon is    
just  the same as 8taking the sun0 to   
determine noon at sea4 ,noon is the time
  at which the sun reaches his highest  
point on any given day4                 
,illustration3 ,the ,sun-dial is only an
 improvement on the stick which  cast a 
shadow which enabled man to tell the    
time of day at any hour4  ,the shadow   
moves around the dial1 falling on the   
numbers on the circle4      ,how ,is the
 ,time ,calculated at ,sea8    ,at sea  
this is determined generally by a       
sextant1 which simply measures  the     
angle between the horizon and the sun4  
,the instrument is applied a  little    
before noon and the observer sees the   
sun creeping upward slower  and slower  
till a little tremor or hesitation      
appears1 indicating that  the sun has   

reached his height--noon4 ,oh6 you wish 
to know if the  observer is likely to   
make a mistake8 ,yes1 and when accurate 
local time  is important1 several       
officers on a large ship will take the  
meridian  passage at the same time and  
average their readings1 so as to reduce 
the 8personal error40 ,all of which is  
merely a greater degree of  accuracy    
than that of the man who observes his   
shadow4    ,the gradual development of  
the primitive shadow methods culminated 
in  the modern sun-dial4 ,the 8dial of  
,ahas0 7,isa4 xxxviii1 #h71 on which    
the sun went back ten 8degrees10 is     
often referred to1 but in one of  the   
revised editions of the ,bible the sun  
went back ten 8steps40 ,this  becomes   
extremely interesting when we find that 
in ,india there still  remains an       
immense dial built with steps instead of
 hour lines4    ,in a restored flower   
garden1 within one of the large houses  
in the  ruins of ,pompeii1 may be seen a
 sun-dial of the ,armillary type1       

presumably in its original position4 ,it
 looks as if the plane of the  equator  
and the position of the earth's axis    
must have been known to  the maker4     
,both these dials were in use before the
 beginning of our era and were  covered 
by the great eruption of ,vesuvius in   
#gi ,a4,d41 which destroyed  ,pompeii   
and ,herculaneum4    ,,three ,,great    
,,steps ,,in ,,measuring ,,time         
,modern sun-dials differ only in being  
more accurately made and a few          
8curiosity0 dials added4 ,the necessity 
for time during the night1 as  man's    
life became a little more complicated1  
necessitated the invention  of time     
machines4 ,the 8clepsydra10 or          
water-clock1 was probably the  first4 ,a
 ,french writer has dug up some old     
records putting it back  to ,hoang-ti   
#bfgi ,b4,c41 but it appears to have    
been certainly in use  in ,china in     
#aajj ,b4,c41 so we will be satisfied   
with that date4 ,in  presenting a       
subject to the young student it is      

sometimes advisable to  use round       
numbers to give a simple comprehension  
and then leave him to  find the         
overlapping of dates and methods as he  
advances4 ,keeping this  in mind1 the   
following table may be used to give an  
elementary hint of  the three great     
steps in time measuring4    ,shadow     
time1 #bjjj to #ajjj ,b4,c4    ,dials   
and water-clocks1 #ajjj ,b4,c4 to #ajjj 
,a4,d4    ,clocks and watches1 #ajjj to 
#bjjj ,a4,d4    ,gear-wheel clocks and  
watches have here been pushed forward to
 #bjjj  ,a4,d41 as they may last to that
 time1 but no doubt we will supersede   
them4 ,at the present time science is   
just about ready to say that a  time    
measurer consisting of wheels and       
pinions--a driving power and a          
regulator in the form of a pendulum or  
balance1 is a clumsy contrivance  and   
that we ought to do better very soon4   
,it is remarkable how few are aware that
 the simplest form of sun-dial  is the  
best1 and that1 as a regulator of our   

present clocks1 it is  good within one  
or two minutes4 ,no one need be without 
a 8noon-mark0  sun-dial2 that is1 every 
one may have the best of all dials4     
,take a  post or any straight object    
standing 8plumb10 or best of all the    
corner  of a building4 ,in the case of  
the post1 or tree trunk1 a stone 7shown 
in solid black7 may be set in the       
ground2 but for the building a line  may
 often be cut across a flagstone of the 
footpath4 ,many methods may  be employed
 to get this noon mark1 which is simply 
a north and south  line3 ,viewing the   
pole star1 using a compass 7if the local
 variation  is known7 or the old method 
of finding the time at which the shadow 
of  a pole is shortest4 ,but the best   
practical way in this day is to use a   
watch set to local time and make the    
mark at #ab o'clock4    ,illustration3  
,drawing by ,james ,arthur4    ,a form  
of ,sun-dial that is as good to-day as  
any dial for determining  noon4    ,on  
four days of the year the sun is right  

and your mark may be set at  #ab on     
these days1 but you may use an almanac  
and look in the column  marked 8mean    
time at noon0 or 8sun on meridian40 ,for
 example1 suppose  on the bright day    
when you are ready to place your noon   
mark you read  in this column #aa4ej1   
then when your watch shows #aa4ej make  
your noon  mark to the shadow and it    
will be right for all time to come4     
,owing  to the fact that there are not  
an even number of days in a year1 it    
follows that on any given yearly date at
 noon the earth is not at the  same     
place in its elliptical orbit1 and the  
correction of this by the  leap years   
causes the equation table to vary in    
periods of four years4  ,the centennial 
leap years cause another variation of   
#djj years1 etc41  but these variations 
are less than the error in reading a    
dial4      ,how ,did ,men ,tell ,time   
,when the ,sun ,cast ,no ,shadows8      
,illustration3      ,photo by ,james    
,arthur4    ,,water ,,clocks ,,for      

,,telling ,,time    ,this picture shows 
the hour-glass or sand-glass4 ,it is    
really a type of  water-clock1 being    
based on the same principle4 ,the upper 
glass bulb  was filled with sand and    
this sand fell through a little hole    
between  the two bulbs4 ,when the sand  
had all gone through1 the glass was     
turned  upside down and the operation   
repeated4    ,,time-,,boy ,,of          
,,india4--,,water-,,clock4    ,the      
,water-clock consisted of a large vessel
 filled with water1 on the  surface of  
which was placed a smaller vessel1      
really a gong1 with a  hole in the      
bottom4 ,the water gradually filled the 
smaller vessel1 and  it sank4 ,the      
,time-boy sat beside the ,water-clock   
and as soon as the  vessel sank he      
fished it out1 emptied it1 struck the   
gong one or more  times and set it on   
the water again4    ,during the night   
and also in cloudy weather the sun-dial 
was useless1  and we read that the      
priests of the temples and monks of more

 modern  times 8went out to observe the 
stars0 to make a guess at the time  of  
night4 ,the most prominent type after   
the shadow devices was the              
8water-clock0 or 8clepsydra10 but many  
other methods were used1 such as        
candles1 oil lamps1 and in comparatively
 late times1 the sand-glass4  ,the      
fundamental principle of all            
water-clocks is the escape of water     
from a vessel through a small hole4 ,it 
is evident that such a vessel  would    
empty itself each time it is filled in  
very nearly the same  time4 ,the reverse
 of this has been used1 as shown in the 
picture of  the ,time-boy of ,india4 ,he
 sat in front of a large vessel of water
 and  floated a bronze cup having a     
small hole in its bottom in this large  
vessel1 and as the water ran in through 
the hole the cup sank4 ,the boy  then   
fished it up and struck one or more     
blows on it as a gong4 ,this he         
continued and a rude division of time   
was obtained--while the boy kept  awake6

    ,illustration3 ,drawing from        
description by ,james ,arthur4    ,the  
8,hon-woo-et-low10 ,canton1 ,china4     
,copper jars dropping water4    ,the    
most interesting of all water-clocks was
 undoubtedly the 8copper  jars dropping 
water10 in ,canton1 ,china1 where it can
 still be seen4  ,referring to the      
picture herewith and reading the four   
,chinese  characters downwards the      
translation is 8,canton ,city40 ,to the 
left and  still downwards1              
8,hon-woo-et-low10 which is1 8,copper   
jars dropping  water40 ,educated        
,chinamen inform me that it is over     
#cjjj years old4  ,the little open      
building or tower in which it stands is 
higher than  surrounding buildings4 ,it 
is1 therefore1 reasonably safe to state 
that  the ,chinese had a weather and    
time station over #ajjj years before our
  era4    ,illustration3      ,photo by 
,james ,arthur4    ,,tower ,,of ,,the   
,,winds4    ,this tower is located at   
,athens1 ,greece4 ,it was built about   

#ej ,b4,c4  ,it is octagonal in shape   
and had at one time sun-dials on each of
 its  eight sides4 ,on top was a bronze 
weather vane from which it derived its  
name4    ,a ,,primitive ,,twelve-,,hour 
,,clock    ,it is a #ab-;hour clock1    
consisting of four copper jars partially
 built  in masonry forming a stair-like 
structure4 ,commencing at the top jar   
each one drops into the next downward   
until the water reaches the solid       
bottom jar4 ,in this lowest one a float1
 8the bamboo stick10 is placed  and     
indicates the height of the water1 and  
thus in a rude way gives the  time4 ,it 
is said to be set morning and evening by
 dipping the water  from jar #d to jar  
#a1 so it runs #ab hours of our time4   
,what are the  uses of jars #b and #c1  
since the water simply enters them and  
drips out  again8 ,no information could 
be obtained1 but ,i venture an          
explanation  and hope the reader can do 
better1 as we are all of a family and   
there is no jealousy4 ,when the top jar 

is filled for a #ab-;hour run  it would 
drip out too fast during the first six  
hours and too slow  during the second   
six hours1 on account of the varying    
8head0 of water4  ,now1 the spigot of   
jar #b could be set so that it would    
gain water  during the first six hours1 
and lose during the second six hours1   
and  thus equalize a little by splitting
 the error of jar #a in two parts4      
,similarly1 these two errors of jar #b  
could be again split by jar #c  making  
four small variations in lowest jar1    
instead of one large error  in the flow 
of jar #a4 ,this could be extended to a 
greater number of  jars1 another jar    
making eight smaller errors4    ,the    
best thing the young student could do at
 this point would be to  grasp the      
remarkable fact that the clock is not an
 old machine1 since  is covers only the 
comparatively short period from #acfd to
 the present  day4 ,compared with the   
period of man's history and inventions  
it is  of yesterday4 ,strictly speaking1

 as we use the word clock1 its age  from
 ,de ,vick to the modern astronomical is
 only about #edj years4 ,if we  take the
 year #affj1 we find that it represents 
the center of modern  improvements in   
clocks1 a few years before and after    
that date includes  the pendulum1 the   
anchor and dead beat escapements1 the   
minute and  second hands1 the circular  
balance and the hair spring1 along with 
minor improvements4 ,since the end of   
that period1 which we may make  #agjj1  
no fundamental invention has been added 
to clocks and watches4  ,this becomes   
impressive when we remember that the    
last #bjj years have  produced more     
inventions than all previous known      
history--but only  minor improvements in
 clocks6 ,the application of electricity
 for  winding1 driving1 or regulating   
clocks is not fundamental1 for the      
time-keeping is done by the master clock
 with its pendulum and wheels1  just as 
by any grandfather's clock #bjj years   
old4 ,this broad survey of  time        

measuring does not permit us to go into 
minute mechanical details4              
,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,modern   
,,clock      ,drawing by ,james ,arthur4
    ,modern clocks commence with ,de    
,vick's of #acfd1 which is the first    
unquestioned clock consisting of toothed
 wheels and containing the  fundamental 
features of our present clocks4         
,references are often quoted  back to   
about #ajjj ,a4,d41 but the words       
translated 8clocks0 were used  for bells
 and dials at that date2 so we are      
forced to consider the ,de  ,vick clock 
as the first till more evidence is      
obtained4 ,it has been  pointed out1    
however1 that this clock could hardly   
have been invented  all at once2 and    
therefore it is probable that many      
inventions leading  up to it have been  
lost to history4 ,that part of a clock  
which does the  ticking is called the   
8escapement10 and the oldest form known 
is the  8,verge40    ,,earliest ,,clocks
 ,,had ,,no ,,dials ,,or ,,hands        

,scattered references in old writings   
make it reasonably certain that  from   
about #ajjj ,a4,d4 to #acjj ,a4,d4 bells
 were struck by machines  regulated with
 this verge escapement1 thus showing    
that the striking  part of a clock is   
older than the clock itself4 ,it seems  
strange to us  to say that many of the  
earlier clocks were strikers only1 and  
had no  dials or hands1 just as if you  
turned the face of your clock to the    
wall and depended on the striking for   
the time4    ,illustration3      ,photo 
by ,james ,arthur4    ,,english         
,,blacksmith',s ,,clock4    ,a good idea
 of the old church clocks may be        
obtained from the picture  herewith4    
,tradition has followed it down as the  
8,english ,blacksmith's  ,clock40 ,it   
has the very earliest application of the
 pendulum4 ,the  pendulum is less than  
#c inches long and is hung on the verge1
 or pallet  axle1 and beats #bbb per    
minute4 ,this clock may be safely put at
 #bej  years old1 and contains nothing  

invented since that date4 ,wheels are   
cast brass and all teeth laboriously    
filed out by hand4 ,pinions are  solid  
with the axles1 or 8staffs10 and also   
filed out by hand4 ,it is  put together1
 generally by mortise1 tenon and cotter1
 but it has four  original screws all   
made by hand with the file4 ,how did he 
thread the  holes for these screws8     
,probably made a tap by hand as he made 
the  screws4 ,but the most remarkable   
feature is the fact that no lathe was   
used in forming any part--all staffs1   
pinions and pivots being filed by  hand4
 ,this is simply extraordinary when it  
is pointed out that a little  dead      
center lathe is the simplest machine in 
the world1 and he could  have made one  
in less than a day and saved himself    
weeks of hard labor4  ,it is probable   
that he had great skill in hand work and
 that learning  to use a lathe would    
have been a great and tedious effort for
 him4 ,so  we have a complete striking  
clock made by a man so poor that he had 

only his anvil1 hammer and file4 ,the   
weights are hung on cords as thick  as  
an ordinary lead-pencil and pass over   
pulleys having spikes set  around them  
to prevent the cords from slipping4 ,the
 weights descend #g  feet in #ab hours1 
so they must be pulled up--not wound    
up--twice a day4  ,the single hour hand 
is a work of art and is cut through like
 lace4  ,public clocks may still be seen
 in ,europe with only one hand4 ,many   
have  been puzzled by finding that old1 
rudely made clocks often have fine      
dials1 but this is not remarkable when  
we state that art and engraving  had    
reached a high level before the days of 
clocks4    ,illustration3 ,,the         
,,largest ,,clock ,,in ,,the ,,world    
,courtesy of ,colgate and ,company4     
,,the ,,hands ,,of ,,the ,,largest      
,,clock ,,in ,,the ,,world--,,on ,,the  
,,roof ,,of ,,the ,,colgate  ,,factory4 
,this big clock faces the giant office  
buildings of down-town ,new ,york4  ,its
 dial is #ch feet in diameter and can be

 read easily at a distance  of three    
miles1 so that passengers on the        
incoming liners pick out the  clock as  
one of their first sights of ,new ,york4
    ,the next largest clock 7on the     
,metropolitan ,tower7 is #bf feet in    
diameter2 the ,westminster clock of     
,london1 #bb feet4    ,the great clock  
weighs approximately #f tons4 ,the      
minute hand1 #bj feet  long1 travels at 
its point #bc inches every minute2 more 
than one-half  mile each day4    ,the   
bed of this clock is #d feet in length1 
the wheels and gears being  made of     
bronze and pinions of hardened steel4   
,the time train occupies  about         
one-third of the bedplate1 and has a    
main time wheel measuring  #ah inches in
 diameter4 ,this train is equipped with 
,dennison's double  three-legged gravity
 escapement1 which was invented by ,sir 
,edmund  ,becket1 chiefly for use on the
 famous ,westminster clock1 installed   
in the ,parliament ,buildings1 in       
,london1 ,england4 ,the use of this     

escapement is most advantageous for a   
gigantic clock of this kind as it       
allows the impulse given the pendulum   
rod to be always constant1 and          
therefore does not permit any change of 
power or driving force of the  clock to 
affect its time-keeping qualities4      
,it requires about #fjj pounds of       
cast-iron to propel this time train1    
and the clock is arranged to run eight  
days without winding4 ,the  gravity arms
 of the escapement are fastened at a    
point very near the  suspension spring1 
and the arms are fitted with bronze     
roller beat pins4    ,the dial contains 
#aacd square feet1 or about one         
thirty-fifth of an  acre4 ,the numerals 
consist of heavy black strokes1 #e feet 
#f inches  long and #cj inches wide at  
the outer end1 tapering to a point at   
the  inner end4 ,the circumference of   
the dial is approximately #abj feet4    
,the  distance from center to center of 
numerals is #aj feet1 and the minute    
spaces are #b feet4    ,the background  

on dial is painted white1 and in the    
daytime the black  numerals show up     
distinctly4 ,at night the numerals1 or  
hour marks1  are designated by a row of 
incandescent bulbs placed in a trough #e
  inches wide and #e inches deep4 ,the  
hands at night are outlined with        
incandescent electric lights1 there     
being #bg lamps on the hour hand and    
#db lamps on the minute hand4           
,illustration3 ,,the ,,machinery ,,which
 ,,runs ,a ,,big ,,clock    ,this       
picture shows the machinery necessary to
 operate a large modern  tower clock4   
,the mechanism is held in place and     
confined entirely within a cast-iron    
structure which is firmly bolted to the 
floor4 ,the wheels are composed  of     
bronze1 the pinions of steel 7hardened7 
and the gears are machine  cut4 ,at the 
front of the clock is a small dial which
 enables one to  tell exactly the       
position of the hands on the outside    
dials1 and there  is also a second hand 
to permit of very close regulation and  

adjustment4    ,three ways are provided 
for the regulation4 ,first by a knurled 
screw  at the top of bed frame4 ,second 
by a revolving disc at the bottom of    
the pendulum ball4 ,very often by either
 of these two methods it is  impossible 
to bring the clock to fractional        
seconds1 and in order to  permit of a   
nicety of adjustment there is a cup     
fitted at the top of  the ball so that  
by inserting or taking out lead pellets1
 the rating  can be brought to absolute 
time4    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,clock   
,,in ,,independence ,,hall              
,,independence ,,hall1 ,,philadelphia   
,illustration3 ,,new ,,york ,,city      
,,hall          ,where ,does the ,day   
,begin8      ,to understand this subject
 we must first appreciate that a day as 
we  think of it is a division of time   
made by man for the purpose of his  own 
reckoning4 ,so far as the beginning of  
day is concerned1 it begins  at a       
different place in the world every hour2
 yes1 every minute and  every second in 

the day4 ,as1 however1 the distance in  
feet where the  day begins from one     
minute to another is so short that we   
can hardly  notice it in such short     
measurements of time1 we will look at   
the  answer to the question from hour to
 hour4 ,when you understand the  subject
 from that point you can yourself see   
that the day actually  begins at a      
different point of the earth every      
minute and every second  of time4       
,how ,much of the ,earth ,does the ,sun 
,shine on at ,one ,time8      ,the sun  
is shining on some part of the earth all
 the time and the  shining of the sun   
makes the difference between day and    
night4 ,wherever  the sun is shining it 
is day-time1 and where the sun is not   
shining it  is night-time4    ,to       
illustrate we will make use of an       
ordinary orange and a lighted gas  jet4 
,let us take a long hat-pin and stick it
 through the orange from  stem to stem4 
,now hold the orange by the ends of the 
hat-pin up before  the lighted gas jet4 

,you will notice that one-half of the   
orange is  lighted1 while the other half
 is dark4 ,of course1 it is the half of 
the  orange away from the light that is 
dark4 ,now1 revolve the orange slowly   
on the hat-pin axis toward the light4   
,when you have turned the orange  half  
way round the part that was formerly    
dark is now lighted up and  the other   
part is now dark4    ,now examine       
closely and you will see that just      
one-half of the orange  is lighted at   
one time and the other half is dark4    
,you revolve the  orange in front of the
 light slowly and a portion of the      
surface of the  orange is always coming 
into the light1 while a corresponding   
portion  of it on the opposite side is  
constantly going into the dark4 ,in     
other  words1 whatever the speed at     
which you revolve the orange toward the 
light1 one-half of it is always light   
and the other half is always dark4      
,this is exactly what happens in the    
relation of the earth to the sun  every 

day4 ,one-half of the earth1 which is   
continually revolving on  its axis1 is  
facing the sun1 and is1 therefore1 in   
the daylight1 while  the other half of  
the earth's surface is in darkness1     
because the  light from the sun does not
 strike any portion of it4 ,if the earth
  did not revolve one-half of it would  
always be in day-time1 while the  other 
half would be continually having        
night-time4 ,as the earth is  always    
moving or revolving the half where it is
 day-time is constantly  changing1 so   
that the day is beginning on one-half of
 the earth's  surface every second of   
the day4 ,actually1 of course1 then1 if 
you live  on the east side of town day  
begins with you a little sooner than    
with  your chum who lives on the west   
side of town4 ,we have come to measure  
the beginning of day as sunrise and the 
beginning of night as sunset1  wherever 
we happen to be4    ,for convenience in 
setting clocks and in measuring time we 
do not take  into consideration these   

very slight differences in the rising   
and  setting of the sun1 but set our    
clocks all alike in different parts  of 
the same town or city to avoid          
confusion4 ,in fact1 in order to        
overcome the difficulties and confusions
 arising in reckoning the time  of the  
clock in different localities1 and still
 keep the beginning of  what we call    
day-time constant with the hands of the 
clock1 we have  agreed upon what we call
 standard time4 ,we agreed upon this    
system  of fixing standard time because 
the actual sun time by which people  set
 their clocks up to a few years ago led 
to so many mistakes in  catching trains1
 keeping engagements and other          
misunderstandings where  the question of
 time was involved4 ,then when this     
system of standard  time was adopted the
 confusion became even worse1 and the   
mistakes and  misses more numerous1     
because some people insisted on setting 
their  clocks to standard time and      
others insisted on sticking to the old  

sun  time schedule4 ,so you could never 
tell by looking at the clock what  time 
it really was unless they put a sign on 
the clock saying what kind  of time they
 were going by4 ,finally1 however1 most 
of the people came  to appreciate that  
it would be a good idea to use one      
uniform system of  setting the clocks   
and of having them in harmony in a sense
 with the  other clocks in the world1   
and the adoption of the standard time   
plan  became universal4 ,to make this   
system practical and effective1 certain 
points about equally distant from each  
other were selected1 at which  point    
,where ,is the ,hour ,changed8      the 
hour would change for all points within 
that zone4 ,under this  system all      
timepieces in any one zone point to the 
same hour4 ,so the  clock time changes  
only as you go east or west4 ,all points
 on a north  and south line have the    
same time as the zone in which it is    
located4    ,for convenience in         
adjusting the time in ,america the      

country was  divided into four east and 
west zones4 ,the first zone takes in    
everything on a straight north and south
 line east of ,pittsburg1 and is  called
 ,eastern time4 ,the second zone extends
 from ,pittsburg to ,chicago1  and is   
called ,central time2 the third zone    
extends from ,chicago to  ,denver1 and  
is called ,mountain time2 while the     
fourth zone extends  from ,denver to the
 ,pacific ,ocean4 ,these selections were
 made because  the sun actually rises   
about one hour later in ,pittsburg than 
in ,new  ,york2 one hour later in       
,chicago than in ,pittsburg2 one hour   
later in  ,denver than in ,chicago1 and 
one hour later on the ,pacific ,coast   
than in  ,denver4 ,under this plan when 
it is nine o'clock in ,new ,york it is  
only  eight o'clock at ,pittsburg and   
all points in the ,central zone2 seven  
o'clock in all points in the ,mountain  
zone2 six o'clock in ,denver and  five  
o'clock in ,san ,francisco4 ,as you keep
 travelling westward you drop  one hour 

of the clock time in every zone1 and as 
under this system the  earth's east to  
west distance is divided into           
twenty-four such zones1  if you went    
west entirely around the world you would
 lose a whole day  of clock time4       
,if1 however1 you went around the world 
from west to east in the same  manner   
you would gain a whole day4             
,where ,does the ,day ,change8          
,this system of agreeing on fixed places
 where the hour changes made it         
necessary to also fix a point where for 
the purposes of the calendar  the day   
also changes4 ,this imaginary north and 
south line is fixed  upon at #ahj       
degrees west longitude1 which would cut 
the ,pacific ,ocean  in two4 ,this line 
makes it possible for a person to travel
 all day  before approaching this line  
and then find himself after crossing it 
travelling all the next day with the    
same name for the day of the week4      
,thus he could spend all of ,sunday     
travelling toward the ,international    

,day ,line1 as this is called1 and after
 crossing it spend another  ,sunday1    
which would be the next day1 going away 
from it4 ,this would  give him the novel
 experience of having two ,sundays on   
successive days4  ,the same thing would 
happen if he were travelling to the ,day
 ,line on  ,monday1 ,tuesday1           
,wednesday1 ,thursday1 ,friday or       
,saturday4 ,he would live  through two  
succeeding days of the same name in the 
same week1 one  right after the other4  
,this would be in going westward4    ,if
 you were traveling eastward and crossed
 the ,international ,day ,line  on      
,sunday at midnight you would lose a day
 completely out of the week1  for when  
you woke up the next morning it would be
 ,tuesday4          ,why ,do ,we ,cook  
the ,things ,we ,eat8      ,we have     
several reasons for doing this4 ,the    
first and most important  reason to us  
is that the application of heat to food 
makes it more  easy to digest4 ,other   
reasons are that when cooked our food is

 more  palatable2 the process of cooking
 kills all microbes1 which1 if taken    
into our bodies alive1 would give us    
diseases1 and also it is easier  for us 
to chew food that has been cooked4      
,illustration3 ,,wonders ,,performed    
,,by ,,electric ,,lift ,,magnet    ,this
 picture shows the construction of a    
successful electric lift  magnet4 ,this 
device1 by means of magnetic attraction1
 fastens itself  to practically all     
kinds of iron and steel without the aid 
of slings1  cables or chains4           
,the ,story in a ,magnet      ,what     
,makes an ,electro ,magnet ,lift        
,things8    ,the working parts of an    
electric lift magnet are as follows3    
,a ,shell4--,this is a steel casting    
heavily ribbed on the top for  strength1
 and also to assist in radiating the    
heating effect from the  coil4    ,it is
 usually made circular in shape1 the    
outside rim forming one pole1  while the
 lug in the center forms the other4 ,the
 coil fits in between  these poles1 thus

 making a magnet similar to the ordinary
 horseshoe  type4    ,a ,bottom         
,plate4--,the under side of the magnet  
is closed by a very  tough and hard     
non-magnetic steel plate1 in order to   
protect the coil4    ,as well as being  
non-magnetic1 this plate also has       
sufficient strength  to resist the      
severe wear to which a magnet is        
necessarily subjected4    ,a ,terminal  
,box4--,a one-piece heavily-constructed 
steel casting bolted  to the top of the 
shell1 containing and protecting the    
brass sockets  into which the wires from
 the coil terminate1 forms the ,terminal
 ,box4    ,the sockets are made to      
receive plugs placed on the end of the  
conductor wire1 by which the magnet is  
connected with the generator4    ,a     
,coil4--,this consists of a round       
insulated wire which is passed1  while  
being wound1 through a cement-like      
substance1 heavily coating  each        
individual strand4    ,a low voltage of 
current is then passed through the coil1

 a sufficient  length of time1 to       
thoroughly dry out and bake the coating4
 ,this  renders the magnet absolutely   
fireproof1 eliminating all danger of    
short circuiting of the coil4    ,when  
finished it is well taped to protect the
 outside wire from  becoming chafed4    
,the coil is made slightly smaller than 
the inside dimensions of the  shell and 
the remaining space is filled with an   
impregnating compound1  which hardens to
 the consistency of pitch4    ,this     
renders the coil thoroughly waterproof2 
also forms a cushion to  prevent injury 
from the severe jars and shocks1        
received when dropping  a magnet on its 
load4    ,a ,controller4--,the rapidity 
with which it is necessary to turn      
current on and off while operating a    
magnet1 creates what is called a  8back 
kick40 ,unless this is dissipated       
quickly it is very destructive  to the  
coil4    ,a special controller          
dissipates this back kick through a set 
of  resistance coils placed in the      

controller4 ,by means of an automatic   
arrangement1 connection with these coils
 is made instantly upon  breaking the   
current between the magnet and          
generator4    ,a system of control used 
prevents undue heating of the coil4     
,this  enables the magnet to lift as    
large a load after a long steady run as 
at the start4          ,what ,is a      
,lodestone8      ,a lodestone is a      
variety of the mineral named magnetite  
which is a  natural magnet4 ,the name   
magnet comes from the name of the       
mineral  magnetite and this in turn     
derived its name from the fact that it  
was  first discovered in ,magnesia4 ,the
 word magnet really means the 8,stone   
of ,magnesia40    ,a lodestone is one of
 the mysteries of nature4 ,its          
properties can  more nearly be          
understood if we examine an artificial  
magnet1 which  is generally made in the 
form of either a straight bar or a shoe4
  ,an artificial magnet is made of iron4
 ,if you drop a bar magnet into  a box  

of iron filings1 the filings attach     
themselves to the bar4 ,if  you examine 
it closely you observe that most of the 
filings attach  themselves to the ends  
of the bar4 ,therefore we call the ends 
of the  bar the poles of the magnet4    
,if you suspend a magnetic needle at its
 center of gravity so that it  is       
absolutely free to turn1 you will soon  
find one end of the needle  pointing    
north and the other south of course4    
,the end which is pointed  toward the   
north is called the north pole and the  
other the south pole4  ,if you have a   
horse-shoe magnet1 you can demonstrate  
this for yourself4  ,rub the end of your
 magnet over a sewing needle and oil the
 needle so  that when you lay it on the 
surface of a glass of water it will     
float4  ,then look at it closely4 ,you  
will see the needle slowly turn until   
finally it becomes quite still4 ,if you 
have a compass at hand so that  you know
 surely which is north and which is     
south1 you will find one  end of the    

needle pointing north and the other     
south4 ,you can then  place the end of  
your magnet against the outside of the  
glass and draw  the needle toward your  
magnet4 ,your horse-shoe magnet has its 
north and  south poles close together4  
,if you have a bar magnet and the end of
 the needle with the eye in it  is      
pointing north1 you can drive the needle
 on the surface of the water  away from 
you by touching the outside of the glass
 opposite that end of  the needle with  
the north pole of your magnet4 ,on the  
other hand1 if  you reverse the         
experiment and place the south pole of  
your magnet to  the side of the glass1  
the needle will come toward the magnet4 
,in other  words then the like poles of 
a magnet repel each other and the unlike
  poles attract each other4    ,another 
interesting way to show this is to take 
two lodestones or two  magnets and let a
 lot of iron filings attach themselves  
to the ends  of them4 ,then when you    
have done this1 point the two north     

poles of  the magnets or lodestones at  
each other close together4 ,you will be 
intensely interested in seeing how      
quickly the mysterious something  that  
is in the magnets makes the filings on  
the two ends of the magnet  try to get  
away from each other4 ,on the other hand
 when you put a north  and south pole   
together1 they form a union of the iron 
filings4    ,another strange thing about
 a magnet is that if you break it in    
two1  each half will be a complete      
magnet in itself with a north and south 
pole also1 and this is true no matter   
how many times you break it  into       
pieces4 ,from this we learn that each   
tiny particle or molecule  throughout   
the bar is a magnet by itself4          
,illustration3 ,,what ,a ,,lodestone    
,,is    ,this is a picture of a complete
 electro magnet4 ,the magnet is attached
  to the arm of a crane by the loop in  
the center and when the magnet  then    
comes in contact with any kind of iron  
or steel it lifts it as  soon as the    

current is turned on4 ,by making the    
electric current  stronger1 greater     
weight can be lifted4 ,many tons of     
material can be  lifted at one time4 ,an
 electro magnet will do the work of many
 men at  much less cost4                
,illustration3 ,in this picture we see  
the magnet lifting a great weight  of   
miscellaneous pieces of scrap iron4 ,as 
many as twenty tons can be  lifted and  
transferred from one place to another at
 one time4    ,some things can be       
magnetized while others cannot4 ,many   
substances have  not the property of    
magnetizing other substances when they  
have once  been attracted by a magnet4  
,these are called magnetic substances4  
,they  remain magnetized only as long as
 they are in touch with the magnet2     
other substances when once magnetized   
become permanent magnets4 ,steel  and   
lodestone have this faculty4 ,a compass 
needle is an artificial  magnet which   
becomes a permanent magnet when rubbed  
with a magnet4          ,what ,is       

,electricity8      ,if you pass a hard  
rubber comb through your hair1 in frosty
 weather1 a  crackling sound is         
produced1 and the individual hairs show 
a tendency  to stick to the comb4 ,after
 being drawn through your hair a few    
times1  you may notice that the comb has
 become charged with electricity4 ,this 
electricity is produced by friction4    
,not only rubber but many other         
substances become electrified by        
friction1 such as a bar of sealing  wax 
rubbed with flannel1 or a glass rod     
rubbed with silk1 will show  the same   
qualities1 and these simple experiments 
teach us many of the  fundamental facts 
about electricity4    ,some simple      
experiments will be found instructive   
and interesting4 ,rub  with flannel a   
stick of sealing wax until it is        
electrified and then  bring it close to 
a pith ball which should be hung by a   
silk thread4  ,the pith ball will at    
once be attracted to the sealing wax1   
and1 if  brought quite close1 the ball  

will adhere to the wax for a few        
moments1  and then fly away from it4    
,the ball will now be repelled by the   
sealing  wax instead of being drawn     
toward it4 ,now take a glass rod1 rub it
 with  a silk cloth after drying it     
thoroughly4 ,when the pith ball is      
brought  close to the glass rod it also 
will at first be attracted toward the   
glass and1 if brought in contact with   
the glass1 the pith ball will  adhere as
 before4 ,it will also then fly away in 
the same way it did  from the sealing   
wax4 ,repeat these experiments with the 
sealing wax now  and you will find the  
ball will be attached1 as it was at     
first1 but if  it touches the wax it    
will again adhere for a moment and then 
fly away4  ,by using the sealing wax and
 glass rod alternately and bringing them
  into contact with the pith ball1 you  
discover that when it is attracted  by  
one1 it is repelled by the other1 and   
that1 after it has been in  contact with
 either for a few moments it is no      

longer attracted by it4    ,we learn    
thus that the electricity in the glass  
and the sealing wax  are not the same4  
,to distinguish the two kinds of        
attraction1 we say  the glass is charged
 with positive1 or vitreous electricity1
 while the  charge on the sealing wax is
 called negative1 or resinous           
electricity4    ,when the pith ball was 
touched with the sealing wax1 it became 
filled  with negative electricity1 and  
was then no longer attracted by the     
wax1 but was repelled by it and         
attracted by the glass rod2 but when    
the ball had been filled with positive  
electricity1 it was repelled by  the    
glass and attracted by the wax4 ,we     
conclude from these facts that  bodies  
filled with the same kind of electricity
 repel each other1 while  bodies filled 
with opposite kinds of electricity      
attract each other4    ,when two        
substances are charged1 as we say1 with 
electricity of  opposite kinds and are  
brought into contact1 and left so for   

some time1  the two charges disappear1  
one appearing to neutralize the other4  
,from  this1 we conclude1 and rightly1  
that any substance not electrified1     
contains equal amounts both positive and
 negative electricity4 ,when1           
therefore1 we rub a piece of glass with 
silk1 we are not creating  electricity1 
but only separating the different kinds4
 ,the positive  electricity adheres to  
the glass1 and the negative remains     
behind1  on the silk4 ,in the same      
manner1 when we electrify sealing wax   
with  flannel the negative kind remains 
in the sealing wax and the flannel      
becomes charged with the positive4      
,whenever a body is electrified by      
friction1 both kinds of electricity are 
produced2 it is impossible to  produce  
one kind without the other4             
,illustration3 ,,what ,,electricity ,,is
    ,magnets are particularly valuable  
in lifting raw material in a steel      
mill4 ,the red-hot pig-iron1 from which 
steel is made1 can be handled  easily in

 this way1 whereas it would be          
impossible to handle same by  hand4     
,sometimes great quantities of iron are 
broken up by the magnet4 ,a  weight of  
many tons is lifted by the magnet and   
allowed to fall on the  material to be  
broken up4 ,the weight falls as soon as 
the current is  turned off4             
,illustration3      ,weight of wheel1   
#hafj lbs4    ,pieces of machinery which
 cannot be lifted by men on account of  
their  great weight and shape are       
handled easily4    ,you must rub the    
entire glass rod or bar of sealing wax  
to electrify  the whole of it4 ,if only 
a part of the glass rod or sealing wax  
is  rubbed1 only that part becomes      
electrified1 as may be shown by trying  
to attract a pith ball with the part    
that has not been rubbed4    ,,what     
,,good ,,and ,,bad ,,conductors ,,of    
,,electricity ,,are    ,if1 however1 the
 charged part of the sealing wax is     
brought into  contact with a metal rod  
resting on1 say1 a drinking glass1 the  

rod  becomes charged1 not only where it 
is brought into contact1 but all  over  
its surface4 ,substances over which     
electricity flows readily  are called   
conductors of electricity4 ,all metals  
are of this kind4  ,things like glass   
and sealing wax over which electricity  
does not flow  readily1 are called      
non-conductors1 or insulators4 ,water1  
the human  body1 and the earth are good 
conductors and rubber1 porcelain1 most  
resins1 and dry air are non-conductors4 
,you have already learned that          
substances charged with opposite kinds  
of  electricity attract each other1 and 
substances charged with the same  kind  
repel each other4 ,we will try to       
discover why substances charged  with   
either kind of electricity attract small
 light objects1 such as  pith balls1    
when these latter are not charged with  
electricity4 ,as we  have discovered1   
all substances which have remained      
undisturbed have  both kinds of         
electricity present in them1 in equal   

amounts4 ,now1 when  an uncharged body  
is brought near a charged body1 the two 
kinds of  electricity in the uncharged  
body have a tendency to separate4 ,the  
kind  opposite in character1 to that on 
the charged body1 is attracted toward   
the charged body1 and the other kind is 
repelled4 ,thus1 if our bar of  sealing 
wax1 charged with1 let us say1 negative 
electricity1 is brought  near a pith    
ball1 the positive electricity in the   
ball is attracted  to the side nearest  
the scaling wax1 and the negative       
electricity  is repelled to the farther 
side4 ,as the positive electricity on   
the  pith is nearer to the scaling wax  
than the negative1 its attraction  for  
the negative charge1 on the sealing wax1
 is stronger than the  repulsion between
 the negative electricities of the two  
objects1 and  consequently1 the ball is 
attracted to the sealing wax4 ,if the   
charged  sealing wax is brought near a  
good conductor1 which is supported on   
some non-conducting substance1 such as  

glass1 silk1 or rubber1 over  which     
electricity will not flow1 a much more  
complete separation of the  two kinds of
 electricity occurs on the conductor    
than on the pith ball4  ,if the charged 
sealing wax is brought near one end of a
 metal rod so  placed1 the charge of    
negative electricity upon the sealing   
wax will  attract the positive          
electricity on the metal1 to that end1  
and will  repel the negative electricity
 to the other end4 ,when a pith ball1   
hung  by the silk thread1 is brought    
close to either end of the metal rod1   
when the charged sealing wax is near the
 other end1 the pith ball will  be      
attracted toward the rod2 but will not  
be attracted if placed close  to the    
middle of the rod4 ,this proves that the
 metal rod is electrified  only in the  
parts nearest to and farthest away from 
the charged body4  ,the two kinds of    
electricity neutralize each other at the
 parts in  between4    ,if now we take  
two conductors and place them end to    

end1 we have  for all practical         
purposes1 a single conductor4 ,it has   
the decided  advantage1 however1 of     
being easily separated into two parts4  
,when an  electrified substance is      
brought close to one end of such a      
conductor1  a charge of one kind is     
attracted to the near portion of the    
conductor1  and a charge of the opposite
 kind is repelled to the farther part4  
,by  separating the two parts of the    
conductor1 we learn that one of the     
ends1 which have been in contact1 is    
charged with positive and the  other    
with negative electricity4    ,this act 
of separating the two kinds of          
electricity upon a conductor by  means  
of a charge upon another body which is  
not permitted to come into  contact with
 the conductor1 is called induction1 and
 two charges of  electricity produced in
 this way are known as induced charges4 
,there are other ways in which a charge 
of electricity may be induced  upon a   
conductor4 ,one end of the conductor may

 be connected with the  earth by means  
of some good conducting material1 and   
the charged  substance brought close to 
the other end4 ,a charge1 opposite in   
character to the initial charge1 is     
attracted to the end of the  conductor  
that is near the charged body1 and the  
electricity of the  opposite kind is    
repelled1 through the conductor to the  
earth4 ,by  securing the connection with
 the earth1 while the charged body is   
near the conductor1 a charge is obtained
 upon the conductor1 that is  opposite  
in character to the initial charge4     
,this method of charging  conductors1 by
 induction1 is practically the same as  
the one first  described1 for the earth 
is a conductor of electricity1 and      
corresponds  to the more distant part of
 the two-piece conductor4    ,an        
instrument1 known as the electrophorus1 
is especially designed for  the         
production of electric charges by       
induction in the manner just  described4
 ,this instrument consists of a brass   

plate1 on an insulating  handle of      
glass1 and a disk of sealing wax1 fitted
 into a brass dish1  whose edges rise   
somewhat higher than the surface of the 
wax4 ,in using  the electrophorus the   
brass dish1 or sole1 is placed upon some
 support  that will conduct electricity1
 and the sealing wax disk is then rubbed
  vigorously with a piece of flannel1 or
 catskin1 which electrifies the  sealing
 wax1 with negative electricity4 ,the   
brass plate is then taken  by the glass 
handle and brought close to the charged 
sealing wax4 ,the  charge of negative   
electricity on the wax attracts a charge
 of positive  electricity to the under  
surface of the plate and repels a       
negative  charge to its upper surface4  
,if the charged plate is now brought    
into  contact with the edge of the brass
 dish the negative charge1 on the  back 
of the plate1 flows away1 through the   
legs of the dish1 to the  earth1 but the
 positive charge remains on the under   
surface1 where  it is bound1 by the     

attraction of the negative charge on the
 disk of  sealing wax4 ,if the brass    
plate is now removed1 it will be found  
to be  charged with positive            
electricity4    ,the negative charge    
upon the sealing wax is not reduced or  
diminished  by its action in charging   
the brass plate1 and it is possible to  
charge  the plate an indefinite number  
of times by means of one charge on the  
sealing wax4    ,the charges of         
electricity1 produced in any of the ways
 that have been  described1 are         
necessarily small1 and the disturbance  
produced1 when  they are destroyed by   
bringing oppositely charged conductors  
together1  is very slight1 merely a     
little snapping noise and1 perhaps1 a   
small  spark1 that seems to leap from   
the positively charged conductor to  the
 negatively charged one1 when they come 
very close together4 ,by  the use of    
electrical machines of various kinds1 in
 some of which  the electricity is      
produced by friction1 and in others by  

induction1  conductors may be charged   
with much larger quantities of          
electricity1  and the disturbance       
produced by their discharge is greatly  
increased4  ,the noise produced is      
louder and the spark much brighter1 and 
leaps  from one conductor to the other1 
while they are much farther apart4  ,it 
is possible to produce still larger     
charges of electricity upon  conductors 
if they are arranged so as to form what 
are called  condensers4          ,what  
,is a ,leyden ,jar8      ,one of the    
commonest forms of condenser is the     
,leyden jar1 which is so  named because 
it was invented at ,leyden1 in ,holland4
 ,this is a glass  jar1 upon the outside
 of which is fastened a coating of      
tinfoil1 that  covers the bottom of the 
jar and extends two-thirds of the way up
  the sides4 ,inside the jar there is a 
similar coating of tinfoil1 and  through
 the top of the jar1 which is usually   
made of wood1 extends a  metal rod4 ,on 
the upper end of the rod1 there is a    

metal ball1 and1 at  the lower end1 is  
attached a chain which runs down to the 
bottom of the  jar and rests upon the   
inner tinfoil coating4    ,in using the 
,leyden jar1 the ball on the metal rod  
that runs through  the top of the jar is
 connected with an electrical machine1  
and the jar  is supported upon some     
conducting material1 through which      
electricity  may be conveyed from the   
outer coating of tinfoil to the earth4  
,if the  inner coating of tinfoil is now
 charged with positive electricity1 by  
means of the electrical machine1 it     
induces1 upon the outer coating  of     
foil1 a charge of negative electricity1 
which is bound by the  attraction of the
 positive charge on the inside of the   
jar4 ,at the  same time1 the positive   
electricity1 on the outer coating of    
foil1 is  repelled1 through the         
conducting support1 to the earth4       
,the charge that can be communicated to 
the coating of the foil1 inside  the    
,leyden jar1 is greatly increased by the

 presence of a charge of the  opposite  
kind of electricity1 on the coating on  
the outside of the jar4  ,each of these 
charges attracts the other1 through the 
glass of the jar1  and serves to bind or
 hold it4 ,if either coating of foil is 
removed1  the charge on the other       
coating tends to fly off the tinfoil1   
and will  immediately do so1 if a       
conductor is brought near4 ,it is       
because the  negative effects of the    
initial charge1 inside the jar1 and of  
the  induced charge outside the jar1    
make it possible to communicate1 to     
each coating of foil1 a larger charge   
than it could otherwise be made  to     
receive1 that a ,leyden jar is called a 
condenser4    ,when a ,leyden jar is    
disconnected from the electrical        
machine1 two  opposite charges of       
electricity are present on it1 one      
inside and the  other on the outside4   
,if the two coats of tinfoil are now    
connected1 by  means of a condenser1    
they will at once neutralize each other1

 and the  jar will be discharged4 ,a jar
 may be discharged1 by simply taking    
hold  of the tinfoil on the outside of  
the jar1 with one hand1 and touching    
the metal rod1 running through the top  
of the jar1 with the other4  ,if you do 
this1 there will be a sudden flow of    
electricity through  your body1 your    
muscles will give a sudden jerk1 and you
 will feel a  peculiar tingling         
sensation4 ,in other words1 you will    
have received a  shock4    ,it is not   
necessary1 for the hand that does not   
grasp the jar1 actually  to touch the   
rod that runs through the top4 ,if the  
hand is brought  toward the rod1 rather 
slowly1 you will see a spark leap across
 the  space between the rod and your    
hand1 while your hand is still some     
distance from the rod4 ,the greater the 
distance1 across which the spark  leaps1
 the brighter will be the spark1 and the
 stronger the shock  produced4 ,this    
distance is sometimes spoken of as the  
length of the  spark1 and it indicates  

the size of the charges on the tinfoil  
coatings  of the jar4          ,who     
,discovered ,electricity8      ,it may  
seem difficult to believe1 that the tiny
 spark and weak snapping  noise that are
 produced when a ,leyden jar is         
discharged1 are1 in many  respects1 the 
same as lightning and thunder1 but it is
 nevertheless  true4 ,this was proved by
 ,benjamin ,franklin1 about the middle  
of the  #ahth century1 in the following 
way4 ,one afternoon1 when a thunder     
shower was approaching1 he sent up a    
kite1 to the string of which he         
fastened a large metal key2 and to the  
key1 a ribbon of non-conducting  silk1  
which he held in his hand4 ,when the    
rain had been falling long  enough to   
wet the string thoroughly1 it become a  
good conductor of  electricity1 and     
,franklin found that the key had become 
charged with  electricity transmitted   
from the clouds1 along the wet kite     
string4  ,the non-conducting silk       
ribbon1 that formed the continuation of 

the  kite string1 from the key to his   
hand1 was employed to prevent him from  
receiving shocks from the passage of the
 electricity1 through his body1  to the 
earth4    ,up to this point1 your       
attention has been directed in charges  
of  electricity4 ,you have been told how
 they may be produced1 what some of     
their leading properties are1 and what  
effects they produce1 when they  are    
discharged4 ,the subject that will now  
be explained to you is that  of electric
 currents4          ,what ,is an        
,electric ,current8      ,by an electric
 current1 is meant a flow of electricity
 along a  conductor4 ,the flow of       
electricity1 through your body1 when you
 receive  an electric shock1 is a       
current1 but it lasts only for an       
instant1 and  it is difficult to learn  
much about its nature4 ,by the use of   
various  devices1 it is possible to     
produce currents1 that will continue as 
long  as we want them1 so that we are   
enabled to study their properties quite 

thoroughly4    ,one of the oldest and   
simplest forms of apparatus1 for        
producing  electric currents1 is that   
which is known as the voltaic cell4     
,this  form of apparatus may very easily
 be constructed4 ,pour some water into  
a glass jar1 and add a little sulphuric 
acid4 ,now place in the water a  strip  
of clean zinc and one of clean copper4  
,do not let the strips of  metal touch  
in the water1 but connect them outside  
the water by means  of a piece of wire4 
,when this has been done1 a current of  
electricity  will be sent up along the  
wire and through the water between the  
two  strips of zinc and copper4 ,this   
current is said to flow along the wire  
from the copper1 which is called the    
positive pole of the cell1 to the  zinc1
 which is called the negative pole4 ,in 
the liquid in the cell  7i4e41 the jar71
 the current travels from the zinc to   
the copper1 thus  completing what is    
called the electric circuit4 ,whenever  
the circuit it  broken1 that is1        

whenever there is a gap made in the wire
 connecting  the poles1 or anything else
 is done to destroy the completeness  of
 the path1 along which the current      
travels1 the current ceases2            
consequently1 when it is desirable to   
stop the current1 all that is  necessary
 is to cut the wire connecting the two  
strips of copper and  zinc4    ,the     
production of a current of electricity1 
by means of an apparatus of  this sort1 
depends upon the chemical action of the 
acid in the water  upon the strip of    
zinc4 ,as long as the acid continues to 
act upon  the zinc1 the current is      
produced1 and when the acid ceases to   
act  upon the zinc1 the current ceases  
to flow4 ,if the zinc is clean1 the     
chemical action of the acid ceases1     
whenever the circuit is broken1 and     
consequently1 when the cell is not being
 used to produce a current1  the zinc is
 not destroyed by the acid4 ,but if the 
zinc is not clean1  small electric      
currents are set up1 within the liquid1 

between the  zinc and the impurities on 
its surface1 and around the points where
  these impurities lie the acid acts    
upon the zinc and dissolves it4 ,this   
action of the acid upon the zinc1 when  
the circuit is broken1 is known  as     
local action1 and it is very desirable  
to prevent it1 as far as  possible4 ,for
 this purpose the zinc is often rubbed  
with mercury1 which  soaks into the zinc
 and forms a film on its surface1 upon  
which the  impurities float4 ,this      
treatment of the zinc is known as       
amalgamation1  and it serves to prevent 
almost all the local action1 due to     
impurities  of the zinc4    ,many other 
substances1 besides zinc and copper1    
have been found capable  of yielding an 
electric current1 when placed in a      
suitable liquid1 and  many other fluids1
 besides water that contains a little   
sulphuric acid1  have been employed to  
act upon the zinc and copper1 or the    
substances  used in their stead4        
,numerous cells of different kinds have1

 therefore1  been devised1 but1 in all  
of them1 the current is produced by     
chemical  action4 ,most of them contain 
a liquid of some sort1 which is called  
the  exciting fluid1 and two solid      
substances1 which are called the        
elements  of the cell4 ,one of these    
elements is always much more susceptible
 to  the chemical action of the exciting
 fluid1 than the other1 and this one  is
 known as the positive element4 ,the    
other element1 upon which the  exciting 
fluid may have no action1 is called the 
negative element4 ,in  cells in which   
the elements are zinc and copper1 the   
zinc is always the  positive element4   
,this may seem strange to you1 for you  
have already  learned that the zinc is  
the negative pole of the cell1 but1 to  
avoid  confusion1 you must fix well in  
your mind the fact that the zinc is  not
 the positive element of a voltaic cell1
 but its negative pole1  and that the   
copper1 which forms the negative element
 is the positive  pole of the cell4 ,the

 currents produced by the various forms 
of voltaic  cells1 vary considerably in 
strength1 but none of them are very     
strong4  ,in order to obtain a stronger 
current1 a number of cells must be used 
together4 ,such a collection of cells   
forms a voltaic battery1 and in  some   
instances1 as many as fifty thousand    
cells have been used in a  single       
battery4    ,we have already learned in 
our study of water that it may be       
separated  into its elementary gases by 
sending an electric current through it4 
,the effect is a chemical one4 ,water1  
however1 is not the only substance  that
 is decomposed by electricity2 almost   
all chemical compounds may be           
decomposed by the passage of a current  
through them1 provided a current  of    
sufficient strength is used4    ,another
 effect of the current is its heating   
effect4 ,it has been found  that the    
passage of an electric current1 through 
any body1 is always  productive of a    
certain amount of heat4 ,the amount of  

heat produced  depends upon the strength
 of the current of electricity1 and the 
resistance to its passage that is       
offered by the body through which it    
travels4 ,this amount is increased by   
increasing either the strength of  the  
current or the resistance of the        
conductor along which it travels4  ,we  
have already learned1 that some         
substances allow electricity to  pass   
over them very readily1 and are         
therefore called conductors1  while     
substances through which electricity    
does not flow readily are  known as     
non-conductors4 ,no substance is a      
perfect non-conductor1 for  electricity 
can be made to pass through any         
substance1 if the current  is           
sufficiently powerful4 ,neither is any  
substance a perfect conductor1  for all 
substances offer some resistance to the 
passage of an electric  current4 ,those 
substances that are ordinarily          
considered good  conductors offer       
varying degrees of resistance to        

electric currents4  ,for example1 a     
copper wire offers less resistance than 
an iron wire of  the same length and    
diameter4    ,the resistance of a body  
depends not only upon its material1 but 
also  upon its length and size4 ,in     
conductors of the same material1 the    
resistance is directly proportional to  
the length of the conductor1  and       
inversely proportional to the square of 
its diameter4 ,this is not  surprising1 
for an electric current bears a strong  
resemblance to a  current of water1 in  
many of its properties1 and you know    
that it is  harder to force water       
through long1 narrow pipes1 than through
 short1  wide ones4    ,from what has   
been stated about resistance1 you may   
see1 that a current  will produce more  
heat1 in passing through a long fine    
wire1 than  through a shorter and       
thicker one1 and that1 of two conductors
 of the  same length and size1 but of   
different material1 one may be heated   
much  more by a current than will       

another4    ,,how ,,magnets ,,are ,,made
    ,a third effect of the electric     
current1 which has not previously been  
mentioned is its magnetizing effect4 ,it
 is upon this1 that some of the  most   
important effects of electricity depend4
    ,by coiling a wire around a bar of  
iron or steel1 and then sending an      
electric current through it1 the piece  
of iron1 or steel1 is made to  show     
magnetic properties4 ,by this is meant1 
as you doubtless know1 that  the iron   
will now attract other pieces of iron1  
or steel1 to it4 ,the  strength of this 
attraction depends upon the strength of 
the current1  and upon the number of    
turns of wire around the bar4 ,by       
increasing  either the strength of the  
current1 or the number of turns in the  
coil of wire1 around the bar of iron1   
the strength of its magnetic  attraction
 is increased4 ,when the current is     
stopped1 the magnetic  properties of the
 iron disappear almost completely4 ,a   
magnet1 that  depends upon a current of 

electricity for its magnetic power1 is  
called  an electro-magnet4    ,besides  
electro-magnets there are others1 which 
are called permanent  magnets4          
,electro-magnets are composed of soft   
iron1 the softer the  better1 and1 as   
soon as the current of electricity      
ceases to flow  around them1 their      
magnetic properties disappear4          
,permanent magnets1  on the contrary1   
are made of steel1 and their magnetism  
is independent  of the action of a      
current of electricity4 ,no coil of wire
 is wound  around them1 and no current  
is employed to maintain their magnetic  
properties4 ,a piece of steel may be    
made to become a permanent magnet1  by  
passing a current of electricity1 for a 
considerable time1 through  a coil of   
wire wound around it1 or by allowing a  
piece of steel to  remain for some time 
in contact with a strong magnet4 ,when a
 current of  electricity passes through 
a coil of wire1 wound around a bar of   
steel1  it takes longer to magnetize the

 steel than it would to magnetize iron1 
but1 when the current ceases1 the       
magnetism does not all disappear from   
the steel4 ,a portion of it remains1 and
 the steel becomes permanently          
magnetic4    ,if a thin bar of steel is 
magnetized1 and is then suspended by its
  middle1 so that it can spring freely1 
it will be found that one end  tends to 
point toward the north1 and the other   
toward the south4  ,whenever the bar is 
swung out of this position1 it swings   
back to it1  and if the north end is    
turned entirely around to the south1 it 
does  not remain1 but swings back to its
 former position4 ,this shows that      
there is a difference in the magnetism  
at the two ends of the magnet4  ,to     
indicate this difference1 the           
north-seeking end of a magnet is  called
 the positive pole of the magnet1 and   
the south-seeking end is  known as the  
negative pole4    ,by suspending two bar
 magnets1 in the manner described1 it   
can be shown  that the positive and     

negative poles of the magnets act like  
positive  and negative charges of       
electricity4 ,poles of the same kind    
repel1 and  poles of opposite kinds     
attract1 each other4    ,permanent      
magnets are usually made in two forms1  
either straight  or horseshoe shaped4 ,a
 compass needle1 as has been shown1 is  
an  example of a straight magnet4 ,the  
horseshoe variety1 which has a  little  
bar of iron1 called the keeper1 laid    
across the poles is a  common toy4      
,electro-magnets are seldom seen1 except
 in electrical  instruments or          
machinery4 ,the pictures shown on the   
following pages  give us a bird's-eye   
view of some of the wonders performed by
 these  electro-magnets4 ,tons and tons 
of material are picked up and held      
securely by one of these magnets as     
easily as you can hold on to an  apple4 
,why ,does a ,bee ,have a ,sting8       
,the bee's sting is given him as a      
weapon of defence4 ,primarily it is  for
 the sole purpose of enabling him to    

help defend the hive from his  enemies4 
,sometimes when he is attacked away from
 the hive he uses his  sting to defend  
himself4 ,when he does so1 he injects a 
little quantity  of poison through the  
sting and that is what causes the       
inflammation4          ,how ,does a     
,honey ,bee ,live8      ,the bee lives  
in swarms of from #aj1jjj to #ej1jjj in 
one house4 ,in the  wild state the house
 or hive is located in a hollow tree    
generally4  ,these swarms contain three 
classes of bees1 the perfect females or 
queen bees1 the males or drones1 and the
 imperfectly developed females1  or     
working bees4 ,in each hive or swarm    
there is only one perfect female  or    
queen whose sole mission is to propagate
 the species4 ,the queen is  much larger
 than the other bees4 ,when she dies a  
young working bee  three days old is    
selected as the new queen4 ,her cell is 
enlarged by  breaking down the          
partitions1 her food is changed to      
8royal jelly  or paste0 and she grows   

into a queen bee4 ,the queen lays #b1jjj
 eggs  per day4 ,the drones do not work 
and after performing their duty as      
males are killed by the working bees4   
,the female bees do the work of         
gathering the honey4 ,they collect the  
honey from the flowers1 they  build the 
wax cells1 and feed the young bees4     
,when a colony becomes  overstocked1 a  
new colony is sent out to establish a   
new hive under the  direction of a queen
 bee4          ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,a
 ,,steamship      ,illustration3        
,probably no form of construction is so 
interesting to  everyone as the         
construction of a huge steamer1 a       
wonderful 8city0  afloat1 with its      
thousands of passengers1 its thousand   
officers and  crew1 the tremendous      
stores of provisions and water1 and the 
precision  with which the great ship    
plows its way from one shore to the     
other4    ,this picture shows the first 
work in building a modern steamer1      
laying  the keel and center plate1 upon 

which the massive hull is constructed4  
,the rivets are driven by hydraulic     
power1 noiselessly but firmly4 ,in  the 
new 8,britannic0--largest of all        
,british steamers and the newest        
7#aiae7 modern leviathan--over #bgj tons
 of rivets--nearly three million  in    
all--were required to give staunchness  
to the steel-plated hull4 ,the  cellular
 double bottom is constructed between   
the bottom and top of the  center plate4
    ,illustration3 ,a ,,longer ,,view   
,,of ,,the ,,above ,,operation4         
,illustration3 ,,the ,,cradle ,,of ,a   
,,steamship ,,called ,a 8,,gantry0      
,,view ,,near ,,the ,,bow4    ,the      
8ribs0 of the 8,britannic10 showing the 
deck divisions1 in outline4  ,the huge  
8gantry0 or cradle of steel1 in which   
8,britannic0 was built1  cost           
#a1jjj1jjj4    ,illustration3 ,,the     
,,double ,,bottom ,,of ,,modern         
,,steamships    ,,the 8,,britannic0 ,,of
 ,,the ,,white ,,star ,,line4 ,,view    
,,of ,,the ,,double ,,bottom  ,,plated4 

,illustration3 ,,the ,,huge ,,steel     
,,skeleton ,,of ,,the 8,,britannic0     
,,before ,,the  ,,plates ,,were ,,placed
 ,,on ,,it4    ,the plates are seen     
piled in the foreground4 ,the largest of
 them are #cf  feet long and weigh #d   
tons each4    ,illustration3 ,,the      
,,ship ,,ready ,,to ,,launch    ,,not ,a
 8,,skyscraper10 ,,but ,a ,,floating    
,,hotel ,,in ,,process ,,of             
,,construction4    ,,the ,,hull ,,itself
 ,,is #fd #c ,,deep1 ,,and ,,from ,,the 
,,keel ,,to ,,the ,,top ,,of ,,the      
,,funnels ,,is #age ,,feet4 ,,the       
,,navigating ,,bridge ,,is #ajd #f      
,,above ,,the ,,keel4    ,illustration3 
,,white ,,star    ,,royal ,,mail        
,,steamer    8,,britannic0    ,,ready   
,,to ,,launch4    ,the 8,britannic0 on  
the ways at ,belfast 7,harland          
,wolff's74 ,the largest  gantries ever  
constructed to hold a ship4             
,illustration3 ,,the ,,machinery ,,used 
,,in ,,launching ,a ,,ship    ,,forward 
,,launching ,,gear 7,,hydraulic74       

,the ship went from the ways into the   
water in #fb seconds and was  stopped in
 twice her own length4    ,illustration3
 ,,the ,,huge ,,hull ,,left ,,the ,,ways
 ,,easily ,,and ,,created ,,only ,a     
,,small ,,splash4    ,illustration3 ,a  
,,close ,,view ,,of ,a ,,ship',s        
,,rudder    8,,britannic0 ,,held ,,up   
,,just ,,after ,,the ,,launch4          
,illustration3 8,,britannic40 ,,the     
#ajj-,,ton ,,rudder4 ,,the 7,,center7   
,,turbine  ,,propeller ,,shaft ,,and    
,,one ,,of ,,the 8,,wing0 ,,propeller   
,,shafts4    ,illustration3 ,,what ,a   
,,ship',s ,,propeller ,,looks ,,like    
,,the ,,completed ,,ship    ,the center 
7the turbine7 propeller1 #af #f in      
diameter1 cast of one  solid piece of   
manganese bronze1 #bb tons in weight4   
,the 8,britannic0  like 8,olympic10 is  
propelled by two sets of reciprocating  
engines1 the  exhaust steam from these  
being reused in the low-pressure        
turbine1  effecting great economy in    
coal4 ,the two 8wing0 propellers are #bc

 #f  in diameter and weigh #ch tons     
each4    ,illustration3 ,,what ,a       
,,ship',s ,,turbine ,,looks ,,like      
,the turbine motor1 #acj tons in weight 
7,parsons type74 ,the steam plays  upon 
the blades with such power that they    
develop #af1jjj horse-power  and revolve
 the propeller 7turbine7 #afe times a   
minute4 ,the motor is #ab  feet in      
diameter1 #ac #h long1 the blades       
7numbering thousands7 ranging  from #ah 
to #be inches in length4                
,illustration3 ,,the ,,immense ,,turbine
 ,,motor ,,fully ,,encased--,,weight    
#dbj  ,,tons4    ,illustration3 ,,how ,a
 ,,funnel ,,appears ,,before ,,it ,,is  
,,in ,,place    ,one of the four immense
 funnels--without the outer casing4     
,each is #abe  feet above the hull of   
the ship and measures #bd #f by #ai #j4 
,illustration3 ,,what ,a ,,great        
,,steamship ,,would ,,look ,,like ,,if  
,,split ,,end ,,to  ,,end    ,this view 
will give some idea of the interior     
arrangement of the  huge ,white ,star   

,line triple-screw steamer 8,britannic40
 ,many features  undreamed of a dozen   
years ago have been introduced in the   
passenger  quarters of this ship4 ,as   
many decks are necessary to provide the 
required space for state-rooms1 public  
apartments1 promenades1 etc41  several  
passenger elevators have been installed1
 which are a great  convenience for     
those who find the use of stairs        
irksome4 ,there is  a fully equipped    
,gymnasium1 a children's ,play ,room for
 the younger  passengers1 a ,squash     
,racquet ,court1 a ,swimming ,pool with 
sea-water1 and  the ,turkish ,bath      
establishment4    ,there are            
accommodations for over #bejj passengers
 as well as a crew of  #iej4 ,the view  
shows how the ship is divided into      
numerous water-tight  compartments1 so  
that should several of these sections   
become flooded  the rest of the ship    
would remain intact4    ,the lifeboats1 
of which there are sufficient to carry  
all on board1 are  handled by a new     

device1 by means of which the boats can 
be launched1  when filled1 with greater 
ease and safety than hitherto4 ,each of 
the  great davits can handle several    
boats and they are long enough to carry 
the boats clear of the side of the ship1
 should any accident cause her  to list 
to one side4    ,the 8,britannic0 is    
nearly #ijj feet in length1 and with her
 gross  tonnage of #ej1jjj is the       
largest ,british steamer in the world4  
,what ,is ,water ,made ,of8      ,every 
kind of substance in the world is made  
up of tiny portions1 each  of which is  
distinctly just what the whole mass is1 
but which are so  small you cannot see  
them4 ,a pile of sand1 or a cupful of   
sugar or salt  consists of a great many 
small grains4 ,a cup of water too is    
made up of  what we would call small    
grains of water1 or what we would call  
grains  of water if we could think of   
them in the same way as we do sugar or  
salt or sand4 ,these particles are so   
small that they could not be seen       

separately1 even if the particles did   
not have the ability to stick so  close 
together that we could not distinguish  
them even if they were  large enough to 
be seen4    ,the word used in describing
 these tiny particles in any substance1 
water1 sugar1 sand1 salt or anything    
else is molecule4          ,what ,is a  
,molecule8      ,the word molecule means
 8smallest mass10 which indicates the   
very  smallest division that can be made
 of any substance without destroying    
its identity4 ,every substance is made  
up of molecules1 and in many  cases the 
molecules of one substance will mix with
 those of another  substance1 while in  
other cases they will not4 ,when you    
dissolve sugar  in water or melt lead or
 change water into steam1 the physical  
body of  the substance is changed1 but  
the molecules remain as they were4 ,they
  are only changed in so far as their   
relations to each other and to  those of
 another substance are concerned4       
,how ,do ,we ,know a ,thing ,is ,solid1 

,liquid or ,gas8      ,the relations of 
the molecules in any substance to each  
other is what  determines whether a     
substance is a solid1 a liquid or a gas4
 ,a gas is  a substance in which the    
molecules are constantly moving rapidly 
about  among each other1 but always in  
straight lines4 ,a liquid substance is  
one in which the molecules are also     
constantly moving about but which  do   
not move in straight lines4 ,solids are 
substances in which the  molecules stick
 together in one position by the power  
of cohesion which  they have4 ,cohesion 
means the power of sticking together4   
,how ,big ,is a ,molecule8      ,we do  
not as yet know all there is to be      
learned about molecules4 ,we  know      
through the wonders of chemistry that   
small as a molecule is1 it  is still    
made up of smaller particles called     
atoms4 ,an atom is the  smallest        
division of anything that can be        
imagined4 ,we have found by  chemistry  
that even a molecule is capable of being

 divided1 i4e41 it  is made up of still 
smaller particles1 but molecules are    
small enough4  ,an eminent scientist1   
,sir ,william ,thomson1 has given us    
probably the  nearest approach to a     
correct way of saying something of the  
size of a  molecule4 8,if a drop of     
water were magnified to the size of the 
earth1  the molecules would each occupy 
spaces greater than those filled by     
small shot and smaller than those       
occupied by cricket balls40    ,to get  
at what water is made of we must        
separate it through chemistry  into its 
parts or atoms4 ,when we do this we find
 that a molecule of  water is made of   
three atoms or parts4 ,two of these are 
exactly alike  and consist of a gas     
called hydrogen1 and the other part is  
another  gas called oxygen1 concerning  
which gases we have already learned     
much in the answers to other questions  
in this book4 ,in other words1  when we 
separate water1 which is a liquid1 into 
its parts1 we change  the relations of  

the molecules in the water which move in
 irregular  lines1 into parts which move
 in straight lines and1 when the        
molecules  of a substance1 as we have   
already seen1 move in straight lines1   
the  substance becomes a gas4 ,on the   
other hand1 when you freeze water1 it   
becomes a solid 7ice71 and in doing that
 you fix the molecules in the  water so 
that they stick to each other4    ,men  
thought for a long time that water was  
an element like oxygen and  hydrogen1 i4
 e41 that its molecules could not be    
separated in its  parts and was1        
therefore1 considered one of the things 
which could not  be divided up1 but this
 was due to the fact that it requires a 
great  amount of power to break up the  
molecules of water4          ,what ,is  
an ,element8      ,an element is any    
substance whose molecules cannot be     
broken up and  made to form other       
substances4 ,you can take one or more   
elements and  make a compound1 which is 
what water is4 ,a compound is a         

substance in  which the molecules are   
made up of at least two kinds of        
elements or  elementary substances4     
,,the ,,difference ,,between ,,elements 
,,and ,,compounds    ,the things we find
 in the world are known as either       
compounds or  elements4 ,an element1 as 
we have already learned1 is something in
  which the molecules cannot be broken  
up4 ,a compound is1 therefore1 a        
substance in which the molecules are    
made of molecules of one or more        
elements and is either gas1 liquid or   
solid1 according to the relations  which
 these molecules have to each other4 ,we
 have so far discovered  less than      
eighty real elements in the world1      
although since we find  a new one every 
little while1 there are probably many   
more as yet  undiscovered4    ,not all  
elements are gases1 of course4 ,solids  
like copper1 gold1  iron1 lead and a    
number of others are elements4 ,among   
liquids we have  mercury1 and of the    
gases we find hydrogen1 nitrogen and    

oxygen1  which are the three wonderful  
gases about which we are about to learn 
something1 and these three are also the 
world's most important gases4  ,ammonia 
is an element1 but1 while we think of it
 as a liquid1 the real  ammonia is      
really a gas4 ,our household ammonia is 
really a compound of  ammonia with      
something else4          ,what ,is      
,hydrogen ,gas8      ,hydrogen is one of
 the elementary substances in the form  
of a gas4 ,it  has no color or taste or 
odor1 so we can neither see1 smell nor  
taste  it4 ,it is the lightest substance
 known to the world4 ,we have by the aid
  of chemistry been able to catch and   
retain it in sufficient quantities  to  
weigh it and have found it to be lighter
 than anything else in  the world4 ,it  
is soluble in water and some other      
liquids1 but only  slightly so4 ,it     
refracts light very strongly and will   
absorb in a very  remarkable manner with
 some metals when they are heated4 ,it  
burns with  a beautiful blue flame and  

very great heat4 ,when burned it        
combines  with oxygen in the air and    
forms water4 ,hydrogen is not poisonous 
but1  if inhaled1 it prevents the blood 
from securing oxygen1 and so the        
inhaling of hydrogen will cause death4  
,hydrogen is not found free in  the air 
except in small quantities like oxygen  
and nitrogen and is1  therefore1 secured
 by separating compounds by known       
methods4 ,it can be  secured by the     
action which diluted sulphuric acid has 
on zinc or iron1  by passing steam      
through a red-hot tube filled with iron 
trimmings1 by  passing an electric      
current through water and in other ways4
 ,hydrogen  is absolutely necessary to  
every form of animal or vegetable       
structure4  ,it is found in all acids4  
,what ,is ,oxygen8      ,oxygen was     
discovered in #aggd4 ,it is an          
elementary substance in  the form of a  
gas which is found free in the air4 ,it 
is colorless1  tasteless and odorless   
and1 like hydrogen1 cannot therefore be 

seen1  tasted or smelled4 ,it is soluble
 in water and combines very readily     
with most of the elements4 ,in most     
cases when oxygen combines with  other  
things the process of combining is so   
rapid that light and  heat are          
produced--this combination is called    
combustion4 ,where the  process of      
combining with other substances acts    
slowly the heat and  light produced at  
one time are not enough to be noticed4  
,where metals  tarnish or rust or animal
 or vegetable substances decay1 the same
  thing chemically is taking place as   
when you light a fire and produce  light
 or heat--you are making the oxygen     
combine with the substance  in the      
material which is burning4 ,when iron is
 rusting or vegetables  decaying1 the   
action is so slow that no heat or light 
is produced1 but  the result is the same
 if some outside force does not stop the
 action4  ,the fire will burn until     
everything burnable which it can reach  
is  burned out1 and in the case of the  

piece of iron rusting1 the action  will 
go on slowly until the whole piece of   
iron is destroyed--or burned  out4 ,like
 hydrogen1 no vegetable or animal life  
can live without oxygen  continually    
given it4 ,oxygen will destroy life and 
will sustain it4    ,all of our body    
heat and muscular energy are produced by
 slow  combustion going on in all parts 
of the body1 of oxygen carried in  the  
blood after it enters the lungs4 ,in    
sunlight oxygen is exhaled by  growing  
plants4    ,oxygen is the most widely   
distributed and abundant element in     
nature4  ,it amounts to about one-fifth 
of the volume of the air belt of the    
earth2 about ninety per cent of all the 
weight of water is oxygen4 ,the  rocks  
of the earth contain about fifty per    
cent of oxygen and it is  found in most 
animal and vegetable products and in    
acids4          ,what ,is ,nitrogen8    
,nitrogen is the third of the world's   
wonderful and important gases4  ,it is  
also without color1 taste or smell4 ,it 

will not burn or help  other substances 
to burn and it will not combine easily  
with any other  element4 ,it will unite 
at a very high degree of heat with      
magnesium1  silica1 and other metals4   
,about #g4g per cent of the weight of   
the air  is nitrogen1 so that it is a   
very important part of the air we       
breathe  and it is absolutely necessary 
in making all animal and vegetable      
tissues4 ,when united with hydrogen1 it 
produces ammonia1 and with  oxygen one  
of the most important acids--nitric     
acid4 ,it is found free  in the air and 
is thus easily secured4 ,nitrogen1 while
 very important  to all kinds of life1  
is known as the quiet gas4 ,it stays    
quietly by  itself unless forced to     
combine under great power with other    
things1  and1 even under those          
conditions1 will combine rarely4 ,we    
find a good  deal of nitrogen in the    
blood but1 while we need the nitrogen   
which is  found in the blood1 it does   
nothing particularly to the blood or the

  rest of the body4 ,the nitrogen which 
the body uses is valuable to the  body  
only when found in a compound4 ,this    
nitrogen which the body needs  is       
secured through vegetable products such 
as the wheat from which our  bread is   
made1 and which are said to secure their
 nitrogen through  the aid of microbes  
which are able to force the nitrogen of 
the air  into a compound4 ,some day     
perhaps we shall know all there is to   
know  about nitrogen1 which is the least
 known of these three wonderful and     
necessary gases4          ,why ,are     
,some ,things ,transparent and ,others  
,not8      ,transparency is produced by 
the way rays of light go through        
substances  or not4 ,when light strikes 
a substance that is almost perfectly    
transparent1 it means that the rays of  
light go through it almost  exactly as  
they come in4 ,we think quickly of glass
 when we think of  something readily    
transparent4 ,water is almost equally as
 transparent4  ,when the sunlight is    

shining on one side of a pane of        
ordinary window  glass1 it causes every 
thing on that side of the window to     
reflect the  light which strikes it in  
all directions4 ,when these rays of     
light  strike the window pane1 they go  
right through and that is how we are    
able to see the trees and grass and     
everything else through a clear  window 
pane4 ,the same reason applies also to  
the water4    ,some kinds of window     
glass 7the frosted kind7 we cannot see  
through--they are not transparent4 ,the 
surface of a frosted window pane  is so 
made that when the light rays strike it 
the rays are twisted and  broken1 and do
 not come through as they entered the   
glass4    ,sometimes the water is almost
 perfectly transparent4 ,when water is  
perfectly clear1 it is quite            
transparent4 ,when you look at or into  
water that is not transparent1 you will 
know that there are particles  of solid 
matter floating about in it which twist 
and mix the light  rays4 ,if the water  

is not too deep you can see the bottom  
sometimes  even when there are some     
particles of solid substances floating  
about  in it1 but the deeper the water  
the more of these solid particles there 
are generally in it1 so that it is      
impossible in most waters to see the    
bottom if the water is deep4 ,in some   
places1 however1 the water is so  free  
from floating particles that the bottom 
of the ocean can be seen  at quite      
considerable depths4          ,why ,is  
the ,sea ,water ,salt8      ,all water  
that comes into the oceans by way of the
 rivers and other  streams contains     
salt4 ,the amount is so very small for a
 given quantity  of water that it cannot
 be tasted4 ,but all this river water is
 poured  into the oceans eventually at  
some point4 ,after it reaches the       
oceans1  the water is evaporated by the 
action of the sun4 ,when the sun picks  
up  the water in the form of moisture1  
it does not take up any of the solid    
substances which the water contained as 

it came in from the rivers1 and  while  
there is about as much water in the     
ocean all the time and about  as much   
also in the air in the form of moisture 
also1 the ocean never  gets fuller2 the 
solid substances from the river waters  
keep piling  up in the ocean and float  
about in the water there4 ,the salt     
which is  in the river water has been   
left behind by the sun when it          
evaporated  the water in the ocean for  
so long that the amount of salt has     
become  very noticeable4 ,the moisture  
which the sun takes into the air from   
the ocean is eventually turned back to  
the earth again in the form of  rain4   
,this process of evaporation and        
precipitation in the form of rain  is   
going on all the time4 ,when the water  
which is in the form of rain  strikes   
the earth1 it is pure water4 ,it sinks  
into the ground and on  the way picks up
 some salt1 finds its way into a river  
sooner or later1  and then evidently    
gets back into the ocean4 ,all this time

 it has been  carrying the tiny bit of  
salt which it picked up in going through
 the  ground4 ,but when it reaches the  
ocean again and is taken up by the  sun1
 it leaves its salt behind and so the   
salt from countless drops of  water is  
constantly being left in the ocean as it
 goes up into the air4  ,this has been  
going on for countless ages and the     
amount of salt has  been increasing in  
the ocean all the time1 so that the sea 
is becoming  saltier and saltier4       
,why ,does ,salt ,make ,me ,thirsty8    
,the blood in our body contains about   
the same proportion of salt as the      
water in the ocean normally4 ,when the  
supply is normal we do not feel  that we
 have too much salt in our systems1 but 
when you take salt into  your mouth the 
percentage of salt in the body is       
increased1 and the  being thirsty1 or   
the desire to drink water afterwards is 
caused by the  demand of the human      
system that the salt be diluted4 ,the   
system calls  for water or something to 

drink in order that it may counteract   
the too  great percentage of salt in the
 system4 ,other things also1 when taken 
into the body in too great a proportion1
 cause us to become thirsty4  ,thirst is
 merely nature's demand for more water  
on account of the  necessity of reducing
 the percentage of some substance like  
salt1 or  merely a necessity for having 
more water in the body4          ,what  
,are ,diamonds ,made ,of8      ,we      
learned the definition of an element in 
our study of water and  other           
substances4 ,many things which were at  
one time thought by our  wisest men to  
be elements were later found to be      
compounds of other  substances4 ,water  
is one of these which we have learned is
 really not  an element at all1 but     
compounded from two gaseous elements1   
hydrogen  and oxygen4    ,one of the    
most important elements in the world is 
the one out of  which diamonds are      
formed4 ,not because diamonds are so    
valuable1 but  because the element      

referred to1 carbon1 is found in every  
tissue of  every living thing1 both     
animal and mineral4 ,this carbon is one 
of the  most useful of all elements1 but
 is found in and used by living things  
always in combination with some other   
substance4 ,carbon is combustible1      
forming carbonic acid gas1 from which   
the earth's vegetation secures  its     
necessary carbon1 which is very great in
 amount4    ,when heat is made to act in
 certain ways on the tissues of animal  
and  vegetable life we get charcoal1    
lampblack and coke4 ,carbon will combine
  with more other substances than any of
 the other known elements4 ,its  wonders
 lie in the fact that under various     
treatments it produces  altogether      
different looking things1 although      
remaining as pure carbon4  ,our         
diamonds1 for instance1 are pure carbon1
 but our lead pencils1  that is1 the    
part we write with1 are also pure       
carbon1 and the coal  we burn is carbon 
also4 ,it would be hard to say which of 

these three  forms of pure carbon is    
most valuable to the world4 ,a great    
many rich  people might say diamonds1   
while the poor people would surely say  
coal1 especially if you asked them in   
winter1 while the people who  write     
books1 and newspaper reporters1 would   
probably say lead-pencils4  ,however1 it
 would be better to choose diamonds1 for
 if you have them  you can always trade 
them for coal or lead-pencils4 ,a very  
small  diamond will buy quite a lot of  
either coal or lead-pencils4 ,carbon is 
one of the solid elements which are not 
metals4 ,a great many of the  important 
elements in the group of solids are     
metals4          ,what ,causes ,dimples8
      ,a dimple is a dent or depression 
in the skin on a part of the body  where
 the flesh is soft4 ,the fibers which   
lay in the tissue under the  outside    
skin help to hold the skin firm4 ,these 
fibers which are1 of  course1 small run 
in all directions and are of different  
lengths4 ,now  and then these fibers    

will just happen to grow short in one   
spot or the  other and pull the skin in1
 forming a little depression1 but       
producing  a very pleasing effect4      
,why ,does the ,dark ,cause ,fear8      
,fear is an instinct4 ,we are by nature 
afraid of the things we do not  know all
 about4 ,that is why knowledge is so    
valuable2 when we know  about a thing we
 are sure of our ground4 ,when we are   
where it is light  we can see what is   
there2 when it is dark our imagination  
becomes  active and because we do not   
know for certain what is there in the   
dark  before us1 we imagine things4     
,fear of the dark1 however1 cannot be   
said to be entirely natural4 ,it  comes 
naturally only when we have come to the 
age when we begin to  imagine things4   
,animals have no imaginative powers and 
they do not fear  the dark4 ,some people
 say that the fear of the dark is bred  
in us1  but little babies do not fear   
the dark4 ,if they are properly trained 
they will go to sleep in the dark and   

will prefer the dark4 ,as they  grow    
older children begin to fear the dark1  
but that is because their  imagination  
is coming to life and because parents so
 often make the  mistake at this stage  
of training their children of either    
encouraging  the feeling of fear that   
darkness brings for the convenient means
 of  punishment it provides through     
threatening to put the light out1 or    
because they do not take the pains to   
show that there is no reason for  fear4 
,most children who fear the darkness are
 really taught to do so  permanently by 
parents or servants4 ,when a boy or girl
 first begins to  imagine things in the 
dark1 many parents run quickly to the   
child and  say1 8,don't be afraid0 or   
8,there is nothing to be afraid of10 and
 in  doing this they perhaps mention the
 word 8fear0 for the first time4        
,repetition of this will always cause   
the child to associate the word  8fear0 
with 8darkness40 ,as a matter of fact   
when the boy or girl first  shows fear  

of the darkness1 parents should go to   
them and quiet their  fears1 but talk   
about anything else but fear and direct 
the child's  mind away from any thought 
of fear4    ,illustration3 ,,ancient    
,,egyptian ,,rope4          ,the ,story 
in a ,coil of ,rope      ,how many have 
ever given a thought to the question of 
where rope comes  from and how it is    
made1 or realize what a variety of uses 
it is put  to1 and how dependent we are 
upon it in many of the everyday affairs 
of life8 ,but let us suppose for a      
moment that the world were suddenly     
deprived of its supply of this very     
commonplace material1 and of its        
smaller relatives1 cords and twine4 ,we 
should then begin to realize  the       
importance of a seemingly unimportant   
thing1 and to appreciate the  difficulty
 in getting along without it4           
,ancient civilized peoples had their    
ropes and cordage1 made from  such      
materials as were available in their    
respective countries4 ,the  ,egyptians  

are said to have made rope from leather 
thongs1 and our  illustration will be   
found interesting in this connection4   
,this is from  a sculpture taken from a 
tomb in ,thebes of the time of the      
,pharaoh of  the ,exodus4               
,illustration3 ,,egyptians ,,making     
,,rope4    ,while this scene is said by 
the best authority to represent the     
preparation of leather cords for use in 
lacing sandals1 it has been  supposed by
 some to be a representation of rope    
making4 ,in any event  the process is   
undoubtedly the same as that used in    
making rope4    ,the scene is depicted  
with the true ,egyptian faculty for     
showing  details1 making words almost   
unnecessary to an understanding of their
  pictorial records4 ,we see the raw    
material in the shape of the hide1  and 
also two well-made coils of the finished
 product4 ,one of the  workmen is       
cutting a strand from a hide by         
revolving it and cutting as  it turns4  
,any one who has not tried it will be   

surprised to see what a  good1 even     
string can be cut from a piece of       
leather in this way4    ,another man is 
arranging and paying out the thongs to a
 third1 who is  evidently walking       
backward in time-honored fashion1       
twisting as he goes4    ,coming down to 
more recent times we find that          
rope-making had been  going on for      
centuries with probably very little     
change1 up to the time  of the          
introduction of machinery and the       
establishment of the factory  system4   
,illustration3 ,,hackling4    ,,how     
,,rope ,,was ,,long ,,made ,,by ,,hand  
,in the early days to which we have     
referred1 all the yarn for  rope-making 
was spun by hand in the time-honored    
way4 ,we are able to  represent to our  
readers by the photographs shown1 this  
now almost lost  art4 ,the material     
shown in the pictures is ,american hemp1
 which because  the earlier machines    
were not adapted to working this softer 
fiber1  continued to be spun by hand    

long after manila was spun chiefly on   
machines4    ,illustration3 ,,native    
,,philipino ,,scraping ,,the ,,fiber    
,,from ,,the ,,leaf ,,stock4    ,the    
hemp was first hackled1 as is also shown
 by our photograph1 the  hackle or      
8hechel0 being simply a board having    
long1 sharp steel teeth  set into it4   
,this combed out the tow or short1      
matted fiber1 leaving  the clean1       
straight hemp4 ,this 8strike0 of hemp   
the spinner wrapped  about his waist1   
bringing the ends around his back and   
tucking them  into his belt1 thus       
keeping the material in place without   
knot or  twist1 and allowing the fibers 
to pay out freely4    ,illustration3    
,,drying ,,the ,,fiber4                 
,illustration3 ,,scene ,,in ,,an        
,,egyptian ,,kitchen ,,showing ,,use    
,,of ,a ,,large ,,rope  ,,to ,,support  
,a ,,sort ,,of ,,hanging ,,shelf4       
,the workman in our picture is ,johnny  
,moores1 an old-time expert             
hand-spinner1 who can walk off backward 

from the wheel with his wad of  hemp1   
spinning with each hand a thread as fine
 and even as can be asked  for4 ,in the 
photograph1 in order to show the process
 more clearly1 one  large yarn is being 
spun4    ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old      
,,fashioned ,,rope ,,walk    ,,hand     
,,spinning4    ,the large wheel1 usually
 turned by a boy1 is used to convey     
power to  the 8whirls10 or small        
spindles carrying hooks upon which the  
fiber  is fastened4 ,these whirls1      
revolving1 give the twist to the yarn as
  the spinner deftly pays out the fiber1
 regulating it with skillful  fingers to
 preserve the uniformity and proper size
 of the yarn4 ,as he  goes backward down
 the long walk through the 8squares of  
sunlight on  the floor0 he throws the   
trailing yarns over the 8stakes0 placed 
at  intervals along the walk for the    
purpose4    ,the spinning 8grounds0 were
 usually arranged with wheels at either 
end1 so that spinners reaching the      
farther end1 could go back to their     

starting point spinning another set of  
yarns4    ,then in the case of small    
ropes1 the strands could be made by     
attaching  two or more yarns to the     
8whirl0 and twisting them together1     
reversing  the motion to give the       
strands a twist opposite to that given  
the  yarns4 ,these strands were twisted 
together1 again reversing the motion1   
making a rope4 ,thus it will be seen    
that1 reduced to its lowest terms1      
rope-making consists simply of a series 
of twisting processes4 ,the  twisting of
 the yarns into the strand is known as  
8forming0 or putting  in the 8foreturn40
 ,the final process is 8laying10        
8closing0 or putting  in the 8after     
turn40 ,horse-power was used in old     
times for forming and  laying rope which
 was too large to be made by hand4      
,how all this work is now done in a     
modern rope factory by ingeniously      
devised machinery we shall now see4     
,the opening room where the fiber is    
made ready for the preparation          

machinery is a reminder of the days when
 all rope-making processes  were hand   
work4 ,the bales are first opened up--in
 the case of ,manila  this means cutting
 the straw matting put on to protect the
 fiber in  shipment4 ,then the hanks    
which are packed in various             
ways--sometimes  doubled1 sometimes     
twisted--are taken out and straightened 
and the band  at the end of the hank    
removed4    ,no machinery has yet been  
perfected for doing the work just       
described  but the first of the         
preparation processes1 a short step     
beyond1 tells  quite a different story4 
,here the hanks of such fibers as       
require a  special cleaning treatment   
are placed on fast working hackling     
machines  which comb away most of the   
snarls1 loose tow and dirt4    ,at this 
point hard fibers--,manila1 ,sisal and  
,new ,zealand--are usually  oiled to    
soften them and to make them more       
workable for the operations  that       
follow4 ,the oil1 furthermore1 acts as a

 preservative4 ,it is a  matter of      
importance to the buyer1 however1 that  
the fiber should not  be too heavily    
oiled1 for that merely increases the    
weight and cost of  the rope without    
improving its quality4    ,the wonder of
 modernism in rope-making is nowhere    
more striking than  in the preparation  
room4 ,to pass from one end1 where the  
raw hemp is  received just as it left   
the hands of the native ,filipino       
laborer with  his crude methods1 down   
through the long rows of machines to the
 draw  frames from which the sliver is  
delivered in a form that can be likened 
to a stream of molten metal1 is to cover
 decades of inventive genius  and       
mechanical development4    ,the         
mechanism performs its work so          
accurately that at first glance the  man
 feeding the fiber into the machine and 
all the other men1 busy  about their    
various duties1 would appear to be      
playing very minor parts  in modern rope
 making4 ,in reality1 expert workmanship

 and watchfulness  are very important   
factors4 ,good rope depends no more upon
 scientific  machine processes than upon
 ceaseless attention to the little      
details1  and this is especially true in
 the preparation room4    ,before taking
 up the distinctly modern machines so   
largely used now  in the final processes
 of rope-making--the forming of strands1
 laying  of common ropes and closing of 
cable-laid goods--we will describe the  
rope-walk where much of this work is    
still best carried on4    ,illustration3
 ,,huge ,,bales ,,of ,,raw ,,rope       
,,material    ,,manila ,,hemp ,,in      
,,warehouse4    ,for making tarred goods
 in all but the smaller sizes the walk  
has  certain advantages not afforded by 
newer methods4 ,it also provides        
efficient equipment for turning out the 
largest ropes1 which would  otherwise   
require special machinery4              
,illustration3 ,a ,,modern ,,rope ,,walk
    ,,interior ,,of ,,rope ,,walk1      
,,plymouth ,,cordage ,,co4    ,the long 

alleys or grounds where the work takes  
place are usually laid  out in pairs1   
one for forming1 the other for laying   
and closing4 ,each  ground has a track  
to accommodate the machines used and an 
endless  band-rope which conveys the    
power4    ,illustration3 ,,near ,,view  
,,of ,,machine ,,in ,,rope ,,walk4      
,,how ,,rope ,,is ,,formed ,,and        
,,twisted    ,at the head of the forming
 ground stand frames holding the bobbins
 of  yarn4 ,the yarns for each strand   
first pass through a plate perforated   
in concentric circles4 ,this arrangement
 gives each yarn the correct  angle of  
delivery into a tube where the whole    
mass gets a certain  amount of          
compression4    ,as the top truck is    
forced ahead by the twisting process1   
the ropemaker  by means of greater or   
less leverage on the 8tails0--the loose 
ropes  shown in our picture--preserves a
 correct lay in the rope4 ,the stakes   
on which the strands rest are removed   
one by one to allow the top truck  to   

pass1 and then replaced to support the  
rope until the laying is  finished and  
the reeling in of the rope begun4       
,the closing process on cable-laid goods
 is like the laying except  that the    
twist is reversed4 ,the work now being  
with three complete  ropes--frequently  
very large--a heavier top truck is      
necessary1 and  this must often be      
ballasted1 as shown in our illustration1
 to keep  down the vibration which would
 otherwise tend to lift the truck off   
the  track4    ,illustration3 ,,near    
,,view ,,of ,,machine ,,in ,,rope       
,,walk4    ,modern rope-making ingenuity
 reaches its high-water mark in the     
compound laying-machine where the two   
operations of forming the strands  and  
laying them into a rope are combined4   
,up to a certain point this  method is  
more economical than that in which the  
forming and laying are  unconnected4    
,fewer machines are required for a given
 output--hence1  less floor space and   
fewer workmen4 ,the time-saving element 

also enters  in4    ,illustration3      
,,preparing ,,the ,,fiber ,,in ,,rope   
,,making    ,,opening ,,bales ,,of      
,,manila ,,fiber ,,for ,,preparation4   
,illustration3 ,,preparation ,,room4    
,here the fiber is carefully cleaned and
 combed by a series of fine  tooth      
machinery through which it passes4      
,illustration3 ,,countless ,,slivers    
,,stream ,,from ,,the ,,rope ,,machine  
,,formation ,,of ,,sliver--,,first      
,,breaker4    ,the hanks of fiber are   
fed by hand into this machine several at
 a  time1 where it is grasped by steel  
pins fitted to a slowly revolving       
endless chain4 ,a second set of pins    
moving more rapidly draws out the       
individual fibers and combs them into a 
continuous form4    ,the operations     
which follow are very similar4 ,a number
 of 8ropings0  are allowed to feed      
together into a first slowly revolving  
set of pins  and are drawn out again by 
a high speed set into a smaller sliver1 
the  pins becoming finer on each        

succeeding machine until the draw frame 
is  reached4 ,here the fiber is pulled  
from a single set of pins between two   
rapidly moving leather belts called     
aprons4 ,on all of these machines  the  
fiber passes between rollers as it goes 
onto and leaves the pins  and the sliver
 is given its cylindrical form by being 
drawn through a  circular opening4    ,a
 finished sliver must conform to the    
special size desired for  spinning4     
,illustration3 ,,spreader4              
,illustration3 ,,second ,,breaker4      
,illustration3 ,,draw ,,frame4          
,illustration3 ,a ,,rope ,,machine      
,,that ,,is ,,almost ,,human            
,,four-,,strand ,,compound              
,,laying-,,machine4    ,the compound    
laying machine must1 however1 be stopped
 each time that  the supply of yarn on  
any bobbin is so low as to call for a   
fresh one4  ,this would occur so        
frequently in the case of the larger    
ropes as to  offset the advantages just 
mentioned1 hence the machine is used on 

a  limited range of sizes only4    ,as  
can be seen in the picture1 the machine 
contains a vertical  shaft with upper   
and lower projecting arms which support 
the  bobbin-flyers--four in number in   
this particular case4 ,the bobbins      
within each flyer turn on separate      
spindles1 allowing the yarns to pass  up
 through small guide plates and thence  
into a tube4    ,each flyer is geared to
 revolve on its own axis1 thus twisting 
its set  of yarns into a compact strand4
 ,at the same time all the flyers       
revolve  with the main shaft in an      
opposite direction and form a rope out  
of the  strands as the latter come      
together in a central tube still higher 
up4    ,the rope is drawn through this  
tube by a series of pulleys which exert 
a steady pull and so keep the proper    
twist in the rope4 ,from these  pulleys 
the finished product is delivered onto a
 separately-driven  coiling reel1 an    
automatic device registering meanwhile  
on a dial the  number of fathoms run4   

