,transcriber's ,note3 ,italics are enclosed in underscores4 ,additional notes will be found near the end of this ebook4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,utopias ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,utopias ,,ideal ,,commonwealths ,,and ,,social ,,myths ,,by ,,lewis ,,mumford ,with an ,introduction by ,,hendrik ,,willem ,,van ,,loon 8,a ,map of the ,world that does not include ,utopia is not worth even glancing at44440 ,,george ,g4 ,,harrap ,,co4 ,,ltd4 ,,london ,,calcutta ,,sydney ,published #aibc by ,,george ,g4 ,,harrap ,,co4 ,,ltd4 #ci-da ,parker ,street1 ,kingsway1 ,london1 ,w4,c4#b ,,acknowledgments ,the first outline of this book dates back ten years2 and since then ,i have woven it and rewoven it in my mind4 ,the actual work of composition was started by a suggestion from ,mr4 ,van ,wyck ,brooks2 and without ,mr4 ,brooks' encouragement ,i should perhaps never have begun or carried through the task4 ,the general background of ideas has been heavily colored by my contacts with ,professor ,patrick ,geddes1 through his books and by correspondence2 and ,i owe a debt to him ,i have not always been able to acknowledge in direct reference or in quotation marks4 ,i take the opportunity here to express the hearty gratitude which might otherwise have been conveyed in the more archaic form of a dedication4 ,in the revision of the ,,ms4 ,i have been blessed with the generous advice and criticism of a number of friends2 in particular1 ,mr4 ,clarence ,britten1 ,mr4 ,herbert ,feis1 ,mr4 ,geroid ,robinson1 and ,miss ,sophia ,wittenberg1 each of whom performed a unique service4 ,to ,messrs4 ,victor ,branford and ,alexander ,farquharson of the ,sociological ,society of ,great ,britain ,i am indebted for many pertinent suggestions4 ,my thanks are also due to the editors of ,the ,freeman for permission to use extracts from two articles3 ,towards a ,humanist ,synthesis and ,beauty and the ,picturesque4 ,finally1 ,mr4 ,hendrik van ,loon's friendly interest calls for a departing beam of gratitude4 ,,lewis ,,mumford4 ,new ,york ,city4 ,,contents ,introduction by ,hendrik ,willem van ,loon1 ,ph4,d4 ,,chapter ,,one ,how the will-to-utopia causes men to live in two worlds1 and how1 therefore1 we re-read the ,story of ,utopia--the other half of the ,story of ,mankind4 #i ,,chapter ,,two ,how the ,greeks lived in a ,new ,world1 and utopia seemed just round the corner4 ,how ,plato in the ,republic is chiefly concerned with what will hold the ideal city together4 #bg ,,chapter ,,three ,how something happened to utopia between ,plato and ,sir ,thomas ,more2 and how utopia was discovered again1 along with the ,new ,world4 #eg ,,chapter ,,four ,how the new ,humanism of the ,renascence brings us within sight of ,christianopolis2 and how we have for the first time a glimpse of a modern utopia4 #gi ,,chapter ,,five ,how ,bacon and ,campanella1 who have a great reputation as utopians1 are little better than echoes of the men who went before them4 #aja ,,chapter ,,six ,how something happened in the eighteenth century which made men 8furiously to think10 and how a whole group of utopias sprang out of the upturned soil of industrialism4 #aaa ,,chapter ,,seven ,how some utopians have thought that a good community rested at bottom on the right division and use of land2 and what sort of communities these land-animals projected4 #aca ,,chapter ,,eight ,how tienne ,cabet dreamed of a new ,napoleon called ,icar1 and a new ,france called ,icaria2 and how his utopia1 with that which ,edward ,bellamy shows us in ,looking ,backward1 gives us a hint of what machinery might bring us to if the industrial organization were nationalized4 #adi ,,chapter ,,nine ,how ,william ,morris and ,w4 ,h4 ,hudson renew the classic tradition of utopias2 and how1 finally1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells sums up and clarifies the utopias of the past1 and brings them into contact with the world of the present4 #aga ,,chapter ,,ten ,how the ,country ,house and ,coketown became the utopias of the modern age2 and how they made the world over in their image4 #aia ,,chapter ,,eleven ,how we reckon up accounts with the one-sided utopias of the partisans4 #bce ,,chapter ,,twelve ,how the half-worlds must go1 and how eutopia may come2 and what we need before we can build ,jerusalem in any green and pleasant land4 #bfe ,,bibliography #cji ,,introduction ,illustration ,it is a sunny day and ,i am sitting on the top of a mountain4 ,until this morning1 it had been the mountain of a fairy story that was twenty centuries old4 ,now1 it is a mighty hill and ,i can feel its warm coat of white reindeer-moss1 and if ,i were willing to stretch out my hand1 ,i could pluck the red berries that are in full bloom4 ,a hundred years from now it will be gone4 ,for it is really a large chunk of pure iron1 dumped by a playful ,providence in the very heart of ,lapland4 ,do you remember an old tale of ,norse mythology8 ,how somewhere1 far in the north1 there stood a high peak of iron1 which was a hundred miles high and a hundred miles wide8 ,and how a little bird came to it once every thousand years to sharpen its beak8 ,and how1 when the mountain was gone1 a single second of all eternity would have passed by8 ,i heard it told as a child4 ,i remembered it always1 and ,i told it to my own boys when they began to learn history4 ,it seemed the invention of some prehistoric ,hans ,christian ,andersen4 ,it belonged to the imaginary scenery of our dreams4 ,the story has come true1 and ,i have found my old mountain where ,i least expected it4 ,to make the cycle of coincidence perfect1 this hill was named after a bird4 ,the ,lapp1 with a fine sense of sound1 called the ptarmigan 8,kiru40 ,kirunavaara no longer hears the shrill 8kiru-kiru0 of rising birds4 ,twice a day it listens to the terrific detonation of half a hundred charges of dynamite4 ,then it is shaken by the little trains which carry the rock to the valley4 ,in the evening1 it sees the lights of the large electric engines which hoist the valuable metal across the arctic wilderness of ,lake ,tornotrask4 ,two months later1 the ore has been melted and worked into those modern articles of trade which go by the name of bridges and automobiles and ships and apartment houses and a thousand other things which once promised to elevate man from the ranks of the beasts of burden4 ,what has become of that promise1 the survivors of the last eight years know with great if gruesome accuracy4 ,even the humble ,lapp has heard of the great upheaval1 and has asked why the white people should kill each other when the whole world was full of reindeer and when ,god has given us the hills and the plains so that forever there should be food enough for the long days of summer and the longer nights of the endless winter4 ,illustration ,but the ways of the ,lapp are not the ways of the white man4 ,these simple followers of a pure and much undiluted nature follow the even tenor of their ways as their ancestors did1 five and ten thousand years ago4 ,we1 on the other hand1 have our engines and we have our railroad trains and we have our factories and we cannot get rid of these iron servants without destroying the very basis of our civilization4 ,we may hate these ungainly companions1 but we need them4 ,in time to come1 we shall know how to be their masters4 ,then ,plato shall give us a revised ,republic where all the houses are heated by steam and where all the dishes are washed by electricity4 ,we are not suffering from too much machinery1 but from too little4 ,for let there be enough iron servants and more of us shall be able to sit on the tops of mountains and stare into the blue sky and waste valuable hours1 imagining the things that ought to be4 ,the ,old ,testament used to call such people prophets4 ,they raised strange cities of their hearts' delight1 which should be based exclusively upon righteousness and piety4 ,but the greatest of all their prophets the ,jews killed to make a ,roman holiday4 ,the ,greeks knew such wise men as philosophers4 ,they allowed them great freedom and rejoiced in the mathematical precision with which their intellectual leaders mapped out those theoretical roads which were to lead mankind from chaos to an ordered state of society4 ,the ,middle ,ages insisted with narrow persistence upon the ,kingdom of ,heaven as the only possible standard for a decent ,christian ,utopia4 ,they crushed all those who dared to question the positive existence of such a future state of glory and content4 ,they built it of stone and precious metals1 but neglected the spiritual fundament4 ,illustration ,and so it perished4 ,the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries fought many bitter wars to decide the exact nature of a whitewashed ,paradise1 erected upon the crumbling ruins of the medival church4 ,the eighteenth century saw the ,promised ,land lying just across the terrible bulwark of stupidity and superstition1 which a thousand years of clerical selfishness had erected for its own protection and safety4 ,there followed a mighty battle to crush the infamy of ignorance and bring about an era of well-balanced reason4 ,unfortunately1 a few enthusiasts carried the matter a trifle too far4 ,napoleon1 realist-in-chief of all time1 brought the world back to the common ground of solid facts4 ,our own generation drew the logical conclusion of the ,napoleonic premises4 ,behold the map of ,europe and see how well we have wrought4 ,for alas6 this world needs ,utopias as it needs fairy stories4 ,it does not matter so much where we are going1 as long as we are making consciously for some definite goal4 ,and a ,utopia1 however strange or fanciful1 is the only possible beacon upon the uncharted seas of the distant future4 ,illustration ,it encourages us in our efforts4 ,sometimes the light is hidden by the clouds and for a moment we may lose our way4 ,then the faint light once more breaks through the darkness and we press forward with new courage4 ,and when life is dull and meaningless 7the main curse of all existence7 we find consolation in the fact that a hundred years from now1 our children shall reach the shore for which we were bound when we ourselves left the bridge and were lowered to the peaceful bottom of the ocean4 ,illustration ,and now the sun has gone down and a chill wind blows from ,kebnekajse1 where the wild geese of little ,nils ,holgerson live amidst the endless silence of the eternal snow4 ,soon the top shall be hidden in the mist and ,i shall have to find my way back by the noise of the steam shovels1 plying their elephantine trade at the foot of the first terrace4 ,the mountain of my fairy story once more will be the profitable investment of a ,company of ,iron-mongers4 ,but that does not matter4 ,lewis ,mumford1 for whom ,i am writing this1 will understand what ,i mean4 ,and ,i shall be content4 ,illustration3 ,hendrik ,willem van ,loon ,kiruna1 ,lapland1 #ad ,sept41 #aibb4 ,,chapter ,,one ,how the will-to-utopia causes men to live in two worlds1 and how1 therefore1 we re-read the ,story of ,utopias--the other half of the ,story of ,mankind4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,utopias ,,chapter ,,one #a ,utopia has long been another name for the unreal and the impossible4 ,we have set utopia over against the world4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is our utopias that make the world tolerable to us3 the cities and mansions that people dream of are those in which they finally live4 ,the more that men react upon their environment and make it over after a human pattern1 the more continuously do they live in utopia2 but when there is a breach between the world of affairs and the overworld of utopia1 we become conscious of the part that the will-to-utopia has played in our lives1 and we see our utopia as a separate reality4 ,it is the separate reality of utopia that we are going to explore in the course of this book--,utopia as a world by itself1 divided into ideal commonwealths1 with all its communities clustered into proud cities1 aiming bravely at the good life4 ,this discussion of ideal commonwealths gets its form and its color from the time in which it is written4 ,plato's ,republic dates from the period of social disintegration which followed the ,peloponnesian ,war2 and some of its mordant courage is probably derived from the hopelessness of conditions that came under ,plato's eye4 ,it was in the midst of a similar period of disorder and violence that ,sir ,thomas ,more laid the foundations for his imaginary commonwealth3 ,utopia was the bridge by which he sought to span the gap between the old order of the ,middle ,age1 and the new interests and institutions of the ,renascence4 ,in presenting this history and criticism of utopias we are perhaps being pulled by the same interests that led ,plato and ,more onwards1 for it is only after the storm that we dare to look for the rainbow4 ,our fall into a chasm of disillusion has stimulated us to discuss in a more thorough way the ultimate goods1 the basic aims1 the whole conception of the 8good life0 by which1 in modern times1 we have been guided4 ,in the midst of the tepid and half-hearted discussions that continue to arise out of prohibition laws and strikes and 8peace0 conferences let us break in with the injunction to talk about fundamentals--consider ,utopia6 #b ,man walks with his feet on the ground and his head in the air2 and the history of what has happened on earth--the history of cities and armies and of all the things that have had body and form--is only one-half the ,story of ,mankind4 ,in every age1 the external scenery in which the human drama has been framed has remained pretty much the same4 ,there have been fluctuations in climate and changes in terrain2 and at times a great civilization1 like that of the ,mayas in ,central ,america1 has arisen where now only a thick net of jungle remains2 but the hills around ,jerusalem are the hills that ,david saw2 and during the historic period the drowning of a city in the ,netherlands or the rise of a shifting bank of real estate along the coast of ,new ,jersey is little more than the wearing off of the paint or a crack in the plaster4 ,what we call the material world constantly changes1 it goes without saying3 mountains are stript of trees and become wastes1 deserts are plowed with water and become gardens4 ,the main outlines1 however1 hold their own remarkably well2 and we could have travelled better in ,roman days with a modern map than with the best chart ,ptolemy could have offered us4 ,if the world in which men live were the world as it is known to the physical geographer1 we should have a pretty simple time of it4 ,we might follow ,whitman's advice1 and live as the animals1 and stop whining for all time about our sins and imperfections4 ,what makes human history such an uncertain and fascinating story is that man lives in two worlds--the world within and the world without--and the world within men's heads has undergone transformations which have disintegrated material things with the power and rapidity of radium4 ,i shall take the liberty of calling this inner world our idolum 7idolum7 or world of ideas4 ,the word 8ideas0 is not used here precisely in the ordinary sense4 ,i use it rather to stand for what the philosophers would call the subjective world1 what the theologians would perhaps call the spiritual world2 and ,i mean to include in it all the philosophies1 fantasies1 rationalizations1 projections1 images1 and opinions in terms of which people pattern their behavior4 ,this world of ideas1 in the case of scientific truths1 for example1 sometimes has a rough correspondence with what people call the world2 but it is important to note that it has contours of its own which are quite independent of the material environment4 ,now the physical world is a definite1 inescapable thing4 ,its limits are narrow and obvious4 ,on occasion1 if your impulse is sufficiently strong1 you can leave the land for the sea1 or go from a warm climate into a cool one2 but you cannot cut yourself off from the physical environment without terminating your life4 ,for good or ill1 you must breathe air1 eat food1 drink water2 and the penalties for refusing to meet these conditions are inexorable4 ,only a lunatic would refuse to recognize this physical environment2 it is the substratum of our daily lives4 ,but if the physical environment is the earth1 the world of ideas corresponds to the heavens4 ,we sleep under the light of stars that have long since ceased to exist1 and we pattern our behavior by ideas which have no reality as soon as we cease to credit them4 ,whilst it holds together this world of ideas--this idolum--is almost as sound1 almost as real1 almost as inescapable as the bricks of our houses or the asphalt beneath our feet4 ,the 8belief0 that the world was flat was once upon a time more important than the 8fact0 that it was round2 and that belief kept the sailors of the medieval world from wandering out of sight of land as effectively as would a string of gun-boats or floating mines4 ,an idea is a solid fact1 a theory is a solid fact1 a superstition is a solid fact as long as people continue to regulate their actions in terms of the idea1 theory1 or superstition2 and it is none the less solid because it is conveyed as an image or a breath of sound4 #c ,this world of ideas serves many purposes4 ,two of them bear heavily upon our investigation of utopia4 ,on one hand the pseudo-environment or idolum is a substitute for the external world2 it is a sort of house of refuge to which we flee when our contacts with 8hard facts0 become too complicated to carry through or too rough to face4 ,on the other hand1 it is by means of the idolum that the facts of the everyday world are brought together and assorted and sifted1 and a new sort of reality is projected back again upon the external world4 ,one of these functions is escape or compensation2 it seeks an immediate release from the difficulties or frustrations of our lot4 ,the other attempts to provide a condition for our release in the future4 ,the utopias that correspond to these two functions ,i shall call the utopias of escape and the utopias of reconstruction4 ,the first leaves the external world the way it is2 the second seeks to change it so that one may have intercourse with it on one's own terms4 ,in one we build impossible castles in the air2 in the other we consult a surveyor and an architect and a mason and proceed to build a house which meets our essential needs2 as well as houses made of stone and mortar are capable of meeting them4 #d ,why1 however1 should we find it necessary to talk about utopia and the world of ideas at all8 ,why should we not rest secure in the bosom of the material environment1 without flying off into a region apparently beyond space and time8 ,well1 the alternative before us is not whether we shall live in the real world or dream away our time in utopia2 for men are so constituted that only by a deliberate discipline--such as that followed by a ,hindu ascetic or an ,american business man--can one or the other world be abolished from consciousness4 ,the genuine alternative for most of us is that between an aimless utopia of escape and a purposive utopia of reconstruction4 ,one way or the other1 it seems1 in a world so full of frustrations as the 8real0 one1 we must spend a good part of our mental lives in utopia4 ,nevertheless this needs a qualification4 ,it is plain that certain types of people have no need for private utopias and that certain communities seem to be without them4 ,the savages of the ,marquesas whom ,hermann ,melville described seem to have had such a jolly and complete adjustment to their environment that1 except for the raids of hostile tribes--and this turned out to be chiefly sport which only whetted their appetites for the feast that followed--everything needed for a good life at the ,south ,sea level could be obtained by direct attack4 ,the ,marquesans had no need to dream of a happier existence2 they had only to grab it4 ,at times1 during childhood perhaps1 life has the same sort of completeness2 and without doubt there are many mature people who have manufactured out of their limitations a pretty adequate response to a narrow environment2 and have let it go at that4 ,such people feel no need for utopia4 ,as long as they can keep their contacts restricted1 only a deliberate raid from the outside world would create such a need4 ,they are like the sick man in the parable of the ,persian poet1 whose only desire was that he might desire something2 and there is no particular reason to envy them4 ,people who will not venture out into the open sea pay the penalty of never having looked into the bright eyes of danger2 and at best they know but half of life4 ,what such folk might call the good life is simply not good enough4 ,we cannot be satisfied with a segment of existence1 no matter how safely we may be adjusted to it1 when with a little effort we can trace the complete circle4 ,but there have been few regions1 few social orders1 and few people in which the adjustment has not been incomplete4 ,in the face of perpetual difficulties and obstructions--the wind and the weather and the impulses of other men and customs that have long outlived their use--there are three ways1 roughly1 in which a man may react4 ,he may run away4 ,he may try to hold his own4 ,he may attack4 ,looking around at our contemporaries who have survived the war1 it is fairly evident that most of them are in the first stage of panic and despair4 ,in an interesting article on ,the ,dnouement of ,nihilism1 ,mr4 ,edward ,townsend ,booth characterized the generation born in the late eighties as suffering a complete paralysis of will1 or else1 8if any initiative remains to them1 they emigrate to ,europe or the ,south ,sea ,islands1 or crawl off into some quiet corner of the ,united ,states--but most of them continue where they were stricken in a state of living death40 ,speaking more generally1 running away does not always mean a physical escape1 nor does an 8attack0 necessarily mean doing something practical 8on the spot40 ,let us use ,dr4 ,john ,dewey's illustration and suppose that a man is denied intercourse with his friends at a distance4 ,one kind of reaction is for him to 8imagine0 meeting his friends1 and going through1 in fantasy1 a whole ritual of meeting1 repartee1 and discussion4 ,the other kind of reaction1 as ,dr4 ,dewey says1 is to see what conditions must be met in order to cement distant friends1 and then invent the telephone4 ,the so-called extrovert1 the type of man who has no need for utopias1 will satisfy his desire by talking to the nearest human being4 78,he may try to hold his own407 ,but it is fairly plain that the extrovert1 from the very weakness and inconstancy of his aims1 is incapable of contributing anything but 8good nature0 to the good life of the community2 and in his hands both art and invention would probably come to an end4 ,now putting aside the extrovert1 we find that the two remaining types of reaction have expressed themselves in all the historic utopias4 ,it is perhaps well that we should see them first in their normal1 everyday setting1 before we set out to explore the ideal commonwealths of the past4 ,more or less1 we have all had glimpses of the utopia of escape3 it is raised and it collapses and it is built up again almost daily4 ,in the midst of the clanking machinery of a paper factory ,i have come across a moving picture actress's portrait1 stuck upon an inoperative part of the machine2 and it was not hard to reconstruct the private utopia of the wretch who minded the levers1 or to picture the world into which he had fled from the roar and throb and muck of the machinery about him4 ,what man has not had this utopia from the dawn of adolescence onwards--the desire to possess and be possessed by a beautiful woman8 ,perhaps for the great majority of men and women that small1 private ,utopia is the only one for which they feel a perpetual1 warm interest2 and ultimately every other utopia must be translatable to them in some such intimate terms4 ,their conduct would tell us as much if their words did not confess it4 ,they leave their bleak office buildings and their grimy factories1 and night after night they pour into the cinema theater in order that they may live for a while in a land populated by beautiful1 flirtatious women and tender1 lusty men4 ,small wonder that the great and powerful religion founded by ,mahomet puts that utopia in the very foreground of the hereafter6 ,in a sense1 this is the most elementary of utopias2 for1 on the interpretation of the analytical psychologist1 it carries with it the deep longing to return to and remain at rest in the mother's womb--the one perfect environment which all the machinery and legislation of an eager world has never been able to reproduce4 ,in its most elemental state1 this utopia of escape calls for a complete breach with the butcher1 the baker1 the grocer1 and the real1 limited1 imperfect people that flutter around us4 ,in order to make it more perfect1 we eliminate the butcher and baker and transport ourselves to a self-sufficient island in the ,south ,seas4 ,for the most part1 of course1 this is an idle dream1 and if we do not grow out of it1 we must at any rate thrust other conditions into it2 but for a good many of us1 idleness without a dream is the only alternative4 ,out of such fantasies of bliss and perfection1 which do not endure in real life even when they occasionally bloom into existence1 our art and literature have very largely grown4 ,it is hard to conceive of a social order so complete and satisfactory that it would rob us of the necessity of having recourse1 from time to time1 to an imaginary world in which our sufferings could be purged or our delights heightened4 ,even in the great idyll painted by ,william ,morris1 women are fickle and lovers are disappointed2 and when the 8real0 world becomes a little too hard and too sullen to face1 we must take refuge1 if we are to recover our balance1 into another world which responds more perfectly to our deeper interests and desires--the world of literature4 ,once we have weathered the storm1 it is dangerous to remain in the utopia of escape2 for it is an enchanted island1 and to remain there is to lose one's capacity for dealing with things as they are4 ,the girl who has felt ,prince ,charming's caresses too long will be repulsed by the clumsy embraces of the young man who takes her to the theater and wonders how the deuce he is going to pay the rent if they spend more than a week on their honeymoon4 ,moreover1 life is too easy in the utopia of escape1 and too blankly perfect--there is nothing to sharpen your teeth upon4 ,it is not for this that men have gone into the jungle to hunt beasts and have cajoled the grasses and roots to be prolific1 and have defied1 in little open boats1 the terror of the wind and sea4 ,our daily diet must have more roughage in it than these daydreams will give us if we are not to become debilitated4 ,in the course of our journey into utopia we shall remain a little while in these utopias of escape2 but we shall not bide there long4 ,there are plenty of them1 and they dot the waters of our imaginary world as the islands that ,ulysses visited dotted the gean ,sea4 ,these utopias however belong to the department of pure literature1 and in that department they occupy but a minor place4 ,we could dispense with the whole lot of them1 bag and baggage1 in exchange for another ,anna ,karenin or ,the ,brothers ,karamazov4 #e ,the second kind of utopia which we shall encounter is the utopia of reconstruction4 ,the first species represents1 the analytical psychologist would tell us1 a very primitive kind of thinking1 in which we follow the direction of our desires without taking into account any of the limiting conditions which we should have to confront if we came back to earth and tried to realize our wishes in practical affairs4 ,it is a vague and messy and logically inconsequent series of images which color up and fade1 which excite us and leave us cold1 and which--for the sake of the respect our neighbors have for our ability to add a ledger or plane a piece of wood--we had better confine to the strange box of records we call our brain4 ,the second type of utopia may likewise be colored by primitive desires and wishes2 but these desires and wishes have come to reckon with the world in which they seek realization4 ,the utopia of reconstruction is what its name implies3 a vision of a reconstituted environment which is better adapted to the nature and aims of the human beings who dwell within it than the actual one2 and not merely better adapted to their actual nature1 but better fitted to their possible developments4 ,if the first utopia leads backward into the utopian's ego1 the second leads outward--outward into the world4 ,by a reconstructed environment ,i do not mean merely a physical thing4 ,i mean1 in addition1 a new set of habits1 a fresh scale of values1 a different net of relationships and institutions1 and possibly--for almost all utopias emphasize the factor of breeding--an alteration of the physical and mental characteristics of the people chosen1 through education1 biological selection1 and so forth4 ,the reconstructed environment which all the genuine utopians seek to contrive is a reconstruction of both the physical world and the idolum4 ,it is in this that the utopian distinguishes himself from the practical inventor and the industrialist4 ,every attempt that has been made to domesticate animals1 cultivate plants1 dredge rivers1 dig ditches1 and in modern times1 apply the energy of the sun to mechanical instruments1 has been an effort to reconstruct the environment2 and in many cases the human advantage has been plain4 ,it is not for the utopian to despise ,prometheus who brought the fire or ,franklin who captured the lightning4 ,as ,anatole ,france says3 8,without the ,utopians of other times1 men would still live in caves1 miserable and naked4 ,it was ,utopians who traced the lines of the first city4444 ,out of generous dreams come beneficial realities4 ,utopia is the principle of all progress1 and the essay into a better future40 ,our physical reconstructions however have been limited2 they have touched chiefly the surfaces of things4 ,the result is that people live in a modern physical environment and carry in their minds an odd assortment of spiritual relics from almost every other age1 from that of the primitive1 taboo-ridden savage1 to the energetic ,victorian disciples of ,gradgrind and ,bounderby4 ,as ,mr4 ,hendrik van ,loon pithily says3 8,a human being with the mind of a sixteenth century tradesman driving a #aiba ,rolls-,royce is still a human being with the mind of a sixteenth century tradesman40 ,the problem is fundamentally a human problem4 ,the more completely man is in control of physical nature1 the more urgently we must ask ourselves what under the heavens is to move and guide and keep in hand the controller4 ,this problem of an ideal1 a goal1 an end--even if the aim persist in shifting as much as the magnetic north pole--is a fundamental one to the utopian4 ,except in the writings of the utopians1 and this is an important point to notice in our travels through utopia1 the reconstruction of the material environment and the reconstitution of the mental framework of the creatures who inhabit it1 have been kept in two different compartments4 ,one compartment is supposed to belong to the practical man2 the other to the idealist4 ,the first was something whose aims could be realized in the ,here and ,now2 the other was postponed very largely to the sweet by-and-bye4 ,neither the practical man nor the idealist has been willing to admit that he has been dealing with a single problem2 that each has been treating the faces of a single thing as if they were separate4 ,here is where the utopia of reconstruction wins hands down4 ,it not merely pictures a whole world1 but it faces every part of it at the same time4 ,we shall not examine the classic utopias without becoming conscious of their weaknesses1 their sometimes disturbing idiosyncrasies4 ,it is important at present that we should realize their virtues2 and should start on our journey without the feeling of disparagement which the word utopian usually calls up in minds that have been seduced by ,macaulay's sneer that he would rather have an acre in ,middlesex than a principality in utopia4 #f ,finally1 be convinced about the reality of utopia4 ,all that has happened in what we call human history--unless it has left a building or a book or some other record of itself--is just as remote and in a sense just as mythical as the mysterious island which ,raphael ,hythloday1 scholar and sailor1 described to ,sir ,thomas ,more4 ,a good part of human history is even more insubstantial3 the ,icarians who lived only in the mind of tienne ,cabet1 or the ,freelanders who dwelt within the imagination of a dry little ,austrian economist1 have had more influence upon the lives of our contemporaries than the ,etruscan people who once dwelt in ,italy1 although the ,etruscans belong to what we call the real world1 and the ,freelanders and ,icarians inhabited--,nowhere4 ,nowhere may be an imaginary country1 but ,news from ,nowhere is real news4 ,the world of ideas1 beliefs1 fantasies1 projections1 is 7,i must emphasize again7 just as real whilst it is acted upon as the post which ,dr4 ,johnson kicked in order to demonstrate that it was solid4 ,the man who wholly respects the rights of property is kept out of his neighbor's field perhaps even more effectively than the man who is merely forbidden entrance by a no-trespass sign4 ,in sum1 we cannot ignore our utopias4 ,they exist in the same way that north and south exist2 if we are not familiar with their classical statements we at least know them as they spring to life each day in our own minds4 ,we can never reach the points of the compass2 and so no doubt we shall never live in utopia2 but without the magnetic needle we should not be able to travel intelligently at all4 ,it is absurd to dispose of utopia by saying that it exists only on paper4 ,the answer to this is3 precisely the same thing may be said of the architect's plans for a house1 and houses are none the worse for it4 ,we must lose our sense of remoteness and severity in setting out on this exploration of ideal commonwealths1 as some of the fine minds of the past have pictured them4 ,our ideals are not something that we can set apart from the main facts of our existence1 as our grandmothers sometimes set the cold1 bleak1 and usually moldy parlor apart from the living rooms of the house3 on the contrary1 the things we dream of tend consciously or unconsciously to work themselves out in the pattern of our daily lives4 ,our utopias are just as human and warm and jolly as the world out of which they are born4 ,looking out from the top of a high tenement1 over the housetops of ,manhattan1 ,i can see a pale tower with its golden pinnacle gleaming through the soft morning haze2 and for a moment all the harsh and ugly lines in the landscape have disappeared4 ,so in looking at our utopias4 ,we need not abandon the real world in order to enter these realizable worlds2 for it is out of the first that the second are always coming4 ,finally1 an anticipation and a warning4 ,in our journey through the utopias of the past we shall not rest content when we have traversed the whole territory between ,plato and the latest modern writer4 ,if the story of utopia throws any light upon the story of mankind it is this3 our utopias have been pitifully weak and inadequate2 and if they have not exercised enough practical influence upon the course of affairs1 it is because1 as ,viola ,paget says in ,gospels of ,anarchy1 they were simply not good enough4 ,we travel through