,the small reel1 seen near the head of  
the main shaft1 holds the small  heart  
rope which is fed into the center of    
certain four-strand ropes to  act as a  
bed for the strands4    ,pure ,manila   
rope is the very best and the most      
satisfactory for all  around use4 ,the  
character of good ,manila fiber is such 
as to impart to  a properly made rope   
such necessary factors as strength1     
pliability1  and wearing qualities4     
,regular #c-strand ,manila rope is      
universally used for all general        
purposes4    ,for certain special uses1 
however1 and particularly where the rope
 is  to be used for any kind of sheave  
work1 a #d-strand type of construction  
will be found the most suitable1 as such
 a rope presents a much firmer1         
rounder1 and greater wearing surface    
than the ordinary #c-strand4 ,there  are
 many different types of #d-strand rope4
    ,the picture shown on this page     
represents a coil of #d-strand ,manila  
called 8,best ,fall40 ,this rope is made

 of carefully selected fiber2  is       
#d-strand with heart1 and is harder     
twisted than ordinary goods4  ,best     
,fall is adapted for heavy hoisting     
work1 as on coal and grain  elevators1  
cargo and quarry hoists and for         
pile-driver hammer lines4    ,,an       
,,average ,,coil ,,of ,,rope--#abjj     
,,feet    ,the standard length coil of  
rope is #a1bjj feet1 although extra long
  lengths are every day made for such   
purposes as oil-well drilling1 the      
transmission of power1 etc41 etc4       
,illustration3 ,,section1 ,,cross       
,,section ,,and ,,coil1 ,,four ,,and    
,,three-,,fourth  ,,inches              
,,circumference4 ,,section ,,and ,,cross
 ,,section ,,one-,,half ,,actual        
,illustration3 ,,different ,,kinds ,,of 
,,knots    ,,knots4    ,from ,knight's  
,american ,mechanical ,dictionary4      
#a4 ,simple over hand knot4     #b4     
,slip-knot1 seized4     #c4 ,single     
bow-knot4     #d4 ,square or reef knot4 
#e4 ,square or bow-knot4     #f4        

,weaver's knot4     #g4 ,german or      
figure-of-#h knot4     #h4 ,two         
half-hitches1 or artificer's knot4      
#i4 ,double artificer's knot4    #aj4   
,simple galley-knot4    #aa4 ,capstan or
 prolonge knot4    #ab4 ,bowline-knot4  
#ac4 ,rolling-hitch4    #ad4            
,clove-hitch4    #ae4 ,blackwall-hitch4 
#af4 ,timber-hitch4    #ag4 ,bowline on 
a bight4    #ah4 ,running-bowline4      
#ai4 ,catspaw4    #bj4 ,double          
running-knot4    #ba4 ,double-knot4     
#bb4 ,sixfold-knot4    #bc4 ,boat-knot4 
#bd4 ,lark's head4    #be4 ,lark's head4
    #bf4 ,simple boat-knot4    #bg4     
,loop-knot4    #bh4 ,double ,flemish    
knot4    #bi4 ,running knot1 checked4   
#cj4 ,croned running-knot4    #ca4      
,lashing-knot4    #cb4 ,rosette4    #cc4
 ,chain-knot4    #cd4 ,double           
chain-knot4    #ce4 ,double running-knot
 with check-knot4    #cf4 ,double       
twist-knot4    #cg4 ,builder's knot4    
#ch4 ,double ,flemish knot4    #ci4     
,english knot4    #dj4 ,shortening knot4

    #da4 ,shortening knot4    #db4      
,sheep-shank4    #dc4 ,dog-shank4       
#dd4 ,mooring-knot4    #de4             
,mooring-knot4    #df4 ,mooring-knot4   
#dg4 ,pig-tail1 worked on the end of a  
rope4    #dh4 ,shroud-knot4    #di4     
,sailor's bend4    #ej4 ,a granny's     
knot4    #ea4 ,a weaver's knot4         
,illustration3 ,,how ,,to ,,splice ,a   
,,rope    ,,english ,,splice4    ,for   
transmission rope4    ,the successive   
operations for splicing a #a-;inch rope 
by this method  are as follows3    #a4  
,tie a piece of twine 7#i and #aj1      
figure #f7 around the rope to be        
spliced1 about six feet from each end4  
,then unlay the strands of each  end    
back to the twine4    #b4 ,butt the     
ropes together1 and twist each          
corresponding pair of  strands loosely1 
to keep them from being tangled1 as     
shown 7a7 figure  #f4    #c4 ,the twine 
#aj is now cut1 and the strand #h       
unlaid1 and strand #g  carefully laid in
 its place for a distance of four and a 

half feet from  the junction4    #d4    
,the strand #f is next unlaid about one 
and a half feet1 and strand #e  laid in 
its place4    #e4 ,the ends of the cores
 are now cut off so they just meet4     
#f4 ,unlay strand #a four and a half    
feet1 laying strand #b in its place4    
#g4 ,unlay strand #c one and a half     
feet1 laying in strand #d4    #h4 ,cut  
all the strands off to a length of about
 twenty inches1 for  convenience in     
manipulation4 ,the rope now assumes the 
form shown in  b1 with the              
meeting-points of the strands three feet
 apart4    ,each pair of strands is now 
successively subjected to the following 
operations3    #i4 ,from the point of   
meeting of the strands #h and #g1 unlay 
each one  three turns2 split both the   
strands #h and #g in halves1 as far back
 as  they are now unlaid1 and 8whip0 the
 end of each half strand with a  small  
piece of twine4    #aj4 ,the half of the
 strand #g is now laid in three turns1  
and the half  of #h also laid in three  

turns4    ,the half strands now meet and
 are tied in a simple knot1 #aa 7c7     
making the rope at this point its       
original size4    #aa4 ,the rope is now 
opened with a marlin-spike1 and the half
 strand of  #g worked around the half   
strand of #h by passing the end of the  
half  strand through the rope1 as shown1
 drawn taut1 and again worked around    
this half strand until it reaches the   
half strand #ac that was not laid  in4  
,this half strand #ac is now split1 and 
the half strand #g drawn  through the   
opening thus made1 and then tucked under
 the two adjacent  strands as shown in  
d4    #ab4 ,the other half of the strand
 #h is now wound around the other half  
strand #g in the same way4 ,after each  
pair of strands has been treated  in    
this manner1 the ends are cut off at    
#ab1 leaving them about four  inches    
long4 ,after a few days' wear they will 
all draw into the body of  the rope or  
wear off1 so that the locality of the   
splice can scarcely  be detected4       

,why ,do ,we ,go to ,sleep8      ,first1
 of course1 we sleep to rest our body   
and brain4 ,during our  waking hours    
many1 if not all1 parts of our bodies   
are active all the  time1 and with every
 movement we exhaust or spend some of   
our strength4  ,take the case of your   
arm1 for instance4 ,you may be able to  
move it  up and down fifty or a hundred 
or more times without getting tired1    
according to how strong you are1 but    
sooner or later you will not be  able to
 move it any more--it is tired--the life
 has all gone out of it  and it needs   
rest1 in order that it may become strong
 again4 ,every time  you move your arm  
you destroy certain parts of its        
tissues1 which can  only be replaced    
during rest4 ,every activity of your    
body has the same  experience1 and the  
constant work of the brain in directing 
the various  movements and activities of
 the body1 tires it out too4 ,as soon as
 this  condition occurs1 the brain tells
 the other parts of the body that it  is

 time to rest1 and even if we try to    
keep awake and go on with our  work or  
play1 or whatever it is we are doing1 we
 find sooner or later  that it is       
impossible4 ,if we persist we fall      
asleep wherever we happen  to be4 ,it is
 not necessary for all parts of the body
 to be tired before  we sleep4 ,one part
 alone may be so affected by what it has
 been doing  that it alone causes us to 
fall asleep4 ,sometimes the eyes become 
so  tired1 while we are looking at the  
pictures in a book or reading1 for      
instance1 that we fall off to sleep     
quickly4 ,it is perhaps easier to  bring
 on sleep by making the eyes tired than 
in any other way4 ,that  is why so many 
people read themselves to sleep4 ,it is 
such a gradual  passing into            
unconsciousness that you can hardly ever
 tell where you  left off reading4 ,it  
is said that when we are awake our      
bodies are  continually planning for the
 time when we shall need sleep and are  
continually making some little germ     

which is carried to the brain as  soon  
as made1 and when there are a sufficient
 number of these little  germs piled up 
in the brain1 we go to sleep4 ,the      
process of sleeping  then destroys these
 germs1 and when they are destroyed we  
again wake up4          ,why ,do ,we    
,wake ,up in the ,morning8      ,to     
answer this we must go back to the      
answer to the question1 8,what  makes us
 go to sleep80 ,we go to sleep in order 
to secure the rest which  our body and  
brain need to build up the parts which  
have been destroyed  during our active  
work or play4    ,we wake up naturally  
when we have had sufficient rest4 ,we   
wake up  naturally1 however1 only when  
the destroyed parts of the body have    
been replaced4 ,other things may waken  
us--a noise of any kind1 loud  or       
slight1 a startling dream or a moving   
thing that disturbs our                 
sleep--according to how fully we are    
asleep4 ,it is said that sometimes  only
 parts of the body are asleep2 that we  

are not always all asleep  when we      
appear to sleep1 and that we dream      
because some part of the  body is awake 
or active4 ,this is probably true4 ,now 
then1 when all of  anyone of us is      
sleepy1 we go into what is called a deep
 sleep and  at such times only something
 out of the ordinary would awaken us4   
,gradually1 however1 various parts of   
the body become rested and they  are    
said to wake up1 and finally when all of
 us is rested1 we naturally  wake up all
 over4 ,if you are healthy and sleep    
naturally1 in a place  where you cannot 
be disturbed by noises or movements of  
others1 you  should be 8wide awake0 when
 your eyes open and be ready to get up  
at  once4 ,if you feel like turning over
 for another snooze1 when it is time  to
 get up1 you did not go to bed as early 
as you should have done1  or else some  
part of you did not get the required    
amount of sleep it  should have had4    
,where ,are ,we ,when ,asleep8      ,we 
are just where we lie4 ,it seems to us1 

of course1 because of our  dreams when  
we are asleep that we are away off some 
place else4 ,often  when we wake up we  
wonder for a minute or two where we are1
 as  everything seems so strange to us1 
and it takes a minute or so for us  to  
remember that we are in our own bed1 if 
that is where we went to  sleep4 ,this  
is because of the dreams we have while  
asleep4 ,in past  times the uncivilized 
savages in various parts of the earth   
believed  that when any of them went to 
sleep that the real person so asleep    
actually went away1 leaving the body    
behind2 in other words1 that  the soul  
went traveling4 ,they thought this      
because it was the only  explanation    
they could think of for the dreams they 
had1 since almost  invariably the dream 
was about some other place4             
,why ,does ,it ,seem ,when ,we ,have    
,slept ,all ,night ,that ,we ,have ,been
 ,asleep  ,only a ,minute8      ,this is
 because all our ideas of passage of    
time are based on our  conscious        

periods4 ,when we are asleep we are     
unconscious4 ,it is the  same as if time
 did not pass1 and when we wake up the  
tendency is to  start in where we left  
off4 ,we have learned by experience that
 when  we go to sleep at night and wake 
up in the morning that much time has    
passed and this unconscious knowledge   
keeps us from thinking always  that we  
have been asleep but a minute4 ,but if  
you drop asleep in the  day time1 no    
matter how long you sleep1 you wake up  
thinking that  you have been asleep only
 a minute1 and sometimes it is difficult
 to  convince yourself that you have    
been asleep at all4 ,sometimes after    
being asleep for hours1 your first      
waking thought is a continuation of     
what your mind was on when you went to  
sleep4 ,the reason for this1 as  stated 
above1 is that we cannot keep track of  
passing time when we are  asleep1       
because we are perfectly unconscious4   
,why ,should ,we ,not ,sleep ,with the  
,moon ,shining ,on ,us8      ,there is  

no harm in letting the moon shine on us 
while we are asleep4  ,this is one of   
the queer superstitions that has        
developed in the world4  ,a great many  
people think that something terrible    
will happen if the  moon is allowed to  
shine into the room where they are      
asleep4 ,not so  many believe this as   
used to do so1 thanks to the more       
enlightened  condition of things in the 
world4    ,to prove to yourself that no 
harm can come to you through the moon   
shining into your bedroom or upon you as
 you are asleep1 you have only  to      
remember that a great many men and very 
many more animals sleep out  under the  
sky every night and that the moon must  
shine on them while  they are asleep4   
,as a matter of fact1 people who sleep  
out under the  open sky are generally in
 possession of more rugged health than  
people  who sleep in beds in closed     
rooms4 ,so it is rather better to let   
the  moon shine on you while asleep than
 not4    ,this belief probably started  

with some one who had trouble in going  
to  sleep with the moon shining on him1 
because the light of the moon might     
have a tendency to keep him awake4 ,it  
is easier to go to sleep in a  dark room
 than in one that is lighted1 because   
when there is no light  there is less   
about you to keep you awake4            
,what ,makes ,us ,dream8      ,dreams   
originate in the brain4 ,the brain has  
many parts and some parts  of it may be 
asleep while others are not4 ,if all    
parts of the brain  are actually asleep1
 it is said there can be no dreams4 ,we 
have dreams  about things which seem    
very natural while we are having them1  
and  which we know would be impossible  
if we were wholly awake1 because  those 
parts of the brain which control the    
other parts are probably  asleep while  
the dream is taking place1 and it is    
then that we have  those fantastic and  
highly imaginative dreams1 for the brain
 is not  under control in every sense4  
,we used to believe that dreams have no 

purpose1 just as now we know  that they 
have no meaning4 ,but it has been       
discovered that dreams  have a purpose  
in that they protect our sleep4 ,you    
see1 every dream  is started by some    
disturbance or excitement of the body or
 mind4  ,something may be pressing or   
touching us while we sleep1 or a strange
  sound may start a dream1 or perhaps it
 is some uncomfortable position  in     
which we are lying or trouble in the    
stomach on account of eating  something 
we should not4 ,whatever it may be1     
those things wake up some  part of the  
brain1 because if all parts of the brain
 were asleep1 we  could not feel or hear
 anything4 ,any such disturbance or     
excitement  would naturally excite the  
whole brain and wake us up completely if
 it  were not for dreams4 ,the dream    
takes care of this and enables the rest 
of the body and brain to sleep while one
 or more parts of the brain are         
disturbed and even perhaps awake4 ,we   
may perhaps have become uncovered  in   

some way4 ,this would produce a cold    
feeling and might wake a part  of the   
brain and cause a dream about skating or
 some other winter  amusement or        
experience1 or even perhaps one about   
falling through the  ice1 and still we  
might not be uncovered so much that it  
would make any  great difference4 ,the  
dream comes and we go on with our sleep 
without  waking up1 whereas if it were  
not for the dream we would awaken4 ,in  
other words1 dreams are just another    
wise provision of nature which  enables 
us to go right on and get the rest we   
need1 even if our  digestion is out of  
order1 or some part of our brain is     
disturbed  through something we read    
about1 or were told of1 or we thought of
  while still awake4          ,why ,do  
,we ,know ,we ,have ,dreamed ,when ,we  
,wake ,up8      ,because we remember    
some of our dreams4 ,sometimes we do not
 remember  the dreams we dreamed4 ,this 
is just like what happens when we are   
awake4 ,we remember some things and     

forget others4    ,dreams are a sort of 
safety valve in our sleep4 ,we dream    
because not  all of our brain is asleep 
at the time and it is a wise provision  
of  nature that permits the waking part 
of the brain to go on working  without  
disturbing the sleep of the other parts 
of the brain4 ,if a  large part of the  
brain is awake and engaged in making the
 dream1  we are very apt to remember the
 dream2 but when we dream and cannot    
remember what the dream was1 it is      
because only a very small portion of    
the brain was awake and making a dream4 
,what ,causes ,nightmare8      ,a       
nightmare is a dream of what we might   
call a vigorous kind4 ,a  nightmare is  
caused by a feeling of intense fear1    
horror1 anxiety  or the inability to    
escape from some great danger4 ,a       
nightmare is  the result of either an   
irregular flow of blood to the brain or 
by a  stomach that is not in proper     
condition4    ,the name for this kind of
 a dream comes from the words night and 

mare4  ,the latter word in one of its   
several meanings indicates an incubus or
  evil vision1 and a dream of an evil   
vision involving fear or horror  came to
 be termed a mare4 ,since they occurred 
generally at night1 since  most people  
sleep at night1 they became known as    
nightmares4 ,nightmares  are more common
 to children than grown-up people       
because children are  more apt to have  
an uneven flow of blood to the brain and
 also are more  apt to eat the things   
which put the stomach in a state of     
unrest which  causes nightmares4        
,grown-up people are more likely to have
 learned to  avoid the abuses of the    
stomach which are apt to produce        
nightmares4          ,what ,are ,ghosts8
      ,the idea of ghosts is the result 
of a mistake of the brain or an  attempt
 to account for something of which we   
see the results1 but have  no actual    
knowledge4 ,there are no ghosts4 ,there 
are many forces at work  in the world of
 which we know nothing as yet4 ,many of 

the wonderful  things that occur in the 
world are as yet mysteries to the mind  
of  man4 ,every little while man        
discovers one of these new forces1 and  
then he is able to understand many      
things plainly which were up to  then   
surrounded with mystery and in the minds
 of superstitious people  attributed to 
spirits or ghosts4 ,long before we      
understood as much as  we do now of the 
workings of electricity 7and they say we
 know only a  little of its wonders as  
yet7 many of the natural wonders        
produced by  electricity were attributed
 to ghosts4    ,most of the marvelous   
tales of the wonders performed by and   
visits from  ghosts are the result of   
disturbances of the brain in the people 
who  think they see the ghosts and the  
results of their work4    ,a creature   
without imagination does not pretend to 
see or believe in  ghosts4 ,man is the  
only animal which possesses the ability 
to imagine  things and so the ghosts we 
hear about are the creatures of the     

disturbed brains of men4 ,generally in  
the ghost stories we hear of1  the ghost
 is described as wearing                
clothes--usually white4 ,a bed sheet    
thrown over the foot of the bed may     
appear to a half-awake person as  the   
outline of the figure of a ghost and to 
one of a highly imaginative  temperament
 without the courage of investigation1  
become forever a real  ghost4 ,usually  
what is supposed to be a ghost is only a
 creation of  the mind--a vision such as
 we can develop during a                
dream--oftentimes1  however1 what you   
look at when you think you see a ghost  
is an actual  something such as the     
sheet referred to1 but which takes the  
form of  the ghost in the brain of the  
person who is looking at it through eyes
  that really see it1 but out of a brain
 that for the moment at least is  far   
off its balance4          ,why ,do      
,girls ,like ,dolls8      ,girls like   
dolls because they come into the world  
for the purpose of  becoming mothers and

 the love which they display for dolls  
is the  mother instinct which begins to 
show itself early in life4 ,to the      
little girl the doll is a make-believe  
child4 ,it satisfies her as long  as    
there are no real babies to take its    
place1 but any little girl will  drop   
her dollie if she is given an           
opportunity to play at dolls with a     
real live baby instead4 ,this is a very 
interesting fact in connection  with the
 human race4 ,boys sometimes play with  
dolls1 but not so often1  and any kind  
of a boy will give up playing with a    
doll as soon as a  toy engine or some   
other boy's toy appears for him4 ,a boy 
has certain  mannish instincts which a  
girl has not4 ,we have many other       
instincts  besides the instinct of      
parenthood and each of them has its     
origin in  some certain kind of feeling 
which is born within us and is capable  
of  development along interesting lines4
          ,what ,makes the ,works of a  
,watch ,go8      ,a watch like any other

 machine which we have1 only goes when  
power is  applied in some form or       
another4 ,in the case of a watch it is a
 spring4  ,a spring is an elastic body1 
such as a strip of steel1 as in the case
  of the watch1 coiled spirally which1  
when bent or forced out of its  natural 
state1 has the power of recovering its  
shape again by virtue of  its elastic   
power4 ,the natural state of a watch    
spring is to be open  flat and spread   
out to its full length4 ,when you wind a
 watch you coil  this spring1 i4e41 you 
bend it out of its natural shape4 ,as   
soon as you  stop winding the spring    
begins to uncoil itself1 trying to get  
back to  its natural shape1 and in doing
 so makes the wheels of the watch which 
operate the hands go round4 ,the spring 
then1 or rather its elasticity1  which  
always makes an effort to get back to   
its natural state1 is the  power which  
makes the watch go4 ,men who make       
watches arrange the spring  and the     
other machinery in the watch in such a  

way that it will uncoil  itself only at 
a certain rate of speed4 ,sooner or     
later the spring  loses its elasticity  
and then its power to make the watch go4
          ,what ,makes a ,hot ,box8     
,when you put oil on the axle1 however1 
the oil fills up the hollows  between   
the little irregular bumps on both the  
axle and the hub1 and  makes them both  
smooth--almost perfectly so4 ,this      
reduces the friction  and keeps the axle
 and hub from becoming hot and          
expanding4 ,the less  friction that is  
developed1 the more easily the wheel    
will turn4    ,illustration             
,the ,story in a ,moving ,picture       
,how ,are ,moving ,pictures ,made8      
,to begin at the beginning1 we must     
start with the negative stock1  or film 
on which the pictures are taken4 ,this  
material is very much  like the films   
you buy for the ordinary snap-shot      
camera1 slightly  heavier and of more   
durable quality1 to stand the wear and  
tear of  passing through the picture    

camera and the projecting machine used  
in  exhibition4 ,this film is #a inches 
wide and comes in rolls of #bjj  feet in
 length4 ,this negative stock has to be 
carefully perforated1  making the holes 
necessary to conduct the film by aid of 
sprockets  through the camera and the   
projectoscope4 ,to still further        
understand  this explanation1 see       
illustrations of the negative stock4    
,having  prepared the film in the dark  
room1 we can load the camera in the dark
  room and proceed to take the picture4 
,in taking an industrial or travelogue  
picture1 after the camera is  in        
readiness1 is not so much of an         
undertaking as taking a picture  of a   
drama or comedy1 wherein a plot and     
players are concerned4 ,the  travelogue 
or industrial pictures are simply       
photography1 with the  additional       
manipulation of panoraming or turning   
the camera1 which  requires an expert   
knowledge1 acquired from experience and 
years of  study4 ,there is a distinction

 and a big difference between the       
ordinary  photographer and the moving   
picture photographer1 who is generally  
known as a 8camera-man40 ,a             
photographer1 therefore1 though of vast 
experience1 cannot step into a          
8camera-man's0 place and expect to 8make
  good40 ,the latter has to depend      
entirely upon his special experience    
and judgment as to light and distance1  
focusing and general physical           
conditions of the moving-picture camera1
 which is affected by static  and other 
electrical peculiarities of the         
atmosphere1 to be avoided  by him4      
,these1 and many other points1 are      
convincing evidence that  the           
moving-picture camera is entirely       
different from an ordinary  photographic
 camera4 ,a moving-picture camera and   
tripod weigh from  fifty to one hundred 
pounds4 ,there are two styles of        
cameras1 one  which takes a single film 
and one which takes two films at once1  
and each lens of the double camera must 

be equally well focused and  every      
feature to be depicted must be brought  
within the focus1 which  generally      
occupies a radius of #h feet in width by
 #aj feet in height4    ,illustration3  
,,scenes ,,from 8,,officer ,,kate40     
,illustration3 ,,raw ,,negative ,,stock4
 ,,perforated ,,negative ,,stock4       
,exact size of a ,motion ,picture ,film 
,when it comes to taking a photo-play1 a
 drama or comedy1 different  conditions 
of a varied nature have to be contended 
with4 ,to proceed  intelligently in     
taking a photo-play1 a scenario or      
manuscript is  essential4 ,it must be   
prefaced with a well-written synopsis of
 the  story involved1 cast of           
characters1 scenes to be enacted and a  
list of  properties required in the     
scenes4 ,the director1 or producer1 of  
the  play1 being furnished with such a  
guide1 proceeds to select the actors    
and actresses 7called players7 suitable 
for the parts and the filling  of the   
cast4 ,this being accomplished1 he      

insists that each one of the  players   
read the scenario in order to be        
familiar with his or her  part and      
understand the whole play before going  
into the picture4 ,the  director        
instructs them as to the costumes       
fitting the parts and then  confers with
 the costumer concerning the furnishing 
of proper dress  for each one of the    
players4 ,the director is ready to go on
 with the  performance of the play1 and 
tells his cast to appear for rehearsal  
at a set hour4 ,at that time he puts    
them through a thorough course of       
training or rehearsal1 to 8get over0 and
 register the meaning of each  thought  
which is to be expressed by their       
actions4 ,sometimes a scene is          
rehearsed four to six hours before it is
 photographed4 ,a one-reel play  is     
generally #ajjj feet in length1 and it  
is very important that the  director1 if
 he has twenty scenes1 for instance1 to 
introduce within  that #ajjj feet1 to   
time the scenes to the length of his    

film2 that is1  if he has twenty scenes 
within one thousand feet1 each of the   
twenty  scenes must not average more    
than one minute each4 ,if one should    
happen  to be more than one minute1 then
 he has to condense another scene less  
than one minute1 in order to bring all  
within the twenty minutes or  #ajjj     
feet4    ,illustration3 ,,staging ,a    
,,motion ,,picture ,,in ,a ,,studio     
,,rehearsing ,,scene ,,in ,,studio      
,the ,size of ,each ,picture on the     
,film4    ,so you can see from this that
 it needs very careful rehearsal and    
nice  calculation to bring a well-acted 
and convincing play within so short  a  
time1 to tell the whole story           
intelligently4 ,having done all this1   
the director is ready to have the       
8camera-man0 do his part of the  work4  
,he draws his lines within the range of 
the camera1 which do not  exceed eight  
or ten feet in the foreground4 ,this is 
another point to be  considered on the  
part of the director1 because all the   

action has to  be carried out within the
 eight feet of space1 which is really   
confined  to that much stage width4     
,here again is where the camera-man has 
to  watch very carefully1 not only the  
workings of his camera1 but the         
players2 always alert that they are in  
the picture1 and assisting the  director
 by his observations4 ,the size of each 
picture as taken on the  film is  by #a 
inch4 ,it is magnified ten thousand     
times its actual  size when we see it on
 the screen in a place of exhibition4 ,a
 full reel  of #ajjj feet shows #af1jjj 
photographs on the screen during the    
twenty  minutes it consumes in its      
showing4 ,the future of moving pictures 
is  no longer a matter of speculation4  
,the business is an established  one1   
and its further developments are only   
matters of time4 ,the  possibilities and
 uses of the animated art are unlimited4
 ,already it  is felt in educational1   
religious1 scientific1 and industrial   
affairs4  ,their influence in matters of

 sanitation and all civic improvements1 
construction and mechanics1 is          
invaluable4 ,as a medium of wholesome   
entertainment and solid instruction it  
is unsurpassed4    ,these are merely    
suggestions of a few phases of its      
utility and it is  only a natural       
conclusion that it will be so           
far-reaching in its uplift  that it will
 surpass the expectations of the most   
sanguine4    ,illustration3 ,,the       
,,developing ,,room4    ,to develop1    
tint and clear the films1 large tanks of
 wood or soapstone  are used4 ,the      
films1 which are wound upon the wooden  
frames1 or racks1  are dipped into these
 vats1 filled with the necessary        
chemicals and  liquids4 ,the films being
 wound on frames enables the developers 
to  examine them without handling them4 
,the tinting is done by similar  methods
 to give the necessary tint1 coloring in
 red1 sepia1 blue1 green  or yellow1    
imparting to them the effect of night1  
sunlight or evening1  whichever the case

 may be4 ,the films are finally cleared1
 to wash them  clear of any extraneous  
chemicals or matter which might streak  
or  scratch the films1 and avoid any    
objectionable matter that might mar     
their appearance when shown on the      
screen or in the process of handling4   
,,each ,,picture ,,is ,,first           
,,exhibited ,,at ,,the ,,studio    ,as  
soon as convenient after a film is      
finished it is taken to the  exhibition 
rooms1 at the studio1 where it is thrown
 onto the screen4 ,it  is reviewed first
 by the heads of the departments and the
 directors1  and later by players and   
all those interested in it4 ,the        
projectoscopes  or moving-picture       
machines are run by motor1 presided over
 by licensed  operators1 who are kept on
 the job continually4    ,these         
exhibition rooms are called1 in the     
parlance of the studios1                
8knocklodeums10 for here is where       
everything is criticised4 ,players'     
acting and fitness are judged by their  

appearance and conduct on the  screen   
and decision given as to their          
qualifications4 ,the quality of  the    
photography1 developing and the picture 
as a finished production is  here       
determined by the heads of the concern4 
,illustration3 ,,drying ,,room4    ,,the
 ,,board ,,of ,,censors ,,passes ,,on   
,,every ,,picture    ,every picture     
before it is released for exhibition    
must be passed upon  by the ,board of   
,censors4 ,it is run upon the screen and
 thoroughly  inspected1 criticised1 and 
every point involved thoroughly weighed 
as to its effect upon the mind of the   
general public4 ,if1 in their           
estimation1 it is found objectionable in
 any particular1 the  objectionable     
parts are eliminated1 and if considered 
entirely harmful1  in its sentiments or 
influence1 the picture is condemned4    
,the majority  rules in the board's     
judgment1 although it is by no means    
infallible in  its decision4 ,this board
 is composed of about sixty persons1 who

 are  appointed by the government for   
their general qualifications1 their     
interest in the general welfare of the  
public1 keenness as to morals  and      
uplift of the people at large4 ,they do 
not receive salaries2 their  services   
are pro bono publico4    ,illustration3 
,,taking ,a ,,military ,,scene          
,,outdoors4          ,,the ,,story ,,in 
8,,pigs ,,is ,,pigs0      ,illustration3
 8,,pigs ,,is ,,pigs40    ,illustration3
      ,,vitagraph ,,famous ,,authors'   
,,series ,,by ,,ellis ,,parker ,,butler4
      ,you ,have ,seen ,pigs1 but ,never
 ,such ,pigs as ,these4 ,two of ,them   
,become    ,eight ,hundred ,pigs so     
,rapidly1 ,they ,set ,bunny ,daffy and  
,almost ,ruin    the ,express ,business4
      ,director--,,george ,d4 ,,baker4  
,author--,,ellis ,,parker ,,butler4     
,,cast4      ,flannery1 an ,express     
,agent                  ,,john ,,bunny  
,mr4 ,morehouse                         
,,etienne ,,girardot    ,clerk in       
,complaint ,dept4          ,,courtland  

,,van ,,deusen    ,head of ,claims      
,dept4                      ,,william   
,,shea    ,mr4 ,morgan1 ,head of ,tariff
 ,dept4       ,,albert ,,roccardi       
,president of ,company                  
,,anders ,,randolf    ,prof4 ,gordon    
,,george ,,stevens    ,after a strenuous
 argument with ,flannery1 the local     
,express ,agent1  ,mr4 ,morehouse       
refuses to pay the #cj;c charges on each
 of two guinea  pigs shipped him1       
claiming they are pets and subject to   
the #be;c rate4  ,flannery replies1     
8,pigs is pigs and ,i'm blame sure them 
animals is  pigs1 not pets1 and the rule
 says1 #8#cj;c each4'0 ,mr4 ,morehouse  
writes  many times to the ,express      
,company1 claiming guinea-pigs are not  
common  pigs1 and each time is referred 
to a different department4 ,flannery    
receives a note from the ,tariff        
,department inquiring as to condition   
of consignment1 to which he replies1    
8,there are eight now6 ,all good        
eaters4 ,paid out two dollars for       

cabbage so far40 ,the matter finally    
reaches the ,president1 who writes a    
friend1 a ,zoological ,professor4       
,unfortunately that gentleman is in     
,south ,africa1 causing a delay of  many
 months1 during which time the pigs     
increase to #afj4 ,at last word  is     
received from the learned man proving   
that guinea-pigs are not  common pigs4  
,flannery is then ordered to collect    
#be;c each for two  guinea-pigs and     
deliver the entire lot to consignee4    
,there are now #hjj  and ,flannery is   
horrified to find ,morehouse has moved  
to parts unknown4  ,he is about to give 
up in despair when the company orders   
him to  forward the entire collection to
 the ,main ,office1 to be disposed of as
  unclaimed property1 in accordance with
 the general rule4    ,illustration3    
,,bunny ,,feeding ,,the ,,pigs4         
,illustration      ,who ,made the ,first
 ,moving ,pictures8    ,,the ,,first    
,,moving ,,picture ,,camera    ,the     
first device which produced the         

motion-picture effect was nothing  but a
 scientific toy4 ,the idea is almost as 
old as pictures themselves4  ,this toy  
we speak of was called a zoetrope4 ,it  
consisted of a whirling  cylinder having
 many slits in the outside through which
 you could see  by looking into the     
cylinder a picture opposite each slit4  
,the pictures  were drawn by hand and   
the artist aimed to place the pictures  
within  the cylinder in such order that 
each succeeding one would represent the 
next successive motion of any moving    
object in making a movement as  near as 
he could draw it2 when the cylinder was 
whirled with the slits  on a level with 
the eye1 the effect produced was of a   
continuous moving  picture4    ,a great 
many devices were produced as a result  
of this toy for  presenting the effect  
of pictures so arranged1 but until      
photography  was invented no way was    
found for making the pictures to be     
viewed  except such as were drawn by    
artists4 ,but when photography was      

developed it was possible to get actual 
successive photographs4  ,the greatest  
difficulty was found in taking          
photographs in such  quick succession   
that all of the motions in the moving   
object were  taken without any skipping4
 ,this difficulty was for the first time
  successfully overcome by ,muybridge in
 #ahgg4 ,he arranged a row of           
twenty-four cameras with string trigger 
shutters1 the string of each  shutter   
being stretched across a race track4 ,a 
moving horse approaching  down the track
 broke the strings as he came to them1  
thus operating  each of the cameras in  
turn in quick succession and securing a 
series  of pictures of the moving horse 
within a very short time4 ,there were   
twenty-four pictures to this film when  
reproduced in the devices then  known   
for projecting pictures1 and this method
 required one camera for  each section  
of the picture produced4 ,of course1 the
 length of the  series was thus limited 
greatly4    ,about ten years later ,le  

,prince arranged what he called a       
multiple  camera4 ,this was as a matter 
of fact a battery of sixteen            
automatically  reloading cameras in     
which strips of film were used4 ,each of
 the  sixteen cameras took a picture in 
turn and then automatically brought     
another strip of the film into position1
 so that camera number one took  the    
seventeenth picture1 the twenty-third1  
the forty-ninth1 etc41 and  each of the 
other cameras took their various        
pictures in turn4 ,with  this camera a  
film of any required length could be    
produced4    ,the ,le ,prince camera was
 therefore the real parent from which   
the modern motion-picture camera sprang4
 ,the first really modern               
motion-picture camera was built in a    
single case with a battery of  sixteen  
separate lenses and sixteen shutters4   
,these were operated by  turning a      
crank4 ,the pictures were taken on four 
strips of film4 ,when  the crank was    
turned the exposure was made to each of 

the sixteen  lenses in succession1 and  
when the series was completed the films 
were cut apart and pasted together in a 
single strip of film1 the  pictures     
themselves being arranged in the proper 
order4 ,the principal  development of   
this camera1 as found in the present    
method of making  motion pictures1 is   
the invention of the flexible film      
negatives2 the  transparent support for 
the print which permits the pictures to 
be  projected in enlarged form upon a   
screen2 and the system of holes in  the 
margin of the film by which the film is 
held in perfect alignment  for          
projecting the pictures4    ,but a few  
years ago1 then1 the motion picture was 
a child's toy4 ,to-day  it forms the    
basis for not only a very large and     
profitable business  for many people1   
but a source of amusement and education 
to millions  of people at reasonable    
prices4 ,to-day the motion-picture      
business is  regarded as one of the     
world's greatest industries4    ,no     

corner of the world is so far remote but
 the motion-picture man  finds his way  
there1 either as an exhibitor or as a   
producer4 ,nothing  happens in the world
 to-day but the motion-picture man with 
his  camera is on the job if it is a    
happening that can be preserved in      
motion pictures and worthy of that4 ,the
 dethronement of kings and the          
inaugurations of presidents are all     
alike to him4 ,if there is a war1 he  is
 found in all parts of the field1 and is
 the first to see the parade  when there
 is a peace jubilee4 ,disasters1        
horrors1 heroes and criminals  pass     
before his lens and he gives us a moving
 panorama of everything  that is        
interesting1 in nature1 in real life1   
and in fiction4      ,taking ,motion    
,pictures a ,simple ,operation4         
,motion-picture photography is          
mechanically simple and the projection  
of  the pictures on the screen was made 
possible by the improvement in dry      
plates which made instantaneous         

photography successful1 together with   
the invention of the process of using   
celluloid films for negatives4  ,motion 
pictures consist of a series of         
photographs made rapidly and  then      
projected rapidly on the screen4 ,in    
this way one picture follows  another so
 quickly that the change from one       
picture to another is  not noticed and  
the movements and actions of the persons
 or things  photographed are reproduced 
in a life-like manner4      ,is the     
,hand ,quicker ,than the ,eye8    ,there
 is no question that the hand can be    
moved so quickly that the  eye cannot   
detect the movement4 ,this is proved by 
the motion picture  when projected on   
the screen4 ,in moving pictures the     
quickness of  the machine deceives the  
eye and the transition from one picture 
to  another is done so rapidly that the 
change is not seen and the apparent     
movement is continuous and unbroken4    
,the film made by the motion picture is 
a 8negative0 in which the colors  are   

reversed1 the blacks being white and the
 whites black1 exactly as  in still     
photography4 ,the film used in the      
projection machine is a  8positive10 in 
which the lights and shadows have their 
proper values4  ,the principle and      
process is exactly the same as in making
 lantern  slides and window             
transparencies4      ,does the ,film    
,move ,continuously8    ,in making the  
negative for the motion picture the film
 does not move  forward regularly1 but  
it goes by jumps4 ,it is absolutely     
still at the  moment of exposure4 ,the  
same is true in projecting the picture  
on the  screen4 ,in most projection     
machines the film is stationary three   
times  as long as it is in motion1      
though in some machines the proportion  
is  one in six4 ,in the taking of the   
picture1 the film is really stationary  
one-half of the time4 ,as pictures are  
usually projected at the rate  of       
fourteen or sixteen to the second1 this 
means that each separate  picture       

appears on the screen three-fourths of  
one-sixteenth of a  second1 or          
three-sixty-fourths of a second1 and    
,how ,are ,freak ,pictures ,made8       
,freak pictures are usually the result  
of clever manipulation of the  camera or
 the film4 ,articles or individuals can 
be made to instantly  disappear by      
stopping the camera while the article is
 removed or the  person walks off the   
stage1 the other characters holding     
their pose  until the camera is again   
put in motion4 ,in some films in which a
  person is thrown from a height or is  
apparently crushed under a steam  roller
 the effect is gained by the live person
 walking away after the  camera is      
stopped and a dummy substituted to      
undergo the death penalty4    ,by       
projecting the picture at a faster rate 
than it was taken1  excruciatingly comic
 scenes are sometimes devised4 ,an      
automobile going  ten miles an hour1 by 
speeding up the projection machine1 may 
be made  to apparently move at a hundred

 miles an hour1 and by increasing in    
the same way the apparent speed of      
persons dodging the demoniac auto       
exceedingly ludicrous effects are had4  
,by mechanical means in combining two or
 more negatives into one  positive a man
 can be shown fencing with himself or   
even cutting his  own head off4         
,pictures by courtesy of the ,vitagraph 
,company4    ,illustration3 ,,how       
,,rubber ,,tires ,,are ,,made    ,,wash 
,,room4#d      #d ,these and the        
following ,pictures by courtesy of the  
,goodyear ,tire    and ,rubber ,co4     
,the ,story in a ,ball of ,rubber       
,how ,crude ,rubber ,is ,treated4       
,washing4--,when the crude rubber       
arrives at the factory of the rubber    
manufacturer1 it is generally stored in 
bins in dark and fairly cool            
store-rooms1 where it is kept until     
ready to be used4 ,the rubber passes    
directly from the storage bins to the   
wash-room1 where it is cut up  into     
small pieces1 put into large vats of    

warmed water and allowed  to soak1 in   
order to soften it sufficiently to be   
broken down in the  machines4 ,it is    
then fed into a cracker1 a machine      
consisting of two  rolls with           
projections on their surfaces shaped    
like little pyramids1  the two rolls    
revolving with a differential1 one going
 considerably  faster than the other1   
and being adjustable1 so that they can  
work  close together or with some       
distance between them4 ,the rubber is   
fed  between these rolls and broken down
 into a coarse1 spongy mass4 ,water     
flows on to the rubber during the       
process1 bringing down sand1 dirt1      
bark1 and the many other foreign        
materials which come mixed with the     
rubber4 ,the rubber is put through this 
machine a number of times1 until  it is 
worked into a uniform condition4 ,some  
of the rubbers1 like the  ,ceylons and  
,paras1 will sheet out into a coarse    
sheet by being put  through this        
machine2 others1 like the majority of   

the ,african rubbers1  will fall apart  
and come down in chunks and have to be  
fed into the  machine with a shovel4    
,illustration3 ,,preparing ,,crude      
,,rubber ,,for ,,making ,,tires         
,,calender ,,room4    ,after the rubber 
is broken down sufficiently in the      
cracker1 it is  next put through a      
washing machine1 which is built very    
similar to  the cracking machine1 except
 that the rolls are grooved or rifled1  
so  that their action is not so severe  
on the rubber4 ,a large quantity of     
water is kept constantly running over   
this machine while the rubber  is being 
put through1 and the rolls work very    
close together1 so that  the rubber is  
finely ground and run out into a thin   
and comparatively  smooth sheet1        
allowing the water flowing between the  
rolls to take out  practically all of   
the foreign matter that remains4 ,the   
rubber is run  through this machine a   
number of times until the experienced   
inspectors  in charge are satisfied that

 it is thoroughly washed4 ,some types of
  rubber1 such as ,manicoba1 which have 
large quantities of sand in them1  are  
washed in a special form of washing     
machine known as the beater  washer4    
,this is an endless1 oval-shaped trough 
with a fast-revolving  paddle-wheel4 ,in
 this machine the rubber is submerged in
 water1 after  being broken down in the 
cracker1 and the sand is literally      
knocked out  of it by the paddle-wheel4 
,the sand drops to the bottom of the    
machine1  where if is drained off1 while
 the rubber floats to the top and is    
there gathered and then put through a   
regular washing machine for the  final  
sheeting out4    ,drying4--,from the    
wash-room the rubber goes to the        
dry-room4 ,before  the rubber can be    
used in any articles of commercial      
value1 it must  be thoroughly dried1 as 
any moisture in the stock would turn to 
steam  during the vulcanizing process   
and cause blisters or blow-holes to form
  in the goods4 ,there are two ways in  

which rubber is usually dried4  ,the    
method mostly used1 and which is        
generally practiced with all the  better
 grades of gums1 is to hang the washed  
strips on horizontal  poles and space   
them in aisles1 so that air can freely  
circulate all  around the surface of the
 rubber1 the dry-room being kept at a   
constant  temperature4 ,to properly dry 
the rubbers by this method takes from   
four  to six weeks4 ,the other method of
 drying is by means of a vacuum-drier4  
,low-grade rubbers which have a         
comparatively large percentage of  resin
 in their composition cannot bear their 
own weight when hung on  horizontal     
poles1 but drop off and stick in piles  
on the floor4 ,hence1  these rubbers    
have to be dried in a peculiar manner4  
,they are laid in  trays which are      
placed into a large air-tight           
receptacle4 ,the air is  then withdrawn 
from this receptacle and the interior   
heated by means of  steam coils4 ,this  
allows the water to be evaporated off   

from the rubber  at a considerably lower
 temperature than that at which water   
boils  under atmospheric pressure1 and  
at such a low temperature1 and in such  
a short time1 that the rubber is not    
affected4 ,by this process these        
rubbers can be dried in a few hours4    
,mixing4--,after the rubber has been    
thoroughly dried1 it is ready to  be    
mixed in proper proportions with the    
various ingredients which are  used in  
rubber compounding1 to give the desired 
quality of rubbers for  the various     
products for which they are intended4   
,in order that rubber  shall vulcanize1 
it is necessary to mix with it a certain
 proportion  of sulphur1 vulcanizing1 or
 curing1 as it is sometimes called1     
being  merely the changing of a physical
 mixture of rubber and sulphur into  a  
chemical compound of these ingredients1 
by the application of heat4  ,besides   
sulphur1 some of the more important     
ingredients used in  compounding rubber 
are3    ,zinc oxide4--,this toughens the

 rubber and increases its wearing       
properties and tensile strength4        
,barium sulphate4--,this stiffens the   
rubber and adds weight1 so  reducing the
 cost4    ,lithopones4--,this whitens   
the stock and makes it soft1 and is used
  extensively in druggists' sundries4   
,antimony sulphide4--,this makes the    
stock red and is a preservative  against
 oxidation4    ,litharge4--,this has the
 same action as antimony sulphide1 but  
makes  the stock black4    ,white       
lead4--,this hastens the cure and is    
extensively used in gray  and black     
stocks1 and is a good filler or weight  
adder4    ,magnesia oxide and           
carbonate4--,these are used as fillers  
for white  stocks4    ,oxide of         
iron4--,used for coloring red and yellow
 stocks4    ,lime 7unslacked74--,this   
hastens vulcanization and chemically    
removes  any water left in the rubber4  
,whiting4--,this is used only as a cheap
 filler to increase quantity  and lower 
cost4    ,aluminum silicate4--,this is  

used chiefly as a filler4    ,there are 
also used in compounding what are known 
as the various  substitutes4 ,these are 
chiefly linseed oil products and mineral
  hydrocarbons which are more or less   
elastic1 and act somewhat as a flux4    
,why ,don't ,we ,use ,pure ,rubber8     
,there seems to be a general impression 
that the various ingredients  which are 
mixed with rubber are put into the      
compounds merely to  cheapen the product
 and to lower the grade of the material4
 ,this  is true in many cases1 such as  
the general line of molded goods1       
rubber heels1 bicycle grips1 automobile 
bumpers1 etc41 but in many  cases1 such 
as tires1 packing1 belting1 etc41 these 
ingredients are  added to toughen the   
gum1 increase its wearing qualities1 to 
make it  indestructible when subjected  
to heat1 or to make it soft and yielding
  so that it can be forced into fabric1 
etc4    ,,process ,,necessary ,,to      
,,making ,,rubber ,,goods    ,in the    
general process of manufacture the      

sheeted rubber is sent  directly from   
the dry-room to the compound-room1 where
 the various  ingredients are weighed   
out into proper proportions along with  
the  rubber to make up a batch1 and     
placed in receptacles ready to be mixed4
  ,the batch is then sent into the      
mill-room to be mixed into a uniform    
pasty mass1 which is the characteristic 
uncured1 or so-called green1  rubber    
compound4 ,the mixing is done in the    
mill4 ,this is a very heavy  machine1   
constructed similarly to a cracker and a
 washer except that  it is much larger  
and heavier1 and the rolls are perfectly
 smooth and  run closer together4 ,no   
water at all is used on the batch during
 the  mixing4 ,there are steam and cold 
water connections to the mills which    
are connected with hollow spaces inside 
the rolls1 so that the latter  can be   
kept at any temperature desired4 ,the   
general process of mixing  is as        
follows3    ,first the rubber portion of
 the batch is thrown into the mill and  

is worked and warmed up until it takes  
on a very sticky and plastic            
consistency4 ,when it has arrived at a  
certain stage of plasticity1  the       
various compounds in the batch1 which   
are always in the form of  very fine    
powders1 are thrown in the mill1 being  
worked by the rolls  into the rubber4   
,the compounds are generally thrown on1 
a small amount  at a time1 until they   
are all taken up by the rubber4 ,the    
batch is  then allowed to go through and
 through the mill1 over and over again1 
until the mixture is absolutely uniform 
throughout the whole mass4 ,the         
consistency of the rubber1 during this  
operation1 is such that the  batch can  
be made endless around one of the rolls 
of the mill1 so that  it is constantly  
feeding itself between the rolls4       
,after the batch is properly mixed1 it  
is cut off the rolls in sheets  and     
rolled up and sent to the green-stock   
store-room4 ,in this  store-room the    
compounded1 uncured gums are kept in    

different bins1  according to the nature
 of the compound1 and are there allowed 
to  season a certain length of time1    
after which they are delivered to the   
various departments of the factory in   
which they are going to be used4        
,another form in which rubber is used is
 the so-called ,rubber-,cement4  ,rubber
 or any of its compounds are readily    
soluble in naphtha4 ,in this  process1  
the compounds1 after being milled1 are  
chewed up and washed  in specially      
constructed cement-mills and there mixed
 with a certain  proportion of naphtha  
which gives a thick solution4           
,spreading and calendering4--,rubber    
which is used for the general  line of  
molded goods1 solid tires1 some kinds of
 tubing1 etc41 goes  directly to the    
various departments from the green-stock
 store-room1  while rubber used for     
boots and shoes1 waterproof fabrics1    
many of  the druggists' sundries1       
belting1 pneumatic tires1 inner tubes1  
etc41  has to be sheeted out1 and some  

of it forced into fabric before it  goes
 to the various departments4 ,this      
sheeting-out of the gum1 as well  as    
applying the rubber to fabrics1 is done 
generally by two methods2  either by    
spreading a solution of the rubber and  
naphtha onto the  fabric1 or by         
calendering the rubber between heavy    
rolls in a rubber  calender4    ,in the 
spreading process1 a machine called a   
spreader is used4 ,the  fabric to which 
the rubber is to be applied is mounted  
in a roll at  one end of the spreader   
and from the roll passes through a      
trough of  rubber-cement1 and then up   
over a so-called doctor roll1 and under 
a  knife edge1 which allows only enough 
cement to pass through to fill the      
pores of the fabric4 ,from this knife   
the cemented fabric passes over  a steam
 drying chest and is then rolled up with
 a roll of liner cloth  to prevent its  
sticking together4 ,fabric treated in   
this manner must  be put through the    
spreader a number of times before it has

 sufficient  rubber on it to be used in 
the products for which it is intended4  
,for calendering rubber1 a machine      
called a rubber calender is used4  ,this
 machine is made with three and         
sometimes four heavy rolls1 which  are  
capable of very fine adjustment4 ,the   
rubber from the green-stock  store-room 
is first warmed up on a small mixing    
mill and is then fed  between the rolls 
of the calender1 coming through in a    
thin sheet of  required thickness1 and  
is wound up in a liner cloth and sent   
directly  to the departments1 where it  
is used for inner tubes1 druggists'     
sundries1 etc41 where only rubber and no
 fabric is used4 ,where the  rubber is  
to be applied to fabric1 the fabric is  
put through the  calender rolls with the
 rubber1 and the rubber is literally    
ground into  the fabric4 ,fabric treated
 in this manner is known to the trade as
  friction1 and is generally used in the
 manufacture of pneumatic tires1        
belting1 hose1 etc4 ,for boots1 shoes1  

and other special work1 calenders  are  
used which are equipped with rolls      
engraved with the shapes of the  soles  
and other parts of the articles in      
question1 so that the sheet  of rubber  
coming from the machine has imprinted on
 it the shapes and  thickness of the    
articles for which it is intended4      
,after passing through such of the above
 processes as are required  the rubber  
is ready to be made up into the various 
articles known to  the rubber trade1    
such as boots and shoes1 mackintoshes1  
waterproof  fabrics1 for balloons1      
aeroplanes1 tentings1 etc41 mechanical  
goods1  such as rubber heels1 horseshoe 
pads1 packing1 tiling1 automobile and   
other bumpers1 artificial fish bait1    
etc41 druggists' sundries1 such as      
nursing-bottles1 nipples1 syringes1     
bulbs1 hot-water bottles1 tubing1  etc4 
tobacco pouches1 rubber belting1 golf   
and other balls1 insulated  wire1 fire  
and garden hose1 inner tubes1 tires1 and
 the many other  commodities into the   

manufacture of which rubber enters4     
,illustration3 ,,trading ,,room         
,how ,are ,automobile ,tires ,made8     
,from the calender room of the rubber   
factory the stock is received  in the   
automobile tire department1 in the form 
of large rolls of  rubber-coated fabric1
 and in rolls of sheeted rubber of      
various  thicknesses and widths4 ,the   
rubber-coated fabric is first cut into  
strips of proper widths so that the     
edges will extend from bead to  bead    
over the crown of the tire4 ,these      
strips are always cut on the  bias1     
generally at a #de-;degree angle1 with  
the edge of the roll1 and  were formerly
 all cut on a cutting-table1 a table    
about #ej feet long  and #f feet wide1  
covered with sheet metal4 ,the cutting  
was done by two  men1 each having a     
knife and each cutting half-way across  
the cloth  along the edge of a          
straight-edge so arranged as to be      
always set at #de  degrees with the edge
 of the table4 ,this method of cutting  

is gradually  being put aside by the use
 of the bias cutter1 an extremely       
up-to-date  machine having jaws which   
ride up to the end of the fabric and    
pull  it for a certain distance under a 
knife set at a #de-;degree angle1 the   
knife being set to cut just when the    
jaws have arrived at the limit of  their
 motion4 ,the action is repeated so that
 the machine cuts about  eighty strips a
 minute4 ,these strips are fed onto a   
series of belts  which carry them to    
where they are placed1 by boys1 into a  
book having  a leaf of common cloth     
between each strip of gum fabric1 to    
prevent the  strips from sticking       
together4    ,illustration3 ,,curing    
,,room--,,solid ,,tires4                
,illustration3 ,,making ,a ,,pneumatic  
,,tire    ,,curing ,,room1 ,,first      
,,cure--,,pneumatics4    ,illustration3 
,,spreader ,,room4    ,the majority of  
automobile tires to-day are machine     
built1 but there  are still a great many
 built by hand and this is the process  

we shall  describe first4 ,in this      
process the books of fabric are laid up 
and  spliced into proper lengths to go  
around the tire and allow a proper      
lapping for the splices4 ,the proper    
number of these laid-up pieces1  or     
plies1 as they are called1 are placed   
together with cotton cloth  between and 
taken to the tire builder4 ,the tire    
builder mounts the  core1 upon which the
 tire is to be built1 on the building   
stand1  generally cementing it so that  
the first ply of fabric will stick in   
place4 ,the first ply is then stretched 
onto the core and spliced1  rolled down 
with a hand roller onto the sides of the
 core1 and trimmed  with a knife at the 
base4 ,the following plies are put on   
and rolled  down in the same manner1 the
 beads being put in at the proper time1 
according to the size and the number of 
plies to be used4 ,after all the  plies 
have been put onto the core the         
so-called cover rubber is put on4  ,this
 cover rubber is generally a sheet of   

rubber about one-sixteenth of  an inch  
thick or more1 and of the same compound 
as the rubber on the  fabric4           
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,tread ,,of 
,a ,,tire ,,is ,,made    ,,tread        
,,laying ,,room4    ,in the case of the 
machine-built tire1 the result is the   
same1 but the  stock is handled as      
follows3 ,after the rubber-coated fabric
 has been  cut on the bias cutter1 the  
strips are spliced and rolled up in     
rolls  on a spindle which is placed in  
the so-called tire-building machine4    
,the tire core is mounted on a stand    
attached to the machine1 so that it  can
 be revolved by power1 and the fabric is
 drawn onto the core from  the spindle  
under a certain definite tension4 ,the  
tire-machines roll  the fabric down by  
power1 and the beads are put into place 
before the  tire and core are removed   
from the machine4 ,thereafter the       
process is  the same as in the case of  
the hand-built tires4    ,after the     
cover rubber is in place the tire is    

ready to have the tread  applied4 ,the  
tread is made up independently of the   
tire by laying up  narrow strips of     
rubber1 in different widths1 in such a  
way that the  center of the tread is    
thicker than the edges4 ,in the case of 
the  so-called single-cure tires1 which 
are wholly vulcanized at one time1  this
 tread is applied to the tire directly  
after the cover1 a strip of  fabric     
called the breaker-strip generally being
 placed underneath1 and  the building of
 the tire so completed4    ,in the      
general method of curing1 the tire is   
allowed to remain on  the core1 and is  
either bolted up in a mold and put into 
an ordinary  heater1 or it is laid in a 
mold and put into a heater press1 where 
the  hydraulic pressure keeps the two   
halves of the mold forced together      
during the vulcanizing process4 ,after  
the vulcanizing is completed1 the  tire 
is removed from the mold1 the inside is 
painted with a ,french  talc mixture1   
the tire inspected and cleaned1 and so  

made ready for the  market4 ,in some    
methods of curing1 instead of the tire  
being put in a  mold1 it is put into a  
so-called toe-mold1 which is virtually a
 pair of  side flanges only reaching up 
as high as the edges of the tread on the
  side of the tire4 ,after the flanges  
are fastened into place1 the whole  is  
cross-wrapped1 the cross-wrapping coming
 in direct contact with  the tread4 ,the
 tire in this condition is then put into
 the heater and  vulcanized1 giving the 
so-called wrapped tread tire4 ,still    
another form  of curing is to inflate a 
kind of canvas inner tube inside the    
tire and  place the whole in a mold4    
,this is known as the air-bag mold      
process4    ,illustration3              
,,pneumatic-,,tire ,,room--,,showing    
,,tire-,,building ,,machines4      ,how 
,are ,inner ,tubes ,made8    ,inner     
tubes for pneumatic tires may be classed
 under three headings1  according to the
 methods used in their manufacture1     
viz41 seamed tubes1  rolled tubes1 and  

tube-machine tubes4 ,by far the greater 
number of  tubes come under the first   
two headings4 ,for seamed tubes1 the    
rubber  is taken from the calender in   
the form of sheets from one-sixteenth to
  three-sixteenths of an inch in        
thickness4 ,these sheets are cut into   
strips of proper length and just wide   
enough to make a tube of proper         
cross-section diameter when the two long
 edges are folded over and  fastened    
together with rubber cement4 ,these two 
long edges are cut on a  bevel so that  
they make a good lap seam4 ,the tube is 
then pulled over a  mandrel of proper   
size and a thin piece of wet cloth      
rolled around it1  and then it is       
spirally cross-wrapped with a long1     
narrow piece of wet  duck for its entire
 length4 ,the whole is then put into a  
regular heater  and the tube vulcanized4
 ,after vulcanizing the wrapping is     
removed and  the tube stripped from the 
mandrel1 turning the tube inside out1 so
  that the smooth side which is         

vulcanized next to the mandrel appears  
outside1 and the rough side showing the 
marks of the cross-wrapping is  inside4 
,the valve hole is then punched in the  
tube1 the valve inserted  and the open  
ends of the tube buffed down to a       
feather edge4 ,the tube  in this state  
passes to the splicers1 who cement the  
buffed ends and  splice them together1  
placing one open end within the other1  
making a  lapped seam around the tube   
about #b inches long4 ,the cement used  
in splicing is generally cured by an    
acid which chemically vulcanizes  the   
rubber without the application of heat4 
,the tube is thus finished  and ready   
for the market4 ,rolled tubes are made  
from very thin sheet  rubber by rolling 
same over a mandrel of proper size1     
until the  required number of layers of 
thin rubber have been rolled on to give 
the tube the desired thickness4 ,the    
tube is then wrapped1 cured and         
spliced1 in exactly the same manner as a
 seamed tube4      ,what ,is ,rubber8   

,crude rubber is a vegetable product    
gathered from certain species of  trees1
 shrubs1 vines and roots4 ,its          
characteristic peculiarities were  early
 recognized by the natives of the       
tropical countries in which it  is      
found4 ,records of the earliest         
travelers in these countries show  that 
the natives had used various articles1  
such as receptacles1 ties1  clubs1 etc41
 made from rubber1 but it was not until 
about #agce that  rubber was first      
introduced into ,europe4 ,in            
civilization rubber was  first used for 
pencil erasers and in waterproof cloth1 
and finally in  cements4 ,vulcanizing1  
or the curing of rubber1 was not        
discovered until  #ahdd1 and thereafter 
the development of the rubber industry  
was very  rapid1 especially in ,great   
,britain4    ,illustration3 ,,wrapping  
,,room--,,pneumatics4    ,there are many
 kinds and grades of rubber1 and to-day 
these can be  divided into two chief    
classes1 wild and cultivated4           

,illustration3 ,,pneumatic-,,tire       
,,room1 ,,showing ,,tire ,,finishing4   
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,crude      
,,rubber ,,is ,,secured    ,gathering   
,rubber in ,south ,america4             
,illustration3 #a4 ,tapping ,axe4 #b4   
,tin ,cup to ,catch the ,rubber ,milk4  
#c4  ,the ,beginning of a ,rubber       
8,biscuit40 #d4 ,a ,palm ,nut4          
,illustration3 ,making ,balls of ,crude 
,rubber4    ,illustration3 ,tapping the 
,trees in ,japan4    ,illustration3 ,how
 the ,rubber ,looks when it comes to    
,market4    ,illustration3 ,carrying    
,balls of ,crude ,rubber to ,native     
,market4    ,pictures herewith by       
courtesy of ,the ,b4 ,f4 ,goodrich      
,company1 ,ltd4      ,what ,is ,wild    
,rubber8    ,,where ,,rubber ,,comes    
,,from    ,the first class1 or wild     
rubbers1 are collected from trees which 
have  grown wild and where no           
cultivation processes whatsoever have   
been  used4 ,these rubber-producing     
trees1 shrubs1 etc41 are found mostly in

  ,northern ,south ,america1 ,central   
,america1 ,mexico1 ,central ,africa and 
,borneo4    ,the finest rubber in the   
world is ,fine ,para1 and is gathered in
 the  ,amazon regions of ,south         
,america4 ,this rubber has been gathered
 in  practically the same way for over a
 century4 ,the natives go out into  the 
forests and1 selecting a rubber tree1   
cut 8,v0-shaped grooves in the  bark    
with a special knife made for the       
purpose1 these grooves being  cut in    
herring-bone fashion diagonally around  
the tree1 with one main  groove cut     
vertically down the center like the main
 vein in a leaf4  ,the latex1 or        
milk-like liquid1 of the tree1 from     
which the rubber is  taken1 flows from  
these veins and down the center vein    
into a little  cup which the natives    
place to receive it4 ,after the little  
cups are  filled they are gathered and  
brought into the rubber camp1 and there 
the latex is coagulated by means of     
smoke4 ,this is done by the use of  a   

paddle which is alternately dipped into 
a bowl of the latex and then  revolved  
in the smoke from a wood or palm-nut    
fire4 ,this smoke seems to  have a      
preservative effect on the rubber as    
well as drying it out and  causing it to
 harden on the paddle1 each successive  
layer of the latex  causing the size of 
the rubber ball or biscuit to increase4 
,when a  biscuit of sufficient size has 
been thus coagulated it is removed from 
the paddle and is ready for shipment to 
countries where rubber products  are    
manufactured4    ,para rubber is sold in
 three grades4 ,fine ,para1 which is the
 more  carefully coagulated or smoked   
rubber2 ,medium ,para1 which is rubber  
gathered and smoked in the same way as  
,fine1 but which has had  insufficient  
smoking1 and1 therefore1 more subject to
 deterioration due  to oxidation1 etc42 
and ,coarse ,para1 which is rubber      
gathered from the  drippings from the   
rubber trees after the cups have been   
removed4 ,this  latter grade has        

generally a large percentage of bark and
 other foreign  substances mixed with   
it1 and is subject to even more         
deterioration  than is ,medium ,para1 as
 it is oftentimes not smoked at all4    
,another important grade of rubber      
coming from ,south ,america is ,caucho4 
,this tree grows similar to the ,para   
trees and the rubber is gathered  in a  
similar manner1 but is cured by adding  
to the latex some alkaline  solution and
 allowing the whole to dry out in the   
sun4 ,the value of  this rubber can be  
greatly improved by better methods of   
coagulation4    ,from ,central ,america 
and ,mexico comes the ,castilloa rubber4
 ,this  rubber is gathered from trees in
 a very similar manner to ,para1 and is 
coagulated by being mixed with juices   
which are obtained by grinding  up a    
certain plant which grows in the        
,castilloa districts4 ,after being      
mixed with this plant juice1 the        
,castilloa is spread out in sheets on   
bull hides1 where it is allowed to dry  

in the sun1 after which the  rubber is  
rolled up and is ready for shipment4    
,castilloa is gathered  mostly from wild
 trees1 but in ,mexico it has recently  
been cultivated  to some extent4        
,from ,mexico we also get ,guayule4     
,this rubber is obtained from a certain 
species of shrub1 the shrub being cut   
down and fed into a grinding or  pebble 
mill where the branches are crushed and 
ground and mixed with  water1 and the   
rubber1 which is contained in little    
particles all  through the wood1 is     
worked out1 being taken from the pebble 
mills in  chunks as large as a man's    
fist4    ,from ,central ,africa and from
 ,borneo come the so-called ,african    
gums1  such as ,congo1 ,soudan1 ,massai1
 ,lapori1 ,manicoba1 ,pontianic1 etc4   
,some  of these rubbers are gathered    
from trees1 but most of them from vines 
and roots1 and the methods of           
coagulation are varied4 ,practically all
  of them are dried out in the sun4     
,these rubbers are all of lower grade   

than the ,para rubbers of ,south        
,america4    ,illustration3 ,,bags ,,of 
,,cacao ,,beans4          ,the ,story in
 a ,stick of ,chocolate      ,where     
,does ,chocolate ,come ,from8           
,perhaps no other one thing is so well  
known to boys and girls the world  over 
as chocolate4 ,yet there was a time1 and
 not so many years ago1 as  we figure   
time in history1 when there were no     
cakes of chocolate1 or  chocolate       
candies to be had in the candy shops1 no
 chocolate flavored  soda water or      
chocolate cake4 ,to-day quite a panic   
would be started if  the world's supply 
of chocolate were cut off4    ,chocolate
 is obtained from cacao1 which is the   
seed of the cacao tree4  ,it is quite   
often called cocoa1 although this is not
 quite a correct  way of spelling the   
word4 ,the cacao tree grows to a height 
of sixteen  or eighteen feet when       
cultivated1 but to a greater height when
 found  growing wild4 ,the cacao pod    
grows out from the trunk of the tree as 

shown in the picture1 and is1 when ripe1
 from seven to ten inches  long and from
 three to five inches in diameter1      
giving it the form  of an ellipse4 ,when
 you cut one of these pods open1 you    
find five  compartments or cells1 in    
each of which is a row of from five to  
ten  seeds1 which are imbedded in a soft
 pulp1 which is pinkish in color4  ,each
 pod then contains from twenty-five to  
fifty seeds1 which are what  we call    
8cocoa beans40    ,the cacao tree was   
discovered for us by ,christopher       
,columbus1 so that  we have good reason 
to remember him aside from his great    
discovery of  ,america4 ,the discovery  
of either of these would be fame enough 
for any  one man1 and it would be       
difficult for some boys and girls to say
 just  which of the two was ,columbus'  
greater discovery4    ,columbus found   
the cacao tree flourishing both in a    
wild and in a  cultivated state upon one
 of his voyages to ,mexico4 ,the        
,indians of  ,peru and ,mexico were very

 fond of it in its native state4 ,they  
did not  know the joy of eating a       
chocolate cream1 but they had discovered
 the  qualities of the cacao bean as a  
food and had learned to cultivate it    
long before ,columbus came to ,mexico4  
,columbus took some of the cacao beans  
back with him to ,spain and to  this day
 cacao is much more extensively used by 
the ,spaniards than by  any other       
nation4 ,the first record of its        
introduction into ,england is  found in 
an announcement in the ,public          
,advertiser of ,june #af1 #afeg1  to the
 effect that3    8,in ,bishopgate       
,street1 in ,queen's ,head ,alley1 at a 
,frenchman's house1  is an excellent    
,west ,indian drink called chocolate1 to
 be sold where  you may have it ready at
 any time and also unmade1 at reasonable
 rates40    ,of course1 by the time     
,america became settled the people      
brought their  taste for chocolates with
 them4    ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of    
,,cocoa ,,beans ,,in ,,bag ,,and        

,,cocoa-,,grinding ,,mill4      ,what is
 the ,difference ,between ,cacao and    
,chocolate8    ,when the cacao seeds are
 roasted and separated from the husks   
which  surround them1 they are called   
cocoa-nibs4 ,cocoa consists of these    
nibs  alone1 whether they are ground or 
unground1 dried and powdered1 or of  the
 crude paste dried in flakes4           
,chocolate is made from the cocoa-nibs4 
,these nibs are ground into an  oily    
paste and mixed with sugar and vanilla1 
cinnamon1 cloves1 or other  flavoring   
substances4 ,chocolate is only a product
 made from cocoa-nibs1  but it is the   
most important product4                 
,illustration3 ,,cacao ,,cracking ,,mill
 ,,and ,,shell ,,separator4             
,illustration3 ,,cocoa ,,cracking ,,and 
,,shell ,,separator4      ,,where ,,the 
,,shells ,,are ,,separated ,,from ,,the 
,,bean4    ,illustration3 ,,cocoa       
,,mill4      ,what ,are ,cocoa ,shells8 
,there are other products which are     
obtained from the cacao seed4 ,one is   

called ,broma--which is the dry powder  
of the seeds1 after the oil has  been   
taken out4    ,cocoa shells are the     
husks which surround the cocoa bean4    
,these are  ground up into a fine powder
 and sold for making a kind of cocoa for
  drinking1 although the flavor is to a 
great extent missing and it is1  of     
course1 not nearly so nourishing as a   
drink of real cocoa4    ,illustration3  
,,cocoa ,,roaster4      ,,mill ,,in     
,,which ,,the ,,beans ,,are ,,roasted4  
,what is ,cocoa ,butter8    ,the oil    
from the cacao seeds1 when separated    
from the seeds1 is what we  call cocoa  
butter4 ,it has a pleasant odor and     
chocolate-like taste4 ,it  is used in   
making soap1 ointments1 etc4            
,illustration3 ,,how ,,cacao ,,beans    
,,grow    ,,cocoa ,,tree ,,with ,,fruit 
,,known ,,as ,,cocoa ,,pods1 ,,which    
,,contain ,,the ,,cocoa  ,,beans4       
,how is ,cacao ,gathered8    ,when the  
cacao pods ripen on the tropical        
plantations1 where the  climate is such 

that they can be grown successfully1 the
 native laborer  cuts off the ripened   
pods as we see him doing in the picture 
showing  the pods on the tree4 ,he does 
this with a scissors-like arrangement of
  knives on a long pole4    ,as he cuts 
off the pods he lays them on the ground 
and leaves them to  dry for twenty-four 
hours4 ,the next day they are cut open1 
the seeds  taken out and carried to the 
place where they are cured or sweated4  
,in the process of curing or sweating1  
the acid which is found with the  seeds 
is poured off4 ,the beans are then      
placed in a sweating box4 ,this  part of
 the process is for the purpose of      
making the beans ferment and  is the    
most important part of preparing the    
beans for market1 as the  quality and   
the flavor of the beans and1 therefore1 
their value in the  market1 depends     
largely upon the ability of whoever does
 it in curing  or fermenting4           
,sometimes the curing is done by placing
 the seeds in trenches or holes  in the 

ground and covering them with earth or  
clay4 ,this is called  the clay-curing  
process4 ,the time required in curing   
the cacao beans  varies1 but on the     
average requires two days4 ,when cured  
they are  dried by exposure to the sun  
and packed ready for shipping4 ,at this 
time beans of fine quality are found to 
have a warm reddish color4 ,the  quality
 or grades of beans are determined by   
the color at this stage4                
,illustration3 ,,chocolate ,,mill4      
,how ,chocolate is ,made4    ,when the  
cacao beans arrive at the chocolate     
factory they are put  through various   
processes to develop their aroma1       
palatability and  digestibility4        
,,processes ,,in ,,chocolate ,,making   
,the seeds are first roasted4 ,in       
roasting the substance which develops   
the aroma is formed4 ,the roasting is   
accomplished in revolving  cylinders1   
much like the revolving peanut roasters1
 only much larger4  ,after roasting the 
seeds are transferred to crushing and   

winnowing  machines4 ,the crushing      
machines break the husks or 8shells10   
and the  winnowing machine by the action
 of a fan separates the shells from the 
actual kernel or bean4 ,the beans are   
now called cocoa-nibs4 ,these nibs  are 
now in turn winnowed1 but in smaller    
quantities at a time1 during  which     
process the imperfect pieces are removed
 with other foreign  substances4 ,cacao 
beans in this form constitute the purest
 and simplest  form of cacao in which it
 is sold4 ,the objection to their use in
 this  form is that it is necessary to  
boil them for a much longer time1 in    
order to disintegrate them1 than when   
they are ground up in the form of  meal4
 ,for that reason the nibs are generally
 ground before marketing as  cacao or   
cocoa4    ,another form in which the    
pure seeds are prepared is the flaked   
cocoa4 ,this is accomplished by grinding
 up the nibs into a paste4  ,this       
grinding is done in a revolving cylinder
 machine in which a drum  revolves4 ,in 

this process the heat developed by the  
friction in the  machine is sufficient  
to liquefy the oil in the beans and form
 the  paste4 ,the oil then solidifies   
again in the paste when it becomes cool4
    ,illustration3 ,,chocolate          
,,finisher4    ,what we know as cakes of
 chocolate are made from the cocoa-nibs 
by  heating the mixture of the cacao1   
sugar and such flavoring extracts as    
vanilla1 until an even paste is secured4
 ,this paste is passed several  times   
between heavy rollers to get a thorough 
mixture and finally  poured into molds  
and allowed to cool4 ,when cool it can  
be taken from  the molds in firm cakes  
and wrapped for the market4 ,this is the
 way  ,milk ,chocolate is made4 ,the    
difference in the taste and consistency 
of  milk chocolate depends upon how many
 different things the chocolate  maker  
adds to the pure cocoa-nibs to produce  
this mixture4 ,often  substances such as
 starchy materials are added to make the
 cakes more  firm4 ,they add nothing to 

the quality of the chocolate4           
,illustration3 ,,chocolate ,,mixer4     
,,how ,,chocolate ,,candies ,,are ,,made
    ,chocolate-covered bonbons1         
chocolate drops1 and the many different 
kinds of toothsome confections are      
prepared in the ,american candy         
factories1 as we all well know4 ,the    
chocolate covering of this              
confectionery is generally put on by    
dipping the inside of the choice  morsel
 in a pan of liquid chocolate paste and 
then placing the bits in  tins to allow 
them to cool and harden4                
,illustration3 ,,chocolate ,,mixing     
,,and ,,heating ,,machine4    ,a great  
many of the choicest bits of            
confectionery are now produced by       
machines entirely4 ,these machines are  
almost human1 apparently1 as we  see    
them make a perfect chocolate bonbon    
which is delivered to a candy  box all  
wrapped for packing4 ,these wonderful   
machines thus give us  candy which has  
not been touched by the hands of any one

 prior to the  time we thrust our own   
fingers in the brightly-decorated box   
and take  our pick of the assortment it 
offers4    ,illustration3 ,,where ,,the 
,,individual ,,pieces ,,of ,,confection 
,,are ,,wrapped4    ,illustration3 ,,the
 ,,tallest ,,building ,,in ,,the ,,world
    ,,woolworth ,,building1 ,,new ,,york
 ,,city4    ,this building1 the tallest 
in the world1 is equipped with #bf      
gearless  traction elevators4    ,two of
 the elevators run from the first to the
 fifty-first floor with  actual travels 
of #fgi feet #i inches and #fgi feet #aj
 inches1  respectively4 ,there is also a
 shuttle elevator which runs from the   
fifty-first to the fifty-fourth floor4  
,total height of building from curb to  
base of flagstaff1 #gib feet4           
,illustration3 ,,how ,,an ,,elevator    
,,goes ,,up ,,and ,,down    ,,complete  
,,gearless ,,traction ,,elevator        
,,installation4          ,how ,does an  
,elevator ,go ,up and ,down8            
,ordinarily1 when we think of an        

elevator we think merely of the cage or 
car in which we ride up or down4 ,but   
the car is really only the part  which  
makes the elevator of service to man1   
and from the standpoint of  the         
machinery1 is a relatively unimportant  
part of the equipment4    ,there are two
 principal types of elevators used      
to-day2 the hydraulic1  which is worked 
by water under pressure1 and the        
electric1 which is  worked by           
electricity through an electric motor4  
,the latter type1  because of the       
tendency towards the general use of     
electricity in  recent years1 has       
largely superseded the hydraulic1 and1  
as when you  think of elevators you     
probably have in mind those you have    
seen in  some huge skyscraper1 we shall 
look at one of these4      ,what are the
 ,principal ,parts of an ,elevator8     
,the most advanced type of elevator     
to-day is called a ,gearless ,traction  
,elevator4 ,in this elevator the        
principal parts are a motor1 a grooved  

wheel on the motor shaft called a       
driving sheave and a brake1 all  mounted
 on one cast-iron bed-plate2 a number of
 cables of equal length  which pass over
 the driving sheave and thence around   
another grooved  wheel called an idler  
sheave1 located just below the driving  
sheave1  and to one end of which is     
attached the car or cage1 and to the    
other  end a weight called a            
counterweight2 also a controller which  
governs  the flow of electric current   
into the motor and thereby the speed1   
starts and stops of the elevator car4   
,although the controller1 motor1  brake 
and sheaves are usually placed way at   
the top of the building out  of our     
sight1 they are really very important   
parts of the elevator4    ,the cage or  
car in which we ride is held in place by
 tracks built  upright in the elevator  
shaft1 and the counterweight at one side
 of the  shaft travels up and down along
 two separate upright tracks4 ,when the 
car goes up the counterweight on the    

other end of the cables goes down  an   
equal distance4 ,the counterweight is   
used to balance the load of the  car and
 to make it easier for the motor to move
 the car4    ,electricity is the power  
that makes the car go up or down4 ,the  
operator  in the car moves a master     
switch--in one direction if he wishes to
 go  up1 in the other direction if he   
wishes to go down4 ,this master switch  
sets the electro-magnetic switches of   
the controller at the top of the        
hatchway into action1 electrically1 and 
the controller in turn allows  the      
electric current to flow into the motor4
 ,the motor then begins  to revolve1    
gradually at first1 and then faster1    
turning the driving  sheave with which  
it is directly connected4 ,as this      
driving sheave  revolves1 the cables    
passing over it are set in motion1 and  
the car and  counterweight to which they
 are attached begin to move4      ,why  
,does ,not the ,car ,fall8              
,illustration3 ,,the ,,principal ,,parts

 ,,of ,,an ,,elevator    ,of course1 the
 question of safety is a very important 
one in any  elevator1 and you wonder    
what would happen if the cables broke4  
,you  think of this especially when you 
are going up in one of the big          
skyscrapers--where the elevators        
sometimes travel to a height of #gjj    
feet4 ,it can be truthfully said that on
 every modern elevator there  are safety
 devices which should make it           
practically impossible to have  a       
serious accident1 due to the fall of the
 car4 ,every elevator is  equipped with 
wedging or clamping devices which       
automatically grip the  rails in case   
the car goes too fast either up or down4
 ,these gripping  devices can be        
adjusted to work at any speed that is   
desired above the  regular speed4 ,it is
 not at all probable that all the cables
 will break  at once1 because there are 
usually six of these1 and any one of    
them is  strong enough to hold the car  
if the others break2 but even if they   

all  should break the gripping devices  
on the rails will operate and hold  the 
car safely1 just as soon as it starts   
down at great speed4    ,suppose that   
the car should descend at full speed1   
but not sufficiently  fast to work the  
rail-gripping devices1 it would be      
brought to a  gradual rest at the bottom
 of the hatchway1 because of the        
oil-cushion  buffer against which it    
would strike4 ,this is a remarkable     
invention1  with a plunger working in   
oil in such a way that a car striking it
  at full speed will come to rest so    
gradually that there is scarcely  any   
shock4 ,you have perhaps seen a clever  
juggler on the stage throw  an ordinary 
hen's egg high into the air and catch it
 in a china dish  without cracking it   
,he does it by putting the dish under   
the falling  egg just at the right      
moment1 and bringing the dish down with 
the egg  at just the right speed1 so    
that eventually he has the egg in the   
dish  without cracking it4 ,the trick is

 in calculating the rate of speed of    
the falling egg accurately and adjusting
 the insertion of the dish  under the   
falling egg to a nicety4 ,the           
oil-cushion buffer in the modern        
elevator works in very much the same    
way4    ,illustration3 ,,general        
,,arrangement ,,of ,,roping ,,for       
,,gearless ,,traction  ,,elevator       
,,installation4    ,if it were not for  
the genius which has made possible these
 new types  of elevators we could not   
have the high buildings4 ,the elevators 
in the  ,woolworth ,building are the    
latest type in modern elevator          
construction4  ,in this one building    
alone there are #bi elevators1 and when 
you are  told that the electric         
elevators in the ,united ,states        
installed by  a single company represent
 a total of #ebe1jjj horse-power1 you   
will  have some idea of the power       
required to operate elevators all over  
the  country4          ,does ,air ,weigh
 ,anything8      ,air is very light1 so 

light that it seems to have no weight at
 all2  but1 if you will think a minute  
you will see that it must have some     
weight1 because birds fly in it and     
balloons can be made to float  through  
it4 ,it has been found that one hundred 
cubic inches of air  at the sea level   
weighs1 under ordinary conditions1 about
 thirty-one  grains4 ,this seems a very 
small weight1 but when we remember the  
thickness of the atmospheric envelope   
over the earth we see that it  must     
press quite heavily upon the earth's    
surface4 ,there is a very  simple       
instrument called a barometer1 which is 
used for measuring the  amount of this  
pressure4 ,the name means               
pressure-measure4    ,another striking  
feature of air is its elasticity1 and   
this explains  something that is noticed
 by all mountain climbers4 ,on a high   
mountain1  it is difficult to get enough
 air to the lungs1 though one breathes  
rapidly and deeply4 ,the reason is1 that
 the air at the foot of the  mountain is

 compressed by the weight of that above 
it1 and consequently  the lungs can hold
 more of it than of the air on the      
mountain top1  which has less weight    
resting upon it and is1 therefore1 not  
so much  compressed4 ,on account of the 
ease with which it is compressed1 we    
find  that more than half of all the    
envelope of air that surrounds the earth
  is within three miles of the surface4 
,when air is chemically analyzed it is  
found to consist of a number of         
substances mingled together1 but not    
chemically united4 ,these include       
nitrogen1 oxygen1 argon1 carbonic acid  
gas1 water vapor1 ozone1 nitric  acid1  
ammonia1 and dust4    ,oxygen is the    
most important of these constituents1   
for it is the part  that is necessary to
 support life4 ,yet1 notwithstanding its
 importance1  it forms only about       
one-fifth of the entire bulk of the     
atmosphere4    ,oxygen is a very        
interesting substance and many striking 
experiments  may be performed with it4  

,if a lighted candle is thrust into a   
vessel  filled with oxygen1 it burns    
very much more rapidly and brilliantly  
than in air4 ,a piece of wood with a    
mere spark on it bursts into flame  and 
burns brightly when thrust into oxygen1 
and some things that will  not burn at  
all in air1 can be made to burn very    
rapidly in oxygen4 ,for  example1 if a  
piece of clock spring be dipped in      
melted sulphur and  then put into a jar 
of oxygen1 after the sulphur has been   
set on fire1  the steel spring will take
 fire and burn fiercely4 ,the heat      
produced is  so great that drops of     
molten steel form at the end of the     
spring1 and  falling on the bottom of   
the jar1 melt the surface of the glass  
where  they strike4    ,the other two   
substances found in pure air1 nitrogen  
and argon1 are  very much alike4 ,they  
make up the remaining four-fifths of the
 air1 and  are very different from      
oxygen in nearly every respect4         
,nitrogen and argon resemble oxygen in  

being colorless1 odorless1 and          
tasteless gases2 and they are of nearly 
the same weight as oxygen1  argon being 
a little heavier and nitrogen a little  
lighter2 but here  the similarity ends4 
,oxygen is what we call a very active   
substance4  ,as we have seen1 it causes 
things to burn very much more rapidly in
 it  than in air4 ,nitrogen and argon1  
on the contrary1 put out fire4 ,if a    
lighted candle is put into a jar of     
nitrogen or argon its flame will be     
extinguished as quickly as if put into  
water4    ,we must now consider the     
impurities found in air4 ,of these the  
most  important is carbonic acid gas1   
or1 as it is frequently called1 carbon  
dioxide4 ,it is always produced when    
wood or coal is burned1 and  is1 of     
course1 constantly being poured out of  
chimneys4 ,it is also  produced in our  
lungs and we give off some of it when we
 breathe4 ,it  is colorless1 like the   
gases found in pure air1 has no odor or 
taste1  and is considerably heavier than

 oxygen or nitrogen4 ,in its other      
properties it is much more like nitrogen
 than oxygen1 for when a  candle is put 
into it the flame is extinguished at    
once4 ,to find out  whether air contains
 carbonic acid gas1 it is only necessary
 to force  it through a little lime     
water1 in a glass vessel1 and watch what
  change takes place in the water4      
,fresh lime water is as clear as pure   
water2 but after forcing air containing 
carbonic acid through it1 it  becomes   
turbid and milky4 ,if the turbid water  
is allowed to stand for  a time1 a white
 powder will settle to the bottom1 and  
if we examine  this powder1 we find it  
to be very much the same thing as chalk4
 ,while  it is true that air generally  
contains only a very small portion of   
carbonic acid gas1 there are some places
 in which it is present in such  large  
quantities as to render the air unfit   
for breathing4 ,the air at  the bottom  
of deep mines and old wells often has an
 unusually large  proportion of this    

gas1 which1 because of its great weight1
 accumulates  at the bottom1 and remains
 confined there4 ,the presence of a     
dangerous  quantity of the gas in such  
places may be detected by lowering a    
candle  into it4          ,why ,does the
 ,scenery ,appear to ,move ,when ,we    
,are ,riding in a ,train8      ,when you
 sit in a moving train looking out of   
the window it appears  as though the    
fields1 the telegraph poles and         
everything else outside  were moving1   
instead of you4 ,this is because our    
only ideas of motion  are arrived at by 
comparison1 and the fact that neither   
you nor the  seats of the car or any    
other part of the inside of the car is  
changing  its position1 leads you to the
 delusion that the things outside the   
car are moving and not you4 ,if you were
 to pull down all the curtains  and the 
train were making no noise at all1 you  
would not think that  anything was      
moving4 ,it would appear as though you  
were motionless just  as everything in  

the car appears so4 ,when you turn then 
to the window1  and lift the curtain you
 carry in the back of your mind the idea
 of  being at rest and that is what     
makes it appear as though the fields and
  everything outside were moving in an  
opposite direction4    ,this is         
particularly noticeable when you are in 
a train in a station  with another train
 on the next track4 ,there is a sense of
 motion if one  of the trains only is   
moving and you feel that it is the other
 train1  because you are surrounded by  
objects in the car which are at rest1   
and when you look out at the other train
 with this half consciousness  of rest  
in your mind1 it appears as though the  
other train were moving  when as a      
matter of fact it is your train4 ,if the
 delusion happens to  be turned the     
other way1 it will appear as though you 
are moving and  the other is still4 ,it 
depends upon what cause the impression  
starts  with4          ,why ,don't the  
,scenery ,appear to ,move ,when ,i am in

 a ,street ,car8      ,if you are in a  
street car in the country and moving    
along fast you  will receive the same   
impression1 especially in a closed car1 
because  you are looking out of one hole
 or one window4 ,in an open car you  do 
not receive the same impression because 
your range of vision is  broader4 ,you  
can and do1 although perhaps            
unconsciously1 look out on  both sides  
and the impression your mind gets       
through the eyes is not  the same4 ,if  
you were to pull down all the storm     
curtains in a moving  open street car1  
and then look out of one little crack1  
you would think  the outside was moving4
 ,but if you stop to remember that you  
are moving  and not the things outside  
the car1 then the impression vanishes4  
,in  the city1 of course1 your brain is 
so thoroughly impressed with the  fact  
that houses and pavements do not move1  
and the cars move so much  more slowly1 
that it is difficult to make yourself   
believe otherwise4  ,the impression is  

more difficult always when you are      
moving through  or past objects with    
which you are perfectly familiar4 ,it is
 all1 of  course1 a question of         
impressions4          ,why ,does the    
,moon ,travel ,with ,us ,when ,we ,walk 
or ,ride8      ,the moon does not really
 travel with us4 ,it only seems to do   
so4 ,the  moon is so far away that when 
we walk a block or two or a hundred1 we 
cannot notice any relative difference in
 the relative positions of the  moon and
 ourselves4 ,when a thing is close at   
hand we can notice every  change in our 
position toward it1 but when it is far  
away the change of  our position toward 
it is so slight that it is hardly       
perceptible4 ,a  very good way to       
illustrate this is to ask you to recall 
the last time  you were in a railroad   
train looking out at the scenery in the 
country4  ,the telegraph poles rush past
 you so fast you cannot count them4 ,the
  cows in the pasture beside the        
railroad do not seem to go by so fast4  

,you can count them easily4 ,the tree   
farther over in the next field does  not
 appear to be moving but slightly1 while
 the church steeple which  you can see  
far in the distance1 does not go out of 
sight for a long  time--in fact1 seems  
almost to be moving along with you4 ,the
 moon is  just like the church steeple  
in this case1 except that it is so much 
farther away that it seems to travel    
right with you4 ,it is all due to  the  
fact as stated at the beginning of this 
answer1 that the relative  positions of 
yourself and the moon are only slightly 
changed as you  move from place to      
place1 so slight in fact as to appear   
imperceptible4          ,is ,there a    
,man in the ,moon8      ,the markings   
which we see on the face of the moon    
when it is full can  by a stretch of the
 imagination be said to form the face of
 a man4 ,on  some nights this face      
appears to be quite distinct4 ,if1      
however1 we  look at the moon through a 
telescope1 we see distinctly that it is 

not the face of a man4 ,through a very  
large telescope we can see very  plainly
 that the marks are mountains and       
craters of extinct volcanoes4  ,it just 
happens that these marks on the moon1   
aided by the reflections  of the light  
from the sun1 which gives the moon all  
the light it has1  make a combination   
that looks like a face4          ,does  
the ,air ,surrounding the ,earth ,move  
,with ,it8      ,this is one of the old 
puzzling questions which many a         
high-school  student has had to struggle
 with to the great amusement of the     
teacher  who asks for the information   
and such other scholars who have already
  had the experience of trying to solve 
it4    ,to get at the right answer you  
have merely to ask one other question4  
,if the air does not revolve with the   
earth1 why can't ,i go up in  a balloon 
at ,new ,york1 and stay up long enough  
for the earth to  revolve on its axis   
beneath me1 and come down again when the
 city of  ,san ,francisco appears under 

the balloon1 which should be in about   
four hours8 ,if that were possible1     
travel would be both rapid and          
comfortable1 for then we could sit      
quietly in a balloon while the earth    
traveling beneath us would get all the  
bumps4    ,no1 the atmosphere           
surrounding the earth moves right along 
with the  earth on its axis4 ,if it were
 not so1 the earth would probably burn  
up--at least no living thing could      
remain on it--since the friction of  the
 surface of the air against the surface 
of the earth would develop  such a heat 
that nothing could live in it4          
,why ,does ,oiling the ,axle ,make the  
,wheel ,turn ,more ,easily8      ,if you
 look at what appears to be a perfectly 
smooth axle on a bicycle  or motor car  
through a powerful magnifying glass1 you
 will find that  the surface of the axle
 is not smooth at all1 as you may have  
thought1  but covered with what appear  
to be quite large bumps or              
irregularities  in the surface4 ,if you 

were to examine the inside of the hub of
 the  wheel in the same way1 you would  
find that it also is like that4 ,now1   
when you attempt to turn a wheel on the 
axle without oil1 these little          
irregularities or bumps grind against   
each other1 producing what we  call     
friction4 ,as friction develops heat1   
the metal of the axle and the  hub      
expand and the wheel gets stuck4        
,what ,made the ,mountains8      ,there 
is no question but that at one time the 
surface of the earth was  smooth1 i4 e41
 there were no big hills and no deep    
valleys4 ,that was  before the mountains
 were made4 ,the earth was a hot molten 
mass that  began to cool off from the   
outside inward4 ,it is still a hot      
molten  mass inside today4 ,the outside 
crust became cooler and cooler and the  
crust became deeper and deeper all the  
time4 ,then when there would be  an     
eruption of the red-hot mass inside1 the
 earth's crust would be  bulged out in  
some places and sucked in in others and 

would stay that  way4 ,the bulged out   
place became a range of mountains and   
the sucked  in place became a valley4   
,this process went on happening over and
 over  again until the crust of the     
earth became firmly set4 ,volcanos      
caused  some of these eruptions1 as also
 did earthquakes4 ,there are today      
gradual changes occurring which to a    
certain extent change the outside       
surface of the earth1 and it is possible
 that new mountain ranges will  be      
produced in this way4          ,what    
,makes the ,sea ,roar8      ,the roar of
 the sea is a movement of the sea which 
causes the same kind  of air waves or   
sound waves that you make when you      
shout1 excepting  that1 of course1 the  
vibrations do not occur so quickly in   
the sea and1  therefore1 the sound      
produced is a low sound4 ,it is no      
different in  any sense than the same   
noise would be if the same air waves    
could be  produced on the land away from
 the water4          ,why ,is ,fire     

,hot8      ,when a fire is lighted it   
throws off what we call heat rays or    
waves4  ,these waves are very much like 
the waves of light which come from a    
light or fire or the air waves which    
produce sounds4 ,the rays of light  and 
heat which come from the sun are like   
the rays of light and heat  from a fire4
 ,heat is of two kinds--heat proper     
which is resident in the  body1 and     
radiant heat which is the kind which    
comes to us from the  sun or from a     
fire4 ,this radiant heat is not heat at 
all1 but a form  of wave motion thrown  
out by the vibrations in the ether4 ,the
 heat we  feel is the sensation produced
 upon our skins when it comes in contact
  with the waves created by the fire4   
,heat was formerly thought to be an     
actual substance1 but we know now that  
radiant heat is known to be the  energy 
of heat transferred to the ether which  
fills all of space and is  in all bodies
 also4 ,the hot body which sets the     
particles of either in  vibration and   

this vibrating motion in the form of    
waves travels in all  directions4 ,when 
these vibrations strike against our skin
 they produce  a heat sensation2        
striking other objects these vibrations 
may produce  instead of a heat          
sensation1 either chemical action or    
luminosity4 ,this  is determined by the 
length of the vibratory rays in each    
case4          ,when ,i ,throw a ,ball  
,into the ,air ,while ,walking1 ,why    
,does ,it ,follow ,me8      ,when you   
throw a ball into the air while moving  
your body forward or  backward1 either  
slowly or fast1 the ball partakes of two
 motions--the  one upward and the       
forward or backward motion of your body4
 ,the ball  possessed the motion of your
 body before it left your hand to go up 
into the air because your body was      
moving before you threw it up1 and  the 
ball was a part of you at the time4     
,if you are moving forward up to the    
time you throw the ball into the  air   
and stop as soon as you let go of the   

ball1 it will fall at some  distance    
from you4 ,also if you throw the ball up
 from a standing  position and move     
forward as soon as the ball leaves your 
hand the ball  will fall behind you1    
provided you actually threw it straight 
up4    ,of course1 you know that the    
earth is moving many miles per hour on  
its axis and that when you throw a ball 
straight into the air from a  standing  
position1 the earth and yourself as well
 as the ball move  with the earth a long
 distance before the ball comes down    
again4 ,the  relative position is1      
however1 the same4 ,we get our sense of 
motion by  a comparison with other      
objects4 ,if you are in a train that is 
moving  swiftly and another train goes  
by in the opposite direction moving just
  as fast1 you seem to be going twice as
 fast as you really are4 ,if the  train 
on the other track1 however1 is going at
 the same rate of speed  and in the same
 direction as you are1 you will appear  
to be standing  still4    ,going back to

 the ball again1 you will find that it  
always partakes of  the motion of the   
body holding it in addition to the      
motion given when  it is thrown up4     
,what ,good ,are the ,lines ,on the     
,palms of ,our ,hands8      ,it cannot  
be said that the lines on the palms of  
our hands are of any  great service to  
us4 ,indeed it is doubtful if they are  
of any value  in themselves1 outside of 
the possible aid they may be in helping 
us  to determine the character of the   
surface of things which we grasp or     
touch4 ,it is possible that they aid in 
some slight degree in this way4  ,there 
is little doubt1 however1 that they are 
a result of the work the  hands are     
constantly called upon to do rather than
 contrived for any  particular service4 
,the habitual tendency of the fingers in
 grasping  and holding things throws the
 skin of the palms into creases which   
through frequent repetition make the    
lines of the palms permanent in  several
 instances4    ,the peculiarities of    

these lines or creases in various       
individuals  as to details and length   
and variations is the chief basis of the
  so-called science of palmistry4       
,what ,makes ,things ,whirl ,round ,when
 ,i ,am ,dizzy8      ,the medical term  
that describes this condition of turning
 or whirling  is vertigo1 which means in
 simple language 8to turn40 ,there are  
two  kinds of dizziness--one where the  
objects about us seem to be turning     
round and round and the other where the 
person who is dizzy seems to  himself to
 be turning round and round4    ,one    
cause of this is due to the fact that   
when you are dizzy the  eyes are not in 
complete control of the brain and the   
eyes moving  independently of each other
 look in different directions and       
produce  this turning effect on the     
brain1 since each eye then sends a      
different  impression to the brain      
instantly4    ,the principal cause of   
the sense of dizziness is1 however1 the 
little  organ which gives us our power  

to balance and which is located near the
  ears4 ,sometimes this organ becomes   
diseased and people affected in this    
way are almost continually dizzy4       
,whenever this organ of balance is      
disturbed we lose our idea of balance   
and the turning sensation occurs4    ,it
 is easy to make yourself dizzy4 ,all   
you do is to turn round a few  times in 
the same direction and stop4 ,in doing  
this you disturb the  little organ of   
balance and things begin to turn        
apparently before your  eyes4 ,if you   
turn the other way you right matters    
again or if you just  stand still       
matters will right themselves4 ,there is
 no great harm in  making yourself dizzy
 and very little fun4          ,why ,are
 the ,complexions of ,some ,people      
,light and ,others ,dark8      ,this    
difference in the complexions of people 
is due to the varying  amounts of       
pigment or coloring material in the     
cells of which the skins  of all animals
 is made up4 ,very light people have    

very little pigment2  very dark people1 
those with dark eyes and black hair1    
have a great  deal of this coloring     
material in their cells4 ,a great many  
people are  neither light or very dark4 
,they have less than the                
dark-complexioned  people and more than 
the light-complexioned people4 ,when the
 hair  turns gray it is because the     
pigment has disappeared4 ,as this is due
  to the loss of this coloring material1
 dark-complexioned people turn  gray    
sooner than light-complexioned people4  
,the structure of the skin  showing how 
these cells are made in layers can be   
seen by examining the  skin with a      
microscope4          ,what ,makes ,me   
,tired8      ,men were wrong for a long 
time in their conclusions as to what    
produced  the tired feeling in us4      
,we know now that every activity of our 
body registers itself on the  brain4    
,when we move an arm or leg a great many
 times we soon feel  tired4 ,every time 
you move your arm the movement is       

registered in the  brain1 and after a   
number of these movements are registered
 the tired  feeling in the arm appears4 
,it is said that every movement of any  
part  of the body really produces       
certain defective cells and that these  
accumulate in the blood4 ,when these    
reach a certain number the tired        
feeling takes possession of us1 and when
 we rest1 the blood under  the guidance 
of the brain1 goes to work and rebuilds 
these defective  cells4 ,we know that a 
change takes place in the blood when we 
become  tired because1 if you take some 
of the blood from an animal that shows  
unmistakable signs of fatigue and inject
 it into an animal that shows  no tired 
feeling at all1 the second animal will  
begin to show signs of  fatigue even    
though it is not active at all4    ,we  
used to think that being tired indicated
 that our bodies were in  need of food  
and that the way to overcome it was to  
eat a big meal4  ,we did not stop to    
think that even when we are hungry the  

human body  has sufficient food supply  
stored up to keep it going for days     
without  taking in new food4 ,of course1
 this mistake was made because we knew  
that our power and energy came as a     
result of the food we took into our     
systems1 but this belief was exploded   
when it was found that a really  tired  
person could hardly digest food while   
tired1 and that it is best  for people  
who are very tired to eat only a light  
meal4          ,why ,are ,most ,people  
,right-,handed8      ,most people are   
right-handed because they are trained   
that way4 ,being  right-handed or       
left-handed depends largely on how we   
get started in  that connection4 ,when  
we are young we form the habit generally
 of  being either right-handed or       
left-handed1 as the case may be4 ,most  
people correct their children when it   
appears they are likely to  become      
left-handed1 as we have come to think   
that it is better to be  right-handed   
than left1 and that is the reason why   

most people are  right-handed4 ,as a    
matter of fact1 if we were trained      
perfectly1 we  should all be both       
right-handed and left-handed also4 ,some
 people are  so trained and1 when we    
refer to their ability to do things     
equally  well with both hands and wish  
to bring out this fact1 we say they are 
ambidextrous4 ,it is not natural that   
one hand should be trained to do  things
 while the other is not4          ,why  
,are ,some ,faculties ,stronger ,than   
,others8      ,all of our senses are    
capable of being developed so that our  
ability  along these lines would be     
about equal4 ,the trouble is that we    
soon  begin to develop one or more of   
our faculties in an unusual manner at   
the expense of the development of       
others4 ,many people have a keener      
sense of observation than others because
 they have had more and better  training
 along that line4 ,it is a pity that    
more attention is not given  to the     
development of the power of observation 

in children1 because  it is one of the  
most valuable accomplishments that we   
can possess  ourselves of4 ,with the    
sense of observation developed to the   
highest  degree1 many of the other      
faculties need not be developed so      
strongly  because1 if we notice every   
thing that it is possible for us to see1
  we do not have the need of the        
development of other powers to the same 
extent4    ,it is said that it would be 
possible to so train an infant and bring
  him up to maturity with all his       
faculties developed and in practically  
an even way4 ,if we did that we would   
have a wonderfully intelligent  being4  
,illustration3 ,glazing plates4         
,illustration3 ,decorating china cups4  
,the ,story in a ,cup and ,saucer       
,,how ,,china ,,is ,,made    ,many      
different kinds of raw materials are    
required to produce the clay  from which
 china is formed1 and these ingredients 
come from widely  separated localities4 
,clays from ,florida1 ,north ,carolina1 

,cornwall and  ,devon4 ,flint from      
,illinois and ,pennsylvania4 ,boracic   
acid from the  ,mojave ,desert and      
,tuscany4 ,cobalt from ,ontario and     
,saxony4 ,feldspar  from ,maine4 ,all   
these and more must enter into the      
making of every  piece4                 
,illustration3 ,grinders for reducing   
glazing materials4    ,these materials  
are reduced to fine powder and stored in
 huge bins4  ,between these bins1 on a  
track provided for the purpose1 the     
workmen  push a car which bears a great 
box4 ,under this box is a scale for     
weighing the exact amount of each       
ingredient as it is put in1 for too     
much of one kind of clay or too little  
of another would seriously  impair the  
quality of the finished china4          
,illustration3 ,mill for pulverizing    
materials4    ,from bin to bin this car 
goes1 gathering up so many pounds of    
this  material and so many pounds of    
that1 until its load is complete4 ,then 
it is dumped into one of the great round

 tanks called 8blungers10 where  big    
electrically driven paddles mix it with 
water until it has the  consistency of  
thick cream4 ,from the blungers this    
liquid mass passes  into another and    
still larger tank1 called a 8rough      
agitator10 and is  there kept constantly
 in motion until it is released to run  
in a steady  stream over the 8sifters40 
,these sifters are vibrating tables of  
finest silk lawn1 very much  like that  
used for bolting flour at the mills4    
,the material for  china making strains 
through the silk1 while the refuse1     
including  all foreign matter1 little   
lumps1 etc41 runs into a waste trough   
and  is thrown away4 ,from the sifters  
the liquid passes through a square      
box-like chute1 in which are placed a   
number of large horseshoe  magnets1     
which attract to themselves and hold any
 particles of harmful  minerals which   
may be in the mixture4    ,after leaving
 the magnets the fluid is free from     
impurities1 and is  discharged into     

another huge tank called the 8smooth    
agitator40 ,while  the fluid is in this 
tank a number of paddles keep it        
constantly in  motion4    ,illustration3
 ,pressing the water from the clay4     
,from the smooth agitator the mixture is
 forced under high pressure into  a     
press where a peculiar arrangement of   
steel chambers packed with  heavy canvas
 allows the water to escape1 filtered   
pure and clear1 but  retains the clay in
 discs or leaves weighing about thirty  
pounds each4  ,from the presses this    
damp clay is taken out to the 8pug      
mills10 where  it is all ground up      
together1 reduced to a uniform          
consistency1 and  cut into blocks of    
convenient size4 ,it is now ready to    
use4 ,automatic  elevators carry it to  
the workmen upstairs4    ,illustration3 
,molding ,dishes4 ,the racks to the left
 are full of molds  on which the clay is
 drying4    ,illustration3 ,molding     
sugar bowls and covered dishes4    ,,how
 ,,the ,,dishes ,,are ,,shaped    ,the  

exact process of handling the clay      
differs with articles of  different     
shapes4 ,some are molded by hand in     
plaster of paris molds of  proper shape1
 while others are formed by machine4 ,to
 make a plate1 for  example1 the workman
 takes a lump of clay as large as a     
teacup4 ,he lays  this on a flat stone1 
and with a large1 round1 flat weight1   
strikes it  a blow which flattens the   
material out until it resembles dough   
rolled  out for cake or biscuits1 only  
instead of being white or yellow it is  
of a dark gray color4 ,a hard1 smooth   
mold exactly the size and shape  of the 
inside of the plate is at hand4 ,over   
this the workman claps the  flat piece  
of damp clay4 ,then the mold is passed  
on to another workman1  who stands      
before a rapidly revolving pedestal1    
commonly known as the  potter's wheel4  
,on this wheel he places the mold and   
its layer of clay4  ,he then pulls down 
a lever to which is attached a steel    
scraper4 ,as the  plate rapidly         

revolves1 this scraper cuts away the    
surplus clay1 and  gives to the back of 
the plate its proper form4 ,the plate1  
still in its  mold1 is placed on a long 
board1 together with a number of others1
 and  shoved into a rack to dry4 ,one   
workman with two helpers will make      
#b1djj  plates per day4 ,it is          
fascinating to watch the molders' deft  
hands at  work swiftly changing a mass  
of clay into perfectly formed dishes4   
,such  skilled workmen are naturally    
well paid4    ,illustration3 ,interior  
of a kiln showing how the 8saggers0 are 
packed  for firing4    ,when the clay is
 sufficiently dry1 the plate is taken   
from its mold1  the edge smoothed and   
rounded1 and any minor defects remedied4
 ,it  is then placed in an oval shaped  
clay receptacle called a 8sagger10      
together with about two dozen of its    
fellows1 packed in fine sand1  and      
placed in one of the furnaces or kilns4 
,each kiln will contain on  an average  
two thousand saggers4 ,when the kiln is 

full the doorway  is closed and         
plastered with clay1 the fires started1 
and the dishes  subjected to terrific   
heat for a period of forty-eight hours4 
,the  fuel used is natural gas1 piped   
one hundred miles from wells #b1jjj     
feet deep4 ,natural gas gives an intense
 heat1 and yet is always under  perfect 
control--features which are vital in    
producing uniformly good  china4        
,when the plate is taken from the kiln  
after the first baking1 it is  pure     
white1 but of dull1 velvety texture1 and
 is known as bisque ware4    ,in order  
to give it a smooth1 high finish1 the   
plate is next dipped  into a solution of
 white lead1 borax and silica1 dried1   
placed in a  kiln and again baked4 ,when
 it is taken out for the second time it 
has acquired that beautiful glaze which 
so delights the eye4 ,in this  condition
 it is known as 8plain white ware10 and 
is finished1 unless  some decoration is 
to be added4    ,illustration3 ,taking  
the dishes from a kiln4    ,,how ,,china

 ,,is ,,decorated    ,most people are   
surprised to learn that the greater part
 of the  gold which adorns dishes is put
 on by a simple rubber stamp4 ,two      
preparations of gold are used4 ,one is a
 commercial solution called  8liquid    
bright gold10 the other is very         
expensive1 and is simply gold  bullion  
melted down with acids to the right     
consistency4    ,decorating in colors is
 now done almost exclusively by         
decalcomania art  transfers4 ,these are 
made principally in ,europe4    ,after  
the gold and colors are applied1 the    
,china must again go through  the oven's
 heat for a period of twelve hours4     
,then the piece finished  at last1 is   
ready to grace your table4 ,the dull    
gray clay has become  beautifully       
finished china1 which will delight alike
 the housekeeper  and her guests4       
,how ,do ,birds ,find ,their ,way8      
,the most interesting phase of the      
movement of animals from place to  place
 is found in the flight of birds during 

the spring and fall4 ,in  the spring the
 birds come north and in the fall they  
go south4 ,this is  called 8migration0  
and the reason given for the ability of 
some birds  to come back every year to  
build a nest in the same tree is usually
  attributed to the 8instinct of        
migration10 and yet that is more a      
statement of fact rather than an        
explanation of the wonderful ability  of
 the birds to do this4          ,how    
,does a ,captain ,steer ,his ,ship      
,across the ,ocean8      ,man1 the most 
intelligent animal1 can also find his   
way about1 but  he has had to learn to  
do this step by step4 ,when an explorer 
first  travels into the unexplored      
forest1 he carries a compass which tells
  him in what direction he is traveling1
 but this is not sufficient to  tell him
 the exact path he came and return the  
same way4 ,in order that  he may do     
this1 he must make marks on the trees   
and other objects  to find his way back4
 ,when these marks are once made1 other 

men can  follow the path by their aid1  
and eventually a path becomes worn so   
that men can find their way back and    
forth without the aid of the marks      
especially4    ,a trained ship captain  
can take his ship from any port in the  
world to  another port4 ,he can start at
 ,new ,york ,city and in a given number 
of  days1 according to how fast his ship
 can travel1 land his passengers  and   
cargo in the port of ,london or         
,johannesburg1 ,south ,africa1 or at    
any desired port in ,china1 ,japan or   
any other country4 ,but he cannot do    
this by any kind of instinct4 ,he takes 
his directions from information  that   
was furnished him by some one who went  
that way before him--some  other captain
 of a vessel who made marks in his book 
of his position  in relation to the sun 
and stars4 ,this is practically the same
 as the  traveler in the forest who made
 marks on the trees to make a map of the
  way back and forth4 ,even with these  
charts1 compasses and other guiding     

marks1 however1 man1 even though he is  
the most intelligent of all the         
animals1 makes very grave mistakes and  
sometimes brings disaster upon  himself 
and the lives in his care4          ,why
 the ,birds ,come ,back in ,spring8     
,the birds1 however1 have no charts or  
compasses to guide them4 ,we do  not    
know as yet absolutely what it is that  
enables the bird to find its  way back  
and forth to the same spot year after   
year4 ,as nearly as we  have been able  
to ascertain1 the birds after they mate 
and build their  first nest and bring up
 their first family1 develop a fondness 
for that  particular spot which is much 
the same as the instinct in man which we
  call the 8homing instinct40 ,man      
becomes attached to one particular spot 
which he calls home and wherever he is  
thereafter1 he is very likely to  think 
of the old locality when he thinks of   
home1 and there are very  few of us but 
have yearnings to go back to the old    
8home locality0  every now and then4    

,the environment in which a bird or     
human being is  brought up generally    
becomes to a greater or less extent a   
permanent  part of him in this sense4   
,why ,do ,birds ,go ,south in ,winter8  
,we know why birds go south in the      
winter4 ,the necessity of finding  food 
to live upon has everything to do with  
that4 ,as food grows  scarce towards the
 end of summer in the farthest northern 
places where  birds live1 the birds     
there must find food elsewhere4 ,they   
naturally  turn south and when they find
 food1 they have to divide with the     
birds  living there4 ,the result is that
 soon the food becomes scarce again  and
 both the new-comers and the old        
residents1 so to speak1 are forced  to  
seek places where food is plentiful4 ,so
 both of these flocks1 to  use a short  
term1 fly away to the south until they  
find food again  and encounter a third  
flock or group of the bird family       
crowding the  locality and exhausting   
the food supply4 ,so in turn each flock 

presses  for food upon the one in the   
locality next further to the south until
  we have a general movement to the     
south of practically all the birds      
until they reach a point where the food 
supply is sufficient for all  for the   
time being4          ,why ,don't the    
,birds ,stay ,south8      ,the result of
 all this is that the south-land is     
crowded with birds of  all kinds and the
 food supply is enough for all4 ,but    
soon in following  the laws of nature in
 birds1 as in other living things1 comes
 the time  for breeding4 ,the south-land
 is warm enough for nesting and         
hatching1  but it is so crowded that    
there wouldn't be enough food for all   
the old  birds and the little ones too  
and so the birds begin to scatter again4
  ,just think of what would happen in   
the south-land if all the birds that    
stay there in the winter built their    
nests there and brought up a new        
family4 ,a bird family will average four
 young birds1 so that if all the  bird  

families were born and raised in the    
south the bird population  would quickly
 multiply itself by three and there     
would be the same old  necessity of     
traveling away to look for food4 ,to    
avoid this the birds  begin to scatter  
to their old homes before the breeding  
season begins4          ,how ,do ,they  
,find the ,old ,home8      ,the return  
of the birds to their old homes and how 
they find their  way back to the same   
spot every year1 to do which they must  
sometimes  travel thousands of miles1 is
 one of the most marvelous things in    
nature and has not as yet been          
satisfactorily determined4 ,the nearest 
approach we have to a satisfactory      
answer to this is that birds do have  a 
memory1 that they can and do recognize  
familiar objects1 and that  their love  
for the old home causes them to fly to  
the north until they  recognize the     
landmarks of their former habitation4   
,in this it is said  that the older     
birds--those who have gone that way     

before--lead the  flocks and show the   
way4    ,there is no doubt that birds   
have a more perfect instinct of         
direction  than man4 ,they can follow a 
line of longitude almost perfectly1     
i4e41  they can pick out the shorter    
route by instinct1 and this is1 of      
course1 a straight line4 ,they just keep
 on going until they come to the        
familiar place they call home and then  
they stop and build their nests4  ,that 
it is not memory and sight of places    
alone that guides the birds  is shown by
 the fact that some birds when migrating
 fly all night when  there is no light  
by which to recognize familiar objects4 
,why ,do ,birds ,sing8      ,the song of
 the birds is a part of the love-making4
 ,the male bird is  the 8singer10 as we 
call them at home1 when we think of the 
canary in  the cage near us4 ,the male  
bird sings to his mate to charm her and 
to  further his wooing4 ,this wooing    
goes on after the eggs have been laid   
in the nest and while the mother bird is

 keeping them warm until they  hatch    
out1 but almost instantaneously with the
 birth of the little  birds1 the song of
 the male bird is hushed4 ,take the case
 of the  nightingale4 ,for weeks during 
the period of nest-building and hatching
  he charms his mate and us with the    
beautiful music of his love song4  ,but 
as soon as the little nightingales come 
from the eggs1 the sounds  which the    
male nightingale makes are changed to a 
gutteral croak1 which  are expressive of
 anxiety and alarm1 in great contrast to
 the song  notes of his wooing4 ,and    
yet1 if you were at this period--just   
after  the birds are born1 and when his 
song changes--to destroy the nest  and  
contents1 you would at once find ,mr4   
,nightingale return to his  beautiful   
song of love to inspire his mate to help
 him build another  nest and start all  
over again to raise a family4           
,what ,causes an ,arrow to ,fly8        
,it is caused by the power generated    
when you bend the bow and string  of the

 bow and arrow out of shape4 ,the bow   
and string have the quality  of         
elasticity which causes a rubber ball to
 bounce4 ,when you force  anything      
elastic out of shape1 this quality in it
 makes it try to  get back to its       
natural shape quickly4 ,in doing this it
 acts in the  direction which will take 
it back to its normal shape most        
quickly4 ,the  arrow is fixed on the    
string in a way that will not interfere 
with the  bow and string getting back to
 its shape and1 when they bounce back1  
the arrow goes with it4 ,the real cause 
for the arrow's flight1 however1  comes 
not from the bow1 because the bow cannot
 put itself out of  shape1 but comes    
from the person who causes it to be out 
of shape and1  therefore1 the person who
 pulls the string back really causes the
 arrow  to fly4          ,why ,do       
,children ,like ,candy8      ,children  
crave candy because the sugar which it  
contains largely is in  such a condition
 that it is the most suited of all our  

foods for quick  use by the body4 ,it is
 actually turned into real energy within
 a few  minutes after it is eaten4      
,all the things we eat are for the      
purpose of supplying energy to our      
bodies to replace the energy that our   
daily activities have dissipated4       
,nature takes the valuable parts of the 
foods we eat and changes them  into     
energy4 ,the waste parts she throws off4
 ,many things we eat have  little real  
value as food and many also nature has  
to work upon a long  time before their  
food value is available in energy4      
,sugar1 however1  represents almost     
energy itself4    ,children are1 of     
course1 more active than grown-ups4     
,they are never  still4 ,they are1      
therefore1 almost always burning up or  
using up their  energy4 ,they are also1 
therefore1 almost always in need of food
 that  can be made into energy1 and as  
sugar does this almost more quickly     
than any other food1 nature teaches the 
children to like candy or  sweets4      

,why ,does ,eating ,candy ,make ,some   
,people ,fat8      ,eating as much as   
one can of anything at any time will    
produce fat1  provided you do not do    
sufficient physical work or take enough 
exercise  to counteract the effect of   
generous eating4 ,when you see a person 
who  eats a great deal and is growing   
fat1 you may know that he or she is  not
 taking sufficient bodily exercise to   
work off the energy produced  by the    
body from the food that has been eaten4 
,when this happens the  energy in the   
form of fat piles up in various parts of
 the system4  ,candy will do this more  
quickly than any other thing we eat     
because it  contains so much sugar and  
because sugar is so easily changed by   
our  system into usable energy4 ,you    
generally find a fat person who eats    
much candy to be a lazy person4         
,what ,makes ,snowflakes ,white8      ,a
 snowflake is1 as you are no doubt      
aware1 made of water affected in  such a
 way by the temperature as to change it 

into a crystal4 ,water1 of  course1 as  
you know1 is perfectly transparent4 ,in 
other words1 sunlight  or other light   
will pass through water without being   
reflected4 ,a  single snow flake also is
 partially transparent1 i4e41 the light 
will  go through it partially1 although 
some of it will be reflected back4      
,when a drop of water is turned into a  
snowflake crystal1 a great many         
reflecting surfaces are produced1 and   
the whiteness of the snowflake is  the  
result of practically all of the        
sunlight which strikes it being         
reflected back1 just as a mirror        
reflects practically all the light or   
color that is thrown against it4 ,if you
 turn a green light on the snow1  it    
will reflect the green light in the same
 way4 ,when the countless  snow crystals
 lie on the ground close together1 the  
ability to reflect  the light is        
increased and so a mass of snow crystals
 on the ground  look even whiter than   
one single snowflake4          ,what    

,makes the ,white ,caps on the ,waves   
,white8      ,in telling why the        
snowflake is white we have practically  
already  answered this question also4   
,instead of little crystals formed from 
the  water1 the foam produced by the    
waves of the ocean are tiny bubbles     
which have the same ability to reflect  
the light as the snow crystals4         
,what ,good ,can ,come of a ,toothache8 
,very few of us realize that an aching  
tooth is a good thing for us1  provided 
we have it attended to and the ache     
removed4 ,any one who has  had toothache
 will hardly agree that there can be a  
blessing attached  to this excruciating 
pain4    ,but the good comes from the   
warning it gives us of the condition of 
our  teeth on the inside of our mouths4 
,the arrangement of the interior of  the
 mouth and the use we make of it in     
passing things into our systems1  favors
 very much the development and increase 
of microbes1 and when  they once get in 
they are difficult to remove4 ,it is    

said that the  greatest percentage of   
cases of stomach trouble come from teeth
 which  are in bad condition and that a 
very large percentage of people who     
have bad teeth are in grave danger of   
blood poisoning or other troubles  due  
to the microbes4 ,when these microbes   
lodge in the mouth1 they find           
conditions favorable to their           
development when there are bad teeth1   
and  spread through the system4         
,how ,can ,microbes ,spread ,through the
 ,body8      ,the various parts of the  
body1 including the gums1 are connected 
by  a lymphatic tissue1 which is        
practically a series of canals4 ,if the 
teeth are not properly attended to and  
kept in good condition1 both as  to     
cleanliness and repair1 the microbes or 
germs collect on the gums  and teeth1   
and increase in numbers4 ,soon the mouth
 is over-populated  with microbes and   
are pushed off the gums or teeth into   
the lymphatic  canals1 where they       
succeed in developing a disease in your 

body4    ,now the ache in the tooth     
becomes a blessing very promptly if it  
begins soon after the tooth begins to   
decay1 because in that event the        
dentist is visited and the tooth filled 
or pulled4 ,therefore1 while  it hurts  
terribly1 it might be well to remember  
that a toothache is a  timely warning of
 danger which1 if not heeded1 will      
likely develop into  something quite    
serious4          ,what ,causes         
,toothache8      ,the ache comes when   
the tiny nerve at the heart of the tooth
 is  exposed to the air4 ,when the tooth
 begins to decay1 it starts to do so    
generally from the outside1 and after   
the decaying process has gone far       
enough1 it reaches the nerve in the     
tooth1 which aches when exposed to  the 
air4 ,the ache is the signal which the  
nerve sends to the brain that  there is 
an exposure and a cry for help4         
,of ,what ,use ,are ,pains and ,aches8  
,all pains and aches are helpful in     
sounding a warning4 ,a headache may  be 

the result of improper sleep and rest   
and1 therefore1 warns us to  take the   
needed rest or sleep4 ,a pain in the    
stomach is only nature's  way of telling
 us that we have been unwise in our     
eating and drinking4  ,as a matter of   
fact1 short though our lives are1 they  
would probably  be still shorter1 on the
 average1 if it were not for pains and  
aches1  because without these warnings  
we would never have sense enough to stop
  doing the things we should not do if  
we lived normally4          ,what       
,causes ,earache8      ,earache is      
caused by the nerves in the ear being   
affected by something  either from      
within or without which produces a      
swelling of the parts  immediately      
adjacent to the nerves in the ear1 and  
which press against  the nerves2 as the 
nerves cannot go any place else they    
send a warning  to the brain that they  
are being crowded and pressed against4  
,the pain  you feel is the nerve in the 
ear warning the brain that something is 

wrong in the ear4          ,what ,is    
,soap ,made ,of8      ,soap is not a    
very modern product1 although we have   
rarely read of soap  in olden times4 ,as
 long ago as two thousand years1 the    
,germans had an  ointment which was made
 in practically the same way as we now  
make  soap4 ,a soap factory was engaged 
in making soap in ,france in #ajjj ,a4  
,d4    ,even before soap was            
manufactured1 people knew that ashes of 
some  plants1 when mixed with water1    
gave it a peculiar1 smooth1 slippery    
feeling1 and added to the cleansing     
qualities of water4 ,although they  did 
not know it1 this was due to the soda of
 potash which was in the  ashes4 ,pure  
soda and potash both have excellent     
qualities for cleaning1  but are likely 
to injure the skin1 and other things    
coming in contact  with them4    ,soap  
is made by boiling together oil or fat  
and 8caustic0 soda or  potash4 ,caustic 
soda is a substance made from sodium    
carbonate by  adding slaked lime to a   

solution of it4 ,the slaked lime        
contains  calcium in combination with   
hydrogen and oxygen1 and is known in    
chemistry as calcium hydrate4 ,when     
calcium hydrate is added to a  solution 
of sodium carbonate1 the sodium present 
combines with the  oxygen and hydrogen  
to form a compound1 variously called    
sodium  hydrate1 sodium hydroxide1 or   
caustic soda4 ,a similar compound of    
potassium is formed when the same kind  
of lime is mixed in a solution  of      
potassium carbonate4 ,in both cases the 
calcium is converted into  calcium      
carbonate1 which is not soluble in water
 and settles to the  bottom2 but the    
caustic soda or potash is dissolved4    
,the word 8caustic0 means to burn4 ,both
 will burn the skin if allowed to  touch
 the skin for a short time4    ,the fats
 used for making soap consist of        
glycerine1 in chemical  combination with
 what are called fatty acids4 ,when     
these fats are  boiled with caustic     
soda1 or caustic potash1 the fat is     

decomposed2 the  fatty acid combines    
with the sodium or potassium to form    
soap and the  glycerine is left         
uncombined4    ,in modern soap factories
 the manufacture is carried on in large 
iron  vessels4 ,some fat and oil are put
 into the vessel and a little lye1      
which is really caustic soda or potash1 
is added and the mixture  boiled4 ,the  
fat and the lye combine very quickly and
 form a whitish  fluid4 ,more lye is now
 added and the boiling continued4 ,this 
process  is repeated until nearly all   
the oil or fat has combined with the    
lye4  ,if yellow laundry soap is being  
made1 some rosin is put in1 and this    
gives the yellow color4 ,if toilet soap 
is being made1 common salt is  put in   
instead of rosin4 ,the addition of the  
salt has the effect of  separating the  
water and the glycerine from the soap4  
,the soap rises to  the surface and is  
skimmed off4 ,as soon as the separation 
is complete1  and the soap is then cut  
or pressed into cakes after it has      

become hard4    ,soaps referred to above
 are the ordinary hard soaps4 ,in making
 soft  soaps no salt is added to        
separate the soap from the liquid4 ,as  
the  water and glycerine do not separate
 from the soap1 the entire mixture      
remains of a soft consistency4 ,soft    
soap is also made with a lye1 that  is  
obtained from wood ashes4 ,the ashes are
 placed in barrels and water  poured    
upon them4 ,the water drips down through
 the ashes in the barrel  and dissolves 
the potash contained in them1 making lye
 or caustic  potash4 ,this lye is then  
in liquid form and is mixed and boiled  
with  grease or fat to make soap4       
,there are many different fats used in  
soap making4 ,palm oil is perhaps  the  
most common1 but tallow1 olive oil1     
cotton seed oil1 and many other  fats   
are used4 ,the hardness of the soap     
varies with the kind of fat  and lye    
used4 ,palm oil or tallow soap is very  
hard1 and other oils are  sometimes     
mixed with it to soften it4    ,these   

are the main facts connected with the   
making of soaps4 ,there may  appear to  
be different kinds all of which look and
 smell differently4  ,the difference in 
them is largely due to the presence of  
different  perfumes and coloring        
matters4    ,illustration3 ,,indian     
,,sending ,,message ,,with ,,smoke      
,,signals4    ,the savage ,indians found
 their system of smoke signals quite    
effective  in sending messages from     
place to place4 ,with a good burning    
fire  before him1 and a blanket or      
shield at hand1 the ,indian was equipped
  to send his messages4 ,the code       
consisted of the varying kinds of smoke 
clouds produced4 ,these were made large 
or small by covering the fire  at       
intervals with the blanket or shield1   
thus making interruptions of  various   
lengths in the rising clouds of smoke4  
,by dropping moss or  other things into 
the fire1 he made the smoke clouds      
either light or  dark at will4          
,the ,story in a ,telegram      ,how    

,man ,learned to ,send ,messages4       
,from the time when man had learned to  
protect himself from the beasts  of the 
forest1 and thus was able to move about 
more freely1 and live by  himself rather
 than remain with the tribe1 he has     
found it necessary to  send messages4   
,one of the most interesting of the     
early methods for sending messages  was 
the ,indian way of smoke signalling with
 the simple equipment of a  fire with   
its rising column of smoke and a blanket
 or shield4 ,messages  were sent1       
relayed1 received and answered1 at      
points hundreds of miles  apart4 ,among 
savages still found in remote parts of  
the earth this and  other primitive     
methods are still in use4 ,in the wilds 
of ,africa to-day  at points where the  
electric telegraph service has not yet  
penetrated1  the natives by the simple  
method of beating drums1 which can be   
heard  from one relay point to another1 
are able to send the 8news of the day0  
across the country with marvellous      

rapidity4 ,in some parts of ,south      
,america1 the natives long ago          
discovered that the ground is a good    
conductor of sound and send their       
messages almost at will1 making their   
signals by tapping against poles which  
they have planted in the ground  at     
various points and which constitute both
 their sending and receiving            
instruments4    ,the ,signal ,corps in  
the army uses flags for sending         
messages1 where  the telegraph is not   
available1 the flags being of different 
colors1  and the signals are produced by
 waving the flags in different ways4    
,the army heliograph is also used as a  
telegraph line--a mirror which  reflects
 the sun's rays in a manner understood  
by a prearranged code4  ,these and other
 similar methods are merely elaborations
 of devices  developed and used by the  
savages as a solution of the ever       
present  need of sending a message to   
some other point4    ,illustration3     
,,the ,,first ,,messenger ,,boy    ,,the

 ,,greek ,,runner4    ,in this picture  
we see the ,greek ,runner on the last   
leg of his journey  and the man to whom 
he is to deliver the message waiting for
 him4 ,this  method of sending messages 
was not very fast1 although the runners 
were  picked because of their speed and 
endurance4    ,illustration3 ,,the      
,,pony ,,telegraph4    ,here we see the 
fast riders of the ,pony ,telegraph1    
which increased the  speed of delivering
 messages quite a good deal1 but1 of    
course1 there  was danger of losing the 
message to enemies or through accident1 
so  that it might be difficult under    
such circumstances to send a secret     
message or to even be certain that it   
would arrive at destination4            
,illustration3 ,,it ,,is ,,easy ,,to    
,,call ,a ,,telegraph ,,messenger444    
,,ringing ,,the ,,call ,,box4    ,the   
great ,marathon runner was nothing more 
or less than a telegraph  messenger     
hastening with his written message1 from
 the man who  delivered it to him1 to   

its destination1 and his work was harder
 than  that of the messenger boy to-day1
 for he not only had to deliver the     
message himself to its destination1 but 
had to run fast all the way or  lose his
 job4    ,the messenger on foot finally 
gave way to the ,pony ,telegraph1 which 
not  only shortened the time necessary  
to deliver a message1 but marked the    
beginning of a system4    ,illustration3
 ,,messenger ,,boys ,,with ,,bicycles   
,,waiting ,,the ,,call4      ,how ,does 
a ,telegram ,get ,there8    ,the next   
time your daddy takes you down to the   
office1 ask him to show  you the        
telegraph call box4 ,when you see it1   
you will perhaps not think  that by     
merely pulling down the little lever you
 can so start things  going that1 if you
 wish1 you can cause men who are on the 
other side  of the earth to work for you
 in a few minutes1 and to make little   
instruments all along the way which1    
with their other equipment1 have  cost  
millions of dollars1 click1 click1 click

 at your will4    ,illustration3        
444,,but ,,many ,,telegraph ,,employees 
,,must ,,work444    ,here we see the    
messenger calling at the office from    
which the call box  registered a call   
and receiving the telegram to be taken  
by him to the  central office to be put 
on the wire4    ,illustration3 ,when the
 messenger gets back to the office1 he  
hands the  message to the receiving     
clerk who stamps it1 showing the exact  
time  received and sends it by pneumatic
 tube to the operating room4    ,sooner 
or later during the day your father will
 be wanting to send a  telegram4 ,he    
steps to the call box1 pulls the little 
lever and goes  back to his desk4 ,in a 
few minutes1 sometimes before you       
realize it1  the little blue-coated     
messenger appears and says 8,call80     
,father  hands him a telegraph blank on 
which he has written the message1 the   
messenger takes off his cap1 puts the   
message inside and the cap back  on his 
head and away he goes on his bicycle as 

fast as his legs can  pedal1 to the     
central office1 to which point you      
follow him to see what  he does with the
 message4    ,if you had been at the    
telegraph office instead of your        
father's  office1 you would have seen   
one of these boys start off on his wheel
 to  get the message your father wished 
to send4 ,when the little lever on  the 
call box is pulled down1 it is pulled   
back by a spring which sets  some clock 
work going which sends a signal over the
 wire on a circuit  which runs out from 
a register at the main office4 ,the     
register has a  paper tape running      
through it1 and the signal from the call
 box appears  as a series of dots on the
 tape4 ,the clerk knows from the number 
and  spacing of the dots that it was    
your father that called and not some    
other business man whose box might be on
 the same circuit4    ,illustration3    
444,,before ,,the ,,telegraph ,,service 
,,is ,,possible ,,and444    ,we have now
 followed the telegram to the point     

where it is to start  on its real       
journey4 ,here we see the operator      
preparing to send the  message4 ,he     
first must 8get the wire40 ,by this is  
meant to get a  through connection to   
the town where the message is to be     
delivered4  ,each office along the line 
has a signal4 ,the other operators can  
hear  the call1 but since it is not     
their signal1 they pay no attention4    
,almost immediately1 however1 the       
operator at the delivery point hears    
the signal4 ,he signals back 8,i ,i0 and
 repeats his own office call1  which    
means 8,i hear you and am ready40 ,the  
message is then ticked off1  until      
finished and the operator at the        
delivery point signals 8,o4 ,k410       
together with his personal signal1 which
 means he has received the  whole       
message and has it down on paper4       
,illustration3 ,here we see the operator
 at the delivery office4 ,she  has      
translated the dots and dashes as they  
came to her over the wire  into plain   

words on a regular telegraph blank1     
putting down the time  received1 the    
amount to be collected1 if it is a      
8collect0 message1 or  marking it       
8,paid0 if it was so sent4 ,she has     
handed it to one of the  blue-clad      
messengers in her office who starts off 
at once to deliver  it4 ,the operator   
has also made a copy of the message for 
the office  files4    ,illustration3    
444,,the ,,telegram ,,arrives ,,at      
,,destination    ,here we see the       
messenger delivering the telegram to the
 person to  whom it is addressed4 ,it   
may be good news or bad news for the    
person  receiving it1 but it is all in  
the day's work for the messenger boy4   
,but let us see how many people have to 
work to deliver the message4 ,we  have  
followed it through from the original   
call box4 ,first there was  the         
messenger who came for it1 then the     
receiving clerk1 the sending  operator  
and the operator who receives it and    
last of all the messenger  boy who      

delivered it4 ,this does not take into  
account the men who must  look after the
 many miles of wires1 the machinery     
which supplies the  current1 or the     
great army of men who are constantly    
laying new wires  so that you can send a
 telegram from almost anywhere to any   
other  place4    ,the operators you have
 seen working in these pictures are     
,morse  operators4 ,they send the       
message by ,morse ,code in dots and     
dashes  which are sent over the wire as 
electric impulses4 ,at the other end    
the message is read by listening to the 
clicks the sounder makes as  it receives
 these same electric impulses4 ,this is 
the simplest way of  telegraphing4      
,the number of messages sent between two
 big cities in a day is                 
tremendous--many more than could be     
transmitted over one ,morse wire4  ,many
 wires would be needed4 ,but wire costs 
money1 so ingenious men  set to work to 
find some way to send more than one     
message over a  single wire at the same 

time4 ,they succeeded4 ,there is now the
 duplex  telegraph1 which sends a       
message each way simultaneously over a  
single  wire1 the quadruplex1 which     
sends two messages each way             
simultaneously  over a single wire4     
,last but not least there is the        
multiplex1 which  sends four messages   
each way simultaneously over a single   
wire4  ,this seems almost unbelievable1 
but it is done4 ,in the case of the     
duplex and quadruplex1 the different    
messages are sent by currents  of       
different strength1 and by changing the 
direction of the current4  ,receiving   
instruments are designed so as to       
separate the messages by  being affected
 only by the currents of certain        
strength or polarity1  as the direction 
of flow is termed4 ,it can easily be    
seen that by  these ingenious devices1  
the telegraph company saves many        
thousands  of dollars in the miles and  
miles of wire1 and hundreds of telegraph
  poles which would be required if all  

the messages had to be sent over a      
simple ,morse wire1 one message only    
upon the wire at a time4                
,illustration3 ,,the ,,wonderful        
,,electric ,,telegraph ,,system444      
,in this picture we see the interior of 
a telegraph office along the  line of a 
railroad4 ,the operator has her hand on 
the 8key0 or sending  instrument4 ,at   
her left in a stand called the          
resonator1 is the  receiving instrument 
called the 8sounder0 which clicks off   
the message4  ,in front of her is an    
instrument called the 8relay40 ,current 
from two  of the batteries goes through 
the key when it is pressed down1 through
  the relay and out on to the wires of  
the pole line1 then through the  relay  
of the receiving operator at the other  
end1 7see picture on  opposite page7    
through his key and through two more    
batteries to the  ground4 ,the earth    
forms the return wire of an electric    
circuit when  both keys are 8closed0 or 
pressed down4 ,you know all electricity 

has to  flow in a closed circuit4 ,the  
8sounder0 has to make good strong clicks
  to be understood1 and the current     
after it has gone through miles of  wire
 and ground may not be strong enough so 
the sounder is put on a  local circuit  
of its own1 with a special battery4 ,in 
this circuit is a  contact maker which  
is part of the relay4 ,when the key is  
pressed down  and current flows over the
 wires on the poles and through the     
relays1  the magnets of the relay pull  
on a little piece of metal called the   
8armature10 which makes a contact and   
closes the local sounder circuit1  so   
current from the single local battery   
can flow up through the  magnets of the 
sounder and back to the battery4 ,this  
makes the sounder  click4 ,when the key 
is released1 the relay armature is      
pulled back by  a spring and breaks the 
circuit of sounder1 which then emits    
another  click4 ,by the number and      
duration of the clicks and the time     
between  them1 the receiving operator   

knows the meaning of the signal4 ,the   
,morse  ,code1 which is used throughout 
the ,united ,states1 is shown on next   
page4    ,illustration3 444,,sends      
,,messages ,,thousands ,,of ,,miles     
,,instantaneously      ,,morse          
,,telegraph ,,code      ,letters  ,morse
    ,a         --    ,b        --       
,c               ,d        --      ,e   
,f         --     ,g        -- --     ,h
               ,i             ,j        
--  --     ,k        --  --    ,l       
----    ,m        -- --    ,n        -- 
,o              ,p                ,q    
--     ,r               ,s              
,t        --    ,u          --    ,v    
--    ,w         -- --    ,x         -- 
,y                ,z                    
,numerals      ,figures  ,morse    #a   
-- --     #b          --      #c        
--     #d            --    #e        -- 
-- --    #f                 #g        --
 --     #h        --        #i        --
   --    #j        ----                 
,punctuations      4 ,period            

-- --      3 ,colon           --  --    
2 ,semicolon                 1 ,comma   
--  --    8 ,interrogation   --   --    
6 ,exclamation     -- -- --     -       
,fraction ,line        ,paragraph       
-- -- -- --    77 ,parenthesis     --   
--    ,the multiplex telegraph is truly 
a marvellous invention4 ,it has been    
developed by the engineers of the       
,western ,union ,telegraph ,co4 working 
with the engineers of the ,western      
,electric ,company4 ,the principle  on  
which this instrument works is that if  
separate instruments are  given         
connection with the wire one after the  
other during very short  intervals of   
time1 the effect is as though the wire  
were split up1 and  each instrument     
works just as if it alone were on the   
wire4 ,not only  does the multiplex     
telegraph thus send four messages in one
 direction  and four messages in the    
opposite direction1 simultaneously over 
a  single wire1 thus keeping no less    
than sixteen operators employed on  one 

wire1 four sending and four receiving at
 each end1 but each message  instead of 
being sent by the ordinary ,morse key1  
is written upon a  typewriter keyboard  
at one end of the line and appears      
automatically  typewritten at the other 
end4    ,if you live in a big city1 go  
into one of the larger branch offices   
of the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,co4  
and ask to see printing telegraph4      
,most of the large branch offices       
communicate with the general operating  
department in the city by means of what 
they term 8short line  printers10 which 
are instruments on which the message is 
written upon a  typewriter keyboard and 
appears typewritten at the other end4   
,who ,invented the ,electric ,telegraph8
    ,it is hard to say just how the     
telegraph originated in the mind of men4
  ,we have already shown how the savages
 sent signals over distances by  means  
of the smoke rising from his fire4      
,every boy and girl has used a  little  
mirror1 held in the sun to flash a      

bright spot here and there4  ,this      
principle has been used by the army to  
signal at distances4 ,the  sun's rays   
are flashed from a small mirror1 long   
and short flashes  indicating the dashes
 and dots of the ,morse telegraph code4 
,illustration3 ,,professor ,s4 ,f4 ,b4  
,,morse1 ,,inventor ,,of ,,the          
,,telegraph4    ,progress towards the   
perfection of the electric telegraph    
began with  the first researches of     
scientists into the natural laws which  
govern  that great natural agent1       
electricity4 ,clever1 painstaking men1  
studying and experimenting for the love 
of the work1 discovered bit  by bit how 
to control the force4 ,stephen ,gray    
with his ,leyden jars1  which stored up 
a charge of electricity1 inspired ,sir  
,william ,watson to  experiment1 and he 
sent current from one jar to another two
 miles away4      ,the ,first           
,suggestion of the ,electric ,telegraph4
    ,for a long time no one thought that
 this opened the way for the making  of 

a useful servant for man4 ,in #agec this
 thought occurred to an  unknown man in 
,scotland1 who wrote a letter to a      
newspaper suggesting  that messages be  
sent by electric currents4    ,one of   
his schemes was that there should be a  
light ball at the  receiving end of the 
wire which would strike a bell when it  
felt  the electric impulse come over the
 wire from the ,leyden jar1 and by      
devising a code depending upon the      
number of strokes of the bell and  the  
time between them1 he suggested that    
messages could be sent and  interpreted4
 ,some believe this man to have been a  
doctor named ,charles  ,morrison of     
,greenock1 ,scotland4 ,whoever he was1  
he suggested a method  which comes very 
near to being that in use to-day4       
,the difficulty with proceeding on this 
suggestion was that the current  from   
the ,leyden jar was static electricity1 
which has not the strength  nor can it  
be controlled as can the current of low 
potential which  is used to-day4 ,volta 

discovered this new and more stable form
 of  electricity and many different men 
labored investigating what could  be    
accomplished with it4 ,the names of ,sir
 ,humphry ,davy and ,michael  ,faraday  
are inseparably connected with this     
advance4 ,it was ,oersted's  and        
,faraday's discovery of the connection  
between electricity and  magnetism1 and 
how an electric current may be made to  
magnetize a piece  of iron at will1 that
 really opened the way for the invention
 of the  telegraph we know to-day4      
,the ,first ,real ,telegraph4    ,but   
before the much greater practical value 
of ,volta's current was  discovered1 one
 man developed a real telegraph which   
worked with  electricity of the static  
kind1 produced by friction4 ,this man   
was  named ,sir ,francis ,ronalds4 ,he  
worked along the lines laid down by the 
unknown ,scotchman1 whom we have        
supposed to be ,charles ,morrison4 ,the 
machine he built and operated in his    
garden at ,hammersmith utilized  pith   

balls1 which actuated by the charge of  
static electricity sent  along the wire 
caused a letter to appear before an     
opening in the dial4  ,when perfected he
 offered it to the ,british ,government1
 who refused  it4 ,they were very stupid
 in their refusal1 for they said        
8telegraphs  are wholly unnecessary40   
,sir ,francis ,ronalds' invention cost  
him much  care1 anxiety and money4 ,he  
lived to see the more practical voltaic 
current taken up by others and put to   
successful use4 ,being unselfish  he    
rejoiced that others should succeed     
where he had failed4      ,two ,men who 
,invented our ,telegraph almost         
,simultaneously4    ,the telegraph1     
working on the electro-magnetic         
principle1 as used  to-day1 was         
developed almost simultaneously on the  
two sides of the  ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,in 
,england ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone and  
,sir ,william  ,fothergill ,cooke worked
 out a practical method and instruments1
 which  with few changes1 are in use    

to-day4 ,cooke was a doctor and had     
served with the ,british army in ,india4
 ,wheatstone was the son of a           
,gloucester musical instrument maker4   
,the latter was fond of science and     
experimented continually with           
electricity and wrote about it and other
  scientific subjects4 ,as a result of  
his work he was made a professor  at    
,king's ,college4 ,there he conducted   
important researches and tests1  among  
which was one which measured the speed  
at which electricity  travels along a   
wire4 ,so ,cooke1 who was a doctor and a
 good business  man1 entered into       
partnership with the scientist          
,wheatstone1 and  together they         
completed their invention4 ,it was first
 used in #ahch  on the ,london and      
,blackwall ,railway4 ,at first it was   
expensive and  cumbersome1 using five   
lines of wire4 ,later this number was   
reduced  to two1 and in #ahde1 an       
instrument was devised which required   
but one  wire4 ,this instrument1 with a 

few minor changes1 is the one in use    
to-day in ,england4    ,while these two 
men were working in ,england1 an        
,american artist1 ,s4 ,f4  ,b4 ,morse1  
was studying and experimenting in the   
,united ,states along his  own lines but
 with the same end in view1 namely to   
produce instruments  which would        
satisfactorily send messages over a wire
 by electricity4      ,an ,american1    
however1 is given the honor of ,first by
 ,slight ,margin4    ,morse was born in 
,charlestown1 ,massachusetts1 in #agia4 
,he was gifted as  an artist1 both in   
painting and sculpture1 and in #ahaa    
went abroad to  ,england to study4      
,while on a voyage from ,havre to       
,america in #ahcb he  met on board ship 
a ,dr4 ,jackson1 who told him of the    
latest scientific  discoveries in regard
 to the electric current and the        
electro-magnet4  ,this set ,morse to    
thinking and after three years' hard    
work on the  problem he produced a      
telegraph which worked on the principle 

of the  electro-magnet4 ,with the       
apparatus devised by ,morse and his     
partner  ,alfred ,vail1 a message was   
sent from ,washington to ,baltimore in  
#ahdd4    ,there has been some question 
as to whether ,morse or ,wheatstone     
first  invented a workable telegraph4   
,as will be evident from this history1  
the telegraph in principle was a gradual
 development1 to which many  minds      
contributed4 ,to ,morse1 however1 the   
high authority of the  ,supreme ,court  
of the ,united ,states has given the    
credit of being  the first to perfect a 
practical instrument1 saying that the   
,morse  invention 8preceded the three   
,european inventions0 and that it would 
be impossible to examine the latter     
without perceiving at once 8the  decided
 superiority of the one invented by     
,professor ,morse40      ,uncle ,sam    
,helped ,build the ,first ,telegraph    
,line4    ,,first ,,telegraph ,,line    
,,from ,,baltimore ,,to ,,washington    
,at the time ,morse's ,recording        

,telegraph was invented there were1 of  
course1 no telegraph lines in any part  
of the world1 with the exception  of the
 short lines of wire put up by          
investigators for experimental          
purposes4 ,to remove the obscurity as to
 the purpose to be served by the        
telegraph was the first problem which   
presented itself to ,morse and his      
backers4 ,in #ahdc an appropriation was 
secured of #cj1jjj from the ,u4 ,s4     
,government1 with which a line was built
 from ,washington to ,baltimore4  ,this 
was built and operated by the           
,government for about two years1 but    
the ,government refused to purchase the 
patent rights4 ,so the owners  of the   
patents endeavored to get the general   
public interested in the  telegraph as a
 commercial undertaking and gradually   
companies were  founded and licensed to 
use the invention4    ,by #ahea there   
were as many as fifty different         
telegraph companies in  operation in    
different parts of the ,united ,states4 

,a few of these  used the devices of a  
man named ,alexander ,bain1 which were  
afterwards  adjudged to infringe the    
,morse patents1 and one or two used an  
instrument invented by ,royal ,e4 ,house
 of ,vermont1 which printed the         
messages received in plain ,roman       
letters on a ribbon of paper4 ,this at  
first seemed to have an advantage over  
that of ,morse1 which received  the     
message in dots and dashes1 in the      
,morse ,code1 and these had  to be      
translated and written out by an        
operator before they could  be          
delivered4 ,however1 as time went on1   
the operators came to read  the ,morse  
messages by the sound of the dots and   
dashes1 instead of  waiting to read the 
paper tape having the dots and dashes   
marked on  it1 and finally the recording
 feature was given up and the sounder1  
or  instrument which simply clicks out  
the message1 came into general use4     
,in the early days1 the possibility of  
the business were little  understood and

 many telegraph companies failed4 ,april
 #h1 #ahea1  papers were filed in       
,albany for the incorporation of the    
,new ,york  and ,mississippi ,valley    
,printing ,telegraph ,co4 ,this company1
 which  soon afterwards changed its name
 to ,western ,union1 was destined to    
absorb the various companies throughout 
the country until it1 in time1  operated
 the telegraph lines over practically   
the entire ,united ,states1  and has its
 blue sign in nearly every town and     
hamlet in the country4    ,illustration3
 ,,an ,,expensive ,,equipment           
,,necessary ,,to-,,day    ,,operating   
,,room4    ,in large cities like ,new   
,york and ,chicago1 the operating rooms 
are very  large4 ,for instance1 the main
 operating department of the ,western   
,union  ,telegraph ,co4 in ,new ,york   
,city has #ajjj operators4 ,this picture
 shows  an operating room4 ,the men and 
women sit in opposite sides of long     
tables4 ,on the tables are the keys and 
sounders by which they send and  receive

 the messages4 ,each operator has a     
typewriter1 or 8mill10 as he  calls it1 
on which he writes off the message as it
 comes to him over  the wire4           
,illustration3 ,,main ,,switchboard4    
,the picture shows a main switchboard in
 a large operating room4 ,to this  come 
the ends of the wires from other cities1
 and to it are connected  the wires from
 the instruments in front of the        
operators4 ,by putting  plugs1 attached 
to each end of a wire1 into the sockets 
in the board1  any wire can be connected
 with any operating position1 or several
 local  circuits can be connected up    
with a main line from the outside4      
,illustration3 ,a ,,thorough ,,system   
,,must ,,handle ,,the ,,messages    ,a  
,,section ,,of ,,the ,,repeater ,,room4 
,when a wire runs to a distant point    
from the main operating department  of  
the telegraph company in a large city1  
the same electric current  which runs   
through the key of the operator as he   
sits at his place1  busily sending      

messages1 does not go out over the wire 
to that distant  point4 ,it simply goes 
to the repeater room and operates a     
repeater1  which sends out another      
current over the long wire which leads  
to the  destination of the message4     
,this is necessary because the condition
  of the weather affects the lines and  
the current strength has to be  changed 
to suit the changing line conditions4   
,the operators haven't  time to make    
these adjustments1 and so all the       
repeaters are grouped  together in the  
repeater room where they are under the  
watchful eyes  of experts4 ,here also   
are the delicate instruments which      
separate the  messages coming over      
duplex and quadruplex wires1 by         
responding to  impulses of various      
strengths4 ,these messages which have   
been separated  are then transmitted by 
the duplex or quadruplex repeaters to   
different  operators in the operating   
room1 who hear their sounders tick out  
the  message just the same as if it came

 over a simple ,morse wire4             
,illustration3 ,,cables ,,entering ,a   
,,central ,,office4    ,you may not but 
your father will remember the time when 
in large cities  there were tall        
telegraph poles with hundreds of wires  
on them running  along the main streets1
 so that the town seemed to be bound    
with great  spiders' web4 ,that is all  
changed now1 and the telegraph wires are
 run  through ducts1 placed underground4
 ,for this purpose they are made up  in 
cables1 and in the picture you see a    
number of cables entering a  central    
office4    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,marvel
 ,,of ,,telegraph ,,instruments         
,,wheatstone ,,sending ,,instrument4    
,these two photographs show the most    
modern form of the instruments  which1  
as we are told on another page1 were    
invented in ,england by  ,wheatstone and
 ,cooke4 ,in sending a paper tape is    
punched in what  is called a perforator1
 which has a keyboard like a typewriter4
 ,a  certain combination of holes means 

a certain letter4 ,this tape is then    
automatically fed through the sending   
instrument1 which sends impulses  over  
the wire4 ,the tape with the holes      
punched through it can be seen  in the  
picture4    ,on the right is the        
,wheatstone receiving instrument4 ,it   
prints the  signals received in dots and
 dashes on a tape1 which is translated  
by  the operator who typewrites the     
translation on a message blank for      
delivery4    ,illustration3 ,the        
automatic telegraph typewriter shown    
here is one of  the wonderful           
instruments mentioned on one of the     
preceding pages4 ,the  operator at the  
other end of the line writes on a       
typewriter keyboard1  on the sending    
instrument4 ,the electric impulses are  
received by the  machine shown above1   
which automatically typewrites the      
message on a  blank1 ready for delivery4
    ,on this page we see some of the    
first telegraph instruments1 in  fact1  
the very instruments which ,professor   

,morse used in the early  demonstrations
 of his invention4 ,these instruments   
may be seen in the  ,smithsonian        
,institution at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4    
,the key is known as the  ,vail key1    
because it is supposed to have been     
constructed by ,alfred  ,vail1 who      
worked with ,morse in his experiments   
with the telegraph4 ,as  can be seen it 
is very simple4 ,one wire was connected 
to the spring  piece and the other to   
the post beneath it4 ,when the key was  
pressed  down1 the contact was made and 
an impulse sent over the wire1 either a 
dot1 if the key was pressed down and    
immediately released1 or a dash if  it  
were held down for just the fraction of 
a second before releasing4    ,from the 
very first it was found that relays were
 necessary1 because  the current after  
coming a long way over the wire often   
was not  strong enough to operate the   
recording instrument4 ,therefore1 this  
weak current was made to go though the  
electro-magnets of the relay1           

magnetizing these and pulling to the    
left the upright arm which can be  seen 
in the photograph with a little block of
 iron attached to it4 ,this  arm1 when  
pulled by the magnets1 made a contact at
 the top and allowed  a strong current  
from a battery to flow through the      
magnets of the  recording instrument4   
,the first practical recording telegraph
 instrument devised by ,morse  is shown4
 ,it looks like a clumsy affair compared
 to the instruments  of to-day1 but it  
worked so effectively as to convince    
people of the  possibilities of the     
great invention4 ,in the wooden box1    
attached to  the frame at the right1 is 
clockwork which pulled a paper tape at  
an  even rate of speed over a pulley    
just beneath a needle point4 ,this      
needle point is attached to a light     
framework having a piece of iron        
fastened in it4 ,below this iron are the
 electro-magnets1 and when they         
received an impulse of current from the 
battery1 through the relay1  they pulled

 down the frame so that the point made a
 mark upon the paper  tape which moved  
under it4 ,thus in the tape appeared a  
series of dots  and dashes1 which the   
operator1 knowing the ,morse ,code1     
could easily  translate into ,english4  
,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,telegraph
 ,,instruments    ,,one ,,of ,,the      
,,first ,,keys ,,for ,,sending          
,,telegrams4    ,illustration3 ,,one    
,,of ,,the ,,first ,,relays4            
,illustration3 ,the first recording     
apparatus4 ,the box on the right        
contains clock work for pulling a paper 
tape beneath a sharp point  actuated by 
magnets4    ,illustration3 ,,the        
,,little ,,instruments ,,that ,,check   
,,off ,,the ,,words    ,a ,,later ,,key4
    ,illustration3 ,a ,,later ,,and     
,,improved ,,recording ,,instrument4    
,here we see some early telegraph       
instruments which have been improved    
somewhat from the crude devices         
illustrated on the preceding page4  ,the
 key answers the same purpose as before1

 but has been improved by  pivoting the 
lever arm1 and having a coil spring1    
adjustable by means  of a screw1 so that
 the weight necessary to press it down  
can be varied  to suit the likings of   
the operator who uses it4 ,the play of  
the key  or the distance it must be     
pressed down before it makes an electric
  contact1 can be adjusted by another   
screw4    ,the recording instrument here
 shown is a much neater affair than the 
cumbersome device which ,professor      
,morse first built4 ,the cumbersome     
wooden box has been replaced with a neat
 brass frame containing the  clockwork  
for drawing the paper tape beneath the  
marking point1 which  is attached to a  
piece of iron1 or armature1 placed just 
above the  magnet4    ,below we see the 
most modern types of ,morse instruments4
 ,in the center  is the key1 which is   
not much changed except that it is built
 to be  low down to a table1 so that the
 operator may rest his forearm on the   
table top in front of it1 and operate   

the key with his wrist1 with less       
fatigue4 ,the relay at the left is      
interesting4 ,it shows how little this  
instrument has changed1 except for      
refinement in its appearance1 from  the 
first relay built by ,professor ,morse4 
,at the right is the ,morse  sounder1   
which has replaced the old ,morse tape  
recording instrument4  ,when current    
goes through the magnets they attract a 
piece of iron  attached to the metal arm
 and pull it down to strike the brass   
frame4  ,this makes a click1 and when   
the current is intercepted1 the magnets 
release the arm and a spring pulls it   
back1 making another click4 ,the        
operator reads the message by listening 
to the clicks4 ,if the up click  comes  
right after the down click it represents
 a dot4 ,if there is a  pause between   
them1 a dash is represented4            
,illustration3      ,relay      ,key    
,sounder    ,,modern ,,morse            
,,instruments    ,illustration3 ,,what  
,,ocean ,,cables ,,look ,,like ,,when   