utopia only in order to get beyond utopia3 if we leave the domains of history when we enter the gates of ,plato's ,republic1 we do so in order to re-enter more effectively the dusty midday traffic of the contemporary world4 ,so our study of the classic utopias will be followed by an examination of certain social myths and partial utopias that have played an important part in the affairs of the ,western ,world during the last few centuries4 ,in the end1 ,i promise1 ,i shall make no attempt to present another utopia2 it will be enough to survey the foundations upon which others may build4 ,in the meanwhile1 our ship is about to set sail2 and we shall not heave anchor again until we reach the coasts of ,utopia4 ,,chapter ,,two ,how the ,greeks lived in a ,new ,world1 and utopia seemed just round the corner4 ,how ,plato1 in the ,republic1 is chiefly concerned with what will hold the ideal city together4 ,,chapter ,,two #a ,before the great empires of ,rome and ,macedonia began to spread their camps through the length and breadth of the ,mediterranean world1 there was a time when the vision of an ideal city seems to have been uppermost in the minds of a good many men4 ,just as the wide expanse of unsettled territory in ,america caused the people of eighteenth century ,europe to think of building a civilization in which the errors and vices and superstitions of the old world might be left behind1 so the sparsely settled coasts of ,italy1 ,sicily1 and the gean ,islands1 and the shores of the ,black ,sea1 must have given men the hope of being able to turn over a fresh page4 ,those years between six hundred and three hundred ,b4,c4 were city-building years for the parent cities of ,greece4 ,the city of ,miletus is supposed to have begotten some three hundred cities1 and many of its fellows were possibly not less fruitful4 ,since new cities could be founded there was plenty of chance for variation and experiment2 and those who dreamed of a more1 generous social order could set their hands and wits to making a better start 8from the bottom up40 ,of all the plans and reconstruction programs that must have been put forward during these centuries1 only a scant handful remains4 ,aristotle tells us about an ideal state designed by one1 ,phaleas1 who believed like ,mr4 ,bernard ,shaw in a complete equality of property2 and from ,aristotle1 too1 we learn of another utopia which was described by the great architect1 city planner1 and sociologist--,hippodamus4 ,hippodamus was one of the first city planners known to history1 and he achieved fame in the ancient world by designing cities on the somewhat monotonous checkerboard design we know so well in ,america4 ,he realized1 apparently1 that a city was something more than a collection of houses1 streets1 markets1 and temples2 and so1 whilst he was putting the physical town to rights1 he concerned himself with the more basic problem of the social order4 ,if it adds at all to our sense of reality in going through utopia1 let me confess that it is ultimately through the inspiration and example of another ,hippodamus--,patrick ,geddes1 the town planner for ,jerusalem and many other cities--that this book about utopias came to be written4 ,in many ways the distance between ,geddes and ,aristotle or ,hippodamus seems much less than that which separates ,geddes and ,herbert ,spencer4 ,when we look at the utopias that ,phaleas and ,hippodamus and ,aristotle have left us1 and compare them with the ,republic of ,plato1 the differences between them melt into insignificance and their likenesses are apparent4 ,it is for this reason that ,i shall confine our examination of the ,greek utopia to that which ,plato set forth in the ,republic1 and qualified and broadened in ,the ,laws1 ,the ,statesman1 and ,critias4 #b ,plato's ,republic dates roughly from the time of that long and disastrous war which ,athens fought with ,sparta4 ,in the course of such a war1 amid the bombast that patriotic citizens give way to1 the people who keep their senses are bound to get pretty well acquainted with their enemy4 ,if you will take the trouble to examine ,plutarch's account of the ,laws of ,lycurgus and ,mr4 ,alfred ,zimmern's magnificent description of the ,greek ,commonwealth you will see how ,sparta and ,athens form the web and woof of the ,republic--only it is an ideal ,sparta and an ideal ,athens that ,plato has in mind4 ,it is well to remember that ,plato wrote in the midst of defeat2 a great part of his region1 ,attica1 had been devastated and burned2 and he must have felt that makeshift and reform were quite futile when a ,peloponnesian war could make the bottom drop out of his world4 ,to ,plato an ill-designed ship of state required more than the science of navigation to pull it through stormy waters3 if it was in danger of perpetually foundering1 it seemed high time to go back to the shipyards and inquire into the principles upon which it had been put together4 ,in such a mood1 ,i suggest parenthetically1 we today will turn again to fundamentals4 #c ,in describing his ideal community ,plato1 like a trained workman1 begins with his physical foundations4 ,so far from putting his utopia in a mythical island of ,avilion1 where falls not hail nor rain nor any snow1 it is plain that ,plato was referring repeatedly to the soil in which ,athens was planted1 and to the economic life which grew out of that soil4 ,since he was speaking to his own countrymen1 he could let a good many things pass for common knowledge which we1 as strangers1 must look into more carefully in order to have a firmer sense of his utopian realities4 ,let it be understood that in discussing the physical side of the ,republic1 ,i am drawing from ,aristotle as well as ,plato1 and from such modern ,greek scholars as ,messrs4 ,zimmern1 ,myres1 and ,murray4 ,nowadays when we talk about a state we think of an expanse of territory1 to begin with1 so broad that we should in most cases be unable to see all its boundaries if we rose five miles above the ground on a clear day4 ,even if the country is a little one1 like the ,netherlands or ,belgium1 it is likely to have possessions that are thousands of miles away2 and we think of these distant possessions and of the homeland as part and parcel of the state4 ,there is scarcely any conceivable way in which a ,dutchman in ,rotterdam1 let us say1 possesses the ,island of ,java3 he does not live on the island1 he is not acquainted with the inhabitants1 he does not share their ideas or customs4 ,his interest in ,java1 if he have an interest at all1 is an interest in sugar1 coffee1 taxes1 or missions4 ,his state is not a commonwealth in the sense that it is a common possession4 ,to the ,greek of ,plato's time1 on the contrary1 the commonwealth was something he actively shared with his fellow citizens4 ,it was a definite parcel of land whose limits he could probably see from any convenient hilltop2 and those who lived within those limits had common gods to worship1 common theaters and gymnasia1 and a multitude of common interests that could be satisfied only by their working together1 playing together1 thinking together4 ,plato could probably not have conceived of a community with civilized pretensions in which the population was distributed at the rate of ten per square mile2 and if he visited such a territory he would surely have said that the people were barbarians--men whose way of living unfitted them for the graces and duties of citizenship4 ,geographically speaking1 then1 the ideal commonwealth was a city-region2 that is1 a city which was surrounded by enough land to supply the greater part of the food needed by the inhabitants2 and placed convenient to the sea4 ,let us stand on a high hill and take a look at this city-region2 the sort of view that ,plato himself might have obtained on some clear spring morning when he climbed to the top of the ,acropolis and looked down on the sleeping city1 with the green fields and sear upland pastures on one side1 and the sun glinting on the distant waters of the sea a few miles away4 ,it is a mountainous region1 this ,greece1 and within a short distance from mountain top to sea there was compressed as many different kinds of agricultural and industrial life as one could single out in going down the ,hudson valley from the ,adirondack ,mountains to ,new ,york ,harbor4 ,as the basis for his ideal city1 whether ,plato knew it or not1 he had an 8ideal0 section of land in his mind--what the geographer calls the 8valley section40 ,he could not have gotten the various groups which were to be combined in his city1 had they been settled in the beginning on a section of land like the coastal plain of ,new ,jersey4 ,it was peculiarly in ,greece that such a variety of occupations could come together within a small area1 beginning at the summit of the valley section with the evergreen trees and the woodcutter1 going down the slope to the herdsman and his flock of goats at pasture1 along the valley bottom to the cultivator and his crops1 until at length one reaches the river's mouth where the fisher pushes out to sea in his boat and the trader comes in with goods from other lands4 ,the great civilizations of the world have been nourished in such valley sections4 ,we think of the river ,nile and ,alexandria2 the ,tiber and ,rome1 the ,seine and ,paris2 and so on4 ,it is interesting that our first great utopia should have had an 8ideal0 section of territory as its base4 #d ,in the economic foundations of the ,republic1 we look in vain for a recognition of the labor problem4 ,now the labor problem is a fundamental difficulty in our modern life2 and it seems on the surface that ,plato is a little highbrow and remote in the ease with which he gets over it4 ,when we look more closely into the matter1 however1 and see the way in which men got their living in the 8morning lands0--as the ,germans call them--we shall find that the reason ,plato does not offer a solution is that he was not1 indeed1 confronted by a problem4 ,given a valley section which has not been ruthlessly stript of trees2 given the arts of agriculture and herding2 given a climate without dangerous extremes of heat and cold2 given the opportunity to found new colonies when the old city-region is over-populated--and it is only by an exercise of ingenuity that a labor problem could be invented4 ,a man might become a slave by military capture2 he did not become a slave by being compelled1 under threat of starvation1 to tend a machine4 ,the problem of getting a living was answered by nature as long as men were willing to put up with nature's conditions2 and the groundwork of ,plato's utopia1 accordingly1 is the simple agricultural life1 the growing of wheat1 barley1 olives1 and grapes1 which had been fairly well mastered before he arrived on the scene4 ,as long as the soil was not washed away and devitalized1 the problem was not a hard one2 and in order to solve it1 ,plato had only to provide that there should be enough territory to grow food on1 and that the inhabitants must not let their wants exceed the bounties of nature4 ,plato describes the foundations of his community with a few simple and masterly touches4 ,those who feel that there is something a little inhuman in his conception of the good life1 when he is discussing the education and duties of the ruling classes1 may well consider the picture that he paints for us here4 ,plato's society arises out of the needs of mankind2 because none of us is self-sufficing and all have many wants2 and since there are many wants1 many kinds of people must supply them4 ,when all these helpers and partners and co-operators are gathered together in a city the body of inhabitants is termed a state2 and so its members work and exchange goods with one another for their mutual advantage--the herdsman gets barley for his cheese and so on down to the complicated interchanges that occur in the city4 ,what sort of physical life will arise out of this in the region that ,plato describes8 ,well1 the people will 8produce corn and wine and clothes and shoes and build houses for themselves4444 ,they will work in summer commonly stript and barefoot1 but in winter substantially clothed and shod4 ,they will feed on barley and wheat1 baking the wheat and kneading the flour1 making noble puddings and loaves2 these they will serve up on a mat of reeds or clean leaves2 themselves reclining the while upon beds of yew or myrtle boughs4 ,and they and their children will feast1 drinking of the wine which they have made1 wearing garlands on their heads1 and having the praises of the gods on their lips1 living in sweet society1 and having a care that their families do not exceed their means2 for they will have an eye to poverty or war40 ,so ,socrates1 in this dialogue on the ,republic1 describes to his hearers the essential physical elements of the good life4 ,one of his hearers1 ,glaucon1 asks him to elaborate it a little1 for ,socrates has limited himself to bare essentials4 ,it is the same sort of objection1 by the way1 that ,m4 ,poincar1 the physicist1 made to the philosophy of ,tolstoy4 ,socrates answers that a good state would have the healthy constitution which he has just described2 but that he has no objection to looking at an 8inflamed constitution40 ,what ,socrates describes as an inflamed constitution is a mode of life which all the people of ,western ,europe and ,america at the present day--no matter what their religion1 economic status1 or political creed may be--believe in with almost a single mind2 and so1 although it is the opposite of ,plato's ideal state1 ,i go on to present it1 for the light it throws on our own institutions and habits4 ,the unjust state comes into existence1 says ,plato through the mouth of ,socrates1 by the multiplication of wants and superfluities4 ,as a result of increasing wants1 we must enlarge our borders1 for the original healthy state is too small4 ,now the city will fill up with a multitude of callings which go beyond those required by any natural want2 there will be a host of parasites and 8supers02 and our country1 which was big enough to support the original inhabitants1 will want a slice of our neighbor's land for pasture and tillage2 and they will want a slice of ours if1 like ourselves1 they exceed the limits of necessity and give themselves up to the unlimited accumulation of wealth4 8,and then we shall go to war--that will be the next thing40 ,the sum of this criticism is that ,plato saw clearly that an ideal community must have a common physical standard of living2 and that boundless wealth or unlimited desires and gratifications had nothing to do with a good standard4 ,the good was what was necessary2 and what was necessary was not1 essentially1 many goods4 ,like ,aristotle1 ,plato wanted a mode of life which was neither impoverished nor luxurious3 those who have read a little in ,greek history will see that this ,athenian ideal of the good life fell rather symbolically between ,sparta and ,corinth1 between the cities which we associate respectively with a hard1 military life and with a soft1 super-sensuous stheticism4 ,should we moderate our wants or should we increase production8 ,plato had no difficulty in answering this question4 ,he held that a reasonable man would moderate his wants2 and that if he wished to live like a good farmer or a good philosopher he would not attempt to copy the expenditures of a vulgar gambler who has just made a corner in wheat1 or a vulgar courtesan who has just made a conquest of the vulgar gambler who has made a corner in wheat4 ,wealth and poverty1 said ,plato1 are the two causes of deterioration in the arts3 both the workman and his works are likely to degenerate under the influence of either poverty or wealth1 8for one is the parent of luxury and indolence1 and the other of meanness and viciousness1 and both of discontent40 ,nor does ,plato have one standard of living for his ruling classes and another for the common people4 ,to each person he would give all the material things necessary for sustenance2 and from each he would be prepared to strip all that was not essential4 ,he realized that the possession of goods was not a means of getting happiness1 but an effort to make up for a spiritually depauperate life3 for ,plato1 happiness was what one could put into life and not what one could loot out of it3 it was the happiness of the dancer rather than the happiness of the glutton4 ,plato pictured a community living a sane1 continent1 athletic1 clear-eyed life2 a community that would be always1 so to say1 within bounds4 ,there is a horror of laxity and easy living in his ,republic4 ,his society was stripped for action4 ,the fragrance that permeates his picture of the good life is not the heavy fragrance of rose-petals and incense falling upon languorous couches3 it is the fragrance of the morning grass1 and the scent of crushed mint or marjoram beneath the feet4 #e ,how big is ,plato's community1 how are the people divided1 what are their relations8 ,now that we have discussed the lay out of the land1 and have inquired into the physical basis of this utopia1 we are ready to turn our attention to the people2 for it is out of the interaction of folk1 work1 and place that every community--good or bad1 real or fancied--exists and perpetuates itself4 #f ,it follows almost inevitably from what we have said of ,plato's environment1 that his ideal community was not to be unlimited in population4 ,quite the contrary4 ,plato said that 8the city may increase to any size which is consistent with its unity2 that is the limit40 ,the modern political scientist1 who lives within a national state of millions of people1 and who thinks of the greatness of states largely in terms of their population1 has scoffed without mercy at the fact that ,plato limited his community to an arbitrary number1 #e1jdj1 about the number that can be conveniently addressed by a single orator4 ,as a matter of fact there is nothing ridiculous in ,plato's definition3 he was not speaking of a horde of barbarians3 he was laying down the foundations for an active polity of citizens3 and it is plain enough in all conscience that when you increase the number of people in a community you decrease the number of things that they can share in common4 ,plato could not anticipate the wireless telephone and the daily newspaper2 still less would he have been likely to exaggerate the difference which these instrumentalities have made in the matters that most intimately concern us2 and when he set bounds to the population his city would contain1 he was anticipating by more than two thousand years the verdict of modern town planners like ,mr4 ,raymond ,unwin4 ,people are not the members of a community because they live under the same system of political government or dwell in the same country4 ,they become genuine citizens to the extent that they share certain institutions and ways of life with similarly educated people4 ,plato was primarily concerned with providing conditions which would make a community hold together without being acted upon by any external force--as the national state is acted upon today by war or the threat of war4 ,this concern seems to underlie every line of the ,republic4 ,in attacking his problem1 the business of supplying the physical wants of the city seemed relatively unimportant2 and even though ,greece in the time of ,plato traded widely with the whole ,mediterranean region1 ,plato did not mistake commercial unity for civic unity4 ,hence in his scheme of things the work of the farmer and the merchant and the trader was subordinate4 ,the important thing to consider was the general conditions under which all the individuals and groups in a community might live together harmoniously4 ,this is a long cry from the utopias of the nineteenth century1 which we will examine later2 and that is why it is important to understand ,plato's point of view and follow his argument4 #g ,to ,plato1 a good community was like a healthy body2 a harmonious exercise of every function was the condition of its strength and vitality4 ,necessarily then a good community could not be simply a collection of individuals1 each one of whom insists upon some private and particular happiness without respect to the welfare and interests of his fellows4 ,plato believed that goodness and happiness--for he would scarcely admit that there was any distinct line of cleavage between these qualities--consisted in living according to nature2 that is to say1 in knowing one's self1 in finding one's bent1 and in fulfilling the particular work which one had the capacity to perform4 ,the secret of a good community1 therefore1 if we may translate ,plato's language into modern political slang1 is the principle of function4 ,every kind of work1 says ,plato1 requires a particular kind of aptitude and training4 ,if we wish to have good shoes1 our shoes must be made by a shoemaker and not by a weaver2 and in like manner1 every man has some particular calling to which his genius leads him1 and he finds a happiness for himself and usefulness to his fellows when he is employed in that calling4 ,the good life must result when each man has a function to perform1 and when all the necessary functions are adjusted happily to each other4 ,the state is like the physical body4 8,health is the creation of a natural order and government in the parts of the body1 and the creation of disease is the creation of a state of things in which they are at variance with the natural order40 ,the supreme virtue in the commonwealth is justice2 namely1 the due apportionment of work or function under the rule of 8a place for every man and every man in his place40 ,has any such society ever come into existence8 ,do not too hastily answer ,no4 ,the ideal in ,plato's mind is carried out point for point in the organization of a modern symphony orchestra4 ,now ,plato was not unaware that there were other formulas for happiness4 ,he expressly points out however that in founding the ,republic he does not wish to make any single person or group happier beyond the rest2 he desires rather that the whole city should be in the happiest condition4 ,it would be easy enough 8to array the husbandmen in rich and costly robes and to enjoin them to cultivate the ground only with a view to their pleasure10 and so ,plato might have conferred a spurious kind of felicity upon every individual4 ,if this happened1 however1 there would be a brief period of ease and revelry before the whole works went to pot4 ,in this ,plato is a thoroughgoing realist3 he is not looking for a short avenue of escape2 he is ready to face the road with all its ups and downs1 with its steep climbs as well as its wide vistas2 and he does not think any the worse of life because he finds that its chief enjoyments rest in activity1 and not1 as the epicureans of all sorts have always believed1 in a release from activity4 #h ,plato arrives at his apportionment of functions by a method which is old-fashioned1 and which anybody versed in modern psychology would regard as a 8rationalization40 ,plato is trying to give a firm basis to the division of classes which he favored2 and so he compares the community to a human being1 possessed of the virtues of wisdom1 valour1 temperance1 and justice4 ,each of these virtues ,plato relates to a particular class of people4 ,wisdom is appropriate to the rulers of the city4 ,thus arises the class of guardians4 ,valour is the characteristic of the defenders of the city and hence a military class1 called auxiliaries1 appears4 ,temperance1 or agreement1 is the virtue which relates to all classes4 ,finally1 there comes justice4 8,justice is the ultimate cause and condition of all of them4444 ,if a question should arise as to which of these four qualities contributed most by their presence to the excellence of the ,state whether the agreement of rulers and subjects or the preservation in the soldiers of the opinion which the law ordains about the true nature of dangers1 or wisdom and watchfulness in the rulers would claim the palm1 or whether this which ,i am about to mention10 namely1 8everyone doing his own work and not being a busybody--the question would not be easily determined40 ,nevertheless1 it is plain that justice is the keystone of the ,platonic utopia4 ,we must not misunderstand ,plato's division of classes4 ,aristotle criticizes ,plato in terms of a more simple system of democracy2 but ,plato did not mean to institute a fixed order2 within his ,republic the ,napoleonic motto--la carrire est ouverte aux talents--was the guiding principle4 ,what lay beneath ,plato's argument was a belief which present-day studies in psychology seem likely to confirm2 a belief that children come into the world with a bent already well marked in their physical and mental constitutions4 ,plato advocated1 it is true1 an aristocracy or government by the best people2 but he did not believe in fake aristocracies that are perpetuated through hereditary wealth and position4 ,having determined that his city was to contain three classes1 rulers1 warriors1 and workers1 his capital difficulty still remained to be faced2 how was each individual to find his way to the right class1 and under what conditions would he best fulfill his functions there8 ,the answers to these questions bring us to the boldest and most original sections of the ,republic3 the part that has provoked the greatest amount of antagonism and aversion1 because of its drastic departure from the rut of many established institutions--in particular1 individual marriages and individual property4 ,in order to perpetuate his ideal constitution ,plato relies upon three methods3 breeding1 education1 and a discipline for the daily life4 ,let us consider the effect of these methods upon each of the classes4 ,we may dismiss the class of artisans and husbandmen very briefly4 ,it is not quite clear whether ,plato meant his system of marriage to extend to the members of this class4 ,as for education1 it is clear that he saw nothing to find fault with in the system of apprenticeship whereby the smith or the potter or the farmer trained others to follow his calling2 and so he had no reason for departing from methods which had proved1 on the whole1 very satisfactory4 ,how satisfactory that system was1 indeed1 we have only to look at an ,athenian ruin or vase or chalice to find out4 ,any improvements that might come about in these occupations would result from the ,platonic rule of justice2 and ,plato followed his own injunction strictly enough to keep away from other people's business4 ,this of course seems an odd and hasty manner of treatment1 as ,i said before1 to those of us who live in a world where the affairs of industry and the tendencies of the labor movement are forever on the carpet4 ,but ,plato justifies his treatment by saying that 8when shoemakers become bad1 and are degenerate1 and profess to be shoemakers when they are not1 no great mischief happens to the state2 but when the guardians of the law and the ,state are not so in reality1 but only in appearance1 you see how they entirely destroy the whole constitution1 if they alone shall have the privilege of an affluent and happy life40 ,hence ,plato concentrates his attack upon the point of greatest danger3 while the shoemaker1 as a rule1 knows how to mind his own business1 the statesman is for the most part unaware of the essential business which he has to mind2 and tends to be negligent even when he has some dim notion as to what it may be--being all too ready to sacrifice it to golf or the favors of a beautiful woman4 ,as we saw in ,plato's original description of the ,state1 the common folk would doubtless have a good many of the joys and delights traditional in the ,greek cities2 and doubtless1 although ,plato says nothing one way or the other1 they would be permitted to own such property as might be needed for the conduct of their business or the enjoyment of their homes4 ,the very fact that no definite rule was prescribed for them1 makes us suspect that ,plato was willing to let these things go on in the usual way4 ,the next class is known as the warriors1 or auxiliaries4 ,they are different in character from the guardians who rule the state2 but frequently ,plato refers to the guardians as a single class1 including the auxiliaries2 and it seems that they figured in his mind as the temporal arm of that class4 ,at any rate1 the auxiliaries as they are painted in the ,critias1 which was the dialogue in which ,plato attempted to show his ,republic in action1 dwelt by themselves within a single enclosure2 and had common meals and common temples of their own2 and so we may surmise that their way of life was to be similar to that of the higher guardians1 but that it was not capable of being pushed to the same pitch of development on the intellectual side4 ,these warriors of ,plato are1 after all1 not so very much unlike the regular or standing army in a modern ,state3 they have a life of their own within the barracks1 they are trained and drilled to great endurance1 and they are taught to obey without question the ,government4 ,when you examine the naked business of the warriors and artisans1 you discover that ,plato is not1 for all the difference in scale1 so very far away from modern realities4 ,apart from the fact that women were permitted an equal place with men in the life of the camp and the gymnasium and the academy1 the real difference comes in the matter of breeding and selection4 ,at last we approach the ,governors1 or the ,guardians4 ,how does the ,guardian achieve his position and power8 ,plato is a little chary of answering this question2 he hints that it can only happen at the beginning if a person with the brains of a philosopher happen to be born with the authority of a king4 ,let us pass this by4 ,how are the ,guardians born and bred8 ,this is the manner4 ,for the well-being of the state the ,guardians have the power to administer medicinal lies4 ,one of these is to be told to the youth when their education has reached a point at which it becomes possible for the ,guardians to determine their natural talents and aptitudes4 8,citizens1 we shall say to them in our tale1 you are brothers1 yet ,god has framed you differently4 ,some of you have the power to command1 and these he has composed of gold1 wherefore also they have the greatest honor2 others of silver1 to be auxiliaries2 others again who are to be husbandmen and craftsmen he has made of brass and iron2 and the species will generally be preserved in the children4 ,but as you are of the same original family1 a golden parent will sometimes have a silver son1 or a silver parent a golden son4 ,and ,god proclaims to the rulers1 as a first principle1 that before all things they should watch over their offspring1 and see what elements mingle in their nature1 for if the son of a golden or silver parent has an admixture of brass and iron1 then nature orders a transposition of the ranks2 and the eye of the ruler must not be pitiful towards his child because he has to descend in the scale and will become a husbandman or artisan1 just as there may be others sprung from the artisan class who are raised to honor1 and become guardians and auxiliaries40 ,as the safeguard of this principle of natural selection of functions1 ,plato proposed a system of common marriage4 8,the wives of these guardians are to be common1 and their children are also common1 and no parent is to know his own child1 nor any child his parent4 ,starting from the day of the hymeneal1 the bridegroom who was then married will call all the male children who are born ten and seven months afterwards his sons1 and the female children his daughters1 and they will call him father4444 ,and those who were born at the same time they will term brothers and sisters1 and they are not to intermarry40 ,one of the features of this system is that the best stocks--the strongest and wisest and most beautiful--are to be encouraged to reproduce themselves4 ,but this is not worked out in detail4 ,there is to be complete freedom of sexual selection among the guardians2 and those who are most distinguished in their services are to have access to a great number of women2 but beyond encouraging the guardians to be prolific1 ,plato did not apparently consider the possibilities of cross-breeding between the various classes4 ,on the whole1 one may say that ,plato puts it up to the ,guardians to perpetuate themselves properly1 and indicates that this is to be one of their main concerns4 ,his good breeding was biological breeding1 not social breeding4 ,he recognized as some of our modern eugenists have failed to--that good parents might throw poor stock1 on occasion1 and that abject parents might have remarkably good progeny4 ,even if the ,guardians are to be encouraged to have good children1 ,plato provides that the children themselves must prove their goodness before they are in turn recognized as ,guardians4 ,as for the children of the baser sort--well1 they were to be rigorously limited to the needs and resources of the community4 ,plato lived at a time when a great many children were born only to be murdered through 8exposure0 as it was called2 and he had no qualms1 apparently1 about letting the ,guardians send the children with a bad heredity into the discard4 ,if his population could not grow properly in the sunlight without getting rid of the weeds1 he was prepared to get rid of the weeds4 ,people who were physically or spiritually too deformed to take part in the good life were to be eliminated4 ,plato1 like a robust ,athenian1 was for killing or curing a disease2 and he gave short shrift to the constitutional invalids4 #i ,but to breed ,guardians is only one-half the problem4 ,the other half comes under the heads of education and discipline2 and when ,plato discusses these things1 he is not speaking1 as a modern college president perhaps would1 of book-learning alone2 he is referring to all the activities that mold a person's life4 ,he follows the older philosopher1 ,pythagoras1 and anticipates the great organizer1 ,benedict1 by laying down a rule of life for his guardians4 ,he did not imagine that disinterested activities1 spacious thoughts1 and clear vision would arise in people who normally put their personal comfort and 8happiness0 above the necessities of their office4 ,let us recognize the depth of ,plato's insight4 ,it is plain that he did not despise what a modern psychologist would call 8the normal biological career40 ,for the great majority of people happiness consisted in learning a definite trade or profession1 in doing one's daily work1 in mating1 and when the tension of the day relaxed1 in getting enjoyment and recreation in the simple sensualities of eating1 drinking1 singing1 love-making1 and what not4 ,this normal biological career is associated with a home1 and with the limited horizons of a home2 and a host of small loyalties and jealousies and interests are woven into the very texture of that life4 ,each home1 each small circle of relatives and friends1 tends to be a miniature utopia2 there is a limited community of goods1 a tendency to adjust one's actions to the welfare of the little whole1 and a habit of banding together against the world at large4 ,but the good1 contrary to the proverb1 is frequently the enemy of the better2 and the little utopia of the family is the enemy--indeed the principal enemy--of the beloved community4 ,this fact is notorious4 ,the picture of a trade union leader which ,mr4 ,john ,galsworthy portrays in ,strife1 whose power to act firmly in behalf of his group is sapped by the demands made by family ties1 could be matched in a thousand places4 ,in order to have the freedom to act for the sake of a great institution1 a person must be stript of a whole host of restraining ties and sentimentalities4 ,jesus commanded his followers to leave their families and abandon their worldly goods2 and ,plato1 in