,,cut ,,in ,,two      ,light            
,intermediate      ,heavy ,intermediate 
,main ,cable      ,rock ,cable          
,heavy ,shore ,end      ,rock ,cable    
,heavy ,shore ,end      ,heavy          
,intermediate      ,light ,intermediate 
,deep ,sea      ,bay ,cable    ,,fig4   
#a4--;,,cables ,,on                     
,,vancouver-,,fanning ,,island          
,,section4    ,full size4    ,core1     
#fjj_/cdj4    ,illustration3      ,yarn 
,serving  ,compound      #af ,no4 #ac   
7#jie7 ,galvanized ,wires      ,jute    
,serving      ,gutta ,percha            
,copper ,conductor    ,,fig4            
#b4--;,,cables ,,used ,,on              
,,fiji-,,norfolk ,,island-,,queensland  
,,and ,,new ,,zealand  ,,sections4 ,full
 size4 ,core #acj_/acj4    ,this picture
 shows cross-sections of a cable which  
runs from ,vancouver1  ,b4 ,c41 to      
,australia and ,new ,zealand4 ,a cable  
is not laid with a  uniform             
cross-section4 ,on the floor of the     
ocean1 perhaps miles below  the surface1

 the cable rests quietly and is not     
moved by storms  which generate great   
waves on the surface of the water4 ,as  
the cable  approaches the shore1 the    
movement of the water goes deeper and   
the  cable must be made heavier to      
prevent it from being worn by movement  
on  the bed of the ocean4 ,where the    
cable passes over a rocky bottom1 it is 
made much larger in diameter and is     
heavily armored4    ,illustration3 ,here
 is the cable steamship 8,colonia0      
laying the shore  end of a cable4 ,note 
the row of floats upon the water which  
carry the  cable until the end in the   
cable office is firmly fastened4 ,when  
this  is accomplished the floats are    
removed and the cable sinks to the      
bottom4          ,the ,story in an      
,ocean ,cable      ,what is a ,cable    
,made of8    ,a submarine telegraph     
cable as usually made consists of a core
 in the  center of which is a strand of 
copper wire which varies in weight from 
seventy to four hundred pounds to the   

mile4 ,strands of copper wire  instead  
of one thick wire of copper are used1   
because the former is  more flexible4   
,the copper conductor is covered with   
several coatings of  rubber of equal    
weight to the copper wires4 ,after this 
comes a coating  of jute serving1 then a
 layer of galvanized iron wires and     
finally a  layer of yarn and compound   
which forms the outer covering of the   
cable4  ,in addition to this where the  
cable lays among rocks that might injure
  it1 chains are securely wrapped around
 it1 so as to prevent wear and  tear as 
much as possible4    ,you may not have  
known it1 but the cable which lies on   
the bottom  where the water is deepest  
is never so large as nearer the shore or
  in shallow water4 ,little by little   
the men who lay and look after  cables  
have found that it is best to have a    
specially constructed outer  covering   
for different depths and character of   
bottoms so as to provide  the least     
possible danger of damage through the   

action of the water on  the bottom4     
,how is a ,cable ,laid8    ,when the    
cable of sufficient length is completed1
 it is carried to  a specially equipped 
vessel which has a great tank for       
holding the  cable and the necessary    
machinery for lowering it over the end  
of the  ship into the water4 ,the cable 
is carefully coiled in the tank1 the    
different coils being prevented from    
adhering by a coat of whitewash4  ,first
 then1 a sufficient length of cable is  
paid out to reach the cable  house or   
shore4 ,here it is finally tested to see
 that the entire length  of cable is in 
working order4 ,if satisfactorily       
tested1 the vessel  steams slowly away  
on the course outlined1 paying out the  
cable as she  goes4    ,illustration3   
,,storing ,a ,,cable ,,long ,,enough    
,,to ,,cross ,,the ,,ocean    ,here we  
see a cable coiled round and round in   
the tank which holds it  on board the   
cable ship4    ,illustration3 ,in the   
front of the picture we see the cable   

coming from  the tank in which it is    
coiled4 ,it goes over the drum of the   
paying-out  machine and thence to the   
bow of the ship1 where it passes over   
big  sheaves or pulleys and down into   
the ocean4    ,illustration3 ,,the      
,,machinery ,,on ,a ,,cable ,,ship      
,the paying-out machine4 ,the cable     
makes a couple of turns around the  big 
drum1 which is connected to the dial1 so
 that the dial indicates  the length of 
cable which has been paid out into the  
sea4    ,illustration3 ,the upper       
forward deck of the cable steamship     
8,telconia10 showing the gear which is  
used in paying out the cable4  ,away in 
the bow are the big sheaves over which  
the cable goes into the  sea4 ,nearer is
 a dynamometer which measures the       
tension on the cable4    ,illustration3 
,,how ,,the ,,cable ,,is ,,dropped      
,,into ,,the ,,ocean    ,here we see the
 cable on the lead1 as it is called1    
passing over the  big bow sheave from   
which it dives into the depths of the   

sea4    ,the vessel must pay out more   
than a mile of cable for every mile she 
travels because there must be enough    
slack allowed at the same time  to      
provide for the unevenness of the bottom
 of the sea4 ,for this  purpose the     
amount of cable paid out must be        
measured4 ,this is done  by the         
paying-out machine1 which is shown in   
one of the pictures4  ,the difference   
between the speed of the ship and the   
amount of cable  paid out gives the     
amount of slack4 ,too much slack would  
also be bad1  so that it is a very      
pretty problem to pay out just enough   
and both  the speed of the vessel and   
the rate of paying out the cable must be
  watched carefully4    ,one of the     
greatest wonders accomplished by the    
ingenuity of man is the  ocean          
telegraph1 by which we flash messages   
back and forth under the  sea between   
the continents and completely around the
 world4    ,hardly had the telegraph    
become an established fact1 before      

,professor  ,morse1 who made the        
telegraph practical1 expressed the      
belief that a  telegraph line to ,europe
 by means of a wire laid on the bottom  
of the  ocean was easily possible at    
some future time4 ,mr4 ,cyrus ,w4       
,field1 the  first to lay an ocean cable
 successfully1 heard him and in his own 
mind said 8,why not now80 ,the idea     
fixed itself so thoroughly in his       
resolute mind that he soon said to      
himself 8,it shall be done10 and  went  
to work1 and labored incessantly through
 twelve years of failure  and           
discouragement before he accomplished   
his task1 which was a great  compliment 
to this giant of ,american              
stick-to-it-iveness4    ,while many     
doubted the feasibility of the project  
and others thought  it the dream of a   
disordered brain1 ,mr4 ,field found many
 who believed  in him and his idea and  
who loaned him their financial support  
for the  undertaking4    ,illustration3 
,,the ,,cable ,,arrives ,,on ,,the      

,,other ,,side    ,landing the shore end
 of a cable4 ,the cable is supported on 
several  boats and this picture shows   
the inshore boat with the end of the    
cable  reaching the beach with the seas 
breaking over her4    ,illustration3    
,,the ,,men ,,who ,,made ,,the ,,ocean  
,,cable ,,possible    ,,the ,,pioneers  
,,of ,,the ,,first ,,ocean ,,cable4     
,american genius had not at that time   
asserted its supremacy in  mechanics and
 so the first cable had to be made in   
,england2 so ,mr4  ,field ordered one   
long enough to stretch from the west    
coast of ,ireland  to the eastern point 
of ,newfoundland4 ,english capitalists  
subscribed  the money and the ,united   
,states provided the vessel in which to 
store  and from which to drop the cable 
into the ocean4    ,upon the first      
attempt to lay the cable1 every thing   
went along nicely  for six days1 and    
then suddenly the cable broke when three
 hundred and  thirty-five miles had been
 laid1 and many said it could not be    

done4  ,mr4 ,field1 however1 full of    
,american pluck and determination1 said 
8,we  will try again40 ,a second attempt
 was made with two ships1 the ,u4 ,s4   
,s4  8,niagara0 and ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,s4     
8,agamemnon40 ,each ship carried half   
the cable  and they traveled in company 
to the middle of the ocean4 ,there the  
two  pieces of the cable were spliced   
together and the ships started for the  
shores in opposite directions4 ,again1  
however1 when only a little of  the     
cable had been paid out--a little more  
than one hundred miles in  fact--the    
cable broke and both ships were forced  
to return to ,england4    ,in his third 
attempt the cable was finally laid clear
 across the  ocean and fastened at both 
ends4 ,when tried it was found to work  
successfully and ,queen ,victoria and   
,president ,buchanan were able to       
exchange greetings upon the achievement 
of a wonderful work4 ,the people        
celebrated the event on both sides of   
the ocean1 but in the midst of  the     

festivities1 while a message was being  
flashed1 something happened  to the     
cable--what1 we have never been able to 
learn--and the cable was  silent1       
forever4    ,nothing daunted1 however1  
,mr4 ,field by his great courage induced
 his  backers to buy him another cable  
and the 8,great ,eastern0 sailed upon   
what was to be a most successful        
mission4 ,starting from the ,american   
side with the greatest steamship then   
known in charge of the previous  cable1 
the other end was successfully landed at
 ,hearts ,content1  ,ireland1 on ,july  
#bg1 #ahff1 in perfect working order1   
and the question  of the ocean telegraph
 was solved4    ,illustration3 ,,how    
,,cables ,,are ,,repaired    ,here is a 
buoy which is anchored to the cable4    
,the cable ship will pick  it up and    
haul up the cable to the surface for    
inspection and perhaps  it will have to 
be repaired4    ,illustration3 ,three   
grapnels used for picking up a cable    
from the  bed of the ocean4 ,on the left

 is a common grapnel4 ,in the middle is 
a  special grapnel known as             
,trott-,kingsford4 ,on the right is the 
ordinary  cutting grapnel4 ,note the    
knives on the shaft and the insides of  
the  prongs4    ,illustration3 ,in this 
picture we see a portion of a cable     
which has  been fouled by the anchor of 
a ship and badly damaged4 ,note how the 
wires are bunched4 ,the cable splicers  
will go to work on this and put  in a   
new piece of cable1 after which it will 
be let down into the sea  again4        
,illustration3 ,the ,western ,union     
,cable ship 8,minia10 fast in an ice    
field4    ,illustration3 ,,powerful     
,,engines ,,needed ,,on ,,cable ,,repair
 ,,ships    ,here are the powerful      
engines which are used for picking up a 
cable  which has to be raised from the  
bottom of the sea for inspection or     
repair4    ,illustration3 ,in this      
picture we see men at work splicing a   
cable  which has been picked up out of  
the depths of the sea and found to be   

damaged4    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ship 
,,which ,,helped ,,in ,,laying ,,the    
,,first ,,cable      ,,armoring         
,,machine    ,here is one of the        
machines used for armoring the cable4   
,by armoring  is meant winding steel    
wires around and around the cable to    
protect it  from being cut by sharp     
rocks on the bottom or by deep sea      
animals like  the teredo1 which might   
attack it4    ,illustration3 ,the       
8,great ,eastern0 which was the first   
ship to carry a  cable across the       
,atlantic ,ocean4    ,illustration3     
,this is a section of a telephone cable1
 known as a  8bulge40 ,it contains      
inductance coils to offset what is      
called the  condenser capacity of the   
cable1 which would otherwise cause the  
talking to become blurred4              
,illustration3 ,,the ,,dots ,,and       
,,dashes ,,which ,,flash ,,across ,,the 
,,sea    ,,continental ,,morse ,,code   
,,signals ,,used ,,in ,,cable ,,working 
,making repairs to a cable where it     

comes out of the sea on to a bold  rocky
 shore4 ,note how the cable is wound    
with chain to protect it from  the      
rocks4    ,illustration3 ,facsimile of  
,continental ,morse ,alphabet as        
,signalled  ,across the ,atlantic and   
,copied on ,tape by ,siphon ,recorder   
,instrument  at the ,receiving ,station4
 ,signals ,enlarged for ,purposes of    
this  ,illustration4    ,same ,signals  
as ,they ,appear in ,actual ,working    
,here are two photographs showing the   
continental ,morse code signals  used in
 cable working and the signals as they  
are received by the  siphon recording   
instrument at the receiving station4    
,this siphon  recorder is in practical  
use in the cable world4 ,the dots and   
dashes  sent into the wire on one side  
of the ocean according to the ,morse    
code1 cause the siphon recorder through 
the means of electrified ink to  make a 
waving line on a tape4 ,the signals are 
readily reducible again  if necessary to
 the dots and dashes of the ,morse code 

because dots make  deflections to one   
side of the center of the tape and      
dashes to the  other4 ,the operator who 
receives the message can therefore      
readily read  it4      ,,alphabet3      
,a  --    ,b --       ,c --  --     ,d  
--      ,e     ,f   --     ,g -- --     
,h        ,i      ,j  -- -- --    ,k -- 
--    ,l  --      ,m -- --    ,n --     
,o -- -- --    ,p  -- --     ,q -- --   
--    ,r  --     ,s       ,t --    ,u   
--    ,v    --    ,w  -- --    ,x --    
--    ,y --  -- --    ,z -- --          
,,figures3      #a  -- -- -- --    #b   
-- -- --    #c    -- --    #d     --    
#e         #f --        #g -- --        
#h -- -- --      #i -- -- -- --     #j  
-- -- -- -- --    ,,or --               
,illustration3 ,,to-,,day ,,there ,,are 
,,many ,,cables ,,on ,,the ,,bottom     
,,map ,no4 #a      ,,western ,,union    
,,trans-,,atlantic ,,cables    ,,and    
,,connections          ,,the ,,story    
,,in ,a ,,railway ,,locomotive          
,illustration3 ,one of the ,most        

,powerful ,locomotives in the ,world    
,illustration3 ,,boiler ,,of            
,,articulate ,,compound ,,locomotive4   
,the wonder of our railroad systems     
to-day is the growth of the  locomotive4
 ,the necessity for economy in hauling  
long freight trains  has led to the     
development of this type of engine4     
,some idea of its  size can be had from 
the second picture1 which shows the     
boiler and  firebox of the locomotive   
shown in the first picture4 ,the firebox
 is so  large that an ordinary          
narrow-gauge locomotive of the old style
 can be  comfortably stored in it4      
,,loaded ,,weights      ,on driving     
wheels        #dge1jjj lbs4    ,on truck
 wheels           #cj1jjj lbs4    ,on   
trailing wheels        #ce1jjj lbs4     
,total of engine          #edj1jjj lbs4 
,total of tender          #bab1jjj lbs4 
,,wheel ,,base      ,driving1 rigid     
#ae ft4 #f    ins4    ,total of engine  
#eg ft4 #d    ins4    ,total of engine  
and tender    #ia ft4 #e ins4           

,,cylinders      ,diameter              
,h4,p4 #bh ins41 ,l4 ,p4 #dd ins4       
,stroke of piston                       
#cb ins4      ,,wheels      ,diameter of
 driving wheels1 outside    #ef ins4    
,diameter of truck wheels               
#cj ins4    ,diameter of trailing wheels
            #cj ins4    ,diameter of    
tender wheels              #cc ins4     
,illustration3 ,,cylinders ,,big        
,,enough ,,for ,,men ,,to ,,sit ,,down  
,,in    ,,low ,,pressure ,,cylinders    
,,of ,,articulated ,,compound           
,,locomotive4    ,in the picture we see 
the cylinders of the locomotive shown on
 the  previous page4 ,some idea of their
 size can be had from the fact that a   
good-sized man can sit comfortably in   
each of them4      ,,boiler      ,type  
,ex4 ,wagon ,top    ,working pres4 per  
sq4 in4              #bjj lbs4          
,outside diam4 at front end             
#ajj ins4    ,outside diam4 at back end 
#aab ins4    ,length firebox inside     
#agc ins4    ,length firebox1 actual1   

inside         #acb ins4    ,width of   
firebox inside             #ajh ins4    
,no4 and diam4 of tubes           #ccd1 
#b ins4    ,no4 and diam4 of flues      
#dh1 #e ins4    ,length of tubes        
#bd ft4 #j ins4    ,combust4 chamber    
length             #ci ins4    ,grate   
area                         #ii4b sq4  
ft4      ,,heating ,,surface      ,tubes
 and flues                   #fdfb sq4  
ft4    ,water tubes                     
#fg sq4 ft4    ,firebox                 
#chj sq4 ft4    ,total                  
#fiji sq4 ft4    ,superheating surface  
#acaa sq4 ft4      ,,clearance          
,,limitations      ,extreme height      
#af ft4 #e ins4    ,extreme width       
#aa ft4 #h ins4    ,length over all     
#ii ft4 #i ins4      ,,maximum          
,,tractive ,,power      ,working        
compound                       #aae1jjj 
lbs4    ,working simple                 
#ach1jjj lbs4    ,factor of adhesion    
7working compound7          #d4ac       
,factor of adhesion 7working simple7    

#c4dd      ,,tender ,,capacity          
,water              #ab1jjj gals4       
,fuel                    #af tons       
,illustration3 ,,the ,,locomotive       
,,engineer',s ,,workroom    ,here is a  
picture of one end of the boiler of this
 giant locomotive4  ,it would take a man
 more than seven feet high to bump his  
head in the  middle of it while standing
 on his feet4    ,illustration3 ,this   
shows a picture of the engineer's cab of
 one of  these great railroad machines4 
,we are accustomed to see the levers    
and other machinery for operating the   
engine right in the back of the  engine 
cab4 ,over or near the firebox4 ,upon   
looking closely we find  that the       
operating machinery is at the side of   
the locomotive and  far forward in the  
cab4 ,in fact there is a complete set of
 operating  machinery on both sides of  
the cab1 so that the engineer can run   
the  engine from whatever side he       
happens to be on4 ,this is very         
necessary1  particularly in switching4  

,near the end of the cab where the      
engineer  used to sit you will notice a 
peculiar pipe-like arrangement4 ,this   
is not for operating the engine1 but is 
the automatic stoker1 which  is fully   
explained in the next picture4 ,an      
engine of this size will  require seven 
tons of coal per hour4    ,illustration3
 ,a ,,machine ,,which ,,does ,,the      
,,work ,,of ,,four ,,firemen    ,when   
these large locomotives were first used 
it was found that no one  fireman could 
shovel in enough coal to keep the steam 
up4 ,it would  require three or four    
firemen working constantly to shovel    
enough coal  to keep this engine going4 
,man's inventive genius came to the     
front1  however1 and now we have an     
automatic fireman1 so to speak4 ,instead
 of  shoveling coal on one of these     
engines the fireman merely operates a   
lever4 ,this is a picture of the ,sweet 
locomotive stoker installed in  a       
railroad engine4 ,this machine          
automatically conveys coal from the     

tender to the locomotive1 raises it by  
an elevator to a point above the  fire  
door1 dumps it into the firebox and     
spreads it evenly over the  grate4      
,illustration3 ,this is the new type of 
electric locomotive being used  by the  
,new ,york ,central system              
,illustration3 ,,how ,a ,,fast ,,train  
,,takes ,,water ,,without ,,stopping    
,the fast express trains haven't time to
 stop and take water from the  tank at  
the side of the railroad as in former   
days4 ,this picture shows  a tank built 
between the tracks which enables the    
engineer to fill  his boilers without   
slackening speed4 ,when approaching this
 tank the  engineer simply lowers a tube
 into the water1 the end of which is a  
scoop4 ,the moving engine thus forces   
the water up into the tube1 from  which 
it runs into the boiler4                
,illustration3 ,this is an improved     
signal tower from which switches are    
operated4 ,if you were ever in a signal 
tower you will not recognize  this as   

one1 for you are used to seeing a room  
full of levers which the  tower man had 
to pull hard when he wished to throw a  
switch4 ,by the old  way the end of the 
lever was attached to a wire which was  
connected  with the switch4 ,the wire   
running through pipes1 when the operator
  pulled the lever the switch was pulled
 shut by the pull on the wire4 ,in  this
 new plan the switch is controlled by   
electricity1 and the operator  has      
merely to pull out a plug as shown in   
the picture1 which is much  easier than 
operating a lever4    ,illustration3    
,,what ,,makes ,a ,,wireless ,,message  
,,go    ,sketch showing arrangement of  
aerial on ship equipped with the        
,marconi  ,direction ,finder1 an        
instrument which tells the sea captain  
the exact  points of the compass from   
which wireless distress signals are     
being  sent and enables ships to avoid  
collisions in fog4          ,the ,story 
in the ,wireless      ,what is the      
,principle of the ,wireless ,telegraphy8

    ,drop a stone in a pool of water4   
,circular waves or ripples will travel  
outward in all directions4 ,that is the 
principle of wireless telegraph4    ,if 
a chip be floating on the water it will 
be rocked by each ripple1  just as a    
wireless receiving station will respond 
to the electrical  waves or impulses    
that make up a wireless message4 ,it is 
not known  just how the invisible       
wireless waves are propelled through    
space1  but they travel through the     
ether in the air in very much the same  
way as do sound waves4 ,the electrical  
signals1 too1 are received only  by     
apparatus that is attuned to them2 that 
is1 they can not be heard  except at    
wireless stations1 any more than sound  
can be heard by the  ears of a deaf     
person4    ,the wireless waves have a   
definite length1 can be measured in feet
 or  meters1 and are regulated according
 to the distance the message is to      
travel4 ,stations that send a few       
hundred miles use a wave length of six  

hundred meters1 or less1 while at the   
powerful land stations used for         
trans-atlantic work the wave lengths    
used run into as many thousands4        
,why ,don't the ,messages ,go to the    
,wrong ,stations8    ,so that the       
hundreds of messages hurtling through   
space at the same  time will not        
interfere1 the wireless stations are    
equipped with  tuning-apparatus through 
which they can adjust their wave length 
to  receive the particular message      
desired4 ,a different wave length is    
used by each ship or wireless shore     
station1 and even though dozens of      
messages fill the air1 the minute the   
wireless operator adjusts his  tuner to 
the length of the station he is after1  
that particular message  stands out very
 strongly and all the others grow dim4  
,illustration3 ,the ,marconi ,wireless  
station at ,miami1 ,fla41 which is      
typical of the shore stations that      
handle messages to several thousand     
ships at sea4      ,how ,does the       

,wireless ,reach ,ships at ,sea8    ,all
 ships at sea report their positions    
regularly2 thus it is a simple  matter  
for a shore station to send a wireless  
message to the ship to  which it is     
addressed4 ,for example1 the ,marconi   
station at ,sea ,gate1  ,new ,york1     
wants to reach the ,lusitania4 ,the     
operator looks up that  vessel on the   
list and notes her call signal and wave 
length4 ,he  adjusts his tuner to       
correspond and calls her signal1 ,m ,f  
,a1 repeating  it three times4    ,the  
wireless man on the vessel1 knowing that
 he is within range of a  shore station1
 has set his tuner at the wave length   
assigned to him and  is listening4 ,when
 his call letters are heard1 he         
acknowledges them  and signals to go    
ahead with the message4 ,when it has    
been given1 the  ,sea ,gate station     
8signs off0 with its call letters ,w ,s 
,e and the ship  operator enters in his 
record that that particular message     
reached him  via the ,marconi station at

 ,sea ,gate4 ,thus1 with the wide       
variety in  wave lengths1 no confusion  
of messages exists and any desired ship 
or  shore station can be called1 just as
 a direct telephone connection is       
secured by giving the central station   
the call number of the subscriber       
wanted4      ,what ,kind of ,signs ,are 
,used in the ,wireless8    ,the actual  
wireless message is composed of dots and
 dashes1 which1 in  certain             
combinations1 stand for certain letters 
of the alphabet4 ,this  is done through 
opening and closing the electrical      
circuit by pressing  a key1 a sharp     
touch forming a dot and a longer        
pressure a dash1 as  with the wire      
telegraph4    ,if secrecy in a wireless 
message is wanted1 the words are sent in
  cipher which1 of course1 cannot be    
understood by outsiders4 ,the           
,government sends thousands of words    
each day without a single word  meaning 
anything to the wireless stations that  
happen to be 8listening  in40 ,while it 

is true that any one owning a wireless  
receiving set may  listen to messages   
flying through the air1 every person    
within hearing  who understands the     
,morse ,code can read the telegrams that
 come into a  telegraph office4         
,knowledge thus gained1 however1 is of  
little value1  as the law provided heavy
 penalties for disclosing the contents  
of any  kind of telegraph message4      
,what ,does a ,wireless ,equipment      
,consist of8    ,the various apparatus  
that comprises a wireless equipment can 
not be  properly explained without the  
use of technical language1 but the      
general principle of operation is       
somewhat as follows3 ,if a small loop   
of copper wire1 with a slight separation
 between the ends1 is placed  across a  
room from an electric spark1 it will be 
slightly affected4  ,increase the       
electrical current to far greater power 
and control it1  and the invisible      
electrical wave may be thrown many      
miles4 ,to send  a message across the   

ocean1 the current used by the modern   
wireless  station is so powerful that it
 will pass through storm and fog1  even 
through mountains1 without losing much  
of its force4 ,when this  tremendous    
force is released by pressing the       
telegraph key1 it leaps  from the aerial
 wires1 or antennae1 travels across the 
,atlantic and is  picked up by a        
corresponding aerial1 attuned to receive
 the signal4    ,illustration3 ,pack and
 riding horses grouped together ready   
for  unloading the ,marconi wireless set
 used in the cavalry4    ,station set up
 and working4    ,,working ,,the        
,,wireless ,,in ,,the ,,army4    ,the   
aerial1 or antennae1 as it is called in 
a wireless work1 is made up  of copper  
wires4 ,on a ship these are strung      
between the masts1 usually  consisting  
of two1 four or six wires held apart by 
crosspieces4 ,two or  more wires lead   
down from this to the wireless cabin4   
,the coil or transformer is the         
apparatus which produces the spark that 

forms the electrical waves4 ,in small   
stations1 the length and thickness  of  
the spark and the speed of vibration is 
regulated by a thumb screw4             
,transformers are used when the power is
 taken from the alternating  current of 
an electric light circuit4    ,the gap1 
which the electrical current jumps when 
the telegraph key is  pressed down1 is  
composed of two rods which slide        
together or apart to  vary the length of
 the spark4    ,the simplest type of    
sending station consists of the antenna1
 battery1  coil1 wireless key and spark 
gap4 ,if a change in wave length is     
desired  a transmitting tuning coil must
 be added4    ,the receiving apparatus  
contains a detector1 which is chiefly   
two  mineral points lightly touching and
 connected with a sensitive head        
telephone4 ,the incoming signals are    
heard as long and short buzzing  sounds 
corresponding to the dots and dashes4   
,the receiving tuning coil1  used to    
adjust wave lengths1 is operated by     

simply moving sliding  contacts along a 
bar until the signals are more plainly  
heard4 ,while  the large stations have  
more complicated apparatus1 the         
principle  remains the same4            
,illustration3 ,the masts for the       
cavalry wireless sets are so attached   
that they can be loaded and unloaded    
with the utmost rapidity2 a  complete   
station can be erected or dismantled in 
less than ten minutes4    ,illustration3
 ,the gasoline engine which supplies the
 power for  operating a cavalry wireless
 station is fitted to the saddle frame  
and  is light enough to be carried by   
one horse4    ,,the ,,wireless ,,in     
,,the ,,army      ,how ,high ,do        
,wireless ,masts ,have to be8    ,the   
towering masts of the ,marconi          
,trans-,oceanic stations are often      
supposed to rise to their great height1 
so that an antennae will be  raised     
above the obstructions between4 ,if this
 were necessary1 two  wireless stations 
separated by the ,atlantic would have to

 have masts  one hundred and twenty-five
 miles high to rise above the curvature 
of the earth4 ,the path of the wireless 
waves1 however1 is not in a  straight   
line1 but follows the curvature of the  
earth4 ,scientists  explain this by     
saying the rarefied air above the       
earth's surface acts  as a shell        
enclosing the globe4    ,the speed of   
wireless messages is placed at #ahf1jjj 
miles per second4 ,a  wireless message  
will thus cross the ,atlantic in about  
one-nineteenth  of a second--a period of
 time too small for the human mind to   
grasp4  ,in other words1 the wireless   
flash crosses in a fraction of a second 
a  distance that the earth requires five
 hours to turn on its axis and the      
fastest ships take nearly a week to     
cross4    ,the longest distance over    
which a wireless message can be sent is 
not  definitely known2 the present      
record was made in ,september1 #aiaj1 by
  ,marconi from ,clifden1 ,ireland1 to  
,buenos ,aires1 ,argentina1 a distance  

of #fgjj miles4    ,illustration3 ,,the 
,,wireless ,,prevents ,,accidents ,,and 
,,saves ,,many ,,lives    ,this         
photograph makes us appreciate what a   
wonderful aid is wireless to            
navigators4 ,on ,easter ,sunday1 #aiad1 
the ,u4 ,s4 ,revenue ,cutter 8,seneca10 
patrolling the ,north ,atlantic1 found  
these two gigantic icebergs in  the     
regular steamer lanes and sent out      
wireless warnings to all nearby         
steamships4    ,illustration3 ,,how     
,,the ,,wireless ,,is ,,installed ,,on  
,,fast ,,trains    ,,railroad           
,,wireless4--,,antenna ,,on ,,cars4     
,illustration3 ,,wireless ,,station ,,on
 ,,trains4    ,illustration3 ,,wireless 
,,station ,,in ,u4 ,s4 ,,army    ,city  
side of ,scranton station1 ,lackawanna  
,r4,r41 showing aerial of  wireless     
which communicates with trains4         
,illustration3      ,photo by ,stefano  
,,wireless ,,receiving ,,station ,,in   
,u4 ,s4 ,,army4    ,illustration3       
,guglielmo ,marconi1 ,inventor of       

wireless telegraphy4      ,the ,man ,who
 ,invented ,wireless ,telegraphy4       
,communication without wires for        
thousands of miles across oceans1 from  
continent to continent1 is a far cry    
from sending a wireless impulse  the    
length of a kitchen table4 ,that is the 
development of twenty years4    ,to     
properly trace the development of       
wireless telegraphy1 however1 it  is    
necessary to go back eighty-three years 
to when1 in #ahca1 ,michael  ,faraday   
discovered electro-magnetic induction   
between two entirely  separate circuits4
 ,steinheil1 of ,munich1 too1 in #ahch1 
suggested  that the metallic portion of 
a grounded electrical circuit might be  
dispensed with and a system of wireless 
telegraphy established4 ,then1  in      
#ahei1 ,bowman ,lindsay demonstrated to 
the ,british ,association his  method of
 transmitting messages by means of      
magnetism through and  across the water 
without submerged wires4 ,in #ahfg      
,james ,clerk ,maxwell  laid down the   

theory of electro-magnetism and         
predicted the existence  of the electric
 waves that are now used in wireless    
telegraphy4  ,dolbear1 of ,tufts        
,college1 in #ahcf1 patented a plan for 
establishing  wireless communication by 
means of two insulated elevated plates1 
but  there is no evidence that the      
method proposed by him effected the     
transmission of signals between stations
 separated by any distance4  ,a year    
later ,heinrich ,rudolph ,hertz         
discovered the progressive  propagation 
of electro-magnetic action through space
 and accomplished  the most valuable    
work in this period of speculation and  
experiment4    ,just twenty years ago1  
at his father's country home in         
,bologna1  ,guglielmo ,marconi1 then a  
lad just out of his 'teens1 read of the 
experiments of ,hertz and conceived the 
first wireless telegraph  apparatus4    
,this was completed some months later   
and a message in the  ,morse ,code was  
transmitted a distance of three or four 

feet1 the length  of the table on which 
the apparatus rested4    ,satisfied that
 he had laid the foundation of an       
epoch-making discovery  young ,marconi  
pursued his experiments and filed the   
first patent on the  subject on ,june   
#b1 #ahif4 ,further experiments were    
carried on in ,london  during that year 
and at the request of ,sir ,william ,h4 
,preece1 of the  ,british ,post ,office1
 official tests were made1 first over a 
distance of  about #ajj yards and later 
for one and three-quarter miles4        
,during the year following ,mr4 ,marconi
 gave several demonstrations to  the    
officials of the various ,european      
governments and communication  was      
established up to #cd miles4 ,in ,july  
of this year1 #ahig1 the first          
commercial wireless telegraph company   
was incorporated in ,england and  the   
first ,marconi station was erected at   
the ,needles1 ,isle of ,wight4    ,on   
,june #c1 #ahih1 ,lord ,kelvin visited  
this station and sent the first  paid   

,marconigram4 ,a month later the events 
of the ,kingstown ,regatta in  ,dublin  
were reported by wireless telegraphy for
 a local newspaper from  the steamer    
8,flying ,huntress40 ,in ,august of that
 year the royal yacht  8,osborn0 was    
equipped with a wireless set1 in order  
that ,queen ,victoria  might communicate
 with the ,prince of ,wales1 who was at 
,ladywood ,cottage  and suffering from  
the results of an accident to his knee4 
,for sixteen  days1 constant and        
uninterrupted communication was         
maintained4 ,then on  ,christmas ,eve   
was inaugurated the first lightship     
wireless service1  messages being sent  
from the ,east ,goodwin lightship to the
 lighthouse  at ,south ,foreland4       
,illustration3 ,,preparing ,,to ,,send  
,,messages ,,across ,,the ,,ocean       
,this photograph shows how wireless     
messages are prepared for direct        
transmission across the ocean4 ,the dots
 and dashes of the telegraphic  code are
 punched on tapes by skilled operators1 

thus insuring accuracy  and a permanent 
record of each message4 ,five or six    
operators1 and  sometimes more1 are     
steadily preparing these tapes1 which   
are pasted  together and run through a  
machine which operates the key at each  
perforation4 ,a speed of #ajj words a   
minute is thus obtained4    ,three      
months later the first marine rescue was
 effected through this  installation4   
,the steamship 8,r4 ,f4 ,matthews0 ran  
into the lightship  and lifeboats from  
the ,south ,foreland station promptly   
responded to  the wireless appeal for   
aid4 ,the most important wireless event 
abroad  during the year #ahii was the   
establishing of communication across the
  ,english ,channel1 a distance of      
thirty miles4    ,the ,american public  
next learned something of ,marconi's    
invention1 for  in ,september and       
,october of that year wireless          
telegraphy was employed  in reporting   
the ,international yacht races between  
the 8,shamrock0 and  the 8,columbia0 for

 a ,new ,york newspaper4 ,at the        
conclusions of the  races1 the naval    
authorities requested a series of       
trials1 during which  wireless messages 
were exchanged between the cruiser 8,new
 ,york0 and  the battleship             
8,massachusetts0 up to a distance of    
about #cf miles4 ,on  leaving ,america1 
,marconi fitted the liner 8,st4 ,paul0  
with his apparatus  and when #cf miles  
from the ,needles ,station1 secured     
wireless reports  of the war in ,south  
,africa4 ,these were printed aboard the 
vessel in a  leaflet called 8,the       
,transatlantic ,times10 the first of the
 chain of  wireless newspapers now      
published daily on practically all      
passenger  steamships4 ,six field       
wireless sets were dispatched to ,south 
,africa  about this time and were later 
of considerable service in the ,boer    
,war4    ,illustration3 ,in the         
foreground of this picture is seen the  
automatic  transmitter with the message 
perforated tape running through4 ,this  

is  one of the smaller wireless         
equipments2 much larger ones are used at
  the new ,marconi stations4    ,the    
year #aijj brought the first commercial 
wireless contracts4 ,by  agreement with 
the ,norddeutscher ,lloyd1 ,marconi     
apparatus was installed  on a lightship1
 a lighthouse and aboard the liner      
8,kaiser ,wilhelm der  ,grosse40 ,on    
,july #dth the ,british ,admiralty      
entered into a contract  for the        
installation of ,marconi apparatus on   
thirty-two warships and  shore stations 
and the erection of the high power      
station at ,poldhu was  commenced4      
,,world ,,wide ,,use ,,of ,,the         
,,wireless    ,work on similar station  
at ,cape ,cod was begun early in #aija  
and on  ,august #abth the famous        
,nantucket ,island and ,nantucket       
lightship  stations opened to report    
incoming vessels by wireless4 ,heavy    
gales  in ,september and ,november      
wrecked the masts at both ,poldhu and   
,cape ,cod stations and these were      

replaced by four wooden towers1  #baj   
feet high4 ,important experimental work 
was then shifted to ,st4  ,john's1      
,newfoundland1 and on ,december #abth   
and #acth1 signals were  received across
 the ,atlantic from ,poldhu4 ,this to   
,marconi was a great  achievement and   
the forerunner of the present day       
trans-atlantic  service4 ,but with the  
announcement that the long dreamt of    
feat had  been accomplished a flood of  
vituperation from scientific men was let
  loose4 ,it was nonsense2 it was       
deliberate deception2 the reading was   
in error1 were among the comments4      
,another prank of the 8young man  with a
 box10 one scientist termed it4 ,it is  
amusing now to recall this              
extraordinary treatment1 but it was     
hardly so amusing to the young          
inventor1 then in his twenty-seventh    
year4    ,but in spite of the           
skepticism1 developments followed       
rapidly from then  on and in #aijb1 the 
year in which the ,american ,marconi    

,company was  established1 full         
recognition to wireless telegraphy was  
given by the  various governments4      
,the wonderful growth of the ,marconi   
system within the last twelve years  is 
well known to all and does not require  
detailing4 ,but in view of its  youth as
 an industry and its inauspicious       
beginning1 a glimpse into  what the     
present day ,marconi system comprises   
may be interesting4    ,more than #ahjj 
ships are equipped with ,marconi        
wireless and its shore  stations are    
landmarks in practically every country  
on the globe4    ,press and commercial  
messages are transmitted daily from     
continent to  continent direct4         
,shore to ship and ship to shore        
business each year runs into millions   
of words4    ,marconi wireless within   
seventeen years1 has become an absolute 
necessity in the maritime field1 an     
invaluable aid in others4 ,regular      
communication has been established with 
icebound settlements and desert         

communities1 and official running orders
 transmitted to moving railway  trains4 
,its service is dependable under all    
conditions and embraces  activities and 
locations inaccessible to any other     
telegraph system4  ,continuous service  
is maintained and wireless messages for 
all parts of  the world at greatly      
reduced rates are received at any       
,western ,union  ,office4    ,the       
direction finder and wireless compass   
are recent ,marconi inventions4    ,a   
wide variety of types of ,marconi       
equipment are designed for the  merchant
 marine1 warships1 submarines1 pleasure 
craft1 motor cars  and railroad trains2 
also portable signal corps sets1        
apparatus for  aircraft1 cavalry sets1  
knapsack sets and high-power            
installations for  trans-ocean          
communication4          ,how ,does a    
,fly ,walk ,upside ,down8      ,there is
 a little sucker on the end of each of  
the fly's feet which  makes his foot    
stick to the ceiling or any other place 

he walks1 and  which he can control at  
will4 ,it is made very much like the    
sucker  you have seen with which a boy  
can pick up a flat stone--a circular    
piece of rubber or leather with a string
 in the middle and more or  less bell   
shaped underneath4 ,a boy can pick up a 
flat stone with this  kind of a sucker  
by pressing the rubber or leather part  
down flat on  the stone and then pulling
 gently on it by the string4 ,when he   
does  this he simply expels the air     
which is between the leather part of    
the sucker and the stone1 which creates 
a vacuum and the pressure of  the air on
 the outside part of the leather enables
 him to pick it up4  ,the fly has little
 suckers like these on each of his feet1
 and they  act automatically when he    
puts his foot down4 ,of course the      
sticking  power of each foot is adjusted
 to the weight of the fly1 just as the  
sticking or lifting power of the boy's  
sucker is regulated by the  weight of   
the stone or other object he tries to   

pick up4 ,if the weight  of the object  
is sufficient to overcome the sticking  
power which the  vacuum creates1 the    
stone cannot be lifted4          ,what  
,is ,money8      ,it is quite difficult 
to give a broad definition of money that
 will be  understood by all1 for in     
different ages and lands many things    
have  been used as money besides the    
coins and bills which we think of only  
when we think at all what money is4     
,anything that passes freely from  hand 
to hand in a community in the payment of
 debts and for goods  purchased1        
accepted freely by the person who offers
 it without any  reference to the person
 who offers it1 and which can be in turn
 used  by the person accepting it to    
give to some one else in payment of debt
  or for the purchase of goods1 is      
money4 ,this is rather a long sentence  
and perhaps difficult to understand1 and
 so we will try to analyze  what this   
means4 ,if some one offered you a pretty
 stone as money in  payment of a debt1  

it would be as good as any kind of money
 if you in  turn could pass it on to any
 other person to whom you owed a debt or
 in  payment of something you bought4   
,the stone might appear to you to be    
valuable but it would not be good money 
unless you could count on every  one    
else in the community accepting it at   
the same value4 ,if everybody  accepts  
it at the same value1 it is as good as  
any kind of money4 ,so  that anything   
which is acceptable to the people in any
 community as a  unit of value to pay   
debts1 is good money1 provided everybody
 thinks so  and accepts it that way4 ,in
 this case1 then any kind of substance  
might  become money provided it was used
 and accepted by everyone4          ,why
 ,do ,we ,need ,money8      ,we need    
money for the sake of the convenience   
which it provides in  making the        
exchange of one kind of wealth for      
another and as a standard  of value4    
,when a community has adopted something 
or anything which  is regarded by all of

 the people as a standard of value1 all 
of the  difficulties of trading         
disappear4          ,who ,originated    
,money8      ,the earliest tribes of    
savages did not need money because no   
individual  in the tribe owned anything 
personally4 ,all the property of the    
tribe  belonged to the tribe as a whole 
and not to any particular person4       
,later on1 when different groups of     
savages came into contact with each     
other1 there arose the custom of        
bartering or exchanging things which    
one tribe possessed and which the other 
tribe wanted4 ,in that way arose  the   
business of trading or of what we call  
doing business1 and soon the  need of   
something by which to measure the values
 of different things  arose4 ,some of   
the old ,australian tribes had a tough  
green stone which  was valuable for     
making hatchets4 ,members of another    
tribe would see  some of this stone and 
notice what good hatchets could be made 
from  it--better hatchets than they had 

been able to make4 ,naturally they      
wanted it so much that it became very   
valuable in their eyes and so  they came
 wanting to buy green stones4 ,but they 
had nothing like what  we could call    
money today4 ,they had1 however1 a good 
deal of red ochre  in their lands which 
they used to paint their bodies4 ,they  
got this  red ochre out of the ground on
 their own lands just as the other tribe
  got green stones out of its ground1   
and those who owned the green  stones   
which were good for making hatchets1    
wanted some red ochre very  much1 and so
 they traded green stones for red ochre4
 ,the green stones  then took on a value
 in themselves for making exchanges for 
various  commodities1 and before long   
became a kind of money inside and       
outside  the community so that when they
 wanted to obtain anything1 the price   
was put by the merchant as so many green
 stones and he accepted these  in       
payment for goods given in exchange4 ,he
 was willing to do this  because he knew

 he could use them in making trades for 
almost anything  he might want1 provided
 he had enough of the green stones4 ,so 
you see  these green stones of the      
,australian tribe became a rudimentary  
kind of  money1 just because a desire   
had arisen to possess them2 and the red 
ochre was actual money in the same      
sense1 for when this tribe found  that  
other tribes would value this red ochre1
 they began getting the  things they    
wanted and paying for them in red ochre4
 ,but the 8unit of  value0 had to be    
developed to make a currency that was   
elastic4 ,it  required something that   
could be carried about easily--in fact  
it had  to be something small enough so 
a number of units of value could be     
carried about without too much trouble4 
,the ,indians of ,british ,columbia     
solved this difficulty of making an     
elastic currency by adopting as a  unit 
of value a haiqua shell which they wore 
in strings as ornamental  borders of    
their dresses--and one string of these  

shells was worth  one beaver's skin4    
,these shells then were real money and  
one of the  earliest forms of it4       
,the skins of animals were long used by 
savage tribes as money4 ,the  skins were
 valuable in trading and a man's fortune
 was reckoned by the  number of skins he
 owned4 ,as soon as the animals became  
domesticated1  however1 the whole animal
 replaced the skin as the unit of value4
 ,this  change undoubtedly came because 
a whole animal is more valuable than    
only its skin4 ,the first skins         
obtainable however were worn by wild    
animals--the kind that the people could 
not deliver to someone else  alive and  
whole4 ,but when the animals became     
domesticated1 which meant  that man     
tamed them and kept them where he could 
control them at will1  the skin and the 
wild animal ceased to be a unit of value
 because it  was an uncertain kind of   
money4 ,among domestic animals1 oxen and
 sheep  were the earliest forms of      
money--an ox was considered worth ten   

sheep4  ,this idea of using cattle as   
money was used by many tribes in many   
lands4 ,we find traces of it in the laws
 of ,iceland4 ,the ,latin word  pecunia 
7pecus7 shows that the earliest ,roman  
money was composed of  cattle4 ,the     
,english word fee indicates this also4  
,the ,irish law records  show the same  
evidence of the use of cattle as money  
and within recent  years the cattle     
still form the basis of the currency of 
the ,zulus and  ,kaffirs4    ,when      
slavery became prominent many lands     
adopted the slaves as the unit  of      
value4 ,a man's wealth was reckoned by  
the number of slaves he owned4    ,then1
 when the practice of agriculture became
 more common1 people  used the products 
of the soil as money--maize1 olive oil1 
cocoanuts1  tea and corn--the latter is 
said to pass current as actual money in 
certain parts of ,norway now4 ,they used
 these products of the soil for  money  
even in our own country4 ,our ancestors 
in ,maryland and ,virginia  before the  

,revolutionary ,war1 and even after1    
used tobacco as money4  ,they passed    
laws making tobacco money and paid the  
salaries of the  government officials   
and collected all taxes in tobacco4     
,other early forms of money were        
ornaments and these serve the purpose   
of money among all uncivilized tribes4  
,in ,india they used cowrie  shells--a  
small yellowish-white shell with a fine 
gloss4 ,the ,fiji  ,islanders used      
whales' teeth2 some of the ,south ,sea  
,island tribes used  red feathers2 other
 nations used mineral products as       
money--such as  salt in ,abyssinia and  
,mexico4    ,up to this point we have   
talked about the things used as money   
from  the standpoint of primitive forms 
of money4 ,today the metals have        
practically driven all these other crude
 forms of money out4          ,metallic 
,forms of ,money4      ,,why ,,we ,,use 
,,metals ,,for ,,coining    ,the use of 
metals as money goes far back in the    
history of civilization  but it has     

never been possible to trace the        
historical order of the  adoption of the
 various metals for the purposes4 ,iron 
according to the  statement of          
,aristotle was at one time extensively  
used as money4  ,copper1 in conjunction 
with iron1 was used in early times as   
money in  ,china2 and until             
comparatively a short time ago was used 
for the coins  of smaller value in      
,japan4 ,iron spikes were used in       
,central ,africa  and nails in          
,scotland2 lead money is now used in    
,burmah4 ,copper has  long been used as 
money4 ,the early coins of ,england were
 made of tin4  ,finally1 however1 came  
silver and silver was the principal form
 of  money up to a few years ago4 ,it   
was the basis of ,greek coins introduced
  at ,rome in #bfi ,b4 ,c4 ,most of the 
money of ,medieval times was composed   
of silver4    ,the earliest traces of   
gold used as money is seen in pictures  
of  ancient ,egyptians 8weighing in     
scales heaps of gold and silver rings40 

,why ,do ,we ,use ,gold and ,silver as  
,money ,principally8      ,there are a  
good many reasons why gold and silver   
have become almost  universal materials 
for use as money4 ,perhaps this will be 
better  understood if these reasons are 
set down in order4    #ast4 ,it is      
necessary that the material out of which
 money is made  should be valuable1 but 
nothing was ever used as money that had 
not  first become desirable and1        
therefore1 valuable as money4 ,this is  
only  one of the incidental reasons for 
taking gold and silver for coining      
money4    #bnd4 ,to serve its purpose   
best1 money should be easy to carry     
around--in other words1 its value should
 be high in proportion to its  weight4  
,the absence of this quality made the   
early forms of money such as  skins1    
corn1 tobacco1 etc41 undesirable4 ,it   
was difficult to carry very  much money 
about4 ,imagine the skin of a sheep     
worth a dollar1 say1  and having to     
carry ten of them down to pay the       

grocer4 ,to a certain  extent this      
difficulty occurred with iron and copper
 money and in times  when they used live
 cattle it was a pretty expensive job to
 pay your  debts because1 while the     
cattle could move1 it was still         
expensive to  drive them from place to  
place4 ,a man who accepted a thousand   
cattle  in payment had to go to some    
expense in getting them home4 ,then it  
was  expensive to have money when live  
cattle were used because the cattle1  of
 course1 had to be fed and from that    
point of view the poor man who  had no  
money was better off than the rich man  
who had money4 ,when  cattle were used  
as money it cost a lot to keep it4 ,our 
kind of money  doesn't eat anything2 in 
fact1 if you put it in a savings bank1  
it will  earn interest money for you4   
,but when cattle were used as money it  
cost  a great deal to keep them and so  
it was worse than not earning any       
interest4    #crd4 ,another quality that
 money should possess is divisibility   

without  damage and also the quality of 
being united again4 ,this quality is    
possessed by the metals in every sense  
because they can be fused1 while  skins 
and precious stones suffer in value     
greatly when they are divided4    #dth4 
,the material out of which money is made
 should be the same  throughout in      
quality and weight so that one unit of  
money should be  worth as much as any   
other unit4 ,this could never be true of
 skins or  cattle as the difference in  
the size of skins is very great         
sometimes1  and a small skin from the   
same animal could not be worth as much  
as a  large one1 or a skin of an animal 
of inferior quality so valuable as a    
very fine one4    #eth4 ,another quality
 which money should possess is          
durability4 ,this  requirement made it  
necessary to use something else besides 
animals or  vegetable substances4       
,animals die and vegetables will not    
keep and so  lose their value4 ,even    
iron is apt to rust and through that    

process  lose more or less of its value4
    #fth4 ,the materials out of which   
money is made should be easy to         
distinguish and their value easy to     
determine4 ,for this reason such  things
 as precious stones are not good to use 
as money because it  takes an expert to 
determine their value and even they are 
not always  certain to be correct4      
#gth4 ,then a very important quality    
that the material out of which money  is
 made is that its value should be       
steady4 ,the value of cattle varies     
very greatly and1 in fact1 most of the  
materials out of which the first        
currencies were made were subject to    
quick change in value in a short  time4 
,the value of gold and silver does not  
change excepting at long  intervals4    
,gold and silver are both durable and   
easily recognizable4  ,they can be      
melted1 divided and united4 ,the same is
 true of other  metallic substances1 but
 iron as stated is subject to rust and  
its  value is low2 lead is too soft4    

,tin will break1 and both of them and   
copper also are of low value4 ,gold and 
silver change only slowly in  value when
 the change at all2 they do not lose any
 of their value by  age1 rust or other  
cause2 they are hard metals and do not1 
therefore1  wear4 ,their value in       
proportion to the bulk of the pieces    
used for  money is so large that the    
money made from them can be carried     
without  discomfort and it is almost    
impossible to imitate them4             
,who ,made the ,first ,cent8            
,vermont was the first state to issue   
copper cents4 ,in ,june1 #aghe1 she     
granted the authority to ,ruben ,harmon1
 ,jr41 to make money for the state  for 
two years4 ,in ,october of the same     
year1 ,connecticut granted the  right to
 coin #aj1jjj pounds in copper cents1   
known as the ,connecticut  cent of      
#aghe4 ,massachusetts1 in #aghf1        
established a mint and coined  #fj1jjj  
in cents and half cents4 ,in the same   
year1 ,new ,jersey granted  the right to

 coin #aj1jjj at #ae coppers to the     
shilling4 ,in #agha the  ,continental   
,congress directed ,robert ,morris to   
investigate the matter  of governmental 
coinage4 ,he proposed a standard based  
on the ,spanish  dollar1 consisting of  
#ajj units1 each unit to be called a    
cent4 ,his  plan was rejected4 ,in      
#aghd1 ,jefferson proposed to ,congress1
 that the  smallest coin should be of   
copper1 and that #bjj of them should    
pass for  one dollar4 ,the plan was     
adopted1 but in #aghf1 #ajj was         
substituted4 ,in  #agib the coinage of  
copper cents1 containing #bfd grains1   
and half cents  in proportion1 was      
authorized2 their weight was            
subsequently reduced4  ,in #ahec the    
nickel cent was substituted and the half
 cent discontinued1  and in #ahfd the   
bronze cent was introduced1 weighing #dh
 grains and  consisting of #ie per cent4
 of copper1 and the remainder of tin and
 zinc4          ,how ,did the ,name     
,uncle ,sam ,originate8      ,the name  

,uncle ,sam is a jocular name long in   
use for the ,government of  the ,united 
,states4    ,shortly after the war of   
#ahab was declared1 ,elbert ,anderson of
 ,new  ,york ,state1 who was a          
contractor for the army1 went to ,troy1 
,new ,york1  to purchase a quantity of  
provisions4 ,at that place the          
provisions  were inspected1 the official
 inspectors being two brothers named    
,wilson--,ebenezer and ,samuel4 ,the    
latter was very popular among the men   
and was known as 8,uncle ,sam ,wilson0  
and everybody called him that4  ,the    
boxes in which the provisions were      
packed were stamped with four  letters1 
,e4 ,a4 for ,elbert ,anderson1 and ,u4  
,s4 for ,united ,states4 ,one of  the   
men engaged in making the inspection    
asked another of the workmen  who       
happened to be a jocular fellow1 what   
the letters ,e4 ,a4 ,u4 ,s4 on  the     
boxes stood for4 ,he said in reply that 
he did not know but thought  they       
probably meant ,elbert ,anderson and    

,uncle ,sam ,wilson1 and that they  had 
left off the ,w which would stand for   
,wilson4 ,the suggestion caught  on     
quickly and as such things often do1 the
 joke spread rapidly so that  everybody 
soon thought of the name 8,uncle ,sam0  
whenever they saw the  letters ,u4 ,s4  
on anything or in any place4    ,the    
suit of striped trousers and long tailed
 coat and beaver hat  in which ,uncle   
,sam is now always represented in       
pictures1 was the  inspiration of the   
famous cartoonist4    ,illustration3    
,,the ,,world',s ,,bread ,,loaves       
,egypt    #bejj ,b4,c4      ,unleavened 
,bread    #bjjj ,b4,c4      ,pompeii    
#ej ,a4,d4      ,palestine      ,modern 
,american ,loaf      ,england           
,england      ,france      ,hungary     
,spain      ,switzerland      ,bohemia  
,holland      ,italy      ,austria      
,germany      ,balkan ,states           
,illustration3 ,,harvesting ,,wheat4    
,the ,story in a ,loaf of ,bread        
,why is ,bread so ,important8    ,the   

history of bread as a food reads like a 
romance4 ,it has played an  important   
part in the destinies of mankind and its
 struggles through  the ages to         
perfection4 ,the progress of nations    
through their different  periods of     
development can be traced by the quality
 and quantity of  bread they have used4 
,no other food has taken such an        
important part in the civilization of   
man4    ,to a large extent it has been  
the means of changing his habits from   
those of a savage to those of a         
civilized being4 ,it has supplied the   
peaceful pursuits of agriculture and    
turned him from war and the chase4      
,it is an interesting fact that the     
civilized and the semi-civilized  people
 of the earth can be divided into two   
classes1 based upon their  principal    
cereal foods3 the rice eaters and the   
bread eaters4    ,every one admits that 
rice eaters are less progressive1 while 
bread  eaters have always been the      
leaders of civilization4    ,it is an   

interesting fact that just as ,japan is 
changing from a  rice-eating nation to a
 bread-eating nation she is asserting   
her power4    ,any one who stops to     
consider the history of nations will see
 that this  matter of what we eat is the
 one question of vital importance4      
,bread is one of the earliest1 the most 
generally used and one of the  most     
important foods used by man4 ,without   
bread the world would not  exist without
 great hardship4 ,on bread alone a      
nation of people can  exist1 and to sit 
down to a meal without it causes us to  
feel at once  that something is missing4
      ,what ,was the ,origin and        
,meaning of ,bread8    ,bread is baked  
from many substances1 although when we  
think of bread1  we usually think of    
wheat bread4 ,it is sometimes made from 
roots1  fruits and the bark of trees1   
but generally only from grains such as  
wheat1 rye1 corn1 etc4 ,the word bread  
comes from an old word bray1  meaning to
 pound4 ,this came from the method used 

in preparing the food4  ,food which was 
pounded was said to be brayed and later 
this spelling  was changed to bread4    
,properly speaking1 however1 these      
brayed or  ground materials are not     
really bread in our sense of using the  
term  until they are moistened with     
water1 when it becomes dough4 ,the word 
dough is an old one meaning to          
8moisten40 ,this dough was in olden     
times immediately baked in hot ashes and
 a hard indigestible lump of  bread was 
the result4 ,accidentally it was        
discovered that if the dough  was left  
for a time before baking1 allowing it to
 ferment1 it would  when mixed with more
 dough1 swell up and become porous4     
,thus we got our  word loaf from an old 
word lifian1 which meant to raise up or 
to lift  up4      ,when ,was ,wheat     
,first ,used in ,making ,bread8    ,it  
is not clearly known when or by whom    
wheat was discovered1 but it  seems to  
have been known from the earliest times4
 ,it is mentioned in  the ,bible1 can be

 traced to ancient ,egypt and there are 
records showing  that the ,chinese      
cultivated wheat as early as #bgjj      
,b4,c4 ,to-day it  supplies the         
principal article for making bread to   
all the civilized  nations of the world4
    ,the origin of the wheat plant is   
said to have been a kind of grass  which
 is given a ,latin name gilops ovata by 
the botanists4      ,will ,wheat ,grow  
,wild8    ,this is a question that has  
puzzled the world's scientists for more 
than two thousand years4 ,from time to  
time it has been reported by            
investigators in various parts of the   
world that here and there wheat  has    
been found growing wild and doing well1 
but every time a further  investigation 
is made1 it develops that the wheat has 
been cultivated  by some one4 ,there is 
as yet no evidence for believing that   
wheat will  grow in a wild state4       
,what is the ,difference between ,graham
 ,flour and ,whole ,wheat8    ,graham   
flour from which ,graham bread is baked 

is made from unbolted  flour4 ,the      
process of bolting flour1 which is      
described in one of the  following      
pages1 consists briefly in taking out of
 it all but the  inside of the grain of 
wheat4 ,when this has been done1 we have
 pure  white flour4    ,in making       
,graham flour every part of the grain of
 wheat is left in the  flour1 and ground
 up finely4 ,many people think that     
,graham flour is  made from a special   
grain called ,graham1 but this is not   
true4 ,it is  said that ,graham bread is
 not so good for you because it contains
 the  outside covering of the wheat     
grain or bran which is composed of      
almost  pure silica1 the same substance 
of which glass is made1 and cannot      
therefore be good for us4    ,whole     
wheat flour is made from the whole grain
 of wheat from which the  outside       
covering or bran has been separated4 ,it
 contains everything but  the bran and  
is therefore the most nutritious flour  
made4    ,the grain of wheat has several

 coverings of bran coats1 the outer one 
of which is the one composed of silica1 
and which is not valuable  as food4     
,underneath this husk--are found the    
inner bran coats1  which contain the    
gluten4 ,gluten is a dark substance     
containing the  flesh-forming or        
nitrogenous elements1 which are valuable
 in muscle  building4 ,the inside or    
heart of the grain of wheat consists of 
cells  filled with starch1 a fine white 
mealy powder which has little value  as 
food1 but is a great heat producer4     
,sometimes in making whole wheat  flour1
 the heart of the grain is also removed1
 making a pure gluten  flour4 ,the name 
whole wheat for flour is not accurate1  
therefore1 for  ,graham flour is made of
 the whole wheat grain1 while 8whole    
wheat0  flour is made of only certain   
parts of the grain of wheat4            
,illustration3 ,wheat conditioners for  
tempering the wheat before being  ground
 by the corrugated roller mills4        
,how is ,flour ,made8    ,in great      

factories the raw material is frequently
 taken in at one end  and comes out of  
the opposite end as a finished          
locomotive1 a ,pullman  palace car1 or a
 pair of shoes4 ,there is no such       
progression in making  flour4 ,the wheat
 comes in at one place as a plain       
,spring or ,winter  wheat and at another
 goes out as flour1 but in the process  
parts of  it may go from top to bottom  
of the big mill #cj times4 ,instead of a
  factory where everything moves along  
from hand to hand or machine to         
machine1 the flour mill is like a human 
body--a huge framework like the  bones1 
with thousands of carrying devices1     
8elevators10 8spouts0 and  8conveyors10 
like the veins and arteries of the      
blood-carrying system4  ,stop up a vein 
of wheat1 the mill becomes clogged1 and 
finally must  shut down if it cannot be 
mechanically relieved4 ,it is an        
intricate and  intensely interesting    
process1 the result of year-to-year     
experience4    ,illustration3           

,,separating ,,the ,,wheat ,,fiber ,,and
 ,,germs    ,purifier for separating the
 fiber1 germ1 and other impurities from 
the  semolina 7grits7 before it is      
finally crushed or ground into flour by 
smooth roller mills4      ,scouring that
 ,suggests a ,dutch ,kitchen4    ,from  
the storage bins the wheat is drawn off 
through conveyors to the  first of      
several cleaning processes1 the         
8separators10 where the coarse  grain   
which naturally comes with the wheat1   
such as corn and oats1 and  imperfect   
kernels of wheat1 is taken out4 ,after  
this general cleaning  the grain goes to
 the 8scouring machine10 which is an    
interesting  device--a rapidly revolving
 cylinder with what are called 8beaters0
  attached4 ,the grain is thrown against
 perforated iron screens4 ,any  clinging
 dirt is loosened1 and a strong current 
of air passing through  the cylinder is 
constantly 8calling for dust10 as the   
miller aptly  expresses it1 and carries 
the impurities away as dust and dirt4   

,indeed1  the cleaning process seems to 
be a constant one from the time the     
wheat enters the mill until the flour is
 made4 ,having been cleansed1  the wheat
 is now ready for the rolls except for a
 8tempering0 process1  which is to      
prepare the grain1 so that the outside  
of the wheat may be  taken off without  
injury to the inside or kernel4    ,then
 as the grain passes to the rolls there 
begins a gradual reduction  of wheat to 
flour which is most intricate4    ,the  
first sets of rolls are corrugated and  
so adjusted as to 8break0  each grain of
 wheat into #ab to #ae parts4 ,the      
8breaking0 process goes on  through five
 different sets of rolls4               
,illustration3 ,,grinding ,,the ,,wheat 
,,for ,,making ,,flour    ,corrugated   
roller mills for grinding the wheat     
after it has been  cleaned4             
,illustration3 ,wooden spouts for       
conveying the different products1 bran  
and partly ground wheat1 from one       
machine to another4    ,illustration3   

,,the ,,flour ,,is ,,ready ,,for        
,,baking    ,gyrating sifter for        
separating the bran particles from the  
flour and  semolina4      ,the ,big     
,bolters with ,silken ,sieves4          
,closely allied with the rolling process
 is the bolting process1  which1 working
 hand in hand with it has made modern   
flour making so  perfect4 ,the bolting  
process consists of a series of         
sieves--a sifting  of the broken grain  
so that it is finally1 after repeated   
breaking  and sifting1 a flour4 ,the    
bolter machine contains a number of     
sieves  covered with silk bolting cloth 
with varying mesh or number of threads  
to the square inch4 ,this bolting       
machine1 moving rapidly1 makes from  #h 
to #aj different separations of the     
material4 ,from rolls to bolters1  from 
bolters to purifiers1 from purifiers to 
rolls1 over and over1 the  process      
continues1 until five different grades  
of 8middlings0 have  been selected by   
the mechanical hands of the millers4    

,the purifier is  still another step to 
the process4 ,it is a machine having    
eight sieves  of different mesh4 ,the   
8middlings0 flow down over the different
 sieves  in a thin sheet1 a current of  
air meantime drawing all impurities out4
  ,with this purifying process          
completed1 the material is ready for the
  smooth rolls4      ,the ,mill ,tries  
to ,catch ,up with the ,bins4    ,when  
the flour is made it is conveyed to     
large round bins--five sheets  of hard  
wood pressed together4 ,these bins are  
being filled all the time  and being    
emptied all the time1 the mill being    
about seven hours behind  the capacity  
of the bins1 so that from start to      
finish the modern flour  mill is a      
tremendously busy place4    ,underneath 
the bins and connecting with them are   
the flour  packers--automatic devices   
which pack a #c-pound paper sack as     
accurately as a #aif-pound barrel4 ,the 
filled packages are sent down  8chutes0 
to the shipping floor4 ,there they go to

 wagons or through  other chutes to     
boats4          ,the ,story in a ,lead  
,pencil#e      #e ,courtesy of ,the     
,scientific ,american4      ,why ,do    
,they ,call ,them ,lead-pencils8        
,,where ,,lead ,,pencils ,,come ,,from  
,the lead-pencil so generally used today
 is not1 as its name would  imply1 made 
from lead1 but from graphite4 ,it       
derives its name from  the fact that    
prior to the time when pencils were made
 from graphite1  metallic lead was      
employed for the purpose4 ,graphite was 
first used  in pencils after the        
discovery in #aefe of the famous        
,cumberland mine  in ,england4 ,this    
graphite was of remarkable purity and   
could be used  without further treatment
 by cutting it into thin slabs and      
encasing  them in wood4      ,who ,made 
the ,first ,lead-pencils in ,america8   
,for two centuries ,england enjoyed     
practically a monopoly of the           
lead-pencil industry4 ,in the eighteenth
 century1 however1 the  lead-pencil     

industry had found its way into         
,germany4 ,in #agfa1 ,caspar  ,faber1 in
 the village of ,stein1 near the ancient
 city of ,nuremberg1  ,bavaria1 started 
in a modest way the manufacture of      
lead-pencils1 and  ,nuremberg became and
 remained the center of the lead-pencil 
industry  for more than a century4 ,for 
five generations ,faber's descendants   
made  lead-pencils4 ,up to the present  
day they have continued to devote  their
 interest and energy to the development 
and perfection of pencil  making4       
,eberhard ,faber1 a great-grandson of   
,caspar ,faber1 immigrated  to this     
country1 and1 in #ahdi1 established     
himself in ,new ,york ,city4  ,in #ahfa1
 when the war tariff first went into    
effect1 he erected his  own pencil      
factory in ,new ,york ,city1 and thus   
became the pioneer of  the lead-pencil  
industry in this country4 ,since then   
four other firms  have established      
pencil factories here4 ,wages1 as       
compared to those  paid in ,germany1    

were very high1 and ,eberhard ,faber    
realized the  necessity of creating     
labor-saving machinery to overcome this 
handicap4  ,many automatic machines were
 invented which greatly simplified the  
methods of pencil making and improved   
the product4 ,to-day ,american          
manufacturers supply nine-tenths of the 
home demand and have largely  entered   
into the competition of the world's     
markets4      ,what ,are ,lead-pencils  
,made of8    ,the principal raw         
materials that enter into the making of 
a  lead-pencil are graphite1 clay1 cedar
 and rubber4 ,although graphite  occurs 
in comparatively abundant quantities in 
many localities1 it is  rarely of       
sufficient purity to be available for   
pencil making4 ,oxides  of iron1        
silicates and other impurities are found
 in the ore1 all of  which must be      
carefully separated to insure a smooth1 
serviceable  material4 ,the graphites   
found in ,eastern ,siberia1 ,mexico1    
,bohemia and  ,ceylon are principally   

used by manufacturers4      ,pictures by
 courtesy ,joseph ,dixon ,crucible ,co4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4    ,,fig4 #b4 
,,fig4 #c4    ,fig4 #a shows the shape  
in which the cedar slats arrive at the  
factory4  ,these slats after grading are
 boiled in steam to remove what         
remaining  sap there may be in the wood4
 ,the slats are then dried in           
steam-drying  rooms4 ,then the next step
 is grooving and gives the results shown
 by  ,fig4 #b4 ,now the wood is ready to
 receive the 8leads0 7which you will    
remember are a mixture of graphite and  
clay71 which are placed between  two    
slats sandwich fashion1 glued1 put in   
forms that hold them over  night under a
 thousand pounds pressure4 ,fig4 #c     
shows the leads laid in  one of the     
grooved slats4      ,how ,are           
,lead-pencils ,made8    ,the graphite1  
as it comes from the mines1 is broken   
into small pieces1  the impure particles
 being separated by hand4 ,it is then   
finely  divided in large pulverizers and

 placed in tubs of water1 so that the   
lighter particles of graphite float off 
from the heavier particles of           
impurities4 ,this separating1 in the    
cheaper grades1 is also done by  means  
of centrifugal machines1 but the results
 are not as satisfactory4  ,after       
separation1 the graphite is filtered    
through filter-presses4      ,what      
,makes ,some ,pencils ,hard and ,others 
,soft8    ,the clay1 after having been  
subjected to a similar process1 is      
placed  in mixers with the graphite1 in 
proportions dependent upon the grade  of
 hardness that is desired4 ,a greater   
proportion of clay produces a  greater  
degree of hardness2 a lesser proportion 
increases the softness4                 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4    ,,fig4 #e4 
,,fig4 #f4    ,fig4 #d shows a          
prospective view of the block as it     
appears when taken  out of the form2 the
 leads can be seen in the end4 ,these   
blocks are fed  to machines which cut   
out the pencils in one operation4 ,an   

idea of this  operation is given by     
,fig4 #e1 which shows a block half cut  
through4 ,the  pencils come out quite   
smooth1 but are sand-papered to a finer 
finish  before receiving the finishing  
coats4 ,the finer grades of pencils are 
given from seven to nine coats of       
varnish before being passed along for   
the next process4 ,fig4 #f shows a      
pencil after it has been machined and   
before it has been varnished and        
stamped4    ,furthermore1 the requisite 
degree of hardness is obtained by the   
subsequent operation1 viz41 the         
compressing of the lead and shaping it  
into form ready to be glued into the    
wood casings4 ,a highly compressed  lead
 will produce a pencil of greater       
wearing qualities1 an important  feature
 in a high-grade pencil4 ,hydraulic     
presses are used for this  purpose2 and 
the mixture of clay and graphite1 which 
is still in a  plastic condition and has
 been formed into loaves1 is placed into
 these  presses4 ,the presses are       

provided with a die conforming to the   
caliber  of the lead desired1 through   
which die the material is forced4 ,the  
die  is usually cut from a sapphire or  
emerald or other very hard mineral      
substance1 so that it will not wear away
 too quickly from the friction  of the  
lead4 ,the lead leaves the press in one 
continuous string1 which  is cut into   
the lengths required 7usually seven     
inches for the ordinary  size of        
pencil71 is placed in crucibles1 and    
fired in muffle furnaces4  ,the lead is 
now ready for use1 and receives only a  
wooden case to  convert it into a       
pencil4      ,where ,does the ,wooden   
,part of a ,lead-pencil ,come from8     
,the wood used in pencil making must be 
close and straight grained1  soft1 so   
that it can readily be whittled1 and    
capable of taking a good  polish4 ,no   
better wood has been found than the red 
cedar1 a native of  the ,united ,states1
 a durable1 compact and fragrant wood   
to-day almost  exclusively used by      

pencil makers the world over4 ,the best 
quality is  obtained from the ,southern 
,states1 ,florida and ,alabama in       
particular4    ,the wood is cut into    
slats about #g inches long1 #b inches   
wide1 and   inch thick4 ,it is then     
thoroughly dried in kilns to separate   
the  excess of moisture and resin and to
 prevent subsequent warping4 ,after     
this the slats are passed through       
automatic grooving machines1 each  slat 
receiving six semi-circular grooves1    
into which the leads are  placed1 while 
a second slab with similar grooves is   
brushed with glue  and covered over the 
slat containing the leads4 ,this is     
passed through  a molding-machine1 which
 turns out pencils shaped in the form   
desired1  round1 hexagon1 etc4 ,the     
pencils are now passed through sanding  
machines1 to provide them with a smooth 
surface4      ,how is the ,color ,put on
 the ,outside of the ,pencil8    ,after 
sand-papering1 which is a necessary     
preliminary to the coloring  process1   

when fine finishes are desired1 the     
pencils are varnished by  one of several
 methods4 ,that most commonly employed  
is the mechanical  method by which the  
pencils are fed from hoppers one at a   
time through  small apertures just large
 enough to admit the pencil4 ,the       
varnish is  applied to the pencil       
automatically while passing through1 and
 the  pencils are then deposited on a   
long belt or drying pan4 ,they are      
carried slowly a distance of about      
twenty feet1 the varnish deposited  on  
the pencils meanwhile drying1 and are   
emptied into a receptacle4  ,when       
sufficient pencils have accumulated1    
they are taken back to the  hopper of   
the machine and the operation repeated4 
,this is done as often  as is necessary 
to produce the desired finish4 ,the     
better grades are  passed through ten   
times or more4 ,another method is that  
of dipping  in pans of varnish1 the     
pencils being suspended by their ends   
from  frames1 immersed their entire     

length and withdrawn very slowly by     
machine4 ,a smooth enameled effect is   
the result4 ,the finest grades of       
pencils are polished by hand4 ,this work
 requires considerable deftness2  months
 of practice are necessary to develop a 
skilled workman4 ,after  being          
varnished1 the pencils are passed       
through machines by which the           
accumulation of varnish is sand-papered 
from their ends4 ,the ends  are then    
trimmed by very sharp knives to give    
them a clean1 finished  appearance4     
,stamping is the next operation4 ,the   
gold or silver leaf is cut into  narrow 
strips and laid on the pencil1 whereupon
 the pencil is placed in  a stamping    
press1 and the heated steel die brought 
in contact with the  leaf1 causing the  
latter to adhere to the pencil where the
 letters of  the die touch4 ,the surplus
 leaf is removed1 and1 after a final    
cleaning  the pencil is ready to be     
boxed1 unless it is to be further       
embellished  by the addition of a metal 

tip and rubber1 or other attachment4    
,how is the ,eraser ,put ,on a ,pencil8 
,in this country about nine-tenths of   
the pencils are provided with  rubber   
erasers4 ,these are either glued into   
the wood with the lead1 or  the pencils 
are provided with small metal ferrules  
threaded on one end1  into which the    
rubber eraser-plugs are inserted4 ,these
 ferrules are  made from sheet brass1   
which is cupped by means of power       
presses1 drawn  through subsequent      
operations into tubes of four- or       
five-inch lengths1  cut to the required 
size1 threaded and nickel-plated4       
,illustration3      ,courtesy of        
,doubleday1 ,page  ,co4    ,a ,,southern
 ,,cotton ,,field          ,the ,story  
in a ,bale of ,cotton      ,where ,does 
,cotton ,come ,from8    ,we get cotton  
from a plant which grows best in the    
warm climate of our  ,southern ,states4 
,cotton has been known to the people of 
the world for  a long time4 ,before the 
birth of ,christ people knew about      

cotton4 ,they  thought it was wool which
 grew on a tree instead of a sheep's    
back4  ,no other plant is of such value 
to man as cotton4 ,we should learn      
something about a plant that is used by 
man in so many ways as cotton4    ,the  
cotton plant of our ,southern ,states is
 a small shrub-like annual  about four  
feet high4 ,the flowers of the cotton   
plant are white at  first but change to 
cream color and then are tinged with    
red4 ,this  change takes place over a   
period of four days when the petals drop
 off  and leave what is called a 8boll0 
in the calyx of the flower4 ,this  boll1
 which is to contain the cotton1 is     
really the seed container of  the cotton
 plant and keeps on growing larger until
 it is about as big  as a hen's egg4    
,when it is fully grown or ripe the boll
 cracks and the  seeds and fibrous lint 
burst forth4 ,the bolls are then        
gathered and  taken to a cotton gin1    
where the seeds are separated from the  
lint and  the lint prepared for weaving4

    ,the boll is divided into from three
 to five sections4 ,each section        
contains a quantity of lint and seeds4  
,when the boll is fully grown  the      
covering of each of the sections cracks 
and opens up1 revealing  the contents4  
,it is just like opening the door of    
each section and  having the contents   
burst out4 ,when these bolls burst open1
 there is no  more beautiful sight in   
the world than to look out over a cotton
 field  and see the colored people--the 
8cotton pickers0--busy at their work    
picking off the bolls4    ,when the crop
 is gathered and ginned1 the lint is    
packed into bales and  taken to the     
cotton mill1 where it is made into      
cloth4 ,one of the most  interesting    
industrial processes in the world is to 
see the bale of  cotton go into a cotton
 mill and come out a piece of cotton    
goods4    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cotton 
,,arrives ,,at ,,the ,,mill    ,,bales  
,,of ,,cotton ,,at ,,cotton ,,mill      
,illustration3 ,,opening ,,machines4    