order to preserve his ideal commonwealth1 laid down a similar rule4 ,for those who as guardians were to apply the science of government to public affairs1 a private life1 private duties1 private interests1 were all to be left behind4 ,as to the education of the ,guardians1 ,i have scarcely the space to treat the more formal part of it in detail2 for among other things1 as ,jowett points out1 the ,republic is a treatise on education2 and ,plato presents a fairly elaborate plan4 ,the two branches of ,greek education1 music and gymnastic1 applied in the student's early years to the culture of the body and the culture of the mind2 and both branches were to be followed in common by both sexes4 ,instruction during the early part of a child's life was to be communicated through play activities1 as it is today in the ,city and ,country ,school in ,new ,york2 and only with manhood did the student approach his subjects in a more formal and systematic manner4 ,in the course of this education the students were to be tested again and again with respect to their mental keenness and tenacity and fortitude2 and only those who came through the fire purified and strengthened were to be admitted to the class of guardians4 ,the daily life of the ,guardians is a rigorous1 military regime4 ,they live in common barracks1 and in order to avoid paying attention to private affairs1 instead of minding the good of the whole community1 no one is allowed to 8possess any substance privately1 unless there be a great necessity for it02 next1 ,plato continues1 none shall have any dwelling or storehouse into which whoever inclines may not enter2 and as for necessaries1 they shall be only such as brave and temperate warriors may require1 and as they are supported by other citizens1 they shall receive such a reward of their guardianship as to have neither an overplus nor a deficit at the end of the year4 ,they shall have public meals1 as in encampments1 and live in common4 ,they are to refrain from using gold and silver1 as all the gold and silver they require is in their souls4 ,all these regulations1 of course1 are for the purpose of keeping the ,guardians disinterested4 ,plato believed that the majority of people did not know how to mind public business2 for it seemed to him that the ordering of a community's life required a measure of science which the common man could not possibly possess4 ,indeed1 in a city of a thousand men he did not see the possibility of getting as many as fifty men who would be sufficiently well versed in what we should today call sociology to deal intelligently with public affairs--for there would scarcely be that many first-rate draughts players4 ,at the same time1 if the government is to be entrusted to a few1 the few must be genuinely disinterested4 ,if they possessed lands and houses and money in a private way they would become landlords and farmers instead of ,guardians2 they would be hateful masters instead of allies of the citizens2 and so 8hating and being hated1 plotting and being plotted against1 more afraid of the enemies within than the enemies without1 they would drag themselves and the rest of the state to speedy destruction40 ,it remains to take a glance at the manhood and later life of the ,guardians4 ,as young men1 the ,guardians belong to the auxiliaries2 and since they are not permitted to perform any of the manual arts--for skill in any of the trades tended to make a man warped and one-sided1 like the symbolic blacksmith god1 ,hephstos--their physical edge was maintained by the unceasing discipline of the gymnasium and 8military0 expeditions4 ,i put military in quotation marks1 because a greater part of the warriors' time is spent not in war but in preparation for war2 and it is plain that ,plato looked upon war as an unnecessary evil1 for it arose out of the unjust state2 and therefore he must have resorted to warlike discipline for the educational values he found in it4 ,from thirty-five to fifty the potential ,guardians undertake practical activities1 commanding armies and gaining experience of life4 ,after fifty1 those who are qualified devote themselves to philosophy3 out of their experience and their inner reflection they figure the essential nature of the good community2 and on occasion each guardian abandons divine philosophy for a while1 takes his turn at the helm of the state1 and trains his successors4 #aj ,what is the business of the ,guardian8 ,how does ,plato's ideal statesman differ from ,julius ,csar or ,mr4 ,theodore ,roosevelt8 ,the business of the ,guardian is to manufacture liberty4 ,the petty laws1 regulations1 and reforms with which the ordinary statesman occupies himself had nothing to do1 in ,plato's mind1 with the essential business of the ruler4 ,so ,plato expressly foregoes making laws to regulate marketing1 the affairs of industry1 graft1 bribery1 theft1 and so forth2 and he leaves these matters with the curt indication that men can be left to themselves to devise on a voluntary basis the rules of the game for the different occupations2 and that it is not the business of the ,guardian to meddle in such matters4 ,in a well-founded state1 a great number of minor maladjustments would simply fall out of existence2 whilst in any other state1 all the tinkering and reforming in the world is quite powerless to amend its organic defects4 ,those make-believe statesmen who try their hand at legislation and 8are always fancying that by reforming they will make an end of the dishonesties and rascalities of mankind10 do not know that in reality they are trying to cut away the heads of a hydra4 ,the real concern of the ,guardians is with the essential constitution of the state4 ,the means that they employ to perfect this constitution are breeding1 vocational selection1 and education4 8,if once a republic is set a-going1 it proceeds happily1 increasing as a circle4 ,and whilst good education and nurture are preserved1 they produce good geniuses2 and good geniuses1 partaking of such education1 produce still better than the former1 as well in other respects1 as with reference to propagation1 as in the case of other animals40 ,all the activities of the ,republic are to be patterned after the utopia which the ,guardians see with their inward eye4 ,so gradually the community becomes a living unity2 and it exhibits the health of that which is organically sound4 #aa ,what do we miss when we look around this utopia of ,plato's8 ,contacts with the outside world8 ,we may take them for granted4 ,downy beds1 ,corinthian girls1 luxurious furniture8 ,we can well spare them4 ,the opportunity for a satisfactory intellectual and physical life8 ,no3 both of these are here4 ,what ,plato has left out are the poets1 dramatists1 and painters4 ,literature and music1 in order to contribute to the noble education of the ,guardians1 are both severely restricted in theme and in treatment4 ,plato has his limitations2 and here is the principal one3 ,plato distrusted the emotional life1 and whilst he was prepared to do full homage to man's obvious sensualities1 he feared the emotions as a tight-rope walker fears the wind2 for they threatened his balance4 ,in one significant passage he classifies 8love0 with disease and drunkenness1 as a vulgar misfortune2 and though he was ready to permit the active expression of the emotions1 as in the dance or the sexual act1 he treated the mere play upon the feelings1 without active participation1 as a form of intemperance4 ,hence a great deal of music and dramatic mimicry was taboo4 ,foreign as this doctrine sounds to the modern reader1 there is perhaps more than a grain of sense in it3 ,william ,james used to teach that no one should passively experience an emotion at a concert or a play without trying to express that emotion actively as soon as he could make the opportunity4 ,at any rate1 let us leave this problem which ,plato opens up with a free mind2 and note here in passing that in the utopia of ,william ,morris novels drop naturally out of existence because life is too active an ecstasy to be fed with the pathetic1 the maudlin1 and the diseased4 #ab ,as we leave this little city of ,plato's1 nestling in the hills1 and as the thin1 didactic voice of ,plato1 who has been perpetually at our elbows1 dies away from our ears--what impression do we finally carry away8 ,in the fields1 men are perhaps plowing the land for the autumn sowing2 on the terraces1 a band of men1 women1 and children are plucking the olives carefully from the trees1 one by one2 in the gymnasium on the top of the ,acropolis1 men and youths are exercising1 and as they practice with the javelin now and then it catches the sun and glints into our eye2 apart from these groups1 in a shaded walk that overlooks the city1 a ,guardian is pacing back and forth1 talking in quick1 earnest tones with his pupils4 ,these are occupations which1 crudely or elaborately1 men have always engaged in2 and here in the ,republic they engage in them still4 ,what has changed8 ,what has profoundly changed is not the things that men do1 but the relations they bear to one another in doing them4 ,in ,plato's community1 servitude and compulsion and avarice and indolence are gone4 ,men mind their business for the sake of living well1 in just relations to the whole community of which they are a part4 ,they live1 in the strictest sense1 according to nature2 and because no one can enjoy a private privilege1 each man can grow to his full stature and enter into every heritage of his citizenship4 ,when ,plato says no to the institutions and ways of life that men have blindly fostered1 his eyes are open1 and he is facing the light4 ,,chapter ,,three ,how something happened to utopia between ,plato and ,sir ,thomas ,more2 and how utopia was discovered again1 along with the ,new ,world4 ,,chapter ,,three #a ,there is a span of nearly two thousand years between ,plato and ,sir ,thomas ,more4 ,during that time1 in the ,western ,world at any rate1 utopia seems to disappear beyond the horizon4 ,plutarch's ,life of ,lycurgus looks back into a mythical past2 ,cicero's essay on the state is a negligible work2 and ,st4 ,augustine's ,city of ,god is chiefly remarkable for a brilliant journalistic attack upon the old order of ,rome which reminds one of the contemporary diatribes of ,maximilian ,harden4 ,except for these works there is1 as far as ,i can discover1 scarcely any other piece of writing which even hints at utopia except as utopia may refer to a dim golden age in the past when all men were virtuous and happy4 ,but while utopia dropt out of literature1 it did not drop out of men's minds2 and the utopia of the first fifteen hundred years after ,christ is transplanted to the sky1 and called the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 ,it is distinctly a utopia of escape4 ,the world as men find it is full of sin and trouble4 ,nothing can be done about it except to repent of the sin and find refuge from the trouble in the life after the grave4 ,so the utopia of ,christianity is fixed and settled3 one can enter into the ,kingdom of ,heaven if a passport has been granted1 but one can do nothing to create or mold this heaven4 ,change and struggle and ambition and amelioration belong to the wicked world1 and bring no final satisfaction4 ,happiness lies not in the deed1 but in having a secure credit in the final balance of accounts--happiness1 in other words1 lies in the ultimate compensation4 ,this world of fading empires and dilapidated cities is no home except for the violent and the 8worldly40 ,if the idea of utopia loses its practical hold during this period1 the will-to-utopia remains2 and the rise of the monastic system and the attempts of the great popes from ,hildebrand onward to establish a universal empire under the shield of the church show that1 as always1 there was a breach between the ideas which people carried in their heads and the things which actual circumstances and going institutions compelled them to do4 ,there is no need to consider these partial1 institutional utopias until we get down to the nineteenth century4 ,what concerns us now is that the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 as a utopia of escape1 ceased to hold men's allegiance when they discovered other channels and other possibilities4 ,the shift from a heavenly utopia to a worldly one came during that period of change and uneasiness which characterized the decline of the ,middle ,age4 ,its first expression is the 8,utopia0 of ,sir ,thomas ,more1 the great chancellor who served under ,henry ,,viii4 #b ,in the introduction to ,more's 8,utopia0 one gets a vivid impression of the forces that were stirring men's minds out of the sluggish routine into which they had settled4 ,the man who is supposed to describe the commonwealth of ,utopia is a ,portuguese scholar1 learned in ,greek4 ,he has left his family possessions with his kinsmen and has gone adventuring for other continents with ,americus ,vesputius4 ,this ,raphael ,hythloday is the sort of sunburnt sailor one could probably have encountered in ,bristol or ,cadiz or ,antwerp almost any day during the late part of the fifteenth century4 ,he has abandoned ,aristotle1 whom the schoolmen had butchered and had made pemmican of1 and through his conquest of ,greek he has come into possession of that new learning which stems back to ,plato2 and his brain is teeming with the criticisms and suggestions of a strange1 pagan philosophy4 ,moreover1 he has been abroad to the ,americas or the ,indies1 and he is ready to tell all who will listen of a strange land on the other side of the world1 where1 as ,sterne said of ,france1 8they do things better40 ,no institution is too fantastic but that it might exist--on the other side of the world4 ,no way of life is too reasonable but that a philosophical population might follow it--on the other side of the world4 ,conceive of the world of ideas which ,greek literature had just opened up coming headlong against the new lands which the magnetic compass had given men the courage to explore1 and utopia1 as a fresh conception of the good life1 becomes a throbbing possibility4 #c ,in setting out for ,utopia ,sir ,thomas ,more left behind a scene which in its political violence and economic maladjustment looks queerly like our own4 ,indeed1 there are a good many passages which need only have a few names altered and the language itself cast into modern ,english in order to serve as editorial comment for a radical weekly review4 ,consider this man ,raphael ,hythloday1 this errant member of the intelligentzia4 ,life as he knows it in the ,europe of his day no longer has a hold upon him4 ,the rich are fattening upon the poor2 land is being gathered into big parcels1 at least in ,england2 and turned over into sheep runs4 ,the people who used to cultivate the land are compelled to leave their few acres and are thrown on their own resources4 ,soldiers who have returned from the wars can find nothing to do2 disabled veterans and people accustomed to live as pensioners on the more prosperous have become destitute4 ,extravagant luxury grows on one hand2 misery on the other4 ,those who are poor1 beg2 those who are proud1 steal2 and for their pains the thieves and the vagrants are tried and sentenced to the gibbet1 where by dozens they hang before the eyes of the market crowds4 ,just as today1 people complain that the laws are not strict enough or that they are not enforced2 and everyone stubbornly refuses to look at the matter through ,raphael ,hythloday's eyes and to see that the robbery and violence which are abroad are not a cause of bad times but a result of them4 ,what can a man of intelligence do in such a world8 ,more's friend1 ,peter ,giles1 who is represented as the sponsor for ,raphael1 wonders why a man of ,raphael's talent does not enter into the service of the king--in short1 go in for politics4 ,raphael answers that he does not wish to be enslaved2 and he cannot try to fetch happiness on terms so abhorrent to his disposition1 for 8most princes apply themselves more to the affairs of war than to the useful arts of peace1 and are more set on acquiring new kingdoms right or wrong than on governing those they possess40 ,there is no use trying to tell them about the wiser institutions of the ,utopians3 if they could not refute your arguments they would say that the old ways were good enough for their ancestors and are good enough for them1 even though they have willingly let go of all the genuinely good things that might have been inherited from the past4 ,so much for the help an intelligent man might give on domestic problems4 ,as for international affairs1 it is a mess of chicane and intrigue and brigandage4 ,while so many people of influence are advising preparedness and 8how to carry on the war10 what chance would a poor intellectual like ,hythloday have if he stood up and said that the government should withdraw their armies from foreign parts and try to improve conditions at home1 instead of oppressing the people with taxes and spilling their blood without bringing them a single blessed advantage1 whilst their manners are being corrupted by a long war1 and their laws fall into contempt1 with robbery and murder on every hand4 ,more1 through the tongue of ,raphael ,hythloday1 is painting a picture of the life he sees about him2 but in it we seem to see every feature of our own national countenance4 ,this unhonored and disoriented intellectual is the very emblem of some of our best spirits today4 ,rack and ruin have gone too far to admit of any sort of repair except that which proceeds from the bottom up2 and so ,hythloday freely admits that 8as long as there is any property1 and while money is the standard of all other things1 ,i cannot think that a nation can be governed either justly or happily2 not justly1 because the best things will fall to the share of the worst men2 nor happily1 because all things will be divided among a few 7and even these are not in all respects happy71 the rest being left to be absolutely miserable40 ,in short1 says ,hythloday1 there is no salvation except through following the practices of the ,utopians4 ,so the new world of exploration brings us within sight of a new world of ideas1 and the beloved community1 whose seed ,plato had sought to implant in men's minds1 springs up again1 after a fallow period of almost two thousand years4 ,what sort of country is it8 #d ,geographically viewed1 the island of ,utopia exists only in ,more's imagination4 ,all that we can say of it is that it is two hundred miles broad1 shaped something like a crescent1 with an entrance into its great bay which lends itself to defence4 ,there are fifty-four cities in the island2 the nearest is twenty-four miles from its neighbor1 and the farthest is not more than a day's march distant4 ,the chief town1 ,amaurot1 is situated very nearly in the center2 and each city has jurisdiction over the land for twenty miles around2 so that here again we find the city-region as the unit of political life4 #e ,the economic base of this commonwealth is agriculture1 and no one is ignorant of the art4 ,here and there over the countryside are great farm-houses1 equipt for carrying on agricultural operations4 ,while those who are well-adapted for rural life are free to live in the open country the whole year round1 other workers are sent by turns from the city to take part in the farm-labor4 ,every farmstead or 8family0 holds no less than forty men and women4 ,each year twenty of this family come back to town after two years in the country2 and in their place another twenty is sent out from the town1 so that they may learn the country work from those who have had at least a year's experience4 ,agricultural economics is so well advanced that the countryside knows exactly how much food is needed by the whole city-region2 but the ,utopians sow and breed more abundantly than they need1 in order that their neighbors may have the overplus4 ,poultry-raising is also highly advanced4 ,the ,utopians 8breed an infinite multitude of chickens in a very curious manner2 for the hens do not sit and hatch them1 but vast numbers of eggs are laid in a gentle and equal heat1 in order to be hatched0--in short1 they have discovered the incubator6 ,during the harvest season the country magistrates inform the city magistrates how many extra hands are needed for reaping2 a draft of city workers is made1 and the work is commonly done in short order4 ,while every man1 woman1 and child knows how to cultivate the soil1 since each has learned partly in school and partly by practice1 every person also has some 8peculiar trade to which he applies himself1 such as the manufacture of wool or flax1 masonry1 smith's work or carpenter's work02 and no trade is held in special esteem above the others4 7,that is a great jump from the ,republic where the mechanic arts are considered base and servile in nature67 ,the same trade usually passes down from father to son1 since each family follows its own special occupation2 but a man whose genius lies another way may be adopted into a family which plies another trade2 and if after he has learnt that trade1 he wishes still to master another1 this change is brought about in the same manner4 8,when he has learned both1 he follows that which he likes best1 unless the public has more occasion for the other40 ,the chief and almost the only business of the magistrates is to see that no one lives in idleness4 ,this does not mean that the ,utopians wear themselves out with 8perpetual toil from morning to night1 as if they were beasts of burden10 for they appoint eight hours for sleep and six for work1 and the rest of the day is left to each man's discretion4 ,they are able to cut down the length of time needed for work1 without our so-called labor saving machinery1 by using the services of classes which in ,more's time were given for the most part to idleness--princes1 rich men1 healthy beggars1 and the like4 ,the only exception to this rule of labor is with the magistrates--who are not in the habit of taking advantage of it--and the students1 who upon proving their ability are released from mechanical operations4 ,if there is too great a surplus of labor1 men are sent out to repair the highways2 but when no public undertaking is to be performed1 the hours of work are lessened4 #f ,so much for the daily industrial life of the ,utopians4 ,how are the goods distributed8 ,between the city and the country there is a monthly exchange of goods4 ,this occasion is made a festival1 and the country people come into town and take back for themselves the goods which the townspeople have made2 and the magistrates 8take care to see it given to them40 ,in back of this direct interchange of goods between town and country1 between household and household1 there are doubtless regulations2 and it is simply our misfortune that ,raphael ,hythloday did not think it necessary to go into them4 ,within the cities1 we must add1 there are storehouses where a daily market takes place4 ,as with the business of production1 the family is the unit of distribution2 and the city is composed of these units1 rather than of a multitude of isolated individuals4 8,every city is divided into four equal parts1 and in the middle of each there is a marketplace2 what is brought hither1 and manufactured by the several families1 is carried from thence to houses appointed for that purpose1 in which all things of a sort are laid by themselves2 and thither every father goes and takes whatever he or his family stand in need of1 without either paying for it or leaving anything in exchange4 ,there is no reason for giving denial to any person1 since there is such plenty of everything among them2 and there is no danger of a man's asking for more than he needs2 they have no inducements to do this1 since they are sure they shall always be supplied40 ,more goes on to explain this direct system of exchange1 and to justify it4 8,it is the fear of want that makes any of the whole race of animals either greedy or ravenous1 but besides fear1 there is in man a pride that makes him fancy it a particular glory to excel others in pomp and excess4 ,but by the laws of the ,utopians there is no room for this4 ,near these markets are others for all sorts of provisions1 where there are not only herbs1 fruits1 and bread1 but also fish1 fowl1 and cattle4 ,there are also1 without their towns1 places appointed near some running water for killing their beasts1 and for washing away their filth40 ,in addition to the monthly apportionment of goods by the local magistrates1 the great council which meets at ,amaurot once a year undertakes to examine the production of each region1 and those regions that suffer from a scarcity of goods are supplied out of the surplus of other regions1 8so that indeed the whole island is1 as it were1 one family40 ,taking it all together1 there is pretty much the same standard of well-being that we found in the ,republic4 ,more recognizes the instinct for self-assertion and the exhibitionist element in man's makeup2 but he does not pander to it4 ,the precious metals are held in contempt3 gold is used to make chamberpots and chains for slaves2 pearls are given to children who glory in them and enjoy them while they are young and are as much ashamed to use them afterwards as they are of their puppets and other toys4 ,gaudy clothes and jewelry are likewise out of fashion in ,utopia4 ,the shopkeepers of ,bond ,street and ,fifth ,avenue would break their hearts here2 for it is impossible to spend money or to spend other people's labor on articles which lend themselves solely to conspicuous display1 and are otherwise neither useful nor beautiful4 ,contrast ,more's ,utopia with ,st4 ,john's vision of heaven1 and the worldly ,utopia seems quite naked and austere4 ,two hundred years later1 in ,penn's city of ,philadelphia1 we might have fancied that we were walking about the streets of ,amaurot4 #g ,the town life of the ,utopians1 as ,i have explained1 rests upon rural foundations2 there is such a mixture of town and country as ,peter ,kropotkin sought to realize in his sketch of 8,fields1 ,factories1 and ,workshops40 ,let us conjure up the town of ,amaurot and see in what sort of environment the townspeople spend their days4 ,our ,utopian city1 alas6 reminds us somewhat of its rivals in latter-day ,america2 for ,raphael tells us that he who knows one of their towns knows all of them4 ,amaurot lies on the side of a hill2 it is almost a square1 two miles on each side2 and it faces the river ,anider which takes its rise eighty miles above the town1 and gets lost in the ocean sixty miles below4 ,the town is compassed by a high1 thick wall2 the streets are convenient for carriages and sheltered from the winds2 and the houses are built in rows so that a whole side of the street looks like a single unit4 7,it was so that the great people built their houses in eighteenth century ,london and ,edinburgh1 as ,belgrave ,square1 ,charlotte ,square1 and the great ,adelphi ,mansion designed by the ,brothers ,adam show us47 ,the streets are twenty feet broad2 and in back of the houses are gardens1 which everyone has a hand in keeping up2 and the people of the various blocks vie with each other in ordering their gardens1 so that there is 8nothing belonging to the whole town that is more useful and more pleasant40 ,in every street there are great halls1 distinguished by particular names1 and lying at an equal distance from each other4 ,in each hall dwells the magistrate of a district1 who rules over thirty families1 fifteen living on one side and fifteen on another2 and since a family consists of not more than sixteen and not less than ten people1 this magistrate--or ,philarch as he is called--is the 8community leader0 of some four hundred people4 ,in these halls everyone meets and takes his principal meal4 ,the stewards go to the market place at a particular hour1 and1 according to the number of people in their halls1 carry home provisions4 ,the people who are in hospitals--which are built outside the walls and are so large they might pass for little towns--get the pick of the day's food4 ,at the hours of dinner and supper the whole block is called together by a trumpet1 and everybody joins company1 except such as are sick or in hospital1 just as the students and fellows to this day eat their principal meal in an ,oxford college4 ,the dressing of meat and the ordering of the tables belongs to the women2 all those of every family taking their place by turns4 ,in the same building there is a common nursery and chapel2 and so the women who have children to care for labor under no inconvenience4 ,the midday meal is dispatched unceremoniously2 but at the end of the day music always accompanies the meals1 perfumes are burnt or sprinkled around1 and they 8want nothing that may cheer up their spirits40 ,bond ,street and ,fifth ,avenue may weep about the absence of conspicuous waste in ,utopia2 but at supper time1 at any rate1 ,william ,penn would be uncomfortable4 ,there is the odor of an uncommonly good club in the description of the final meal of the day3 the smell of the barracks or the poorhouse1 which we should find later in ,robert ,owen's common halls1 does not intrude for an instant4 ,more1 when you examine him closely1 does not altogether forget the mean sensual man who dwells occasionally in all of us6 #h ,now that we have laid the foundations of the material life1 we must observe the limitations that are laid upon the daily activities of the ,utopians4 ,this brings us to the government4 ,the basis of the ,utopian political state1 as in the economic province1 is the family4 ,every year thirty families choose a magistrate1 known as a ,philarch2 and over every ten ,philarchs1 with the families subject to them1 there is an ,archphilarch4 ,all the ,philarchs1 who are in number #bjj1 choose the ,prince out of a list of four1 who are named by the people of the four divisions of the city4 ,the ,prince is elected for life1 unless he be removed on suspicion of attempting to enslave the people4 ,the ,philarchs are chosen for a single year2 but they are frequently re-elected4 ,in order to keep their rulers from conspiring to upset the government1 no matter of great importance can be set on foot without being sent to the ,philarchs1 8who1 after they have communicated it to the families that belong to their divisions1 and have considered it among themselves1 make report to the senate2 and upon great occasions the matter is referred to the council of the whole island40 ,recollect that each household is an industrial as well as a domestic unit1 as was usual in the ,middle ,age1 and you will perceive that this is an astute combination of industrial and political democracy on a genuine basis of common interest4 ,the greater part of the business of the government relates to the economic life of the people4 ,there are certain other matters1 however1 which remain over for them2 and these affairs constitute a blot on ,more's conception of the ideal commonwealth4 ,one of them is the regulation of travel2 another is the treatment of crime2 and a third is war4 ,it is interesting to note that on two subjects which ,more is mightily concerned to rectify in his own country--crime and war--he establishes conditions which are pretty far from being ideal or humane in his ,utopia4 ,a4 ,e4 has well said that a man becomes the image of the thing he hates4 ,everything that ,raphael brings up against the government of ,england in the ,introduction to ,utopia could be brought with almost equal force1 ,i believe1 against the very country which is to serve as a standard4 ,while any man may travel if there is no particular occasion for him at home--whether he wishes to visit friends or see the rest of the country--it is necessary for him to carry a passport from the ,prince4 ,if he stay in any place longer than a night he must follow his proper occupation2 and if anyone goes out of the city without leave or is found wandering around without a passport1 he is punished as a fugitive1 and upon committing the offense a second time is condemned to slavery4 ,this is a plain example of unimaginative harshness2 and it is hard to explain away2 indeed1 ,i have no intention to4 ,apparently ,more could not conceive of a perfectly happy commonwealth for the majority of men if they still had to perform certain filthy daily tasks1 like the slaughtering of beef2 and so he attempts to kill two birds with one stone3 he creates a class of slaves1 and he fills this class by condemning to it people who have committed venial crimes4 ,in doing this1 he overlooks the final objection to slavery in all its forms2 namely1 that it tends to corrupt the master4 ,since we are discussing the conditions that undermine ,more's commonwealth1 we may remark that war1 too1 remains2 the difference being that the ,utopians attempt to do by strategy1 corruption1 and what we should now call propaganda what less intelligent people do by sheer force of arms4 ,if the ,utopian incubator anticipates the modern invention1 their method of conducting war likewise anticipates our modern technique of undermining the enemy's morale3 these ,utopians1 in the good and the bad1 are our contemporaries6 ,among the just causes of war the ,utopians count the seizure of territory1 the oppression of foreign merchants1 and the denial of access to land to nations capable of cultivating it4 ,they take considerable pains to keep their 8best sort of men for their own use at home1 so they make use of the worst sort of men for the consumption of war40 ,in other words1 they regard war as a means1 among other things1 of weeding out undesirable elements in the community4 ,it is a relief to turn away from these residual iniquities to marriage and religion6 ,in marriage there is a curious mixture of the personal conception of sexual relations1 which is the modern note1 with a belief in certain formal specifications which was the distinctly medival quality4 ,thus on one hand the ,utopians take care that the bride and the bridegroom are introduced to each other1 in their nakedness1 before the ceremony2 and the grounds for divorce are adultery and insufferable perverseness4 ,when two people cannot agree they are permitted to escape the bond by mutual agreement under approval granted by the ,senate after strict inquiry4 ,on the other hand1 unchastity is sternly punished1 and those who commit adultery are condemned to slavery and not given the privilege of a second marriage4 ,in religion there is complete toleration for all creeds1 with this exception3 that those who dispute violently about religion or attempt to use any other force than that of mild persuasion are punished for breaking the public peace4 #i ,there is not the space to follow the life of the ,utopians in all its details4 ,it is time to discuss the world of ideas by which these ,utopians chart their daily activities4 ,this exposition of the basic ,utopian values has been so admirably put by ,sir ,thomas ,more himself that the greater part of our conclusion will inevitably fall within quotation marks4 ,the ,utopians 8define virtue thus3 that it is a living according to ,nature1 and think that we are made by ,god for that end2 they believe that a man then follows ,nature when he pursues or avoids things according to the direction of reason4444 ,reason directs us to keep our minds as free from passion and as cheerful as we can1 and that we should consider ourselves bound by the ties of good-nature and humanity to use our utmost endeavors to help forward the happiness of all other persons2 for there never was any man such a morose and severe pursuer of virtue1 such an enemy to pleasure1 that though he set hard rules for men to undergo much pain1 many watchings and other rigors1 yet did not at the same time advise them to do all they could to relieve and ease the miserable1 and who did not represent gentleness and good