,the bales are opened1 and the cotton is
 thrown into the large hoppers  at the  
front of these machines1 which open and 
loosen the fibers1  work out lumps and  
remove the grosser impurities1 such as  
dirt1 leaf1  seed and trash4 ,a strong  
air draft carries off the dust and      
foreign  particles1 and lifts the cotton
 through trunks to the floor above4     
,illustration3 ,,lapper ,,machines4     
,in these machines1 known as ,breaker   
and ,finisher ,lappers1 more of the     
trash and impurities is beaten out of   
the cotton1 and the lint is  carried    
forward and wound into rolls of cotton  
batting1 known as laps4  ,several of    
these are doubled and drawn into one so 
as to get the weight  of each yard as   
uniform as possible4    ,illustration3  
,,first ,,steps ,,in ,,making ,,cotton  
,,cloth    ,,card ,,room4    ,in these  
machines1 known as ,revolving ,flat ,top
 ,cards1 the cotton passes  over        
revolving cylinders clothed with wire   
teeth1 and the fibers are  combed out   

and laid parallel with each other4 ,they
 are delivered at the  front of the     
machine as a filmy web1 which is        
gathered together and  formed into a    
soft downy ribbon or rope1 known as card
 sliver4 ,this is  automatically coiled 
and delivered into cans4                
,illustration3 ,,drawing ,,frames4      
,to insure uniformity in weight1 so that
 the yarn when spun shall run  even1 the
 card slivers are doubled and drawn out1
 redoubled and again  drawn out1        
somewhat in the manner of a candy maker 
pulling taffy1 only  here the process is
 continuous4 ,six strands of the card   
sliver are fed  in together at the back 
of the drawing frames1 pulled out and   
delivered  as one2 and the process      
repeated4 ,this produces a sliver more  
uniform  in weight1 and in which the    
fibres are more parallel4               
,illustration3 ,,slubbers4    ,the      
sliver from the drawing frames is taken 
to machines called  slubbers1 where     
again the fibers are drawn out1 and the 

strand of  cotton1 now much finer and   
known as slubber roving1 is given a bit 
of  twist to hold it together1 and is   
wound on large bobbins4                 
,illustration3 ,,putting ,,the ,,cotton 
,,fiber ,,on ,,bobbins    ,,speeders4   
,the large bobbins of roving from the   
slubbers are taken to other  machines   
known as ,speeders1 and are unwound     
through the machine1 again  drawn out   
finer and finer1 and rewound on smaller 
bobbins4 ,the strand  of cotton known as
 speeder roving is now ready to be taken
 to the  spinning room for the final    
draft and twist necessary to turn it    
into  yarn4    ,illustration3 ,,spinning
 ,,frames4    ,the roving from the      
speeders is placed on the ,spinning     
,frames1 and now  undergoes its final   
draft as it passes through the spinning 
rolls4 ,the  attenuated fibres are then 
twisted firmly together by the action of
 the  spindles1 which turn at a speed of
 about #aj1jjj revolutions per minute4  
,the yarn thus formed is wound on       

bobbins and is ready to be dyed and     
weaved4    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cotton
 ,,is ,,ready ,,for ,,dyeing            
,,spoolers4    ,two kinds of yarn are   
delivered at the spinning frames1 known 
as warp  and filling1 which make        
respectively the lengthwise and         
crosswise  threads of the cloth4 ,the   
filling is in its completed form ready  
for  the loom2 the warp must first be   
gotten into shape for dyeing and then   
arranged in parallel rows or sheets of  
thread for weaving4 ,the first of  these
 processes is spooling1 and consists    
simply in unwinding the yarn  from the  
small bobbins on which it is spun1 and  
rewinding it on large  spools4          
,illustration3 ,,warpers4    ,the spools
 of warp yarn are placed in large wooden
 racks or creels from  which they can   
conveniently unwind4 ,the separate      
threads are drawn  through little wires 
in the warpers1 and are gathered into a 
bunch or  rope of threads1 which is     
wound in a large cylindrical ball known 

as a  warp4 ,if any thread breaks while 
passing through the warper1 the little  
wire drops and stops the machine4 ,in   
this way full count of threads and      
uniform weight of the goods is insured4 
,illustration3 ,,dye-,,house4    ,here  
the warps1 after being boiled and       
softened to enable the dye to           
penetrate1 are passed through the indigo
 vats4 ,several runs are made to  get   
the beautiful depth of color4 ,this     
,dye-house is equipped with one  hundred
 indigo vats1 and is one of the         
best-lighted and cleanest-kept          
dye-houses in the world4                
,illustration3 ,,where ,,the ,,cotton   
,,is ,,woven ,,into ,,cloth    ,,beaming
 ,,frames4    ,after being dyed1 the    
warps are washed and then passed through
 drying  machinery1 from which they are 
delivered in coils4 ,these are brought  
to the beaming frames1 where they are   
again spread out into sheets of         
parallel threads1 and passed through the
 teeth of a steel comb1 which  separates

 the threads and prevents tangling1 and 
in this form they are  wound on huge    
iron spools known as slasher beams4     
,illustration3 ,,slashers4    ,from the 
beaming frames the warps are taken to   
machines known as  ,slashers1 where they
 are sized or stiffened to enable them  
to stand the  chafing at the looms      
incidental to the process of weaving4   
,the slasher  beams are placed in an    
iron frame at the back of the slashers  
and  unwound together through the       
machine4 ,with them some additional     
threads  of white yarn are unwound at   
either side to form the selvage of the  
cloth4    ,illustration3 ,,weave ,,room4
    ,the sheet of warp threads unwinds  
from the loom beam1 receives the        
filling threads and is wound into a roll
 of cloth at the front of the  loom4    
,this weave room contains #bjjj looms4  
,it is #ijd feet long by #ahj  feet wide
 7about four acres7 and is the largest  
single weave room in  the world4        
,overhead is the roof1 which forms one  

vast sky-light1 being  of what is known 
as saw-tooth construction4 ,the vertical
 sides of the  teeth all face due north 
and are formed of ribbed glass1 which   
affords  the most perfect light to every
 section of the room4    ,illustration3 
,,the ,,cotton ,,cloth ,,finished       
,,inspecting ,,tables4    ,before going 
to the baling presses every yard of     
cotton cloth passes  under the vigilant 
eyes of the cloth inspectors1 who mark  
as seconds  and lay aside all pieces    
containing imperfections4 ,this         
inspection  is not a mere formality1 but
 is conducted most carefully1 and this  
department is specially located to get  
the best and most perfect light4        
,illustration3 ,,baling ,,presses4      
,the bolts of finished cloth are now    
placed in presses and made into  bales  
of finished cloth and are ready for the 
market4    ,illustration3 ,shipping     
platform of the ,white ,oak ,mills1     
,greensboro1 ,n4  ,c41 showing how the  
bales of finished cloth are handled in  

shipping4      ,pictures herewith by    
courtesy of ,white ,oak ,mills4         
,who ,discovered ,cotton8    ,just who  
discovered cotton is not known4 ,the    
early records are so  incomplete that no
 individual can be credited with the    
discovery of  the value of this         
wonderful plant4 ,long before ,csar's   
time1 among the  ,hindoos they had a law
 that if you stole a piece of cotton you
 were  fined three times its value4     
,most of the early nations were familiar
  with cotton--the early ,egyptians1    
,chinese and other ancient people used  
it and valued it4      ,what ,nation    
,produces the ,most ,cotton8    ,the    
,united ,states is the leader in the    
production of cotton1 as in many  other 
important world products4 ,we produce   
more than seventy-five per  cent of all 
the cotton grown in the world4 ,the     
remainder is practically  all grown by  
,east ,india1 ,egypt and ,brazil4       
,what is ,cotton ,used ,for8    ,the    
cotton plant is one of the wonder plants

 of the world1 when you  stop to think  
how well we could get along without wool
 or silk or other  fabrics if we had to4
    ,little would be lost to the world  
so far as actual comfort is concerned   
if all of the other fabric-making       
materials were lost4 ,we would sleep1   
as we often do now1 in beds the         
coverings of which were pure cotton1  in
 a room in which the rugs were woven    
from cotton1 the sun kept out  of the   
room by cotton window shades4 ,we could 
still have plenty of  good soap to wash 
our bodies and clothing1 for much of our
 soap to-day  is made from cotton-seed  
oil2 then we could use a cotton towel to
 dry  ourselves2 and put on a complete  
outfit of clothing made entirely of     
cotton4 ,white cotton table cloths and  
napkins are not so fine as linen2  they 
are good enough for anyone4 ,your       
breakfast rolls will taste quite  as    
well if baked with cottolene instead of 
lard2 the meat for your  dinner would be
 fed and fattened on cotton-seed meal   

and hulls as they  are now2 you would   
have butter made from cotton-seed that  
compares  favorably with the butter you 
now have on the table2 the tobacco in   
your cigar would continue to be grown   
under cotton cloth and packed in  cotton
 bags2 armies would still sleep under   
cotton tents and could use  gun-cotton  
to destroy the enemy4      ,what ,are   
the ,principal ,cotton ,cloths8         
,there are a great many different names 
given to cotton cloths1 but  they may in
 general be divided into five           
classes--plain goods1 twills1  sateen1  
fancy cloth and jacquard fabrics4 ,the  
cotton cloth in each of  these classes  
varies and goes by different names4 ,for
 instance1 in  ,plain ,goods1 the       
different kinds are lawn1 nainsook1     
sheeting1 mull1  print cloth1 madras4   
,the difference lies in the number of   
threads in  one inch of width1 the      
fineness and the weave4 ,the ,twills    
have lines  running diagonally and are  
used for linings mostly4 ,the difference

  is in the weaving4 ,denim1 largely    
used for overalls1 belongs to the  class
 of ,twills4 ,sateen is used for dress  
linings1 dresses and waists4  ,then     
there is the class of ,fancy ,cloths    
which is another kind of weave  used    
largely in children's clothes1 shirt    
waists1 etc41 and under  the name ,scrim
 is fine for draperies and towelling4   
,the other class1  ,jacquard ,fabrics1  
represents the most complicated form of 
weaving and  used largely under special 
individual names or brands for dress    
goods1  novelties1 etc4      ,how ,much 
,cotton ,cloth ,will a ,pound of ,cotton
 ,make8    ,when the cotton is spun into
 yarn it is no longer sold by the bale1 
but  by the pound4 ,it is impossible to 
make an exact statement of the amount   
of cotton cloth one pound of cotton yarn
 will make1 because of the  difference  
in weaving4 ,it has1 however1 been      
figured out that a pound  of cotton yarn
 should make      #c yards of sheeting1 
or    #c yards of muslin1 or    #i yards

 of lawn1 or    #g yards of calico1 or  
#e yards of gingham1 or    #eg spools of
 thread4    ,illustration3      ,picture
 by courtesy ,browne  ,howell ,co4      
,,christofori ,,piano ,,from ,,the      
,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1     
,,new ,,york ,,city4          ,the      
,story in a ,piano      ,what is ,music8
    ,music is one kind of sound4 ,all   
sounds1 whether musical or not1 are the 
result of sound waves in the air4 ,they 
travel almost exactly like the  waves of
 the water4 ,they go in circles in all  
directions at the same  speed and will  
go on forever unless they meet something
 that has the  ability to stop them4 ,if
 you drop a pebble into the exact center
 of a  basin of water1 you will see the 
ring of waves produced start from the   
point where the pebble entered the water
 and travel to the sides of the  vessel1
 which stop them4 ,also the pebble as it
 falls into the water  will make ring   
after ring of waves4    ,when you shout 
or ring or strike one of the keys of the

 piano you start  a sound wave or a     
series of them1 which you can hear as   
soon as the  sound wave strikes your    
ear4 ,when the series of waves is       
regular the  sound produced is a musical
 sound1 and when the sound waves are not
  regular in length we call it some     
other kind of a sound4    ,acting on the
 knowledge so learned1 man has devised  
numerous  instruments with which he can 
produce musical sounds1 such as the     
piano1 phonograph1 and many others4     
,who ,made the ,first ,piano8    ,the   
first real piano was made by ,bartolomeo
 ,christofori1 an ,italian4  ,he        
invented the little hammers by the aid  
of which the strings are  struck1 giving
 a clear tone instead of the scratching 
sound which  all the previous           
instruments produced4 ,it took two      
thousand years to  discover the value of
 the little hammers in making clearer   
notes4 ,his  first piano was made in    
#agji4 ,the word by which we call the   
instrument  pianoforte has1 however1    

been traced back as far as #aeih1 when  
it is  said to have been originated by  
an ,italian named ,paliarino4 ,the first
  piano made in ,america was produced by
 ,john ,behnud1 in ,philadelphia1 in    
#agge4      ,how ,was the ,piano        
,discovered8    ,,the ,,discovery ,,of  
,,stringed ,,musical ,,instruments      
,the piano is a stringed musical        
instrument4 ,the name pianoforte comes  
from two ,italian words meaning soft and
 loud1 and is accurately  descriptive of
 the piano because the notes can at will
 be made soft or  loud4 ,the piano is a 
development of the simplest form of     
making regular  sound vibrations by     
snapping or hammering a string of some  
kind which  is stretched tight and      
fastened at both ends4 ,we must go far  
back into  history to find the earliest 
traces of stringed instruments1 and even
  then we do not know where and when    
they originated1 for there seem to  be  
no records which help us to trace their 
origin4 ,we know that the  ,egyptians as

 far back as #ebe ,b4,c4 had stringed   
instruments1 but we only  know they had 
them--not where they got them or who    
made them4 ,there  is a legend that the 
,roman god ,mercury1 while walking along
 the ,nile  after the river had         
overflowed its banks and the land had   
again become  dry1 stubbed his toe on   
the shell of a dead tortoise4 ,he picked
 it up  to cast it aside and            
accidentally touched some strings of    
sinew with  his finger4 ,these strings  
were only what remained of the once live
  tortoise4 ,at the same time ,mercury  
heard a musical note and1 after  vainly 
trying to find a cause for the musical  
sound1 twanged the string  again and    
discovered the music in                 
tightly-stretched strings4 ,he set      
about making an instrument1 using the   
tortoise shell for the sound box  and   
stretching a number of strings of sinew 
across it4 ,this is only a  legend1 of  
course1 but if we examine the early     
musical instruments of  the ,greeks1    

which was the lyre1 we always find the  
representation of a  tortoise upon it4  
,other nations1 such as the early       
,chinese1 the ,persians1 the ,hindus and
  the ,hebrews1 had stringed instruments
 much resembling the lyre4 ,in the      
tombs of the great rulers of ,egypt are 
found representations of harps1  and one
 harp which had been buried in one of   
the tombs for more than  #cjjj years was
 actually found to be in good condition4
    ,illustration3 ,picture by courtesy 
,browne  ,howell ,co4    ,,dulcimer4    
,wherever we search among the records of
 early nations we find evidence  that   
they were familiar with the music       
obtainable from playing upon  stringed  
instruments1 but we have never been able
 to discover what  people or what       
persons first learned that music could  
be produced with  such instruments4     
,,the ,,first ,,stringed ,,musical      
,,instrument    ,the harp was probably  
the first practical stringed instrument4
 ,its  music was produced by picking the

 strings with the fingers or with a     
piece of bone or metal4    ,the next    
step was the psaltery1 which was        
produced in the ,middle ,ages4  ,it was 
a box with strings stretched across it  
and represented the first  crude attempt
 at using a sounding board4 ,a larger   
instrument which came  about the same   
time and was very like the psaltery1 was
 the dulcimer4  ,both were played by    
picking the strings with the finger or a
 small  piece of bone or other          
substance4    ,then came the keyboard1  
first used on stringed instruments in   
what  is called the clavicytherium4     
,this consisted of a box with cat-gut   
strings ranged in a semitriangle4 ,on   
the end of each key was a quill1  which 
picked the string when the key was      
operated4    ,after this came the       
clavichord4 ,it was built like a small  
square piano  without legs4 ,the strings
 were made of brass and on the end of   
each key  was a wedge-shaped piece of   
brass which picked the strings4 ,the    

elder  ,bach composed his music on the  
clavichord1 his favorite instrument1 and
  that is why the music written by ,bach
 is full of soft and melancholy  notes4 
,the clavichord produced only such      
notes4    ,the next steps brought the   
virginal1 spinet and harpsichord4 ,the  
strings on all three were of brass with 
quills at the key ends for  picking the 
strings4 ,the virginal and spinet were  
very much alike4 ,the  harpsichord was  
larger and sometimes was made with two  
keyboards4 ,these  instruments had notes
 covering four octaves only4            
,illustration3 ,picture by courtesy     
,browne  ,howell ,co4    ,,clavichord4  
,the arrangement of the strings in the  
harpsichord provided one step  nearer to
 our piano4 ,it had five octaves of     
notes and there were at  least two      
strings to each note instead of only    
one1 as in previous  instruments4       
,illustration3 ,picture by courtesy     
,browne  ,howell ,co4    ,,spinet4      
,why ,do ,we ,have ,only ,seven ,octaves

 ,on a ,piano8 ,why ,not ,twelve or     
,more  ,octaves8    ,ordinarily the     
longest key-board of the piano has seven
 octaves and  three notes in addition1  
or #eb notes1 not counting the sharps   
and  flats4 ,an octave you1 of course1  
know consists of the seven notes ,c ,d  
,e ,f ,g ,a ,b4 ,every eighth note is a 
repetition of the one seven notes  below
 or above4 ,the reason that there are no
 more notes or octaves on  the piano is 
that if we extended the key-board either
 way one or two  octaves more1 we should
 not be able to hear the notes struck on
 the  keys4 ,there would be sound       
produced1 or course1 but the vibrations 
would be too fine for the human ear to  
hear4 ,it is said that the range  of the
 human ear does not go beyond somewhere 
between eleven and twelve  octaves4     
,illustration3 ,picture by courtesy     
,browne  ,howell ,co4    ,,upright      
,,harpsichord4    7,from the            
,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,new     
,york ,city47    ,illustration3         

,picture by courtesy ,browne  ,howell   
,co4    ,,queen ,,elizabeth',s          
,,virginal4    ,illustration3 ,,how     
,,the ,,music ,,gets ,,into ,,the       
,,piano      ,photo by ,kohler          
,campbell ,piano ,co4    ,,putting ,,on 
,,the ,,sounding ,,board4    ,the first 
operation in producing the piano is to  
make a wooden frame  or back on which is
 attached first the sounding board1 then
 the iron1  harp-shaped frame to which  
the strings are fastened4    ,the tones 
of the piano are produced by            
felt-covered hammers striking  the      
strings4 ,the sounding board1 which is  
made of wood1 magnifies the  tones4     
,this picture shows the mechanics       
glueing the sounding board to the  back4
    ,illustration3      ,photo by       
,kohler  ,campbell ,piano ,co4          
,,fastening ,,the ,,strings4    ,the    
strings are hitched on to pins in the   
iron frame at its lower end  and        
fastened at the upper end by a metal pin
 or peg driven into the  back4 ,the peg 

is square on top1 so that it can be     
turned with a tuning  hammer or wrench  
in order to tighten or slacken the      
strings1 which is  the operation of     
tuning the piano4    ,illustration3     
,,the ,,little ,,hammers ,,which        
,,strike ,,the ,,piano ,,strings        
,photo by ,kohler  ,campbell ,piano ,co4
    ,,building ,,the ,,case ,,around    
,,the ,,sounding ,,board4    ,as soon as
 the sounding board with its iron frame 
and strings is  complete1 the outside   
case is built up around it1 the front   
being left  open to receive the action  
and key-board4    ,illustration3        
,photo by ,kohler  ,campbell ,piano ,co4
    ,,attaching ,,the ,,little ,,hammers
 ,,that ,,strike ,,the ,,strings4    ,in
 this picture the workmen are placing   
the action and keys1 to which  are      
attached the little wooden felt-covered 
hammers1 which will strike  the strings 
and produce the tones4 ,it took a great 
many years for our  musical instrument  
makers to hit upon the idea of using    

these little  hammers1 and thus make the
 piano a perfect instrument4            
,illustration3 ,,regulating ,,the       
,,action ,,of ,,the ,,piano      ,photo 
by ,kohler  ,campbell ,piano ,co4       
,,regulating ,,the ,,action ,,and       
,,keyboard4    ,this picture shows the  
piano partly assembled and the workmen  
adjusting  each little black and white  
key to the proper touch4                
,illustration3      ,photo by ,kohler   
,campbell ,piano ,co4    ,,tuning1      
,,polishing ,,and ,,finishing4    ,the  
piano is now complete except for        
polishing and tuning4 ,the tuning  is   
left to the last4 ,the tuner must have a
 good ear for music4 ,with  his key he  
tightens or loosens each of the pegs to 
which the wires are  attached until it  
is perfectly in tune and all in harmony4
 ,the piano is  now ready to play upon4 
,how ,sounds ,are ,produced4      ,if   
you look closely at a tuning fork1 or a 
piano string1 while it  is sounding1 you
 can see that it is swinging rapidly to 

and fro1 or  vibrating4 ,touch it with  
your finger and thus stop its vibration 
and it  no longer produces sound4 ,the  
only difference that you can discover in
  the fork or string when sounding and  
when silent is that when you stop  the  
motion it is silent and when it vibrates
 it makes a sound4 ,from  this we learn 
that the sounds are due to the          
vibrations of sounding  bodies4 ,this   
has been proven by the examination of so
 many sounding  bodies that we believe  
that all sounds are produced by         
vibrations4    ,the question that next  
presents itself is1 how the vibrations  
affect  our ears1 so as to produce the  
sensation of hearing4 ,this may be made 
clear by a very simple1 but striking1   
experiment4 ,if a bell which has  been  
arranged to be rung by clock-work is    
suspended under the receiver  of an air 
pump1 and the air pumped out1 the sound 
of the bell will grow  faint as the     
quantity of air in the receiver         
decreases1 and finally  will stop       

completely4 ,by looking through the     
glass of the receiver1  however1 the    
bell may be seen ringing as vigorously  
as at first4 ,we  learn thus that the   
air around a sounding body plays an     
important part  in the transmission of  
the vibrations to our ears4 ,the way in 
which  the air acts in transmitting the 
vibrations is as follows4 ,at each      
vibration of the sounding body1 it      
compresses1 to a certain degree1  a     
layer of air in front of it4 ,this      
layer1 however1 does not remain         
compressed1 for air is very elastic1 and
 the compressed air soon  expands1 and  
in doing so compresses a layer of air   
just beyond it4 ,this  layer expands in 
its turn1 and compresses another layer  
still further  from the body4 ,in this  
way waves of compression are sent       
through the  air1 at each vibration1 in 
all directions from the vibrating body4 
,it must not be thought that particles  
of air travel all the way from  the     
vibrating body to the ear when a sound  

is heard4 ,each particle of  air travels
 a very short distance1 never any       
further than the vibrating  body moves  
in making a vibration1 and the movement 
of the air particles  is a vibratory    
one1 like that of the sounding body4    
,but the particles  of air near the     
sounding body communicate their         
vibrations to other  particles1 further 
from that body1 and these1 in turn1 to  
others still  further away1 so1 while   
the particles of air themselves move    
very short  distances1 the waves        
produced by their vibrations may be made
 to travel  a considerable distance4    
,the size of a sound wave ordinarily is 
very small1 but sound waves are         
sometimes made of such size and strength
 as to strike our ears with  a force    
sufficient to rupture the ear drum4     
,such large and forceful  waves come    
during explosions1 such as the          
discharges of cannon or the  explosions 
of large quantities of gunpowder under  
any conditions4          ,what ,is      

,sound8      ,from what has already been
 said1 you will probably answer that    
sounds  are waves in the air1 which     
produce the sensation of hearing4 ,this 
is correct1 but sound is not limited to 
vibrations of the air4 ,other  elastic  
substances can be made to vibrate in the
 same way1 and the  waves so produced   
when conveyed to our ears1 produce the  
sensation of  hearing4 ,if you put your 
ear under water and then strike two     
stones  together in the water you will  
hear a sound as readily as you would in 
air4 ,sound waves may be transmitted by 
solid bodies also1 and some of  these   
are better for this purpose than air or 
liquids4 ,perhaps you have  tried the   
experiment of placing your ear against  
one of the steel rails  on a railroad   
track to listen for the coming of a     
distant train4 ,if you  have tried this1
 you know that a sound that is too      
faint1 or is made  too far away1 to be  
heard through the air1 can easily be    
heard through  the rail4    ,in view of 

the fact that other substances than air 
can be thrown into  waves that will     
affect the sense of hearing1 we may     
define sound as  vibrations in any      
elastic object1 that produces the       
sensation of  hearing4    ,the          
definition is sometimes called the      
physical definition of sound1  in       
contradistinction to the physiological  
definition of sound which  is given as  
the sensation produced when vibrations  
in elastic  substances are conveyed to  
our ears4 ,you will see then that sound 
when  referring to the physical         
definition is what makes sound known in 
the  physiological definition4 ,the term
 sound alone1 without qualifications1   
may have either meaning1 and therefore  
statements concerning sound may  be     
misleading1 unless we are exact in      
explaining the sense in which the  word 
is used4          ,how ,fast ,does      
,sound ,travel8      ,when a sound is   
made close to us1 it reaches our ears so
 quickly that  it seems as though it    

took no time to travel2 but when a gun  
is fired  by a person at a distance1 you
 will notice that after you see the     
flash  of the gun1 a little time elapses
 before the sound reaches your ear4 ,it 
takes a little time for the light from  
the flash to get to your eyes1  but a   
very short time1 which you cannot       
appreciate4 ,sound travels much  more   
slowly and the time it takes to travel a
 few hundred yards is  noticeable4      
,accurate measurements of the speed of  
sound have been made1  and it has been  
found that sound usually travels in air 
at a speed of  about eleven hundred feet
 a second4 ,the speed is not always the 
same1  however1 for a number of         
circumstances may cause it to vary4 ,in 
air  which is heated1 the speed at which
 sound travels in it is increased       
because hot air expands4 ,at the        
freezing point1 sound travels through   
the air at the rate of #a1jia feet a    
second1 and for every increase  in      
temperature of one degree of heat1 the  

speed is increased about  thirteen      
inches a second4 ,accordingly at #fh ,f4
 the speed would be  approximately      
#a1acj feet a second4 ,sounds also      
travel faster in moist  air than in dry4
    ,in other gases the speed of sound  
transmission may be greater or less     
than in air4 ,for example1 in hydrogen  
gas1 which is much lighter than  air1   
sound travels nearly four times as fast 
as it does in air4 ,on the  other hand1 
in carbonic acid gas1 which is heavier  
than air1 sound is  transmitted more    
slowly4    ,in liquids1 which are always
 heavier than air1 you would naturally  
think that sound would travel more      
slowly than in air1 but this is not     
true4 ,liquids are less compressible    
than gases and this causes the  speed   
with which sound is transmitted in them 
to be increased4 ,in water  sound       
travels about four times as fast as in  
air4          ,what ,are the ,properties
 of ,sound8      ,sounds differ from    
each other by the extent to which they  

possess three  qualities1 namely2       
intensity1 pitch and quality4    ,the   
intensity of any sound that we hear     
depends upon the size of  the waves that
 reach our ears4 ,the size of a sound   
wave gradually  decreases1 as the wave  
travels from its starting point1        
consequently  the intensity of a sound  
depends upon the distance from the point
  at which the sound was produced4 ,we  
know this from experience and  if we    
think of the matter for a moment we will
 see why it is so4 ,at  the start of a  
sound wave1 only a small quantity of air
 is affected1  but for every inch it    
travels the quantity of air to which the
 wave  is conveyed becomes larger1 and  
the intensity of the waves must grow    
correspondingly smaller1 just as when a 
pebble is dropped into water1  the      
ripples produced by it are highest at   
the point where the pebble  struck the  
water1 and grows lower and lower as     
their circle widens4    ,it has been    
found possible to measure the intensity 

of a sound wave1  at different distances
 from the point from which it started1  
and from  these measurements it has been
 learned that the decrease in the open  
air1 follows a fixed rule that is stated
 thus3 the intensity of a  sound wave at
 any point is inversely proportional to 
the square of  its distance from its    
starting point4 ,this rule is called    
8the law  of inverse square10 and it    
means that if the intensity of a wave be
  measured at two points1 distant say   
one hundred1 and two hundred yards1     
respectively1 from the starting point of
 the sound1 the intensity of  the sound 
at the first point will be found to be  
four times as great as  at the second   
point4          ,why ,can ,you ,hear    
,more ,easily ,through a ,speaking      
,tube8      ,we have seen that the      
decrease in intensity of a sound wave as
 it  travels through the air1 is due to 
the fact that the quantity of  air set  
in motion by it is constantly           
increasing4 ,but1 if a wave is  conveyed

 through a tube containing air1 the     
quantity of air to which  the vibrations
 are communicated does not increase as  
the wave travels  forward1 and          
theoretically there is no decrease in   
intensity4 ,when a  wave is actually    
transmitted in this way1 however1 it is 
found that  there is some decrease in   
intensity on account of the friction of 
the  particles of air against the sides 
of the tube2 but the decrease from  this
 cause is much slower than that which   
occurs in the open air1 and             
consequently sounds can be heard at much
 greater distances through  tubes than  
through the open air4 ,tubes for        
speaking purposes are  frequently used  
to connect different parts of the same  
building1 and if  the tubes are not too 
crooked they serve their purpose very   
well4    ,pitch is that property of     
sounds that determines whether they are 
high  or low4 ,the pitch of a sound     
depends upon the number of vibrations  a
 second which the body that produces it 

makes4 ,the sound of an  explosion has  
no pitch because it makes but one wave  
in the air4 ,the  sound made by a wagon 
on a pavement has no definite pitch1 for
 it is  a mixture of sounds1 in which   
the number of vibrations per second is  
not the same4 ,pitch is a property of   
continuous sounds only1 and it is       
apparent chiefly in musical sounds1 by  
which we mean sounds in which  the      
vibrations are continuous and regular4  
,in music1 however1 pitch  is very      
important4 ,in a musical instrument1 the
 parts are so arranged  that the sounds 
produced can be given any desired pitch1
 and it is by  controlling the pitch    
that the pleasing effect of musical     
sounds in  large measure is produced4   
,sounds of low pitch are produced by    
bodies  making but a few vibrations a   
second while high-pitched sounds are    
made  by bodies that vibrate rapidly4   
,quality1 may be defined as that        
property of sounds which enable us to   
distinguish the notes produced by       

different instruments4 ,two notes1  one 
of which is produced upon a piano1 and  
the other upon a violin1  may have the  
same pitch and be equally loud1 yet they
 are easily  distinguishable4 ,the      
difference in them is due to the        
presence of what  are called overtones4 
,what ,is ,meant ,by the ,length of     
,sound ,waves8      ,the length of a    
sound wave embraces the distance from   
the point of  greatest compression in   
one wave to the same point in the next4 
,this  depends upon the pitch for if a  
sounding body is making one hundred     
vibrations a second1 by the time the one
 hundredth vibration is made1  the wave 
from the first vibration will have      
travelled about eleven  hundred feet    
from the starting point1 and the        
remaining ninety-eight  waves will lie  
between the first and the one hundredth4
 ,in consequence  of this1 the wave     
length for that particular sound will be
 about eleven  feet4 ,if the sounding   
body had made eleven hundred vibrations 

a second  by the time the first wave had
 travelled eleven hundred feet1 there   
would have been eleven hundred waves    
produced1 and the wave length for  that 
sound would be one foot4 ,the wave      
lengths of sounds produced by  the human
 voice usually lay between one and eight
 feet1 though some  singers have        
produced notes having wave lengths as   
great as eighteen  feet1 and others have
 reached notes so high that the wave    
length was  only about nine inches4     
,when a tuning fork is struck1 it       
produces a sound so faint that it can   
scarcely be heard unless the fork is    
held near the ear2 but if the end  of   
the fork is held on a box or table1 the 
sound rings out loudly and  seems to    
come from the table4 ,the explanation of
 this is very simple4  ,when only the   
fork vibrates1 it produces very small   
sound waves1  because its prongs are    
small and cut through the air4 ,but when
 it is  set on a box or table1 its      
vibrations are communicated to the      

support1  and the broader surface of the
 box or table sets a larger mass of air 
in vibration1 and so amplifies the sound
 of the fork4 ,when a surface  is used  
in this way to reinforce the vibrations 
of a small body1 and  thus produce sound
 waves of greater volume1 it is called a
 sounding  board4 ,many musical         
instruments1 like the violin and the    
piano1 owe  the intensity of their      
sounds to sounding boards1 which        
reinforce the  vibrations of their      
strings4    ,,what ,a ,,sounding ,,board
 ,,does    ,columns of air1 like        
sounding boards1 serve to reinforce     
sound waves4  ,unlike sounding boards1  
however1 they do not respond equally    
well to a  large number of different    
sounds4 ,they respond to one sound only1
 or  to several widely different ones4  
,this may be shown as follows3 ,take a  
glass tube about sixteen inches long1   
and two inches in diameter1 and  after  
thrusting one end of it into a vessel of
 water1 hold a vibrating  tuning fork   

over the other end4 ,by gradually       
lowering the tube into the  water a     
point will be reached at which the sound
 becomes very loud1 and  as this point  
is passed the sound gradually dies away 
again4 ,by raising  the tube again the  
sound is again made loud when the tube  
reaches a  certain point4 ,this shows   
that to reinforce sound waves of a      
certain  vibration frequency1 the column
 of air in the tube must be of certain  
length4    ,let us now see why the waves
 produced by the tuning fork are        
reinforced  only by a column of air of a
 certain length4 ,when the prongs of the
  fork make a vibration1 a wave of air  
is produced which enters the tube1  goes
 down to the water1 is reflected1 and   
comes back toward the fork4  ,now1 if   
the reflected wave reaches the fork at  
the precise moment when  it has         
completed one-half of its vibration and 
is about to begin upon  the second half1
 it will strengthen the wave produced by
 the second  half of the vibration2 but 

if the reflected wave reaches the fork  
before or after the beginning of the    
second half of the vibration1 it  will  
not reinforce it4 ,at the downward      
movement of the lower prong of  the     
tuning fork1 a wave of compression is   
sent down into the tube1 and  is        
reflected at the surface of the water4  
,in order to reinforce the  wave        
produced by the prong when it moves     
upward1 the reflected wave  must reach  
the fork just at the time that the prong
 reaches its normal  position and before
 it starts upon the second half of its  
vibration4    ,not only do columns of   
air tend to reinforce notes having a    
certain  rate of vibration1 but all     
elastic bodies have a certain rate at   
which  they tend to vibrate1 and when   
sounds having the same rate of vibration
  are produced near them1 these bodies  
will vibrate in sympathy with  them4 ,if
 the sounds be kept up long enough1 the 
sympathetic vibrations  in objects near 
them sometimes become so great that they

 can easily be  seen4 ,goblets and      
tumblers made of thin glass show this   
property very  strikingly4 ,when the    
proper notes are sounded the glasses    
take up the  vibrations1 and give a     
sound of the same pitch4 ,if the note is
 loud1  and is continued for some time1 
the vibrations of a glass sometimes     
become so great that the glass breaks4  
,large buildings1 and bridges  also1    
have rates at which they tend to        
vibrate1 and this fact is the           
foundation for the old saying1 that a   
man may fiddle a bridge down1 if  he    
fiddles long enough4          ,musical  
,instruments4      ,by musical sounds1  
are meant sounds that are pleasant to   
hear1 and  their combination in such a  
way that their effect is agreeable      
produces music4 ,any instrument1        
therefore1 that is capable of producing 
pleasing sounds may be called a musical 
instrument1 and music is  sometimes     
produced by very odd devices2 but by    
musical instruments we  ordinarily mean 

instruments that are especially designed
 to produce  musical sounds4 ,the number
 of such instruments that have been     
invented  is enormous1 but all of them  
may be divided into comparatively few   
classes1 only two of which are of much  
importance4 ,the two classes1  only two 
of which are of much importance4 ,the   
two classes referred to  are stringed   
instruments and wind instruments4       
,,what ,,pitch ,,is ,,in ,,music        
,stringed musical instruments are those 
in which the sounds are produced  by the
 vibration of a number of strings1 and  
are generally reinforced  by a sounding 
board4 ,the strings are arranged in the 
instruments in  such a way that the     
pitch of the sound produced by each     
string shall  bear relation to the pitch
 of those obtained from the other       
strings4 ,as  long as this relation     
exists1 the instrument is said to be in 
tune1 and  when the relation is         
destroyed1 the instrument is out of     
tune1 and the  music produced by it is  

apt to contain what we call discords4   
,the conditions that determine the pitch
 of sounds produced by strings  can be  
very easily discovered by experiment4   
,thus1 by taking two pieces  of the same
 wire1 one twice as long as the other1  
and stretching them  equally1 you will  
observe on striking them that the       
shorter one yields  the higher note4 ,if
 their vibration frequencies are        
measured it will  be found that the     
shorter string has a vibration frequency
 just twice  as great as that of the    
longer string4 ,from this we conclude   
that when  two strings of the same size 
7and material7 are stretched equally    
taut1  their vibration frequencies are  
inversely proportional to their lengths4
    ,by now taking two pieces of wire1  
of the same size and length1 and        
stretching them so that the tension of  
one is four times as great as  that of  
the other1 we shall find that the       
vibration frequency of the  tighter     
string is just twice as great as that of

 the looser4 ,thus1 we  see that the    
vibration frequency depends upon the    
tension applied to a  string1 and1 that 
in strings of the same size and length1 
the vibration  frequencies are          
proportional to the square roots of     
their tensions4    ,now taking two      
strings of the same length1 but with the
 diameter of one  twice as great as that
 of the other1 and stretching them      
equally1 we  shall find that the        
vibration frequency of the smaller      
string is twice  that of the larger2    
which shows that when the lengths and   
tensions  of two strings are equal1     
their vibration frequencies are         
inversely  proportional to their        
diameters4    ,in constructing stringed 
instruments1 advantage is taken of each 
of these conditions that affect the     
vibration of strings1 and the  requisite
 pitch is secured in a string by        
choosing one of convenient  length and  
diameter1 and by stretching it to just  
the right tension4    ,when a string is 

plucked in the middle1 it vibrates as a 
whole1 and  its rate of vibration1 or   
vibration frequency1 is determined by   
the  three conditions that have just    
been discussed2 but if a finger is  laid
 on the string1 in the middle1 and the  
string is plucked between  the middle   
and the end1 the string will vibrate in 
halves1 and the  middle point will      
remain at rest4 ,if the string had been 
touched at a  point one-fourth of the   
length from the end it would have       
vibrated in  fourths1 and there would   
have been three stationary points4      
,when vibrations are set up in a string1
 with nothing to prevent the  free      
vibration of the whole string1 it first 
vibrates as a whole1 and  the sound     
produced is known as the fundamental    
tone of the string2 but  very soon      
smaller vibrations of segments of the   
string begin1 first  of halves of the   
string1 then of thirds1 and then of     
fourths4 ,these  smaller vibrations     
produce sound waves that blend with the 

fundamental  tone and are known as      
overtones4 ,the combined sound of the   
fundamental  tone and the overtones is  
called a note4 ,the overtones present in
  notes that have the same fundamental  
tone are not the same when the  notes   
are produced by different instruments1  
and1 consequently1  the sound of notes  
of the same pitch is not the same on    
different  instruments4 ,this difference
 in notes of the same pitch has already 
been mentioned1 but the way in which    
overtones are produced was not          
explained in connection with it4    ,in 
wind instruments the sounds are produced
 by the vibrations of  columns of air in
 pipes4 ,in the organ1 which is probably
 the best  example of a wind instrument1
 the vibrations are usually produced by 
causing a current of air to strike a    
sharp edge1 just above the opening  of  
the pipe1 as is done in a common        
whistle4 ,a portion of the air  current 
is deflected into the organ pipe1 and it
 sets up vibrations in  the air within  

the pipe4    ,the pitch of the sound    
produced by an organ pipe is determined 
by the  length of the pipe4 ,a pipe that
 is open at both ends1 called an open   
pipe1 produces a sound that has a wave  
length twice as great as the  length of 
the pipe2 and if the pipe is open at one
 end only1 a closed  pipe1 the sound    
produced has a wave length twice the    
length of the open  pipe4 ,hence it will
 be seen that a closed pipe produces a  
sound that  has the same pitch as that  
produced by an open pipe that is twice  
as  long4          ,talking ,machines4  
,the phonograph1 graphophone1           
gramophone1 sonophone1 and other talking
  machines1 furnish one of the best     
proofs of the wave theory of sound1     
because their invention was based upon  
that theory4 ,the first talking  machine
 was that invented by ,thomas ,a4       
,edison and called by him the           
phonograph4 ,the others merely show the 
principle of the phonograph  applied in 
different ways1 and need not be         

separately described4 ,the  reasoning   
that led ,edison to invent the          
phonograph was that if the  sound waves 
produced by the human voice were allowed
 to strike a thick  disk of hard rubber 
or metal1 they would cause the disk to  
vibrate in  a certain way1 and if the   
disk were again made to vibrate as it   
had  done under the influence of the    
voice1 the sounds of the voice would be 
reproduced4 ,the difficult part of the  
task of making a talking machine  was in
 finding a way to make the disk vibrate 
again as it did under  the influence of 
the voice4 ,this1 however1 was finally  
accomplished1  providing the disk with a
 needle1 that rests on a cylinder of    
hard  wax1 which turns slowly under the 
point of the needle while the sound     
waves are striking the disk4 ,the       
vibrations of the disk cause the point  
to indent the surface of the wax so as  
to produce a groove of varying  depth on
 its surface4 ,after the vibrations of  
the speaker's voice have  been recorded 

in this way on the surface of the wax   
cylinder the needle  can be made to     
retrace its path1 and will cause the    
disk to vibrate as  it did under the    
tones of the speaker's voice4 ,these    
last vibrations of  the disk produce    
sound waves similar to those of the     
voice1 but their  amplitude is less and 
the sound is not so loud4          ,why 
,does ,red ,make a ,bull ,angry8        
,it is very doubtful if a red flag      
really makes a bull more excited or     
more quickly than a rag of any other    
color or any other object which  the    
bull can see plainly but does not       
understand4 ,conceding for the  moment  
that red excites a bull more than any   
other color1 the answer to  the question
 will be found in the statement that    
anything unusual which  the bull sees   
has a tendency to make him angry and the
 thing which he  can see at a distance  
more quickly will start him going most  
quickly4  ,he can see a red rag better  
perhaps than almost any other color4    

,there  may be something about the color
 which excites him just as some notes   
on the piano will worry some dogs1 but  
there is no way of studying the  bull's 
anatomy to determine why red should     
excite him more than any  other color1  
if that is so4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#a4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4          ,,how
 ,a ,,key ,,turns ,a ,,lock      ,what  
,happens ,when the ,knob is ,turned8    
,all of that portion of the lock which  
is shown above the round central  post  
is operated by the knob1 the spindle of 
which passes through the  square hole4  
,before the knob is turned1 the parts   
are in the position  shown in figure #b1
 with the latch bolt protruding4        
,turning the knob to  the left gives the
 position shown in figure #a1 the upper 
lever in the  hub pushing back the yoke1
 which in turn pushes back the latch    
bolt4  ,when the hand is removed1 the   
springs cause the parts to return to the
  position shown in figure #b4 ,turning 

the knob to the right also retracts  the
 latch bolt1 as shown in figure #c1 by  
means of the lower lever on  the hub4   
,the spiral spring on the latch bolt is 
lighter than the one above  it4 ,this   
gives an easy1 lively action to the     
bolt1 with very little  friction when   
the door is closed1 while the heavier   
spring above gives  a quick and positive
 action of the knobs4      ,what        
,happens ,when the ,key is ,turned8     
,all of that portion of the lock which  
is shown below the round central  post  
is operated by the key4 ,the square stud
 is attached to the bolt1  and in figure
 #a1 it is seen that the projections on 
the flat tumblers  prevent the stud from
 moving forward1 holding the bolt in    
retracted  position4 ,when the key is   
turned as shown in figure #b1 it raises 
the  tumblers releasing the stud1 and   
then pushes the bolt out1 the tumblers  
falling into position as shown in figure
 #c1 with the projections  again        
engaging the stud and preventing the    

bolt from moving until the  key is      
turned backward1 again raising the      
tumblers and releasing and  retracting  
the bolt4      ,how ,key ,changes ,are  
,provided4    ,there are three ways in  
which keys are made individual to the   
locks  they fit4    a4 ,by changing the 
shape of the keyhole4 ,this may be done 
shorter or  longer1 wide or narrow1     
straight or tapering and with           
projections on  the sides which the key 
must fit1 making it difficult or        
impossible  for keys of a different     
class to enter the lock4 ,in the lock   
shown1 a  projection on the keyhole will
 be noted1 fitting a groove in the bit  
of  the key4    b4 ,by wards attached to
 the lock-case4 ,the two crescent-shaped
 wards  seen near the key in figure #b  
illustrate this feature4 ,similar wards 
are placed on the lock cover4 ,these fit
 into the two notches shown on  the key 
bit in figure #d1 and their shape and   
position are varied at  will4    c4 ,by 
changes in the tumblers4 ,there are five

 flat tumblers in the  lock shown1 and  
their lower edges fit into the end of   
the key bit4  ,by varying their height1 
changes in the cutting of the key are   
made  necessary4    ,the security of a  
lock depends very largely upon its being
 so made that  no key will operate it   
except the one which belongs to it1 and 
this  is obtained by guarding the       
keyhole by means of a1 by preventing    
the wrong key from turning by means of  
b1 and by still further  limitations by 
means of c4    ,illustration3 ,,how ,a  
,,cylinder ,,lock ,,works               
,illustration3 ,,figure #a4 ,,parts ,,of
 ,,cylinder ,,lock4    ,illustration3   
,,figure #b4    ,,face ,,of ,,cylinder  
,,lock4      ,the ,cylinder ,lock4      
,door locks of the highest grade of     
security are made with a locking        
cylinder1 which contains tumblers in the
 form of miniature bolts which  make it 
impossible to operate the lock except   
with the key to which it  is fitted4    
,this is screwed into the lock-case     

through the side of the  door1 with the 
lever on the inner end engaging the end 
of the bolt in  the lock1 so that as it 
is moved it either retracts or 8throws0 
the  bolt as desired4    ,figure #a     
shows all the parts of a modern         
master-keyed lock4 ,figure  #d shows a  
broken view of the cylinder with all    
parts in position4  ,figure #c shows a  
simpler form used when the master key is
 not desired4  ,figure #b shows the     
front1 the only part which is visible   
when the lock  is in use1 with its      
keyway of tortuous shape which will not 
admit  flat-picking tools4    ,when the 
lock is assembled1 the pin tumblers     
project through the shell1  the master  
cylinder and the key plug holding all   
parts firmly bolted or  fastened        
together4 ,when the proper key is       
inserted1 the tumblers are  raised until
 the 8breaks0 in all of them coincide   
with the surface of  the key plug1      
releasing it and permitting the key to  
turn it4 ,if any  one of the five       

tumblers is 4#jjb inch too high or too  
low1 the key will  not turn2 so that no 
key except the one made for the lock can
 be used4    ,in the master-keyed lock1 
the master key causes the breaks to     
coincide  with the outer surface of the 
master ring4 ,it is thus possible to    
have a master key which will fit any    
desired number of locks with the        
individual or change keys all different 
from each other and from the  master    
key4    ,the balls reduce friction to   
such an extent that a key has been      
inserted and withdrawn for a million    
times without affecting the  accuracy of
 the lock4    ,illustration3 ,,figure   
#c4    ,,interior ,,of ,,cylinder ,,lock
 ,,without ,,master ,,key4              
,illustration3 ,,figure #d4             
,,interior ,,of ,,master-,,keyed        
,,cylinder ,,lock4          ,where ,does
 ,salt ,come ,from8      ,salt is one of
 the things with which we come in       
contact with daily  perhaps more than   
any other4 ,with the exception of water1

 probably no  one thing is used more by 
all civilized people than salt4    ,you 
have already learned in our talk on     
elements the difference between  a mere 
mixture of substances and a chemical    
compound4 ,you remember  that when some 
substances are only mixed together1 they
 do not lose  their identity4 ,in a     
compound the substances are always      
combined in  fixed proportions and the  
properties of the compound are often    
very  different from those of the things
 that make it4 ,common salt is made of  
two substances1 that are not at all like
 salt1 and are very different  from each
 other4 ,one1 sodium1 is a soft1 bluish 
metal1 and the other is  chlorine1 a    
yellowish-green gas4 ,the chemical name 
for salt is sodium  chloride which is   
derived from the two names sodium and   
chlorine4    ,sodium and chlorine are   
both what we have learned to call       
elements4 ,an  element being a substance
 which cannot be separated into         
substances  of different kinds4 ,there  

are now known about seventy such        
elements4  ,all the substances around us
 are composed of these elements alone1  
or  chemically united in different      
compounds1 or simply mixed together4    
,most of them1 however1 are mixtures1   
not of separate elements1 but of        
compounds4 ,the soil under our feet is a
 mixture of compounds4 ,water is  also a
 compound4 ,pure compounds very rarely  
occur naturally4 ,salt is  sometimes    
found almost pure2 but generally is     
mixed with so many other  things that we
 have to take them out to get absolutely
 pure salt4 ,for  practical every-day   
use it is unnecessary to purify the     
salt4    ,salt is found in large        
quantities in the sea water1 in which it
 is  dissolved with some other          
substances4 ,it is also found in salt   
beds1  formed by the drying up of old   
lakes that have no outlets2 salt wells1 
that yield strong brine2 and salt mines1
 in which it is found in hard1  solid1  
transparent crystals1 called rock salt4 

,rock salt is the purest  form in which 
salt is found and1 to prepare it for    
market1 it is merely  necessary to grind
 it or cut into blocks4 ,the greatest   
deposit of salt  in the world is        
probably that at ,wielizka in ,poland1  
where there is a  bed #ejj miles long1  
#bj miles wide1 and #a1bjj feet thick4  
,some of the  mines there are so        
extensive that it is said some of the   
miners spend  all their lives in them1  
never coming to the surface of the      
earth4    ,a trip through these mines is
 interesting4 ,in one of them can be    
seen  a church made entirely of salt4   
,the salt supply of the ,united ,states 
is obtained chiefly from the salt wells 
of ,michigan and ,new ,york1 the  ,great
 ,salt ,lake in ,utah1 and the rock-salt
 mines of ,louisiana and  ,kansas4      
,in the arts and manufactures1 the most 
important uses of salt are  in glazing  
earthenware1 in extracting metals from  
their ores1 in  preserving meats and    
hides1 in fertilizing arid soil1 and    

also1 as we  shall presently see1 in the
 manufacture of soda4 ,of equal         
importance1  perhaps1 is its use in     
food4 ,most people think it not only    
lends a  pleasant flavor1 but is itself 
an important article of diet4 ,it is    
certain1 that all people who can obtain 
it use salt in their food1 and  where it
 is scarce1 it is considered one of the 
greatest of luxuries4    ,soda is of    
interest to us1 not so much on account  
of its use in  our households1 as       
because it plays on extremely important 
part in  two industries that contribute 
greatly to our comfort1 viz41 the       
manufacture of glass and soap4    ,soda 
is not found naturally in great         
abundance1 as salt is1 but is  generally
 made from other substances4 ,formerly  
it was made almost  entirely from the   
ashes of certain plants4 ,one1 known as 
the ,salsoda  soda-plant1 was formerly  
cultivated in ,spain for the soda       
contained  in it1 and the ashes1 or     
,barilla1 as they were called1 were     

soaked in  water to dissolve out the    
soda4 ,now1 however1 the world's soda   
supply  is produced from common salt by 
two processes1 known from the names of  
their inventors as the ,leblanc and     
,solvay processes4    ,,where ,,we ,,get
 ,,soda    ,in the ,leblanc process the 
first step is to treat the salt1 or     
sodium  chloride1 with sulphuric acid4  
,as a result of this1 a compound of     
sodium1 sulphur1 and oxygen1 called     
sodium sulphate is formed1 together     
with another acid containing hydrogen   
and chlorine1 and called  hydrochloric  
acid4 ,this acid is driven off by       
boiling1 and the sodium  sulphate is    
left4    ,the next step in the process  
is to convert the sodium sulphate1 or   
8salt cake10 into soda1 or1 to give it  
its chemical name1 sodium  carbonate4   
,this change is brought about by mixing 
the salt cake with  limestone and coal  
and heating the mixture4 ,just what     
changes go on  when this is done1 are   
not known1 but the chief ones are       

probably the  following3 the coal1 which
 consists for the most part of an       
element  called carbon1 takes the oxygen
 out of the sodium sulphate1 and unites 
with it to form carbonic acid gas1      
leaving a compound of sodium and        
sulphur called sodium sulphide2 this    
acts on the limestone1 which is         
composed of a metal1 calcium1 in        
combination with carbon and oxygen1  and
 causes the sulphur in the sodium       
sulphide to combine with the  calcium1  
forming calcium sulphide1 while the     
sodium combines with the  carbon and    
oxygen and forms the desired compound1  
sodium carbonate4  ,after the heating1  
the resulting mass which contains       
calcium sulphide1  sodium carbonate1 and
 some unburned coal1 and is known as    
8black  ash10 is broken up and treated  
with water4 ,this dissolves the sodium  
carbonate1 leaving the rest undissolved1
 and when part of the water is          
evaporated crystals containing sodium   
carbonate and water are formed4  ,by    

heating these the water may be driven   
off1 and the sodium carbonate  left     
behind as a white powder4    ,the       
,solvay1 or ammonia soda1 process       
consists in forcing carbonic acid  gas  
through strong brine1 to which a        
considerable quantity of ammonia  has   
been added4 ,when this is done1 crystals
 are formed in the brine1  which are    
composed of a compound of hydrogen1     
sodium1 carbon1 and  oxygen1 and are    
called sodium bicarbonate4 ,this        
substance1 which is the  soda we        
sometimes use in baking bread1 is       
decomposed by heating1 into  water and  
sodium carbonate1 the soda used for     
washing4    ,the ,leblanc process was   
formerly used almost altogether for     
making  soda2 but in recent years the   
,solvay process has come into extensive 
use1 and it is said that now more than  
half the soda of the world is  made in  
this way4          ,where ,do ,all the  
,little ,round ,stones ,come ,from8     
,the little round stones you are        

thinking of are really pebbles which    
have been worn smooth and round by being
 rubbed against each other in  the      
water1 through the action of the waves  
on a beach1 or the running  water of    
brooks and streams4 ,this sort of rock  
is called a water-formed  rock4 ,some of
 them have travelled many miles before  
they are found  side by side on the     
shore or in a large mass of what we     
would call  conglomerate rock4 ,but     
whenever you see a round smooth rock or 
pebble  you may be quite sure that it   
was made round and smooth by the action 
of water4    ,you sometimes see large   
rocks made of small stones of various   
colors  and sizes4 ,you can often find a
 large rock of this kind standing by    
itself4 ,if you examine it carefully1   
you will find it consists of an  immense
 number of small stones of different    
sizes and of a variety of  colors1 all  
fastened together as though with cement4
 ,this kind of rock  is called          
conglomerate4 ,we know two kinds of     

conglomerate rock1 one1  quite common1  
in which the little stones are round and
 smooth1 and  another1 not seen so      
often1 in which the stones are sharp4   
,the latter  sort is sometimes called   
breccia1 to distinguish it from the     
former1  which is called true pudding   
stone4          ,what ,is ,clay8        
,clay is the result of the crumbling of 
a certain kind of rocks called          
feldspars4 ,when feldspar is exposed to 
the action of the weather1 it  crumbles 
slowly at the surface and the little    
fragments combine with  a certain amount
 of water1 forming clay4 ,pure clay is  
white and is  used in the manufacture of
 china and porcelain4 ,the common clay  
that  we usually think of when we think 
of clay1 is generally yellowish1  but   
there are many different colored clays4 
,most of these colors1  particularly    
those of red clay1 yellow clay and blue 
clay1 come from  the iron which is      
present in the clay4 ,clay which        
contains iron is  useful for making     

bricks4 ,bricks are made from clay by   
first softening  the clay and pressing  
it in molds1 the size of a brick4 ,when 
dried for  a time in the sun they are   
put into an oven and baked in great heat
  and they become quite hard and        
generally red4 ,most of the clay from   
which bricks are made turns red when    
baked1 whether blue1 yellow or  red1    
because the iron which is in the clay is
 generally turned red when  subjected to
 heat4    ,for making porcelains it is  
desirable to use the kinds of clay which
  contain nothing that melts when heated
 to a high degree4 ,clays which  contain
 substances which melt in strong heat   
are1 therefore1 not good  for making    
porcelains4 ,there is a pure white clay 
called ,kaolin which  is very excellent 
for this purpose4 ,clay out of which we 
make firebrick  for lining stoves and   
fireplaces is free from substances which
 melt4  ,several kinds of clay are good 
for making paints4          ,where ,do  
,school ,slates ,come ,from8            

,slates such as are used in school and  
as roofing material are formed of  clay1
 which has been hardened under pressure 
and heat4 ,when this occurs  it does so 
because a number of layers of clay1 one 
on top of the other1  have at sometime  
been subjected to great heat and        
pressure within the  earth with the     
result that the clay is pressed into    
very thick layers  and changed in color 
by the heat and becomes hard4 ,there are
 many kinds  of slate4 ,some of the     
slate1 as found in slate mines1 is used 
to make  roofs over buildings and for   
this purpose they are cut to shapes very
  much like wooden shingles4 ,they are  
easily broken1 however1 as slate is     
very brittle4    ,slate is used in many 
other ways besides for roofs and school 
slates4  ,sometimes it is made into     
slate pencils but1 since paper has      
become  so cheap1 comparatively few     
slate pencils are used in the school    
room  today4          ,what ,causes     
,shadows8      ,where anything through  

which rays of light cannot pass         
intercepts the  light rays coming from a
 luminous body1 the light rays are      
turned back  in the direction from which
 they come and the part on the other    
side  of the object which intercepted   
the light goes into shade and a shadow  
results4 ,a shadow then is produced by  
cutting off one or more light  rays4 ,we
 notice shadows when the sun is bright  
in the daytime and at  night when we    
walk along the streets lighted partly by
 street lamps4  ,the shadows we see in  
the daytime are caused by our cutting   
off and  throwing back some of the light
 rays which come from the sun4 ,these   
are  not so dark as the shadows we see  
at night because the rays of light  from
 the sun are so bright and are reflected
 from so many other objects  to the side
 and in back of us4    ,when1 however1  
we are walking along a dimly lighted    
street and come to  a street lamp the   
shadows our bodies cause are quite      
black4 ,the night  shadows are darker   

because the source of light is less     
intense and the  objects to the side of 
and in back of us 7if we are walking    
toward the  light7 do not reflect so    
much of the light rays as they do of the
 sun's  rays in the daytime4            
,illustration3 ,,driving ,,the ,,hollow 
,,steel ,,piles ,,to ,,bed ,,rock4      
,the ,foundation of a ,sky ,scraper     
,how ,hollow ,steel ,piles1 ,compressed 
and ,concrete ,are ,employed to ,make a 
,foundation    ,rapidity of building    
construction is of primary importance in
 every  city of metropolitan size4 ,when
 real estate is sold at the rate of     
several hundred dollars a square foot it
 is self-evident that time is  indeed   
money4 ,the delay of a few days in      
completing a structure may  deprive the 
owner of the chance of earning thousands
 in rental money4  ,because of the      
excessive depth of an open caisson1 the 
completion of  a foundation may be      
delayed for months4 ,hence the building 
may not  be completed until the renting 

period has passed and the owner must    
wait an entire year before he can expect
 any financial return on his            
investment4    ,because rapidity is so  
essential in city building construction 
the  method of first sinking an open pit
 to rock in providing a foundation  has 
been displaced to a large extent by a   
system in which heavy hollow  steel     
piles are employed in clusters to       
support a building4 ,the hollow  piles  
are driven through quicksand to rock1   
cleaned out and ultimately  filled with 
concrete4    ,,piles ,,are ,,driven     
,,down ,,to ,,solid ,,rock    ,in this  
method of constructing foundations1     
which is illustrated1  hollow steel     
piles are driven in the well-known      
manner down to solid  rock4 ,the steel  
pile sections vary in length from #bj   
feet to #bb feet1  and in diameter from 
#ab inches to #bd inches4 ,if the ground
 is to be  penetrated to a depth greater
 than #bb feet1 the sections of piling  
are connected by means of a sleeve in   

such manner that a watertight  joint is 
formed4 ,under a pressure of #aej pounds
 to the square inch a  jet of compressed
 air is then employed to blow out the   
earth and water  contained within the   
shell4 ,a spouting geyser of mud rising 
sometimes  to a height of #aej feet1 and
 occasional large pieces of rock blown  
up from a depth of #dj feet below the   
ground1 bear testimony to the  terrific 
force of the air blast4                 
,illustration3 ,,the ,,piles ,,are      
,,about ,,twenty-,,two ,,feet ,,long4   
,,if ,,great  ,,depths ,,are ,,to ,,be  
,,reached ,,sections ,,of ,,piling ,,are
 ,,joined ,,together ,,by  ,,means ,,of 
,a ,,sleeve4    ,when the shell has been
 completely cleaned out by means of the 
blast  of compressed air1 the exposed   
rock can be examined by lowering an     
electric light4 ,steel sounding rods are
 employed to test the hardness  of the  
rock and to detect the difference       
between soft and hard bed  rock4 ,after 
the piles in each pier have been cleaned

 out1 they must  be cut off at          
absolutely the same height--sometimes a 
very difficult  task when there is      
little room4 ,the oxy-acetylene torch is
 used for  the purpose1 the intensely   
hot flame cutting off the steel almost  
like  butter at the exact elevation     
desired4    ,illustration3 ,,cutting    
,,steel ,,piles ,,with ,a ,,hot ,,flame 
,,pile ,,being ,,cut ,,to ,,proper      
,,level ,,by ,,means ,,of               
,,oxy-,,acetylene ,,torch4    ,after the
 piles in each pier have been cleaned   
out they must be cut off  at exactly the
 same height--sometimes a very difficult
 task when there  is little room4 ,the  
oxy-acetylene torch is used for the     
purpose1 the  intensely hot flame       
cutting off the steel almost like       
butter4    ,illustration3 ,a ,,cluster  
,,of ,,piles1 ,,cleaned ,,out1 ,,filled 
,,with ,,concrete  ,,and ,,cut ,,off    
,,flush ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,the         
,,oxy-,,acetylene ,,flame4    ,,piles   
,,are ,,next ,,filled ,,with ,,concrete 

,the hollow shell is next filled with   
concrete reinforced by means of  long   
two-inch steel rods1 sometimes fifty    
feet in length4 ,on clusters  of these  
concrete-filled piles1 the weight of the
 building is supported4    ,that this   
method of constructing foundations is   
indeed rapid1 the  story of the work at 
#ade-adg ,west ,twenty-eighth ,street1  
,new ,york ,city1  proves4 ,rock was    
located #ch feet below the curb4 ,the   
material above  it was clay and         
water-bearing sand4 ,structural steel   
was due in three  weeks1 but the        
completion of the cellar was still ten  
days off4 ,the  steel pile foundation   
method offered the only solution of the 
problem4  ,specifications were drawn    
which called for eighty-five #ab-;inch  
steel  piles1 driven to rock1 blown     
clean by compressed air1 and filled with
  concrete1 reinforced with #b-;inch    
rods4 ,despite various obstructions on  
the ground 7shoring of neighboring      
buildings and the like7 the driving  was

 started on ,june #cjth4 ,the excavator 
was still taking out his runway  while  
the rear half of the lot was completely 
driven4 ,after he had left  the ground a
 compressor was set up1 and the first   
pipe was blown on  ,july #gth4 ,three   
days later all driving and cleaning had 
been completed4  ,during the following  
two days all the piles were filled and  
capped4 ,in  a word1 the entire         
foundation had been completed three days
 before the  expected arrival of the    
steel4    ,illustration3 ,,concrete     
,,piles ,,which ,,have ,,been ,,sunk    
,,to ,,rock ,,bottom ,,and  ,,in ,,which
 ,,two-,,inch ,,steel ,,rods ,,have     
,,been ,,inserted ,,to ,,act ,,as       
,,reinforcement  ,,for ,,the ,,concrete 
,,which ,,will ,,eventually ,,be        
,,poured ,,in4    ,such rapid work is   
not unusual with the steel foundation   
method4  ,on another contract1 work was 
completed not in the three months       
stipulated1 but in exactly one month and
 a half1 during which brief  time all   

the excavation had been done1 including 
sheeting1 shoring1  pile-driving1 the   
mounting of concrete girders to carry   
the wall and  capping of the piles ready
 to receive the grillage4               
,illustration3 ,,the ,,steel ,,pile ,,is
 ,,easily ,,forced ,,even ,,through     
,,the ,,soft  ,,upper ,,layers ,,of     
,,bed ,,rock4 ,,sometimes ,,very ,,large
 ,,pieces ,,are ,,blown ,,up ,,into     
,,the ,,air ,,by ,,the ,,blast ,,of     
,,compressed ,,air4    ,sometimes       
difficulties are encountered which would
 prove all but  insurmountable and      
certainly hopelessly expensive with     
other methods4  ,thus in carrying out   
the one contract1 water was found #ab   
feet from the  curb4 ,two running       
streams had intersected at that point4  
,the piles were  simply sunk through the
 stream to rock bottom without any      
difficulty4    ,the excessive cost of   
open-pit work has sometimes made it     
impossible  to build twelve or          
fourteen-story buildings in many        

sections of the  city of ,new ,york4    
,the steel pile has1 however1 made steel
 building  construction profitable4     
,the carrying capacity of a steel pile  
is enormous4 ,on a single #ab-;inch     
steel pile one hundred tons can be      
safely maintained4 ,piers containing    
sixteen piles have been used1 and       
loadings up to #acjj tons are not       
unusual4    ,naturally the question     
arises3 ,do the steel piles deteriorate 
in  time8 ,the question has been        
answered over and over again by the     
piles  themselves4 ,after a service of  
fifteen years the steel foundation      
piles were removed from the site of a   
building which now stands at the        
northwest corner of ,wall and ,nassau   
streets1 in ,new ,york ,city4 ,they     
showed practically no deterioration4    
,the oxidation on the outside was       
almost negligible4    ,illustration3    
,,blowing ,,out ,,mud ,,and ,,rock      
,,with ,,compressed ,,air    ,,cleaning 
,,out ,a ,,hollow ,,steel ,,pile ,,by   

,,means ,,of ,,compressed ,,air ,a      
,,geyser ,,of  ,,mud ,,always ,,appears4
    ,illustration3 ,a ,,driveway ,,along
 ,,the ,,top ,,of ,,the ,,olive ,,bridge
 ,,dam4          ,the ,story in a ,glass
 of ,water      ,how ,does the ,water   
,get into the ,faucet8    ,it is easy   
for you boys and girls who live in the  
city to run into the  kitchen or        
bathroom when you are thirsty and by a  
simple turn of the  faucet tap secure a 
glass of cool and refreshing water1 but 
did you  ever stop to think how many men
 must constantly work and how great  and
 perfect arrangements must be made      
before it is possible to supply  a great
 city with water to drink1 to bathe in1 
and for cooking and  washing8    ,no one
 who has never had the experience of    
being in a town or city  from which the 
water supply has been cut off1 for a day
 or a number of  days1 can realize how  
necessary water is in our daily lives4  
,we are so  used to having all the water
 we want at any time that we even       

complain  when in summer we are asked to
 drink water which is not iced4         
,drinking  ice-water is very much of a  
habit4 ,in tropical countries where     
there is  no ice1 people drink the water
 just as they find it1 and if you were  
to  go there and drink the waters for a 
few days1 you would soon find that  the 
water slakes your thirst even when quite
 warm1 so it is not the ice  in the     
water that quenches your thirst1 but the
 water itself1 and the  ice-water is not
 good for you1 as the doctor will tell  
you1 because it  chills the stomach4    
,where ,does ,our ,drinking ,water ,come
 from8    ,the best way to find out     
where the water in the faucet comes from
 is to  follow it back to its source4   
,let us see4 ,here we are in the kitchen
  and you have just had a drink of water
 taken from the faucet above the  sink4 
,the faucet1 you will notice1 is        
attached to a small pipe which  is      
fastened to the wall back of the sink4  
,we look under the sink and  see that   

the pipe goes through a hole in the     
floor1 so we reason that  the water must
 come from the cellar4 ,let us go down  
cellar and see4  ,yes1 here is the      
little pipe that comes down through the 
floor under  the sink and we follow it  
along the wall toward the front of the  
house1  and well1 well1 there it goes   
right out through the stone foundation  
of  the house4 ,so we conclude that the 
water comes from somewhere outside  of  
the house1 and that the little pipe we  
have been following is only  a means of 
getting it from the outside into the    
house4 ,we now mark the  place in the   
wall where the pipe goes through and run
 around to the  front of the house to   
see where it comes out1 but we don't see
 it4 ,it  must be buried in the ground1 
so we get a spade and pick and begin  to
 dig a hole in the ground1 and pretty   
soon we find the little pipe  pointing  
straight out toward the street4 ,we keep
 on digging the dirt  away1 and thus    
open a little trench from the house to  

the middle of  the street and when we   
get there after a great deal of digging 
we find  our little pipe attached to a  
larger pipe which seems to run along the
  ground in the middle of the street2 so
 we are still in the dark as to  where  
the water comes from1 excepting that so 
far as our own home is  concerned we    
know that it gets into the house through
 a little pipe  which is attached to a  
big pipe in the middle of the street4   
,by this  time we know we have a big job
 on hand4    ,illustration3 ,,how ,a    
,,big ,,dam ,,is ,,built    ,,building  
,,olive ,,bridge ,,dam ,,to ,,form ,,the
 ,,ashokan ,,reservoir4    ,the great   
,ashokan reservoir is situated about    
fourteen miles west of  ,kingston on the
 ,hudson ,river4 ,its cost is           
#ah1jjj1jjj1 and it will hold           
sufficient water to cover the whole of  
,manhattan ,island to a depth of        
twenty-eight feet4 ,the water is        
impounded by the ,olive ,bridge dam1    
which is built across ,esopus ,creek1   

and also by the ,beaver ,kill and  the  
,hurley dikes1 which have been built    
across streams and gaps lying  between  
the hills which surround the reservoir4 
,illustration3 ,,the ,,olive ,,bridge   
,,dam1 #dfej ,,feet ,,long1 #bjj ,,feet 
,,high4    ,the dam is a masonry        
structure #aij feet in thickness at the 
base1 and  #bc feet thick at the top4   
,the surface of the water when the      
reservoir  is full is #eij feet above   
tide level4 ,the total length of the    
main dam  is #defj feet1 and the maximum
 depth of the water is #aij feet4 ,the  
area  of the water surface is #ab4h     
square miles1 and in preparing the      
bottom  it was necessary to remove seven
 villages1 with a total population  of  
#bjjj4 ,forty miles of highway and ten  
bridges had to be built4 ,in  the       
construction of the dam and dikes it was
 necessary to excavate  nearly          
#c1jjj1jjj cubic yards of material1 and 
#h1jjj1jjj cubic yards of  embankment   
and nearly #a1jjj1jjj cubic yards of    

masonry had to be put in  place4 ,the   
maximum number of men employed on the   
job was #cjjj4    ,,how ,,the ,,pipes   
,,run ,,through ,,the ,,street    ,we   
are pretty tired of digging by this     
time1 so we call in all the boys  and   
girls in town to help us dig so that we 
may see where these pipes  come from1   
and we have a regular digging carnival4 
,we follow the big  pipe along our own  
street until we come to the corner4     
,here we find  that our larger street   
pipe is connected with a still larger   
pipe1 so  we think we had better follow 
the larger pipe4 ,we keep on digging1   
getting more of the boys and girls to   
help1 and we follow that big pipe  right
 out to the edge of town where we see it
 runs into another stone  wall which you
 knew all the time was the reservoir1   
but concerning what  it was for you were
 perhaps never quite clear4    ,right   
near the place where the pipe goes in is
 a stairway which leads  up to the top  
of the wall1 so the whole crowd of boys 

and girls climb  the steps and you are  
at the top of the reservoir2 and there  
spread out  before you1 you see a big   
lake surrounded with a stone wall and   
you see  where the water comes from--the
 reservoir--at least so you think4 ,but 
you are wrong4 ,you really haven't come 
anywhere near the source of the  supply4
 ,for soon as you walk around the broad 
top of the wall which  surrounds your   
reservoir1 you meet a man who asks you  
what you want1  and you tell him that   
you have been finding out where the     
water in the  faucet came from1 but     
having found out you thought you would  
go back  home4    ,the man smiles at    
you1 but1 as he is good-natured and sees
 you are  really trying to find out     
where the water comes from1 he tells you
 that  since you have gone to all the   
trouble of digging up the streets to    
follow the pipes1 you might as well     
learn all about it4    ,he first tells  
you that the reservoir is not really the
 place where the  water comes from but  

only a tank1 so to speak4 ,he explains  
to you that  most of the faucets in the 
city are higher than the real source of 
the  water1 which is out in the country 
miles away1 and as water will not  run  
up hill1 it is necessary to keep the    
city's daily supply in some  place that 
is higher than the highest faucet in the
 city1 so that it  will force its way   
into and fill to the very end all of the
 large pipes  in the streets and the    
small pipes which go into the houses1 so
 that  the water will come out just as  
soon as you turn the faucet4    ,then he
 takes you over to a large building near
 the reservoir which  you have always   
called the water works1 but never knew  
exactly what  it was for4 ,he takes you 
into a large room where there is a lot  
of  nice-looking machinery working away 
steadily but quietly1 and tells  you    
that these are the great pumps which    
lift the water from the great  pipes    
which bring it from far away in the     
country1 into the reservoir  we have    

just seen1 from which the water runs    
into and fills all of the  pipes into   
the city4    ,he also tells you that in 
some cities it is impossible to find a  
place  to build a reservoir which is    
higher than the highest places in the   
city4 ,in such places1 the pumps in the 
water works pump the water  direct into 
the city water pipes and force the water
 to the very end of  all the pipes and  
keep it there under pressure all the    
time4    ,from the pumping station he   
takes you down stairs in the water works
  and shows you the huge pipe which     
brings the water to the water works     
from the country4 ,it is quite the      
largest pipe you ever saw4 ,you see it  
is not really an iron pipe1 but built of
 concrete1 which is quite as  good4 ,you
 will be surprised to have our friend1  
the water-works man1  tell you that     
three average-sized men could stand up  
on each other's  shoulders inside the   
great pipe4    ,illustration3 ,,how     
,,the ,,big ,,pipes ,,are ,,laid        

,,through ,,the ,,country    ,,olive    
,,bridge ,,dam2 ,,esopus ,,creek        
,,flowing ,,through ,,temporary         
,,tunnel4    ,illustration3 ,,placing   
,,the #i ,,foot ,,steel ,,pipes4        
,illustration3 ,a ,,huge ,,underground  
,,river    ,the water is conducted from 
,ashokan reservoir as a huge1           
underground1  artificial river4 ,the    
aqueduct is ninety-two miles in length  
from  ,ashokan to the northern city     
line1 and it should be explained that it
  is built on a gentle grade1 and that  
the water flows through this at  a slow 
and fairly constant speed4 ,the aqueduct
 contains four distinct  types3 the     
cut-and-cover1 the grade tunnel1 the    
pressure tunnel1  and the steel-pipe    
siphon4 ,the cut-and-cover type1 which  
is used on  fifty-five miles of the     
aqueduct1 is of a horseshoe shape and   
measures  #ag feet high by #ag feet #f  
inches wide1 inside measurements4 ,it is
  built of concrete1 and on completion  
it is covered in with an earth          

embankment4 ,this type is used wherever 
the nature of the ground and  the       
elevation allow4 ,where the aqueduct    
intersects hills or mountains1  it is   
driven through them in tunnel at the    
standard grade4 ,there are  twenty-four 
of these tunnels1 aggregating fourteen  
miles in length4  ,they are horseshoe in
 shape1 #ag feet high by #af feet #d    
inches wide1 and  they are lined with   
concrete4 ,when the line of the aqueduct
 encountered  deep and broad valleys1   
they were crossed by two methods3 if    
suitable  rock were present1 circular   
tunnels were driven deep within this    
rock  and lined with concrete4 ,there   
are seven of these pressure tunnels  of 
a total length of seventeen miles4      
,their internal diameter is #ad  feet1  
and at each end of each tunnel a        
vertical shaft connects the  tunnel with
 the grade tunnel above4 ,if the bottom 
of the valley did  not offer suitable   
rock for a rock tunnel1 or if there were
 other  prohibitive reasons1 steel      

siphons were used4 ,these are #i feet   
and #aa  feet in diameter4 ,they are    
lined with two inches of cement mortar  
and  are imbedded in concrete and       
covered with an earth embankment4 ,there
  are fourteen of these pipe siphons of 
a total length of six miles4 ,at        
present one pipe suffices to carry the  
water4 ,ultimately three will be        
required for each siphon4    ,our       
water-works man sees how earnest you are
 in seeing just where the  water comes  
from1 so he proposes that we go find    
out4 ,we go outside and  there is an    
automobile all ready to go and we jump  
in and the machine  starts off along    
quite one of the nicest roads you were  
ever on4 ,soon  you exclaim1 8,why1 this
 is the aqueduct road10 and so it is4   
,the great  pipe through which the water
 comes to the city is an aqueduct and   
they  have built the road right over the
 place where the aqueduct runs4 ,away   
we go as fast as the car can carry us1  
sometimes ten1 or twenty or  perhaps    

fifty miles1 according to what city you 
are in4 ,the city goes  as far as it    
must to find a supply of pure water and 
plenty of it and  spends millions upon  
millions of dollars to make its supply  
of water  good and certain4             
,occasionally we come to a little stone 
house along  the way where we can go    
down and see the sides of the great     
stone pipe4  ,after a while1 however1 we
 find our aqueduct road comes to an     
abrupt  stop before another great stone 
wall4 ,it is the great dam which has    
been built out there in the country to  
form one end of a great tank  that      
catches and holds the waters from the   
creeks and rivers that flow  into it4   
,usually the dam is built up right      
across a river4 ,they simply  build the 
dam strong enough to stop the river from
 going any further4  ,then1 of course1  
the water piles up on the other side of 
the dam and  occasionally this tank1    
which is simply another huge reservoir1 
gets so  full that the water flows over4

 ,it does not really overflow the top of
  the dam1 because underneath the top   
the engineers have left openings  here  
and there for the water to get through4 
,if it were not for these  loopholes1 so
 to speak1 the great wall of water      
within the reservoir1  piled against the
 dam1 would break down the wall no      
matter how well  built1 by the great    
pressure it exerts4    ,illustration3   
,,through ,,this ,,chamber ,,the ,,flow 
,,of ,,water ,,to ,,the ,,aqueduct  ,,is
 ,,regulated4    ,,the ,,real ,,source  
,,of ,,the ,,water    ,we are now near  
to the real source of the water4 ,we    
take a trip around  the top of the great
 reservoir4 ,around at the other end we 
find what  looks like a river1 excepting
 that there isn't any current to speak  
of4  ,it is a river1 but a much deeper  
one than it would have been but for  the
 dam which has been built across it1 and
 originally its surface was  quite far  
down in a valley4 ,sometimes man makes  
his water dam at one  end of a lake1    

which has been formed by streams flowing
 into a valley  which has no opening for
 the water to run out of4 ,in these     
cases the  lake will be high up in the  
hills and man simply builds his dam at  
one  end1 lets the end of his aqueduct  
into the bottom of the lake and the     
water flows4 ,in other cases he picks   
out a valley where there is no  lake at 
all1 builds his dam and then drains the 
water which he finds in  small lakes    
higher up in the hills into the one big 
valley and makes a  very large lake4    
,but the water in the lakes comes       
originally from the  creeks1 rivers or  
springs which run into it1 and so we    
will follow our  original river back    
into the hills4 ,here and there along   
its course we  find a little stream     
flowing into our river and1 as we go up 
higher and  higher into the hills1 we   
find our river getting smaller and      
smaller4  ,now it is only a creek and1  
if we go far enough1 we find its source 
but  the tiniest kind of a tinkling     

brook with the water dripping almost    
noiselessly between the rocks as it     
makes its path down the side of  the    
hill4 ,there is the source of the water 
in the glass you have just  enjoyed4    
,illustration3 ,,digging ,a ,,hole      
,,under ,a ,,river    ,,diamond ,,drill 
,,boring ,a ,,horizontal ,,hole #aajj   
,,feet ,,below ,,the ,,hudson  ,,river4 
,illustration3 ,,hudson ,,river         
,,siphon1 #aajj ,,feet ,,below ,,the    
,,river4    ,of the many siphons        
constructed1 by far the most interesting
 and  difficult is that which has been  
completed beneath the ,hudson ,river4   
,the preliminary borings made from scows
 in the river showed that great  depths 
would have to be reached before rock    
sufficiently solid and  free from seams 
was encountered to withstand the        
enormous hydraulic  pressure of the     
water in the tunnel4 ,after failing to  
reach rock by the  scow drills1 two     
series of inclined borings were made    
from each shore1  one pair intercepting 

at about #ijj feet depth and the other  
at about  #aejj feet4 ,both showed      
satisfactory rock1 and accordingly a    
shaft was  sunk on each shore1 to a     
depth of approximately #aajj feet1 and  
then a  horizontal tunnel was driven    
connecting the two4 ,it is of interest  
to  note that because of the enormous   
head1 which must be measured from the   
flow line far above the river surface1  
the pressure in the horizontal  tunnel  
reaches over forty tons per square foot4
    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,highest      
,,building ,,in ,,the ,,world ,,upside  
,,down      ,,shaft #geb-j ,,deep       
,,woolworth ,,building #gej #j ,,high   
,this picture shows the depth to which  
the pipes which carry the water  through
 the city must sometimes be sunk in     
order that it will be  certain to remain
 in place4 ,to illustrate this in       
connection with the  depth of the water 
tunnel in one place in the city of ,new 
,york1 our  artist has taken the liberty
 of turning the ,woolworth ,building    

upside  down4 ,even this building1 which
 is the tallest business building in the
  world1 and is #gib feet high1 would   
not penetrate the water tunnel1 at  the 
point shown1 which is at the ,clinton   
,street shaft at the west bank  of the  
,east ,river4          ,what is         
,carbonic ,acid8      ,it was formerly  
called fixed air1 and is a gaseous      
compound of  carbon and oxygen4 ,it is  
procured by the processes of combustion 
and  respiration1 and hence is always   
present in the air1 though in minute    
quantity4 ,plants live upon it and      
absorb it into their tissues2 they      
abstract and assimilate its carbon1 and 
return its oxygen to the  atmosphere in 
a pure condition4 ,it is also present in
 spring water1  and often in quantities1
 so that it sparkles and effervesces2 it
 is  also produced during the processes 
of putrefaction1 fermentation1 and  slow
 decay of animal and vegetable          
substances in presence of air4 ,it  is  
largely employed by the manufacturers of

 aerated bread and aerated  waters4     
,under a pressure of about #fjj pounds  
it liquefies1 and when  allowed to      
escape through a small jet it rapidly   
evaporates and causes  intense cold1 so 
much so as to become frozen4 ,it does   
not support  burning4 ,the gas derived  
from it1 carbon dioxide1 is invisible1  
and  is heavier than air by one half1   
and has a pungent odor and slightly     
acid taste4 ,in a pure state the gas    
cannot be respired1 as it supports      
neither respiration nor combustion4     
,when the portion in the atmosphere  is 
increased to a considerable extent1 as  
happens sometimes1 it  endangers life4  
,the familiar 8rising0 of bread is      
brought about by  carbonic acid gas     
escaping through and permeating the     
dough1 making  it light and porous4 ,in 
this form it is known as yeast or as    
baking  powder4 ,we see its uses also in
 the chemical fire-engine4    ,in some  
parts of the world large quantities of  
carbonic acid gas are  constantly       

issuing from openings of the earth's    
surface4 ,two such  places are the      
famous ,poison ,valley of ,java1 and the
 ,grotto del ,cane1  near ,naples1 in   
,italy4 ,the former is a small valley   
about a half a mile  around and about   
thirty-five feet deep1 in which the air 
is so loaded  with carbonic acid gas    
that animals entering it are killed in a
 few  minutes4 ,even birds that fly over
 the valley are overcome if they do  not
 rise high above it4 ,the ,grotto del   
,cane1 or ,grotto of the ,dog1 is  a    
small cavern in the crater of a volcano4
 ,a stream of carbonic acid  gas flows  
constantly into the grotto1 but the     
level of the gas does not  reach the    
height of a man's mouth4 ,when the same 
air is breathed over  and over again1   
the quantity of carbonic acid in it is  
increased so  much1 that it may become  
as deadly as the air in the ,poison     
,valley4    ,two other gases that may   
generally be found in air are ozone and 
ammonia4 ,the first is merely a form of 

oxygen that is produced by the  passage 
of lightning through the air4 ,after    
severe thunderstorms1 it is  said to be 
present1 sometimes1 in sufficient       
proportion to give to the  air a        
slightly pungent odor4 ,it is more      
active chemically than is the  ordinary 
form of oxygen1 and consequently has a  
stimulating effect upon  animals4       
,ammonia1 or hartshorn1 as it is        
sometimes called1 from the fact that  it
 was formerly obtained by distilling the
 horns of harts1 or deer1 is  almost    
always present in the air in small      
quantities4 ,it is produced  chiefly by 
the decay of animal and vegetable       
matter1 especially the  former4 ,though 
present in the air in very small        
quantities1 it is of  much value to the 
plant world1 because it contains        
nitrogen in a form  in which it can be  
readily absorbed by plants4 ,all plants 
contain some  nitrogen1 which is        
essential to their growth1 but the      
greater part of  the nitrogen in the air

 is not in such form that it can be     
absorbed  by them4 ,they must obtain    
their supply from the soil1 which       
usually  contains some nitrogen in a    
form that may be taken up by plants1 and
  from the ammonia in the air4 ,the     
latter is not taken directly out of  the
 air by the plants1 but the rains       
falling through the air absorb the      
ammonia and carry it to the soil1 from  
which it is taken up into the  plants by
 their roots4    ,,various ,,gases      
,,found ,,in ,,air    ,besides the gases
 that have been mentioned1 there is     
present in the  air1 at all times1 a    
small quantity of water-vapor1 which is1
 in many  ways as important to mankind  
as is the oxygen itself4 ,the quantity  
of water in the air is not always the   
same4 ,as a rule1 the quantity  is      
greater in warm air than in cold1 and is
 less over land than over  water4       
,frequently the air feels damp in cold  
weather1 and dry in hot  weather1 and it
 is natural to suppose that there is    

more vapor in the  air on the damp day  
than on the dry one4 ,this1 however1 is 
not always  true4 ,there is usually more
 moisture in the air on a warm summer   
day  than on a cold day in winter1      
though the winter day may seem much more
  moist4 ,you will be able to understand
 why this is so by comparing the  air to
 a sponge4 ,if we fill a sponge with    
water1 and squeeze it gently1  a little 
water will be forced out of it4 ,if we  
then remove the pressure  on the sponge4
 ,when the air cools1 will appear dry on
 the surface1 but  there will still be  
water in it1 and on being squeezed      
harder than  before it will again become
 moist on the surface and more water    
will be  forced out of it4 ,now cold has
 an effect upon moisture-laden air very 
much like that of pressure on the       
sponge4 ,when the air cools1 some of    
the moisture is forced out of it1 and   
the air seems damp4 ,when it warms      
again1 the air seems dry1 though there  
is still water-vapor in it4 ,it  seems  

dry because it can absorb more          
water-vapor1 just as the sponge  seems  
dry after you cease to squeeze it1      
though it still contains  water4 ,from  
this we see that the air does not always
 seem moist when  there is much         
water-vapor in it1 nor dry when there is
 only a little4  ,it feels moist when   
there is as much water-vapor present as 
it can  hold1 and dry when it can held  
more than it already has4 ,and we also  
see that in hot weather the air can hold
 much more moisture than it can  in cold
 weather1 so that whether the air feels 
dry or moist1 there is  generally much  
more water-vapor in it in hot weather   
than in cold4    ,it is easy to see     
that1 over water1 the air naturally     
takes up more  moisture than over land1 
because there is so much more water     
there to  be transformed into vapor4    
,over the surface of seas1 lakes and    
rivers1  water is continually being     
converted into vapor by the process of  
evaporation1 and this vapor is absorbed 

by the air4    ,let us now consider the 
solid particles floating in the air1 the
 dust  that is seen dancing in the path 
of a sunbeam4 ,whenever we examine the  
air1 these small particles are found1   
even on the tops of mountains1  and at  
points so high above the earth that they
 have been reached only  by balloons4   
,of course1 there is very much less dust
 high above the  earth than near the    
surface1 where the winds are constantly 
stirring  up the loose soil1 and        
throwing into the air small particles of
 every  kind4 ,in cities1 where factory 
chimneys are continually pouring out    
clouds of smoke1 and the people and     
vehicles are constantly disturbing  the 
dust of the streets1 the air always     
contains more dust than does  the air of
 the country4    ,in order that we may  
breathe air1 the oxygen in it has been  
mixed with  four times as much nitrogen 
and argon1 which must be inhaled with   
the  oxygen1 though they have no more   
effect on the body than the water  you  

take with a strong medicine to weaken   
it4 ,the oxygen1 however1  has a very   
important effect upon the body1 and if  
we compare the air  we exhale with that 
we inhale we find considerably less     
oxygen in  the former than in the       
latter4 ,in place of the oxygen1 the air
 has  received carbonic acid gas4 ,it   
may seem very strange to say that there 
is burning going on in the body1 but    
that is very nearly what takes  place4  
,the chief difference from coal-burning 
is that in the body the  process goes on
 so slowly that it does not make the    
body very hot2  but when we set fire to 
coal1 the process is much more rapid1   
and a  large amount of heat is produced 
in a short time1 so that the coal       
becomes very hot4 ,the products of      
breathing and of coal-burning are the   
same1 carbonic acid gas being the chief 
one4 ,when coal is burned it            
disappears1 together with some of the   
oxygen of the air1 and in their  stead  
we have carbonic acid gas4 ,when a      

breath is taken some of the  material of
 the body disappears1 as does some of   
the oxygen of the air1  and in place of 
them carbonic acid gas is found4 ,if we 
could weigh the  coal burned and the    
oxygen that disappears in the burning of
 it1 and  could then weigh the carbonic 
acid gas that is produced in the        
burning1  we should find that the latter
 weighs just as much as the coal and the
  oxygen together4 ,so1 too1 if we could
 weigh the oxygen that disappears  from 
the air we breathe1 and also find the   
weight of the material taken  from our  
bodies by breathing1 we should find that
 the two together  weigh just as much as
 the carbonic acid gas given off in our 
breath4 ,in  neither case is anything   
absolutely destroyed2 the substances    
resulting  from the change weigh just as
 much as those that took part in it4    
,having learned that a quantity of      
oxygen disappears every time we  take a 
breath1 every time we build a fire1 it  
would seem that in the  thousands of    

years during which men and animals have 
been living on the  earth1 all the      
oxygen would have been exhausted and    
nothing left in  its place but carbonic 
acid gas4 ,that1 however1 is impossible1
 as the  carbonic acid gas is used up   
almost as fast as it is produced and the
  oxygen is returned to the air in its  
stead4    ,,how ,,plants ,,eat          
,,carbonic ,,acid    ,all trees and     
plants1 from the great redwood trees of 
,california to the  smallest flowers    
that dot the fields1 need carbonic acid 
gas to keep  them alive and to make them
 grow4 ,their leaves have the power when
 the  sun shines on them to take up     
carbonic acid from the air and to return
  oxygen in exchange4 ,in this way you  
see that the balance is kept just  as it
 should be4 ,the oxygen needed by       
animals of all kinds is furnished  by   
the plants1 and the carbonic acid       
required by plants is thrown off  in the
 breath of animals4          ,is ,it a  
,fact that the ,sun ,revolves ,on ,its  