nature as amiable dispositions4444 ,a life of pleasure is either a real evil1 and in that case we ought not to assist others in their pursuit of it1 but1 on the contrary1 to keep them from it all we can1 as from that which is most hurtful and deadly2 or if it is a good thing1 so that we not only may but ought to help others to it1 why then ought not a man to begin with himself8 ,since no man can be more bound to look after the good of another than after his own4444 8,thus as they define ,virtue to be living according to ,nature1 so they imagine that ,nature prompts all people to seek after pleasure1 as the end of all they do4 ,they also observe that in order to further our supporting the pleasures of life1 ,nature inclines us to enter into society2 for there is no man so much raised above the rest of mankind as to be the only favorite of ,nature1 who1 on the contrary1 seems to have placed on a level all those that belong to the same species4 ,upon this they infer that no man ought to seek his own conveniences so eagerly as to prejudice others2 and therefore they think that all agreements between private persons ought to be observed1 but likewise that all those laws ought to be kept1 which either a good prince has published in due form1 to which a people that is neither oppressed with tyranny nor circumvented by fraud1 has consented1 for distributing these conveniences of life which afford us all our pleasures4 8,they think it is an evidence of true wisdom for a man to pursue his own advantages1 as far as the laws allow it4 ,they account it piety to prefer public good to one's private concerns2 but they think it unjust for a man to seek for pleasure by snatching another man's pleasures from him4 8,thus upon an inquiry into the whole matter1 they reckon that all our actions1 and even all our virtues1 terminate in pleasure1 as in our chief end and greatest happiness2 and they call every motion or state1 either of body or mind1 in which ,nature teaches us to delight1 a pleasure4 ,they cautiously limit pleasure only to those appetites to which ,nature leads us2 for they say that ,nature leads us only to those delights to which reason as well as sense carries us1 and by which we neither injure any other person nor lose the possession of greater pleasures1 and of such as draw no troubles after them40 ,thus the ,utopians discriminate between natural pleasures and those which have some sting or bitterness concealed in them4 ,the love of fine clothes is considered by ,utopians as a pleasure of the latter sort2 likewise is the desire of those who possess fine clothes to be kowtowed to by other people4 ,men who heap up wealth without using it are in the same class2 and those who throw dice or hunt--for in ,utopia hunting is turned over to the butchers1 and the butchers are slaves4 ,now ,utopians 8reckon up several sorts of pleasures which they call true ones2 some belong to the body and others to the mind4 ,the pleasures of the mind lie in knowledge1 and in that delight which the contemplation of truth carries with it2 to which they add the joyful reflections on a well-spent life2 and the assured hopes of a future happiness4 ,they divide the pleasures of the body into two sorts2 the one is that which gives our senses some real delight1 and is performed1 either by recruiting nature1 and supplying those parts which feed the internal heat of life by eating and drinking2 or when nature is eased of any surcharge that oppresses it2 when we are relieved from sudden pain1 or that which arises from satisfying the appetite which ,nature has wisely given for the propagation of the species4 ,there is another kind of pleasure that arises neither from our receiving what the body requires1 nor its being relieved when overcharged1 and yet by a secret1 unseen virtue affects the senses1 raises the passions1 and strikes the mind with generous impressions2 this is the pleasure that arises from music4 ,another kind of bodily pleasure is that which arises from an undisturbed and vigorous constitution of body1 when life and active spirits seem to actuate every part4 ,this lively health1 when entirely free from all mixture of pain1 of itself gives an inward pleasure 444 and ,utopians reckon it the foundation and basis of all the other joys of life1 since this alone makes the state of life easy and desirable2 and when this is wanting a man is really capable of no other pleasure40 ,the crowning pleasure of the ,utopian is the cultivation of the mind2 and the leisure hours of the people1 as well as the professional scholars1 are spent in the lecture hall and the study4 #aj ,such are the goals for which the ,utopians direct their social order4 ,these values are1 ,i need scarcely point out1 rooted in the nature of man1 and not in any set of external institutions4 ,the aim of every ,utopian institution is to help every man to help himself4 ,when we put the matter in these bald phrases1 what ,more brings forward seems weak and platitudinous4 ,behind it all1 however1 is a vital idea3 namely1 that our attempts to live the good life are constantly perverted by our efforts to gain a living2 and that by juggling gains and advantages1 by striving after power and riches and distinction1 we miss the opportunity to live as whole men4 ,people become the nursemaids of their furniture1 their property1 their titles1 their position2 and so they lose the direct satisfaction that furniture or property would give4 ,to cultivate the soil rather than simply to get away with a job2 to take food and drink rather than to earn money2 to think and dream and invent1 rather than to increase one's reputation2 in short1 to grasp the living reality and spurn the shadow--this is the substance of the ,utopian way of life4 ,power and wealth and dignity and fame are abstractions2 and men cannot live by abstractions alone4 ,in this ,utopia of the ,new ,world every man has the opportunity to be a man because no one else has the opportunity to be a monster4 ,here1 too1 the chief end of man is that he should grow to the fullest stature of his species4 ,,chapter ,,four ,how the new ,humanism of the ,renascence brings us within sight of ,christianopolis2 and how we have for the first time a glimpse of a modern utopia4 ,,chapter ,,four #a ,a hundred years pass1 and the man who next conducts us into ,utopia is a ,humanist scholar4 ,after the manner of his time1 he answers to the latinized name1 ,johann ,valentin ,andre4 ,he is a traveller1 a social reformer1 and above all things a preacher2 and so the vision he imparts to us of ,christianopolis seems occasionally to flicker into blackness whilst he moralizes for us and tells us to the point of tedium what his views are concerning the life of man1 and in particular the conceptions of ,christianity which his countrymen1 the ,germans1 are debating about4 ,sometimes1 when we are on the point of coming to grips with his utopia1 he will annoy us by going off on a long tirade about the wickedness of the world and the necessity for fastening one's gaze upon the life hereafter--for ,protestantism seems just as other-worldly as ,catholicism4 ,it is the ,humanist ,andre rather than the ,lutheran ,andre who paints the picture of a ,christian city4 ,while ,andre sticks to ,christianopolis his insight is deep1 his views are sound1 and his proposals are rational2 and more than once he will amaze us by putting forward ideas which seem to leap three hundred years ahead of his time and environment4 ,it is impossible to get rid of the personal flavor of ,andre3 his fine intelligence and his candor make our contacts with ,christianopolis quite different from the dreary guidebook sketches which some of the later utopians will inflict upon us4 ,the two other utopians who wrote in the same half century as ,andre--,francis ,bacon and ,tommaso ,campanella--are quite second-rate in comparison2 ,bacon with his positively nauseating foppishness about details in dress and his superstitious regard for forms and ceremonials1 and ,campanella1 the lonely monk whose ,city of the ,sun seems a marriage of ,plato's ,republic and the ,court of ,montezuma4 ,when ,bacon talks about science1 he talks like a court costumer who is in the habit of describing the stage properties for a masque2 and it is hard to tell whether he is more interested in the experiments performed by the scientists of the ,new ,atlantis or the sort of clothes they wear while engaged in them4 ,there is nothing of the snob or the dilettante about ,andre3 ,his eye fastens itself upon essentials1 and he never leaves them except when--for he is necessarily a man of his age--he turns his gaze piously to heaven4 ,this teeming1 struggling ,european world that ,andre turns his back upon he knows quite well2 for he has lived in ,herrenburg1 ,koenigsbrunn1 ,tuebingen1 ,strassburg1 ,heidelberg1 ,frankfurt1 ,geneva1 ,vaihingen1 and ,calw2 and he is in correspondence with learned men abroad1 in particular with ,samuel ,hartlib1 who lives in ,england1 and with ,john ,amos ,comenius4 ,like the ,chancellor in ,christianopolis1 he longs for an 8abode situated below the sky1 but at the same time above the dregs of this known world40 ,quite simply1 he finds himself wrecked on the shore of an island dominated by the city of ,christianopolis4 ,after being examined as to his ideas of life and morals1 his person1 and his culture1 he is admitted to the community4 #b ,this island is a whole world in miniature4 ,as in the ,republic1 the unit once more is the valley section1 for the 8island is rich in grain and pasture fields1 watered with rivers and brooks1 adorned with woods and vineyards1 full of animals40 ,in outward appearance1 ,christianopolis does not differ very much from the pictures of the cities one finds in seventeenth century travel books1 except for a unity and orderliness that these cities sometimes lack4 8,its shape is a square whose side is #gjj feet1 well fortified with four towers and a wall4444 ,it looks therefore towards the four quarters of the earth4 ,of buildings there are two rows1 or if you count the seat of the government and the storehouses1 four2 there is only one public street1 and only one marketplace1 but this one is of a very high order40 ,in the middle of the city there is a circular temple1 a hundred feet in diameter2 all the buildings are three stories2 and public balconies lead to them4 ,provision against fire is made by building the houses of burnt stone and separating them by fire-proof walls4 ,in general1 8things look much the same all around1 not extravagant nor yet unclean2 fresh air and ventilation are provided throughout4 ,about four hundred citizens live here in religious faith and peace of the highest order40 ,the whole city is divided into three parts1 one to supply food1 one for drill and exercise1 and one for looks4 ,the remainder of the island serves the purposes of agriculture1 and for workshops4 #c ,when we look back upon the ,republic1 with its external organization so plainly modeled upon military ,sparta1 we see the camp and the soldier giving the pattern to the life of the whole community4 ,in ,utopia1 the fundamental unit was the farmstead and the family2 and family discipline1 which arises naturally enough in rural conditions1 was transferred to the city4 ,in ,christianopolis1 the workshop and the worker set the lines upon which the community is developed2 and whatever else this society may be1 it is a 8republic of workers1 living in equality1 desiring peace1 and renouncing riches40 ,if ,utopia exhibits the communism of the family1 ,christianopolis presents the communism of the guild4 ,industrially speaking1 there are three sections in ,christianopolis4 ,one of them is devoted to agriculture and animal husbandry4 ,each of these departments has appropriate buildings1 and directly opposite them is a rather large tower which connects them with the city buildings2 under the tower a broad vaulted entrance leads into the city1 and a smaller one to the individual houses4 ,the dome of this tower roofs what we should call a guildhall1 and here the citizens of the quarter come together as often as required to 8act on sacred as well as civil matters40 ,it is plain that these workers are not sheep led by wise shepherds1 as in the ,republic1 but the members of autonomous1 self-regulating groups4 ,the next quarter contains the mills1 bake-shops1 meat-shops1 and factories for making whatever is done with machinery apart from fire4 ,as ,christianopolis welcomes originality in invention1 there are a variety of enterprises within this domain2 among them1 paper manufacturing plants1 saw mills1 and establishments for grinding and polishing arms and tools4 ,there are common kitchens and wash houses1 too2 for1 as we shall see presently1 life in this ideal city corresponds to what we experience today in ,new ,york1 ,london1 and many another modern industrial city4 ,the third quarter is given over to the metallurgical industries1 as well as to those like the glass1 brick1 and earthenware industries which require constant fire4 ,it is necessary to point out that in planning the industrial quarters of ,christianopolis1 these seventeenth century ,utopians have anticipated the best practice that has been worked out today1 after a century of disorderly building4 ,the separation of the city into zones1 the distinction between 8heavy0 industries and 8light0 industries1 the grouping of similar industrial establishments1 the provision of an agricultural zone adjacent to the city--in all this our garden cities are but belated reproductions of ,christianopolis4 ,moreover1 in ,christianopolis1 there is a conscious application of science to industrial processes2 one might almost say that these artisans believed in efficiency engineering2 for 8here in truth you see a testing of nature herself4 ,the men are not driven to a work with which they are unfamiliar1 like pack-animals to their task1 but they have been trained before in an accurate knowledge of scientific matters10 on the theory that 8unless you analyze matter by experiment1 unless you improve the deficiencies of knowledge by more capable instruments1 you are worthless40 ,the dependence of industrial improvement upon deliberate scientific research may be a new discovery for the practical man1 but it is an old story in ,utopia4 #d ,what is the character of this artisan democracy8 ,the answer to this is summed up in one of those sayings that ,andre1 in the midst of his energetic exposition1 drops by the way4 8,to be wise and to work are not incompatible1 if there is moderation40 ,so it follows that 8their artisans are almost entirely educated men4 ,for that which other people think is the proper characteristic of a few 7and yet if you consider the stuffing of inexperience by learning1 the characteristic of too many already7 this1 the inhabitants argue1 should be attained by all individuals4 ,they say that neither the substance of letters is such1 nor yet the difficulty of work1 that one man1 if given enough time1 cannot master both40 8,their work1 or as they prefer to hear it called1 #8the employment of their hands1' is conducted in a certain prescribed way1 and all things are brought into a public booth4 ,from here every workman receives out of the stock on hand whatever is necessary for the work of the coming week4 ,for the whole city is1 as it were1 one single workshop1 but of all different sorts and crafts4 ,the ones in charge of these duties are stationed in the small towers at the corners of the wall2 they know ahead of time what is to be made1 in what quantity1 and of what form1 and they inform the mechanics of these items4 ,if the supply of material in the work booth is sufficient1 the workmen are permitted to indulge and give free play to their inventive genius4 ,no one has any money1 nor is there any use for any private money2 yet the republic has its own treasury4 ,and in this respect the inhabitants are especially blessed1 because no one can be superior to the other in the amount of riches owned1 since the advantage is rather one of power and genius1 and the highest respect that of morals and piety4 ,they have very few working hours1 yet no less is accomplished than in other places1 as it is considered disgraceful by all that one should take more rest and leisure time than is allowed40 ,in addition to the special trades1 there are 8public duties to which all citizens have obligation1 such as watching1 guarding1 harvesting of grain and wine1 working roads1 erecting buildings1 draining ground2 also certain duties of assisting in the factories which are imposed upon all in turn according to age and sex1 but not very often nor for a long time4 ,for even though certain experienced men are put in charge of all the duties1 yet when men are asked for1 no one refuses the state his services and strength4 ,for what we are in our homes1 they are in their city1 which they not undeservedly think a home4 ,and for this reason it is no disgrace to perform any public function4444 ,hence all work1 even that which is considered rather irksome1 is accomplished in good time1 and without much difficulty1 since the promptness of the great number of workmen permits them easily to collect or distribute the great mass of things40 ,in this ,christianopolis1 as ,mr4 ,bertrand ,russell would put it1 the creative rather than the possessive impulses are uppermost4 ,work is the main condition of existence1 and this good community faces it4 ,it is a pretty contrast to the attitude of the leisured classes who1 as ,andre says1 with an entirely mistaken sense of delicacy shrink from touching earth1 water1 stones1 coal1 and things of that sort1 but think it grand to have in their possession to delight them 8horses1 dogs1 harlots and other similar creatures40 #e ,the place of commerce in this scheme of life is simple4 ,it does not exist for the sake of individual gain4 ,hence no one engages in commerce on his own hook1 for such matters are put in the hands of 8those selected to attend to them10 and the aim of commerce is not to gain money but to increase the variety of things at the disposal of the local community2 so that--and again ,andre steps in for emphasis--8we may see the peculiar production of each land1 and so communicate with each other that we may seem to have the advantages of the universe in one place1 as it were40 #f ,the constitution of the family in ,christianopolis follows pretty definitely upon the lines dictated by urban occupations2 for ,andre is a city man1 and since he does not despise the advantages city life can give1 he does not shrink from their consequences4 ,one of these consequences is1 surely1 the restriction of domesticity1 or rather1 the projection in the city at large of the functions that in a farmstead would be carried on within the bosom of the family4 ,when a lad is twenty-four and a lass is eighteen1 they are permitted to marry1 with the benefit of ,christian rites and services1 and a decorous avoidance of drunkenness and gluttony after the ceremony4 ,marriage is a simple matter4 ,there are no dowries to consider1 no professional anxieties to face1 no housing shortage to keep one from finding a home1 and above all1 perhaps1 no landlord to propitiate with money1 since all houses are owned by the city and are granted and assigned to individuals for their use4 ,virtue and beauty are the only qualities that govern a marriage in ,christianopolis4 ,furniture is provided with the house out of the public store4 ,if in ,utopia the families are grouped together in a patriarchal household1 such as ,more himself maintained at ,chelsea1 in ,christianopolis they consist of isolated couples1 four1 at most six people in all1 a woman1 a man1 and such children as are not yet of school age4 ,let us visit a young couple in ,christianopolis4 ,we reach the house by way of a street1 twenty feet broad1 faced by houses with a wide frontage on the street1 some forty feet in length1 and of from fifteen to twenty-five feet in depth4 ,in our crowded towns1 today1 where people pay for land by the front foot1 the frontage is narrow and the houses are deep2 and as a result there is a dreadful insufficiency of light and air2 but in ,christianopolis1 as in some of the older ,european towns1 the houses are built to get a maximum of air and sunlight4 ,if it is raining when we make our visit1 a covered walk1 five feet wide1 supported by columns twelve feet high1 will shelter us from the rain4 ,our friends live1 we shall say1 in one of the average apartments2 so they have three rooms1 a bathroom1 a sleeping apartment1 and a kitchen4 8,the middle part within the tower has a little open space with a wide window1 where wood and the heavier things are raised aloft by pulleys0--in short1 a dumbwaiter4 ,looking out from the window in the rear1 we face a well-kept garden2 and if our host is inclined to give us wine1 he may let us take our pick from among the cobwebs of a small private cellar in the basement1 where such things are kept4 ,if it is a cold day1 the furnace is going2 or if we happen to make our visit in the summer time1 the awnings are drawn4 ,our host makes apologies1 perhaps1 for a litter of wood and shavings that occupies a corner of the kitchen1 for he has just been putting up a few shelves in his spare time1 and has borrowed a kit of tools from the public supply house4 7,since he is not a carpenter1 he has no need for these tools the rest of the year2 and other people can have their turn at them47 ,coming from ,utopia1 one of the things that strikes us is the absence of domestic attendance2 and when we ask our hostess about it1 she tells us that she will not have anyone to wait upon her until she is confined4 8,but isn't there a lot of work for you to do all by yourself80 we shall ask4 8,not for anybody with a college training10 she will answer4 8,you see that our furnishings are quite simple2 and since there are no gimcracks to be dusted1 no polished tables to be oiled1 no carpets to be swept1 and nothing in our apartment that is just for show to prove that we can afford to live better than our neighbors1 the work is scarcely more than enough to keep one in good health and temper4 ,of course1 cooking meals is always something of a nuisance2 and washing up is worse4 ,but my husband and ,i share the work together1 in everything but sewing and washing clothes1 and you would be surprised how quickly everything gets done4 ,work is usually galling when somebody else is taking his ease while one is doing it2 but where husband and wife share alike1 as in ,christianopolis1 there is really nothing to it4 ,if you'll stay to dinner1 you'll find out how easily it goes4 ,since you haven't brought your rations1 my husband will get some cooked meats in the public kitchen1 and that will do for all of us40 8,no one need be surprised at the rather cramped quarters10 ,andre hastens to interject4 8,people who house vanity 444 can never live spaciously enough4 ,they burden others and are burdened themselves1 and no one measures their necessities1 nay even their comforts1 easily otherwise than by an unbearable and unmovable mass4 ,oh1 only those persons are rich who have all of which they have real need1 who admit nothing else1 merely because it is possible to have it in abundance40 ,carried to its extreme1 you will find this philosophy put once for all in ,thoreau's ,walden4 ,we have got our bearings in ,utopia1 ,i believe1 when we have determined what a life abundant consists of1 and what will suffice for it4 #g ,suppose that our friends have children4 ,during the early years of their life they are in the care of their mother4 ,when they have completed their sixth year1 the children are given over to the care of the community1 and both sexes continue in school through the stages of childhood1 youth1 and early maturity4 8,no parent gives closer or more careful attention to his children than is given here1 for the most upright preceptors1 men as well as women1 are placed over them4 ,moreover10 the parents 8can visit their children1 even unseen by them1 as often as they have leisure4 ,as this is an institution for the public good1 it is managed agreeably as a common charge for all the citizens4 ,they see to it that the food is appetizing and wholesome1 that the couches and beds are clean and comfortable1 and that the clothes and attire of the whole body are clean4444 ,if diseases of the skin or body are contracted1 the individuals are cared for in good time2 and to avoid the spreading of infection1 they are quarantined40 ,there is scarcely need to examine the program of study except in its broad outlines4 ,it is enough to observe that 8the young men have their study period in the morning1 the girls in the afternoon1 and matrons as well as learned men are their instructors4444 ,the rest of their time is devoted to manual training and domestic art and science1 as each one's occupation is assigned to his natural inclination4 ,when they have vacant time they are permitted to engage in honorable physical exercises either in the open spaces of the town or in the field40 ,two points1 however1 deserve our attention4 ,the first is that the school is run as a miniature republic4 ,the second is the calibre of the instructors4 8,the instructors10 says our zealous humanist1 8are not men from the dregs of human society nor such as are useless for other occupations1 but the choice of all the citizens1 persons whose standing in the ,republic is known and who very often have access to the highest positions of the state40 ,the last phrase again transports me back to the modern world4 ,i see this fine humanist ideal budding in another place4 ,this time it is a summer school in the hills of ,new ,hampshire1 where the children govern themselves in the classroom1 where there is no punishment except temporary exclusion from the group1 and where1 above all1 each instructor is chosen because of his creative practice in the subject which he teaches3 a highly gifted composer teaches music1 an athlete teaches gymnastics1 a poet teaches literature4 ,then ,i think of all the casual and wasted talents of people who for little more than the asking would share their love of the arts and sciences with little children1 if only those who are in charge of little children were not too blind or too fearful to make use of them4 ,faraday's classic lectures on the physics of the candle1 and ,ruskin's addresses to a young ladies' boarding school on the function of literature--such things might be multiplied4 ,it is not the creation of this utopian method that is difficult2 for the thing has already been done3 what we need is its extension4 ,then children might come to school as gaily as they do in ,peterborough1 ,n4 ,h41 on the lush summer mornings2 and people would not turn their backs on learning any more than they would turn their backs on life4 ,if anyone thinks that ,johann ,andre's prescription for a teaching staff is an impossible one1 let him visit the ,peterborough ,school1 and examine its records and achievements4 ,it remains to record the further stages of learning4 ,the halls of the central citadel are divided into twelve departments1 and except for the armory1 the archives1 the printing establishment1 and the treasury1 these halls are devoted entirely to the arts and sciences4 ,there is1 to begin with1 a laboratory of physical science4 8,here the properties of metals1 minerals1 and vegetables1 and even the life of animals1 are examined1 purified1 increased1 and united for the use of the human race and in the interests of health4444 ,here men learn to regulate fire1 make use of air1 value the water1 and test the earth40 ,next to this laboratory is a ,drug ,supply ,house1 where a pharmacy is scientifically developed1 for the curing of physical disease1 and adjoining this is a school of medicine1 or as ,andre reports1 8a place given over to anatomy4444 ,the value of ascertaining the location of the organs and of assisting the struggles of nature no one would deny1 unless he be as ignorant of himself as are the barbarians4444 ,the inhabitants of ,christianopolis teach their youth the operations of life and the various organs1 from the parts of the physical body40 ,we come now then to a ,natural ,science laboratory which is in effect a ,museum of ,natural ,history1 an institution founded in ,utopia a century and a half before a partial and inadequate substitute--a mere extension of the curio chamber of a ,country ,house--was presented to an admiring world as the ,british ,museum4 8,this10 as ,andre says1 8cannot be too elegantly described10 and ,i heartily agree with him2 for he paints the picture of a museum which the ,american ,museum at ,new ,york or ,south ,kensington in ,london has only begun to realize within the last decade or two of their existence4 8,natural history is here seen painted on the walls in detail1 and with greatest skill4 ,the phenomena of the sky1 views of the earth in different regions1 the different races of men1 representations of animals1 the forms of growing things1 classes of stones and gems1 are not only on hand and named1 but they even teach and make known their nature and qualities4444 ,truly is not recognition of things of the earth much easier of competent demonstration if illustrative materials are at hand and if there is some guide to the memory8 ,for instruction enters altogether more easily through the eyes than through the ears1 and much more pleasantly in the presence of refinement than among the base4 ,they are deceived who think it is impossible to teach except in dark caves and with a gloomy brow4 ,a liberal minded man is never so keen as when he has his instructors on confidential terms40 ,going farther1 we find a mathematics laboratory and a department of mathematical instruments4 ,the first is 8remarkable for its diagrams of the heavens1 as the hall of physics for its diagrams of the earth4444 ,a chart of the star-studded heavens and a reproduction of the whole shining host above were shown10 444 and also 8different illustrations representing tools and machines1 small models1 figures of geometry2 instruments of the mechanical arts1 drawn1 named1 and explained40 ,i cannot help expressing my admiration here for the concrete imagination of this remarkable scholar3 he deliberately anticipated1 not in the vague1 allegorical form that ,bacon does1 but as lucidly as an architect or a museum curator1 the sort of institute which ,south ,kensington1 with its ,departments of ,physical and ,natural ,science1 or perhaps the ,smithsonian in ,america1 has just begun to resemble4 ,if our museums had begun with the ideal ,andre had in mind1 instead of with the miscellaneous rubbish which was the nucleus of their collections--and still remains the nucleus in many of the less advanced institutions--the presentation of the sciences would be a more adequate thing than it is4 ,does ,andre leave the fine arts out of his picture8 ,by no means4 8,opposite the pharmacy is a very roomy shop for pictorial art1 an art in which the city takes the greatest delight4 ,for the city1 besides being decorated all over with pictures representing the various phases of the earth1 makes use of them especially in the instruction of youth and for rendering learning more easy4444 ,besides1 pictures and statues of famous men are to be seen everywhere1 an incentive of no mean value to the young for striving to imitate their virtue4444 ,at the same time also1 the beauty of forms is so pleasing to them that they embrace with a whole heart the inner beauty of virtue itself40 ,at the summit of art and science we naturally find in ,christianopolis the temple of religion4 ,alas6 the hand of ,calvin has been busy in ,christianopolis--recollect that ,andre once lived in ,geneva and admired its ordinances--and attendance at prayers is compulsory4 ,in order to get an idea of this great circular temple1 three hundred sixteen feet in circumference and seventy feet high1 we must think of a colossal moving picture theater in a modern metropolis4 ,the comparison is not essentially sacrilegious2 and ,i believe that those who will take the trouble to look below the surface will find without difficulty the common denominator between the profane and the ecclesiastical institution4 7,attendance at motion pictures1 ,i must quickly add for the benefit of the future historian1 has not yet been made compulsory in the modern metropolis47 ,one-half of the temple is where the public gatherings take place2 and the other is reserved for the distribution of the sacraments and for music4 8,at the same time1 the sacred comedies1 by which they set so much store1 and are entertained every three months1 are shown in the temple40 #h ,we have discussed folk1 work1 and place in ,christianopolis2 and we have dealt in an admittedly sketchy fashion with culture and art4 ,we must now turn attention to the polity2 and here we must note that ,andre's description shifts for once to an allegorical plane1 and departs not a little from the realism of his treatment of science and the arts4 ,at the bottom of the polity there are glimpses of a local industrial association1 meeting in the common halls that are provided in the towers of each of the industrial quarters2 and we gather that to represent the city at large twenty-four councilmen are chosen1 while as the executive department there is a triumvirate consisting of a ,minister1 a ,judge1 and a ,director of ,learning1 each of whom is married1 for metaphorical point1 to ,conscience1 ,understanding1 and ,truth1 respectively4 8,each one of the leaders does his own duty1 yet not without the knowledge of others2 all consult together in matters that concern the safety of the state40 ,in the censorship of books1 ,christianopolis reminds us of the ,republic2 in the exclusion of lawyers it calls up nearly every other utopia2 and in its attitude towards crime it has a temperance and leniency that is all its own1 for 8the judges of this ,christian city observe this custom especially1 that they punish most severely those misdeeds which are directed straight against ,god1 less severely those which injure men1 and lightest of all those who harm only property4 ,as the ,christian citizens are always chary of spilling blood1 they do not willingly agree upon the death sentence as a form of punishment4444 ,for anyone can destroy a man but only the best can reform40 ,how shall we sum up this government8 ,let ,andre speak his own words2 for he has reached the innermost shrine of ,christianopolis and perceives the center of activity in the state4 8,here religion1 justice1 and learning have their abode1 and theirs is the control of the city4444 ,i often wonder what people mean who separate and disjoint their best powers1 the joining of which might render them blessed as far as may be on earth4 ,there are those who would be considered religious1 who throw off all things human2 there are some who are pleased to rule1 though without any religion at all2 learning makes a great noise1 flattering now this one1 now that1 yet applauding itself most4 ,what finally may the tongue do except provoke ,god1 confuse men1 and destroy itself8 ,so there would seem to be a need of co-operation which only ,christianity can give--,christianity which conciliates ,god with men and unites men together1 so that they have pious thoughts1 do good deeds1 know the truth1 and finally die happily to live eternally40 ,there are some who might object to this statement on the ground that it smacked too heartily of supernatural religion2 but it remains just as valid if we translate it into terms whose theological reactions have been neutralized4 ,to have a sense of values1 to know the world in which they are set1 and to be able to distribute them--this is our modern version of ,andre's conception of religion1 learning1 and justice4 ,a little search might uncover another expression of the ,humanist ideal as complete and magnificent as this2 but ,i doubt if it would find a better one4 ,in