,axis8      ,it is a proved fact that   
the sun revolves on its axis4 ,all parts
 of its  surface1 however1 do not rotate
 with the same velocity4 ,the rotation  
of  the sun differs from that of the    
earth in this respect4    ,this         
constitutes the visible proof that the  
physical state of the sun  is different 
from the earth's1 although they are     
composed of similar  chemical elements4 
,the earth1 being covered with a solid  
crust1 and being also1 as recent        
investigation demonstrates1 as rigid as 
steel throughout its entire  globe1     
rotates with one and the same angular   
velocity from the equator  to the poles4
    ,if you stood on the earth's equator
 you would be carried by its daily      
rotation round a circle about #be1jjj   
miles in circumference4 ,if you  stood  
within a yard of the ,north or ,south   
,pole you would be carried1 by  the same
 motion1 round a circle not quite #ai   
feet in circumference4 ,and  yet it     
would require precisely the same time1  

viz41 twenty-four hours1  to describe   
the #ai-;foot circle as the #be1jjj-mile
 one4          ,what ,is the ,most      
,usefully ,valuable ,metal8      ,if you
 were guessing you would naturally say  
that gold is1 of course1  the most      
valuable of the metals4 ,but you would  
be wrong4 ,the proper  answer to this is
 iron4 ,we do not mean the pound for    
pound value1 for  you could get much    
more money for a pound of gold than for 
a pound  of iron1 but we mean in useful 
value--iron is in that sense the most   
valuable metal known to man4 ,this is so
 because iron is of great  service to   
man in so many different ways1 and it is
 very well that  there is so great a    
quantity of it for man's use4           
,illustration3 ,,where ,,does ,,tobacco 
,,come ,,from8    ,,growing ,,tobacco   
,,under ,,cheesecloth4          ,the    
,story in a ,pipe and ,cigar#f      #f  
,copyright by ,tobacco ,leaf ,publishing
 ,co4      ,where ,did the ,name        
,tobacco ,originate8    ,it is now      

generally agreed that the word tobacco  
is derived from  8tobago10 which was an 
,indian pipe4 ,the tobago was ,y-shaped1
 and  usually consisted of a hollow1    
forked reed1 the two prongs of which    
were fitted into the nostrils1 the smoke
 being drawn from tobacco  placed in the
 end of the stem4 ,the island of        
,tobago1 contrary to the  belief of     
many1 did not furnish the name for      
tobacco1 but on the other  hand1 it was 
given that name by ,columbus1 owing to  
its resemblance in  shape to the ,indian
 pipe4      ,how ,was ,tobacco          
,discovered8    ,while tobacco is now   
found growing in all inhabited          
countries1 it is a  native of the       
,americas and adjacent islands4 ,its    
discovery by civilized  man was         
coincident with the discovery of this   
continent by ,christopher  ,columbus in 
#adib4 ,columbus and his adventurous    
sailors found the  native ,indians using
 the weed on the explorer's first visit 
to the new  world4 ,investigation has   

established that the plant was first    
used  as a religious rite and gradually 
became a social habit among the         
natives4 ,columbus and his ,castilian   
successors carried the weed to  ,spain4 
,sir ,walter ,raleigh took it to        
,england1 ,jean ,nicot1 whose name  is  
immortalized in nicotine1 introduced it 
to the ,french2 adventurous  traders    
brought the seed to ,turkey and ,syria1 
and ,spanish argosies  carried it       
westward from ,mexico to the            
,philippines and thence to ,china  and  
,japan4 ,thus within two centuries after
 its discovery tobacco was  being       
cultivated in nearly every country and  
was being used by every  race of men4   
,where ,does ,tobacco ,grow8    ,while  
tobacco is a native of the ,americas1 it
 is a fact that it will  grow after a   
fashion almost anywhere4 ,milton        
,whitney1 ,chief of the  ,division of   
,soils1 ,united ,states ,department of  
,agriculture1 in his  bulletin on       
tobacco soils says tobacco can be grown 

in nearly all  parts of the country even
 where wheat and corn cannot            
economically  be grown4 ,the plant      
readily adapts itself to the great range
 of  climatic conditions1 will grow on  
nearly all kinds of soil and has  a     
comparatively short season of growth4   
,but while it can be so  universally    
grown1 the flavor and quality of the    
leaf are greatly  influenced by the     
conditions of climate and soil4 ,the    
industry has  been very highly          
specialized and there is only demand now
 for tobacco  possessing certain        
qualities adapted to certain specific   
purposes4444  ,it is a curious and      
interesting fact that tobacco suitable  
for our  domestic cigars1 is raised in  
,sumatra1 ,cuba and ,florida1 and then  
passing over our middle tobacco ,states 
the cigar type is found again  in       
,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1           
,pennsylvania1 ,ohio and ,wisconsin4444 
,it is surprising to find so little     
difference in the meteorological  record

 for these several places during the    
crop season4 ,there does not  seem to be
 sufficient difference to explain the   
distribution of the  different classes  
of tobacco1 and yet this distribution is
 probably  due mainly to climatic       
conditions4444 ,the plant is far more   
sensitive  to these meteorological      
conditions than are our instruments4    
,even in  such a famous tobacco region  
as ,cuba1 tobacco of good quality cannot
  be grown in the immediate vicinity of 
the ocean or in certain parts  of the   
island that would otherwise be          
considered good tobacco lands4  ,this   
has been experienced also in ,sumatra   
and in our own country1 but  the        
influences are too subtle to be detected
 by our meteorological  instruments4444 
,under good climatic conditions1 the    
class and type  of tobacco depend upon  
the character of the soil1 especially on
 the  physical character of the soil    
upon which it is grown1 while the grade 
is dependent largely upon the           

cultivation and curing of the crop4     
,different types of tobacco are grown on
 widely different soils all the  way    
from the coarse sandy lands of the ,pine
 ,barrens1 to the heavy1  clay1         
limestone1 corn and wheat lands4 ,the   
best soil for one kind of  tobacco1     
therefore1 may be almost worthless for  
the staple agricultural  crops1 while   
the best for another type of tobacco may
 be the richest  and most productive    
soil of any that we have4    ,,where    
,,havana ,,tobacco ,,is ,,grown         
,havana tobacco1 which means all tobacco
 grown on the island of ,cuba1          
possesses peculiar qualities which make 
it the finest tobacco in the  world for 
cigar purposes4 ,the island produces    
from #cej1jjj to #ejj1jjj  bales        
annually1 of which #aej1jjj to #bej1jjj 
bales come to the ,united  ,states for  
use in ,american cigar factories4 ,the  
best quality of the  ,cuban tobacco     
comes largely from the ,vuelta ,abajo   
section1 although  some very choice     

tobaccos are raised also in the         
,partidos section4  ,remedios tobaccos  
are more heavily bodied than others and 
are used  almost exclusively for        
blending with our domestic tobaccos4    
,while there  are innumerable           
sub-classifications1 such as            
,semi-,vueltas1 ,remates1  ,tumbadero1  
etc41 the three general divisions named 
above1 ,vuelta  ,abajo1 ,partidos and   
,remedios1 embrace the entire island4   
,if a fourth  general classification    
were to be added1 it would be           
,semi-,vueltas4  ,the ,vuelta ,abajo is 
grown in the ,province of ,pinar del    
,rio1 located  at the western end of the
 island4 ,it is raised practically      
throughout  the entire province4        
,semi-,vueltas are also grown in ,pinar 
del ,rio1 but  the trade draws a line   
between them and the genuine ,vueltas4  
,partidos  tobacco1 which is grown      
principally in the ,province of ,havana1
 differs  from the ,vuelta ,abajo in    
that it is of a much lighter quality4   

,the  ,partidos country is famous for   
its production of fine light glossy     
wrappers4 ,tobacco from the foregoing   
sections is used principally in  the    
manufacture of clear ,havana cigars4    
,some of the heavier ,vueltas1  however1
 are also used for seed and ,havana     
cigar purposes4 ,remedios1  otherwise   
known as ,vuelta-,arriba1 is grown in   
the ,province of ,santa  ,clara1 located
 in the center of the island4 ,this     
tobacco is taken  almost entirely by the
 ,united ,states and ,europe and is used
 here for  filler purposes1 principally 
in seed and ,havana cigars4 ,its general
  characteristics are a high flavor and 
rather heavy body1 which make it        
especially suitable for blending with   
our domestic tobaccos4 ,havana  tobacco 
is packed and marketed in bales4        
,preparing the ,seed ,beds4    ,the     
first step is the preparation of the    
seed beds4 ,for these beds  low1 rich1  
hardwood lands are selected4 ,the trees 
are cut down and the  wood split1       

converted into cord wood and piled up to
 dry4 ,about the  middle of ,january    
this wood is stacked up on skid poles   
and ignited4  ,the ground is thus       
cleared by burning1 the fires being     
moved from spot  to spot until a        
sufficient area is cleared4 ,by this    
process all grass1  weeds1 brush and    
insects are eradicated4 ,the ground is  
then dug up with  hoes and cleared off  
and a perfect seed bed is made4    ,the 
tobacco seed is first mixed with dry    
ashes in the proportion of  about a     
tablespoonful of seed to a gallon of the
 ashes1 and about this  quantity is     
sowed over a square rod of land4 ,this  
amount is calculated  to supply plants  
enough for one acre of ground1 but the  
farmers usually  double the planting as 
a precaution against emergencies4 ,after
 the seed  beds are sowed they are      
covered over with cheesecloth as a means
 of  protection1 and they are carefully 
weeded and watered until the leaves     
have attained a length of about four    

inches4 ,they are then ready for        
transplanting1 which operation begins   
about the middle of ,april4             
,fertilization4    ,in the meantime1 the
 tobacco-growing areas have been        
prepared by  plowing and fertilizing4   
,the matter of fertilization has been   
the  subject of much study and many     
experiments1 and it has been definitely 
established that cow manure is one of   
the best for this purpose4  ,this       
natural fertilizer is distributed on the
 fields at the rate of  ten to twenty   
two-horse loads to each acre4 ,in       
addition to this from  two hundred to   
three hundred pounds of carbonate of    
potash1 and from  two thousand to three 
thousand pounds of bright cottonseed    
meal are  employed4 ,the total cost of  
this fertilizer amounts to about #abj   
per  acre4      ,planting4    ,after the
 fertilizer is well plowed into the land
 the ground is laid  off into ridges    
about four feet apart1 made by throwing 
two one-horse  furrows together4 ,these 

ridges are about two feet in width and  
are  flattened on the top so as to make 
a level bed for the young plant4 ,the   
farmer then measures off and marks these
 rows at intervals of #af to #ah        
inches4 ,at each mark he makes a small  
hole1 and after pouring in a pint  of   
water the plant is carefully set4       
,machine planters are used for this     
purpose to a limited extent4      ,care 
of the ,growing ,crop4    ,the growers  
usually calculate on finishing their    
planting about the  first of ,june4 ,the
 young plants are then closely watched  
and are hoed  and cultivated at least   
once a week4 ,they are also supplied    
with  sufficient water to keep them     
alive and growing4 ,at this stage of the
  proceedings1 the planter begins to    
look out for worms4 ,the butter worm  is
 one of his greatest enemies4 ,this is a
 small green moth that lays  its eggs in
 the bud of the plant and turns into a  
worm two days later4  ,to stop the      
ravages of this insect1 it is customary 

to use a mixture  composed of some      
insecticide mixed with corn meal4 ,a    
small pinch of  this mixture is inserted
 at regular intervals in the bud of each
 plant  until the plant is nearly grown4
    ,when the tobacco is about three    
feet high1 all such leaves as were on   
the plant when it was first set out are 
picked off and thrown away4  ,about this
 time the crop is usually threatened by 
another enemy known  as the horn worm4  
,this is a large1 mouse-colored moth1   
which swarms  over the field about      
sun-down1 and deposits green eggs about 
the size  of a very small bird shot1 on 
the back sides of the leaves4 ,this is a
  very ravenous insect and unless       
carefully watched it will devour every  
leaf of tobacco1 leaving nothing but the
 stalks standing4 ,it is removed  by    
picking off and by insecticides4        
,illustration3 ,a ,,field ,,of ,,fine   
,,havana4      ,harvesting4    ,about   
sixty to ninety days after setting1 the 
bottom leaves on the  plant are ripe and

 the grower is able to remove from three
 to four  on each stalk4 ,this is called
 priming4 ,the primer detaches each leaf
  carefully and places it face down in  
his left hand1 inspecting it at  the    
same time to see that no worms are      
carried to the barns4 ,upon             
accumulating a handful1 he places them  
in baskets that are lined with  burlap  
to prevent injury to the leaf1 and the  
filled baskets are either  carried or   
hauled to the barns4    ,about this time
 the plants have begun to bud out at the
 top1 and  this bud1 with a few small   
leaves around it1 is broken off4 ,this  
process is called topping1 and is done  
for the purpose of confining  the       
development of the plant to the leaves  
below4 ,after topping1 the  priming of  
the tobacco is continued for about three
 weeks1 and until  all the upper leaves 
of marketable value have been harvested4
 ,in the  meantime1 the suckering has to
 be looked after1 which is the removing 
of the small branches that have a       

tendency to grow out of the main  stalk 
of the plant4    ,in the barns the      
leaves are placed on long tables1 behind
 which stand  the stringers4 ,they      
string the leaves1 each separately1 on  
strong  cotton twine1 about thirty      
leaves to a string1 spaced about an inch
  apart4 ,if this is not done carefully 
and accurately1 several leaves may      
become bunched together and the cure    
will thereby be impaired4 ,it is        
attention to this detail which prevents 
the defect known as pole-sweat4  ,these 
strings are tied at either end to a     
tobacco lath1 and the lath is  hung upon
 two poles4 ,these poles are placed in  
courses in the barn1 at  spaces of two  
feet1 one above the other4              
,illustration3 ,a ,,modern ,,cuban      
,,tobacco ,,plantation4    ,,how        
,,tobacco ,,is ,,cured    ,here the     
tobacco undergoes its preliminary1 or   
barn cure1 and during  this period the  
grower is constantly on the anxious     
seat1 having to  open and close his     

curing houses according to the changes  
in the  weather1 and to look closely    
after the ventilation of his crop in    
order  to avoid the development of stem 
rot and other afflictions with which    
the tobacco is threatened at this stage 
of the proceedings4    ,illustration3 ,a
 ,,stand ,,of ,,tobacco ,,in ,,each     
,,hand4      ,bulk ,sweating4    ,in due
 course of time the laths are taken     
down1 the strings removed and  the      
leaves are formed into hands and tied   
with a string4 ,the tobacco is  then    
packed temporarily in cases and         
delivered at the fermenting house1      
where it is put into what is known as   
the bulk sweat4 ,this consists  of      
uniform piles of tobacco covered over   
with blankets1 and which are  frequently
 8turned0 in order that they shall cure 
evenly and not become  too dark in      
color4 ,from the bulk sweat the tobacco 
goes to the sorting  tables1 where it is
 divided into numerous grades of length 
and color4  ,it is then turned over to  

the packers1 who form it into bales4    
,how is ,tobacco ,cultivated8    ,as the
 young plants spring up and begin to    
grow1 they are thinned out1  watered and
 cared for until along in ,october or   
,november1 and as soon  as the weather  
becomes settled for the season1 the     
little seedlings  are transplanted into 
the field4 ,some growers use shade1 but 
most of  the tobacco is grown in the    
open4 ,the plants are placed in rows1   
very  much as corn is planted1 only     
farther apart4 ,the plants are carefully
  protected from weeds and insects1 and 
in ,december the early tobacco is  ready
 to be harvested4 ,here the mode of     
procedure differs according  to the     
discretion of the grower4 ,the plan     
universally in vogue until  recent years
 was to cut the plant down at the base  
of the stalk4  ,lately1 however1 the    
more scientific growers harvest their   
tobacco  gradually1 picking it leaf by  
leaf1 according as they ripen and       
mature4  ,the tobacco is then allowed to

 lie in the field until the leaves are  
wilted4 ,the stalks 7or stems1 according
 to the method followed7 are  then      
strung on cujes or poles1 so that the   
plants hang with the tips  down4 ,the   
tobacco is then allowed to hang in the  
sun until it is dry  and later carried  
into the barns1 where the poles are     
suspended in  tiers until the barn is   
full4 ,tobacco barns everywhere are     
constructed  with movable1 or rather1   
adjustable1 side and end walls which    
permit of  a constant adjustment of the 
ventilation4 ,while hanging in the barn 
the  tobacco undergoes its preliminary  
cure and changes in color from the      
green of the growing plant to a         
yellowish brown4 ,the climatic changes  
have to be carefully studied during this
 process4 ,if the weather is  extremely 
dry it is customary to keep the barns   
closed in the daytime  and to open the  
ventilators at night4 ,it is generally  
desirable to  keep the tobacco fairly   
dry while it is undergoing the barn     

cure4 ,after  a few weeks1 and when the 
hanging tobacco has reached the proper  
stage  of maturity1 a period of damp    
weather is looked for so that the dry   
leaves may be rehandled without injury4 
,when the desired shower comes  along   
the tobacco is stripped off the poles   
and placed in pilon--that  is1 in heaps1
 or piles1 on the floors of the barns   
and warehouses1 each  pile being covered
 with blankets4 ,here1 being in a       
compact mass1 it  undergoes the         
calentura1 or fever1 by which it is     
pretty thoroughly  cured1 the color     
changing to a deeper brown4 ,after about
 two weeks in  the piles it is sorted1  
tied into small bundles or carrots1 and 
these  in turn are packed in bales4     
,after being baled the tobacco1 if      
allowed  to remain undisturbed1         
undergoes a third cure1 by which it is  
greatly  improved in quality4 ,it is    
then ready for the factory4             
,illustration3 ,a ,,tobacco ,,barn4     
,the ,shade-growing ,method4    ,the    

shade-growing method is one of the      
institutions of modern tobacco          
cultivation4 ,the principle is this3    
,the sun1 shining on the tobacco        
plants1 draws the nutrition from the    
earth1 and the plant ripens  quickly1   
the leaves having a tendency to be      
heavy-bodied and not very  large4 ,to   
defeat these results and produce large1 
thin1 silky leaves  for cigar-wrapper   
purposes1 the grower sometimes covers   
his field with  a tent of cheesecloth or
 with a lattice-work of lathing which   
protects  the growing tobacco from the  
direct rays of the sun4 ,thus the       
ripening  process is slower1 causing the
 leaves to grow larger and thinner and  
less gummy2 and being thinner and less  
gummy1 they are of a lighter  color when
 finally cured4 ,this method is employed
 by some growers in  cigar-leaf         
districts1 such as ,cuba1 ,florida and  
,connecticut4    ,illustration3 ,,taking
 ,,tobacco ,,from ,,bales      ,how ,are
 ,cigars ,made8    ,while many          

labor-saving devices have been          
introduced in all branches  of tobacco  
manufacture1 it is a curious fact that  
in the production  of the best grade of 
cigars1 namely1 the clear ,havana1 the  
work is  done entirely by hand4 ,in     
fact1 it may be said that in the process
 of  manufacturing fine cigars exactly  
the same principles are followed  as    
those of two centuries ago4 ,there has  
been much improvement in  the           
artisanship of the worker1 of course1   
but no rudimentary change  in method4   
,in the manufacture of snuff1 chewing   
and pipe tobacco1  cigarettes and       
all-tobacco cigarettes1 machinery plays 
an important  part2 and mechanical      
devices are also used extensively in the
  production of five-cent cigars and in 
the still higher priced grades  of      
part-domestic cigars1 such as the seed  
and ,havana4 ,some of these  appliances 
are almost human in their ingenuity4    
,but in fashioning the  tobacco of ,cuba
 into cigars that are perfect in shape1 

in formation  and in all the qualities  
that go to make a good cigar1 there is  
no  substitute for the human hand4      
,upon opening a bale of tobacco the     
workman takes each carrot out           
separately1 shakes it gently to separate
 the leaves1 and then moistens  it1     
either by dipping it into a tub of water
 from which it is quickly  removed and  
shaken to throw off the surplus water or
 else by spraying  it with a blower4 ,it
 is left in this condition over night1  
so that the  leaves may absorb the      
moisture and become uniformly damp and  
pliable4    ,the tobacco is then turned 
over to the strippers1 who remove the   
midrib  from each leaf1 at the same time
 separating the wrapper from the        
filler4 ,from this point on the         
treatment of the wrappers and fillers is
  different4    ,the half leaves        
suitable for fillers are spread out and 
placed one  on top of the other1 making 
what are called books4 ,these books are 
placed side by side1 closely together1  

on a board1 and a similar board  is     
placed on top of the tobacco to hold it 
in position4 ,later1 it is  packed into 
barrels1 the tops of which are covered  
with burlap1 and  there it undergoes a  
fermentation4 ,it is usually allowed to 
remain in  this condition for ten days  
or two weeks1 when it is rehandled and  
inspected1 and if found to be in the    
right condition1 it is placed on  racks1
 where it remains until it is in just   
the proper state of dryness  to be ready
 for working4    ,,the ,,great ,,care   
,,necessary ,,in ,,selection    ,the    
wrapper leaves1 after leaving the hands 
of the stripper1 are taken  by the      
wrapper selector1 who sits1 usually1 at 
a barrel1 and spreads  out each leaf1   
one on top of the other1 over the edge  
of the barrel1  assorting them as to    
size1 color1 etc41 into several         
different piles or  books4 ,each of     
these piles is divided into packs of    
twenty-five each1  and each lot of      
twenty-five is folded over into what is 

called a 8pad0  and tied with a stem4   
,it is in this form that they go to the 
cigarmaker4    ,every morning the stock 
is distributed among the cigarmakers4   
,each  workman is given enough tobacco  
to make a certain number of cigars1  and
 when his work is finished he must      
return either the full number of  cigars
 or the equivalent in unused leaves4    
,the tools of the cigarmaker consist    
merely of a square piece of  hardwood   
board1 a knife and a pot of gum         
tragacanth4 ,he sits at a  table upon   
which rests the board1 and at which     
there is also a gauge  on which the     
different lengths are indicated4        
,fastened to the front  of each table is
 a sack or pocket of burlap into which  
the cuttings  that accumulate on the    
table are brushed4 ,the operator deftly 
cuts his  wrapper from the leaf1        
fashions the filler into proper form and
 size  in the palm of his hand 7this is 
known as the 8bunch07 and rolls the     
tobacco into cigar form1 ,in winding the

 wrapper around the 8bunch0 the         
operator begins at the 8lighting end0 of
 the cigar1 called the 8tuck10  and     
finishes at the end that goes into the  
mouth1 which is called the  8head40 ,a  
bit of gum tragacanth is used to fasten 
the leaf securely at  the 8head40 ,the  
cigar is then held to the gauge and is  
trimmed smoothly  off to the proper     
length by a stroke of the knife at the  
8tuck40 ,the  cigars are taken up in    
bundles of fifty each4 ,they next pass  
into  the hands of the selectors1 who   
separate them into different piles1     
according to the color of the wrappers1 
and who also reject any cigars  that may
 be of faulty construction4 ,broken     
wrappers1 bad colors or any  other      
defects are sufficient to cause the     
rejection of a cigar4 ,the  rejected    
cigars are known as resagos             
78throwouts07 or secundos4    ,from the 
selectors the cigars go to the packers1 
whose duty it is to  place them in the  
boxes1 and to see that the colors in    

each box are  uniform1 marking the      
temporary color classification on each  
box in lead  pencil4 ,after being       
packed1 the filled boxes are put into a 
press and  so left for twelve hours or  
until the cigars conform somewhat to the
  shape of the box which contains them4 
,on being removed from the press1  if to
 be banded1 the cigars are carefully    
removed in layers from the  box1 the    
bands affixed1 and the cigars replaced4 
,the goods are then  placed in an       
air-tight vault to await shipment4      
,when the cigarmaker ties up his bundle 
of fifty cigars1 he attaches to  it a   
slip of paper upon which is marked his  
number4 ,this enables the  manufacturer 
to keep an accurate account of the      
number of cigars made  by each workman  
and also to place the responsibility for
 any defects in  the workmanship4       
,cigarmakers are paid by the piece1 the 
scale of wages  ranging from #af to #ajj
 per thousand4 ,in nearly every factory 
there  may be found advanced apprentices

 or old men working at the rate of  #ad 
per thousand and also there may be found
 skilled artisans making  exceptionally 
large odd sizes at more than #ajj per   
thousand1 but these  are not generally  
considered in the regulation scale of   
prices4 ,in  averages1 the workmen earn 
about #ah a week and make about #aej    
cigars a  day4      ,just a ,few        
,figures ,about ,tobacco4    ,the       
internal revenue from tobacco for one   
year would build fourteen  battleships  
of the first-class2 or it would pay the 
salary of the  ,president of the ,united
 ,states for nearly a thousand years4   
,it would  pay the interest on the      
public debt for three years1 and there  
would be  enough left over to add a     
dollar to the account of every savings  
bank  depositor in the ,united ,states4 
,the money spent by smokers for cigars  
only1 not counting cigarettes1  smoking 
and chewing tobacco and snuff would more
 than pay for the  building of the      
,panama ,canal1 besides taking care of  

the #ej1jjj1jjj  paid to the new ,french
 ,canal ,co41 and the ,republic of      
,panama for  property and franchises4   
,and in addition to this it would cover 
the  cost of fortifying the ,canal4     
,or it would build a fleet of           
thirty-five trans-,atlantic liners1 each
  exactly like the lost ,titanic1 coal  
them1 provision them and keep  them     
running between ,new ,york and          
,liverpool with a full complement of    
passengers and crew1 almost             
indefinitely4    ,there are #ba1gah1ddh 
cigars burned up in the ,united ,states 
every  twenty-four hours2 and #ijd1ice  
every hour2 and #ae1jhb every minute2   
and  #bea every second4    ,the annual  
per capita consumption of cigars in the 
,united ,states1  counting men1 women   
and children1 is eighty-six cigars4     
,if all the cigars smoked in the ,united
 ,states in one year were put  together1
 end to end1 they would girdle the      
earth1 at its largest  circumference1   
twenty-two times4    ,,as ,,to ,,the    

,,cigarettes1 there are #bc1gcf1aij of  
them consumed in the  ,united ,states   
every day2 and #ihi1jjg every hour2 and 
#af1dhb every  minute4 ,with every tick 
of your watch1 night and day1 the year  
around1  the butts of #bge smoked-up    
cigarettes are dropped into the ash     
tray4    ,cigarette smokers in the      
,united ,states1 not counting those who 
roll  their own smokes from tobacco1    
spend #fj1fde1iff4cf for the little     
paper-covered rolls4    ,if all the     
cigarettes smoked in the ,united ,states
 in one year were  placed end to end and
 stood up vertically they would make a  
slender  shaft rising #eab1gff miles    
into the heavens4    ,if strung on a    
wire they would make a cable that would 
reach from  the earth to the moon and   
back again1 with enough left over to    
circle  one-and-a-half times around the 
globe4    ,if this quantity of tobacco  
could be placed on one side of a huge   
balancing scale it would take the       
combined weight of four vast armies1    

each army consisting of #a1jjj1jjj men1 
to pull down the other side of  the     
scale4    ,the weight of the tobacco    
consumed in the ,united ,states in a    
year is  equal to the weight of the     
entire and combined population of       
,delaware1  ,maryland1 ,west ,virginia1 
,north ,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1     
,georgia1  ,florida1 ,tennessee and     
,alabama4    ,illustration3 ,,how ,,our 
,,finger ,,prints ,,identify ,,us       
,,arch3 ,,in ,,this ,,pattern ,,ridges  
,,run ,,from ,,one ,,side ,,to          
,,another1 ,,making ,,no  ,,backward    
,,turn4    ,illustration3 ,,loop3 ,,some
 ,,ridges ,,in ,,this ,,pattern ,,make  
,a ,,backward ,,turn1  ,,but ,,without  
,,twist4          ,the ,story in a      
,finger ,print#g      #g ,engravings and
 story by the courtesy of ,scientific   
,american4      ,our ,fingers4    ,one  
of the most interesting facts about our 
fingers is that every  member of the    
human race1 irrespective of age or sex1 
carries in  person certain delicate     

markings by which identity can be       
readily  established4 ,if the inner     
surface of the hand be examined1 a      
number  of very fine ridges will be seen
 running in definite directions1 and    
arranged in patterns1 there being four  
primary types--arches1 loops1  whorls1  
and composites4 ,it has been            
demonstrated that these patterns        
persist in all their details throughout 
the whole period of human life4  ,the   
impressions of the fingers of a new-born
 infant are distinctly  traceable on the
 fingers of the same person in old age4 
,the fact that  these patterns on the   
bulbs of the fingers are characteristic 
of and  differentiate one individual    
from another1 makes it an ideal means of
  fixing identity4 ,even men who look so
 much alike that it is virtually        
impossible to tell one from the other so
 far as facial characteristics  are     
concerned1 can be identified by their   
finger impressions4    ,innumerable     
illustrations can be given of how the   

perpetrators of  crime have been        
identified and convicted by their finger
 prints4  ,impressions left by criminals
 on such articles as plated goods1      
window  panes1 drinking glasses1 painted
 wood1 bottles1 cash boxes1 candles1    
etc41 have often successfully supplied  
the clue which has led to the           
apprehension of the thief or thieves4   
,one of our illustrations is that  of a 
champagne bottle which was found empty  
on the dining-room table  of a house    
which had been entered by a burglar in  
,birmingham1 ,england4  ,there was a    
distinct impression of a thumb mark on  
the bottle4 ,an  officer of the         
,birmingham ,city ,police took the      
bottle to ,new ,scotland  ,yard1        
,london1 and within a few minutes a     
duplicate print was found in  the       
records4 ,the burglar was arrested the  
same evening4    ,illustration3 ,,finger
 ,,prints ,,of ,,different ,,people     
,,are ,,different    ,,whorl3 ,,ridges  
,,here ,,make ,a ,,turn ,,through ,,at  

,,least ,,one ,,complete ,,circuit4     
,illustration3 ,,composite3 ,,includes  
,,patterns ,,in ,,which ,,two ,,or      
,,more ,,of ,,the  ,,other ,,types ,,are
 ,,combined4    ,many similar instances 
could be given of how thieves have been 
caught  by handling bottles and glasses4
 ,on one occasion a burglar entered a   
house in the ,west ,end of ,london1 and 
before leaving helped himself  to a     
glass of wine4 ,on the tumbler used he  
left two finger imprints1  and these    
were subsequently found1 upon search in 
the records at ,new  ,scotland ,yard1 to
 be identical with two impressions of a 
notorious  criminal1 who was in due     
course arrested and sentenced to four   
years'  imprisonment4    ,a somewhat    
gruesome relic is a cash-box which bears
 the blurred thumb  mark of a man who   
was convicted of murder4 ,the box was   
found in the  bedroom of a man and his  
wife who were murdered at ,deptford1    
,london1 in  #aije4 ,the cash-box was   
taken to ,new ,scotland ,yard1 and the  

impression  photographed and enlarged4  
,two brothers1 suspected of the crime1  
were  arrested1 and the thumb print of  
one was found to be identical with  that
 on the lid of the box4 ,our photograph 
of a gate recalls a curious  case that  
recently occupied the attention of a    
,london magistrate4 ,in  this instance a
 thief successfully climbed the gate1   
which was ten feet  high4 ,in his       
attempt to reach the ground on the inner
 side he placed  his feet on the center 
cross-bar1 at the same time holding the 
spikes  with his right hand4 ,in this   
position he fell1 and the ring he wore  
on  his little finger caught on the     
spike indicated by the arrowhead4 ,this 
caused him to remain suspended in the   
air until his weight tore the  finger   
from his hand4 ,the ring with the finger
 was found on the spike1  and in due    
course was received at ,new ,scotland   
,yard4 ,an impression was  taken of the 
finger1 and search among the records    
revealed a duplicate  print1 which led  

to the man's arrest4    ,if a criminal  
handles a piece of candle or removes a  
pane of glass and  leaves these behind1 
it is a hundred to one he has left a    
valuable  clue for the police4 ,the     
candle shown on the following page bears
 the  imprint of a man's thumb1 and was 
found in a house which a burglar had    
entered4 ,by handling the candle1 the   
thief virtually signed the warrant  for 
his own arrest4    ,the system was first
 used by the police in the ,province of 
,bengal1  ,india1 at the instigation of 
,sir ,william ,herschel4 ,its value was 
at  once apparent4 ,the work of the     
courts was considerably lightened1  as  
the natives recognized that a system of 
identification had been  discovered     
which was indisputable4 ,then from the  
police it was  introduced into various  
branches of the public service1 and here
 again  its value was quickly           
demonstrated4 ,when native pensioners   
died1 for  instance1 friends and        
relatives personated them1 and so       

continued to  draw their allowances4 ,by
 recording the identity of pensioners by
  finger prints1 this evil was quickly  
stamped out4    ,illustration3          
,,impressions ,,made ,,by ,,the         
,,fingers ,,and ,,palms    ,,palmary    
,,impressions ,,of ,,whole ,,hand1      
,,showing ,,how ,,it ,,is ,,covered     
,,with  ,,ridges ,,and ,,patterns4      
,illustration3                          
,,right ,,hand  ,,left ,,hand    ,,thumb
    ,,first ,,finger    ,,second        
,,finger    ,,third ,,finger    ,,fourth
 ,,finger    ,,finger ,,impressions ,,of
 ,,an ,,orang-,,outang 7,,anthropoid    
,,ape7 ,,taken ,,at ,,the  ,,london     
,,zoo4 ,,they ,,were ,,made ,,by        
,,scotland ,,yard4    ,the wonderful    
lineations1 in the form of ridges and   
patterns1 which  adorn the palmar       
surface of the human hand1 had1 of      
course1 been  known for many years4 ,mr4
 ,francis ,galton1 the famous traveler  
and  scientist1 was perhaps the first to
 give serious attention to the  subject 

of finger prints4 ,he discovered many   
interesting facts about  them4 ,then1 in
 #ahbc1 ,prof4 ,purkinje1 of ,breslau1  
read a paper before  the ,university of 
,breslau on the subject4 ,up to this    
date1 however1 no  practical use could  
be made of the impressions for the want 
of a system  of classification4 ,prof4  
,purkinje certainly suggested one1 but  
little  notice appears to have been     
taken of it4    ,naturally1 to be of any
 value to the police or to any          
government  department1 it is absolutely
 essential to classify the prints in    
such  a way that they could be readily  
referred to and identity established    
without undue delay4 ,it was virtually  
left to ,sir ,william ,herschel1  of the
 ,indian ,civil ,service1 to invent a   
really practical system of              
classification1 so it may be claimed    
that the finger-print method  of        
identification1 as at present adopted1  
is the discovery of an  ,englishman4    
,then it is only fair to add that ,sir  

,edward ,r4 ,henry1 the  ,commissioner  
of the ,metropolitan ,police of ,london1
 has also devoted  much time and study  
to the subject4 ,his book1              
8,classification and ,uses  of ,finger  
,prints10 has passed through many       
editions1 and has been  translated into 
several foreign languages4              
,illustration3 ,,how ,,thieves ,,have   
,,been ,,caught ,,through ,,finger      
,,prints    ,a ,,champagne ,,bottle     
,,having ,,thumb ,,imprint1 ,,which     
,,led ,,to ,,arrest ,,of ,a  ,,burglar4 
,illustration3 ,,candle ,,bearing       
,,thumb ,,mark ,,of ,a ,,burglar4       
,illustration3 ,,cash-,,box ,,in        
,,bedroom ,,of ,,murdered ,,man ,,and   
,,wife4 ,,the ,,thumb  ,,impression     
7,,pointed ,,at ,,by ,,arrow7 ,,led ,,to
 ,,arrest ,,of ,,the ,,murderer4        
,impressions are divided up into four   
distinct types or patterns4 ,first1  we 
have arches in which the ridges run from
 one side to the other1  making no      
backward turn4 ,in loops1 however1 some 

of the ridges do make  a backward turn1 
but are devoid of twists4 ,in whorls    
some of the ridges  make a turn through 
at least one complete circuit4 ,under   
composites are  included patterns in    
which two or more of the former types   
are combined  in the same imprint4      
,although similarity in type is of      
frequent  occurrence1 completely        
coincident ridge characteristics have   
never been  found in any two            
impressions4 ,it is not necessary here  
to enter into  a detailed account as to 
how the classification of these         
wonderful  lineations of the human hand 
is effected4 ,it is based on a number   
value1 attained by an examination1 by   
means of a magnifying glass1 of  the    
8deltas0 and 8cores10 which break up a  
collection into as many as  #ajbd       
separate primary groups1 each of which  
can again1 by a system  of              
sub-classification1 be further split up 
into quite a number of  sub-groups4     
,when the ,british police discover      

finger prints on articles  at the scene 
of crime1 the latter are at once        
conveyed to ,new ,scotland  ,yard4 ,if  
the impressions are very faint1 a little
 powder1 known to  chemists as 8grey    
powder0 7mercury and chalk71 is         
sprinkled over the  marking and then    
gently brushed off with a camel-hair    
brush4 ,this  brings out the imprint    
much more clearly4 ,if one places his   
dry thumb  upon a piece of white paper  
no visible impression is left4 ,if      
powder1  however1 is sprinkled over the 
spot and then brushed off1 a distinct   
impression is seen4 ,in the case of     
candles and articles of this nature1  a 
drop of printer's ink is lightly smeared
 over an impression1 in order  the more 
clearly to define the ridges and        
patterns4    ,illustration3 ,a ,,spike  
,,that ,,caught ,a ,,criminal    ,,on   
,,the ,,spike ,,of ,,the ,,gate         
7,,indicated ,,by ,,an ,,arrow7 ,a      
,,criminal ,,left ,,his  ,,finger ,,and 
,,ring1 ,,which ,,led ,,to ,,his        

,,conviction4    ,at the headquarters of
 the ,british police at ,new ,scotland  
,yard they  possess special cameras and 
a dark room for photographing these     
thumb  marks4 ,the dark room is #ba feet
 long and #g feet wide4 ,when finger    
prints are required for production in   
court they are first enlarged  five     
diameters with an enlarging camera4 ,the
 negatives are afterward  placed in an  
electric light enlarging lantern1 with  
which it is  possible to obtain         
photographic enlargements of a thumb    
mark #cf inches  square4 ,the lantern is
 arranged on a specially made table #ab 
feet long1  the lantern running between 
tram lines1 so that when moved it is    
square  with the easel4    ,criminals   
have naturally come to dread the value  
of their thumb marks  as a means of     
identifying their movements4 ,some will 
try to obliterate  the markings by      
pricking their fingers1 but so far this 
has not  availed them4 ,to successfully 
accomplish this it would be necessary   

to obliterate the whole of the palmary  
impressions on the tip of each  finger  
of each hand4    ,then the system1 too1 
is far in advance of any other1 both in 
reliability and simplicity of working4  
,compared to anthropometry1 for         
instance1 invented by ,m4 ,bertillon1 in
 which measurements of certain  portions
 of the body are relied upon as a medium
 of identification1 the  finger-print   
system is certainly preferable4 ,in the 
first place1 the  instruments are costly
 and are liable to get out of order2    
while the  measurements can only be     
taken by a fairly educated person1 and  
then  only after a special course of    
instruction4 ,in the finger-print system
  the accessories needed are a piece of 
paper and ink1 while any person1        
whether educated or not1 after half an  
hour's practice1 can take  legible      
finger prints4 ,then the classification 
of the latter is much  simpler and      
readier of access than the former4      
,at the time of writing there are some  

#afd1jjj finger-print records in  the   
pigeon-holes at ,new ,scotland ,yard1   
and the number now being added  to it is
 at the rate of about #bej weekly4 ,the 
system1 too1 is not only  in use in     
,great ,britain1 but in all the         
provinces of ,india1 including  ,burma1 
and in most of the ,british colonies and
 dependencies4 ,it is  being rapidly    
extended1 not only throughout ,europe1  
but also through  ,north and ,south     
,america4    ,illustration3 ,,records   
,,of ,,finger ,,prints ,,are ,,kept ,,at
 ,,headquarters      ,,specimen ,,form4 
,this ,form is not to be pinned4        
,,male4      ,h4,c4,r4 ,no4 44444       
,name 44444      ,aliases 44444         
,classification ,no4      #bh4 ,,mm4    
#cb4 ,,ii4      ,,right ,,hand4         
#a4--,right ,thumb4     #b4--,r4 ,fore  
,finger4     #c4--,r4 ,middle ,finger4  
#d4--,r4 ,ring ,finger4     #e4--,r4    
,little ,finger4      7,fold47          
7,fold47      ,impressions to be so     
taken that the flexure of the last joint

 shall    be immediately above the black
 line marked 7,fold74 ,if the impression
    of any digit be defective a second  
print may be taken in the vacant        
space above it4      ,when a finger is  
missing or so injured that the          
impression cannot be    obtained1 or is 
deformed and yields a bad print1 the    
fact should be    noted under ,remarks4 
,,left ,,hand4     #f4--,l4 ,thumb4     
#g4--,l4 ,fore ,finger4     #h4--,l4    
,middle ,finger4     #i4--,l4 ,ring     
,finger4    #aj4--,l4 ,little ,finger4  
7,fold47      7,fold47      ,,left      
,,hand4      ,plain impressions of the  
four fingers taken simultaneously4      
,,right ,,hand4      ,plain impressions 
of the four fingers taken               
simultaneously4      ,impressions taken 
by      ,classified at ,h4,c4 ,registry 
by      ,tested at ,h4,c4 ,registry by  
#acccf      ,rank      ,police          
,force4       ,date      ,date          
7,p4,t4,o47    ,illustration3 ,,combs   
,,of ,,honey ,,as ,,we ,,receive ,,same 

,the ,story in a ,honey ,bee#h      #h  
,pictures by ,courtesy of ,e4 ,r4 ,root 
,co4      ,of all the insect            
associations there are none that have   
more excited  the admiration of men of  
every age or that have been more        
universally  interesting than the       
colonies of the common honey-bee4       
,the ancients held many absurd views    
concerning the generation and           
propagation of bees1 believing that they
 arose from decaying animals1  from the 
flowers of certain plants1 and other    
views equally ridiculous  from our      
present point of view4      ,where ,does
 ,honey ,come ,from8    ,honey is a     
sticky fluid collected from flowers by  
several kinds of  insects1 particularly 
the honey bee2 and the common honey bee 
from the  earliest period has been kept 
by people in hives for the advantage    
and enjoyment which its honey and wax   
gives4 ,it is found wild in  ,north     
,america in great numbers1 storing its  
honey in hollow trees and  other        

suitable locations1 but not native to   
this country1 having been  introduced in
 ,north ,america by ,european colonists4
    ,the story of the honey bee is one  
of the most interesting of all  stories 
of the living things found on the earth4
 ,the busy bee is the  ideal example of 
hard and persistent work and has for a  
long time been  the subject of          
interesting study for young and old4    
,the bee is one of  the busiest of all  
of the world's workers1 and it is from  
the honey bee  that we get our          
expression 8as busy as a bee02 such     
other expressions  as 8to have a bee in 
one's bonnet02 also such others as      
8quilting  bees0 and 8husking bees0 are 
founded on the known activities of the  
honey bee4 ,the first expression means  
8to be flighty or full of whims  or     
uneasy motions0 which comes from the    
restless habits of bees1 and  8quilting 
bee0 or 8husking bee0 originated from   
the knowledge that  bees work together  
for the queen4 ,in a quilting bee or    

husking bee a  number of people get     
together and work together for a time   
for the  benefit of one individual4     
,illustration3 ,,worker-,,bee4          
,illustration3 ,,queen-,,bee1           
,,magnified4    ,illustration3          
,,drone-,,bee4      ,honey ,is ,produced
 by ,bees which ,live in ,colonies4     
,,how ,a ,,bee ,,makes ,,honey    ,a    
colony of bees consists of one female1  
capable of laying eggs1  called the     
queen2 some thousands of undeveloped    
females that normally  never lay eggs1  
the workers2 and1 at certain seasons of 
the year1 many  males1 the drones1 whose
 only duty is to mate with the young    
queens4  ,these different kinds of      
individuals can readily be recognized by
 the  difference in size of various     
parts of the body1 so that even the     
novice at bee-keeping can soon recognize
 each with ease4 ,this colony  makes its
 home in nature in a hollow tree or     
cave2 but it thrives  perhaps even      
better in the hives provided for it by  

man4 ,in a modern  hive1 sheets of comb 
are placed in wooden frames which are   
hung in the  hive-box in such a way that
 they can be removed at the pleasure of 
the  bee-keeper4 ,a sheet of comb is    
made up of small cells in which honey is
  stored by the bees1 and in which eggs 
are laid1 and young bees develop4       
,illustration3 ,,bees ,,living ,,on     
,,combs ,,built ,,in ,,the ,,open ,,air4
      ,how ,does a ,bee ,make ,honey    
from ,flower ,nectar8    ,in the spring 
of the year the colony consists of a    
queen and workers1  there being no      
drones present at this time4 ,during the
 winter the  bees remain quiet1 and the 
queen lays no eggs1 so that there are no
  developing bees in the hive4 ,the     
supply of honey is also low1 for they   
have eaten honey all winter1 and none   
has been collected and placed  in the   
cells4 ,as soon as the days are warm    
enough the bees begin to  fly from the  
hive in search of the earliest spring   
flowers4 ,from these  flowers they      

collect the nectar1 which is transformed
 into honey1 and  pollen1 which they    
carry to the hive on the pollen-baskets 
on the third  pair of legs4             
,illustration3 ,,cucumber-,,blossom     
,,with ,a ,,bee ,,on ,,it2 ,,caught ,,in
 ,,the ,,act4    ,the nectar is taken by
 the bee into its mouth1 and then passes
 to an  enlargement of the alimentary   
canal known as the honey-stomach1 where 
it is acted upon by certain juices      
secreted by the bee4 ,the true  stomach 
lies just behind the honey-stomach2 and 
if the bee needs food  for its own      
immediate use it passes on through the  
opening between the  two stomachs4 ,on  
its arrival in the hive the bee places  
its head in one  of the cells of the    
comb and deposits there the nectar which
 it has  carried in4 ,by this time the  
nectar has been partly transformed into 
honey1 and the process is completed by  
the bees by fanning the cells to        
evaporate the excess of moisture which  
still remains4 ,when a cell has  been   

filled with the thick honey the workers 
cover it with a thin sheet  of wax      
unless it is to be eaten at once4 ,the  
pollen is also deposited  in cells1 but 
is rarely mixed with honey4 ,the little 
pellets which the  bees carry in are    
packed tightly into cells until the cell
 is nearly  full4 ,if a cell of pollen  
be dug out of the comb1 one can often   
see the  layers made by the different   
pellets4 ,this collecting of nectar and 
pollen continues throughout the summer  
whenever there are flowers in  bloom1   
and ceases only with the death of the   
last flowers in the autumn4      ,what  
,does the ,queen ,bee ,do8    ,almost as
 soon as the honey and pollen begin to  
come in1 the queen of  the colony begins
 to lay eggs in the cells of the center 
combs4 ,the  title of queen has been    
given to the female bee which normally  
lays  all the eggs of the colony1 under 
the supposition that she governs the    
colony and directs its activities4 ,this
 we now know to be an error1 but  the   

name still remains4 ,her one duty in    
life is that of egg-laying4  ,she is    
most carefully watched over by the      
workers1 and is constantly  surrounded  
by a circle of attendants who feed her  
and touch her with  their antenn2 but   
she in no way dictates what shall take  
place in the  hive4 ,the eggs are laid  
in the bottom of the hexagonal cells1   
being  attached by one end to the center
 of the cell4 ,the first eggs laid      
develop into workers1 and are deposited 
in cells one-fifth of an inch  across4  
,as the colony increases in size by the 
hatching-out of these  workers1 and as  
the stores of honey and pollen increase1
 the queen  begins to lay in larger     
cells measuring one-fourth of an inch1  
and  from the eggs laid in these cells  
drones 7or males7 develop4              
,illustration3 ,,how ,,honey ,,develops 
,,in ,a ,,comb    ,,the ,,development   
,,of ,,comb ,,honey4    ,illustration3  
,,queen-,,cells4    ,illustration3 ,,the
 ,,queen ,,and ,,her ,,retinue4    ,the 

eggs do not develop directly into adult 
bees1 as might be inferred  from what   
has just been said2 but after three days
 there hatches from  the egg a small    
white worm-like larva4 ,for several days
 the larv  are fed by the workers1 and  
the amount of food consumed is truly    
remarkable4 ,the larva grows rapidly    
until it fills the entire cell in  which
 it lives4 ,the workers then cover the  
cell with a cap of wax1 and  at the same
 time the larva inside spins a delicate 
cocoon under the cap4    ,illustration3 
,,how ,,the ,,egg ,,of ,,the ,,queen    
,,bee ,,looks    ,,egg ,,of ,,queen     
,,under ,,the ,,microscope4             
,illustration3 ,,how ,,honey ,,develops 
,,in ,a ,,comb    ,,the ,,development   
,,of ,,comb ,,honey4      ,what ,are    
,drone ,bees ,good for8    ,the worker  
brood can at once be distinguished from 
the drone brood by  the fact that the   
workers place a flat cap over worker    
brood and a high  arched cap over drone 
brood2 and this is often a great help to

 the  bee-keeper in enabling him to     
determine at once what kind of brood any
  hive contains4 ,twenty-one days from  
the time the egg is laid the young      
worker-bee emerges from its cell1 having
 gone through some wonderful            
transformations during the time it was  
sealed up1 this stage being  known as   
the pupa stage4 ,for drones the time is 
twenty-four days4    ,illustration3     
,,how ,a ,,swarm ,,will ,,sometimes     
,,occupy ,a ,,small ,,tree ,,and ,,bend 
,,it ,,over ,,by ,,its ,,weight4        
,about the time the drones begin to     
appear1 the inmates of the hive  begin  
to prepare for swarming1 which1 to any  
one watching the habits  of bees1 is one
 of the most interesting things which   
takes place in  the colony4 ,several    
young worker larv are chosen as the     
material  for queen-rearing1 generally  
located near the margin of the comb4    
,the workers now begin to feed these    
chosen larv an extra amount of  food and
 at the same time the sides of the cells

 containing them are  remodeled and     
enlarged by the destruction of          
surrounding cells4 ,the  queen 7or      
royal7 cell is nearly horizontal at the 
top1 like the other  cells of the comb1 
and projects beyond them2 but then the  
workers  construct another portion to   
the cell into which the queen larva     
moves4  ,this is an acorn-shaped cell   
placed vertically on the comb1 about as 
large as three ordinary cells4 ,as the  
cell is being built1 the queen  larva   
continues to grow until the time comes  
for her to be sealed up  and enter her  
pupa state4 ,although it takes the      
worker twenty-one days  to complete its 
development1 the queen passes through   
all the stages  and reaches a           
considerably larger size in but sixteen 
days4    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,daily   
,,growth ,,of ,,larv4    ,illustration3 
,,drone-,,comb4    ,,worker-,,comb4     
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,honey      
,,comb ,,is ,,made    ,a ,,study ,,in   
,,cell-,,making4    ,note that the cells

 are made independent of each other1 and
 that it is  the refuse wax1 like       
droppings of mortar in brick-laying1    
that seems to  tumble into the          
interstices to fill up4    ,in the      
swarming season1 at about the time the  
new queens are ready to  leave their    
cells1 the old queen leaves the hive and
 takes with her  part of the workers1   
this being known as swarming4           
,illustration3 ,,clipping ,,the ,,queen 
,,bee',s ,,wings    ,,how ,,to ,,bump   
,,the ,,bees ,,off ,a ,,comb4           
,illustration3 ,,manner ,,of ,,using    
,,german ,,bee-,,brush    ,illustration3
 ,m4 ,g4 ,dervishian's method of        
catching queens1 for caging  or clipping
 their wings1 by means of a jeweler's   
tweezers4    ,illustration3 8,,the      
,,proof ,,of ,,the ,,pudding ,,is ,,in  
,,the ,,eating40    ,illustration3      
,,what ,,an ,,apiary ,,looks ,,like     
,,an ,,apiary ,,in ,,summer4    ,this   
photo shows the windbreak of evergreens 
surrounding the yard4 ,the  house-apiary

 is shown in the background1 the upper  
story of which is  used as a workshop4  
,a trellis of grapevines is placed in   
front of each  hive4 ,in summer there is
 ample shade1 and in the fall and early 
spring  the leaves are shed1 leaving    
plenty of sun to strike the hives when  
it  is most needed4    ,illustration3   
,,how ,,the ,,honey ,,man ,,handles     
,,the ,,bees    ,a ,,swarm ,,entering ,a
 ,,hive4    ,illustration3 ,a ,,live    
,,bee-,,hat4    ,illustration3 ,a       
,,frame ,,of ,,bees1 ,,showing ,,one    
,,way ,,of ,,holding ,,an ,,unspaced    
,,frame4      ,how ,do ,bees ,build the 
,honey ,comb8    ,in the hands of a     
bee-keeper the departing swarm will be  
put into  another hive provided he      
wishes to increase the number of his    
colonies2  but in a state of nature the 
swarm will find an old hollow tree or   
some similar place in which to establish
 itself4 ,the bees1 before  leaving     
their old hive1 fill themselves with    
honey until the abdomen  is greatly     

distended1 and for this reason it is not
 necessary for them  to collect nectar  
for a day or two1 for they have other   
work to do4  ,some of the bees begin to 
clean out the new quarters and get it   
fit for  occupancy2 but most of them    
begin the construction of new combs4 ,to
  do this they suspend themselves in    
curtains from the top of the hive1  and 
remain motionless for some time4 ,the   
wax used in building comb is  secreted  
by the workers in eight small pockets on
 the lower side of the  abdomen while   
they thus hang in curtains4 ,finally1   
after enough wax has  been formed1 they 
begin to build4 ,the small flakes of wax
 are passed  forward to the mouth1 there
 mixed with a salivary secretion to make
 the  wax pliable1 and then are placed  
on the top of the hive by the first     
comb-builders4 ,other workers then come 
and place their small burdens of  wax on
 those first deposited1 and this        
continues until the combs are  finished4
 ,there is more to comb-building than   

the mere sticking on of  wax plates1    
however1 and nothing in all bee         
instincts is more wonderful  than the   
beautiful plan on which they build the  
comb4 ,the cells are  hexagonal in      
shape1 so that each cell in the center  
of the comb is  surrounded by six       
others4 ,nor is this the only remarkable
 thing in  their architecture1 for each 
comb is composed of a double row of     
cells1  the base of each cell being     
formed of three parts1 each one of which
 is  likewise a part of a separate cell 
of the other side of the comb4 ,by  this
 method the bees obtain the greatest    
possible capacity for their  cells1 with
 the least expenditure of wax4 ,the     
accuracy of the cells of  the comb has  
in all ages been an object of admiration
 of naturalists  and bee-keepers4    ,as
 soon as there are some cells           
constructed1 and even before the cells  
are entirely completed1 the queen begins
 to lay eggs1 and the workers  begin to 
collect the stores of honey and pollen4 

,they also collect in  considerable     
quantity a waxy substance from various  
trees1 commonly  called propolis1 with  
which they seal the inside of the hive1 
closing  up all openings except the one 
which serves as the entrance4           
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,honey ,,bee
 ,,defends ,,himself    ,,effect ,,of ,a
 ,,sting ,,near ,,the ,,eye4    ,the    
cells which are used for the storage of 
honey generally slant  upward slightly  
to help keep the honey from running out4
 ,queen-cells  are made only when a new 
queen is to be reared4      ,can a ,bee 
,sting8    ,it is true that bees cannot 
bite and kick like horses1 nor can they 
hook like cattle2 but most people1 after
 having had an experience with          
bee-stings for the first time1 are      
inclined to think they would rather  be 
bitten1 kicked1 and hooked1 all         
together1 than risk a repetition of     
that keen and exquisite anguish which   
one feels as he receives the full       
contents of the poison-bag4      ,what  

,happens ,when a ,bee ,stings8    ,after
 the bee has penetrated the flesh on    
your hand1 and worked the  sting so     
deeply into the flesh as to be          
satisfied1 it begins to find  that it is
 a prisoner1 and to consider means of   
escape4 ,it usually  gets smashed at    
about this stage of proceedings1 unless 
it succeeds  in tearing the             
sting--poison-bag and all--from the     
body2 however1 if  allowed to do the    
work quietly it seldom does this1       
knowing that such a  proceeding         
seriously maims it for life1 if it does 
not kill it4 ,after  pulling at the     
sting to see that it will not come out1 
it seems to  consider the matter a      
little1 and then commences to walk      
around it1  in a circle1 just as if it  
were a screw it was going to turn out of
 a  board4 ,if you will be patient and  
let it alone1 it will get it out by     
this very process1 and fly off unharmed4
 ,i need not tell you that it  takes    
some heroism to submit patiently to all 

this maneuvering4 ,the  temptation is   
almost ungovernable1 while experiencing 
the intense pain1  to say1 while you    
give it a clip1 8,there1 you little     
beggar1 take that1  and learn better    
manners in future40    ,well1 how does  
every bee know that it can extricate its
 sting by  walking around it8 ,some     
would say it is instinct4 ,well1 ,i     
guess it is2  but it seems to me1 after 
all1 that it 8sort o' remembers0 how its
  ancestors have behaved in similar     
predicaments for ages and ages past4    
,odor of the ,bee-sting ,poison4        
,after one bee has stung you1 if you    
remain where you were stung1 the  smell 
of the poison1 or something else1 will  
be pretty sure to get more  stings for  
you1 unless you are very careful4 ,it   
has been suggested that  this is owing  
to the smell of the poison1 and that the
 use of smoke  will neutralize this     
scent4 ,this probably is so4      ,what 
,should ,i ,do ,if ,i ,am ,stung by a   
,bee8    ,the blade of a knife1 if one  

is handy1 may be slid under the         
poison-bag1 and the sting lifted out1   
without pressing a particle more  of the
 poison into the wound4 ,when a         
knife-blade is not handy1 push  the     
sting out with the thumb or finger nail 
in much the same way4 ,it  is quite     
desirable that the sting should be taken
 out as quickly as  possible1 for if the
 barbs once get a hold in the flesh1 the
 muscular  contractions will rapidly    
work the sting deeper and deeper4       
,sometimes  the sting separates1 and a  
part of it 7one of the splinters1 so to 
speak7 is left in the wound2 it has been
 suggested that we should be  very      
careful to remove every one of these    
tiny points2 but after trying  many     
times to see what the effect would be1  
,i have concluded that they  do but     
little harm1 and that the main thing is1
 to remove the part  containing the     
poison-bag before it has emptied itself 
completely into  the wound4      ,why   
,are ,some ,races ,white1 and ,others   

,black1 ,yellow and ,brown8    ,what you
 eat determines your color1 according to
 ,bergfield1 a ,german  investigator4   
,not necessarily that you yourself could
 effect any change  in color1 but your  
ancestors for thousands of years have   
unconsciously  been influenced by the   
food they have eaten and the drinks they
 have  drunk4    ,for instance1 the     
original men were black1 says           
,bergfield4 ,their chief  diet was of   
vegetables and fruits1 he explains1 and 
these same food  contains manganates    
that are not unlike iron4 ,dark browns  
and blacks  result from this            
combination4 ,it is a scientific fact   
that negroes who  drink milk and eat    
meat are never as dark as those who eat 
vegetables4    ,again1 ,mongols are     
yellow because they have descended from 
races that  were fruit-eating1 and who1 
making their way into the deepest nooks 
and widest plains of ,asia1 developed   
into shepherds and lived largely  on    
milk4 ,of course it is now known that   

milk contains a certain  percentage of  
chlorine1 and has a decidedly bleaching 
effect4 ,in the  case of ,caucasians1   
they are said to have become white by   
adding salt  to their foods1 which      
common salt is a strong chloride1 and   
powerful in  bleaching the skin4        
,illustration3 ,a ,,hide ,,house        
,the ,story in a ,piece of ,leather#i   
#i ,pictures by courtesy of ,endicott1  
,johnson  ,co4      ,where ,does        
,leather ,come ,from8    ,leather is    
made by treating the hides of various   
animals such as the  calf1 cow and      
horse4 ,these are the principal animals 
from which we  obtain hides for making  
leather to make shoes4 ,before the hides
 are  fit for making shoes1 they must be
 taken to a tannery where they are      
prepared and tanned4    ,in viewing a   
tannery1 we enter first the enormous    
hide house4 ,it is  long1 damp and dark4
 ,here the hides are collected from all 
over the  world and stored1 awaiting    
their turn for tanning4 ,we follow a    

small  car of these hides into the      
beamhouse4 ,we see the hides loaded into
 a  vat4 ,they are soaked1 resoaked1    
softened and split into sides4 ,this    
operation1 while simple1 holds your     
attention longer perhaps than any  of   
the others4 ,several hides after being  
softened are thrown over  a sort of     
saw-horse1 the lot number is stamped on 
the hide in such  a manner that it      
appears on each side after being split4 
,with an  unusually long bladed knife   
the workman quickly cuts down through   
the  center and the hides which are now 
called sides1 fall to the floor4  ,they 
are next hooked together and pass on    
through vat after vat of lime  solution 
which loosens the hair and superfluous  
flesh4 ,at the end of  this long chain  
of vats1 we see the sides awaiting their
 turn at the  first unhairing machine1  
where all the hair is removed and then  
to the  fleshing machine1 where the     
flesh is taken off and the sides are    
again  loaded in a car and pass on to   

the tanyard4    ,illustration3 ,,how    
,,the ,,hides ,,are ,,treated    ,,the  
,,tan ,,yard    ,we resume our travels1 
following a car of sides from the       
beamhouse to  the sole leather tanyard4 
,there are about #dj operations in the  
tanning  of sole leather1 requiring     
about #ajj days to produce first quality
  leather4 ,in the tanyard1 we see more 
than #ejj vats1 each holding #cjj       
sides1 weighing about #bc pounds apiece4
 ,each vat contains about #cjjj  gallons
 of liquor at an approximate cost of    
#ajj a vat4 ,here we see  the sides     
slipped over sticks and placed in vats  
six feet deep1 where  they receive the  
tanning1 the real tanning process which 
preserves the  fibers giving the leather
 its life and long wearing qualities4   
,from the tanyard we go to the big      
wringers where the liquor is wrung  out1
 the hides are milled1 dried and loaded 
on cars for the drying  loft1 where they
 are allowed to dry or season           
preparatory to rolling4  ,this long     

building is sectioned off every #ej feet
 into chambers1 where  the hides are    
hung in the same manner as in the vats4 
,the temperature  of each room is       
changed from the outside temperature to 
a heat of #aae  degrees1 at which       
temperature the hides are dried and are 
ready for  rolling4    ,illustration3   
,in the rolling room1 we see an         
operation requiring skill  and quickness
 of eye4 ,the rollers pass to and fro   
over the side1 which  is now hard and   
stiff1 with a pressure of #cjj tons4    
,this rolling or  finishing gives it a  
high polish and we see a beautiful side 
of sole  leather1 weighing from #ah to  
#be pounds4    ,illustration3 ,,how     
,,upper ,,shoe ,,leather ,,is ,,tanned  
,in the upper leather tannery we see the
 various operations preparatory  to the 
actual operation of tanning the hide1   
about the same as in  the sole leather  
tannery1 with this difference3 ,upper   
leather in  this tannery is generally   
chrome tanned1 a process requiring #cj  

days  and instead of vats sunken in the 
ground we see huge rolling drums        
revolving at a rapid rate4 ,this process
 is the most up-to-date method  and     
absolutely insures the wearing qualities
 of the leather4 ,this  leather is very 
tough1 yet is just as soft and pliable  
as glove leather  and as comfortable to 
the feet4 ,it does not harden with age1 
nor does  it stiffen after being wet4   
,illustration3 ,,unhairing ,,machine    
,one of the most interesting sight while
 going through the tanneries is  the    
process of disposing of waste materials1
 such as hair1 fleshings  and the       
sediments from the lime and sulphur     
vats4    ,the hair is separated into    
white1 brown and black colors1 each     
color  taking its turn through the huge 
mill or gin where the hair is dried  and
 afterwards baled4 ,the brown and black 
are sold to plasterers4 ,those  who     
purchase the white often mix it with    
wool and use it for making  many useful 
articles4    ,the fleshings and         

trimmings are sold to manufacturers of  
glue4    ,illustration3 ,the ,ancient   
,sandal ,maker as pictured on the wall  
of the  ruined temples at ,thebes1      
,egypt4          ,the ,story in a ,pair 
of ,shoes#aj      #aj ,pictures by      
,courtesy of ,united ,shoe ,machinery   
,co4      ,who ,made the ,first ,shoes8 
,,where ,,shoes ,,come ,,from    ,the   
making of shoes is one of the oldest    
arts of which there is any  human       
knowledge4 ,long before primitive man   
devised any method of  recording his    
exploits or thoughts1 he                
contrived--through necessity--a  method 
of protecting his feet from the rough   
way or hot sands over  which he was     
obliged to travel in his search for food
 and shelter4    ,that foot covering    
antedates clothing or ornaments is shown
 from the  fact that the primitive      
savage to-day1 devoid of clothing or    
ornament1  is almost invariably found   
with a crude form of foot protection and
  there is scarcely a tribe or nation   

without it's traditions of the          
shoe--its mysterious power for good or  
evil4      ,what ,was the ,first ,foot  
,covering ,like8    ,the first foot     
covering devised was undoubtedly a      
simple form of  sandal--a rough bit of  
hide1 wood or plaited grass held to the 
foot by  means of thongs1 generally     
brought up between the toes and tied    
about  the ankle4 ,this form of foot    
covering is depicted in records of the  
greatest antiquity3 in the ruined       
temples at ,thebes ,egypt1 the ancient  
sandal maker is shown at his task2 the  
,assyrian bricks show the ancient       
warriors and people of that time wearing
 the simple sandal4    ,the dispersion  
of the human races and the wandering of 
tribes into  colder climates brought the
 necessity for more thorough protection 
for the feet and body1 and that this was
 accomplished was shown in  the gradual 
increase in the number of straps or     
thongs which held the  sandal in place  
and1 in the colder climates1 in the     

contrivance of  a bag-like foot         
covering--traces of which are found even
 now in the  ,indian moccasin and the   
foot covering of the ,eskimo4 ,in all   
colder  countries this type of footwear 
is still in evidence1 the seam around   
the outline of the foot being a relic of
 the puckering string which  held the   
bag-like covering to the foot4          
,illustration3 ,ancient sandal showing  
puckering string and thongs for  holding
 it on foot4    ,illustration3          
,,japanese 8,,zori0    ,a flat sandal   
with felt sole4 ,also showing 8,tabi0 or
 glove-like sock  worn by ,japanese4    
,the sandal was developed and adorned by
 the ,greeks1 but it was not  until the 
days of the ,roman ,empire that anything
 approaching the  present form of shoes 
was designed4 ,in this period a form of 
foot  covering was developed--that was  
appropriated by the ,emperor and worn   
by him only--which covered the entire   
foot with the exception of the  toes4   
,illustration3      ,,the    ,,evolution

    ,,of ,,the    ,,sandal    ,,to ,,the
    ,,shoe    ,illustration3 ,,ancient  
,,and ,,modern ,,forms ,,of ,,sandals   
,japanese ,astrida or ,rough ,weather   
,clog4    ,illustration3 ,ancient       
,turkish ,bath ,slipper4                
,illustration3 ,the ,crakrow or         
,poulaine showing clearly traces of the 
oriental origin of this design4         
,illustration3 ,home made sandal of     
,siberian ,peasant4 ,showing puckering  
string and key strap4    ,illustration3 
,,japanese ,,wary    ,a primitive form  
of foot covering very generally used by 
,japanese at  the present time4         
,illustration3 ,modern sandal issued by 
the ,mexican ,government for wear  of   
soldiers4      ,the ,boot ,developed    
from the ,sandal4    ,it was but a step 
from this form of foot covering to the  
boot which  covered not only the foot   
but the lower leg as well and which came
  widely into use afterwards in the form
 of the ,jack-boot4    ,up to the       
fourteenth century there had been little

 in the way of  development of foot     
covering1 but it is well established    
that in the  year #adjh there were      
shoemakers' guilds in ,europe4 ,some of 
these  were semi-religious in character1
 the members working in communities  and
 sharing in the general product of their
 toil4 ,guilds of this  period were very
 generally dedicated to either ,saint   
,crispin or ,saint  ,crispianus 7the    
patron saint of shoemaking71 and even to
 this day  the birthday of ,saint       
,crispin is celebrated in some of the   
,english  shoemaking guilds on ,october 
#be4 ,the ceremonies attending the      
celebration in the olden days were of a 
very elaborate nature4    ,,the ,,shoe  
,,which ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,law      
,,forbade    ,in the process of time the
 shoes began to lose the crude nature   
and  design in which the ,dark ,ages had
 held them and developed a style the    
first of which was apparent in the      
gradual elongation of the toes1  the    
custom said to have been introduced by  

,henry1 ,duke of ,anjou1  and these     
shoes were known as 8,crakrows0 or      
8,poulaines40 ,the style  finally ran to
 such extremes that effort was made to  
stop it by the  church and government1  
but with indifferent success until      
finally its  end was accomplished by the
 imposing of summary fines and threat of
  excommunication by the church4        
,illustration3 ,,the ,,crakrow ,,or     
,,peaked ,,shoe ,,of ,,the ,,fourteenth 
,,century    ,immediately the style went
 to the other extreme and the toes      
became  very broad1 as evidenced in the 
period of ,elizabeth1 and in some       
instances the shoes were as broad as six
 inches at the toe4 ,they were  made of 
velvet and were slashed to show the     
satin lining4      ,who ,made the ,first
 ,shoes in ,america8    ,the first      
shoemaking in ,america is recorded when 
,thomas ,baird arrived  on the second   
voyage of the ,mayflower in #afbh4      
,baird was under contract  with the     
,plymouth ,company to make shoes for the

 colonists and brought  with him divers 
hides1 etc41 for this purpose4 ,it was  
recorded that in  #afcf a planter in    
,virginia employed six shoemakers to    
make shoes for  his slaves4    ,that in 
the early history of the country the art
 of making shoes had  become of         
considerable importance is shown by the 
very summary laws  passed by the        
different colonies regulating the       
industry4 ,particularly  was this so in 
the ,province of ,pennsylvania which1 in
 #agba1 placed upon  its statute book   
most drastic laws regarding the making  
of shoes and  regulating the prices to  
be charged therefor4    ,shoemaking in  
,new ,england early received impetus    
from the arrival of  one ,phillip       
,kirtland1 a ,welshman1 who came to     
,lynn1 ,mass41 in #afcf4  ,he was an    
experienced shoemaker and taught his art
 to many of the  colonists in his       
vicinity4    ,shoemaking in this        
locality was further advanced by the    
arrival of  ,john ,adams ,dagyr1 who    

settled in ,lynn in the year #agej4     
,dagyr was a  celebrated shoemaker and  
was enabled1 from his own means1 to     
secure the  best examples of work from  
abroad4 ,he possessed the peculiar      
quality  of being able to teach the art 
to those who came under his charge4     
,the fame of ,new ,england made shoes   
was due largely to the teachings  of    
these men and the industry has continued
 to be one of the first in  importance4 
,in ,massachusetts alone1 according to  
the census of #aiaj1  over #dj per cent 
of the entire value of shoes in the     
,united ,states was  produced4    ,the  
young man of this period1 who essayed to
 learn the shoemaking  trade1 was       
ordinarily apprenticed for a term of    
seven years under the  most rigorous    
terms1 as shown in some of the          
indentures of that period  which are    
still in existence4 ,he was instructed  
in every part of the  trade and1 upon   
completion of his term of service1 it   
was the custom  for the newly fledged   

shoemaker to start what was known as    
8whipping  the cat0--which meant        
journeying from town to town1 living    
with a  family while making a year's    
supply of shoes for each member thereof1
  and then leaving to fill other        
engagements previously made4    ,it was 
soon found that the master workman could
 largely increase his  income by        
employing other men to do certain       
portions of the work1 while  he directed
 their efforts1 and this gradually lead 
to a division of  the labor and was the 
beginning of a factory system--which has
 been in  process of development from   
that time4    ,in the year #agie it is  
recorded that there were in the city of 
,lynn1  ,mass41 over two hundred master 
workmen1 employing over six hundred     
journeymen1 and that they manufactured  
shoes at the rate of about one  pair per
 day per man4    ,factory buildings1 as 
the words would be known to-day1 were   
practically  unknown at that time4 ,the 
small buildings1 about ten feet square1 

were  in the back yards of many homes   
and in these little shops were employed 
from three to eight men4    ,strange as 
it may seem1 prior to the year #ahde    
there had been little  change in the    
tools employed in making shoes4 ,the    
workman of that  period1 seated at his  
low bench1 used practically the same    
implements  that were employed by his   
prototype1 the ancient sandal-maker of  
,egypt4 ,the lap stone1 the hammer1 the 
crude needle and the knife being        
practically the only tools used4 ,not   
that there had been no effort to        
perfect machinery for this purpose2     
,napoleon ,i1 in his endeavor to  secure
 better shoes for his soldiers1 had     
offered great rewards for  the          
perfecting of shoe machinery that would 
accomplish this purpose1  but although  
great effort had been made there had    
been no successful  machinery produced4 
,in this year #ahde the first machine to
 be widely adopted by the  industry was 
perfected4 ,it was a simple form of     

rolling machine1 which  took the place  
of the lap stone and hammer used by the 
shoemakers for  toughening the leather1 
and it is said that a man could1 in half
 an  hour1 obtain the same results from 
this machine that would require a  day's
 labor on the part of the hand workman  
employing the old method of  pounding4  
,this was followed in #ahdh by the very 
important invention by ,elias ,howe  of 
the sewing machine--which was not       
adapted for use in connection with      
sewing leather until several years      
later4 ,it started1 however1 an era  of 
great activity among inventors and in   
#aheg there was perfected a  machine for
 driving pegs1 which came into          
successful operation4      ,the ,first  
,machine for ,making ,shoes4    ,this   
was shortly followed by a very important
 invention by ,lyman ,e4  ,blake1 of    
,abington1 ,mass41 of a machine for     
sewing the soles of shoes  and this     
afterwards became famous as the 8,mc,kay
 ,sewing ,machine40 ,this  invention of 

,blake's was purchased by ,gordon       
,mc,kay1 who spent large  sums of money 
in perfecting it1 and the first machine 
was established  in ,lynn in #ahfa4 ,the
 results obtained in the early stages of
 the  machines were of an indifferent   
nature and it was only after large      
expenditures and the hiring of a number 
of different inventors to work  upon it 
that a successful machine was produced4 
,illustration3 ,,boots ,,of ,,the       
,,cavaliers ,,and ,,postillions         
,,french ,,postillion ,,boot ,,of ,,the 
,,fifteenth ,,century    ,illustration3 
,,the ,,cavalier ,,boot ,,of ,,the      
,,fifteenth ,,century    ,illustration3 
,,military ,,jack ,,boot ,,of           
,,cromwell',s ,,time    ,illustration3  
,,military ,,jack ,,boot ,,of           
,,sixteenth ,,century4    ,,how ,,shoe  
,,machinery ,,was ,,developed    ,while 
the quality of work was pronounced by   
manufacturers to be a  success1 few had 
any faith in the possibility of         
manufacturing shoes  by machinery and   

,mc,kay met with constant rebuffs in his
 endeavor  to introduce his machine4 ,it
 is recorded that in his desperation  he
 finally offered to sell all the patent 
rights in machines which  he owned to a 
syndicate of ,lynn manufacturers for the
 sum of  #bej1jjj4jj--the amount he had 
expended--but the offer was refused4    
,in his dilemma ,mc,kay at last offered 
to shoe manufacturers the use of  his   
machines on a basis1 which afterwards   
became famous and an inherent  part of  
the shoe industry known as 8royalty10   
whereby ,mc,kay placed his  machines    
with manufacturers and participated to a
 small extent in the  amount of money   
saved4 ,owing to the fact that          
shoemakers were leaving  rapidly for the
 front and that there was a great       
scarcity of footwear1  the manufacturers
 gladly accepted this proposition and   
the machines  were very rapidly         
introduced4    ,the success of his early
 machines accomplished1 ,mc,kay set     
about the  perfecting of others that    

would do different parts of the work and
  there was accordingly great activity  
on the part of inventors in  their      
endeavor to perfect machines for the    
wide variety of uses made  necessary in 
the preparation of leather for          
shoemaking4 ,there were soon  machines  
on the market for a wide variety of     
purposes--including the  lasting of the 
shoe1 cutting the leather and for many  
other processes  necessary in making a  
complete shoe4    ,contemporary with the
 early success of the ,mc,kay machines1 
a ,french  inventor1 ,august ,destoney1 
conceived the idea of making a machine  
which would sew turned shoes--then a    
popular type of footwear for  women4    
,after several years of endeavor he     
finally secured the interest  of ,john  
,hanan1 a famous shoemaker of that time 
in ,new ,york ,city1 and  through him   
the interest of ,charles                
,goodyear--nephew of ,goodyear of       
,india-rubber fame4    ,no sooner had   
the machine become perfected for the    

sewing of turned  shoes1 however1 than  
he set to work to make changes which    
would fit  it to sew welt shoes4 7,the  
welt shoe has always been considered the
  highest type of shoemaking1 as1 by a  
very ingenious process1 a shoe  is made 
which is perfectly smooth inside2 all   
the other types having  a seam of thread
 or tacks inside which make them of     
considerable  disadvantage4 ,he was able
 to accomplish this a few years later1  
although the machines were not in       
extended use until about #ahic1 when    
auxiliary machines for performing       
important parts of the work were        
perfected2 and from that time headway   
was made in the manufacture of  this    
high grade type of footwear4    ,the    
development of the industry--which has  
been very rapid with the  introduction  
of machinery--suffered materially in the
 latter part of  the last century       
through the bitter rivalry of machinery 
manufacturers1  a common process being  
the enjoining of manufacturers from the 

use of  machines on which it was claimed
 the patents were infringed and this    
created a state of great uncertainty in 
the minds of many of those              
manufacturing shoes4    ,this condition 
finally found its solution in the       
formation of one large  corporation1    
known in the shoe industry as the       
8,united ,shoe ,machinery  ,company10   
which purchased the patents for a       
sufficient number of  machines to form a
 complete system for the 8bottoming0--or
 fastening  the soles and heels of      
shoes--and finishing them4    ,these    
machines have been the subject of       
constant improvement and  others have   
been perfected to take care of          
operations which1 prior to  their       
introduction1 were purely hand          
operations4 ,each machine has been      
standardized and so adapted to meet the 
requirements of those used in           
connection with it that they            
collectively form the most remarkable   
and  efficient system of machines used  

at the present time4    ,mention is made
 of this company owing to the important 
position it  has taken in the           
organization and advancement of the     
industry1 the  ,american-made shoe being
 the one commodity of world-wide        
consumption  whose supremacy is not     
contested4    ,illustration3 ,,my       
,,lady',s ,,slippers ,,of ,,early       
,,times    ,,embroidered ,,riding ,,boot
 ,,worn ,,by ,,nobles ,,during ,,last   
,,days ,,of ,,polish  ,,independence    
,illustration3 ,,embroidered ,,riding   
,,boot ,,from ,,persia ,,of ,,about     
#ahej    ,illustration3 ,,french ,,calf 
,,boot ,,made ,,in ,,new ,,york ,,city1 
#ahce    ,illustration3 ,,lady',s       
,,shoe--,,period ,,of ,,the ,,french    
,,revolution    ,illustration3 ,,lady',s
 ,,shoe--,,period ,,of ,,louis ,,xvi4   
,has wooden heel4    ,illustration3     
,,lady',s ,,adelaid ,,or ,,side ,,laced 
,,shoe--,,period #ahcj ,,to #ahgj       
,illustration3      ,,channel ,,lip     
,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,insole         

,,wooden ,,last--,,determines ,,size    
,,and ,,shape ,,of ,,shoe      ,,an     
,,insole      ,,an ,,insole ,,tacked    
,,to ,,bottom ,,of ,,last    ,,the      
,,beginning ,,of ,a ,,shoe          ,how
 ,shoes ,are ,made by ,machinery        
,at the present time the types of shoes 
ordinarily made are but five3  the 8peg0
 shoe1 which is the cheapest type of    
shoe made2 the 8standard  screw10 which 
is used in the soles of the heaviest    
types of boots2  the 8,mc,kay sewed10   
which is made after the fashion         
established by  ,gordon ,mc,kay2 the    
8turn0 shoe1 a light type of shoe which 
was invented  centuries ago and which is
 still worn at this time to a limited   
extent2  and the 8,goodyear welt10 which
 has been universally adopted as the    
highest type of footwear4    ,for this  
reason1 this type of shoe has been      
selected to show the  methods employed  
in making shoes4    ,,the ,,goodyear    
,,welt ,,shoe4--,a ,goodyear ,welt shoe 
in its evolution from  the embryonic    

state in which it is 8mere leather and  
thread0 to the  completed product1      
passes through one hundred and six      
different pairs  of hands and is obliged
 to conform to the requirements of      
fifty-eight  different machines1 each   
performing with unyielding accuracy the 
various operations for which they were  
designed4    ,it might seem that in all 
this multiplicity of operations         
confusion  would occur1 and that the    
many details and specifications         
regarding  material and design of any   
given lot of shoes in process of        
manufacture  would become hopelessly    
entangled with those of similar lots    
undergoing  the same operations4 ,but   
such is not the case2 for1 when an order
  is received in any modern and         
well-organized factory1 the factory     
management promptly take the precaution 
to see that all the details  regarding  
the samples to which the finished       
product is to conform are  set down in  
the order book4 ,each lot is given an   

order number and this  number1 together 
with the details affecting the          
preparation of the  shoe upper1 are     
written on tags--one for each two dozen 
shoes--which  are sent to the foreman of
 the cutting room4 ,others containing   
details  regarding the sole leather are 
sent to the sole leather room1 while a  
third lot is made out for the guidance  
of the foreman of the making or         
bottoming room1 when the different parts
 which have received attention  and been
 prepared according to specifications in
 the cutting and sole  leather rooms are
 ready to be assembled for the making or
 bottoming  process4 ,if the tags which 
were sent to the cutting room were      
followed1  it would be found that on    
their receipt the foreman of this       
department  figured out the amount and  
kind of leather required1 the kind of   
linings1 stays1 etc41 and that the      
leather1 together with the tags  which  
gave directions regarding the size1     
etc41 was sent to one of the  operators 

of the ,ideal ,clicking ,machine4       
,,shoemaking ,,machinery ,,is ,,all     
,,but ,,human    ,this machine has been 
pronounced one of the most important    
innovations  that have been made in the 
shoe manufacturing industry during      
recent  years1 as it performs an        
operation which has heretofore          
successfully  withstood every attempt at
 mechanical aid4 ,prior to its          
introduction1  the cutting of upper     
leather was accomplished by the use of  
patterns  made with metal edges1 which  
were laid upon the leather by cutter1   
who  then ran a small sharp knife along 
the edges of the pattern1 cutting  the  
leather to conform to it4 ,this was a   
slow and laborious process1  and if     
great care was not taken1 there was a   
tendency to cut away from  the pattern2 
and in many cases1 through some slip of 
the knife1 the  leather was cut beyond  
the required limits4    ,this machine   
has a cutting board very similar to     
those which were used  by the hand      

workman and over it is a beam which can 
be swung either  to the right or to the 
left1 as desired1 and over any portion  
of the  board4 ,any kind of skin to be  
cut is placed on the board1 and the     
operator places a die of unusual design 
on it4 ,grasping the handle1  which is a
 part of the swinging beam1 he swings   
the beam over the die1  and on downward 
pressure of the handle a clutch is      
engaged which brings  the beam downward1
 pressing the die through the leather4  
,as soon as  this is accomplished1 the  
beam automatically returns to its full  
height  and remains there until the     
handle is again pressed4    ,the dies   
used are but three-quarters of an inch  
in height and are so  light that they do
 not mar the most delicate leather when 
placed upon  it4 ,they enable the       
operator to see clearly the entire      
surface of the  leather he is cutting   
out1 and it is obvious that the pieces  
cut by the  use of any given die must be
 identically the same4    ,after the    

different parts required by the tag have
 been cut out by the  operator of the   
,clicking ,machine1 some of the edges   
which show in the  finished shoe must be
 skived or thinned down to a beveled    
edge4 ,this  work is performed by the   
,amazeen ,skiving ,machine--a wonderful 
little  machine in which the edge to be 
skived is fed to a sharp revolving  disk
 that cuts it down to the desired bevel4
 ,the machine does the  work in a very  
efficient manner1 conforming to all the 
curves and  angles4 ,this skiving is    
done in order that the edges may be     
folded1  to give the particular edge on 
which it is performed a more finished   
appearance4 ,the skived edges are then  
given a little coating of cement  and   
afterwards folded on a machine which    
turns back the edge and  incidentally   
pounds it down1 so that it presents a   
very smooth and  finished appearance4   
,aside from the work of skiving toe caps
 and folding them1 there is  generally a
 series of ornamental perforations cut  

along the edge of  the cap4 ,this is    
done very often by the ,power ,tip      
,press1 by means of  which the piece to 
be perforated is placed under a series  
of dies which  cuts the perforations in 
the leather according to a predetermined
  design1 doing the work all at one     
time4 ,the number of designs used  for  
this purpose are many and varied1       
combinations of different sized         
perforations being worked out in        
innumerable designs4    ,on one of the  
top linings of each shoe there has been 
stamped the  order number1 together with
 the size of the shoe for which the     
linings  were intended4 ,after all the  
linings have been prepared in accordance
  with the instructions on the tag1     
they1 in connection with the various    
parts of the shoe1 receive attention    
from the ,stitchers1 where all the      
different parts of the upper are united4
 ,the work is performed on a  range of  
wonderful machines1 which perform all   
the different operations  with great    

rapidity and accuracy4    ,at the       
completion of these operations the shoe 
is ready to receive the  eyelets1 which 
are placed with remarkable speed and    
accuracy by the  ,duplex ,eyeletting    
,machine4 ,this machine eyelets both    
sides of the shoe  at one time with     
bewildering rapidity4 ,the eyelets are  
securely placed  and accurately spaced2 
and as both sides of the upper are      
eyeletted at  one time1 the eyelets are 
placed directly opposite each other1    
which  greatly helps the fitting of the 
shoe1 as thereby the wrinkling of the   
shoe upper is avoided4    ,with the     
completion of this operation1 the       
preparation of the shoe  upper is       
finished1 and the different lots with   
their tags are sent to  the bottoming   
room to await the coming of the         
different sole leather  portions of the 
shoe4 ,these have been undergoing       
preparation in the  sole leather room1  
where on receipt of tag the foreman has 
given  directions for the preparation of

 outsoles1 insoles1 counters1 toe  boxes
 and heels1 to conform with the         
requirements of the order4    ,the soles
 are roughly died out from sides of sole
 leather on large  ,dieing-out          
,machines1 which press heavy dies down  
through the leather2  but to make them  
conform exactly to the required shape1  
they are  generally rounded out on a    
machine known as the 8,planet ,rounding 
,machine10 in which the roughly died-out
 piece of leather is held  between      
clamps1 one of which is the exact       
pattern of the sole4 ,on  starting the  
machine1 a little knife darts around    
this pattern1 cutting  the sole exactly 
to conform with it4    ,the outsole is  
now passed to a heavy ,rolling ,machine1
 where it is  subjected to tons of      
pressure between heavy rolls4 ,this     
takes the place  of the hammering which 
the old-time shoemaker gave his leather 
and  brings the fibres very closely     
together1 greatly increasing its wear4  
,this sole is next fed to a machine     

called the 8,summit ,splitting          
,machine--,model ,m10 which reduces it  
to an exactly even thickness4 ,the      
insole--which is made of very much      
lighter leather--is prepared in  much   
the same manner1 and in this way it will
 be noticed that both the  insole and   
outsole are reduced to an absolutely    
uniform thickness4    ,the insole also  
receives further preparation2 it is     
channeled on the  ,goodyear ,channeling 
,machine4 ,this machine cuts a little   
slit along the  edge of the insole1     
extending about one-half inch towards   
its center4  ,it also cuts a small      
channel along the surface4    ,the lip  
which has been formed by the ,goodyear  
,channeling ,machine is now  turned up  
on the ,goodyear ,lip ,turning ,machine1
 so that it extends out  at a right     
angle from the insole1 forming a lip or 
shoulder against  which the welt is     
sewed4 ,the cut which has been made on  
the surface  inside this lip serves as a
 guide for the operator of the ,welt    

,sewing  ,machine1 when the shoe reaches
 that stage4    ,the heels to be used on
 these shoes have also been formed from 
different lifts of leather which are    
cemented together4 ,the heel is  then   
placed under great pressure1 giving it  
exact form and greatly  increasing its  
wear4    ,,the ,,different ,,parts ,,of 
,,the ,,shoe ,,come ,,together    ,the  
counters are also prepared in this room1
 as well as the toe boxes  or           
stiffening1 which is placed between the 
toe cap and the vamp of  the shoe4 ,when
 these are all completed1 they are sent 
to the making  or bottoming room1 where 
the completed shoe upper is awaiting    
them4  ,here a wonderfully ingenious    
little machine called the 8,ensign      
,lacing  ,machine10 passes strong twine 
through the eyelets and in a twinkling  
ties it automatically4 ,this is done so 
that all parts of the shoe will  be held
 in their normal position while the shoe
 is being made4 ,the  knot tied by this 
machine is perfect and is performed with

 mechanical  exactness4 ,on high-grade  
shoes this work was formerly performed  
by  hand and it will be readily         
recognized how difficult it was to      
obtain  uniformity4 ,the spread of the  
upper at the throat can be regulated    
perfectly when this machine is used4    
,the different parts of the shoe  now   
commence to come together4 ,the workman 
places the toe box1 or  stiffening1 in  
the proper location as well as the      
counter at the  heel1 and draws the     
upper over the last4 ,to the bottom of  
this last  has already been tacked by   
means of the ,u4 ,s4 ,m4 ,co4 ,insole   
,tacking  ,machine--which drives tacks  
automatically--the insole1 which1 it    
will  be noticed1 conforms exactly to   
the shape of the bottom of the last4    
,this last1 made of wood1 is of the     
utmost importance1 for upon the last    
depends the shape of the shoe4          
,illustration3 ,,each ,,shoe ,,machine  
,,does ,,something ,,different          
,,assembling ,,machine    ,operator     

locates back seam of upper on last4     
,machine drives two tacks  which hold it
 in place4    ,the shoe as completed up 
to this point with the parts mentioned  
fastened together as shown1 is now ready
 for assembling4 ,the workman1  after   
placing the last inside the shoe upper1 
puts it on the spindle of  the ,rex     
,assembling ,machine1 where he takes    
care that the seam at the  heel is      
properly located4 ,he presses a foot    
lever and a small tack is  driven part  
way in1 to hold the upper in place4 ,he 
then hands it over  to the operator of  
the ,rex ,pulling-,over ,machine4       
,illustration3 ,,pulling-,,over         
,,machine    ,draws shoe upper smoothly 
down to last4 ,operator adjusts it so   
that  each seam occupies correct        
position on last4 ,machine automatically
  drives back to hold it in place4      
,this machine is a very important one2  
for as the parts of the shoe  upper have
 been cut to exactly conform to the     
shape of the last1 it is  necessary that

 they should be correctly placed on the 
last to secure  the desired results4    
,the pincers of this machine grasp the  
leather at  different points on each    
side of the toe2 and the operator1      
standing  in a position from which he   
can see when the upper is exactly       
centered1  presses a foot lever1 the    
pincers close and draw the leather      
securely  against the wood of the last4 
,at this point the operation of the     
machine halts4 ,by moving different     
levers1 the workman is able to  adjust  
the shoe upper accurately1 so that each 
part of it lies in the  exact position  
it was intended when the shoe was       
designed4 ,when this  important         
operation has been completed1 the       
operator again presses a  foot lever1   
the pincers move toward each other1     
drawing the leather  securely around the
 last1 and at the same time there are   
driven  automatically two tacks on each 
side and one at the toe1 which hold the 
upper securely in position4 ,these tacks

 are driven but part way in1 so  that   
they may be afterward removed4          
,illustration3 ,,the ,,lasting ,,machine
 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,important    
,,hand ,,method ,,lasting ,,machine     
,last sides of shoe4    ,illustration3  
,,lasting ,,machine    ,last toe and    
heel of shoe4    ,the shoe is now ready 
for lasting4 ,this is one of the most   
difficult  and important parts of the   
shoemaking process1 for upon the success
 of  this operation depends in a great  
measure the beauty and comfort of the   
shoe4 ,the ,consolidated ,hand ,method  
,welt ,lasting ,machine1 which is used  
for this purpose1 takes its name from   
the almost human way in which it        
performs this part of the work4 ,it is  
wonderful to observe how evenly  and    
tightly it draws the leather around the 
last4 ,at each pull of the  pincers a   
small tack driven automatically part way
 in holds the edge  of the upper exactly
 in place1 so that in the finished shoe 
every part  of the upper has been       

stretched in all directions equally4    
,the toe and  heel of the shoe are      
considered particularly difficult       
portions to last  properly4 ,this       
important part of the work is now being 
very generally  performed on the ,u4 ,s4
 ,m4 ,co4 ,lasting ,machine--,no4 #e1 a 
machine of  what is known as the 8bed   
type40 ,it is provided with a series of 
wipers for toe and heel1 which draw the 
leather simultaneously from  all        
directions4 ,there can be no wrinkles at
 the toe or heel of shoe on  which it is
 properly used and the quality of work  
produced by it has  been very generally 
recognized as a distinct advance in this
 important  part of shoemaking4 ,after  
the leather has been brought smoothly   
around  the toe it is held there by a   
little tape fastened on each side of the
  toe and which is held securely in     
place by the surplus leather crimpled   
in at this point4 ,the surplus leather  
crimpled in at the heel is  forced      
smoothly down against the insole and    

held there by tacks driven  by a very   
ingenious hand tool in which there is a 
constantly renewed  supply of tacks4    
,illustration3 ,a ,,machine ,,that      
,,forms ,,and ,,drives ,,tacks          
,,upper ,,stapling ,,machine    ,forms  
small staples from wire4    ,holds shoe 
upper to lip of insole4                 
,illustration3 ,,upper ,,trimming       
,,machine4    ,trims off surplus part of
 shoe upper and lining4    ,in all of   
the lasting operations the tacks are    
driven but part way in1  except at the  
heel portion of the shoe1 where they are
 driven through  the insole and clinched
 on the iron heel of the last4 ,the     
tacks are  driven only part way in1 in  
order that they may be afterward        
withdrawn  so as to leave the inside of 
the shoe perfectly smooth4 ,in making   
shoes other than ,goodyear ,welts1 with 
the exception of the ,goodyear  ,turn   
,shoe1 it is necessary to drive the     
tacks through the insole and  clinch    
them inside the shoe1 so that the       

different portions of the sole  inside  
the shoe have clinched tacks4 ,these are
 left even after the shoe  is finished4 
,this smooth interior of the shoe is one
 of the essential  features of the      
,goodyear ,welt ,process4    ,in the    
lasting operation there is naturally a  
surplus amount of leather  left at the  
toe and sometimes around the sides of   
the shoe1 and this is  removed on the   
,rex ,upper ,trimming ,machine in which 
a little knife cuts  away the surplus   
portion of the leather very smoothly and
 evenly1 and  simultaneously a small    
hammer operating in connection with the 
knife  pounds the leather smooth along  
the sides and the toe of the shoe4 ,the 
shoe then passes to the ,rex ,pounding  
,machine1 in which a hammer pounds  the 
leather and counter around the heel so  
that the stiff portion of  the shoe     
conforms exactly to the shape of the    
last4    ,the shoe is now ready to      
receive the welt1 which is a narrow     
strip of  leather that is sewed along   

the edge of the shoe1 beginning where   
the  heel is placed and ending at the   
same spot on the opposite edge4 ,this   
welt is sewed from the inside lip of the
 insole1 so that the needle  passes     
through the lip1 upper and welt1 uniting
 all three securely  and allowing the   
welt to protrude evenly along the edge4 
,the needle  in making this stitch does 
not go inside the shoe1 but passes      
through  only a portion of the insole1  
leaving the inside perfectly smooth4    
,this  part of the work was formerly one
 of the most difficult and laborious    
tasks in shoemaking4 ,as it was         
performed entirely by hand1 the drawing 
of each stitch depended upon the        
strength and mood of the workman4  ,it  
is of course obvious that with different
 operators stitches were  oftentimes of 
different lengths and drawn at different
 tensions2 for  human nature is much the
 same everywhere1 and it is impossible  
for a  workman who has labored hard all 
day to draw a stitch with the same      

tension at night as might have been     
possible in the morning4                
,illustration3 ,,an ,,automatic ,,sewing
 ,,machine ,,which ,,never ,,tires      
,,welt ,,and ,,turned ,,shoe ,,sewing   
,,machine    ,upper portion shows       
operator at machine4 ,the lower shows   
formation and  location of stitch formed
 by this machine4      ,welt ,stitch    
,welt    ,it is surprising how quickly  
and easily the work is done on the      
,goodyear ,welt ,sewing ,machine4 ,this 
famous machine has been the  leading    
factor in the great revolution that has 
taken place in shoe  manufacturing4 ,its
 work should be carefully noted--all    
stitches of  equal length and measured  
automatically1 the strong linen thread  
thoroughly waxed and drawn evenly and   
tightly2 for the machine never  tires1  
and it draws the thread as strongly in  
the evening as in the  morning4 ,every  
completed movement of the needle forms a
 stitch of great  strength1 which holds 
the welt1 upper and insole securely     

together4    ,as the lasting tacks as   
well as the tacks which hold the insole 
in  place on the last were withdrawn    
just prior to this operation1 it will   
be seen that the inside of the shoe is  
left perfectly smooth4 ,after  this     
process the surplus portions of the lip1
 upper and welt which  protrude beyond  
the stitches made by the ,goodyear ,welt
 ,machine are  trimmed off by the       
,goodyear ,inseam ,trimming ,machine--a 
most efficient  machine1 in which a     
revolving cup-shaped knife comes in     
contact with  the surplus portions of   
the leather and trims them off very     
smoothly  down to the stitches4         
,illustration3 ,,putting ,,the ,,ground 
,,cork ,,and ,,rubber ,,cement ,,in     
,,shoes    ,,inseam ,,trimming          
,,machine4    ,trims shoe upper lining  
and lip of insole smooth down to        
stitches4    ,illustration3 ,,welt      
,,beating ,,and ,,slashing ,,machine    
,beats welt so that it stands out evenly
 round edge of shoe4    ,illustration3  

,,placing ,,shank ,,and ,,filling       
,,bottom4    ,workman tacks shank in    
place and fills bottom with ground cork 
and  rubber cement4    ,at this stage   
the shoe is passed to the ,universal    
,welt ,beater1 in which  a little hammer
 vibrating very rapidly beats the welt  
so that it stands  out evenly from the  
side of the shoe4 ,as the leather is    
bent around  the toe1 it is the natural 
tendency of the welt to draw more       
tightly  at that place1 and this is     
taken care of by a little knife which   
the  operator forces into operation1 in 
the beating process1 the toe is  being  
taken care of1 and it makes a series of 
little cuts diagonally  along the edge  
of it4 ,the insole and welt now receive 
a coating of  rubber cement4 ,this      
cement is contained in an air-tight tank
 and is  applied by means of a revolving
 brush1 which takes its supply of       
cement1 as required1 from a can4    ,in 
this way1 an even coating of any desired
 thickness is given to the  insole and  

welt4 ,this machine has many advantages2
 the cement being  closely confined in  
the tank1 there is almost no waste in   
its use4  ,formerly1 when this was done 
by hand1 the waste through evaporation  
or  lack of care on the part of the     
workman was very material4    ,the heavy
 outsole of the shoe also receives at   
this time proper  attention4 ,the flesh 
side of this sole1 or the side next to  
the animal1  receives a coating of      
rubber cement1 and after it has dried   
slightly  the operator of the ,goodyear 
,improved ,twin ,sole ,laying ,machine  
takes  the work in hand4 ,in this       
machine there is a rubber pad1 or mould1
  which has been made to conform to the 
curve in the sole of the shoe4  ,after  
placing the last on the spindle1 which  
is suspended from the  machine and hangs
 over the rubber mould1 the outsole     
having been  previously pressed against 
the bottom of the shoe1 the operator by 
pressing the foot lever causes this arm 
to descend1 forcing the shoe  down into 

the mould1 so that every portion of the 
sole is pressed  against the bottom of  
the shoe and welt4 ,here they are       
allowed to  remain for a sufficient     
length of time for the cement to        
properly set1  the operation being      
repeated on a duplicate part of the     
machine1 the  operator leaving one shoe 
under pressure while he is preparing    
another4    ,illustration3 ,,machines   
,,which ,,put ,,the ,,soles ,,on ,,shoes
    ,,sole ,,laying ,,machine4          
,presses outsole to bottom of shoe where
 it is held by rubber cement4           
,illustration3 ,,rounding ,,and         
,,channelling ,,machine4    ,roughly    
rounds outsole and welt to conform to   
shape of last4 ,cuts small  channel     
along edge for stitches4    ,the next   
operation is that of trimming the sole  
and welt so that they  will protrude a  
uniform distance from the edge of the   
shoe4 ,this work  is performed on the   
,goodyear ,universal ,rough ,rounding   
,machine1 which  gauges the distance    

exactly from the edge of the last4 ,it  
is often  desired to have the edge      
extended further on the outside of the  
shoe  than it does on the inside and    
also that the width of the edge should  
be considerably reduced in the shank of 
the shoe4 ,this is taken care of  with  
great accuracy by the use of this       
machine4 ,the operator is able  to      
change the width at will4 ,by the use of
 this remarkable machine the  operator  
is also enabled to make the sole of the 
shoe conform exactly  to all others of  
similar size and design4                
,illustration3 ,,channel ,,opening      
,,machine4    ,turns back lip of channel
 preparatory to stitching4              
,illustration3 ,,channel ,,cementing    
,,machine4    ,coats surface of channel 
so it may be laid to cover stitches4    
,the surplus portion of the leather is  
now trimmed off on the ,heel-,seat      
,rounding ,machine1 and the channel cut 
by the knife on the ,rough  ,rounding   
,machine is turned up so that it leaves 

the channel open4 ,this  is done by the 
,goodyear ,universal ,channel ,opening  
,machine1 in which a  little wheel1     
turning very rapidly1 lays the lip      
smoothly back4    ,,sewing ,,the ,,sole 
,,to ,,the ,,shoe    ,the outsole is now
 sewed to the welt4 ,this operation is  
performed on  the ,goodyear ,outsole    
,rapid ,lockstitch ,machine1 which is   
very similar in  operation to the       
,goodyear ,welt ,sewing ,machine used in
 sewing the welt  to the shoe4 ,the     
stitch1 however1 is finer and extends   
from the channel  which was cut for it  
to the upper side of the welt1 where it 
shows  after the shoe has been finished4
 ,the lockstitch formed by this machine 
is a most durable one4 ,using a         
thoroughly waxed thread1 it holds the   
outsole securely in place1 even after   
the connecting stitches have been  worn 
off4 ,this is one of the most important 
machines in the shoemaking  process4 ,it
 is able to sew even in the narrow      
shank1 where a machine  using a straight

 needle could not possibly place its    
stitch4    ,the 8,star ,channel         
,cementing ,machine--,model ,a0 is again
 called into  operation for the purpose 
of coating with cement the inside of the
  channel in which this stitch has been 
made4 ,a special brush with guard  is   
used for this purpose1 and the operation
 is very quickly performed  by the      
skilled operator4    ,after this cement 
has been allowed to set a sufficient    
length of time1  the channel lip1 which 
has previously been laid back against   
the sole1  is again forced into its     
former position and held securely in    
place  by rubber cement4 ,this work is  
done by the ,goodyear ,channel ,laying  
,machine1 in which a rapidly revolving  
wheel provided with a peculiar          
arrangement of flanges forces back into 
place1 securely hiding the  stitches    
from observation on this portion of the 
shoe4    ,illustration3 ,,machines      
,,which ,,punch ,,the ,,soles ,,of      
,,shoes    ,,channel ,,laying ,,machine4

    ,rubs channel lip down to cover     
stitches4    ,illustration3 ,,loose     
,,nailing ,,machine    ,drives small    
nails which hold outsole in place at    
heel4    ,the next operation is that of 
leveling1 which is performed on the     
,automatic ,sole ,levelling             
,machine--one of the most interesting   
used  in the shoemaking process4 ,this  
is a double machine provided with  two  
spindles1 on one of which the operator  
places a shoe to be  levelled4 ,it is   
securely held by the spindle and a toe  
rest1 and on  the operator's pressing a 
foot lever1 the shoe passes             
automatically  beneath a vibrating roll 
under heavy pressure4 ,this roll moves  
forward  with a vibrating motion over   
the sole of the shoe down into the      
shank1  passes back again to the toe1   
then cants to the right1 and repeats the
  operation on that side of the shoe1   
returning to the toe and canting to  the
 left1 repeating the operation on that  
side2 after which the shoe              

automatically drops forward and is      
relieved from pressure4 ,this rolling   
motion removes every possibility of     
there being any unevenness in the       
bottom of the shoe1 and while one shoe  
is under pressure the operator  is      
preparing a second one for the          
operation4    ,illustration3 ,,automatic
 ,,levelling ,,machine4    ,rolls out   
any unevenness in soles4                
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,heel ,,of  
,a ,,shoe ,,is ,,put ,,on      ,,top    
,,lift      ,,compressed ,,heel         
,,before ,,operation    ,,after         
,,operation      ,heel ,attaching       
,,work ,,performed ,,by ,,heeling       
,,machines4    ,illustration3           
,,automatic ,,heel ,,loading ,,and      
,,attaching ,,machine4    ,illustration3
 ,,slugging ,,machine4    ,drives small 
pieces of ornamental metal which protect
 the heel4    ,illustration3 ,,heel     
,,trimming ,,machine4    ,trims rough   
lifts of heel to desired shape4         
,illustration3 ,,heel ,,breasting       

,,machine4    ,cuts the breast of the   
heel to correct angle and curve4        
,illustration3 ,,edge ,,trimming        
,,machine4    ,trims edge of outsole    
smoothly4    ,illustration3 ,a ,,lump   
,,of ,,pulp4    ,paper such as found in 
this book is made from trunks and limbs 
of trees4    ,the use of good fibers in 
book paper is a guarantee of quality and
  durability4 ,the above illustration   
represents a lump of this pulp  prepared
 for the beaters4          ,how the     
,paper in this ,book is ,made           
,where ,does ,paper ,come ,from8        
,egyptians were the first people to make
 what would today be called  paper4     
,they made it from a plant called       
papyrus and that is where the  name     
comes from4    ,this plant is a species 
of reed4 ,the ,egyptians took stalks of 
reed cut  into as thin slices as they   
could1 laid them side by side2 then they
  arranged another layer on top with the
 slices the other way and put  this in a
 press4 ,when dried and rubbed until    

smooth1 it made a kind of  paper1 which 
could be written upon4    ,one of the   
first substances used for making the    
kind of paper we have  today was cotton4
 ,paper was made from cotton about #aajj
 ,a4 ,d4 ,from this  thin cotton paper  
our present papers are a development1   
i4e41 paper  today is largely made of   
vegetable fibers4 ,vegetable fibers     
consist  mostly of cellulose surrounded 
by other things which hold the short    
vegetable fibers together4    ,the      
fibers best adapted for making paper are
 those of the cotton and  flax plants1  
and while the uses of paper were few1 no
 other material  was needed when it was 
once learned that cotton and linen      
fibers would  do for making paper4 ,all 
we had to do was to save all the old    
rags and  sell them to the paper man4   
,in making paper from rags1 the rags    
were allowed to rot to remove the       
substances that incrust the cellulose1  
and then beaten into a pulp1  to which a
 large quantity of water was added4     

,this pulp was put into  a sieve1 until 
the greater part of the water had been  
drained off by  shaking1 and the fibers 
remaining formed a thin layer on the    
bottom of  the sieve4 ,this layer of    
fiber was put into a pile with other    
similar  layers1 and the whole pile was 
placed under a press1 where more of  the
 water was removed4 ,when they were dry1
 we had a very fair kind of  paper which
 was1 however1 not much better than     
blotting paper and could  not be written
 on with ink because it was loose in    
texture and very  absorbent4    ,to give
 it good writing surface it was         
necessary to fill the pores4  ,this was 
done by sizing which gave the paper     
great firmness4 ,paper was  sized by    
drawing the layers of paper through a   
solution of alum and  glue1 or some     
similar substances1 and then drying     
them1 then finally  passed between      
highly polished rollers to iron it4     
,this gave it the  necessary smooth hard
 surface4    ,in the modern method of   

making rag paper by machinery1 the rags 
are  boiled with caustic soda1 which    
separates the cellulose fibers1 and     
placed in a machine in which rollers set
 with knives tear the rags  to pieces   
and mix them with water to form a pulp4 
,this is called a  breaker4 ,the pulp is
 then bleached with chloride of lime1   
and is passed  on to the sizing machine4
 ,this machine mixes the pulp with alum 
and  with a kind of soap1 made from     
suitable resins which serves the purpose
  better than glue4    ,illustration3   
,,not ,a ,,wood ,,yard ,,but ,,the      
,,outside ,,of ,a ,,paper ,,mill4       
,this shows the great piles of trunks   
and limbs of trees near a wood  pulp    
paper mill used in making paper for     
newspapers1 books1 magazines1  etc4     
,how ,is the ,water ,mark ,put ,into    
,paper8    ,the pulp1 which is now ready
 to be made into paper1 is poured out   
upon  an endless cloth made of fine     
brass wire4 ,this cloth travels         
constantly  in one direction1 by means  

of rollers1 and is given at the same    
time  a sort of vibratory motion1 to    
cause the paper fibers to become more   
closely felted together4 ,on the wire   
cloth web are usually woven words1  or  
designs1 in wire1 that rise above the   
rest of the surface4 ,these  are        
transferred to the paper1 and are called
 water marks4 ,the machine  then winds  
the finished paper into rolls1 so that  
it may be handled  conveniently4        
,,how ,,paper ,,is ,,now ,,made ,,from  
,,wood    ,during the past few years the
 uses for paper have increased so       
greatly  that there have not been enough
 rags available to meet the demand for  
material1 and a successful effort was   
made to find other material from  which 
paper could be made4 ,many fibers were  
tried before it was found  that wood    
pulp could be used4 ,straw and esparto  
grass1 a plant that  grows wild in      
,north ,america1 were found to yield    
cellulose having the  desired qualities 
and were used to some extent4 ,but the  

problem was  solved when it was learned 
that pulp made from trunks and limbs of 
trees would serve even then4 ,at first  
the powder formed by grinding up  logs  
was used1 but the paper produced was not
 strong1 and could be used  for very few
 purposes4    ,illustration3 ,,great    
,,forests ,,turned ,,into ,,paper       
,,paper ,,trees4    ,this picture shows 
the trees as they grow in the woods4    
,these trees are  good for making paper4
 ,your morning paper1 may some morning  
be printed  on what is left of one of   
these trees4    ,it was discovered      
finally that if wood shavings were      
boiled in strong  solutions of caustic  
soda1 in receptacles that would         
withstand very  high pressure1 the wood 
fibers were separated1 and a very good  
quality  of cellulose for paper         
manufacture produced1 provided it was   
bleached  before being made into paper1 
and most of our paper to-day is1        
therefore1 made of wood4    ,later on   
this process gave way to the sulphite   

process4 ,in the sulphite  process1 a   
solution of sulphite of lime is used4   
,acid sulphite of lime  results when the
 fumes from burning sulphur are passed  
through chimneys  filled with lime4 ,by 
this process the separation of the      
fibers and the  bleaching are done at   
the same time and an even whiter paper  
making  material is obtained4    ,the   
sulphite process is now used almost     
exclusively in making paper  from wood4 
,illustration3 ,,grinding ,,room4    ,in
 this picture we see how the trees are  
first cut into smaller chunks  before   
being reduced to chips for making pulp4 
,the discovery of the process of making 
paper from wood has led to the  use of  
paper for many purposes for which it    
could otherwise never have  been used4  
,the wood pulp is also used in the form 
of papier-mch1 a  tough1 plastic        
substance1 which is made by mixing glue 
with it1 or by  pressing together a     
number of layers of paper having glue   
between4  ,papier-mch can easily be     

molded into almost any form1 and after  
drying forms a very tough substance and 
one that will stand rough  usage4 ,it   
has been employed for making dishes1    
water baskets and  utensils of many     
other kinds1 for making the matrices for
 and from  electrotype plates1 for car  
wheels1 and many other purposes4        
,illustration3 ,,where ,,the            
,,ingredients ,,for ,,making ,,paper    
,,are ,,mixed    ,,mixing ,,room4       
,the wood fiber must be mixed with other
 ingredients when paper is made  from   
it4 ,this shows a corner of the large   
electro-chemical department  for the    
production of bleach and soda used in   
the preparation of rag  and wood fibres4
    ,illustration3 ,,the ,,water        
,,supply4    ,a good deal of water is   
needed in making paper4 ,from twelve to 
fifteen  million gallons daily are drawn
 from the river and filtered through    
this plant in ,maine2 clean paper of    
bright color being dependent upon  the  
use of pure water4    ,illustration3    

,,beating ,,the ,,ingredients ,,for     
,,making ,,pulp    ,,beater ,,room4     
,the ingredients for making paper are   
first mixed thoroughly in machines      
called 8beaters0 before going to the    
paper making machines4 ,the  operation  
of beating is one of the most important 
in paper making4    ,illustration3 ,,the
 ,,paper ,,coming ,,off ,,in ,,rolls4   
,as the paper progresses through the    
machines1 it passes over a long  series 
of heated cylinders1 drying and         
hardening the stock until it  reaches   
the finished end4 ,this illustration    
shows a web #ace inches  wide being cut 
into two rolls4 ,the air pressure in the
 machine room is  slightly greater than 
the atmospheric pressure outside1       
preventing dust  from entering4         
,illustration3 ,,great ,,paper-,,making 
,,machines ,,in ,,operation    ,,paper  
,,making ,,machines4    ,in the         
foreground is the so-called wet end     
showing the vats in which  the liquid   
pulp1 about #ih per cent water1 is      

pumped4 ,it is screened and  then flows 
on to an endless wire web beyond1 where 
the free water is  taken out by drainage
 and by suction boxes4    ,illustration3
 ,,putting ,,the ,,printing ,,surface   
,,on ,,the ,,paper    ,,paper ,,stock4  
,a large amount of stock of paper mills4
 ,this paper is seasoned by  holding it 
in stock and will be later given such   
surface as is called  for4              
,illustration3 ,,coating ,,machines4    
,where the paper passes through a bath  
of coating mixture to a long  drying    
gallery at the end of which it is       
rewound preparatory to being  given the 
highly finished surface on the          
calendaring machine4    ,illustration3  
,a section of ,finishing ,room          
department where paper is  passed       
through alternating compressed fiber and
 steel rolls giving  it the surface     
required for different classes of       
printing4 ,the paper  on which the ,book
 of ,wonders is printed has a highly    
finished smooth  surface so that the    

pictures will come out clear4           
,illustration3 ,,where ,,the ,,paper    
,,is ,,cut ,,in ,,sheets    ,the        
finished rolls of stock pass through    
rotary cutters which produce  the sheets
 of various required sizes4 ,the paper  
in the ,book of ,wonders  was cut in    
sheets #dax#ee inches1 thus making it   
possible to print #cb  pages on each    
side of each sheet4    ,illustration3   
,rotary ,boiler for cooking rags or wood
 in making pulp  for use in manufacture 
of paper4      ,illustrations showing   
manufacture of paper by courtesy of ,s4 
,d4    ,warren  ,co4    ,illustration3  
,,how ,,the ,,printed ,,type ,,of ,,this
 ,,book ,,was ,,set    ,this picture    
shows the wonderful ,linotype machine by
 which the type  of this book was 8set10
 as the printers say4 ,the men who      
operate the  machine are compositors4   
,originally the type matter of books was
 set  by hand and the compositor        
composed in type what the author of the 
book had written4 ,by pressing down on  

the keys which you see in the  picture1 
the compositor sets the words in lines  
of metal4 ,this machine  is almost      
human4 ,by touching the proper keys1 the
 operator assembles a  line of matrices 
the details of which are explained in   
another picture1  and after this is done
 the machine automatically casts a slug 
from  them1 turns and delivers a slug   
into a galley ready for use and finally 
distributes the matrices back into their
 respective channels in the  magazine1  
where they are ready to be called down  
again1 by the touch of  the key button4 
,the latest model linotype has four     
magazines and can be  equipped with     
matrices which when assembled will cast 
lines in from six  to twelve different  
sizes and styles of type4    ,the       
assembling mechanism is the only part of
 the linotype where the  human mind is  
applied to the working of the machine4  
,it is necessary  for the eye to read   
what is to be printed1 and the mind1    
through the  medium of the fingers1 to  

translate this into assembled lines of  
matrices2 after that the machine acts   
automatically4    ,illustration3 ,,the  
,,linotype--,,four ,,machines ,,in ,,one
    ,the keyboard is made up of #ij     
keys1 which act directly on the matrices
  in their channels in the magazine4    
,the slightest touch on the  keybuttons 
releases the matrix1 which drops to the 
assembler belt and  is carried swiftly  
to the assembler4 ,when a word is       
assembled1 the  spaceband key is touched
 and a spaceband drops into the         
assembler4  ,when the necessary matrices
 and spacebands to fill the line have   
been  assembled1 the operator raises the
 assembler by pressing a lever on the   
side of the keyboard4 ,when the         
assembler reaches its highest point it  
automatically starts the machine and the
 matrices are transferred to  the       
casting position4    ,this illustration 
shows the manner in which matrices are  
constantly  circulated in the ,linotype4
 ,from the magazine they are carried to 

the  assembler1 then passed to the mold1
 where the line is cast1 and from  the  
mold after casting they are raised to   
the top of the machine and              
redistributed to their proper channels  
in the magazine4    ,the ,linotype is   
sometimes called a typesetting machine1 
but this is not  correct3 it does not   
set type4 ,it is a substitute for       
typesetting4 ,it  is strictly speaking a
 composing machine1 as it does          
composition but  its product is not set 
type1 but solid slugs in the form of    
lines of  type with the printing face   
cast on the edge4    ,it is in reality  
four machines so arranged that they work
 together in  harmony--the magazine1 the
 assembling mechanism1 the casting      
mechanism  and the distributing         
mechanism4 ,the magazine is at the top  
of the  machine sloping to the front at 
an angle of about #ca degrees1 and      
consists of two brass plates placed     
together with a space of about          
five-eighths of an inch between4 ,the   

two inner surfaces are cut with #ib     
grooves or channels running the up and  
down way of the magazine1 for  carrying 
the matrices4 ,the matrices slide down  
these channels on edge1  with the face  
or punched edge down1 and the ,v-end    
extending toward the  upper part of the 
magazine4 ,each of these channels will  
hold twenty  matrices4    ,illustration3
 ,,little ,,pieces ,,of ,,brass ,,which 
,,produce ,,solid ,,type                
,,one-,,letter ,,and ,,two-,,letter     
,,matrices4    ,linotype matrices are   
made of brass4 ,in the edge of each     
matrix is  either one or two letters or 
characters in intaglio4 ,the thickness  
of  the individual matrices is dependent
 on the width of the character4  ,by an 
ingenious arrangement either one-letter 
or two-letter matrices  can be used in  
the same machine1 and either character  
on a two-letter  matrix can be used at  
will4    ,the two-letter matrix bears   
two characters1 one above the other1 one
  of which may be a ,roman face and the 

other an italic1 small capital1  or     
black face4 ,if a line is to be composed
 partly of the ,roman face1  which is in
 the upper position on the matrix1 and  
partly of the other  face1 which is in  
the lower position1 this is accomplished
 by means of  a slide on the assembler  
operated by a small lever4    ,when the 
lower characters on the matrices are    
required1 the slide  is shifted and the 
matrices are arrested at a higher level1
 so that  the lower characters align    
with the upper characters of the other  
matrices in the assembler4 ,when the    
slide is withdrawn the matrices are     
assembled at the lower level4 ,by means 
of this simple contrivance1 a  line may 
be composed partly of one face1 partly  
of the other face1 or  entirely of      
either face4    ,illustration3 ,,this   
,,shows ,,how ,,the ,,headings ,,are    
,,made ,,in ,,capitals ,,of  ,,different
 ,,type4    ,linotypes are guaranteed to
 be capable of setting above #ejjj ems  
of  #f point per hour1 and this output  

is widely obtained in commercial        
printing offices with first class       
operators4 ,when a compositor speaks  of
 the amount of type he sets per hour or 
day he speaks of 8ems40 ,a  column of   
type matter is so many 8ems0 wide4 ,the 
term 8em0 means the  square of the      
particular size of type that is being   
set4 ,thus if a  column is said to be   
#ac ems wide it means that an em quad or
 square1  could be set #ac times in the 
width of the column4 ,type is graded    
according to size by points4 ,machine   
type for book work runs from #e  points 
to #ab points4 ,a point is one          
seventy-second of an inch1 that is1     
there are #gb points to an inch4 ,this  
guarantee1 however1 by no means         
indicates the limit of speed at which   
the machine can be operated1 as         
evidenced by records of #aj1jjj to      
#aa1jjj ems per hour maintained for an  
entire day4 ,the rapidity of the        
,linotype is limited only by the ability
  of the operator to manipulate the     

keys1 and the extreme capacity of the   
machine has never yet been attained4    
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,linotype   
,,makes ,,solid ,,type    ,,sectional   
,,view ,,of ,,magazine ,,showing        
,,channel ,,full ,,of ,,matrices4       
,this picture shows the machine with    
part of the magazine top and  side      
removed4 ,we can thus see how the       
matrices are arranged in their          
respective grooves in the magazine4     
,when one of the keys of the  keyboard  
is pressed down the first matrix in the 
corresponding grove in  the magazine    
escapes and drops upon a conveyor belt  
and is carried in  its proper order to  
an assembler1 which answers much the    
same purpose  as a printer's stick4 ,the
 correct spacing or justification of the
 line  of matrices is accomplished by   
means of spacebands1 which are assembled
  automatically between the words in the
 line by the touch of a lever at  the   
left of the keyboard4    ,illustration3 
,,linotype ,,slugs4    ,instead of      

producing single type characters1 the   
,linotype machine casts  metal bars1 or 
slugs1 of any length desired up to #cf  
ems1 each complete  in one piece and    
having on the upper edge1 properly      
justified1 the  characters to print a   
line4 ,these slugs are automatically    
assembled  in proper order as they are  
delivered from the machine1 when they   
are  immediately available either for   
printing from direct or for making      
electrotype or stereotype plates4 ,they 
answer the same purpose and are  used in
 the same manner as composed type       
matter4    ,illustration3 ,,casting     
,,the ,,slugs ,,of ,,solid ,,metal      
,,line ,,of ,,matrices ,,being ,,lifted 
,,to ,,distributor    ,after the slug   
has been cast1 the matrices are carried 
up to the second  transfer position1    
where they are pushed to the right1 and 
the teeth in  the ,v at the top of the  
matrices engage the grooves in the      
distributor  bar of the second elevator1
 which descends from the distributor box

 at  the same time that the matrices    
rise to the second transfer position4   
,the second elevator then rises toward  
the distributor box1 taking the         
matrices with it1 but leaving the       
spacebands2 these are then pushed to    
the right and slide into the spaceband  
box1 to be used again4    ,as the second
 elevator rises toward the distributor  
box with its load  of matrices1 the     
distributor shifter lever moves to the  
left until  the elevator head has       
reached its place by the distributor    
box4 ,it  then moves back to the right  
and pushes the matrices off the second  
elevator distributor bar into the       
distributor box1 where they meet the    
8matrix lift0 and are lifted1 one at a  
time1 to the distributor screws  and    
distributor bar proper4 ,the teeth in   
the matrix and the grooves in  the bar  
are so arranged that when a matrix      
arrives at a point directly  over the   
channel in which it belongs1 it 8lets   
go0 and drops into its  channel4    ,if1

 however1 there is a matrix in the line 
which was not designed to  drop into one
 of the channels operated from the      
keyboard1 it will be  carried clear     
across the distributor bar and dropped  
into the last  channel1 and from there  
it will find its way to the sorts box4  
,illustration3 ,,sectional ,,view ,,of  
,,metal ,,pot ,,with ,,line ,,of        
,,matrices ,,in  ,,position ,,before    
,,the ,,mold    ,the casting mechanism  
consists of the metal pot1 mold disk1   
mold1  ejector1 and trimming knives4    
,the illustration shows a cross-section 
of the metal pot1 mold disk1 and mold1  
with a line of matrices in the  casting 
position4 ,when the line of matrices    
leaves the assembler1  they pass to a   
position in front of the mold disk4 ,the
 disk makes a  one-quarter turn to the  
left1 which brings the mold from the    
ejecting  position1 where it stands     
while the machine is at rest1 to the    
casting  position4 ,it then advances    
until the face of the mold comes in     

contact  with the matrices4 ,the metal  
pot advances until the pot mouthpiece   
comes in contact with the back of the   
mold2 at this point the pump  plunger   
descends and forces the metal into the  
mold and against the  matrices4 ,the pot
 then recedes1 the mold disk withdraws  
from the  matrices and makes            
three-fourths of a revolution to the    
left1 stopping  in the ejecting         
position1 from which it started4 ,the   
slug is ejected  and assembled in the   
galley4    ,during the last revolution  
of the disk the bottom of the slug is   
trimmed off1 and in the process of      
ejection the sides of the slug are      
trimmed1 so that when it drops in the   
galley the slug is a perfect line  of   
type1 ready for the form4               
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,printed    
,,part ,,of ,a ,,book ,,looks ,,at      
,,first    ,as the slugs of type1 each  
of which represents a line1 come from   
the  linotype machine1 they are arranged
 in order in a brass holder the  width  

of the line of type1 called a 8galley40 
,this holder is about  twenty inches    
long4 ,as soon as it is filled one of   
the men in the  typesetting office takes
 it to a proof press where he makes a   
rough  impression of it4 ,he runs an ink
 covered roller over the top of the     
slugs1 lays a piece of blank paper on it
 and then either runs another  roller   
over it or puts it in a hand press and  
secures an impression of  the type just 
as it is4 ,this is called making a      
8galley proof40    ,the galley proof is 
then sent to the proof-reader who reads 
it  carefully and indicates such errors 
in setting as appear and must be        
changed4 ,before correcting the actual  
type1 however1 the composing  room sends
 the galley proof to the one who is     
publishing the book4  ,the publisher    
also reads the proof over carefully and1
 if he does not  wish to change any of  
the wording1 he sends it back to the    
composing  room with his 8,o4 ,k40      
attached in writing4 ,if he wishes to   

change  the wording1 he does so and the 
galley proof is then returned to the    
composing room marked 8,o4 ,k4 after    
corrections and changes are made40      
,the linotype operator then makes       
whatever changes are desired or         
necessary by setting new lines where    
mistakes or changes occur4 ,if  there is
 only one wrong letter in a line1 he    
must reset the whole line  as the       
machine1 as you remember1 only turns out
 solid lines of type4 ,a  revised proof 
is then sent to the publishing office   
and1 if no further  changes are to be   
made1 he gives instructions to have the 
8galley0 made  up into pages4 ,how the  
pages are made up is shown in the next  
picture4    ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the  
,,pages ,,of ,a ,,book ,,are ,,made ,,up
    ,when the revised proofs come back  
from the publisher ready to be made     
into pages1 the publisher has marked on 
same what pictures are to go on  the    
pages of the 8make up0 as this is       
called4 ,the compositor then picks  out 

the pictures in the form of cuts which  
are to go on the different  pages and   
puts them in the page first4 ,he then   
arranges the type matter  from the      
galley proof around1 above or below the 
pictures1 puts in the  proper headings  
and takes a 8final proof0 of how the    
pages are arranged  to look4 ,if this is
 satisfactory the publisher puts a      
8final ,o4 ,k40  on the proof in writing
 and the page is ready to be printed4   
,thus the  book is made up page by page4
 ,no page is printed without the ,o4 ,k4
 of  the publisher and so1 if there are 
any errors still in the page1 the       
publisher is responsible4               
,illustration3 ,,how ,,this ,,book ,,is 
,,printed    ,,printing ,,the ,,book    
,,of ,,wonders    ,this picture shows   
the pages of the ,book of ,wonders being
 printed4  ,thirty-two pages are printed
 on each side of a sheet of paper at    
one time4 ,a printing office is a busy  
place as can be seen from the  picture4 
,as soon as the ink is dry on the       

printed sheets they are taken  to the   
bindery where they are folded and sewed 
ready to have the covers  put on4       
,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,book ,,of  
,,wonders ,,is ,,bound    ,when the     
printed sheets are received in the      
bindery they are fed into  a folding    
machine which is shown here4 ,a sheet of
 #fd pages is folded  and cut and       
delivered in four sections of #af pages 
each ready to be  gathered4             
,illustration3 ,here we see a machine   
which takes the folded sections of  #af 
pages each1 which are called            
8signatures10 and sorts them1 dropping  
them into compartments in order1 so that
 each compartment finally  contains the 
printed matter for one book all arranged
 in the order  which it will be bound4  
,courtesy of the ,j4 ,f4 ,tapley ,co4   
,new ,york4    ,illustration3 ,,sewing  
,,the ,,pages ,,of ,,the ,,book ,,of    
,,wonders    ,here we see the girls at  
work operating the sewing machines which
 sew  the sections together at the back 

side of the book4    ,illustration3 ,the
 men in this picture are making the     
backs of the  books round and preparing 
them for the putting on of covers4      
,courtesy of the ,j4 ,f4 ,tapley ,co41  
,new ,york4    ,illustration3 ,,the     
,,book ,,of ,,wonders ,,is ,,ready ,,to 
,,read    ,in this picture we see the   
8case makers0 at work making the covers 
on  which the actual book is bound4     
,illustration3 ,the book is now 8bound0 
by having the covers put on and  is     
ready for distribution4      ,courtesy  
of the ,j4 ,f4 ,tapley ,co41 ,new ,york4
      ,how ,is ,photo ,engraving ,done8 
,illustration3 ,this cut shows a section
 of a photo-engraving screen  enlarged1 
illustrating the squares                
above-mentioned4 ,in reality it would   
take from #ajj to #djj of these dots to 
make an inch1 according to the  fineness
 of screen4    ,,how ,,the ,,pictures   
,,in ,,this ,,book ,,are ,,made    ,the 
first step is the making of the halftone
 negative which differs  from an        

ordinary negative in being made up of   
different sized dots  instead of shades 
of gray4 ,this result is obtained by    
photographing the  picture through a    
halftone screen consisting of two pieces
 of glass1  ruled with black lines and  
cemented together so the lines cross at 
right angles and leave small squares of 
clear glass4    ,the effect of making   
the negative in this way is to represent
 the  different shades from black to    
white by large or small dots4 ,wet plate
  photography is usually used in this   
process because the film is thinner  and
 more intensely black besides being     
cheaper than dry plates4                
,illustration3      ,new ,process       
,engraving ,co4    ,this cut shows a    
portion of a halftone cut enlarged so   
that the dots  can be seen very plainly4
    ,having made the negative the next  
step is to make a printing plate  from  
it4 ,to do this1 a piece of metal1      
copper if the work is fine1 and  zinc   
for coarser work1 is coated with a      

solution which is sensative to  light1  
fish glue is commonly used to which is  
added a small amount of  ammonium       
bichromate4 ,the metal being coated and 
dried1 it is put in  a very strong frame
 with the negative and squeezed together
 so that  they are in perfect contact4  
,a powerful light is now directed upon  
the  negative with the metal behind it1 
the result being that wherever the      
light goes through the white spaces in  
the negative1 the coating on the  metal 
is rendered insoluble4 ,where the dots  
on the negative are1 the  light is      
unable to get at the coating so that    
when the metal is removed  from the     
frame and thoroughly washed this part of
 the coating washes  away1 leaving the  
part which the light got at attached to 
the metal4  ,this is now heated until   
the enamel1 as the coating is called1   
turns  dark brown and the picture can be
 easily seen4    ,the picture is now on 
the metal but it must be made to stand  
out in  relief before it can be used for

 printing from1 so it is put in a bath  
of acid which eats away that part of the
 metal left uncovered by the  washing   
away of the coating and this leaves the 
dots which make up  the picture standing
 up in relief4 ,a roller covered with   
very thick  paste-like ink is now rolled
 over the picture1 or cut as it is now  
called1 and when a piece of paper is    
pressed against the ink covered  cut    
each little dot leaves a mark of ink on 
the paper the total making  up the      
picture as we see it4    ,there are many
 more wonderful things connected with   
the making of cuts  such as the routing 
machine which has a tool that revolves  
so fast  that it turns around #cjj times
 while the clock ticks once1 and other  
machines which cut hard metal as easily 
as you can cut a potato with a  knife4  
,colored pictures are also made by the  
process outlined above4 ,the  picture is
 photographed three times with a        
different colored piece of  glass in    
front of the lens1 the result being     

three negatives1 one of  which has all  
the blue1 one all the red and the other 
all the yellow  in the picture4 ,by     
making cuts from each negative and      
printing them  on top of one another in 
yellow1 red1 and blue1 the original     
picture  is reproduced in all its       
colors4 ,this is how all our pretty     
magazine  covers are made4              
,,acknowledgment      ,the ,editors of  
the ,book of ,wonders make              
acknowledgment herewith to the          
following4 ,all mentioned have been a   
great assistance in making the  book not
 only possible but authentic3           
,spencerian ,pen ,co4    ,eastman ,kodak
 ,co4    ,american ,telephone           
,telegraph ,co4    ,remington ,arms ,co4
    ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4    ,american 
,portland ,cement ,manufacturers ,assn4 
,brainerd  ,armstrong ,silk ,co4        
,corticelli ,silk ,co4    ,curtiss      
,aeroplane ,co4    ,u4 ,s4 ,beet ,sugar 
,industry4    ,hartford ,carpet ,co4    
,haynes ,automobile ,co4    ,jacobs     

,davis1 ,engineers4    ,pennsylvania    
,railroad ,co4    ,endicott1 ,johnson   
,co4    ,united ,shoe ,machinery ,co4   
,sherwin-,williams ,co4    ,pittsburgh  
,plate ,glass ,co4    ,the ,colliery    
,engineer4    ,lake ,torpedo ,boat ,co4 
,western ,union ,telegraph ,co4    ,new 
,york ,edison ,co4    ,westinghouse     
,lamp ,co4    ,consolidated ,gas1       
,electric ,light and ,power ,co4 of     
,baltimore4    ,browning ,engineering   
,co4    ,the ,white ,star ,line4        
,marconi ,wireless ,co4    ,plymouth    
,cordage ,co4    ,american ,woolen ,co4 
,the ,vitagraph ,co4    ,the ,b4 ,f4    
,goodrich ,co4    ,the ,goodyear ,rubber
 and ,tire ,co4    ,the ,lexington      
,chocolate ,co4    ,the ,hecker-,jones  
,milling ,co4    ,the ,white ,oak       
,mills4    ,the ,h4 ,c4 ,white ,company4
    ,a4 ,i4 ,root ,company4    ,kohler  
,campbell4    ,browne  ,howell ,co4     
,p4  ,f4 ,corbin4    ,otis ,elevator    
,co4    ,scientific ,american4          
,joseph ,dixon ,crucible ,co4    ,homer 

,w4 ,laughlin ,co4    ,s4 ,d4 ,warren   
,co4    ,c4 ,b4 ,cottrell  ,sons ,co4   
,mergenthaler ,linotype ,co4    ,j4 ,f4 
,tapley  ,co4    ,new ,process          
,engraving ,co4    ,mutual ,film        
,corporation4    ,tobacco ,trade        
,journal ,co4    ,mc,clure's ,magazine4 
,james ,arthur4    ,seth ,thomas4       
,american ,locomotive ,co4    ,new ,york
 ,central ,railroad ,co4    ,columbia   
,rope ,co4    ,carl ,werner4            
,national ,wool ,growers ,assn4         
,,index        ,acid1 carbonic1 what it 
is1 #eji      ,aerial1 on ship1         
7illus471 #dee      ,aeroplanes1        
,english ,channel crossing 7illus471    
#acb      ,curtiss biplane 7illus471    
#aca      first demonstrations of1 #acj 
first flight in ,europe1 #abi      first
 man-carrying 7illus471 #abh      first 
successful 7illus471 #abf      gas      
motors used in1 #acj      gliding1 #acg 
greatest present value of1 #acf         
records of1 #aca      red wing 7illus471
 #aca      what two brothers            

accomplished for1 #acj      ,wright     
,bros4' inventions1 #acj      ,age1 why 
do we1 #aif      ,air1 does it move with
 the earth8 #djj      does it weigh     
anything8 #cih      dust in1 #ch        
extend1 how far does1 #bdc              
,airlocks1 description of in tunnel     
building1 #bac      ,ammunition1 first  
invention of1 #dj      fixed1 #dg       
in prehistoric times1 #dj      ,animals1
 can they think8 #aid      is man an1   
#ahj      that leap greatest distance1  
#abb      which foretell weather1 #bdj  
,anthracite seams 7illus471 #bfj        
,aqueduct 7illus471 #eje      ,are      
matches poisonous1 #bid      ,armor1 in 
the ,middle ,ages1 #dd      ,army1      
wireless in the1 #ddh-dea      ,are     
there two sides to the rainbow8 #bed    
,arrow1 what causes it to fly8 #djh     
,at what point does water boil8 #bbj    
,at what rate does thought travel8 #bdb 
,australian ,ballot1 where first used1  
#abb      ,automobile 7illus471 axle1   
location of1 #ahf      beginning of1    

#ahc      carburetor1 location of1 #ahd 
carburetor1 use of1 #ahd      chassis1  
complete1 #ahh      cog-wheels1 use of1 
#ahc      cog-wheels1 location of       
7illus471 #ahc      crankcase1 location 
of 7illus471 #ahc      cylinder1        
location of 7illus471 #ahd      drive   
shaft1 location of 7illus471 #ahg       
electric generator1 use of1 #ahe        
exhaust1 #ahd      fenders1 location of1
 #ahh      fenders1 use of1 #ahh        
finished car 7illus471 #ahi      first  
,american 7illus471 #ahi      fly-wheel1
 location of 7illus471 #ahc             
fly-wheel1 use of1 #ahc      frame      
7illus471 #ahf      gasoline1 what it   
does1 #ahc      gasoline tank1 location 
of1 #ahg      gears1 location of        
7illus471 #ahc      gears1 use of1 #ahc 
heart of 7illus471 #ahd      how        
improved1 #aij      magneto1 location   
of1 #ahe      magneto1 use of1 #ahe     
marvellous growth of twenty years1 #ahi 
modern power plant complete1 #aij       
oil pan1 use of1 #ahd      oil pump1    

location of1 #ahd      piston1 location 
of 7illus471 #ahc      piston1 use of1  
#ahc      power plant1 an 7illus471 #ahe
      radiator1 location of 7illus471   
#ahh      radiator1 use of1 #ahh        
ready for the wheels1 #ahg      second  
stage of construction 7illus471 #ahf    
self-starter1 location of1 #ahe         
self starter1 use of1 #ahe              
,smithsonian exhibit of complete power  
plant1 #aij      springs1 location of   
7illus471 #ahf      springs1 use of1    
#ahf      steering gear1 location of    
7illus471 #ahg      street scene #bj    
years ago1 #ahi      transmission1      
location of1 #ahf      tire pump1 use   
of1 #ahe      tires1 how made1 #chb     
transmission1 use of1 #ahf      water   
pump1 location of1 #ahe      water pump1
 use of1 #ahe      what the completed   
chassis looks like 7illus471 #ahh       
,bacon1 ,roger1 discoverer of gunpowder1
 #dd      ,balance1 effect of sunlight  
on1 #cg      ,baldness1 chief course of1
 #adc      why some people are1 #adc    

,ball1 why it bounces1 #fc              
bearings1 what they are1 #ahj           
,balloon1 what keeps it up1 #aii        
why it goes up1 #aii      ,ballot1 when 
first used1 #abb      ,australian1 where
 first used1 #abb      ,bearings1 ,ball1
 what they are1 #ahj      ,bee1 how it  
lives1 #ccf      why it has a sting1    
#ccf      ,bell1 ,alexander ,graham     
7illus471 #gj      first telephone1 #gb 
,bend1 why things1 #fb      ,biplanes1  
,curtiss 7illus471 #aca      in flight1 
,curtiss 7illus471 #acf      ,birds1 how
 do they find the old home8 #djh        
how they learn to fly1 #agh      how    
they find their way1 #djg               
reproduction of life in1 #agi      why  
do they sing8 #djh      ,birds' ,eggs1  
why different colors1 #bcc              
,blasting gelatin1 definition of1 #bjf  
,bleriot1 ,m41 first ,european flights1 
#abi      ,blotter1 capillary attraction
 of1 #ah      how it takes up ink1 #ah  
,blush1 why do we1 #aid      ,boat1 how 
it can sail under water1 #bfi           

hydroplane of submarine1 #bgj           
inside of a submarine 7illus471 #bgb    
,bodies1 swiftest moving1 #be           
,boiling point of water1 #bbj      what 
makes water1 #bbj      ,boring mill     
7illus471 #ef      ,bottles1 gurgle in1 
#fc      ,bounce1 why a ball will1 #fc  
,bow1 long 7illus471 #db                
,bow-and-,arrow1 invention of1 #dc      
,boxes1 match1 how made1 #bid           
,brazil1 ,emperor of1 receives first    
words over telephone1 #gd      ,bread1  
how flour is made1 #dfb      difference 
in ,graham and whole wheat1 #dfa        
grinding wheat 7illus471 #dfd           
harvesting wheat1 #dfj      loaves of   
world 7illus471 #dei      origin and    
meaning of1 #dfj      purifying machine 
7illus471 #dfc      separating fibre    
germs 7illus471 #dfc      wheat         
conditioning 7illus471 #dfb      when   
wheat was first used in making1 #dfa    
where it comes from1 #dfj      why so   
important1 #dfj      ,break1 why things1
 #fb      ,breech1 of a big gun1 #ec    

,breech-loaders in ,civil ,war1 #dh     
in rifle1 #dg      ,brush1 in writing1  
invention of1 #ac      in writing       
7illus471 #ac      ,bullets1            
cupro-nickel used in1 #ej      grading  
of1 #ea      weighing of 7illus471 #di  
,buildings1 concrete1 how made 7illus471
 #ajj      ,buttons1 on sleeves1 #fd    
,building1 tallest in the world         
7illus471 #cie-ejh      what holds it   
up8 #dif      ,building foundations1    
construction of1 #dif      compressed   
air1 use of 7illus471 #ejj      cutting 
piles with a hot flame 7illus471 #dih   
driving steel piles1 #dif      piles    
filled with concrete 7illus471 #dii     
piles1 length of1 #dig      piles1      
sinking of 7illus471 #dig      use of   
oxyacetylene1 #dih      ,cable1 laying  
armoring machine 7illus471 #dcg         
arrived on other side1 #dcc      bulge  
7illus471 #dcg      gear-paying-out     
7illus471 #dca      ,great ,eastern1    
the1 #dcd1 #dcg      landing of         
7illus471 #dcc      machinery on cable  

ship 7illus471 #dca      paying-out     
machine 7illus471 #dca      shore end of
 7illus471 #dbi      storing of1 aboard 
ship 7illus471 #dcj      what they look 
like when cut in two 7illus471 #dbh     
,cable1 ocean1 ,continental ,morse      
,code1 #dch      how dropped 7illus471  
#dcb      how repaired 7illus471 #dce   
inventor of1 #dcd      laid1 how1 #dbi  
man who made it possible1 #dcd          
pioneers of1 #dcd      signals as       
received 7illus471 #dch      what is it 
made of1 #dbi      ,cable1 repairing1   
grapnels 7illus471 #dce      how        
repaired1 #dce      on rocky shore1     
7illus471 #dch      powerful engines    
used 7illus471 #dcf      splicing of    
7illus471 #dcf      ,cable1 service1 map
 of ,trans-,atlantic1 #dci      ,cable1 
vault1 of telephone 7illus471 #fg       
,cabriolet1 #abb      ,cacao1 beans1    
bags of 7illus471 #chh      how cured1  
#cib      nibs1 #cib      ,cacao1       
flaked1 how made1 #cib      how         
gathered1 #cia      pods1 how gathered1 

#cia      free1 discovery of1 #chh      
and chocolate1 difference between1 #chi 
,cackling1 why a hen1 #bcc      ,calibre
 of a gun1 #ec      ,calico1 name1 where
 from1 #abc      ,camera1 #bb      first
 moving picture1 #cge      ,can a bee   
sting8 #ecf      ,can animals think8    
#aid      ,candles1 did they come before
 lamps8 #bid      why it burns1 #ba     
why it gives light1 #ba      why you can
 blow out1 #ba-cf      when introduced1 
#bif      ,candy1 why do children like8 
#dji      why does eating candy make    
some people fat8 #dji      ,carbon1 #ceb
      ,carbonate of ,soda1 used in      
developing1 #bc      ,carburetor1 in gas
 engine1 #ahd      ,carpets1 carding    
machine 7illus471 #agj      dyeing the  
yarn1 7illus471 #agj      examining and 
repairing 7illus471 #agc      how yarn  
is dyed1 #agj      manufacture of       
7illus471 #afi      modern1 how made1   
#afi      packing for shipment 7illus471
 #agc      processes1 #afi-agj-aga1 #agc
      stamping designs1 #agc      view  

of factory 7illus471 #agb      weaving1 
by machine 7illus471 #aga      wool1    
packing machine 7illus471 #afi      wool
 sorting1 #agj      ,cartridges1        
invention of1 #dh      types of         
7illus471 #di      ,cave1 man who       
invented ammunition1 #dj      ,cement1  
alumina in1 #ie      amount used in     
,united ,states1 #ie      arch1 #ie     
bagging 7illus471 #ii      bridges1 #ie 
bucket 7illus471 #ig      burned        
7illus471 #ih      calcined 7illus471   
#ih      clay in1 #ie      crusher      
7illus471 #ig      dams1 #ie            
fireproof1 #ie      grinders 7illus471  
#ih      industry1 #ie      in water1   
#ie      kiln 7illus471 #ih      lime   
in1 #ie      machine 7illus471 #ig      
marl in1 #ie      mill 7illus471 #if-ih 
mixing 7illus471 #ii      mortar1 #ii   
on farms1 #ie      origin1 #ie          
plastic1 #ie      ,portland1 #ie        
powder 7illus471 #ih      quarry        
7illus471 #if      reinforced1 #ie      
rock 7illus471 #ie-ig      sewers1 #ie  

shale in1 #ie      shovel 7illus471 #if 
sidewalks1 #ie      silica in1 #ie      
strength of1 #ie      subways1 #ie      
tunnels1 #ie      walls1 #ie      what  
is it1 #ie      what made of1 #ie       
what used for1 #ie      weighing        
7illus471 #ii      where obtained       
7illus471 #ig      ,chalk1 where it     
comes from1 #ah      ,chattering1 why do
 my teeth1 #bah      ,china-making1     
blungers1 #djd      clay1 in making     
dishes1 #dje      decorating cups       
7illus471 #djd-djf      dishes1 how     
shaped1 #dje      glazing plates        
7illus471 #djd      grinders 7illus471  
#djd      how the dishes are shaped1    
#dje      molding 7illus471 #dje        
pressing water from clay 7illus471 #dje 
pulverizing materials1 #djd             
pulverizing mill 7illus471 #djd         
saggers 7illus471 #djf      taking the  
dishes from kiln 7illus471 #djf         
,chinese1 probable discovers of gun     
powder1 #dd      ,chocolate1 broma1 what
 it is1 #cij      cacao beans 7illus471 

#chh      cacao pods1 7illus471 #cia    
cacao tree1 discovery of1 #chh          
cocoa butter1 #cij      cocoa mill      
7illus471 #cij      cocoa roaster       
7illus471 #cij      cocoa shells1 #cij  
cracking mill1 #chi      cream mixing   
7illus471 #cic      difference between  
and cacao1 #cid      dipping department1
 #cid      finisher 7illus471 #cib      
flaked cocoa1 #cib      heating machine 
7illus471 #cic      how are chocolate   
candies made8 #cid      how made1 #cib  
making1 #cic      milk1 how made1 #cid  
mill 7illus471 #cib      mixer 7illus471
 #cic      shell separator 7illus471    
#chi      what cocoa butter is1 #cij    
wrapping individual1 #cid      ,cigars1 
how they are made1 #eag      ,clay1 what
 is1 #die      ,circles1 tendency to    
walk in1 #ia      ,clinking glasses1 how
 it originated8 #bcb      ,clock1 age   
of1 #cai      largest in the world      
7illus471 #cba      machinery which runs
 a big 7illus471 #cbb      in           
,independence ,hall 7illus471 #cbc      

in ,new ,york ,city ,hall1 #cbc         
,cloth1 beaming 7illus471 #hi           
,burling 7illus471 #hh      ,burr       
picker1 #hg      chloride of aluminum in
 making1 #ih      ,english cap spinning 
7illus471 #hi      finished1 ready for  
market 7illus471 #ij      finish        
perching 7illus471 #ij      fulling     
7illus471 #ij      how made from wool1  
#he      how made perfect1 #hc      how 
woolen is dyed1 #hg      mending        
perching 7illus471 #hh      napping1 #hi
      piece dyeing 7illus471 #ij        
ring twisting 7illus471 #hi             
sulphuric acid solution in making1 #hg  
teasel1 #hi      weaving and scouring   
7illus471 #hh      web1 #hf      woolen 
mule spinning 7illus471 #hi      worsted
 carding 7illus471 #he      yarn        
inspecting 7illus471 #hi      ,clothes1 
cost of wool in a suit of1 #hc      of  
wool1 #hj      wool in one suit of1 #hc 
,coal1 anthracite1 #beg1 #beh           
anthracite seams 7illus471 #bfj         
breaker 7illus471 #beg      cars ready  

to go to surface 7illus471 #bfj         
dangers to the miners1 #bfb             
electric cap lamp 7illus471 #bfd        
firedamp1 #bfb      gas illuminating    
from1 #bii      gases1 #bfb      history
 of the safety lamp 7illus471 #bfc      
how the miners loosen the coal 7illus471
 #bfa      how the slate pickers work   
7illus471 #bei      lamp which saves    
many lives1 #bfc      man who invented  
the safety lamp1 #bfd      mine workers 
that never see day light1 #beh          
mules and their drivers 7illus471 #beh  
peat1 #bfb      safety lamp and         
firedamp1 #bfb      seams 7illus471 #bfj
      shaft gate 7illus471 #bfj         
slate pickers 7illus471 #bei      soft1 
#bei      spiral slate pickers 7illus471
 #bei      stable underground 7illus471 
#beh      undercutting with compressed  
air machines 7illus471 #bfa             
undercutting with pick 7illus471 #bfa   
,cocoa1 see ,cacao      ,cocoon1        
description of1 #aae      completed     
7illus471 #aaf      from which moths    

have emerged 7illus471 #aag      how    
silk is reeled from1 #aah      moths    
emerging from 7illus471 #aag      number
 required to one pound of silk1 #aag    
silkworm beginning of 7illus471 #aaf    
silkworm1 preparing for making of       
7illus471 #aaf      ,coins1 gold1 #bff  
in glass of water1 #ch      silver1 #bff
      ,cohesion1 definition of1 #bai1   
#bbj      ,cold1 why some things are1   
#add      ,color1 exposed to light rays1
 #cf      in paint1 #bbi      what it   
is1 #abc      ,colors1 different in     
birds' eggs1 #bcc      in sunset1 cause 
of1 #bec      ,color1 of rainbow1 #bec  
red1 why it makes a bull angry1 #dij    
,columbus1 brought first sheep to       
,america1 #hj      ,comb honey1         
development of 7illus471 #ebi           
,compounds1 compared with elements1 #cdi
      ,compressed air1 method in        
building tunnels1 #baa      ,concrete1  
buildings 7illus471 #ajj                
construction 7illus471 #ajj      decay1 
#aja      engineering1 #ajb      forms  

7illus471 #ajj      houses 7illus471    
#aja      loads 7illus471 #ajj          
mold1 #aja      ornamental 7illus471    
#ajj      practical uses of 7illus471   
#ajj      rusting1 #ajj      ,silo      
7illus471 #ajb      stable 7illus471    
#ajb      sun dial 7illus471 #aja       
tensile strain1 #ajd      tower         
7illus471 #ajb      walls 7illus471 #ajj
      water tower 7illus471 #ajb        
what it is1 #ie      wood1 #ajb         
,confucius1 philosophy written with     
brush1 #ac      ,cooking1 when first    
used1 #cjh      ,copper1 as a conductor 
of electricity1 #bfg      wire1         
telegraph1 #bff      ,corn plant1 how   
pollen fertilizes1 #agj      why it has 
silk1 #agf      ,corn ,silk1 what it is 
for1 #agf      baling presses 7illus471 
#dgf      ,cotton1 drawing frames       
7illus471 #dgb      slashers 7illus471  
#dge      spinning frames 7illus471 #dgc
      warping machine 7illus471 #dgd    
what nation produces the most1 #dgg     
how much cloth will a pound of cotton   

make1 #dgg      mill 7illus471 #dga     
cloth1 first steps in making1 #dgb      
putting fiber on bobbins 7illus471 #dgc 
cloth finished 7illus471 #dgf      who  
discovered1 #dgg      weave room1 #dge  
where it comes from1 #dgj      lapper   
machines1 #dga      card room 7illus471 
#dgb      bobbins 7illus471 #dgc        
dye-house 7illus471 #dgd      beaming   
frames 7illus471 #dge      inspecting   
tables 7illus471 #dgf      field a      
southern 7illus471 #dgj      breaker    
machines 7illus471 #dga      slubber    
machines 7illus471 #dgb      speeders   
7illus471 #dgc      spooling machine    
7illus471 #dgd      shipping 7illus471  
#dgf      what used for1 #dgg           
cloths1 what are the principle1 #dgg    
,counting1 man1 himself1 #ai      in    
tens1 #ai      in twelves1 #bj          
,crying1 what makes us1 #aie      when  
hurt1 why we1 #ic      ,cross-bow1      
invention of1 #dd      ,crude rubber1   
how treated1 #cgh      ,culverins1 early
 type of1 #de      ,cylinder in gas     

engine 7illus471 #ahd      ,darkness1   
cats can see in1 #ia      some animals  
can see in1 #ia      why we cannot see  
in1 #ia      why we fear1 #ceb          
,deep sea diving1 the telephone         
adjusting 7illus471 #bjb      coming up 
7illus471 #bjd      cost of outfit1 #bjc
      helmet1 putting on 7illus471 #bjb 
just before going down 7illus471 #bjd   
outfit1 #bjb      shoes1 putting on     
7illus471 #bjb      suit1 putting on    
7illus471 #bjb      telephoning from    
bottom1 #bjc      telephone1 testing the
 7illus471 #bjc      testing1 final     
7illus471 #bjc      water pressure at   
varying depths1 #bjc      wealth        
recovered by diving1 #bjd      weight of
 outfit1 #bjc      ,deer-stalking with  
the cross-bow 7illus471 #db             
,detonators1 in firearms1 #dg           
,developer1 ,pyro1 in photography1 #bc  
,diamonds1 what made of1 #cea      ,did 
candles come before lamps8 #bid         
,die1 why do we have to1 #bde           
,difference in woolens and worsteds1 #hd

      ,dimples1 what causes1 #ceb       
,discovery of gunpowder1 #dd            
,discovery of stringed musical          
instruments1 #dgi      telephone1 #ga   
,diver's task made easy 7illus471 #bhd  
,diving1 deep-sea1 the telephone        
adjusting1 7illus471 #bjb      cost of  
outfit1 #bjc      hats of divers1 #bjd  
just before going down 7illus471 #bjd   
helmet1 putting on 7illus471 #bjb       
shoes1 putting on 7illus471 #bjb        
suit1 putting on the 7illus471 #bjb     
suit1 what consists of1 #bjb            
telephone from bottom1 #bjc             
telephoning1 testing the 7illus471 #bjc 
testing final 7illus471 #bjc      water 
pressure at varying depths1 #bjc        
wealth recovered by diving1 #bjd        
weight of outfit1 #bjc      ,dixie1 what
 name means1 #abd      where name       
originated1 #abc      ,does air weigh   
anything1 #cih      ,does the air       
surrounding the earth move with it8 #djj
      ,does thunder sour milk1 #aif     
,does light weigh anything8 #cg         

,does the sun revolve on its axis8 #eaa 
,do father and mother plants always live
 together8 #agf      ,do the ends of the
 rainbow rest on land8 #bed      ,do the
 stars really shoot down8 #bee          
,dog1 why he turns round before lying   
down1 #bbi      ,dolls1 why girls like1 
#cfh      ,dom ,pedro1 ,emperor of      
,brazil1 who saved the telephone1 #gc   
,do plants breathe8 #bda      ,draft1   
created by chimney1 #cg      ,dreams1   
cause of1 #cff      nightmare1 #cfg     
what makes us8 #cff      ,drinking1     
origin of clinking glasses1 #bcb        
,driving shield1 airlock bulkhead       
7illus471 #baj      erector 7illus471   
#baj      in tunnel building 7illus471  
#bjh      inventor of1 #bji             
tunnels1 front view 7illus471 #bji      
,ducks1 why water runs off backs of1    
#bcc      ,dust1 in air1 #ch      what  
it is1 #ajd      ,dyeing1 silk1 #aba    
,earache1 what causes1 #daj      ,earth1
 how big it is1 #abd      light         
surrounding1 #ch      ,echo1 what makes 

an1 #bjj      whispering gallery1 #bja  
,eggs1 birds why different colors1 #bcc 
silkworm1 how imported1 #aaa            
,egyptians1 how ancients wrote1 #ab     
,electric arc1 temperature of1 #ce      
,electric current1 what it is1 #ccd     
,electricity1 conductors of1 #cca       
current1 #ccd      good conductors1 #cca
      how discovered1 #ccc              
non-conductors1 #cca      what is1 #cbi 
,electric lighting1 arc-light1 #cjg     
,edison's first lamp 7illus471 #cjf     
incandescent carbon lamp 7illus471 #cjf 
,mazda lamp 7illus471 #cjf      tantalum
 lamp 7illus471 #cjf      ,tungsten     
metal lamps1 #cje      when introduced1 
#cje      ,elements1 carbon1 #ceb       
compared with compounds1 #cdi           
hydrogen1 #cdi      nitrogen1 #cej      
oxygen1 #cdi      what an is1 #cdi      
,elevator1 description of 7illus471 #cig
      installation 7illus471 #cif       
principal parts of1 #cif      why does  
not the car fall8 #cig      ,emperor1   
saved the telephone1 #gc      ,emperor  

of ,brazil1 receives first message over 
first telephone1 #gd      ,engine1 gas  
7illus471 #aha-ahb      carburetor1 #ahd
      cylinder 7illus471 #ahd           
horse-power1 of1 #bef      ,exchange1   
first telephone1 #ge      ,exhibition1  
of first telephone at ,centennial1 #gd  
,experiments1 with mirror resultant in  
photograph1 #bb      ,exploding1 a      
submarine mine1 #cd      ,explosions1   
how they break windows1 #fb      in gas 
engines 7illus471 #ahb      of submarine
 mines 7illus471 #cd      what happens  
in1 #bje      ,explosives1 definition   
of1 #bje      blasting gelatin1 #bjf    
gun-cotton1 #bjf      nitroglycerine1   
#bjf      ,eye1 of a submarine 7illus471
 #bgd      ,eyes1 closed1 walking with1 
#ia      hand quicker than1 #cgf        
help brain in walking1 #ia      in some 
pictures follow you1 why1 #cf           
keeping body balanced1 #ia      nature's
 way of protecting1 #ch      protecting 
with tears1 #ch      sparkle when merry1
 why1 #ib      why we can't sleep when  

open1 #ib      why we see stars when hit
 on1 #bfh      ,eye-wash1 tears as an1  
#ch      ,fabrics1 worsted1 #he         
,fahrenheit1 what is meant by1 #bba     
why so called1 #bba      ,fastest camera
 in the world1 #be      ,fathers and    
,mothers1 do plants have1 #age          
,federal ,government1 grazing fee paid  
to1 #hb      ,fertilization1 in birds1  
#agi      how corn plant fertilizes1    
#agf      of fishes1 #agg      ,fight1  
of ,merrimac and ,monitor1 #cb          
,film1 before and after snapshot1 #bc   
sensitive1 #bc      ,finger prints1     
arch1 7illus471 #ebj      composite     
7illus471 #eba      of different people1
 #eba      enlargements of1 #ebd        
how they identify us1 #ebj              
impressions of orang-outang 7illus471   
#ebb      loop 7illus471 #ebj           
palmary impressions 7illus471 #ebb      
specimen form of1 record 7illus471 #ebe 
spike that caught a criminal 7illus471  
#ebd      thieves caught through their1 
#ebc      thumb imprint on bottle       

7illus471 #ebc      thumb impression on 
cash box 7illus471 #ebc      thumb mark 
on a candle 7illus471 #ebc      where   
first used1 #ebb      whorl 7illus471   
#eba      ,fingers1 why they hurt when  
cut1 #adc      why we have ten1 #adb    
,finger nails1 why we have1 #adb        
,fire1 alarms when first used1 #cjh     
first apparatus to fight1 #cjh          
first fire department1 #cjh      first  
real1 fire engine1 #cjh      gases put  
out1 #cg      how man discovered1 #bhi  
how man learned to fight1 #bjh      how 
man learned to make a1 #bhi      mark1  
of civilization1 #bij      why it goes  
out1 #cg      why is it hot8 #dja       
why put out by water1 #bbb      ,fire   
making1 drilling 7illus471 #bhi         
drilling with bow string 7illus471 #bij 
drilling1 two persons 7illus471 #bij    
first matches 7illus471 #bib      flint 
and pyrites 7illus471 #bij      flint1  
introduction of 7illus471 #bia          
plowing 7illus471 #bij      pyrites     
7illus471 #bij      rubbing sticks      

together1 #db      sawing 7illus471 #bhi
      steel and flint 7illus471 #bia    
tinder box 7illus471 #bia      tinder   
box1 pistol 7illus471 #bia      with    
matches1 #bib      ,firedamp1 #bfb      
explosion in safety lamp1 #bfb          
,firearms1 first crude efforts of1 #de  
first real 7illus471 #de      fuse of1  
#de      in early ,chinese history1 #dd 
first trigger of1 #de      ,firing1     
mortar1 causes gas-rings1 #bg           
,first man-carrying aeroplane1 #abh     
real telegraph1 #dba      stringed      
musical instrument1 #dhj      telephone 
7illus471 #gb      telephone line1 #gb  
telephone switchboard 7illus471 #gd     
,fishes1 how they are born1 #agg        
how they come to life1 #agg      motion 
in swimming1 #bcc      what the eggs    
are1 #agg      why they cannot live in  
air1 #bcb      ,flag1 made1 how was     
,american1 #caj      made1 when was     
,american8 #caj      ,flash pan1 early  
type1 #de      ,flaxseed oil1 what it   
is1 #bbg      ,flight1 of projectile1   

long1 #cj      ,flint-lock1 invented in 
seventeenth century1 #df      invented  
by thieves1 #df      still in use in    
,orient1 #df      ,floor1 sounds through
 a1 #gi      ,flour1 bolters 7illus471  
#dfe      how made1 #dfb      purifying 
machine 7illus471 #dfc      sieves1 #dfe
      ,flowers1 why they have smells1   
#agf      ,flying1 how birds learn1 #agh
      boat1 wonderful 7illus471 #acc    
first ,langley monoplane1 #abf          
first successful aeroplane 7illus471    
#abf      machine1 first models1 #abg   
some of the men who helped1 #abf        
ten years of 7illus471 #acg      ,flying
 boat1 fun in 7illus471 #ace            
gliding by1 #acg      ,flying boat1     
interior arrangement 7illus471 #acd     
monoplane type 7illus471 #ace           
six-passenger hull 7illus471 #acd       
speed of 7illus471 #ace      the        
wonderful1 #acc      views of 7illus471 
#acc      ,flying machines1 #abf        
,bleriot flew in ,europe 7illus471 #abi 
,curtis biplane in flight 7illus471 #acf

      ,dr4 ,langley's flying 7illus471  
#abg      early types of1 #abg          
first demonstrations1 #acj      first   
flight in ,europe with1 #abi      first 
man-carrying aeroplane1 #abh      first 
models1 #abg      flying boat1 #acc     
flying boat1 exterior arrangement1 #acd 
gliding experiments1 #acg               
government interest in1 #ach      hull  
of flying boat1 #acd      interesting   
governments in1 #ach      ,wright       
,bros41 first flights1 #acj      ,focus1
 in eye1 #bb      ,fog1 what it is1 #aje
      ,food1 how we learned to cook1    
#cjh      ,foreign monoplanes1 some     
famous 7illus471 #acb      ,forsythe1   
,,ll4,d4 ,j41 inventor of the primer1   
#dg      ,freckles1 what makes them     
come1 #abe      ,fuse1 for firearms in  
early history1 #de      ,funditor1 #db  
,gas1 acetylene1 #cje      definition1  
#cdh      first structure to be lighted 
by1 #cjb      in coal mines1 #bfb       
water1 #cje      ,gas1 illuminating1    
,baltimore first city to use1 #cjb      

carbon in1 #cjb      discovered1 when1  
#cjb      first ,american house to use1 
#cjb      first practical demonstration 
of1 #cjb      generator house 7illus471 
#bii      holder 7illus471 #bih      how
 it gets into jet1 #cjb      how it is  
purified1 #cjc      how made1 #cjc      
how the meter works1 #cjd      hydrogen 
in1 #cjb      impurities removed from   
7illus471 #cja      jet1 the story in a1
 #cjc      made of1 #cjb      meter1    
description1 #cjd      purifying boxes  
7illus471 #cja      removing tar from1  
#cjj      shaving scrubbers 7illus471   
#cjj      ,gasoline engine 7illus471    
#aha1 #ahb      ,gases1 generated at gun
 muzzle1 #bg      how expelled in gun   
ingot1 #ee      hydrogen1 #cdi          
nitrogen1 #cej      oxygen1 #cdi        
tendency to put out fire1 #cg           
,gas-rings1 in firing motor1 #bg        
,gatling1 inventor of guns1 #caj        
,gelatine1 in photography1 #bc          
,gestures1 talking by1 #ah      ,ghosts1
 what are they8 #cfg      ,glad1 why do 

we laugh when1 #ib      ,glass1 why it  
cracks1 #fc      how long known1 #bdg   
,glass1 plate1 casting 7illus471 #bdi   
commercial1 #bdf      plate and window  
glass compared 7illus471 #beb           
,glass1 plate1 making1 annealing1 oven1 
#bdi      beveling1 #bdg                
blanketing1 #beb      clay mixing       
7illus471 #bdh      clay trampling      
7illus471 #bdh      clay used1 #bdg     
grinding table1 #bej      materials used
 in1 #bdg      mercury1 #bec            
nitrate of silver1 #bec      pots       
7illus471 #bdh      pots1 drying of1    
#bdh      pots1 length of usefulness1   
#bdh      silvering1 #bdg      skimming 
the pot 7illus471 #bdi      treading1   
#bdg      ,glow-worm1 why does it glow8 
#bca      ,gold1 why is it called       
precious8 #bff      ,gong1 why does it  
stop when it has been sounded1 #gh      
,good luck1 why a horseshoe brings8 #caa
      ,graphite in lead pencils1 #dfh   
,gravitation1 what is1 #bfg             
,gravity1 center of1 in gun1 #fa        

,gravity1 force of1 #fa      ,greek     
fire1 in early history1 #dd             
,growing1 why do we stop1 #aie          
,gun1 action at muzzle1 #bg             
annealing a gun ingot1 #eg              
assembling of1 #dh-ed      arquebus of1 
#aecg1 #dg      barrels1 erosion of1 #ce
      blow-holes1 #ef      bore         
searcher1 #ei      breech of a1 #ec     
discharges1 force of1 #cc      calibre  
of a1 #ec      elastic limit1 #eh       
elongation1 #eh      forging a 7illus471
 #eb      heat treatment1 #eh      hoops
 of a1 #ed      improvements in1 #de    
ingot1 calibre of1 #ee      jacket of1  
#ed      length of a1 #ec      liner of1
 #ed      life of1 #ce      manufacture 
in ,america1 #dh      measuring inside  
diameter 7illus471 #ei      modern      
built-up 7illus471 #ed      mold for    
ingot1 #ee      muzzle of1 #ec          
pressure generated in a big gun1 #ed    
photography 7illus471 #cc      piping1  
#ef      powder chamber of a1 #ec       
rifling 7illus471 #fj      rifling of1  