essence1 this blunt and forthright ,german scholar is standing shoulder to shoulder with ,plato3 his ,christianopolis is as enduring as the best nature of men4 ,,chapter ,,five ,how ,bacon and ,campanella1 who have a great reputation as utopians1 are little better than echoes of the men who went before them4 ,,chapter ,,five #a ,a ,genoese sea-captain is the guest of a ,grand ,master of the ,knights ,hospitaller4 ,this sea-captain tells him of a great country under the equator1 dominated by the ,city of the ,sun4 ,the outward appearance of this country is a little strange--the city with its seven rings named after the seven planets1 and its four gates that lead to the four quarters of the earth1 and the hill that is topt by a grand temple1 and the walls covered with laws and alphabets and paintings of natural phenomena1 and the ,rulers--,power1 ,wisdom1 and ,love--with the learned doctors1 ,astrologus1 ,cosmographus1 ,arithmeticus1 and their like3 it is an apparition such as never yet was seen on land or sea4 ,small wonder1 for this ,city of the ,sun existed only in the exotic brain of a ,calabrian monk1 ,tommaso ,campanella1 whose ,utopia existed in manuscript before ,andre wrote his ,christianopolis4 ,we shall not stay long in the ,city of the ,sun4 ,after we have become familiar with the outward color and form of the landscape1 we discover1 alas6 that it is not a foreign country we are exploring1 but a sort of picture puzzle put together out of fragments from ,plato and ,more4 ,as in the ,republic1 there is a complete community of property1 a community of wives1 and an equality of the sexes2 as in ,utopia1 the younger people wait upon the elders2 as in ,christianopolis1 science is imparted1 or at least hinted at1 by demonstration4 ,when one subtracts what these other ,utopian countries have contributed1 very little indeed remains4 ,but we must not neglect to observe two significant passages4 ,one of them is the recognition of the part that invention might play in the ideal commonwealth4 ,the people of the ,city of the ,sun have wagons that are driven by the wind1 and boats 8which go over the waters without rowers or the force of the wind1 but by a marvelous contrivance40 ,there is a very clear anticipation of the mechanical improvements which began to multiply so rapidly in the eighteenth century4 ,at the tale end of the sea-captain's recital1 the ,grand ,master exclaims3 8,oh1 if you knew what our astrologers say of the coming age1 that has in it more history within a hundred years than all the world had in four thousand years before6 ,of the wonderful invention of printing and guns1 and the use of the magnet44440 ,with the mechanical arts in full development1 labor in the ,city of the ,sun has become dignified3 it is not the custom to keep slaves4 ,since everyone takes his part in the common work1 there is not more than four hours' work to be done per day4 8,they are rich because they want nothing2 poor because they possess nothing2 and consequently they are not slaves to circumstances1 but circumstances serve them40 ,the other point upon which ,campanella's observation is remarkably keen is his explanation of the relation of private property and the private household to the commonwealth4 ,thus3 8,they say that all private property is acquired and improved for the reason that each one of us by himself has his own home and wife and children4 ,from this self-love springs4 ,for when we raise a son to riches and dignities1 and leave an heir to much wealth1 we become either ready to grasp at the property of the state1 if in any case fear should be removed from the power which belongs to riches and rank2 or avaricious1 crafty1 and hypocritical1 if any is of slender purse1 little strength1 and mean ancestry4 ,but when we have taken away self-love1 there remains only love for the state40 ,how shall the common ,utopia keep from being neglected through each one's concern for his little private utopia8 ,this is the critical problem that our utopians have all to face2 and ,campanella loyally follows ,plato in his solution4 ,it is perhaps inevitable that each utopian's personal experience of life should enter into his solution1 and overwhelmingly give it color2 and here the limitations of our utopians are plain4 ,more and ,andre are married men1 and they stand for the individual family4 ,plato and ,campanella were bachelors1 and they proposed that men should live like monks or soldiers4 ,perhaps these two camps are not so far away as they would seem4 ,if we follow the exposition of that excellent anthropologist1 ,professor ,edward ,westermarck1 we shall be fairly well convinced1 ,i believe1 that marriage is a biological institution1 and thorough promiscuity is1 to say the least1 an unusual form of mating4 ,plato perhaps recognized this when he left us in doubt as to whether a community of wives would be practiced by his artisans and husbandmen4 ,so he perhaps paves the way for a solution by which the normal life for the great majority of men would be marriage1 with its individual concerns and loyalties1 whilst for the active1 creative elements in the community a less secluded form of mating would be practiced4 ,the painter1 ,van ,gogh1 has given us a kernel to chew on when he says that the sexual life of the artist must be either that of the monk or the soldier1 for otherwise he is distracted from his creative work4 ,we may leave this question in the air1 as long as we realize that all our utopias rest upon our ability to discover some sort of a solution4 #b ,francis ,bacon's ,new ,atlantis is not a utopia in the sense that ,i have explained our principle of selection in the preface to the bibliography4 ,it is only a fragment1 and not very good as fragments go2 and it would drop out altogether from our survey were it not for the hugely over-rated reputation that ,bacon has as a philosopher of natural science--indeed1 as the philosopher after ,aristotle4 ,the greater part of ,bacon's ideas are anticipated and more amply expressed by ,andre4 ,when we have deleted ,bacon's multitudinous prayers and exhortations1 when we have disposed of his copious descriptions of jewels and velvets and satins and ceremonial regalia1 we find that the core of his commonwealth is ,salomon's ,house1 sometimes known as the ,college of the ,six ,days' ,works2 which he describes as the noblest foundation that ever was upon earth1 and the lantern of the kingdom4 ,the purpose of this foundation is the 8knowledge of the causes and secret motions of things2 and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire1 to the effecting of all things possible40 ,the material resources of this foundation are manifold4 ,it has laboratories dug into the sides of hills1 and observatories with towers half a mile high2 it has great lakes of salt and fresh water which seem to anticipate the marine laboratories we know today2 and it has engines for setting things in motion4 ,besides this1 there are spacious houses where physical demonstrations are made1 and sanatoria where various novel cures are attempted2 there are experimental agricultural stations1 too1 where grafts and crosses are tried4 ,add to this pharmaceutical laboratories1 industrial laboratories1 and numerous houses devoted to such things as experiments with sounds1 lights1 perfumes1 and tastes--which ,bacon presents in a wild farrago without any regard to the essential sciences to which the work he describes is related--and one has a tally of the 8riches of ,salomon's ,house40 ,twelve fellows of the college travel into foreign lands to bring back books and abstracts1 and reports on experiments and inventions4 ,three make a digest of experiments4 ,three collect the experiments of all the mechanical arts1 and also of practices which are not brought into the arts4 ,three try new experiments4 ,three devote themselves to classifications2 and another three1 known as dowry men or benefactors1 look into the experiments of their fellows and cast about for means of applying them to human life and knowledge4 ,three fellows consult with the whole body of scientific workers and plan new channels of investigation2 and three1 who are called interpreters of nature1 attempt to raise the results of particular investigations into general observations and axioms4 ,in telling all this1 as in the rest of his ,new ,atlantis1 ,bacon is incredibly childish and incoherent3 he gives such a description of ,salomon's ,house as a six-year-old schoolboy might give of a visit to the ,rockefeller ,foundation4 ,beneath these maladroit interpretations1 however1 we see that ,bacon had a grasp on some of the fundamentals of scientific research1 and of the part that science might play in the 8relief of man's estate40 ,it is nothing more than a hint1 this ,new ,atlantis2 but a word to the wise is enough2 and as we look about the modern world we see that1 in its material affairs at any rate1 the great scientific institutes and foundations--the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,standards1 for one--play a part not a little like that of the ,college of the ,six ,days' ,works4 ,campanella with his dream of powerful mechanical inventions1 in which he had been anticipated by ,leonardo1 and ,bacon with his sketch of scientific institutes--with these two utopians we stand at the entrance to the utopia of means2 that is to say1 the place in which all that materially contributes to the good life has been perfected4 ,the earlier utopias were concerned to establish the things which men should aim for in life4 ,the utopias of the later ,renascence took these aims for granted and discussed how man's scope of action might be broadened4 ,in this the utopians only reflected the temper of their time2 and did not attempt to remold it4 ,as a result of our preoccupation with the means1 we in the ,western ,world live in an inventor's paradise4 ,scientific knowledge and mechanical power we have to burn2 more knowledge and more power than ,bacon or ,campanella could possibly have dreamed of4 ,but today we face again the riddle that ,plato1 ,more1 and ,andre sought to answer3 what are men to do with their knowledge and power8 ,as we skip here and there through the ,utopias of the next three centuries1 this question gets more deeply impregnated in our minds4 ,,chapter ,,six ,how something happened in the eighteenth century which made men 8furiously to think10 and how a whole group of utopias sprang out of the upturned soil of industrialism4 ,,chapter ,,six #a ,there is a gap in the ,utopian tradition between the seventeenth century and the nineteenth4 ,utopia1 the place that must be built1 faded into no-man's land1 the spot to which one might escape2 and the utopias of ,denis ,vairasse and ,simon ,berington and the other romancers of this in-between period are in the line of ,robinson ,crusoe rather than the ,republic4 ,one finds the clue to this lapse in ,tiphaigne de la ,roche's ,giphantia1 a sketch of what was and what is and what will be1 and in particular1 an inquiry into the 8,babylonian0 mode of life4 ,the author of ,giphantia tells a parable about ,sophia1 the incarnation of ,wisdom1 who rejects the offers of the spendthrift1 the merchant1 the soldier1 and the student1 and accepts the suit of a diffident fellow who had retired in solitude to the country1 to spend his days like a cultivated gentleman4 ,one remembers the way in which ,montaigne spent his declining years2 one remembers ,voltaire2 and one sees how deeply the ideal of ,robinson ,crusoe--a cultivated ,robinson ,crusoe1 surrounded with books and beyond the reach of any king and court--colored the deepest aspirations of this period4 ,rousseau1 writing about the corrupting influence of the arts and sciences1 and ,chateaubriand1 seeking the noble savage in the ,american wilderness and finding him in his own bosom--these men struck the dominating note of the eighteenth century4 ,in a society that was already painfully artificial and 8arranged0 the institutes of ,lycurgus and ,utopus must have seemed as repressive as those of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,so almost two centuries pass before we find any fresh regions to explore in ,utopia4 #b ,the ,utopia of ,sir ,thomas ,more1 and those of the later men of the ,renascence1 arose1 as ,i have pointed out1 from the contrast between the possibilities that lay open beyond the sea and the dismal conditions that attended the breakdown of the town economy of the ,middle ,age4 ,like ,plato's ,republic1 it attempted to face the difficult problem of transition4 ,in the course of the next three centuries the adventure of exploring and ransacking strange countries loses its hold upon men's imagination2 and a new type of activity becomes the center of interest4 ,the conquest of alien countries and the lure of gold do not indeed die out with this new interest2 but they are subordinated to another type of conquest--that which man seeks to effect over nature4 ,here and there1 particularly in ,great ,britain1 untrained men 8with a practical turn0 begin to busy themselves with improving the mechanical apparatus by which the day's labor is done4 ,a retired barber1 named ,arkwright1 invents a spinning frame1 a ,scotchman named ,mac,adam discovers a new method of laying roads2 and out of a hundred such inventions during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries a new world comes into existence--a world in which energy derived from coal and running water takes the place of human energy2 in which goods manipulated by machinery take the place of goods woven or sawed or hammered by hand4 ,within a hundred years the actual world and the idola were transformed4 ,in this new world of falling water1 burning coal1 and whirring machinery1 utopia was born again4 ,it is easy to see why this should have happened1 and why about two-thirds of our utopias should have been written in the nineteenth century4 ,the world was being visibly made over2 and it was possible to conceive of a different order of things without escaping to the other side of the earth4 ,there were political changes1 and the monarchic state was tempered by republicanism2 there were industrial changes1 and two hungry mouths were born where one could feed before2 and there were social changes--the strata of society shifted and 8faulted10 and men who in an earlier period would have been doomed to a dull and ignominious round1 perhaps1 took a place alongside those whom inheritance had given all the privileges of riches and breeding4 ,in contrast to all these fresh possibilities were the dismal realities which were easily enough perceived by people who stood outside this new order1 or who by temperament revolted against the indignities and repressions and vilenesses that accompanied it4 ,it is not my particular business here to deal with the facts of history2 but unless one understands the facts of history1 the utopias which ,i am about to present lose a good part of their meaning4 ,those machines whose output was so great that all men might be clothed2 those new methods of agriculture and new agricultural implements1 which promised crops so big that all men might be fed--the very instruments that were to give the whole community the physical basis of a good life turned out1 for the vast majority of people who possessed neither capital nor land1 to be nothing short of instruments of torture4 ,i do not speak too harshly of the early industrial age2 it is impossible to speak too harshly4 ,take the trouble to read ,robert ,owen's 8,essay on the ,formation of ,character0 7,manchester3 #ahcg7 and learn what conditions were like in a model factory run by an enlightened employer3 it is a picture of unmitigated brutality4 ,one must go back to the blackest periods of ancient slavery for a parallel1 if indeed one would find it1 for the ,pyramids that were built under the lash have a certain grandeur and permanence which justify their existence1 whilst the goods which were produced in ,yorkshire through the maimed bodies of pauper children proved to be as impermanent as the lives that were sacrificed in making them4 ,those who were inside this new order--the ,gradgrinds and ,bounderbys whom ,dickens pictures in 8,hard ,times0--sought to realize their utopia of the ,iron ,age on earth4 ,when we are through with the genuine utopians we shall examine the idola by which all the 8practical0 men of the nineteenth century1 ,marx as well as ,macaulay1 patterned their behavior4 ,those who stood out against this new order were not so much opposed to the new methods as to the purposes for which they were being used3 they felt that an orderly conquest of ,nature had turned into a wild scramble for loot1 and that all the goods industrialism promised were being lost1 for the benefit of a few aggressive and unsocialized individuals4 ,with the host of critics and interpreters and reformers that arose in the nineteenth century we shall have a little reckoning to make presently3 those who concern us here however belong to the stock of ,plato1 ,more1 and ,andre1 in that they attempted to see society as a whole1 and to protect a new order which would be basically sound as well as superficially improved4 ,yet with the exception of the utopias which revolted against industrialism these nineteenth century essays are partial and one-sided2 for they tend to magnify the importance of the industrial order as much as ,gradgrind and ,bounderby did1 and in doing this they lose sight of the whole life of man4 ,these industrial utopias are no longer concerned with values but with means2 they are all instrumentalist4 ,i doubt whether an intelligent peasant in ,india or ,china would get out of the whole batch of these utopias a single idea which would have any bearing on the life that he has experienced--so little of human significance remains when the problems of mechanical and political organization have been disposed of6 ,one symptom of this lack of individuality1 this lack of what1 in the old-fashioned sense used to be called a philosophy1 is the fact that we can treat all these industrial utopias in groups4 ,the first of these group-utopias ,i shall call1 perhaps somewhat arbitrarily1 the ,associationists4 #c ,among the ,associationists1 the most influential utopian is ,charles ,franois ,marie ,fourier4 ,he was a prolific and incoherent writer1 and his ,utopia1 if the truth be told1 exists as disjecta membra rather than as a single work2 but in his case ,i make an exception to the criterion of selection2 because in every other respect he has a claim upon our attention4 ,this ,fourier was a dry little ,french commercial traveller1 whose personal fortune was lost in the ,french revolution and whose hopes for founding a real eutopia were blasted by the ,july revolution of #ahcj4 ,again and again he transferred himself from one line of goods to another in order to increase the area of the territory he covered and learn more of the workings of society2 and so in his writings a wealth of concrete detail goes hand in hand with personal crotchets and the opinionativeness which arises almost inevitably out of an undisciplined solitude4 ,what follows is a distillation of ,fourier's thought1 with the lees and orts left in the bottom of the flask4 ,fourier differs largely from the early utopians in that he is concerned first of all not with modifying human nature but with finding out what it actually is4 ,his utopia is to be based upon an understanding of man's actual physical and mental makeup1 and its institutions are to be such as will permit man's original nature to function freely4 ,the motive which draws his community together is attraction2 the power which sets his institutions going is 8the passions40 ,under the head of passions--the original biological equipment--,fourier gives a list of tendencies which corresponds roughly with the modern psychologist's list of instincts4 ,fourier takes these passions as 8given02 his utopia is not designed to 8effect any change in our passions 444 their direction will be changed without changing their nature40 ,as ,brisbane says in his ,introduction to ,fourier's philosophy1 social institutions are to these passional forces what machinery is to material forces4 ,a good community1 according to ,fourier1 is one which will bring all these passions into play1 in their complex actions and interactions4 ,as in the ,republic1 the ideal behind ,fourier's utopia is harmony2 for man has a threefold destiny2 namely1 8an industrial destiny1 to harmonize the material world2 a social destiny1 to harmonize the passional or moral world2 and an intellectual destiny1 to discover the laws of universal order and harmony40 ,what was at fault with modern civilized societies was that they were incomplete1 and in their functioning they created a social dissonance4 ,to overcome this1 says ,fourier1 men must unite into harmonious associations which will give play to all their activities1 and which1 by erecting common institutions1 will do away with the waste arising in the individual's attempts to do for himself all the things which would be done by a complete community4 ,for this perfect association ,fourier provides minute plans and tables2 but the general plan can be outlined with brevity4 ,first of all1 ,fourier1 too1 goes back to the valley section4 ,the initial nucleus of his utopia is to consist of a company of #a1ejj or #a1fjj persons1 owning a good stretch of land comprising at least a square league4 ,since this experimental phalanx1 as ,fourier called it1 would have to stand alone1 and without the support of neighboring phalanxes1 there will in consequence of this isolation be many gaps in 8attraction10 and 8many passional calms to dread in its workings40 ,to overcome this1 ,fourier insists that it is necessary to locate the phalanx on soil fit for a variety of functions4 8,a flat country1 such as ,antwerp1 ,leipsic1 ,orleans1 would be totally unsuitable 444 owing to the uniformity of land surface4 ,it will therefore be necessary to select a diversified region1 like the surroundings of ,lausanne1 or at the very least1 a fine valley1 provided with a stream of water and a forest1 like the valley of ,brussel or of ,halle40 ,this domain would be laid out in fields1 orchards1 vineyards1 and so forth1 according to the nature of the soil and industrial requirements4 ,by devotion to horticulture and arboriculture1 ,fourier figures1 an intensive development would supply abundantly the needs of the colony4 ,the main economic occupation of the phalanx would be agricultural--this is perhaps the great distinction between ,fourier and later ,utopians--but all the arts would be practiced within the phalanstery1 since otherwise the association would be incomplete4 ,the principle of the association is concretely embodied in a vast edifice in the center of the domain3 8a palace complete in all its appointments serving as the residence of the associates4 ,in this palace there are three wings1 corresponding to the ,material1 the ,social1 and the ,intellectual domains4 ,in one wing are the workshops and halls of industry4 ,in another are the library1 the scientific collections1 museums1 artists' studios1 and the like4 ,in the center1 devoted to the social element1 are banquet halls1 a hall of reception1 and grand salons4 ,at one end of the palace is a ,temple of the ,material ,harmonies1 devoted to singing1 music1 poetry1 dancing1 gymnastics1 painting1 and so forth4 ,at the other end is the ,temple of ,unityism1 to celebrate with appropriate rites man's unity with the universe4 ,on the summit there is an observatory with telegraph and signal tower1 for communication with other phalanxes4 ,the phalanx men are associationists2 but it follows from ,fourier's theory of the passions that they have private interests as well as public ones2 and these private interests are permitted to flourish as long as they do not interfere with social solidarity4 ,thus they avoid the waste inherent in private housekeeping by having public kitchens1 where1 incidentally1 the children are trained from an early age at cooking1 as they are today in one or two experimental schools3 nevertheless it is possible to dine in solitude as well as in company4 ,by the same token1 every member of the phalanx is guaranteed a minimum of food1 clothing1 lodging1 and even amusements without respect to work2 at the same time1 private property is sanctioned1 and each member extracts from the common store a dividend in proportion to the amount of stock he holds in the association4 ,this dividend1 it must be qualified1 is considerably reduced by the fact that a system of profit sharing replaces the pure wage system4 ,there is thus a sort of balance between private self-seeking and the maintenance of the public good4 ,in order to manufacture goods economically1 large scale production is introduced wherever possible1 and the division of labor is forced to its ultimate limits4 ,fourier takes account of the resulting monotony1 however1 and suggests that the monotony be corrected by having recourse to changing tasks and occupations from time to time4 ,in commercial exchange1 the phalanx acts as a unit2 it constitutes a great self-governing body which traffics in surplus goods with similar associations1 without any middleman1 in something of the manner1 perhaps1 that the ,co-operative ,wholesale ,societies do today4 ,by abolishing the individual household1 the phalanx gives a new freedom to women2 and ,fourier does not see how it is possible to maintain the system of monogamic proprietorship once women have a free choice of mates4 ,so the women of the phalanx are not intellectual nonentities2 and since they no longer preside over the individual home1 they help run the whole community4 ,is it necessary to add the common nurseries1 the common schools1 the informal education of the children1 and the number of other things which follow from this emancipation8 ,perhaps one of the most remarkable characteristics of this utopia is its utilization of a moral equivalent for war1 long before ,professor ,william ,james invented the phrase4 ,one of the great functions of the phalanx is the assemblage of productive armies even as 8civilization0 assembles destructive ones4 ,there is a fine passage in which ,fourier pictures an industrial army of golden youths and maidens1 8instead of devastating thirty provinces in a campaign1 these armies will have spanned thirty rivers with bridges1 re-wooded thirty barren mountains1 dug thirty trenches for irrigation1 and drained thirty marshes40 ,it is for lack of such industrial armies1 says ,fourier1 that civilization is unable to produce anything great4 #d ,what strikes us when we put together the fragments of ,fourier's utopia--as one might put together a jigsaw puzzle--is the fact that he faces the variety and inequality of human nature4 ,instead of erecting a standard for men to live up to1 and rejecting mankind as unfit for utopia because the standard is far beyond its height1 the standard itself is founded upon the utmost capacity which a community might be able to exhibit4 ,fourier meets human nature half-way3 he endeavors to project a society which will give regular channels to all its divergent impulses1 and prevent them from spilling unsocially all over the landscape4 ,in his statement of this aim there are plenty of weaknesses and absurdities2 and ,i confess that it is hard to take this pathetic little man seriously2 but when one has grappled with ,fourier's thought one discovers that there is something to take4 ,fourier died without persuading anyone to give a trial to his scheme of association2 and yet his work was not without its practical influence4 ,the ,brook ,farm experiment in ,america was a fumbling attempt to plant a phalanstery without paying any attention to the conditions which ,fourier would have rigorously imposed2 and the 8familistere0 of the great steel works of ,godin at ,guise1 in ,france1 is another direct result of ,fourier's inspiration4 ,he remains1 ,i believe1 the first man who had a plan for colonizing the wilderness of industrial barbarism that existed at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 and redeeming that wilderness to civilization4 #e ,the name of ,robert ,owen is usually associated with utopianism2 but his work belongs more to the 8real0 world than to the idola of utopia2 and ,i pass over him with the briefest mention1 for his projects for a model industrial town have more of the flavor of a poor colony than that of a productive human society4 ,let us grant him good intentions1 organizing ability1 and moral fervor3 without doubt he is a noble figure1 even when his attitude is strained and his tone strident4 ,the series of essays he wrote on love and marriage are marked by fine sympathy and common sense2 and it is to be regretted that they are not as widely known as his plans for a new moral world4 ,if this little note can repair the neglect1 ,i have done ,owen ample justice3 as an active figure in ,english and ,american public life he is properly a subject for the social historian4 ,with ,owen ,i must also dismiss ,john ,ruskin1 who began in the last quarter of the nineteenth century to develop plans for a 8,guild of ,st4 ,george40 ,this guild was to form a little island of honest labor and sound education in the midst of the turbid sea of industrialism2 but it did not embrace the whole of society1 and it was utopian only in the sense that the ,oneida ,community1 let us say1 was utopian4 ,while they are full of pregnant suggestions1 the plans for the ,guild are as fragmentary as the ,new ,atlantis4 #f ,one of the neglected utopias of the mid-nineteenth century is that of ,james ,buckingham4 ,james ,buckingham was one of those erratic men of affairs which the fertile soil of ,british individualism produces1 and which hard ,british common sense persistently ignores4 ,like ,owen1 ,buckingham was acquainted with industrial and commercial affairs from the inside3 he travelled widely and wrote upon various matters with that copious1 amateurish dogmatism and spirit which marks him1 perhaps1 as the philistine counterpart of ,john ,ruskin4 ,if the utopias of the past express the ideals of the soldier1 the farmer1 and the artisan1 the community which ,buckingham projected represents the ideal of the bourgeoisie4 ,buckingham's ,victoria is the ideal aspect of that ,coketown which in a later chapter we shall attempt to describe4 ,we talk loosely of the individualism of the nineteenth century2 but in reality it was a period that was thriving with associations4 ,the scope of joint stock companies and philanthropic societies had immeasurably widened4 ,along with the ,mudfog ,association1 8for the advancement of everything10 which ,dickens satirized1 there sprang up a hundred different societies for performing some special function in the industrial system or realizing some particular purpose in society4 ,buckingham gives us a picture of his contemporaries which is also a criticism3 8,we have the government of the country itself1 passing acts of parliament for the better drainage of towns1 and a more ample supply of water and air for ventilation4444 ,hence1 too1 arise associations of noblemen and others for building model lodging houses for the labouring classes2 associations for improving the dwellings of the poor2 societies for providing baths and bath houses for families unable to procure such conveniences for themselves2 associations for establishing suburban villages for the working classes1 and to get them at night at least out of the crowded haunts and vicious atmosphere of the towns4 ,and hence we have ,temperance ,societies1 ,tract ,societies1 ,home ,missions1 ,asylums for ,repentant ,magdalens1 ,homes for ,seaman out of ,employ1 and ,houses of ,refuge for the ,destitute1 with soup kitchens and other modes of temporary relief44440 ,what does this all come to8 ,let ,buckingham answer3 8,they are1 after all1 mere palliatives1 and do not reach the seat of the disease4444 ,this can only be done by uniting the disjointed efforts of all these well-meaning but partially curative bodies into one1 in order to achieve1 by their union of means1 influence1 and example1 the erection of a 8,model ,society10 with its model farms1 model pastures1 model mines1 model manufactures1 model town1 model schools1 model workshops1 model kitchens1 model libraries1 and places of recreation1 enjoyment1 and instruction2 all of which could be united in one new ,association40 ,without inquiring too closely into what a model pasture may be1 we may admit that the notion behind ,buckingham's proposal was not unsound4 ,the industrial society of his day was in an inchoate1 indeed in a chaotic state4 ,in order to sift out the necessary institutions and put them on a firm basis1 it was the better part of wisdom to start anew on a fresh area of land and attempt to plan the development of the community as a whole4 ,it is true that in this proposal of ,buckingham's there is none of ,fourier's brilliant intuitions of a true social order1 and none of ,ruskin's critical inquiry into what composed a good life3 ,buckingham took contemporary values for granted4 ,what he sought to do was to realize these values completely1 and in orderly fashion4 ,here are the elements of his proposal4 ,there is to be formed a model town association1 with a limited liability1 for the purpose of building a new town called ,victoria4 ,the town is to contain every improvement in 8position1 plan1 drainage1 ventilation1 architecture1 supply of water1 light1 and every other elegance and convenience40 ,its size is to be about a mile square and the number of inhabitants is not to exceed #aj1jjj4 ,a suitable variety of manufactures and handicraft trades is to be established near the edge of the town2 and the town itself is to be surrounded by farm land #aj1jjj acres broad4 ,all of the lands1 houses1 factories1 and materials are to be the property of the company1 and not of any individual2 and this property is to be held for the benefit of all in proportion as their shares entitle them4 ,no person is to be a member of the company or an inhabitant of the town except one who is a bona fide shareholder to the extent of at least twenty pounds1 and who is ready to subscribe to a drastic series of blue laws which1 while permitting freedom in religious worship and preventing child labor1 do away with liquor1 drugs1 and even tobacco4 ,in addition to these provisions there are to be common laundries1 kitchens1 refectories1 and nurseries2 and medical advice is to be given free1 at home or in the hospital1 as in the army and navy4 ,education is to be undertaken by the community4 ,justice1 it should be noted by those who are acquainted with an experiment which has recently been started in ,new ,york1 is to be administered by competent arbitrators under a written code of laws1 without the expense1 delay1 and uncertainty of ordinary legal proceedings4 ,all members are to sign declarations accepting arbitration and waiving other legal proceedings against members of the company4 ,all these affairs1 especially the manner in which the town is to be built1 are worked out in considerable detail2 thus the size and character of the houses are set forth on the plan1 and it is provided that each workingman is to occupy at least one entire and separate room for himself2 whilst each married couple without children gets two rooms1 and each family in which there are children is to occupy at least three rooms for domestic purposes4 ,i have set down all these details baldly because the plan itself is a bald one2 and no amount of fine writing will embellish it4 ,buckingham's society is not based upon a thoroughgoing criticism of human institutions3 the ends for which this society exists are doubtless those which were held good and proper by the ,macaulays and the ,martineaus4 ,what is interesting in ,buckingham's utopia is the definite plans and specifications1 accompanied by drawings2 for this is surely one of the first attempts to put a problem in social engineering on a basis from which an engineer or an architect could work4 ,buckingham thought that1 given a successful model town1 the rest of ,england might in time be colonized by the surplus population1 and thus the old centers of black industry would be wiped out4 ,nor was ,buckingham altogether deceived4 ,his utopia was a limited one1 but out of his limitations has come success4 ,in #ahdh this utopia was a chimera2 in #ahih1 ,mr4 ,ebenezer ,howard reconstructed it and set it forth in a persuasive little book called ,tomorrow1 and as a direct result of the plans advocated by ,mr4 ,howard1 a flourishing garden city called ,letchworth has come into existence2 which in turn has propagated another garden city1 called ,wellwyn2 and at the same time has1 by example1 paved the way for numerous garden villages and garden suburbs in various parts of ,europe and in ,america4 ,with this mid-,victorian theorist1 we pass over from a pre-scientific method of thinking to one which sacrifices the artistic imagination to a realistic grasp of the facts2 and in this passage something is gained and something is lost4 ,buckingham gains by confining his proposals to what is immediately practicable4 ,he loses by not having the imaginative energy to criticize the ways1 means1 and ends that are sanctioned by current practise4 ,if utopia begins with ,plato's glorious dream of an organic community1 the image of the just man made perfect1 it cannot end with ,buckingham's invention of a shell4 ,nevertheless1 through the nineteenth century the superficial utopians1 the shell-builders1 are dominant2 and we must continue to examine them4 ,,chapter ,,seven ,how some ,utopians have thought that a good community rested at bottom on the right division and use of land2 and what sort of communities these land-animals projected4 ,,chapter ,,seven #a ,before the ,industrial ,revolution upset the balance of social power1 there were little villages in ,england where1 on a limited scale and to no very grand purpose1 a quiet and placid and fairly jolly existence must have been the rule of things4 ,these villages were those in which the land was either held in freehold by small proprietors1 or where there still remained for the use of each inhabitant certain common pastures and wastes4 ,under this regime there was a fair degree of prosperity with which only the wind and the weather and war could interfere4 ,something of the savor of this life ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hudson finely conveys in his ,a ,traveller in ,little ,things2 and a century ago ,cobbett made a series of excellent snapshots in his ,rural ,rides4 ,when the medival order broke down the great proprietors began to seize this common land2 and during the eighteenth century1 under the incentive of big-scale scientific agriculture1 the seizure went on at a merry pace4 ,the peasant without land was forced to migrate to the new towns1 as the ,hammonds have pictured in their graphic work on the ,town ,laborer2 and the labor of the peasant and his family fed the machines which the ,watts and ,arkwrights were developing in the eighteenth century4 ,industrial progress and social poverty went hand in hand4 ,the period before the ,industrial ,revolution seemed in comparison a real utopia2 and the key to this utopia was the land4 ,the importance of land in the constitution of civil society was emphasized by the ,diggers of ,cromwell's time2 one of them1 ,gerard ,winstanley1 wrote a minor utopia to prove that the land should be held in common2 and this view was reinforced--without the communism--in a purely political utopia called ,oceana by ,james ,harrington1 who lived during the same period4 ,harrington advocated such a distribution of land that the landed gentry should be the leaders1 and the commonalty should have the preponderance of power4 ,out of all the modern utopias with which we have to reckon there are two1 in particular1 in which the common possession of land is the foundation of every other institution4 ,these are ,spensonia and ,a ,visit to ,freeland4 #b ,the early part of the nineteenth century is remarkable for the fact that men of common stock1 usually self-educated1 began to apply their wits to improving the conditions of the class to which they belonged2 and in particular there was in ,london a peasant named ,william ,cobbett1 a tailor named ,francis ,place1 and a stationer named ,thomas ,spence who devoted a good part of what remained over from their working days to plans for bettering man's estate4 ,thomas ,spence had a shop in ,high ,holborn from which he published little pamphlets of rough philosophy1 called ,pig's ,meat2 in #agie he issued ,a ,description of ,spensonia1 which was followed in #ahja by ,the ,constitution of ,spensonia3 ,a ,country in ,fairyland situated between ,utopia and ,oceana2 brought from thence by ,captain ,swallow4 ,spence's title to have written a complete utopia rests upon the fact that he proposes a return to an environment which had once been1 in its fashion1 complete4 ,spensonia begins with a parable about a father who had a number of sons1 who built them a ship for traffic1 and who provided that the profits of the enterprise were to be shared in common4 ,this ship is wrecked upon an island2 and the sons quickly awake to the conclusion that if 8they did not apply the ,marine ,constitution given them by their father to their landed property1 they would soon experience inexpressible inconveniences4 ,they therefore declared the property of the island to be the property of them all collectively1 in the same manner as the ship had been1 and that they ought to share the profits thereof in the same way4 ,the island they named ,spensonia1 after the ship which their father had given them4 ,they next chose officers to mark out such portions of the land1 as every person or family desired to occupy1 for which they were to receive for the use of the public a certain rent according to its value4 ,this rent was applied to public uses or divided among themselves as they thought proper4 ,but in order to keep up the remembrance of their rights1 they decreed that they should never fail to share at rent-time1 an equal dividend1 though ever so small1 and though the public demands should be ever so urgent4444 ,as they had determined1 when seeing that every ship they should build and man1 should 444 be the property of the crew1 so1 in conformity therewith1 they decreed that every district or parish which they should people1 should be the property of the inhabitants1 and the rent and police of the same at their disposal4444 ,a ,national ,assembly or ,congress consisting of delegates from all the parishes takes care of the national concerns1 and defrays the expenses of the state and matters of common utility1 by a pound rate from each parish without any other tax40 ,what is a parish and what is its work8 ,look around the ,english countryside and see4 ,a parish1 to begin with1 is a 8compact portion of the country1 designedly not too large that it may the more easily be managed by the inhabitants with respect to its revenues and the police40 8,the parishes build and repair houses1 make roads1 plant hedges and trees1 and in a word do all the business of a landlord4444 ,a parish has many heads to contrive what ought to be done4 ,instead of debating about mending the state1 444 7for ours needs no mending7 we employ our ingenuity nearer home1 and the result of the debates are in every parish1 how we shall work such a mine1 make such a river navigable1 drain such a fen1 or improve such a waste4 ,these things we are all immediately interested in1 and have each a vote in executing40 ,there is a rough1 homespun quality about this utopia1 and it needs a visit to the ,english villages of the ,new ,forest or the ,chiltern ,hills1 where some of the common lands have been kept1 to see what a rural utopia would be like if it could keep itself free from invaders who sought to live off the fat of the land without contributing their labor4 ,spence was not altogether blind to the necessity of keeping watch over this constitution of equality2 and he places his utopia in the care of two guardian angels--,voting by ,ballot and the ,universal ,use of ,arms--two angels which look less formidable and potent in the twentieth century than they did in the first decade of the nineteenth1 when the first had still to be tried1 and when the second was not complicated by the invention of machine guns and poison gases4 ,at the bottom of ,spence's ,utopia1 however1 lies the conviction which he shares with ,plato and all the other genuine utopians2 namely1 that in ,thoreau's words less is accomplished by the thousands who are hacking at the branches of evil than by one who is striking at the root4 ,spence1 it must be remembered1 wrote in the thick of the agitation for parliamentary reform which was the keynote of so much nineteenth century activity--the chartist movement1 parliamentary socialism1 and the like1 being so many rainbows in the bubble of political effort which burst with such a bang when the ,great ,war broke out4 ,spence saw the futility of these superficial demands4 ,he said3 8,thousands of abortive schemes are daily proposed for redressing grievances and mending the constitution1 whereas1 the shoes were so ill-made at first1 and so worn1 rotten1 and patched already1 that they are not worth the trouble or expense1 but ought to be thrown to the dunghill2 and a new pair should be made1 neat1 tight1 and easy as for the foot of one that loves freedom and ease4 ,then would your controversies about this and the other way of cobbling1 that continually agitate you1 be done away2 and you would walk along the rugged and dirty path of life easy and dry-shod40 #c ,the next utopia1 ,freeland1 marks a transition between the utopia in which the land alone is held by the community and that in which land and capital and all the machinery of production belong to a national state4 ,the writer of this utopia was an ,austrian economist1 ,theodor ,hertzka2 and he first published his view in considerable detail1 with reference to current economic doctrines1 in a book called ,freeland3 ,a ,social ,anticipation4 ,he condensed these doctrines in another book called ,a ,visit to ,freeland1 or the new ,paradise ,regained1 an attempt to picture his freeman's commonwealth in action4 ,these books formed the center of a whirlwind of agitation2 a magazine sprang up2 societies were organized in various cities in ,europe and ,america2 and a definite attempt was made to colonize a certain section of ,africa1 selected by ,hertzka2 an attempt which1 alas6 met with speedy failure as a result of the obtuseness and international jealousy of various colonial officials4 ,the first book was published in #ahhi2 and all this happened in the early nineties4 ,perhaps the only practical effect of it was--and this is mere conjecture--to turn the thoughts of certain ,zionists1 like ,israel ,zangwill1 from establishing ,zion in ,jerusalem to building it up again in some more suitable region in the heart of ,africa4 ,freeland may be described as an individualist ,utopia on a social foundation4 ,hertzka was filled with sympathy and admiration for the doctrines that ,adam ,smith set forth in ,the ,wealth of ,nations2 and he desired to realize a society in which the maximum amount of individual freedom and initiative would prevail1 especially in industrial enterprises4 ,this leads to a paradox2 namely1 that in order to ensure freedom it is impossible to practise laissez faire2 for the effect of laissez faire is to permit accidental aggregations of wealth and power to threaten the freedom that less fortunate individuals seek to enjoy4 ,so far from being an anarchist utopia1 ,freeland is a co-operative commonwealth in which the ,state acts as an interested party in the production and distribution of goods4 ,this differs from socialism in name2 and it differed from the practical socialist agitation of the time in that it relied1 not upon turning over established institutions in ,europe1 but in turning over a new leaf in the ,kenia ,highlands of ,africa2 but ,hertzka's 8individualism0 comes to almost the same thing4 #d ,a visit to ,freeland teaches us little about the arts of social life or the constitution of a good society4 ,what we can learn is one of the methods by which--on hypothesis anyway--the industrial mechanism might be controlled4 ,in ,freeland there are five fundamental laws2 and of these the first is the most important2 namely1 that3 ,every inhabitant has an equal right to the common land and to the means of production which are furnished by the state4 ,the other fundamental laws have to do with the support of women and children1 old men1 and those otherwise unfit to work1 all of whom have the right of maintenance1 corresponding to the amount of credit belonging to the state2 with the provision of universal suffrage for all above twenty-five years of age2 and with the establishment of independent legislative and executive branches of the government4 ,let us follow the visitor to ,freeland as he makes his first explorations in ,edendale1 its principal city1 and learns how affairs are conducted4 ,if this is an individualist utopia it is not by any means free from the services of a bureaucracy2 for first of all the visitor turns to the ,central ,statistical ,office1 where records are kept of the occupations that are open and the amount of pay offered by each4 8,every inhabitant of ,freeland10 our visitor finds1 8has the right to become a member of any business he pleases4 ,one has only to present oneself for this purpose2 for the managers only decide upon the manner in which the members are to be employed1 and not on the membership itself40 ,in practice1 the number of individuals with private businesses and partnerships seems to be limited1 for big companies not merely operate factories but provide restaurant service1 build houses1 and even supply domestic service to private individuals and households4 7,the visitor has his boots blacked by one of these associated menials1 and his hostess explains how the services of a caterer and a valet may be obtained by calling up a central distributing agency47 ,the sole condition upon which a person or company is allowed to engage in business is that the public be kept informed of all business transactions4 8,the companies are therefore obliged to conduct their book-keeping openly4 ,the prices at which goods are bought and sold1 the net profits and the number of workmen1 must be communicated at intervals which are fixed according to the judgment of the central office40 ,observe that ,hertzka reckons with the fact that in an industrial society1 access to machinery is just as important as access to the land1 since1 in a manner of speaking1 all our modern activities1 even agriculture1 are parasitic upon machinery4 ,hence the collection and distribution of capital is managed in the interests of the whole community2 the first being taken care of by a yearly tax1 which obviates the need--and perhaps the possibility--of individual savings1 whilst the capital is distributed without interest to the companies that make application for it4 ,the community pays for the plant through the added charge which is laid on consumers2 the credit advanced is cancelled out through production4 ,this arrangement does away with the standing charge for capital which is maintained under present day production for profit even after the original capital has been paid off in dividends2 and above all1 it does away with the practice of capitalizing increased returns in such a way as to enlarge the amount of the standing charge for capital4 ,the social use of capital to advance production1 rather than to provide fixed incomes for a rentier class1 is recognized in ,freeland4 ,since our visitor is an engineer1 he turns to a plant devoted to the manufacture of railway equipment2 and notes that it is run under the following statutes4 #a4 ,everyone is free to join the first ,edendale ,engine and ,railway ,manufacturing ,co41 even if he also belongs to other companies4 ,everyone is also permitted to leave the company whenever he chooses4 ,the board of management decides in what branch of the works the members shall be employed4 #b4 ,every member is entitled to an amount of the net proceeds of the company corresponding to the quantity of work which is done4 #c4 ,the amount of work is calculated according to the number of hours1 to which two per cent4 is added to that of the older members1 and ten per cent4 to foremen1 and ten per cent4 for night work4 #d4 ,the engineers are paid as if working from ten to fifteen hours1 according to ability4 ,the value of the manager is estimated in the general assembly4 #e4 ,out of the company's profits a deduction is first made towards repayment of capital1 and after this the tax to the state is deducted4 ,the remainder is divided among members4 #f4 ,if the company is dissolved or liquidated1 the members are responsible in proportion to the amount of profit which they get from revenues of the company1 and this responsibility for the amount which is still pledged is proportionately laid upon new members4 ,when a member leaves the company1 his responsibility for debt which has already been contracted is not extinguished4 ,in case of dissolution1 liquidation1 or sale1 this responsibility corresponds to the claim of the responsible member to the means of the company which are in hand1 or to his share in what is sold4 #g4 ,the principal judicial body of the company is the general assembly in which every member has the same right to speak and exercise the same active and passive right of choice4 ,the general assembly makes its determination by simply counting the majority of votes4 ,a majority of three quarters is necessary for changing the statutes and for a dissolution or liquidation of the company4 #h4 ,the general assembly practises its right either directly or by means of chosen officials1 who are answerable to it for their actions4 #i4 ,the business of the society is managed by a directorate of three members who hold office at the will of the general assembly4 ,the subordinate functionaries are chosen by the managers4 #aj4 ,the general assembly selects every year a committee of inspection which consists of five members4 ,this body has to control and make a report upon the books and the manner in which the company is conducted4 ,now1 as a member of the company1 our visitor would have the amount he has earned credited to him at a ,central ,bank1 which keeps his accounts and sends him an abstract every week2 and through this bank he would make the larger part of his disbursements4 ,the products of the company1 moreover1 are valued1 stored1 and sold by a ,central ,warehouse1 in much the same fashion that under the present regime a manufacturer's whole output may be disposed of through a big department store or a mail order house4 ,let us now sum this up4 ,the collection and disposition of capital belongs to the community2 and the total capital available for further production each year is based directly upon the productive capacities of the community1 without the waste and leakage that arises in present-day society though what ,mr4 ,thorstein ,veblen calls the conspicuous waste--the futile expenditures--of the leisured classes4 ,that this collection of a capital tax upon income would be any more difficult than the present corporation tax or private income tax1 which is now dissipated to the extent of some #ij per cent4 or so upon armies and navies1 is seriously to be doubted4 ,in addition to this1 the process of open book-keeping enables the ,central ,bank and the ,central ,warehouse to have an accurate knowledge of potential production1 and thus there exists an accurate basis for apportioning credit4 ,at the same time the value of commodities comes by this means to have a direct relation to the costs of production rather than to what the traffic will bear4 ,on all these heads the trained economist will doubtless have many points to contest2 but in their broad outlines there is no abrupt departure from current practise in any of these items1 and not much reason1 perhaps1 why they should not be more thoroughly instituted4 ,with the various ramifications of ,edendale industry and corporate finance it is not my business to deal2 we have gone far enough to see that very little indeed remains when the question of means has been gone into4 ,the chief good that ,freeland seems to offer is freedom in industrial enterprise4 ,an association of men can get land and capital on demand1 and devote themselves to either agriculture or manufacturing industry2 and the risk of failure is minimized by a complete knowledge of the probable demand and probable supply calculated by the statistical bureau4 ,failing an outlet for industry through association1 there remains the land itself1 for individual cultivation4 8,every family in ,freeland dwells in its own house1 and every house is surrounded by its great garden1 a thousand square meters in extent4 ,these houses are the private property of the inhabitants1 and serve1 like the gardens1 for private use4 ,the inhabitants of ,freeland do not1 as a rule1 recognize any kind of ownership of land2 they rather go upon the principle that the land must be put in everyone's hands to do with what he chooses4 ,this1 in the most literal and wide sense of the word1 means that every inhabitant of ,freeland can cultivate every piece of land whenever he pleases4 ,but this only relates to the land which is set apart for cultivation1 and not that set apart for living upon4444 ,the inhabitants of ,freeland have agreed1 with regard to the size and disposition of the land1 serving for the creation of a dwelling house1 to form regulations1 and a kind of building court 444 which has to determine what ground is and what is not to be built upon1 parcels out the land for building1 sees to the laying out of streets1 canals1 and the like1 and especially takes care that not more than one building is erected upon one building allotment40 #e ,what sort of life arises out of this kind of industrial association1 these provisions for the common use of machinery and land8 ,it is all rather dry and colorless1 a sort of picture postcard view of the ,promised ,land4 ,we are told that there are a great number of public buildings in ,edendale--an administrative palace1 the ,central bank1 the ,university1 the ,academy of ,arts1 three ,public ,libraries1 four ,theaters1 the grand central goods warehouse1 a great number of schools and other buildings4 ,in addition1 extraordinary means are taken to provide for public cleanliness1 and the aqueducts in ,edendale--we seem to be reading a ,chamber of ,commerce report6--are 8almost without any equal in the world10 moreover1 8they are being extended daily40 ,the refuse is cleaned away by a system of pneumatic sucking apparatus4 ,the streets are entirely macadamized4 ,electric tramways cross them in every direction and bind the suburbs to the town4 ,such glimpses as we get of ,edendale remind us1 in fact1 of a go-ahead city in ,california or ,south ,africa4 ,the utopia of ,freeland is progressive enough in all conscience2 for many of these mechanical devices were only vague anticipations in #ahhi2 but it is progressive in a mechanical sense2 and when we examine it carefully1 people seem to live the same sort of life here as they do in a 8modern0 ,european or ,american city4 ,there are differences1 of course2 and ,i do not seek to minimize their importance3 the slum proletariat has been abolished2 everyone belongs to the middle class and enjoys the felicities of a high-grade clerk or an engineer or minor official4 ,this is the peculiarity of our nineteenth century utopians3 they do not so much criticize the goods of their times as demand more of them6 ,buckingham and ,hertzka1 though they differ in details1 wish to extend middle class values throughout society--comfort and security and a plenitude of soap and sanitation4 ,even when the means they propose are revolutionary1 the institutions they would erect are conceived very much in the image of current use and wont1 and are unspeakably tame4 ,as we pass from ,hertzka to ,bellamy these facts glare insistently at us4 ,the slight air of tedium that ,i have not been able to disguise in dealing with these utopias arises1 ,i believe1 from our excessive familiarity with their contents4 ,our nineteenth century utopias1 if we except those of ,fourier and ,spence and a few more distinguished ones which we shall presently come to1 do not dream of a renovated world3 they keep on adding inventions to the present one4 ,these utopias become vast reticulations of steel and red-tape1 until we feel that we are caught in the ,nightmare of the ,age of ,machinery2 and shall never escape4 ,if this characterization seem unjust1 ,i beg the reader to compare the utopias before ,bacon with the utopias after ,fourier1 and find out how little human significance remains in the post-eighteenth century utopia when the machinery for supporting the good life is blotted out4 ,these utopias are all machinery3 the means has become the end1 and the genuine problem of ends has been forgotten4 ,,chapter ,,eight ,how tienne ,cabet dreamed of a new ,napoleon called ,icar1 and a new ,france called ,icaria2 and how his utopia1 with that which ,edward ,bellamy shows us in ,looking ,backward1 gives us a hint of what machinery might bring us to if the industrial organization were nationalized4 ,,chapter ,,eight #a tienne ,cabet opened his eyes upon the year that preceded the meeting of the ,national ,assembly in #aghh1 and closed them upon the ,empire of ,napoleon ,,iii4 ,it would be foolish to give an account of ,cabet's ,voyage en ,icarie without noting these facts2 for the reason that ,cabet's most impressionable years were drenched with the flamboyant light of the ,napoleonic conquests and the ,napoleonic tradition which remained as an afterglow when the conquests themselves had fallen below the horizon4 ,the spectacle of a nationalized church and a nationalized system of education1 extending their ministrations to the smallest commune through a vast system of bureaucracy1 must have given a solidity to his dreams which the interruption of the first ,napoleon's personal downfall could only have reinforced4 ,to understand why the ,journey to ,icaria1 as we may call it1 should have been one of the best sellers among workingmen in #ahde1 and to see why ,louis ,blanc should have attempted to set up an organization of ,national ,workshops in #ahdh1 one must realize the historic momentum of ,napoleon's dictatorship4 ,cabet consciously or unconsciously idealized the ,napoleonic tradition2 and in ,icaria he consummated it4 ,that ,cabet's futile will-to-power should have led him1 under the inspiration of ,owen1 to the swamps of ,missouri as the leader of a little band of communist pioneers is an ironic twist of circumstance3 his ,icaria was a national state1 with all its pomp and dignity and splendor1 and not a squalid collection of huts in the midst of a dreary prairie4 ,cabet died in ,america1 as much perhaps from an outraged sense of dignity as from any physical disease1 and nothing came of his utopia until ,edward ,bellamy gave it a fresh outline in ,looking ,backward4 #b ,with the romantic element in the ,journey to ,icaria--the ,english lord and the ,icarian family he visits1 and the various friendships and love affairs that are outlined in its pages--,i purpose to have nothing to do4 ,these things add an element of complication to ,cabet's picture without doing very much to illuminate it4 ,icaria is a country divided into a hundred provinces almost equal in extent and almost the same in population4 ,these provinces are in turn divided into ten communes1 which are likewise almost equal1 and the provincial capital is in the center of the province1 whilst each communal city is the center of the commune4 ,the elegance and precision of the decimal system has overlaid the facts of geography and as one looks over the map of the imaginary country one recalls the way in which the ,french revolution divided ,france into arbitrary administrative areas called departments1 upsetting those ancient regional groupings which corresponded1 roughly1 with the natural units of soil1 climate1 population1 and historic continuity4 ,in the midst of ,icaria is the city of ,icara4 ,icara is a reconstructed ,paris1 built on a reconstructed ,seine4 ,it is almost circular1 cut into two equal parts by a river whose banks have been straightened and enclosed in two straight walls2 and the bed has been deepened to receive ocean vessels4 ,in the middle of the city the river divides into two arms1 which form a rather big circular island--though the islands formed naturally by the division of a river are inevitably not circular6--and here is the civic center1 planted with trees1 in the midst of which stands a palace4 ,there is a superb garden elevated on a terrace2 in the center1 a vast column surmounted by a colossal statue that dominates all the buildings4 ,on each side of the river is a big quay1 bordered by public offices4 ,the effect is indubitably metropolitan4 ,the city is divided into quarters3 ,icara has sixty communes of almost equal size4 ,in each quarter is a school1 a hospital1 a temple1 shops1 public places1 and monuments4 ,the streets are straight and wide1 the city being traversed by fifty avenues parallel to the river and fifty perpendicular to it4 ,how it is possible to reconcile this street plan with a circular city ,i have no notion2 and ,cabet apparently did not take the trouble to cast his verbal specifications into a definite picture or plan4 ,each block has fifteen houses on each side1 with a public building in the middle1 and one at each end2 and between the rows of houses are gardens which the inhabitants of ,icaria1 like those of ,utopia1 have a great pride in keeping up4 ,the blocks are arranged around squares1 very much like those of ,belgravia and ,mayfair in ,london2 but the gardens are public ones and are cared for by the inhabitants4 ,the ,icarian villages are almost as metropolitan as the principal city itself4 ,one notes a great preoccupation with hygienic conveniences and sanitary regulations4 ,there are dust collectors of special model2 the sidewalks are covered with glass against rain2 and the stations for omnibuses are also covered4 ,the streets are well-lighted and paved4 ,stables1 slaughter houses1 and hospitals are on the outskirts of the village4 ,the factories and warehouses are on the railway lines and canals1 and half the streets are closed to all traffic except dog-carts4 ,in sum1 ,icaria enjoys a highly sophisticated and metropolitan form of life4 ,everything has been 8arranged10 everything has been 8attended to40 ,there are no upsetting complications and diversities4 ,even the weather has been disposed of4 ,nothing short of a very powerful and persistent organization could have accomplished these things4 ,what is this organization8 #c ,in the beginning was ,icar1 the dictator who established the government of ,icaria1 and out of ,icar there sprang a number of bureaux1 departments1 and committees4 ,let us follow a typical ,icarian through his day1 and examine the institutions he comes in contact with4 ,our ,icarian is an early riser by necessity1 for at #f ,a4 ,m4 breakfast is served in a restaurant or factory4 ,it is not a capricious breakfast2 it is such a breakfast1 perhaps1 as the guardians of ,battle ,creek1 ,michigan1 dream of4 ,the food that is served in ,icaria is regulated by a committee of scientists2 and while everybody has all that is good for him1 precisely what is good and in what amounts1 someone else has decided in advance4 ,so it is at present in our armies and navies1 and to some extent in our cheap lunchrooms1 the difference being that there remains1 outside ,icaria1 the possibility of breaking away from the routine and following caprice and appetite without respect for the committee of dietitians4 ,when our ,icarian has breakfasted1 he goes to his work1 seven hours in summer1 six in winter4 ,he works the same number of hours as every other ,icarian1 and whether he works in the field or the workshop1 the products of his industry are deposited in public stores4 ,who is his employer8 ,the ,state4 ,who owns all the instruments of production and service1 down to the horses and carriages8 ,the ,state4 ,who organizes the workers8 ,the ,state4 ,who constructs the stores and factories1 attends to the cultivation of the ground1 has houses built1 and makes all the things necessary for clothing1 lodging1 and transport8 ,the same4 ,in theory1 the public is the sole proprietor and director of industry2 in practice--,cabet doesn't tell us otherwise and it necessarily follows in a system of national industry--a body of engineers and officials have taken over the dictatorship of ,icar and are running the affairs of the community4 ,how familiar this ,icaria seems to us4 ,utopia--c'est la guerre6 ,when he is through with his work1 our ,icarian possibly changes his clothes4 ,exactly what clothes are necessary1 and what are permissible has already been prescribed by a committee on clothes2 which comes to saying that every ,icarian's dress is a uniform1 even as every ,icarian is an official of the ,state4 ,eating1 working1 dressing1 sleeping--there is no getting away from ,state regulations4 ,the uniformity that irks us in modern life and that makes people who have some remnant of free initiative in their makeup chafe in the civil service1 to say nothing of the army1 is extended to the last degree in ,icaria4 ,napoleon's conception of a nation in arms is dominant2 only now it is a nation in overalls4 ,our ,icarian's father and mother were married after a six-month interval of courtship4 ,since they took advantage of the institution at the earliest moment permitted by law1 he was twenty and she was eighteen4 ,by education1 they had been taught to look upon conjugal fidelity as a desideratum2 and they realized that concubinage and adultery would be looked upon as crimes by public opinion1 even if these crimes were not punished by law4 ,before our ,icarian was born his mother received public instruction on maternity4 ,up to the age of five our ,icarian's education was domestic2 but from the fifth to the seventeenth or eighteenth year1 domestic instruction was combined with intellectual and moral education1 under a program laid down by a committee which had consulted all systems of education1 ancient and modern4 ,his general or elementary education was the same as that of every other ,icarian2 but at seventeen for girls and eighteen for men1 his professional education began4 ,the only industries or professions open to our ,icarians were those recognized and sanctioned by the ,state2 and every year a list is published telling the number of workers needed in each profession4 ,the number of workers1 in turn1 is determined by a committee on industry1 which plans the amount of goods that must be produced during the coming year4 ,our ,icarian begins work at eighteen1 his sister at seventeen2 and he is exempt from work at sixty-five1 while she would be exempt at fifty4 ,the republic1 ,i may note parenthetically1 asks from each commune the sort of industrial and agricultural production which goes best with its natural resources2 delivering its surplus production to other communes and giving it1 in turn1 what it may lack4 ,cabet describes all these institutions in the minutest fashion1 down to the noiseless window with which each ,icarian's house is equipt2 but the broad outlines of the industrial and social system are contained in this picture4 ,what we see is a ,national ,state1 abundantly organized for war1 and remaining on that footing in the midst of its peace-time