#ec      shrinking pit1 #ei      tensile
 strength of1 #eh      factory1 testing 
materials1 7illus471 #ej      tube of1  
#ed      tube1 how it is tempered1 #eg  
why called gatling1 #caj                
wire-wound1 #ed      ,gun-barrels1      
imported from ,england1 #di             
resisting pressure of1 #cd              
,gun-cotton1 in smokeless powder1 #ce1  
#bjf      ,gunpowder1 ,chinese probable 
discovers of1 #dd      discoverer of1   
#dd      experiments by ,schwartz1 #de  
formula of ,roger ,bacon1 #de           
ingredients in1 #bje      manufactured  
in monasteries1 #dd      what causes the
 smoke8 #bjf      smokeless1 what made  
of1 #bjf      why some is fine and      
others large grained1 #bjf      ,gurgle1
 in bottles1 #fc      ,hail1 what       
causes1 #abd      ,hair1 what causes    
baldness1 #adc      why it don't hurt   
when cut1 #adc      why it keeps        
growing1 #add      ,hand bombards1 early
 types1 #de      ,hands1 shaking1 why   
with the right1 #bca      ,hansom1 why  

so called1 #abb      ,have plants       
fathers and mothers8 #age      ,heart1  
why beats during sleep1 #aia      why   
beats faster when scared1 #aia      why 
beats faster when running1 #aia         
,heat1 light wave changed into1 #cf     
why a nail gets hot when hammered1 #bcj 
why some things are warm1 #add      how 
we obtain1 #bca      ,hemp1 ,manilla    
7illus471 #cef      ,hobson's choice1   
how originated1 #caa      ,honey1 apiary
 in summer 7illus471 #ecd      how      
produced1 #ebg      worker comb         
7illus471 #ecb      manner of using     
,german bee-brush1 #ecc      finished   
product 7illus471 #ecc      frame       
7illus471 #ece      how to bump the bees
 off a comb 7illus471 #ecc      bee-hat 
7illus471 #ece      a study in          
cell-making 7illus471 #ecb      bee     
sting1 can a1 #ecf      frame of bees   
7illus471 #ece      comb1 how bees      
build1 #ecf      ,honey-bee1 poison-bag1
 #ecg      egg of queen1 under          
microscope 7illus471 #ebi      preparing

 for rearing1 #eca      living on combs 
in open air1 7illus471 #ebg      the    
daily growth of larv 7illus471 #ecb     
effect of a sting 7illus471 #ecf        
worker-bee 7illus471 #ebg      what the 
queen-bee does8 #ebh      drone-comb    
7illus471 #ecb      clipping queen bees 
wings 7illus471 #ecc      cucumber      
blossom with bee on it 7illus471 #ebh   
queen-bee 7illus471 #ebg      the queen 
and her retinue 7illus471 #ebi          
queen-rearing1 #eca      queen-cells    
7illus471 #ebi      ,honeymoon1 why do  
they call it a8 #caa      ,horizon1 how 
far away is the1 #bde      what is it1  
#bdd      where is it1 #bdd             
,horse-power1 a1 what it is1 #bef       
,horseshoes1 why it is said to bring    
good luck8 #caa      ,hot box1 cause of1
 #cfh      ,houiller1 ,french gunsmith1 
#dh      ,houses1 concrete 7illus471    
#aja      ,how far does the air extend8 
#bdc      is ammunition made 7illus478  
#di      does an arc light burn8 #cjg   
are automobile tires made8 #chb         

does a honey bee live8 #ccf      does a 
bee make honey8 #ebg      do bees build 
the honey comb8 #ecf      does the honey
 bee defend itself8 #ecf      does honey
 develop in a comb 7illus478 #ecj       
do birds learn to fly8 #agh      do     
birds find their way8 #djg      does the
 blotter take up the ink of a blot8 #ah 
this book is bound1 #egh      this book 
is made1 #efa      the paper in this    
book is made1 #efa      the pictures in 
this book are made1 #eha      are       
bullets made8 #ea      is an ocean cable
 laid8 #dbi      does a camera take a   
picture8 #bb      is a cable dropped    
into the ocean 7illus478 #dcb      are  
modern carpets made8 #afi      is a     
carpet woven by machinery8 #aga      is 
china decorated8 #djf      is china     
made8 #djd      is chocolate made8 #cib 
did the custom of clinking glasses in   
drinking originate8 #bcb      are cigars
 made8 #eag      is cloth made from     
wool8 #hf      did the coal get into the
 coal mines8 #beg      does a coal mine 

look inside8 #bfj      do the cocoa     
beans grow 7illus478 #cia      is the   
color put on the outside of the pencil8 
#dfi      is the honey comb made8 #ecb  
are concrete roads built 7illus478 #ajc 
did man learn to cook his food8 #cjh    
are concrete buildings made 7illus478   
#ajj      is woolen cloth dyed8 #hg     
big is the earth8 #abd      much of the 
earth does the sun shine on at one time8
 #cbd      does an elevator go up and   
down 7illus478 #cif      was electricity
 discovered8 #ccc      does the light   
get into the electric bulb8 #cje      is
 the eraser put on a pencil8 #dfi       
can an explosion break windows8 #fb     
explosions may occur on submarines1 #bgh
      does the farmer use concrete      
7illus478 #ajb      do our finger prints
 identify us8 #ebj      did man learn to
 fight fire8 #cjh      did man learn to 
make a fire8 #bhi      are fishes born8 
#agg      was the flag made8 #caj       
is flour made8 #dfb      does a fly walk
 upside down8 #ded      did men learn to

 fly8 #abf      does the gas get into   
the gas jet8 #cjb      is illuminating  
gas made8 #cjc      is gas purified8    
#cjc      is plate glass made8 #bdf     
is plate glass ground8 #bej      a      
wire-wound gun is made8 #ed      was the
 first ,american gun made 7illus478 #dg 
is a gun ingot made8 #ee      do we find
 the length of a gun8 #ec      is a gun 
tube tempered8 #eg      do we obtain    
heat8 #bca      the heel of a shoe is   
put on 7illus471 #efj      did ,hobson's
 choice originate8 #caa      far away is
 the horizon8 #bde      does a key turn 
a lock 7illus478 #dia      does a spring
 lock work 7illus478 #dib      are lead 
pencils made8 #dfg      do the miners   
loosen the coal8 #bfa      is light     
produced1 #bcj      are magnets made8   
#cce      are matches made8 #bic        
are match boxes made8 #bid      did man 
learn to send messages8 #dab      does  
the meter measure the gas8 #cjd      can
 microbes spread through the body8 #daj 
are mirrors silvered8 #ebb      big is a

 molecule8 #cdh      did money          
originate8 #dee      are moving pictures
 made8 #cfi      does the music get into
 the piano8 #dgh-dhb      did the word  
news originate8 #cab      did a nod come
 to mean yes8 #ai      did shaking the  
head come to mean no8 #ai      are      
paints mixed8 #bbh      is a photograph 
developed8 #bc      was the piano       
discovered8 #dgi      do plants breathe8
 #bda      do plants reproduce life8    
#age      does the shield cut through   
the ground in tunnel building8 #bab     
are shooting shells photographed8 #bd   
shoes are made by machinery1 #edi       
shoe machinery was developed1 #deg      
is crude rubber secured8 #cgg      is   
rope turned and twisted8 #ceh      are  
rubber tires made8 #cgh      are modern 
rugs made8 #afi      to splice a rope1  
#cfd      do men go down to the bottom  
of the sea8 #bjb      did the sand get  
on the seashore8 #ajh      far back does
 the silkworm date8 #aji      was silk  
introduced into ,europe8 #aaj      are  

the silkworms cared for8 #aac      do we
 know a thing is solid1 liquid or gas8  
#cdh      are sounds produced8 #dhe     
fast does sound travel8 #dhf      can   
sound come through a thick wall8 #gi    
is the volume of sound measured8 #bdb   
far does space reach8 #bef      do the  
slate pickers work8 #bei      does a    
captain steer his ship across the ocean8
 #djg      can a ship sail under water1 
#bfi      is a submarine submerged8 #bgj
      do sponges grow8 #bhf      do     
sponges eat8 #bhg      are sponges      
caught8 #bhg      are the stars counted8
 #bda      big is the sun8 #ada      hot
 is the sun8 #ada      is a steel pen   
made 7illus471 #ag      did man learn to
 shoot1 #dj      do we get wool off the 
sheep8 #hb      is a stone thrown with a
 sling8 #da      are metallic and paper 
shells filled with powder8 #ej      did 
man learn to talk8 #ah      did the     
telephone come to be8 #gj      fast does
 thought travel8 #bdb      does a       
telegram get there8 #dad      did man   

learn to tell time8 #cac      did man   
begin to measure time8 #cad      did men
 tell time when the sun cast no shadows8
 #cag      is the time calculated at    
sea8 #cae      is tobacco cultivated8   
#eaf      is tobacco cured8 #eaf        
was tobacco discovered8 #eab      is    
tobacco harvested8 #eae      is tobacco 
planted8 #ead      is a tunnel dug under
 water8 #bjh      does water put fire   
out8 #bbb      is white lead made8 #bbe 
are wires put under ground8 #gf      did
 writing first come about8 #aa      did 
the ,chinese write8 #ac      did the    
,monks do their writing8 #ad      does a
 pen write8 #ah      much does the wool 
in a suit of clothes cost8 #hc      much
 wool does ,america produce8 #hb      is
 wool taken from the sheep8 #hb      is 
the yarn for carpets dyed8 #agj      is 
oxide of zinc obtained8 #bbf      does  
the water get into the faucet8 #eja     
are the big water pipes laid8 #ejd      
did the name ,uncle ,sam originate8 #deh
      ,human body1 wonders of the1 #caa 

,hunting1 with the bow-and-arrow1 #dc   
,hurt1 why we cry when1 #ic             
,hydrogen1 what it is1 #cdi      ,hypo1 
used in developing1 #bc      ,impact1 of
 projectile from guns1 #bh      ,ink1   
how does a blotter take up8 #ah         
,instruments1 artillery1 testing1 #bd   
musical1 #dhh      optical1 based on    
refraction1 #ch      ,incandescent lamp1
 development of1 #cjf      ,inside of a 
mine planting submarine 7illus471 #bgg  
,iron1 cast1 #bfe      melts at1 #ce    
the most valuable metal1 #bfe           
wrought1 #bfe      ,is a moth attracted 
by a light8 #bhh      man an animal8    
#ahj      the hand quicker than the eye8
 #cgf      there a reason for           
everything8 #bjj      there a man in the
 moon8 #djj      yawning infectious8    
#aib      ,jacket1 of a gun1 #ed        
,japan the natural home of the silk worm
 7illus471 #aab      ,kentucky rifles1  
#de      ,key1 how it works in a lock   
7illus471 #dia      ,knots1 different   
kinds of 7illus471 #cfc      what makes1

 in boards1 #bbc      ,lambs1 ,siberian1
 in ,south ,dakota 7illus471 #hj        
,lamps1 first street light in ,america1 
#bif      the ,clanny safety1 #bfd      
did candles come before8 #bid           
earliest forms of1 #bie      ,edison's  
first 7illus471 #cjf      incandescent  
carbon 7illus471 #cjf      incandescent1
 development of1 #cjf      incandescent1
 electric1 when invented1 #cje          
,french watch tower 7illus471 #bie      
,mazda 7illus471 #cjf      from         
,nushagak hanging 7illus471 #big        
,pagan votive 7illus471 #bif            
,tantalum 7illus471 #cjf      street1   
when first used1 #bie      chimney      
protects flame1 #cg      coal miners and
 safety1 #bfb      ,lamp chimney1 why it
 makes a better light1 #cg              
,langley1 ,dr4 ,samuel ,p41 #aiad flight
 of aeroplane1 #abh      ,languages1 why
 so many1 #aig      ,lantern1 the first 
oil 7illus471 #big      the 8,rverbre0  
7illus471 #big      ,laugh1 when glad1  
why we1 #ib      nerves1 #ic      when  

tickled1 why we1 #ic      ,laughter1    
reflex action1 #ic      ,lead1 as used  
in making paint1 #bfg      in a pencil1 
#dfh      why so heavy1 #bfg      as    
used in pipes for plumbing1 #bfg        
,leather1 how the hides are treated1    
#eci      treatment of hides1 #ech      
unhairing machine 7illus471 #edj        
hide house 7illus471 #ech      tanning  
process1 #eci      rolling room         
7illus471 #eci      tanning sole        
leather1 #eci      how upper leather is 
tanned 7illus471 #edj      disposing of 
waste material1 #edj      wringers1 #eci
      tan yard 7illus471 #eci           
,legs1 not same length1 #ia      ,lens1 
in the eye1 #bb      ,leyden jar1 what  
it is1 #ccb      ,life1 beginning of1   
#agd      beginning of man's1 #agd      
how plants reproduce1 #age      ,light1 
attracting moths1 #bhh      glow-worms  
why they glow8 #bca      how produced1  
#bcj      lightning bugs1 made by1 #bca 
where it goes when it goes out1 #cf     
what makes match1 #aih      in mirror1  

#bb      in negative1 #bc      rays1    
#cf1 #die      broken rays of1 #ch      
rays1 heat from1 #cf      and           
refraction1 #ch      speed of1 #cf1 #adj
      travels faster than anything in   
the world1 #cf      surrounding earth1  
#ch      wave changed into heat1 #cf    
,lighting1 arc1 how does it burn1 #cjg  
in ,america1 first street 7illus471 #bif
      first oil lantern1 #big           
electric1 when introduced1 #cje         
first street light in ,paris1 #big      
gas tank1 7illus471 #bih                
,lightning1 why it follows thunder1 #adj
      ,lightning bugs1 why they produce 
light1 #bca      ,lignite1 found in coal
 mines1 #bfb      ,liner1 of a gun1 #ed 
,linseed oil1 extraction of1 #bbh       
what it is1 #bbg      where it comes    
from1 #bbg      ,liquid1 definition1    
#cdh      ,living1 why do some people   
live longer1 #aii      reproduction     
necessary why1 #agd      reproduction   
of1 in birds1 #agi      reproduction of1
 in fishes1 #agg      ,loading machines 

in powder factory1 #ej      ,lobsters1  
red1 what makes them1 #bde      ,lock1  
cylinder 7illus471 #dib      how a key  
turns a 7illus471 #dia      how key     
changes are provided 7illus471 #dia     
how a spring lock works 7illus471 #dib  
master-keyed cylinder 7illus471 #dib    
what happens when the key is turned8    
7illus471 #dia      what happens when   
the knob is turned8 7illus471 #dia      
,locomotives1 boiler of articulate type 
7illus471 #ddj      boiler of 7illus471 
#ddb      cab of 7illus471 #ddb         
cylinders description of1 #dda      low 
pressure cylinders of 7illus471 #dda    
electric1 newest 7illus471 #ddc      one
 of the largest 7illus471 #ddj          
signal tower1 latest 7illus471 #ddd     
stoker1 automatic 7illus471 #ddc        
water tank 7illus471 #ddd               
,lodestone1 what it is1 #cbg      8,long
 ,bow10 in ,sherwood ,forest 7illus471  
#db      ,loom1 cloth making machine1   
#hf      ,magnet1 breaking iron         
7illus471 #ccj      electro 7illus471   

#cbf1 #cbh1 #cce      electric lift     
7illus471 #cbf      experiments with1   
#cbg      great lifting by 7illus471    
#ccj      how made1 #cce      what makes
 it lift things8 #cbf      wonders      
performed by1 #cbf      work it can do  
7illus471 #cbh      ,man1 writing1 how  
man learned1 #aa      counting himself1 
#ai      is he an animal8 #ahj          
,matches1 are they poisonous8 #bid      
first1 #bib      how made1 #bic         
lucifer 7illus471 #bib      making by   
machinery1 #bic      modern safety      
7illus471 #bib      oxymuriate 7illus471
 #bib      promethean 7illus471 #bib    
what we would do without1 #bib      when
 first used 7illus471 #bib              
,match-lock1 of early firearms1 #de     
,melting of iron1 #ce      ,men who made
 the telephone1 #gj      ,mercury1      
fulminate of1 #di      ,merrimac and    
,monitor1 fight of1 #cb      ,merry1 why
 eyes sparkle when1 #ib      ,messages1 
how men learned to send1 #dab           
,indian smoke signals1 #dab             

marathon runner by 7illus471 #dac       
pony telegraph 7illus471 #dac           
,messenger boy1 how to call a 7illus471 
#dad      the first 7illus471 #dac      
,metal1 what is a1 #bfe      what is the
 most valuable8 #bfe      why we use for
 coining1 #def      ,meter1 description 
of gas1 #cjd      how it measures gas1  
#cjd      ,milk1 does thunder sour8 #aif
      ,milky way1 why is it called1 #bee
      what is1 #bee      ,mine cars     
7illus471 #bfj      ,mines1 clearing    
channel of buoyant1 #bhc      exploding 
submarine1 #cd      planting submarine1 
inside of 7illus471 #bgg      workers   
that never see daylight1 #beh           
,mirror1 collects rays of light1 #bb    
reflection in1 #bb      reflects rays of
 light1 #bb      ,mirrors1 beveling     
7illus471 #bea      how made1 #bea      
how silvered1 #beb      polishing1 #bea 
roughing1 #bea      silvered with       
mercury1 #bec      silvering mirror     
plates 7illus471 #beb      ,molecule1   
how big is a1 #cdh      what is a1 #cdh 

,monasteries1 where gunpowder was       
manufactured1 #dd      ,money1 how      
originated1 #dee      metallic forms of1
 #def      who made the first cent1 #deh
      who originated1 #dee      why do  
we need1 #dee      why gold and silver  
are best for coining1 #deg      ,monitor
 and ,merrimac1 fight of1 #cb           
,monks1 making gunpowder1 #dd           
,monoplane1 flying boat 7illus471 #ace  
,german 7illus471 #acb      over        
,mediterranean 7illus471 #acb           
,moon1 why it travels with us1 #cii     
the man in the1 #djj      ,morse1 ,s4   
,b41 inventor of telegraph1 #dbj        
,mortars 7illus471 #bf      ,mothers and
 ,fathers1 do plants have1 #age         
,moths1 attracted by light1 #bhh        
emerging from cocoon 7illus471 #aag     
,motion bodies1 swiftest1 #be           
,motion1 is train harder to stop than   
start8 #bbc      of light1 #adj      of 
sound1 #adj      perpetual1 #fa         
perpetual1 in mechanics1 #bdj           
,motors1 gas1 used in aeroplanes1 #acj  

,mountains1 what made them1 #dja        
,moving pictures1 ,board of ,censors1   
#cgc      developing room 7illus471 #cgb
      drying room 7illus471 #cgc        
continuous movement of film1 #cgf       
exact size of film1 #cgj      first     
camera1 #cge      first exhibited at    
studio1 #cgb      how made1 #cfi        
how freak pictures are made1 #cgf       
negative1 stock1 #cgj      negative1    
perforated1 #cgj      8,pigs is ,pigs0  
7illus471 #cgd      rehearsing 7illus471
 #cga      scenario 7illus471 #cgd      
staging1 #cga      taking a 7illus471   
#cgc      ,mulberry trees1 food for silk
 worms 7illus471 #aab      ,mules and   
drivers 7illus471 #beh      ,multiple   
switchboard of telephone1 #fi           
,music1 harp1 #dgi      lyre1 #dgi      
note1 what it is1 #dij      what pitch  
is1 #dhi      what is1 #dgh             
,musical talking machines1 #dij         
,muzzle1 of a big gun1 #ec              
,muzzle-loaders1 in ,civil ,war1 #dg    
,nails1 why they get hot when hammered1 

#bcj      ,names1 of people1 #bj        
,nature1 protecting eyes1 ways of1 #ch  
,navigating on bottom of sea1 #bhc      
,negative in photography1 #bc           
,nerves1 sensory1 receive impression1   
#ic      transmitting impression1 #bb   
,news1 how did the word originate8 #cab 
,nightmare1 cause of1 #cfg              
,nitrogen1 what it is1 #cej      ,ocean1
 why is it blue8 #bai      what makes it
 green8 #bai      why don't water sink  
in8 #bai      where did all the water   
in1 come from8 #bah      where is water 
at low tide1 #bai      ,of what use is  
my hair8 #adc      ,of what use are     
pains and aches8 #daj      ,oil baths1  
for gun 7illus471 #eg      ,oil cake1   
from linseed1 #bbh      ,oil1 palm      
olive1 in soap1 #daa      ,omniscope1 of
 submarine boat1 #bga      ,onions1 make
 tears1 #ch      bad effect of on eyes1 
#ch      ,operatives1 in powder factory1
 girls as1 #di      ,optical            
instruments1 based on refraction1 #ch   
,organic matter1 what it is1 #agd       

,origin of cement1 #ie      of counting 
in tens1 #ai      names of people1 #bj  
of nodding to indicate yes1 #ai      of 
shaking head to indicate no1 #ai      of
 turnpike1 #ajd      ,oxide of zinc     
smelter 7illus471 #bbg      how         
obtained1 #bbf      ,oxygen1 what it is1
 #cdi      in air1 #cg      ,pain1 of   
what use is1 #daj      what it is1 #bdd 
,paint1 care of1 story in1 #bbd      how
 mixed1 #bbh      uses of1 #bbd         
what used for1 #bbd      ,paint         
manufacturing1 colors1 what makes       
different1 #bbi      buckles before     
corrosion 7illus471 #bbe      buckles   
after corrosion 7illus471 #bbe          
buckles placed in stacks 7illus471 #bbe 
buckles taken from stacks 7illus471 #bbe
      first step in making 7illus471    
#bbd      lead buckles making 7illus471 
#bbd      lead1 white1 how made1        
#bbd-bbe      lead white used in1 #bbd  
grinding lead in oil 7illus471 #bbh     
washing the lead 7illus471 #bbf         
mixing1 #bbh      where paints are mixed

 7illus471 #bbh      linseed oil1 where 
obtained1 #bbg      pressing oil from   
flaxseed 7illus471 #bbh      removing   
oil cake from press1 #bbh      sulphur  
roasting furnace 7illus471 #bbf         
zinc smelter 7illus471 #bbg      oxide  
of zinc1 how made1 #bbf      ,paper1    
earliest forms of1 #ad      sensitive in
 photography1 #bc      shells1          
inspection of 7illus71 #di      papyrus1
 the first1 #ad      ,papyrus1 invention
 of1 #ad      ,patents1 of original     
telephone1 #gc      ,peat1 as a fuel1   
#bfb      ,pen1 first metallic 7illus471
 #ae      first steel 7illus471 #ae     
first metallic pen1 how made1 #ae       
how it writes1 #ah      invention of    
the1 #ae      ,pencils1 8lead0 where    
from1 #dff      eraser is put on1 #dfi  
making description of 7illus471 #dfg    
who made the first8 #dff                
,periscope1 description of1 #bge        
how we look through a 7illus471 #bgf    
mirror of1 #bge      ,perpetual motion1 
nearest approach to1 #bdj      is it    

possible8 #fa      ,persian rug1 antique
 7illus471 #afg      how made1 #afg     
imitation 7illus471 #afg      ,kurdistan
 7illus471 #afg      where best are     
made1 #afg      ,photographs1 of        
projectiles1 #be      ,photography1     
resultant from experiments with mirror1 
#bb      ,piano1 pitch1 #dhi            
finishing 7illus471 #dhd      why not   
more than seven octaves1 #dhj           
,dulcimer 7illus471 #dgi      spinet    
7illus471 #dhj-dha      note what it is1
 #dij      sounding board1 #dhh         
tuning1 7illus471 #dhd      building    
case around 7illus471 #dhc      how the 
music gets into the1 #dhb               
clavichord 7illus471 #dhj               
instruments1 musical1 #dhh      strings1
 fastening on 7illus471 #dhb            
psaltery1 #dhj      sound box1 the      
first1 #dgi      who made the first1    
#dgh      hammers 7illus471 #dhc        
action regulation 7illus471 #dhd        
virginal 7illus471 #dhj-dha      first  
7illus471 #dgh      tuning fork1 #dhh   

polishing 7illus471 #dhd      sounding  
board1 putting on the 7illus471 #dhb    
how discovered1 #dgi      lyre1 #dgi    
octave1 #dhj      harpsichord 7illus471 
#dhj-dha      ,pickers1 boy1 slate      
7illus471 #bei      ,pictures1 with a   
fast camera1 #ci      moving1 how made1 
#cfi      size of moving film1 #cgj     
never seen by the human eye1 #ca        
taken in one five-thousandth of a       
second1 #ca      ,pin money1 why they   
call it8 #bca      how name originated1 
#bca      ,pistols1 invented in         
,pistola1 ,italy1 #df      ,plants1     
corn1 why it has silk8 #agf      do     
father and mother plants live together1 
#agf      how they eat1 #eaa      how   
they reproduce1 #age      why do flowers
 have smells8 #agf      why they produce
 leaves1 #age      ,plate glass1        
7illus471 #bdf      ,portland ,cement1  
why called1 #ie      ,powder1 filling   
shells1 #ej      gun-cotton in          
smokeless1 #ce      secret of smokeless 
powder1 #ce      smokeless1 #ce      in 

submarine mines1 amount of1 #cd         
,pressure1 generated in bore of a big   
gun1 #ed      inside of a gun at        
discharge1 #cc      in gun-barrel1      
resistance of1 #cd      of light1 on    
scales1 #cg      ,primer1 invented by1  
#dg      ,prof4 ,bell's vibrating reed  
7illus471 #ga      ,projectiles1        
photographs of1 #be      arrival at     
target1 #bd      clear of smoke-zone    
7illus471 #cj      smoke-zone1 emerging 
from 7illus471 #bi      height in air   
from mortar1 #cj      impact of1 from   
guns1 #bh      leaving gun muzzle       
7illus471 #bg      travel faster than   
sound1 #cb      velocity of1 #cc        
viewed in transit1 #cc      weight of1  
#ec      ,proving grounds1 for big guns1
 7illus471 #ec      ,pyro1 used in      
developing1 #bc      ,quarry1 cement    
7illus471 #if      ,quill the1 in       
writing 7illus471 #ad      ,quills1     
raising geese for1 #ad      ,rails1     
steel making1 blast furnace 7illus471   
#bcd      blooming mill 7illus471 #bcg  

crane1 carrying ingot1 7illus471 #bcf   
length of1 #bch      mixer 7illus471    
#bcd      molten steel1 pouring         
7illus471 #bcf      open hearth furnace 
7illus471 #bce      pouring side of open
 hearth furnace1 #bce      shrinkage of1
 #bch      soaking pit 7illus471 #bcf   
temperature in furnace1 #bce      ,rain1
 where it goes1 #bbb      why it        
freshens the air1 #bbb      ,rainbow1   
cause of1 #bec      colors in1 what     
makes8 #bed      ends of1 #bed          
,rays1 change their course1 #ch         
heat from light1 #cf      of light1 #cf 
,roentgen1 #cjg      ,rays-,x1 what are 
they8 #cjg      ,reason1 is there one   
for everything8 #bjj      ,reed1 the    
7illus471 #ab      ,reflection1 in      
mirror1 #bb1 #ia      ,refraction1      
changing light rays called1 #ch      of 
light1 #ch      ,reproduction1 of life1 
in birds1 #agi      in fishes1 #agg     
in plants1 #age      why we must have1  
#agd      ,rifle1 ,kentucky1 #de        
kick of1 #dg      modern automatic1 #dg 

over-loading1 #dg      wheel-lock       
7illus471 #df      ,rifling1 causes     
rotation of projectile1 #cb      a big  
gun 7illus471 #fj      of a gun1 #ec    
invented in ,austria1 #df      ,roads1  
concrete 7illus471 #ajc      ,roentgen  
,rays1 #cjg      ,rope1 breaker         
7illus471 #cfj      compound laying     
machine 7illus471 #cfa                  
cross-section1 #cfb      draw frame     
7illus471 #cfj      drying fiber1 #ced  
,egyptian kitchen 7illus471 #ced        
,egyptians making 7illus471 #cec        
preparing the fiber in 7illus471 #cei   
four-strand 7illus471 #cfb              
hackling1 #ced      hemp 7illus471 #cef 
hemp in warehouse 7illus471 #cef        
knots1 #cfc      lengths1 standard1 #cfb
      oiling in manufacture1 #cef       
long made by hand1 #ced      machine    
7illus471 #ceh      opening bales of    
fiber 7illus471 #cei      preparation   
room 7illus471 #cei      scraping fiber 
7illus471 #ced      sliver formation of 
7illus471 #cfj      spindles1 #cee      

spinning after turn1 #cee      ,rope    
spinning1 after turn1 #cee              
foreturn1 #cee      splicing 7illus471  
#cfd      spreader 7illus471 #cfj       
stakes1 #cee      ,rope walk1 modern    
7illus471 #ceg-ceh      old-fashioned   
7illus471 #cee      ,routine1 of a      
telephone call 7illus471 #fh            
,rubber1 automobile tires1 #chb         
biscuit1 #cgg      blisters1 #cgi       
blow holes1 #cgi      breaker-strip1    
#chd      calendering1 #cha             
castilloa1 #chg      cement1 #cha       
crude1 #cgg-cgh      curing room1       
#chb-chc      dryer1 #cgi      fabric1  
#chd      furnishing pneumatic tires    
7illus471 #chf      gathering 7illus471 
#cgg      how secured1 #cgg      how are
 inner tubes made1 #che      marketing  
balls of1 #cgg      mixing1 #cgi        
,para1 #chg      pneumatic tires1 #chc  
pure1 why not used1 #chj      spreading1
 #cha      spreader room 7illus471 #chc 
tapping 7illus471 #cgg      tire        
building machines 7illus471 #che        

tires1 how made1 #cgh-cgi-chj      tread
 laying room1 #chd      tubes1 inner1   
how made1 #che      vulcanizing1 #chd   
washing1 #cgh      wild1 what is1 #chg  
why not used pure1 #chj      wrapping   
room1 #chf      ,rugs1 designs imitated 
by machinery1 #afh      ,persian        
7illus471 #afg      ,persian1 how made1 
#afg      ,persian1 imitation1 #afg     
,persian ,kurdistan 7illus471 #afg      
,persian1 where best are made1 #afg     
,tabriz1 reproduction 7illus471 #afh    
weaving by machine 7illus471 #aga       
,rug manufacturing1 carding machine     
7illus471 #agj      examining and       
repairing 7illus471 #agc      packing   
for shipment 7illus471 #agc             
processes1 #afi-agj      weaving by     
machinery 7illus471 #aga      wool      
sorting1 #agj      ,sadness1 cause of   
tears1 #ch      ,salt1 beds1 #dic       
chemical name of1 #dic      in water1   
#cea      mines1 #dic      ,salt ,lake1 
#dic      soda1 #dic      supply for    
,united ,states1 #dic      wells1 #dic  

where it comes from1 #dic      ,scales1 
pressure of light on1 #cg      ,school  
slates1 where they come from1 #die      
,score1 origin of1 #bf      ,scouring1  
wool 7illus471 #he      ,scouring and   
weaving1 in making woolen cloth         
7illus471 #hh      ,screens1 in shot    
tower1 #ea      ,sea1 diver1 #bjb       
how men go down to the bottom of1 #bjb  
navigating on bottom of1 #bhc      time 
calculated on the1 #cae      what the   
bottom looks like1 #bjb      what makes 
it roar1 #dja      ,second1 reckoning in
 millionths of a1 #be      pictures     
taken in one five-thousandth of a1 #ca  
,seeds1 why plants produce1 #age        
,seeing1 why we cannot see in dark1 #ia 
,sensation1 of sight1 #bb               
,sensitive1 paper1 #bc      ,service1   
military1 ,u4 ,s41 #bd      ,shadows1   
cause of1 #die      ,shell1 sounds in a1
 #gi      ,shells1 filling with powder1 
#ej      inspection of metallic         
7illus471 #di      putting metal heads  
on paper1 #ej      wad-paper in making1 

#ej      ,sheep1 coming out of forest   
7illus471 #hb      first in ,america1   
#hj      fleece packing1 #hb      how   
much wool does a sheep produce8 #hc     
how wool is taken from the1 #hb      how
 taken care of1 #hb      how we get wool
 off of1 #hb      industry in ,america1 
#hj      industry in the colonies1 #ha  
industry in the west1 #ha      number in
 the west1 #ha      shearing1 #hb       
shearing machines1 #hb                  
wool-producing1 #hc      why sheep      
precede the plow in civilizing a        
country1 #ha      ,shield driving1 air  
lock bulkhead 7illus471 #baj            
caulking the joints 7illus471 #bad      
description of airlocks1 #bac           
erector at work 7illus471 #bad          
erector 7illus471 #baj      at end of   
journey 7illus471 #baf      grommetting 
the bolts 7illus471 #bad      grouting  
7illus471 #bad      how it cuts in      
tunnel building1 #bab      how they meet
 exactly 7illus471 #bae      in tunnel  
building 7illus471 #bjh      key plate  

7illus471 #bad      curves around       
7illus471 #baf      models of ,penna4   
,r4,r4 tunnel shields 7illus471 #bab    
rear end in tunnel building 7illus471   
#baj      tunnels1 front view 7illus471 
#bji      ,ship1 how does a captain     
steer his1 #djg      how can it sail    
under water8 #bfi      ,shoes1 ,amazeen 
skiving machine1 #eej      assembling   
machine 7illus471 #eeb      automatic   
heel loading and attaching      machine 
7illus471 #efj      automatic leveling  
machine 7illus471 #eei      automatic   
sewing machine1 #eee      ,american     
made1 #edg      ancient and modern forms
 of sandals1 7illus471 #edc      ancient
 sandal maker 7illus471 #eda            
beginning of a shoe 7illus471 #edi      
boot developed from the sandal1 #edd    
boots 7illus471 #edf      channel       
cementing machine 7illus471 #eeh        
channel laying machine 7illus471 #eei   
channel opening machine 7illus471 #eeh  
,crakrow or peaked 7illus471 #edd       
which church and law forbade 7illus471  

#edd      description of ancient sandal 
7illus471 #edb      dyeing out machine1 
#eea      different parts come together1
 #eea      duplex eyeletting machine1   
#eej      edge trimming machine         
7illus471 #efj      ,ensign lacing      
machine1 #eea      evolution cf the     
sandal to the shoe 7illus471 #edb       
first machine for making shoes1 #ede    
hand method lasting machine 7illus471   
#eec      heel breasting machine        
7illus471 #efj      heel trimming       
machine 7illus471 #efj      ideal       
clicking machine1 #eej      ,inseam     
trimming machine 7illus471 #eef         
insole tacking1 #eea      lasting       
machine 7illus471 #eec      loose       
nailing machine 7illus471 #eei          
success of ,mc,kay machine1 #edg        
machine that forms and drives tacks1    
#eed      machines which punch the soles
 of1 #eei      my lady's slippers       
7illus471 #edh      placing shank and   
filling bottom1 #eef      planet        
rounding machine1 #eea      power tip   

press1 #eej      pulling over machine   
7illus471 #eeb      putting the ground  
cork and rubber cement in1 #eef         
rolling machine1 #eea      rounding and 
channelling machine 7illus471 #eeg      
sewing the sole on1 #eeh      slugging  
machine 7illus471 #efj      sole laying 
machine 7illus471 #eeg      ,summit     
splitting machine1 #eea      upper      
stapling machine 7illus471 #eed         
upper trimming machine 7illus471 #eed   
welt and turned shoe machine 7illus471  
#eee      welt beating and washing      
machine1 #eef      welt sewing machine1 
#eea      what was the first foot       
covering like8 #eda      8whipping the  
cat10 #ede      who made the first shoe 
in ,america8 #ede      work performed by
 heeling machine 7illus471 #efj         
,shooting tests 7illus471 #dh           
,shotguns1 assembling of1 7illus471 #dh 
,shot pellets1 #ea      ,shrinking1 pit 
for big gun1 #ei      ,shuttle1 ,in     
weaving wool1 #hf      ,siberian lambs1 
in ,south ,dakota 7illus471 #hj         

,signs1 talking by1 #ah      ,silica1   
mine 7illus471 #bdg      ,silk1 #aji    
called 8bomby-kia10 #aaj      caring for
 young worms1 #aac      culture1 #aaj   
drying skeins of1 #aai      dyeing1 #aba
      first step in manufacture1 #aai   
first used1 #aji      hatching eggs1    
#aac      introduction of into ,europe  
7illus471 #aaj      number of cocoons in
 pound of1 #aag      manufacture of1    
#aai      method of reeling1 #aac       
moths depositing eggs 7illus471 #aab    
preparing cocooning beds1 #aab          
reeling silk from cocoon 7illus471 #aah 
spinning 7illus471 #abj      thread made
 uniform 7illus471 #abj      threads    
ready for the weaver1 #aba      twisting
 7illus471 #abj      use of1 #aji       
water-stretcher 7illus471 #aba          
winding 7illus471 #aai      ,silk       
manufacture1 doubling frames1 #abj      
spinning1 #abj      twisting1 #abj      
,silk moth1 description of #aad         
,silkworm1 age1 #aae      first breeder 
of1 #aji      chrysalis 7illus471 #aad  

cocoon1 #aae      cocoon1 beginning of  
7illus471 #aaf      cocooning bed       
7illus471 #aab      description of1 #aad
      domestication of1 #aaa      eating
 7illus471 #aae      female moth        
7illus471 #aad      how cared for1 #aac 
how it eats1 #aae      home of1 #aab    
eggs1 how imported1 #aaa      hatching  
the eggs 7illus471 #aac      how he does
 his work1 #aad      larv of1 7illus471 
#aad      motions of head in spinning1  
#aae      molting season1 #aae          
moths emerging from cocoon 7illus471    
#aag      male moth 7illus471 #aad      
mulberry branches for 7illus471 #aab    
one of the world's greatest wonders1    
#aaf      preparing for making cocoon   
7illus471 #aaf      reared1 how they    
7illus471 #aae      shedding old skin1  
#aae      spinneret of the1 #aae        
spinning cocoon1 #aae      wild1 #aji   
,silver1 definition of1 #bjg      use1  
history of1 #bjg      why does it       
tarnish1 #bff      ,silver bromide1 in  
photography1 #bc      ,skins1 used for  

clothing1 #hj      ,sky1 will it ever   
fall8 #bee      why is it blue8 #bec    
,soap1 lye in1 #daa      palm olive oil 
in1 #daa      what made of1 #daa        
,soda1 ,leblanc process1 #did           
,solvay process1 #did      where we get1
 #did      ,solids1 definition1 #cdh    
,some wonders of the human body1 #caa   
,sound1 deadening of1 #gi      first    
over a wire1 #ga      how measured1 #bdb
      how produced1 #dhe      speed of1 
#adj-dhf      travels through air       
slowly1 #ca      in a sea shell1 #gi    
what is1 #gh-dhe      waves1 #gi        
waves1 length of1 #dhg      where comes 
from1 #gh      ,slate pencil1 why cannot
 write on paper with1 #ah      ,sleep1  
where are we when1 #cfe      with eyes  
open1 why we cannot1 #ib      ghosts1   
#cfg      why heart beats during1 #aia  
why we go to1 #cfe      restless1 #ib   
,sling1 man in action 7illus471 #da     
how first made1 #da      ,slings1 and   
their drawbacks1 #db      ,slow match1  
of early firearms1 #de      ,smells1 why

 do flowers have1 #agf      ,smoke-cone1
 in gun-firing 7illus471 #bh            
,smokeless powder1 #ce                  
,smoke-rings1 hard as steel1 #bg        
,smoke signals1 of ,indians1 #dab       
,smoke-zone1 in gun firing1 #aaa        
,sneezing1 what makes us1 #aid      why 
do we1 #aid      ,snowflakes1 what makes
 them white8 #dji      ,space1 extends1 
how far1 #bef      ,sparkle1 when merry1
 why eyes1 #ib      ,spear1 as a weapon1
 #db      ,specific gravity1 meaning of1
 #bfh      ,speed1 of light1 #cf        
,spinneret1 of the silkworm1 #aae       
,spinning wheel1 in making cloth from   
wool1 #ha      ,sponge1 capillary       
attraction of1 #ah      ,sponges1       
breeding time of1 #bhf      how do they 
grow8 #bhf      how they eat1 #bhg      
how they are caught1 #bhg      where    
they come from8 #bhf      ,stable1      
underground 7illus471 #aeh      ,stars1 
counted in photograph1 #bbc      do they
 shoot down8 #bee      how counted1 #bda
      how many there are1 #bbc          

photographed1 #bbc      what makes them 
twinkle1 #ch      ,steamship1 beginning 
of 7illus471 #ccg      cross-section1   
#cdf      building of a 7illus471 #ccg  
cradle of a1 #cch      double bottom1   
#cci      end to end section1 #cdf-cdg  
funnel 7illus471 #cde      gantry       
7illus471 #cch      hull 7illus471 #cda 
hull before launching 7illus471 #cdj    
inside of 7illus471 #cdf-cdg            
launching of a 7illus471 #cdj           
launching machinery 7illus471 #cda      
ready to launch 7illus471 #cdj          
plates 7illus471 #cci      ribs         
7illus471 #cch      skeleton 7illus471  
#cci      turbine1 weight of1 #cdd      
turbine 7illus471 #cdd      ,steel pen1 
how made1 #af      ,steel rail making1  
blast furnace 7illus471 #bcd            
,blooming mill and engine 7illus471 #bcg
      dump buggy1 #bcg      crane1      
carrying ingot 7illus471 #bcf           
ingot1 #bcg      ingot becomes a rail   
7illus471 #bch      mixer 7illus471 #bcd
      molten steel being poured into    

ladle 7illus471 #bcf      open-hearth   
furnace 7illus471 #bce      furnace1    
pouring sides of an open hearth         
7illus471 #bce      iron1 purification  
of1 #bce      soaking pit 7illus471 #bcf
      furnace1 temperature in1 #bce     
,stick1 why it bends in water1 #ch      
making a fire with1 #db      ,stockings1
 where it goes when the hole comes1 #fd 
,stone-throwing1 #da      ,stones1 where
 they come from1 #did      ,story in an 
automobile1 #aha      in a loaf of      
bread1 #dfj      in a book1 #efa      in
 a building foundation1 #dif      in a  
cablegram1 #dbh      in a barrel of     
cement1 #ie      in a stick of          
chocolate1 #chh      in a suit of       
clothes1 #hj      in a lump of coal1    
#beg      in a bale of cotton1 #dgj     
of a cup and saucer1 #djd      of the   
deep sea diver1 #bjc      in an electric
 light1 #cje      in an elevator1 #cie  
in a finger print1 #ebj      in a flying
 machine1 #abf      in a gas jet1 #cjc  
in a gun1 #dj      in a honey bee1 #ebf 

in a magnet 7illus471 #cbf      in a    
lead pencil1 #dff      in lighting a    
fire1 #bhi      in a lock1 #dia      in 
a can of paint1 #bbd      in a pen1 #aa 
in a piano1 #dgh      in a photograph1  
#bb      in 8,pigs is ,pigs0 7illus471  
#cgd      in a pipe and cigar1 #eab     
in a railroad engine1 #ddj      in a    
coil of rope1 #cec      in a ball of    
rubber 7illus471 #cgh      in a rug1    
#afg      in a pair of shoes1 #eda      
in a steel rail 7illus471 #bcd      in a
 submarine boat 7illus471 #bfi      in a
 lump of sugar1 #ade      in a telegram1
 #dab      in the telephone1 #fe      in
 a time piece1 #cac      in a tunnel1   
#bjh      in a drink of water1 #eja     
in a window pane1 #bdf      in the      
wireless1 #dee      in a yard of silk1  
#aji      in a piece of leather1 #ech   
,stringed instruments1 the first1 #dhj  
discovery of1 #dgi      ,stretching1 why
 do we1 #aib      what happens when we1 
#aic      ,stylus1 iron1 #ac      the in
 writing 7illus471 #aa      ,submarine1 

accidents and their causes1 #bgh        
air and how it may become poisonous1    
#bgh      buoyancy of1 #bgj             
8,bushnell's ,turtle10 #bhj      cargo1 
recovering of1 #bhe      clearing a     
channel of buoyant mines 7illus471 #bhc 
development of1 #bhj-bha      divers'   
compartment1 #bgj      equilibrium1 #bgj
      explosions1 #bgh      first       
practical 7illus471 #bga      gas1      
explosion of1 #bgh      8,g-#a0         
7illus471 #bgb      ,holland1 #bhb      
how we look through a periscope         
7illus471 #bgf      hydroplanes on1 #bgj
      hydroplane1 #bhb      ice1 under  
7illus471 #bgi      inside of a         
7illus471 #bgb      lens1 of periscope  
7illus471 #bgf      living quarters     
7illus471 #bhe      mice on1 #bgh       
mine planting inside of 7illus471 #bgg  
,omniscope1 #bga      one of the first  
practical1 #bga      8,proctor10 first  
practical1 #bga      8,proctor0         
submerged 7illus471 #bga      periscope 
top of 7illus471 #bgf      rudder1      

horizontal1 #bgj      sailing close to  
surface 7illus471 #bgc      seeing in   
all directions at once1 #bgf      ,simon
 ,lake1 ,american inventor of1 #bhb     
steadiness of 7illus471 #bgc      under 
the ice 7illus471 #bgi      submergence1
 #bgj      water pressure on1 #bgj      
who made the first1 #bhj      ,submarine
 boat1 8,argonaut the ,first0 7illus471 
#bfi-bhb      8,argonaut ,junior0       
7illus471 #bfi-bhb      who made the    
first1 #bhj      ,submarine mines1      
amount of powder used1 #cd      ,sugar1 
carbonatation station 7illus471 #aej    
chemical laboratory in factory 7illus471
 #adi      circular diffusion battery in
 factory 7illus47 #adi      filter      
presses 7illus471 #aej      how taken   
from beets1 #aej      sulphur station   
7illus471 #aej      washing the beets1  
#adi      ,sugar factory1 carbonatation 
station 7illus471 #aej      chemical    
laboratory in 7illus471 #adi            
circular diffusion battery 7illus471    
#adi      filter presses 7illus471 #aej 

sulphur station 7illus471 #aej          
,suit1 cost of wool in a1 #hc           
,sulphite of soda1 used in developing1  
#bc      ,sun1 distance from earth1 #ada
      revolving on its axis1 #eaa       
,sun-dial 7illus471 #cae      in        
determining noon 7illus471 #caf         
concrete 7illus471 #aja      ,sunlight1 
effect on balance1 #cg      ,sunset1    
cause of colors in1 #bec                
,swallowing1 what happens when we1 #aie 
,swimming1 why man must learn1 #abe     
,switchboard1 telephone1 #fi      back  
of a1 telephone 7illus471 #fi           
telephone1 the first 7illus471 #gd      
,talking1 how man learned talking1 #ah  
signs and gestures1 #ah      ,talking   
machines1 #dij      ,target1 floating1  
#ca      ,never seen by men firing      
mortar1 #bi      projectile1 arrival at1
 #bd      ,tears1 caused by onions1 #ch 
as an eye-wash1 #ch      run along      
channel1 #ch      where they come from1 
#id      where they go1 #id      ,teeth1
 why they are called wisdom1 #abe       

why they chatter1 #bah      ,telegram1  
how it gets there1 #dad      story in a1
 #dab      ,telegraph1 cables 7illus471 
#dbd      code1 #dai      calling a     
messenger1 #dad      waiting calls      
7illus471 #dad      arrival at          
destination 7illus471 #dag      duplex1 
#dag      electric1 #dbj      electric1 
first suggestion of1 #dbj      inventor 
of1 #dbj      two men inventors of1 #dba
      instruments1 #dbe                 
instruments1 first sending 7illus471    
#dbf      instrument1 sending1 #dah     
key1 modern 7illus471 #dbg      key1 a  
later1 #dbg      key1 sending 7illus471 
#dah      line1 first1 #dbb             
messenger receives message 7illus471    
#dae      messages1 number sent in a    
day1 #dag      multiplex1 #dag          
operating room 7illus471 #dbc      the  
pony 7illus471 #dac      quadruple1 #dag
      ,wheatstone1 receiver 7illus471   
#dbe      ,wheatstone sender 7illus471  
#dbe      receiving operator 7illus471  
#daf      relay1 the first 7illus471    

#dbf      relay1 modern 7illus471 #dbg  
recording apparatus first 7illus471 #dbf
      recording instrument improved1    
7illus471 #dbg      repeater room       
7illus471 #dbd      sending operator    
7illus471 #daf      sounder1 modern     
7illus471 #dbg      main switchboard    
7illus471 #dbc      automatic typewriter
 7illus471 #dbe      ,telephone1        
apparatus1 #fe      birthplace of       
7illus471 #gj      cost of number in use
 7illus471 #gg      display board       
7illus471 #fe      discovery of1 #ga    
feeding cable into duct 7illus471 #gf   
first outdoor demonstration1 #ge        
how an emperor saved the1 #gc           
forces behind your1 #gg      modern     
distributing frame 7illus471 #ge        
line1 the first1 #gb      line lamp1 #ff
      pilot lamp1 #ff      from bottom  
of ocean1 #bjc      operator1 #fg       
breaking up the asphalt pavement        
7illus471 #gf      a cable trouble      
7illus471 #gf      call routine of      
7illus471 #fh      beginning of service1

 #ge      the first switchboard1 #gb    
laying multiple duct subway 7illus471   
#gf      first practical commercial test
 of telephone1 #ge      how wires are   
put underground 7illus471 #gf      nine 
million in use1 #ge      the first words
 over1 #gd      ,tens1 counting in1 #ai 
,test1 of big gun 7illus471 #ec         
,testing1 materials and products in gun 
factory 7illus471 #ej      artillery    
instruments1 #bd      ,tests1 shooting  
7illus471 #dh      ,things1 to know     
about a big gun1 #ec      ,throats1     
making sounds with our1 #gh             
,thread1 silk1 made uniform 7illus471   
#abj      ,thunder1 why it precedes     
lighting1 #adj      does it sour milk8  
#aif      ,tickled1 why we laugh when1  
#ic      ,tides1 where does water go at1
 low1 #bai      ,time1 age of clocks1   
#cia      blacksmith's clock 7illus471  
#cbj      first modern clock1 #cai      
hour-glass 7illus471 #cag      time-boy 
of ,india 7illus471 #cag      where the 
day changes1 #cbe      where is the hour

 changed8 #cbe      clock in            
,independence ,hall 7illus471 #cbc      
clock in ,new ,york ,city ,hall         
7illus471 #cbc      largest clock in the
 world1 #cba      machinery which runs a
 big clock 7illus471 #cbb      how man  
measured1 #cad      modern clock1       
description of 7illus471 #cai           
primitive twelve-hour clock1 #cah       
water clocks for1 #cag      water-clock 
7illus471 #cah      man's first         
divisions of1 #cad      what it is1 #cac
      three great steps in measuring1   
#caf      first methods of telling      
7illus471 #cac      in ,new ,testament1 
#cad      sun-dial 7illus471 #cae       
sun-dial in determining noon1 #caf      
calculated at sea1 #cae      tower of   
the winds 7illus471 #cah      how told  
when sun casts no shadows1 #cag         
,tin1 why used for cooking utensils1    
#bfg      ,tobacco1 barn1 #eae          
growing crop1 care of1 #ead      growing
 under cheesecloth 7illus471 #eab       
grown in ,cuba1 #eac      cultivation   

of1 #eaf      curing of1 #eae           
cigars1 how made1 #eag      how         
discovered1 #eab      field 7illus471   
#eae      figures about1 #eai           
filler1 #eah      fertilization1 #ead   
where it comes from1 #eab      shade    
growing1 #eag      where does it grow1  
#eab      harvesting1 #eae      ,havana1
 where grown1 #eac      origin of name1 
#eab      planting1 #ead      seed beds1
 #ead      first care in selection1 #eah
      strippers1 #eah      bulk         
sweating1 #eaf      wrappers1 #eah      
butter worm1 #ead      ,toes1 why we    
have ten1 #adb      ,toothache1 what    
good can come from8 #daj      cause of1 
#daj      ,torches1 used in battles1 #dd
      ,tow-line1 of floating target1 #ca
      ,trains1 why harder to stop than  
start1 #bbc      ,transparent1 why some 
things are1 #cej      ,trees1 found in  
coal1 #bfa      ,tube1 of a gun1 #ed    
,tunnels1 accidents in1 #bah      causes
 of accidents1 #bah      accuracy of    
engineering1 #bae      airlocks1        

description of1 #bac      operation of  
airlocks1 #bac      compressed air      
method1 #baa      the bends1 #bac       
bends1 the danger of1 #bac      bends1  
the symptoms of1 #bac      dangers in   
building1 #bah      grommetting the     
bolts1 7illus471 #bad      borings in   
ground 7illus471 #baf      airlock      
bulkhead 7illus471 #baj      how built1 
#bji      driving shield rear end of in 
tunnel building 7illus471 #baj          
caissons in ,hudson tunnels 7illus471   
#bag      curves1 how made 7illus471    
#baf      how shield cuts through1 #bab 
how dug under water1 #bjh      erector  
7illus471 #baj      erector at work     
7illus471 #bad      grouting 7illus471  
#bad      inventor of shield method1    
#bji      inventor of compressed air    
method1 #baa      caulking the joints   
7illus471 #bad      making joints water 
tight1 #bad      at end of journey      
7illus471 #baf      land end of ,hudson 
tunnels 7illus471 #bag      danger of   
leaks1 #bac      result of leaks        

7illus471 #bac      concrete lining     
7illus471 #baf      key plate 7illus471 
#bad      diagrams of driving shield    
7illus471 #bjh      biggest ever built  
by shield method1 #bji      rear end of 
driving shield 7illus471 #baj           
driving shield front view 7illus471 #bji
      how the shields meet exactly      
7illus471 #bae      models of ,penna    
,,rr4 tunnel shield 7illus471 #bab      
,turbine1 how it works 7illus471 #cdd   
,twinkle1 what makes stars1 #ch         
,twinkling stars1 due to interference1  
#ch      ,types of cartridges 7illus471 
#di      ,umbrella1 who made the first1 
#cab      who carried the first1 #cab   
,uncle ,sam1 how name originated1 #deh  
,undercutting with compressed air       
machine 7illus471 #bfa      ,vault of   
telephone cables 7illus471 #fg          
,velocity of a projectile1 #ec          
,waking1 why we wake up1 #cfe           
,walking1 difficult to1 straight with   
eyes closed1 #ia      why cannot babies 
walk as soon as born1 #ahj      ,wall1  

sounds through a thick1 #gi      ,water1
 aqueduct 7illus471 #eje      ,ashokan  
,reservoir 7illus471 #ejb               
boiling-point of1 #ce-bbj      drinking1
 where does it come from1 #eja          
hard1 #bba      how is a big dam built1 
#ejb      ,hudson ,river siphon         
7illus471 #ejg      in ocean where it   
came from1 #bah      pumping station    
7illus471 #ejc      real source of the  
7illus471 #ejf      regulating chamber  
7illus471 #ejf      reservoir1 #ejc     
soft1 #bba      as standard in measuring
 specific gravity      solids1 #bfh     
what made of1 #cdh      what makes it   
boil1 #bbj      what makes water shoot  
in air1 #aih      what hard is1 #bba    
what soft is1 #bba      why don't water 
in ocean sink in1 #bai      why does it 
run1 #bai      why it puts fire out1    
#bbb      why runs off a duck's back1   
#bcc      why sea water is salty1 #cea  
,watson1 ,thomas ,a41 7illus471 #gj     
,wave1 of light changed into heat1 #cf  
,waves1 of sound1 #gi      ,weight1 of  

light1 #cg      of projectiles1 #ec     
,what does the air weigh8 #cih          
animal can leap the greatest distance8  
#abb      causes an arrow to fly8 #djh  
makes some people bald8 #adc      keeps 
a balloon up8 #aii      makes a ball    
stop bouncing1 #fc      are ball        
bearings8 #ahj      happens when a bee  
stings8 #ecg      makes the hills look  
blue sometimes8 #bee      makes me      
blush8 #aid      was the origin and     
meaning of bread8 #dfj      is the      
hottest spot on earth8 #bci      holds a
 building up8 #dif      makes a bubble  
explode1 #ajh      is carbonic acid8    
#eji      is a cable made of8 #dbi      
is the eye of the camera8 #bb      do   
ocean cables look like when cut in two8 
7illus471 #dbh      do we mean by       
#ah-;carat fine8 #bff      is clay8 #die
      is color8 #abc      produces the  
colors we see8 #abc      makes the      
colors in the rainbow8 #bed      makes  
the colors of the sunset8 #bec      are 
cocoa shells8 #cij      is cement8 #ie  

is cement used for8 #ie      a cement   
mill looks like 7illus471 #if      is   
cement made of8 #ie      is cement used 
for1 #ie      is concrete8 #ie          
makes some things in the same room      
colder than others8 #add      does      
woolen cloth come from8 #hj      was the
 cross-bow8 #dd      are diamonds made  
of8 #cea      causes dimples8 #ceb      
makes us dream8 #cff      were man's    
first divisions of time8 #cad      makes
 things whirl around when ,i am dizzy8  
#djb      is dust8 #ajd      becomes of 
the dust8 #ajd      are drone bees good 
for8 #eca      is meant by deadening a  
floor or a wall8 #gi      causes        
earache8 #daj      makes an echo8 #bjj  
are the principal parts of an elevator8 
#cif      causes the explosion in a gas 
engine8 7illus471 #ahb      happens when
 anything explodes8 #bje      is an     
element8 #cdi      makes the hollow     
place in a boiled egg8 #agi      is     
electricity8 #cbi      is an electric   
current8 #ccd      makes an electric    

magnet lift things8 #cbf      do we mean
 by ,fahrenheit8 #bba      makes a fish 
move in swimming8 #bcc      is fog8 #aje
      makes the water from a fountain   
shoot into the air8 #aih      makes     
freckles come8 #abe      makes a        
gasoline engine go8 #aha      is        
gravitation8 #bfg      does specific    
gravity mean8 #bfh      makes a cold    
glass crack if we put hot water in it8  
#fc      are ghosts8 #cfg      causes   
the gurgle when ,i pour water from a    
bottle8 #fc      causes hail8 #abd      
is the horizon8 #bdd      causes a hot  
box8 #cfh      good are the lines on the
 palms of our hands8 #djb      does     
horse-power mean8 #bef      is hydrogen 
gas8 #cdi      makes us feel hungry8    
#bdc      makes knots in boards8 #bbc   
were the earliest lamps8 #bie      were 
the lamps of the wise and foolish       
maidens8 #bie      happens when we      
laugh8 #ic      makes us laugh when     
glad8 #ib      is a leyden jar8 #ccb    
is a lodestone8 #cbg      makes lobsters

 turn red8 #bde      makes the lump come
 in my throat when ,i cry8 #aie         
makes a match light when we strike it8  
#aih      would we do without matches8  
#bib      is a metal8 #bfe      is the  
most valuable metal8 #bfe      is the   
milky way8 #bee      is a molecule8 #cdh
      is money8 #dee      is motion8 #fa
      made the mountains8 #dja      is  
music8 #dgh      does a note in music   
consist of8 #dij      is organic matter8
 #agd      is oxygen8 #cdi      is      
nitrogen8 #cej      makes nitroglycerin 
explode so readily8 #bjf      causes    
nightmare8 #cfg      is pain and why    
does it hurt8 #bdd      makes the       
different colors in paint8 #bbi      is 
pitch in music8 #dhi      is the        
principle of the wireless8 #dee         
makes some pencils hard and others soft8
 #dfg      makes rays of light8 #bcj    
makes us red in the face8 #aib          
makes the rings in the water when ,i    
throw      a stone into it8 #aig      is
 rubber8 #chf      is wild rubber8 #chg 

should ,i do if stung by a bee8 #ecg    
is the cause of shadows8 #die      makes
 the sea roar8 #dja      does the bottom
 of the sea look like8 #bbj      becomes
 of the smoke8 #ajf      and why is     
smoke8 #aje      causes the smoke when a
 gun goes off8 #bjf      is smokeless   
powder made of8 #bjf      makes         
snowflakes white8 #dji      depth of    
snow is equivalent to an inch of rain8  
#bda      is soap made of8 #daa         
makes a soap bubble8 #ajh      shot     
tower looks like8 #ea      makes us     
sneeze8 #aid      is silver8 #bjg       
happens when we stretch8 #aic      makes
 me want to stretch8 #aib      happens  
when ,i swallow8 #aie      is sound8    
#dhe      are the properties of sound8  
#dhf      are the sounds we hear in a   
sea shell8 #gi      makes the sounds    
like waves in a sea shell8 #gi      does
 a sounding board do8 #dhh      is meant
 by the length of sound waves8 #dhg     
makes us thirsty8 #bdc      makes me    
tired8 #djc      a great steamship looks

 like inside 7illus471 #cdf      did the
 first telephone look like8 7illus471   
#gb      occurs when we think8 #aid     
are the big tanks near the gas works    
for8 #bih      makes the stars twinkle8 
#ch      a ship's turbine looks like    
7illus471 #cdd      is the largest tree 
in the world8 #bdb      happens when we 
telephone8 #fe      makes water boil8   
#bbj      is the boiling-point of water8
 #bbj      causes a whispering gallery8 
#bja      makes a wireless message go8  
#dee      makes the works of a watch go8
 #cfh      makes the white caps on the  
waves white8 #daj      is worry8 #bjg   
causes the wind's whistle8 #aci         
makes the kettle whistle8 #aih          
causes wrinkles8 #aif      are ,x-rays8 
#cjg      is yeast8 #bhh      ,when did 
man first try to fly8 #abf      did man 
begin to live8 #agd      were candles   
introduced8 #bif      was illuminating  
gas discovered8 #cjb      was wheat     
first used in making bread8 #dfa      ,i
 throw a ball into the air1 while       

walking why does it follow me8      #dja
      was silk culture introduced in    
,america8 #aaa      were street lamps   
first used8 #bie      ,where does bread 
come from8 #dfj      does water in the  
ocean go at low tide8 #bai      does    
silk come from8 #aji      are we when   
asleep8 #cfe      did the name calico   
come from8 #abc      cement is obtained 
7illus471 #ig      does chalk come from8
 #ah      does chocolate come from8 #chh
      our coal comes from8 #beg         
does cotton come from8 #dgj      does   
the day begin8 #cbd      does the day   
change8 #cbe      did the term ,dixie   
originate8 #abc      does honey come    
from8 #ebf      is the horizon8 #bdd    
does the hour change8 #cbe      the gas 
is taken from the coal 7illus471 #bii   
did all the names of people come from8  
#bj      did the expression 8kick the   
bucket0 originate8 #cba      does       
leather come from8 #ech      do living  
things come from8 #agd      did life    
begin on earth8 #agd      do we get     

ivory8 #bci      do lead pencils come   
from8 #dff      does the wooden part of 
a lead pencil come from8 #dfi      does 
a light go when it goes out8 #cf        
does linseed oil come from8 #bbg        
does paint come from8 #bbd      does the
 rain go8 #bbb      are the best        
,persian rugs made8 #afg      does rope 
come from8 #cec      does salt come     
from8 #dic      do we get soda8 #did    
do all the little round stones come     
from8 #did      does the part of a      
stocking go that was where the hole     
comes8 #fd      does sound come from8   
#gh      do school slates come from8    
#die      do shoes come from8 #eda      
do sponges come from8 #bhf      do tears
 come from8 #id      do the tears go8   
#id      did the name tobacco originate8
 #eab      is ,havana tobacco grown8    
#eac      does tobacco come from8 #eab  
does tobacco grow8 #eab      did all the
 water in the ocean come from8 #bah     
does our drinking water come from8 #eja 
does most of our wool come from8 #ha    

does the wind begin8 #aci      is the   
wind when it is not blowing8 #aci       
does wool come from8 #hj      did the   
term ,yankee originate8 #bdc            
,wheat1 bread loaves of the world1 #dei 
grinding 7illus471 #dfd      harvesting 
7illus471 #dfj      scouring of1 #dfc   
tempering of1 #dfc      when first used 
in making bread1 #dfa      will it grow 
wild8 #dfa      ,wheel-lock rifle       
7illus471 #df      ,whispering gallery1 
accidental1 #bja      cause of1 #bja    
what it is1 #bja      ,whistle1 what    
makes the kettle8 #aih      ,white      
,lead1 making 7illus471 #bbe            
buckles1 before corrosion 7illus471 #bbe
      buckles after corrosion 7illus471 
#bbe      buckles1 making1 #bbe         
,who started to make clothing from wool 
in ,america8 #ha      discovered        
electricity8 #ccc      invented electric
 telegraph8 #dbj      made the first    
felt hat8 #bci      made the first cent8
 #deh      made the first submarine     
boat8 #bhj      first discovered the    

silkworm8 #aji      first discovered the
 power of gunpowder8 #dd      invented  
flying8 #abf      made the first piano8 
#dgh      brought the first sheep to    
,america8 #hj      first wove silk      
thread into cloth8 #aji      make the   
first shoes8 #eda      made the first   
umbrella8 #cab      ,why don't the air  
ever get used up8 #adj      can't we see
 air8 #adj      do we grow aged8 #aif   
does an apple turn brown when cut8 #ajf 
do coats have buttons on the sleeves8   
#fd      has a long coat buttons on the 
back8 #fd      cannot babies walk as    
soon as born8 #ahj      are some people 
bald8 #add      don't the birds stay    
,south8 #djh      does a ball bounce8   
#fc      does a balloon go up8 #aii     
do we call voting balloting8 #abb       
does a barber pole have stripes8 #caj   
do some things bend and others break8   
#fb      do the birds come back in the  
,spring8 #djg      do birds sing8 #djh  
do birds go ,south in the ,winter8 #djg 
are birds' eggs of different colors8    

#bcc      has a bee a sting8 #ccf       
can you blow out a candle8 #ba1 #cf     
are bubbles round8 #ajh      does red   
make a bull angry8 #dij      do we get a
 bump instead of a dent when we knock   
our heads8 #bja      can't we burn      
stones8 #aje      has a long coat       
buttons8 #fd      is bread so important8
 #dfj      do ,i get out of breath when 
running8 #aia      do we call a cab a   
hansom8 #abb      does a hen cackle     
after laying an egg8 #bcc      do       
children like candy8 #dji      is cement
 called ,portland cement8 #ie      do ,i
 get cold in a warm room8 #abe      is  
it cold in winter8 #ada      does cold  
make our hands blue8 #aib      does an  
ear of corn have silk8 #agj      do we  
count in tens8 #aj      we cannot see in
 the dark1 #ia      does the dark cause 
fear8 #ceb      do we have to die8 #bde 
does a dog turn round and round before  
he lies down1 #bbi      do we know we   
have dreamed when we wake up8 #cfg      
does eating candy make some people fat8 

#dji      doesn't an elevator fall8 #cig
      do our eyes sparkle when we are   
merry8 #ib      do the eyes of some     
pictures follow us8 #ce      is it      
difficult to walk straight with my eyes 
closed8 #ia      do ,i get red in the   
face8 #aib      are some faculties      
stronger than others8 #djc      is a    
fire hot8 #dja      does a fire go out8 
#cg      we fear the dark8 #ceb         
cannot fishes live in air8 #bcb      do 
we have finger nails8 #adb      are our 
fingers of different lengths8 #adb      
have we five fingers on each hand and   
five toes on each foot8 #adb      do we 
have finger nails8 #adb      does a     
gasoline engine go8 #aha      do girls  
like dolls8 #cfh      is gold called    
precious8 #bff      are gold and silver 
best for coining8 #deg      is some     
gun-powder fine and others coarse       
grained8 #bjf      are some guns called 
gatling guns8 #caj      does a glow-worm
 glow8 #bca      do we stop growing8    
#aie      do we have hair8 #adc         

does the hair grow after the body stops 
growing8 #add      don't my hair hurt   
when it is being cut8 #adc      does my 
hair stand on end when ,i am frightened8
 #adc      is the right hand stronger   
than the left8 #cji      does my heart  
beat faster when ,i am scared8 #aia     
does the heart beat when the brain is   
asleep8 #aia      do our hearts beat    
faster when we are running8 #aia      do
 they call it a honeymoon8 #ca      is a
 horseshoe said to bring good luck8 #caa
      does it hurt when ,i cut my       
finger8 #adc      we cry when hurt1 #ic 
does iron turn red when red hot8 #ajg   
does iron sink in water8 #ajf           
doesn't an iron ship sink8 #ajf      do 
we have twelve men on a jury8 #bci      
does a lamp give a better light with the
 chimney on8 #cg      are there many    
languages8 #aig      do we laugh when   
glad8 #ib      is lead so heavy8 #bfg   
do they call them lead pencils8 #dff    
must life be reproduced8 #agd      are  
some people light and others dark8 #djb 

did people of long ago live longer than 
we do now8 #aii      do we use metal for
 coining8 #def      do they call it the 
milky way8 #bee      do we need money8  
#dee      does the moon travel with us  
when we walk or ride8 #cii      should  
we not sleep with the moon shining on   
us8 #cff      do my muscles get sore    
when ,i play ball in the spring8 #caj   
does a nail get hot when hammered8 #bcj 
do we have only seven octaves on a      
piano8 #dhj      does the ocean look    
blue at times8 #bai      does oiling the
 axle make the wheel turn more easily8  
#djj      does an onion make the tears  
come8 #ch      can't ,i write on paper  
with a slate pencil8 #ah      does a    
pencil write8 #ah      are some races   
white and others black1 yellow and      
brown8 #ecg      do they call it pin    
money8 #bca      do we call them        
pistols8 #df      do plants produce     
seeds8 #age      does a poker get hot at
 both ends if left in the fire8 #ajg    
does rain make the air fresh8 #bbb      

are most people right-handed8 #djc      
don't we make roads perfectly level8    
#ajd      don't we use pure rubber8 #chj
      does salt make us thirsty8 #cea   
don't the scenery appear to move when ,i
 am in a street car8 #cii      does the 
scenery appear to move when we are      
riding in a train8 #cii      can cats   
and some other animals see in the dark8 
#ia      can we see farther when we are 
up high8 #bde      do ,i turn white when
 scared8 #aic      does silver tarnish8 
#bff      does the sheep precede the    
plow in civilizing a country8 #ha       
is the sky blue8 #bec      do ,i sneeze8
 #aid      do we see stars when hit on  
eye8 #bfh      many stars are there8    
#bbc      does a stick in water bend8   
#ch      does a sound stop when we touch
 a gong that has been sounded8 #gh      
can we make sounds with our throats8 #gh
      do people shake with the right    
hand8 #bca      do we go to sleep8 #cfe 
does it seem when we have slept all     
night that we have been asleep      only

 a minute8 #cff      can't we sleep with
 our eye open8 #ib      we can hear     
through speaking tubes1 #dhg      does a
 human being have to learn to swim8 #abe
      are cooking utensils made of tin8 
#bfg      do we use copper telegraph    
wires8 #bff      do my teeth chatter8   
#bah      are some things transparent   
and others are not8 #cej      do ,i     
laugh when tickled8 #ic      can we     
think of only one thing at a time8 #aic 
does thunder always come after the      
lightning8 #adj      do we call them    
wisdom teeth8 #abe      are some roads  
called turnpikes8 #ajd      is the sea  
water salt8 #cea      will water run off
 a duck's back8 #bcc      do we worry8  
#bjg      don't the water in the ocean  
sink in8 #bai      is it warm in summer8
 #ada      does water run8 #bai      do 
we say water is soft or hard8 #bba      
does a piece of wood float in water8    
#ajf      do we wake up in the morning8 
#cfe      do ,i yawn8 #agc      does    
yeast make bread rise8 #bhh      ,will  

people all be bald sometime8 #add       
the sky ever fall down8 #bee            
,windows1 how an explosion breaks them1 
#fb      ,wireless1 accidents1          
prevention of1 #ddi      aerial on ,r4  
,r4 stations 7illus471 #dea      aerial 
on ship 7illus471 #dee      antenn1 #ddg
      antenn on trains 7illus471 #dej   
battery1 #ddg      coil1 #ddg           
compass1 #ded      development of1 #ded 
direction finder1 #ded      distance of 
sending1 #ddh      equipment1 #ddf      
first ,marconi station1 #deb      how it
 reaches ships at sea1 #ddf             
icebergs 7illus471 #ddi      in the army
 7illus471 #ddg-ddh      inventor of1   
#deb      key1 #ddg      masts1 height  
of1 #ddh      ,g4 ,marconi1 portrait1   
#deb      on trains 7illus471 #dej      
prevents accidents1 #ddi      principles
 of1 #dee      receiving station in ,u4 
,s4 ,army 7illus471 #dea      spark gap1
 #ddg      stations1 shore 7illus471    
#ddf      stations on trains 7illus471  
#dej      transmission automatic        

7illus471 #dec      transmission of     
messages 7illus471 #dec      what kind  
of signs are used in8 #ddf      why     
don't the message go to the wrong       
stations1 #dee      world-wide use1 #ded
      ,wires1 copper telegraph1 #bff    
how put underground 7illus471 #gf       
wire-wound gun1 #ed      ,wonders       
performed by electric lift magnet       
7illus471 #cbf      ,wool beaming       
7illus471 #hi      bobbin in weaving    
machine1 #hf      ,burling 7illus471 #hh
      burr picker1 #hg      carding1 #he
      carding1 finisher in cloth making 
7illus471 #hi      chloride of aluminum 
in making cloth1 #hg      cleaning1 #he 
made clothing from1 #ha      combing    
7illus471 #hf      cost of in a suit of 
clothes1 #hc      crop of the ,united   
,states1 #hb      dyeing1 #he-hg        
fabrics1 #he      fiber description1 #hc
      finishing1 box 7illus471 #hg      
finish1 perching 7illus471 #ij          
fulling cloth 7illus471 #ij      gilling
 after carding 7illus471 #hf            

gilling and making top after combing    
7illus471 #hf      gilling 7illus471 #hg
      greasy matter in1 #hd      how we 
get it off the sheep1 #hb      how much 
does a sheep produce1 #hc      how much 
does ,america produce1 #hb      how made
 into cloth1 #he      how woolen cloth  
is made perfect1 #hh      how shipped1  
#hb      loom1 #hf      mending1        
perching 7illus471 #hh      mending room
 7illus471 #hh      woolen mule spinning
 7illus471 #hi      napping1 #hi        
next to food as a vital necessity1 #ha  
piece dyeing 7illus471 #ij      quality 
of a hundred years ago1 #hc      raised 
to sell to manufacturers1 #ha           
reducer machine in wool making 7illus471
 #hg      ring twisting 7illus471 #hi   
shipped to manufacturers1 #hb           
shuttle in weaving1 #hf      scouring   
7illus471 #he      sorting 7illus471 #hd
      spinning process1 #hf             
spinning1 #hi      ,english cap         
spinning1 #hi      in one suit of       
clothes1 #hc      sulphuric acid        

solution in making cloth1 #hg           
teasel1 #hi      tramper1 #hb      in   
,united ,states1 bulk of1 #hb      warp 
thread1 #hf      web1 #hf      weaving  
7illus471 #hh      where does most of   
our wool come from8 #ha      woof of1   
#hf      made into yarn1 #hf      yarn  
inspecting 7illus471 #hi      yolk of1  
#hd      ,woolen cloth1 ready for market
 7illus471 #ij      ,woolens and        
worsteds1 difference between1 #hd       
,woolworth building 7illus471 #cie      
,words1 formation of1 #ai      the first
 over a telephone1 #gd      ,world's    
bread loaves 7illus471 #dei      ,worry1
 definition of1 #bjg      what it is1   
#bjg      ,why we1 #bjg      ,worsted   
carding 7illus471 #he      fabrics1 #he 
,worsteds and woolens1 difference of1   
#hd      ,wright ,brothers1 first       
successful flights1 #acj      ,wrinkles1
 what causes1 #aif      ,writing1 brush1
 the 7illus471 #ac      earliest ways   
of1 #ab      first done upon rocks1 #aa 
first imitation of1 #ab      first      

metallic pen introduced1 #ae      fluids
 for developing1 #ac      how man       
learned to1 #aa      how the monks did  
their1 #ad      how a pen writes1 #ah   
modern way of1 #af      paper for1      
earliest1 #ad      pen1 invention of1   
#aa      pen1 first steel 7illus471 #ae 
quill1 the 7illus471 #ad      ,reed1    
the1 in 7illus471 #ab      steel tube   
pen in 7illus471 #ae      steel pen1    
modern 7illus471 #af      ,stylus1 the  
7illus471 #aa      with chalk1 #ah      
why a pencil writes1 #ah      ,x-rays1  
what are they8 #cjg      ,yankee1 where 
word originated1 #bdc      ,yarn1 made  
from wool1 #hf      ,yawning1 why do1   
#agc      is it infectious1 #aib        
,yeast1 what it is1 #bhh      why it    
makes bread rise1 #bhh      ,yes1       
meaning of nod1 #ai      ,zollner1      
,casper1 inventor of rifling1 #df       
,transcriber's ,notes        ,the       
language used in this ebook is that of  
the source document1    including       
unusual or archaic spelling4 ,the book  

was partly written    by representatives
 of the industries concerned2           
inconsistencies in    grammar1 spelling1
 punctuation 7including the use of      
decimal points    and commas71 style1   
lay-out1 etc4 have been retained4       
,contradictions    and repetitions have 
not been addressed4 ,alphabetical       
sorting    inconsistencies in the index 
have not been corrected4      ,page     
#bah1 444 and have them meet as shown in
 ,fig4 #ac 4443 ,the    illustrations in
 this chapter are not numbered4 ,the    
illustration on    page #bae shows the  
described meeting of the shields4       
,page #cje1 444 7as shown in ,fig4 #d73 
the illustrations with this    article  
are not numbered4      ,page #cjg1 ,the 
,x-rays are discharged in straight lines
 as shown in the    figure3 there is no 
such figure in the book4      ,pages    
#cbh and #ccj3 page headings ,,what ,a  
,,lodestone ,,is and ,,what             
,,electricity ,,is do not relate to the 
contents of the pages4      ,page #ccf1 

,the pictures shown on the following    
pages 4443 as printed2    the           
illustrations are given on previous     
pages4      ,page #cfd1 reference to    
figure #f3 presumably the four          
illustrations on    this page together  
form figure #f4      ,page #cfh1 ,when  
you put oil on the axle1 however1 4443  
some text may    be missing4      ,page 
#cgf1 444 or three-sixty-fourths of a   
second1 and3 as printed in    the source
 document2 some text is obviously       
missing4      ,page #dhi1 444 of much   
importance4 ,the two classes1 only two  
of which    are of much importance4 ,the
 two classes 4443 the redundant text is 
as    printed in the source document4   
,page #dia3 ,there is no ,fig4 #d in the
 source document2 the unnumbered        
figure in the bottom right of the page  
is assumed to be ,fig4 #d4      ,page   
#ejb1 captions with bottom illustration3
 at least one of the    lengths given   
7#dfej and #defj feet7 is likely to be a
 typographical    error4      ,page     

#edg1 7,the welt shoe has always been   
considered 4443 the closing    bracket  
is lacking4        ,changes made3       
,some minor obvious punctuation and     
typographical errors and                
unnecessarily repeated words have been  
corrected silently4      ,illustrations 
have been moved out of text paragraphs4 
,page    headers have been transcribed  
as illustration captions 7on top    of  
illustrations7 or as side notes at a    
suitable location on the    page        
concerned1 so that their reference in   
the index is 7at least    approximately7
 correct4      ,text that was not       
present as such in the source document  
but that    was transcribed from within 
illustrations is given as part of the   
illustration caption4      ,page #bi3   
444 never see the distance target or    
vessel 444 changed to    444 never see  
the distant target or vessel 4444       
,page #df3 ,lock  l ,miquelet changed to
 ,lock  la ,miquelet4      ,pages       
#gd-ge3 closing double quotes inserted  

after 444 went that very    night42 444 
had to look after it themselves42 444   
speech had really    been electrically  
reproduced4 ,opening double quotes      
inserted before    ,now1 it so happened 
there1 4442 ,my friend1 ,mr4 ,william   
,hubbard1 4444      ,page #aad3 444 the 
white mulberry or osage orange are fed  
the young    worms 444 changed to 444   
the white mulberry or osage orange are  
fed    the young worm 4444      ,page   
#abd3 444 called an ablate spheroid 444 
changed to 444 called an    oblate      
spheroid 4444      ,page #abf3 ,dr4     
,samuel ,pierrpont ,langley changed to  
,dr4 ,samuel ,pierpont    ,langley4     
,page #afg3 444 against the loose row of
 cross threads to lighten it    444     
changed to 444 against the loose row of 
cross threads to tighten    it 4444     
,page #bje3 444 than the heat will cause
 the air to expand suddenly 444         
changed to 444 that the heat will cause 
the air to expand suddenly    4442 444 a
 mixture of potassium1 nitrate1 or      

saltpeter1 with powdered    charcoal and
 phur 444 changed to 444 a mixture of   
potassium nitrate1    or saltpeter1 with
 powdered charcoal and sulphur 4444     
,page #bbi3 444 other machines called   
,mills10 444 changed to 444 other       
machines called 8,mills10 44442 444     
which also adds in the drying and    the
 working 444 changed to 444 which also  
aids in the drying and the    working   
4444      ,page #bfe3 444 there is      
another1 solium1 which is solid 444     
changed to    444 there is another1     
sodium1 which is solid 4442 444 what is 
called    a reverbratory furnace 444    
changed to what is called a             
reverberatory    furnace 4444      ,page
 #bib3 ,,promothean ,,match changed to  
,,promethean ,,match4      ,page #cge3  
,this toy we speak of was called a      
zoctrope changed to ,this    toy we     
speak of was called a zoetrope4         
,page #cgf3 444 projected at the rate of
 fourteen or sixteen to the    minute   
444 changed to 444 projected at the rate

 of fourteen or    sixteen to the second
 4444      ,page #cgg3 ,footnote anchor 
#d inserted4      ,page #dad ff43       
,ellipses 74447 have been added         
surrounding the    continuing page      
headings and illustration captions4     
,pages #dai and #dch1 ,morse codes3 for 
the sake of clarity1 the spacing        
between individual dashes and dots has  
been increased slightly4      ,page     
#dij3 444 if a red flag really makes a  
bull more exited 444    changed to 444  
if a red flag really makes a bull more  
excited 4444      ,page #dic3 ,the      
chemical name for salt is sodium which  
is derived 444    changed to ,the       
chemical name for salt is sodium        
chloride which is    derived 4442 444   
substances around us are composed of    
these elements    along1 or 444 changed 
to 444 substances around us are composed
 of    these elements alone1 or 4444    
,page #eej3 444 for which the lingings  
were intended4 ,after all the           
lingings have been prepared 444 changed 

to 444 for which the linings    were    
intended4 ,after all the linings have   
been prepared 4444      ,index3 several 
missing punctuation marks inserted for  
consistency4      ,page #ehc3 ,curtis   
biplane changed to ,curtiss biplane4    
,page #ehe3 ,burline 7illus47 changed to
 ,burling 7illus47      ,page #ehf3     
,culverines1 early type of changed to   
,culverins1 early type    of4      ,page
 #ehg3 steal and flint changed to steel 
and flint4      ,page #ehh3 ,flying     
boot1 interior arrangement changed to   
,flying boat1    interior arrangement4  
,page #ehi3 7,how7 the pictures in this 
both are made changed to 7,how7    the  
pictures in this book are made4         
,page #eij3 7,how7 did shaking the head 
come to come no8 changed to    7,how7   
did shaking the head come to mean no82  
7,how7 does does the wool    in a suit  
of clothes cost8 changed to 7,how7 much 
does the wool in a    suit of clothes   
cost82 ,hurt1 why we cry changed to     
,hurt1 why we cry    when1 #ic4         

,page #eia3 the 8,reverbere0 changed to 
the 8,rverbre02 7,lamp7 from            
,nashagak hanging changed to 7,lamp7    
from ,nushagak hanging4      ,page #eib3
 promothean changed to promethean4      
,page #eic3 ,kurdestan 7illus47 changed 
to ,kurdistan 7illus474      ,page #eie3
 ,crakron or peaked changed to ,crakrow 
or peaked4      ,page #eig3 omniscope   
changed to ,omniscope2 cucular diffusion
 battery    in factory changed to       
circular diffusion battery in factory4  
,page #fja3 7,who7 who make the first   
felt hat8 changed to 7,who7 made    the 
first felt hat82 7,why7 don't an        
elevator fall8 changed to 7,why7        
doesn't an elevator fall8      ,page    
#fjc3 7,writing7 pen invention of1 #jj  
changed to 7,writing7 pen1    invention 
of1 #aa4