activities4 ,what is not of national importance1 in this scheme of things1 is of no importance2 and the people who decide what is or is not of national importance are the officeholders--,i find it difficult to discover a utopian equivalent for this word or to fancy any great improvement in utopia--in the capital4 ,the political activities that regulate these ,icarian institutions do not greatly reassure us4 ,from each of the thousand communes two deputies are chosen to hold office for two years3 this constitutes the national representation4 ,the basis of this system is the communal assembly2 and from this communal assembly the provincial representatives are drawn4 ,the national executive consists of sixteen members1 each with a special department2 and it is plain that here is the seat of power2 for exactly what business remains in the hands of the two thousand legislators when the food committee has determined the amount and variety of food1 the industrial committee the quantity and kind of manufactured products1 and the educational committee the methods1 subjects1 and aims of education1 it is a little hard to determine4 ,there are no newspapers and no means of organized criticism1 except the right of submitting propositions to the popular assemblies4 ,the only thing resembling public opinion is the collective opinion of these assemblies4 ,the newspapers are published by the government1 one for the nation1 one for the province1 and one for the commune2 and they are devoted solely to the presentation of news1 divorced from opinion4 ,for this kind of political system1 and for all the power that it might presume to wield1 there is a word in philosophy which has no substitute--epiphenomenon4 ,the popular system of representation in ,icaria is but a shadow of that dictatorial power which was first wielded by ,icar and was in turn transmitted to the committees and bureaux4 ,if ,i have been criticizing ,icaria in terms of the last century of political experience1 ,i can only plead that it is because ,icaria is so little like ,utopia and so much like the actual order of things4 ,it must be prepared to stand fire as a fait accompli3 indeed1 in the early days of the second ,russian revolution it came near to being a fait accompli--there was more of ,cabet than of ,marx perhaps in embryonic ,soviet ,russia6 ,icaria is essentially not an ideal but an idealization2 and it is in order to keep the two from being confused that ,i have emphasized its little weaknesses4 ,what is good in ,icaria is what is good in the institution of an army2 what is bad is what is bad in the execution of a war4 ,if the good life could be perpetrated by a junta of busybodies1 as ,plato would call them1 ,icaria would be a model community4 #d ,looking backward into the future3 that was the paradox by which a young ,new ,england romancer1 ,edward ,bellamy1 concerned like ,thoreau and ,emerson and the rest of the great ,concord school with the well-being of his community1 descended from literature to sociology2 and stirred the minds of thousands of people in ,america in much the same fashion that ,theodor ,hertzka1 writing at the same time1 stirred his ,european contemporaries4 ,having begun to romanticize about reality1 ,bellamy during the decade that followed the publication of ,looking ,backward1 devoted himself to realizing his romance4 ,in a later work1 ,equality1 he set forth his picture of the ,new ,society of the year #bjjj in much greater detail2 just as if the popularity of his first work committed him to take up seriously the tasks of the economist and the statesman4 ,the chief pleasure1 nowadays1 in both of these books is the familiar one of recognition2 for if ,bellamy did not portray a better future he at any rate1 like ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 in his early romances1 outlined many parts of a future that has for us1 in the twentieth century1 become an actuality2 a fact which makes us realize very poignantly the limitations of his utopia4 ,in spite of a thin-lipped style1 ,bellamy handles his story in a neat1 workmanlike way1 with a certain plausibility and familiarity which doubtless explains the fact that it can still be found1 without any difficulty1 on the fiction shelves of our circulating public libraries4 ,the preface to ,looking ,backward is dated3 8,historical ,section ,shawmut ,college1 ,boston1 ,december #bf1 #bjjj40 ,in that preface the work is presented as an avowed romance which will enable the readers of #bjjj to realize the gaps that separate them from their ancestors1 and to value the prodigious 8moral and material0 transformation that has taken place in a few generations4 ,julius ,west is a person whom our ,shawmut historian invents1 to bridge the gap between the two eras4 ,julius ,west1 a young man of wealth1 sensitive to the ignominy of his position1 and feeling that1 as a 8rich man living among the poor1 an educated man among the uneducated10 he 8was like one living in isolation among a jealous and alien race40 ,in order to overcome his insomnia ,west sleeps in a vaulted room in the foundations of his house1 and gets put to sleep by a hypnotist2 and so by a dramatic oversight he hibernates for #aac years1 and awakens among strange faces4 ,needless to say1 ,west has a love affair in the old world which is carried on in the new1 through a descendant of the girl he meant to marry2 and it is equally needless to observe that he reawakens to the world of #ahhg as soon as the institutions of #bjjj have been described and the love affair has been resolved4 ,let us take ,west's muzziness1 his amazement1 and his sense of isolation for granted1 and follow him as he explores his new environment4 #e ,if ,plato cavalierly disposes of the labor problem of the ,republic by permitting things to remain pretty much as they were1 ,bellamy makes the solution of labor organization and the distribution of wealth the key to every other institution in his utopia4 ,in the ,united ,states of #ahhg the growing organization of labor and the aggregation of capital into trusts were the two chief economic factors3 ,dr4 ,leete1 ,julius ,west's host1 pictures how this aggregation and combination were continued until1 by a mere shift of gears1 8the epoch of trusts had ended in ,the ,great ,trust40 ,in a word1 8the people of the ,united ,states concluded to assume the conduct of their own business1 just as one hundred years before they had assumed the conduct of their own government1 organizing now for industrial purposes on precisely the same grounds that they had organized for political purposes40 ,was there any violence in this transition8 ,ah no6 everything had been prepared beforehand by public opinion1 the great corporations had gradually trained everybody into an acceptance of large-scale organization1 and the final step of merging all the big corporations into a national corporation occurred without a jar4 ,with the assumption by the nation of the mills1 machinery1 railroads1 farms1 mines1 and capital in general1 all the difficulties of labor vanished1 for every citizen became by virtue of his citizenship an employee of the government1 and was distributed according to the needs of industry4 ,in #bjjj 8the labor army0 is not a figure of speech3 it is an army indeed1 for the nation is a single industrial unit1 and the principle upon which the working force is recruited is universal compulsory industrial service4 ,after a man's education has been completed in the common school system1 which extends straight through college1 he must first serve a term of three years in an unclassified labor army1 which performs all the rough and menial tasks of the community4 ,when this period is over1 he is permitted to offer himself as a recruit in any of the trades or professions which may be declared open by the government1 and can train for his calling up to the age of thirty1 in the national schools and institutes4 ,in order to attract people into occupations where they are needed1 the hours are reduced and1 for the dangerous trades1 volunteers are called for4 ,there are however no discriminations in pay4 ,every person is credited with a sum of four thousand dollars per annum at the ,national ,bank1 a sum which he receives because of his needs as a man and not because of his capacity as a worker4 ,instead of being rewarded for giving the full measure of his energies and abilities1 a man is penalized if he fails to do so4 ,it is possible to shift from one branch of the service to another1 under certain restrictions1 even as in the navy one can change one's rating and apply for service on a different ship or station1 but except for the possibility of retiring on a half-income at the age of thirty-three1 everyone must remain at work until he is forty-five4 ,to this rule there is one exception2 and we may note ironically that it is made in favor of the writer's guild4 ,if a man produces a book he may name his own royalties1 and live as long from this income as the sale will allow2 and if he wishes to start a newspaper or a magazine1 and can get credit from a sufficient number of other people to support his enterprise1 there is nothing to prevent him from remitting service to the amount his guarantors are ready to deduct from their personal income4 ,in other words1 a man must 8either by literary1 artistic1 or inventive productiveness indemnify the nation for the loss of his services1 or must get a sufficient number of people to contribute to such an indemnity40 ,this is the one open hole in our militarized1 industrial utopia2 and ,i think it is the most acceptable feature in the whole system4 ,a community organized as a single unit1 directed by a general staff at ,washington1 and perpetually exhibiting a herd complex which every institution would naturally reinforce1 might not be a very genial shelter for the soul of an artist2 but if it were1 this means of support would doubtless be fair and excellent for the encouragement of the arts4 ,to go back to our army4 ,the entire field of production and distribution is divided into ten great departments1 each representing a group of allied industries2 and each particular industry is in turn represented by a subordinate bureau1 which has a complete record of the plant and the force under its control1 of the present product1 and of the means of increasing it4 ,the estimates of the distributive department1 after adoption by the administration1 are sent as mandates to the ten great departments1 which allot them to the subordinate bureaux1 representing the particular industries1 and these set the men at work4444 8,after the necessary contingents have been detailed for the various industries1 the amount of labor left for other employment is expended in creating fixed capital1 such as buildings1 machinery1 engineering works1 and so forth40 ,in order to safeguard the consumer from the caprices of the administration1 a new article must be produced as soon as a certain guaranteed demand for it has been established by popular petition1 whilst an old article must be continued to be produced as long as there are customers for it1 provision being made that the price rise in accordance with the greater cost of production per unit4 ,now the general of this industrial army is the president of the ,united ,states4 ,he is chosen from among the corps commanders2 and it is provided that every officer in the army1 from the president down to the sergeant1 must work his way up from the grade of common laborer4 ,the chief peculiarity of this system consists in the way in which the voting is done4 ,the voters are all honorary members of the guild to which they belong2 that is1 men who are over forty-five years old2 this applies not merely to the ten lieutenant generals1 but to the commander-in-chief1 who is not eligible for the presidency until he has been a certain number of years out of office4 ,the president is elected by vote of all the men of the nation who are not connected with the industrial army2 for any other method1 ,bellamy thinks1 would be prejudicial to discipline4 ,there are various names for this practice3 one of them is gerontocracy1 or government by the aged2 and another1 more familiar1 is 8alumni control40 ,when we recollect that the hardships of military service look rather mild and pleasant to the man who has been mustered out1 ,i doubt if the youngsters in the industrial army would stand much chance of having their lot improved if the initiative for a change had to come from the alumni4 ,yet we know what even the formation of a worker's shop committee would be in an industrial army3 it would be mutiny4 ,as for criticism of the administration1 that would be treason2 admiration for the practices of another country would be disloyalty2 and advocacy of a change in the method of industry would be sedition4 ,true3 corruption and bribe-taking and all the dirty scandals that we associate today with a financial oligarchy would be wiped out in utopia2 but this merely means that the defects of the old order would disappear along with its virtues4 ,what would remain would be the defects that arise when a nation is in arms1 and when there is no escape1 by travel or mental withdrawal1 from its institutions2 in short1 the defects of a state of war4 ,to call this a peaceful community is absurd3 one might as well call a battleship a pleasure-craft because a modern one possesses a band and shows motion pictures to the crew4 ,the organization of this utopia is an organization for war2 and the one rule that such a community would not tolerate is 8live and let live40 ,if this is the peace that 8industrial preparedness0 ensures it is scarcely worth having4 ,any community that liked this state of life would scarcely need the constant exhortation of the recruiting sergeant or the final compulsion of a conscription act4 #f ,the great part of ,looking ,backward is a discussion of this perfected form of industrial organization2 the manner in which it is worked2 and the effects of complete economic equality in doing away with the necessity for the greater part of the legal machinery of the present day1 since crimes with an economic motive would almost1 according to ,bellamy1 be unthinkable4 ,here and there however we have glimpses of the social life of this new age4 ,first of all1 there floats before our eyes the picture of a vast body of superannuated persons1 who for the most part spend their time in a sort of country-club existence4 ,they can travel1 because the other countries in the world are likewise nationalized1 and by a simple system of book-keeping foreign credit for goods and personal services can be transferred from one country to another2 and they can take up special vocations and hobbies during their superannuated years2 but it is equally plain that their work has not done very much to foster intellectual or emotional maturity1 since in relation to the citizens the state exists as a 8,great ,white ,father02 and there is good reason perhaps for the great interest in sport which characterizes ,bellamy's utopia4 ,games are organized1 apparently1 upon lines of industrial guild rivalry2 just as one has sports nowadays between rival battleship squadrons perhaps2 for 8if bread is the first necessity of life1 recreation is a second1 and the nation caters for both40 ,the demand for bread and circuses1 our guide explains1 is recognized in the year #bjjj as a wholly reasonable one4 ,both work and play are external to the citizen's inner trends and interests2 and we should not be surprised if an infantile element predominated in the character of this happy republic4 ,this externalism1 this impersonality1 seems to characterize the whole scene4 ,we follow ,julius ,west and his new love1 ,edith1 into a modern shop1 where everything is displayed by sample1 and an order for goods is sent to a central warehouse1 and along with undoubted economies of space and time1 we note that there is an almost complete absence of personal contacts or relationships3 more than ever the worker has become a cog in the machine1 more than ever he deals with a thin1 barren1 abstract world of paper notations1 more than ever his desire for social contacts is dammed up2 and so1 more than ever1 there must be occasion in this new age for stimulants and socialities beside which the roller coasters of ,coney ,island and the promiscuities of a modern dance hall would be insipid things4 ,bellamy does not show us what these compensatory institutions would be3 but he has invented a high-powered engine of repression1 and he does not fool us when he conceals the safety-valve4 ,unless there is a safety-valve his universal army1 under a rigorous discipline for twenty-four years1 is bound to blow up the works4 ,we can guess when we read the cheap illustrated papers1 when we go to the movies1 when we watch the behavior of the crowds on ,broadway1 what this twenty-first century ,utopia would be like--it would be all that a modern city is1 exaggerated4 ,in ,the ,new ,society1 ,dr4 ,walter ,rathenau drew a picture of a socialized modern society1 moving along its present path without any change in its aims and ideals2 and that nightmare of his must be added to ,bellamy's dream in order to define it4 ,it is the same with every other institution4 ,there is a big communal restaurant in which each family of the neighborhood has a private room2 this is the place where the principal meal is ordered by the family1 and served by young conscript waiters4 ,am ,i at fault if ,i point out that this universal hostelry is a little too elaborate and mechanical2 that there is more promise of a genuine utopia in ,plato's olives and cheese and beans1 simply served1 than in the 8perfection of catering and cooking0 which the new age boasts4 ,so one could go down the line and enumerate the mechanical marvels which take the place of a fully humanized life2 marvels like the telephone concerts and sermons which astoundingly anticipate by thirty-odd years the radio broadcasting service which is now a prevalent mania in ,america4 ,are these things1 as ,aristotle would have said1 the material bases of the good life1 or are they substitutes for the good life8 ,there may have been some doubt as to the answer in ,bellamy's time2 but ,i think there need not be any at present4 ,in so far as these instruments are consonant with humanized purposes they are good2 in so far as they are irrelevant they are so much rubbish--idiotic rubbish4 ,a free public library is a good thing2 but a free public library devoted exclusively to distributing the novels of ,gene ,stratton ,porter and the uplift books of ,mr4 ,orison ,swett ,marden would not contribute so much as a useful platitude towards a vivid and stimulating society4 ,there is no escaping the problem of ends and the problem of ends1 if ,i may be permitted a pun1 belongs at the beginning4 ,subordinate to humanized ends1 machinery and organization--yes1 complicated machinery and organization--have undoubtedly a useful contribution to make towards a good community2 unsubordinated1 or subordinated only to the engineer's conceptions of an efficient industrial equipment and personnel1 the most innocent machine may be as humanly devastating as a ,lewis gun4 ,all this ,bellamy overlooked in ,looking ,backward1 and yet--something remains4 ,what remains in ,looking ,backward is the honest passion that inspired the man2 the play of generous impulses2 the insistence that there is no fun for an ordinarily imaginative person in dining with ,dives whilst ,lazarus hangs around the table4 ,bellamy wanted everyone to be equally educated1 so that everyone might be his companion2 he wanted everyone to be decently fed and sheltered2 he wanted to take his share in the dirty work and to see that accidents of wealth did not keep other people from taking theirs4 ,he wanted private life to be simple and public life to be splendid4 ,he wanted men and women to mate with each other without permitting this relationship to be compromised by obligations to a father1 a mother1 or the butcher1 the baker1 and the grocer4 ,he wanted the generous1 the just1 and the tender-hearted to be as well endowed as the cold-hearted1 the greedy1 and the self-seeking4 ,he pleaded for an absence of artificiality and restraint in the relations of the sexes2 for such a candor as has perhaps come into fashion again--thank heaven6--today1 a candor which permits women physical freedom in dress1 and a spiritual freedom in exhibiting their love1 and giving it freely4 ,all this is to the good4 ,i do not question ,bellamy's fine motives2 ,i question only the outlets he imagined for them4 ,there is a breach between ,bellamy's conception of the good life and the structure he erected to shelter it4 ,this breach is due1 ,i believe1 to an over-emphasis of the part that wholesale mechanical organization1 directed by a handful of people1 would play in such a reconstruction4 ,if ,bellamy sometimes exaggerated the bad in modern society1 with its muddle of competitive privileges1 he likewise overestimated the good that it contained2 and he was more than fair to the present order of things when he made the future so closely in its image4 ,,chapter ,,nine ,how ,william ,morris and ,w4 ,h4 ,hudson renew the classic tradition of utopias2 and how1 finally1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells sums up and clarifies the utopias of the past1 and brings them into contact with the world of the present4 ,,chapter ,,nine #a ,it would be a pretty sad thing if the ,utopias of the nineteenth century were all of a piece with those of ,buckingham and ,bellamy4 ,in general we may say that all the utopias of reconstruction had a deadly sameness of purpose and a depressing singleness of interest2 and although they saw society whole1 they saw the problem of reconstructing society as a simple problem of industrial reorganization4 ,fortunately1 the utopias of escape have something to contribute which the utopias of reconstruction lack2 and if ,william ,morris1 for example1 seems too remote from ,manchester and ,minneapolis to be of any use1 he is by that token a little nearer the essential human realities3 he knows that the chief dignity of man lies not in what he consumes but in what he creates1 and that the ,manchester ideal is--devastatingly consumptive4 ,before ,i go into these utopias of escape1 ,i wish to point out the strange way in which the three utopias we shall examine return as it were upon their classic models1 each of the returns being1 it is fairly plain1 without the consciousness of the writer4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hudson returns upon ,more2 and in ,a ,crystal ,age the farmstead and the family is the ultimate unit of social life4 ,in ,news from ,nowhere the city of workers1 such as ,andre dreamed of1 comes again into being2 and in ,a ,modern ,utopia1 with its order of ,samurai1 we are ruled once more by a highly disciplined class of ,platonic guardians4 ,mr4 ,hudson is a naturalist with a deep sympathy for the rural life of ,england2 ,william ,morris was a craftsman who knew what the ,english town was like before it had been blighted by industrialism2 and with both of these men we feel close to the essential life of man and the essential occupations4 #b ,as the clouded vision of the traveller to the ,crystal ,age clears1 he finds himself received in a great ,country ,house1 which is inhabited by a large group of men and women who till the land and perform the simple operations of weaving and stonecutting and the like4 ,all over the world1 one gathers1 these great country houses dot the landscape4 ,each of them is no weekend center of social life but a permanent home2 indeed their permanence is almost past believing2 for in each house traditions are carried back thousands of years4 ,the great cities and the complicated metropolitan customs that they produced have long been wiped away1 as one might wipe away mold4 ,the world has been stabilized2 the itch for getting and spending has disappeared4 ,our traveller must bind himself to work for a whole year in order to pay for the garments his house-mates weave for him1 garments whose texture and cut have a classic turn4 ,this household1 ,i say1 is the social unit of the ,crystal ,age3 the house-father administers the laws and customs1 and he dispenses the punishment of seclusion when the visitor trespasses upon the code of the house4 ,the house-mates work together1 eat together1 play together1 and listen together to the music of a mechanical instrument called the musical sphere4 ,at night they sleep in separate little cubicles which can be opened to the night air4 ,the horses and dogs of the ,crystal ,age have a degree of intelligence which our common breeds do not possess1 so that the horses all but harness themselves to the plow1 and the dog teaches the traveller when to leave off working the animals4 ,each household has not merely its laws and traditions3 it has its literature2 its written history2 and the very girl with whom the traveller falls in love bears a resemblance to the sculptured face of an unhappy house-mother who lived and suffered in the immemorial past4 ,these houses1 these families1 these social relations are built for endurance4 ,what is the secret of their strength8 ,the secret of our ,crystal ,age ,utopia is the secret of the beehive3 a queen bee4 ,the ,crystallites have done away with the difficulties of mating by appointing one woman1 in every house1 to be the house-mother1 the woman whose capital duty is to carry on the family3 the entire burden of each generation falls upon her shoulders1 and in return for the sacrifice she is treated with the respect due to divinity1 like the young man who was chosen in the ,kingdom of ,montezuma1 as the tales have it1 to represent the chief deity until at the end of a year he was disembowelled4 ,the wish of a house-mother is a command2 the word of the house-mother is law4 ,for a year before her retirement as mother she is put into communion with the sacred books of the house1 and has at her command a store of knowledge which the rest of the hive are not permitted to share4 ,it is she who keeps burning the fires of life4 ,for all except the house-mother sex is a matter of purely physical appearance4 ,the ,crystallites1 if we may speak irreverently1 are 8content with a vegetable love--which would certainly not suit me0 nor1 it appears1 did it suit our traveller to the ,crystal ,age1 when he discovers that his passion could never be reciprocated by his beloved1 even if she so far transgressed the laws of the household as to give way to him4 ,against the appearance of passion and all the mortal griefs that it carries with it1 the house-mother possesses a remedy4 ,when in the murk of despair our traveller turns to her for advice and consolation1 she gives him a phial of liquid4 ,he drinks it in the belief that it will make him as free from passion as his house-mates2 and he is not deceived2 for--he dies4 ,the social life of the household is not to be wrecked by the storms and stresses of the individual's passions4 ,the engines of life are no longer dangerous3 the fuel has been taken away6 ,a 8chill moonlight felicity0 is all that remains4 #c ,there are times when one may look upon the whole adventure of civilized life as a sort of ,odyssey of domestication2 and in this mood the ,crystal ,age marks a terminus upon that particular aspect of the adventure4 ,to the objection that this sort of utopia requires that we change human nature1 the answer1 in terms of modern biology1 is that there is no apparent scientific reason why certain elements in human nature should not be selected and brought to the front1 or why certain others should not be reduced in importance and eliminated4 ,so1 for all practical purposes1 there is no apparent reason why human nature should not be changed1 or why we should not be prepared to believe that in times past it has been changed--communities which selectively bred for pugnacity and aggression committing suicide and opening the way for communities which socially selected other traits that made for survival4 ,it is possible that in times past man has done a great deal to domesticate himself and fit himself for harmonious social life2 and a utopia which rests upon the notion that there should be a certain direction in our breeding is not altogether luny2 indeed1 is nowadays less so than ever before1 for the reason that it is possible to separate romantic love from physical procreation without1 as the ,athenians did1 resorting to homosexuality4 ,if ,a ,crystal ,age opens our minds to these possibilities it is not to be counted purely as a romance2 in spite of the fact that as a romance it has passages that rival ,green ,mansions4 ,between the individual households and common marriages1 the utopia of the beehive is a third alternative which possibly remains to be explored4 #d ,there are regions in the world--,i am thinking perhaps of the table land of ,south ,africa and the ,mississippi ,valley--where if one dreamed about utopia the apparatus to support it would be a gigantic network of steel1 and huge communities of people would naturally flow together and coalesce in complicated patterns1 somewhat after the fashion of those which ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells describes in ,when the ,sleeper ,awakens4 ,it would be almost impossible1 ,i fancy1 to dream of a simple life and of handfuls of people in those parts of the earth3 the simplicity would be barrenness1 and a handful of people would be lost4 ,it is different with the valley of the ,thames1 that little stream which begins a short way above ,oxford and meanders between banks of lush grass and bending willows1 down through ,marlow1 where musty ales have long been made1 past ,windsor between the ,great ,park and the ,chiltern ,hills1 through ,richmond and so down to ,hammersmith where one might perhaps ford the river at low tide if an iron bridge did not carry one across1 till below the city of ,london the estuary becomes a wide tide of water and expands proudly to meet the sea4 ,nature has carved this valley to the human scale3 the houses are not dwarfed by the landscape2 and except for the huge warren of ,london--for which nature is not responsible--there is a fitness between the actor and the scene which1 without offering any great ,olympian moments1 gives the nave and jolly and whole-hearted effect that one finds in a good ,english hunting print or1 let us say1 in ,pickwick ,papers4 ,in such an atmosphere1 particularly as one thinks of it on a day late in ,june1 human nature bubbles naturally into good nature1 and whatever harshness remains1 a tankard of ale will drain away4 ,it is in this valley of the ,thames that ,william ,morris awoke to find his utopia1 after returning to his home in ,hammersmith1 the last really urban borough of ,london as one goes upstream4 ,from that landscape1 sweetened and freshened and ridden of cockney landmarks1 ,morris evokes the spirit of the ,river ,god1 as ,socrates and ,phdrus1 by the banks of the ,ilyssus1 call forth the spirit of ,pan4 ,with all the grime and tedium of the dull 'eighties lying upon his soul1 ,morris finds himself transported to a world which has been cleansed by a revolution of a greater part of the nineteenth century landmarks4 ,in the meanwhile1 grass has laid a decent blanket over many irretrievable ruins4 ,the house in which he has gone to bed is now a ,guest ,house2 and he is first received into this refurbished world by a boatman who takes him for a morning swim on the ,thames1 and knows about the value of money only as a collector of copper curios might4 ,at breakfast1 he finds himself among a group of friendly people1 who call him 8,guest02 and he is taken firmly and sweetly and quite serenely in hand by the comely young women who preside over the house4 ,these women1 like everyone else in the new ,thames valley1 are healthy1 full-blooded1 athletic1 sane1 and free from the puling maladies which idleness or overwork gave to the women of the nineteenth century4 ,the other guests are a weaver who has come down from the north to take a turn at the boatman's job while the latter goes up towards ,oxford to help gather in the hay1 and a loquacious dustman in marvellous greens and golds4 ,in this new ,england1 work has become what one would call in the kindergarten 8busy work03 in the simplification of the standard of living and the release from the pressure of artificially stimulated wants1 the main business of getting a living is easily performed1 and the chief concern of everyone is to do his work under the pleasantest conditions possible--a demand which brings back many of the handicrafts1 and places a great premium on manual skill4 ,although the mechanical arts have been improved in certain directions1 for in his trip up the ,thames our guest meets with a barge driven by some internal engine1 let us say by electricity1 a good many devices have been allowed to fall into disuse1 because1 although the output in goods might be greater1 the work itself and the way of life it promotes are not so beneficial as the simple methods of hand labor4 ,in every direction1 simplicity and direct action and the immediate supply and interchange of goods out of local produce1 has taken the place of the monstrously complicated system of traffic that prevailed in the earlier imperialistic world4 ,work is given freely1 and the proceeds of work exchanged freely1 as a man might give of his goods and services nowadays when he welcomes a friend within his own house4 ,a great part of the energy of this new community has gone into building2 and architecture1 sculpture1 and painting flourish in the townhalls and common dining halls of which each village boasts4 ,it follows from this that the big cities have disappeared4 ,london is again a congeries of villages1 mingled in great woodlands and meadows where in the summer children roam about and camp and pick up the simple occupations of rural life4 ,of all the proud monuments of ,london that the nineteenth century left1 only the ,houses of ,parliament remain1 as a storage-place for dung4 ,there are shops1 where one takes for the asking1 and there are common halls where people eat and have conversation1 as they do now in restaurants--only these new hostels are beautiful1 spacious1 and well-served4 ,since economic pressure is absent1 the people of the ,thames valley seem to live a life of leisure2 but this life of leisure is not the aimless leisure of the country house1 with its artificial stimulants1 its artificial exercises1 and the like3 the life of dignified leisure is a life of work2 in short1 the life of the artist4 ,if other people have talked of the necessity for labor1 the dignity of labor1 the heroism of labor1 these simple ,englishmen have discovered the beauty of leisurely work--the simple grace that follows when even the practical arts are pursued as if they were liberal arts4 ,in this utopia the instinct of workmanship1 the creative impulse1 has free play2 and since the majority of people are neither scholars nor scientists1 as ,sir ,thomas ,more would have had them1 they find their fulfillment in adding beauty to all the necessities of their daily toil4 ,where the work itself leads purely to some useful end1 as in the growing of wheat or grass1 the joy of work arises out of the comradeship and good-feeling that bind together those who perform it1 and the comparative lightness of the tasks that find many hands eager almost to the point of competition to perform them4 ,one looks at the faces of these people1 and the effects of their life are visible4 ,their women are ten or fifteen years older than we should judge by their appearance2 and on every face is written the healthy serenity that follows when people do good work1 with a good spirit1 in a good place4 ,there is a candor1 a plainness1 a wholesomeness1 an absence of furtive repressions in their every gesture2 and as far as men can be satisfied and happy in a good environment1 this community is satisfied and happy4 ,there are grumblers1 it goes without saying4 ,one of them is a crusty old fellow who has read ancient history and who sighs for the cutthroat practices of the competitive era2 and there is another who complains of the tameness of ,utopian literature1 as compared with that which dealt with the miseries and warped passion of an earlier age4 ,the only wretchedness in this utopia comes out of the essential human tragedy--the disparity between one's aims and one's attainments1 between one's desires and the circumstances that clog their fulfillment4 ,how can unhappiness be altogether wiped out as long as maids are fickle and sexual passion strong8 ,the boatman1 for example1 has been mated with a beautiful girl who leaves him for another man2 but she tires of her new love1 and under the eyes of the ,guest her uncle brings the pair together1 and the drama of courtship and mating goes on all over again2 for there are no laws to bind people together when every fibre of their being drives them apart2 and in a civilization that deals kindly even with its adults there is no difficulty about giving the children all the care they need4 ,for the most part1 those who suffer in love bear their burdens manfully1 without wailing over imaginary wrongs which are associated with the worship of impossible chastities and reticences2 and they turn their balked impulses into the channels of work and poetry as completely as they know how4 ,is this the arcadian age of innocence all over again8 ,are brutality and lust forever wiped out8 ,not at all4 ,in sudden passion even murders occur1 no matter how good and helpful the social order2 but instead of compounding murder with an additional murder1 the guilty person is left to his own remorse4 ,use and wont are more powerful than law1 and the whole guild that earns its living from the frictions and dissidences of our social life has dropt into limbo4 ,by the same token1 the game of the ins and the outs1 which we call political government1 has disappeared2 for the only matters in which our community is interested are as to whether a new field is to be laid under the plow or a bridge thrown over a stream or a townhall built2 and about such things the local community is competent to decide1 without lining up in a purely fictitious antagonism4 #e ,sanity and health and good-will and tolerance--as one sculls along the ,thames1 above ,richmond1 on a ,sunday morning1 between boatloads of gay picnickers and sauntering people1 it is not impossible to imagine a new social order developing on simple lines and bringing these things into existence4 ,with five million people in ,england1 and perhaps half a million in the ,thames valley1 the thing would not be impossible4 ,then the whole countryside would be dressed again in green2 then buildings would arise in the landscape like flowers out of the ground2 then the kindliness and spontaneous co-operation of a happy holiday would be prolonged into the workaday week4 ,we should know how to spend our time and with what to occupy our heads and hands1 if the great wen of ,london were removed from the ,thames valley1 and all the cheap cockney things that ,london has conjured into existence were to be blasted away4 ,we should know all these things1 because ,william ,morris has told us about them2 and we should do all these things1 because in our heart of hearts we realize that they would satisfy4 #f ,the utopia that remains for consideration is the last important one in point of time2 and it is1 curiously enough1 the quintessential utopia1 for it is written with a free and critical gesture1 and with a succinct familiarity towards the more important books that came before it4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 it is true1 has made more than one excursion into an imaginary commonwealth3 ,the ,time ,machine is his earliest and ,the ,world ,set ,free may possibly be considered as his latest4 ,a ,modern ,utopia combines the vivid fantasy of the first picture with the more strict regard for present realities that marks the second2 and it is1 altogether1 a fine and lucid product of the imagination4 ,the assumption upon which ,mr4 ,wells gains entrance into his utopia differs from those shipwrecks and somnambulisms in which our modern utopias have been stereotyped4 ,he conceives of a modern man1 a little thickset and protuberant1 seated at a desk and brooding over the possibilities of man's future2 and gradually this image comes to life and defines his views1 and his voice rises into narrative in something like the fashion of a lecturer1 throwing from time to time his illustrations of a ,new ,world upon the screen4 ,he enters utopia by hypothesis2 that is1 without any other subterfuge than an act of the imagination2 and in the thickening realities of a utopian community1 first discovered in an ,alpine pass1 he finds himself in the company of a sentimental botanist1 who is sick with a love affair and is maudlin about dogs1 and who again and again wrecks this exploration of utopia by dragging into the midst of the scene some petty complication--about his sweetheart or his doggie--that he has acquired on earth6 ,where and what is this modern utopia8 ,by hypothesis1 it is a globe identical with the one on which we live2 it has the same oceans and continents1 the same rivers and minor land-masses1 the same animals and plants2 yes1 even the same people1 so that each one of us has his utopian counterpart4 ,conveniently1 this new earth is located beyond ,sirius2 and for the most part its history is parallel to ours2 except that it had a critical turn for the better at a not too remote period2 so that1 while mechanical invention and science and all that sort of thing is exactly on the same level as ours1 the scale and order is entirely different4 ,the scale and order of things is indeed different4 ,utopia is a world community2 it is a single civilization whose net of monorails and posts1 whose identification bureaux1 whose rules of law and order are the same in ,england as in ,switzerland2 and presumably the same in ,asia and ,africa as in ,europe4 ,in every sense it is a modern utopia4 ,machinery plays an important part1 and the absence of menial service is conspicuous from the very first contacts in which our travellers get the hospitality of an inn1 and find that interior decoration has verged towards the style of the modern lunchroom and subway station1 so that the whole room can be redded1 after use1 by the guest himself4 ,there is no harking back to the past in industry1 in architecture1 or in the mode of living4 ,all that machinery has to offer has been accepted and humanized3 there is a cleanliness1 an absence of squalor and confusion1 in this world-community1 which indicates that utopia has not been purchased by evasion4 ,the price of this order and spaciousness is not as heavy as that which ,bellamy was willing to pay in ,looking ,backward4 ,the land and its natural resources are owned by the community and are in the custody of regional authorities2 and the means of communication and travel are in the hands of one common administrative body4 ,there are great socialized enterprises such as the railways1 with planetary ramifications2 there are regional industries1 and there are a good many minor affairs which are still undertaken by private individuals and companies4 ,farms are worked by a co-operative association of tenant farmers1 upon lines suggested by ,dr4 ,hertzka in ,freeland4 ,perhaps the most remarkable feature of utopian organization is the registration of every individual1 with his name1 numeral1 finger-print1 changes of residence and changes in life2 all of which is filed in a huge central filing office1 to become part of a permanent file upon the individual's death4 ,utopian registration gets our travellers into hot water1 for they are naturally mistaken for their utopian doubles2 but outside of its use in the story this little device seems strangely beside the point1 and it arose1 ,i believe1 out of ,mr4 ,wells' temperamental regard for tidiness--tidiness on a planetary scale--the tagging and labelling of a well-conducted shop4444 ,the people of our ,modern ,utopia are roughly divided into four classes3 the kinetic1 the poietic1 the base1 and the dull4 ,the kinetic are the active and organizing elements in the community3 as active kinetics they are the managers1 the enterprisers1 the great administrators1 as passive kinetics they are the minor officials1 the innkeepers1 the shoptenders1 farmers1 and the like4 ,the poietic are the creative elements in the community2 the 8intellectuals0 we should perhaps call them4 ,this follows in general the lines laid down by ,comte--chiefs1 people1 intellectuals1 and emotionals1 and perhaps something of the same classification was outlined by ,more in his ,philarchs1 people1 priests1 and scholars4 ,this division of classes is a very ancient one4 ,in that old ,indian script1 the ,bhagavad ,gita1 we find that the population is divided into ,brahmans1 ,kshatriyas1 ,vaisryas1 and ,sudras1 and that their duties are 8determined by the modes that prevail in their separate natures40 ,the residual classes of the base and the dull correspond to the ,sudras2 they are1 of course1 the slag of the community2 and the active elements in this class1 the criminals1 the habitual drunkards1 and the like are exported to various islands in the ,atlantic where they have organized a community of their own in which they may practice fraud1 chicane1 and violence to their hearts' content4 ,like ,plato1 ,mr4 ,wells is concerned to provide for the education1 discipline1 and maintenance of people who will be sufficiently disinterested and intelligent to keep this vast organization a going concern--no ordinary politician or captain of industry will do4 ,hence there arises a class of ,samurai4 ,these ,samurai are selected by rigorous mental and physical tests out of youth who are past twenty-five1 up to which time they may be foolish and unsettled and may sow their wild oats4 ,these ,samurai have a high intellectual standard of achievement4 ,they live a simple life4 ,they are under strict moral discipline1 and follow a minute regimentation of dress and minor details of conduct4 ,they cannot marry out of their class4 ,once a year they are sent out into the forests1 the mountains1 or the waste places to shift for themselves2 they go 8bookless and weaponless1 without pen or paper1 or money02 and they come back again with a new hardness and fineness and fortification of spirit4 ,it is such an organization as might have been evolved at the time of the ,reformation had the ,order of ,jesuits been able to effect a dictatorship of ,christendom4 ,i say this without disparagement of either the ,jesuits or the ,samurai1 in order to point out that these guardians of ,a ,modern ,utopia are plausible historic characters4 ,all the important economic and political enterprises of the state1 and important vocations like that of the physician1 are in the hands of ,samurai4 ,they are as necessary to the social organization of ,a ,modern ,utopia as the research laboratories1 which are provided by charter with each factory1 are necessary to its industrial organization4 #g ,the glimpses that one gets of this utopia are full of color and light and movement2 there are finely contained cities1 surrounded by wide suburban territories1 cities that are not built of paper and alabaster4 ,lovers pass arm in arm through the streets in the twilight2 and there is a soft dignity in the women1 with their gay1 sexually unemphatic dresses1 that charms4 ,there are electric trains weaving silently on rails over the landscape of ,europe1 crossing under the ,english ,channel by tube1 and emerging in ,london with none of the bustle1 the grinding1 or the dirt of a modern railway ride4 ,there are well-cultivated fields and adequate inns4 ,there are no obstreperous patriotisms1 as one suspects in ,looking ,backward2 there is none of the shirking one might fear in ,news from ,nowhere4 7,while our travellers are waiting to be identified they stay for a while in a residential quadrangle at ,lucerne1 and are given employment in a toy workshop47 ,there is less dogmatism about creeds than in ,christianopolis1 and an entire absence of menialism which contrasts with ,more's ,utopia4 ,this modern utopia brings together1 compares1 and criticizes important points that all the other utopias have raised2 and it does all this with a deftness and a turn of humor that speaks for ,mr4 ,wells at his best4 ,above all1 ,a ,modern ,utopia strikes a new note1 the note of reality1 the note of the daily world from which we endeavor in vain to escape4 ,more or less1 all the other utopias assume that a change has come over the population2 that it has been diminished2 that the blind1 the lame1 and the deaf have been cured2 that the mean sensual man has been converted and is ready to flap his wings and sing ,hallelujah6 ,there is a minimum of these assumptions in ,a ,modern ,utopia4 ,it is above all other things an accounting and a criticism2 and so it forms a fitting prelude to the remainder of this book4 ,,chapter ,,ten ,how the ,country ,house and ,coketown became the utopias of the ,modern ,age2 and how they made the world over in their image4 ,,chapter ,,ten #a ,now that we have ransacked the literature of ideal commonwealths for examples of the utopian vision and the utopian method1 there remains another class of utopias which has still to be reckoned with1 in order to make our tally complete4 ,all the utopias that we have dealt with so far have been filtered through an individual mind1 and whereas1 like any other piece of literature1 they grew out of a certain age and tradition of thought1 it is dangerous to overrate their importance either as mirrors of the existing order or as projectors of a new order4 ,while again and again the dream of a utopian in one age has become the reality of the next1 as ,o',shaughnessy sings in his famous verses1 the exact connection between the two can only be guessed at1 and rarely1 ,i suppose1 can it be traced4 ,it would be a little foolish to attempt to prove that the inventor of the modern incubator was a student of ,sir ,thomas ,more4 ,up to the present the idola which have exercised the most considerable influence upon the actual life of the community are such as have been partly expressed in a hundred works and never perhaps fully expressed in one4 ,in order to distinguish these idola from those that have occupied us till now1 we should perhaps call them collective utopias or social myths4 ,there is a considerable literature that relates to these myths in ,french1 one of the best known works being ,m4 ,george ,sorel's ,reflections on ,violence2 and in practice it is sometimes rather hard to tell where the ,utopia leaves off and the social myth begins4 ,the history of mankind's social myths has still in the main to be written4 ,there is a partial attempt at this over a limited period in ,mr4 ,henry ,osborn ,taylor's ,the ,medival ,mind2 but this is only a beginning1 and other ages are almost untouched4 ,the type of myth that concerns us here is not the pure action myth which ,m4 ,sorel has analyzed2 we are rather interested in those myths which are1 as it were1 the ideal content of the existing order of things1 myths which1 by being consciously formulated and worked out in thought1 tend to perpetuate and perfect that order4 ,this type of social myth approaches very closely to the classic utopia1 and we could divide it1 similarly1 into myths of escape and myths of reconstruction4 ,thus the myth of political freedom1 for example1 as formulated by the writers of the ,american revolution1 frequently serves as an excellent refuge for disturbed consciences when the ,department of ,justice or the ,immigration ,bureau has been a little too assiduous in its harassment of political agitators4 ,unfortunately1 it has become a habit to look upon our idola as particularly fine and exalted1 and as representing the better side of human nature4 ,as a matter of fact1 the myths which are created in a community under religious1 political1 or economic influences cannot be characterized as either good or bad3 their nature is defined by their capacity to help men to react creatively upon their environment and to develop a humane life4 ,we have still to recognize that a belief in these idola is not by itself a creditable attitude4 ,even quite base and stupid people are frequently governed by ideals2 indeed1 it is the ideals that are in many cases responsible for their baseness and stupidity4 ,neither is the habit of responding to idola any evidence of rational thought4 ,people respond to 8ideas0--that is1 to word-patterns--as they respond to the stimulus of light or heat1 because they are human beings and not because they are philosophers1 and they respond to projections1 to idola1 for the same reason1 and not because they are saints4 ,our myths may be the outcome of rational thought and practice or not2 but the response to these myths is not perhaps more than ten times in a hundred the result of following the processes of reason from beginning to end4 ,we must think of our idola as a sort of diffused environment or atmosphere1 which differs in 8chemical content0 and in extension with each individual4 ,some of these idola have so uniformly taken possession of men's minds in a particular age that they are as much a part of the environment a baby is born into as the furniture of his house4 ,the sociologists who follow mile ,durkheim have called a certain part of these idola collective representations but they are wrong1 ,i believe1 when they limit these 8representations0 to savage or ignorant groups for they are an important part of every civilized person's luggage4 ,parallel with ,the ,story of ,mankind and with ,the ,story of ,utopias1 which ,i have just told1 it would be amusing to write ,the ,story of ,mankind's ,myths4 ,this work1 however1 would require the scholarship and industry of another ,leibniz1 and all that ,i wish to do here is to put together the chief social myths that have played a part in ,western ,europe and ,america during the modern period1 to contrast these idola with the utopias of the past and the partial remedies for the present1 and to suggest the bearing of all this upon any new departures we may be ready to make4 ,in selecting these idola--,the ,country ,house1 ,coketown1 the ,megalopolis--,i have been forced to gauge their strength and test their quality very largely by their actual results in the workaday world1 and it is a little hard to purify them from the various institutions1 old and new1 in which they are mixt4 ,yet with all this taint of actuality1 these idola are scarcely as credible as the ,republic and it will help matters a little to realize that we are still within the province of utopia1 and may exercise all the utopian privileges4 #b ,to understand the utopia of the ,country ,house we must jump back a few centuries in history4 ,anyone who has ranged through the ,european castles that were built before the fourteenth century will realize that they were no more built for comfort than is a modern battleship4 ,they were essentially garrisons of armed men whose main occupation was theft1 violence1 and murder2 and every feature of their environment reflected the necessities of their life4 ,these castles would be found beetling a cliff or a steep hill2 their walls and their buttresses would be made of huge1 rough hewn stones2 their living arrangements would resemble those of a barracks with an almost complete lack of what we now regard as the normal decencies and privacies1 except possibly for the lord and his lady2 and the life of these feudal bands was necessarily a crude and limited one4 ,up to the fourteenth century in ,western ,europe the little fortified town1 or the unfortified town that lay beneath the protection of a garrison on a hill1 was the only other social unit that competed with the even more limited horizons of the peasant's village1 or with the spacious claims for the ,here and the ,hereafter which were put forward by the ,roman ,church4 ,to dream of huge metropolises and farflung armies and food brought from the ends of the earth would have been wilder in those days than anything ,more pictured in his ,utopia4 ,during the fifteenth century in ,england1 and in other parts of ,europe the same thing seems to have happened sooner or later1 this life of agriculture and warfare and petty trade was upset3 the feudal power of the reigning nobles was concentrated in the hands of a supreme lord1 the ,king2 and the ,king and his archives and his court settled in the ,national ,capital1 instead of moving about from place to place in the troubled realm4 ,the territories of the feudal lords ceased to be dispersed2 their possessions were confined more and more within what were called national boundaries2 and instead of remaining in their castles the great lords gave up their crude1 barbaric ways1 and went up to the capital to be civilized4 ,in the course of time money took the place of direct tribute2 instead of receiving wheat and eggs and labor1 the lord came into possession of a rent which could be figured in pence and pounds2 a rent which could be transferred to the new trading cities for the goods which the rest of the world had for sale4 ,there is a fascinating picture of this change in ,w4 ,j4 ,ashley's ,economic ,history2 and the old life itself is outlined1 with a wealth of significant detail1 in ,j4 ,s4 ,fletcher's ,memorials of a ,yorkshire ,parish4 ,at the same time that this change was taking place in the physical life of ,western ,europe1 a corresponding change was taking place in the domain of culture4 ,digging about the ruins of ,rome and other cities1 the men of the late ,middle ,age discovered the remains of a great and opulent civilization2 and exploring the manuscripts and printed books which were getting into general circulation1 they found themselves face to face with strange conceptions of life1 with habits of refinement1 ease1 and sensuous luxury which the hard life of the camp and the castle had never really permitted4 ,there followed a reaction against their old life which was little less than a revulsion2 and in that reaction two great institutions fell out of fashion4 ,men ceased to build castles to protect themselves against physical dangers2 and they left off entering monasteries in order to fortify their souls for the ,hereafter4 ,both the spiritual and the temporal life began to shift to a new institution1 the ,country ,house4 ,the idolum of the ,country ,house drew together and coalesced2 and as a familiar symbol of this change the colleges at ,oxford which date from the ,renascence can scarcely be distinguished in architectural detail from the palaces which the aristocracy were building in the same period2 while our banks and our political edifices to this day bear almost universally the stamp of that ,roman and ,grecian litter which men discovered on the outskirts of the medival city4 #c ,we do not know the ,country ,house until we realize1 to begin with1 what its physical characteristics are like4 ,there are a great many descriptions which the reader may consult if he does not happen to live in the neighborhood of a great ,country ,house3 but perhaps instead of examining the contemporary ,country ,house it will be well to go back to its beginnings1 and see how it was pictured in all its encrusted splendor at the first movement of the ,renascence--in the setting which ,franois ,rabelais1 in one of the few downright serious passages in his great work1 ,gargantua1 sought to provide for the good life4 ,gargantua purposes to build a new ,abbey which he calls the ,abbey of ,theleme4 ,this ,abbey is to be in every respect what the medival ,abbey was not4 ,hence to begin with1 the ,abbey1 unlike the castle1 is to lie in the midst of the open country2 and unlike the monastery1 it is to have no walls4 ,every member is to be furnished with a generous apartment1 consisting of a principal room1 a withdrawing room1 a handsome closet1 a wardrobe1 and an oratory2 and the house itself is to contain not merely libraries in every language1 but fair and spacious galleries of paintings4 ,besides these lodgings there is to be a tilt-yard1 a riding court1 a theatre1 or public playhouse1 and a natatory or place to swim4 ,by the river1 for the ,abbey is to be situated on the ,loire1 there is to be a ,garden of ,pleasure1 and between two of the six towers of the hexagon1 in which form the building is arranged1 there are courts for tennis and other games4 ,add to this orchards full of fruit trees1 parks abounding with venison1 and an archery range1 fill all the halls and chambers with rich tapestries1 cover all the pavements and floors with green cloth--and the furnishing of the ,abbey of ,theleme is complete4 ,the costumes of the inmates are equally splendid and elaborate4 ,in order to have the accoutrements of the ladies' and gentlemen's toilets more convenient1 there was to be 8about the wood of ,theleme a row of houses to the extent of half a league1 very neat and cleanly1 wherein dwelt the goldsmiths1 lapidaries1 jewellers1 embroiderers1 tailors1 gold drawers1 velvet weavers1 tapestry makers1 and upholsterers44440 ,they were to be 8furnished with matter and stuff from the hands of ,lord ,nausiclete1 who every year brought them seven ships from the ,perlas and ,cannibal ,islands1 laden with ingots of gold1 with raw silk1 with pearls and precious stones40 ,the women who are admitted to ,theleme must be fair1 well-featured1 and of sweet disposition2 the men must be comely and well-conditioned4 ,everyone is to be admitted freely and allowed to depart freely2 and instead of attempting to practice poverty1 chastity1 and obedience1 the inmates may be honorably married1 may be rich1 and may live at liberty4 ,the liberty of ,theleme is indeed complete2 it is such a liberty as one enjoys at a ,country ,house to this day1 under the care of a tactful hostess2 for everyone does nothing except follow his own free will and pleasure1 rising out of his bed whenever he thinks good1 and eating1 drinking1 and laboring when he has a mind to it4 ,in all their rule and strictest tie of their order1 as ,rabelais puts it1 there is but one clause to be observed-- 8,do what you please40 #d ,when we turn our attention from ,rabelais' conceit of an anti-monastic order1 we discover that he has given us an excellent picture of the ,country ,house1 and of what ,i shall take the liberty of calling ,country ,house culture4 ,we see pretty much the same outlines in the introduction to ,boccaccio's ,decameron2 it is elaborately described in terms of that most complete of ,country ,houses1 ,hampton ,court1 in ,pope's ,rape of the ,lock2 it is vividly pictured by ,meredith in his portrait of ,the ,egoist2 and it is analyzed in ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells' cruel description of ,bladesover in ,tono-,bungay1 as well as by ,mr4 ,bernard ,shaw in ,heartbreak ,house4 ,whether ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,mallock holds the pattern of ,country ,house culture up to us in ,the ,new ,republic or ,anton ,chekhov penetrates its aimlessness and futility in ,the ,cherry ,orchard1 ,the ,country ,house is one of the recurrent themes of literature4 ,this renascence idolum of the ,country ,house1 then1 is powerful and complete3 ,i know no other pattern which has imposed its standards and its practices with such complete success upon the greater part of ,european civilization4 ,while the ,country ,house was in the beginning an aristocratic institution1 it has penetrated now to every stratum of society2 and although we may not immediately see the connection1 it is responsible1 ,i believe1 for the particular go and direction which the industrial revolution has taken4 ,the ,country ,house standards of consumption are responsible for our ,acquisitive ,society4 #e ,perhaps the shortest way to suggest the character of ,country ,house institutions is to say that they are the precise opposite of everything that ,plato looked upon as desirable in a good community4 ,the ,country ,house is concerned not with the happiness of the whole community but with the felicity of the governors4 ,the conditions which underly this limited and partial good life are political power and economic wealth2 and in order for the life to flourish1 both of these must be obtained in almost limitless quantities4 ,the chief principles that characterize this society are possession and passive enjoyment4 ,now1 in the ,country ,house possession is based upon privilege and not upon work4 ,the title to land which was historically obtained for the most part through force and fraud is the economic foundation of the ,country ,house existence4 ,in order to keep the artisans and laborers who surround the ,country ,house at their work1 it is necessary to keep them from having access to the land on their own account1 provision always being made that the usufruct of the land shall go to the owner and not to the worker4 ,this emphasis upon passive ownership points to the fact that in the ,country ,house there is no active communion between the people and their environment4 ,such activities as remain in the ,country ,house--the pursuit of game1 for instance--rest upon imitating in play activities which once had a vital use or prepared for some vital function1 as a child's playing with a doll is a preparation for motherhood4 ,the ,country ,house ideal is that of a completely functionless existence2 or at best1 an existence in which all the functions that properly belong to a civilized man shall be carried on by functionaries4 ,since this ideal cannot be realized in the actual world1 for the reason that it is completely at odds with man's biological inheritance1 it is necessary in the ,country ,house utopia to fill in by play and sport an otherwise desirable vacuity4 ,in the ,country ,house literature and the fine arts undoubtedly flourish3 but they flourish as the objects of appreciation rather than as the active1 creative elements in the community's life2 they flourish particularly in the fashion that ,plato looked upon as a corrupting influence in the community4 ,in the arts1 a gourmandizing habit of mind--the habit of receiving things and being played upon by them--prevails2 so that instead of the ability to share creative ecstasy1 the chief canon of judgment is 8taste10 a certain capacity to discriminate among sensory stimuli1 a capacity which is essentially just as hospitable to a decomposing cheese as to the very staff of life4 ,the effect of this gourmandism in the arts can be detected in every element of the ,country ,house from cellar to roof2 for the result has been to emphasize the collection of good things rather than their creation1 and there is an aspect in which the ,country ,house is little better than a robber's hoard or a hunter's cache--a miniature anticipation of the modern museums of natural history and art4 ,observe the architecture of our ,country ,house4 ,if it has been built in ,england during the last three hundred years1 the style is probably that bastard ,greek or ,roman which we call ,renascence architecture2 if the ,country ,house was built in ,america during the last thirty years1 it is as likely as not a ,tudor residence with traces of castle fortification left here and there on the faade4 ,on the walls there will be plenty of paintings2 indeed a whole gallery may be devoted to them4 ,in all probability1 however1 the paintings have been created in other times by men long since dead1 and in other countries3 there may be a portrait by ,rembrandt1 a ,persian miniature1 a print by ,hokusai4 ,some very fine element in the structure1 a fireplace or a bit of panelling1 may have been removed piece by piece from the original ,country ,house in ,england1 ,italy1 or ,france2 even as many features of the original ,country ,house were quarried1 perhaps1 from some medival abbey4 ,the very china that we use upon our tables nowadays is a ,country ,house importation which took the place of pewter and earthenware2 and wall paper is another importation4 ,from feature to feature everything is derivative2 everything1 in the last analysis1 has either been stolen or purchased from the original makers2 and what has not been stolen or purchased has been basely copied4 ,the insatiability of the ,country ,house to possess art is only equalled by its inability to create it4 ,in the ,country ,house1 the arts are not married to the community1 but are kept for its pleasure4 ,let there be no confusion as to either the facts or the ideal we are examining4 ,there is a vast difference between that fine mingling of traditions which is the very breath of the arts1 as the lover of classic ,greek statuary knows1 and the rapacious imperialistic habit of looting the physical objects of art which has been the essence of the ,country ,house method in modern times1 even as it seems to have been a couple of thousand years ago in the ,roman villa4 ,a genuine culture will borrow steadily from other cultures2 but it will go to them as the bee goes to the flower for pollen1 and not as the beekeeper goes to the hive for honey4 ,there is a creative borrowing and a possessive borrowing2 and the ,country ,house has in the main limited itself to possessive borrowing4 ,the ,country ,house ideal1 in fact1 is limitless possession3 so the great ,country ,house masters have five or six houses1 perhaps1 in their name1 although they need but a single one to cover their heads4 ,now the ,country ,house idolum involves a dissociation between the ,country ,house and the community in which it is placed4 ,if you will take the trouble to examine medival conditions1 you will find that differences of rank and wealth did not make a very great difference between the life of the lord in his castle1 and his retainers3 if the common man could not claim to be as good as his lord1 it is plain that the lord shared most of the common man's disabilities1 and was1 for all the exaggerations of chivalry1 just as ignorant1 just as illiterate1 just as coarse4 ,in the cities1 too1 the lowest workman in the guild shared the institutions of his masters3 the churches1 the guild pageants1 and the morality plays were all part and parcel of the same culture4 ,the ,country ,house changed this condition4 ,culture came to mean not a participation in the creative activities of one's own community1 but the acquisition of the products of other communities2 and it scarcely matters much whether these acquisitions were within the spiritual or the material domain4 ,there had of course been the beginnings of such a split in medival literature1 with its vulgar ,rabelaisian tales and its refined romances of the court2 but with the integration of the ,country ,house idolum1 this divorcement was accentuated in every other activity of the community4 ,one of the results of this split was that popular institutions were deprived of their contacts with the general world of culture1 and languished away2 or they were transformed1 as the public schools of ,england were transformed into restricted upper class institutions4 ,far more important than this1 perhaps1 was the fact that each separate ,country ,house was forced to obtain for its limited circle all the elements that were necessary to the good life in a whole community such as ,plato described4 ,we shall deal with the effects of this presently4 #f ,let us admit what is valid in the utopia of the ,country ,house4 ,enjoyment is a necessary element in achievement1 and by its regard for the decent graces of life1 for such things as an ease in manners and a fine flow of conversation and the clash of wits and a sensitiveness to beautiful things1 the ,country ,house was by all odds a humanizing influence4 ,in so far as the ,country ,house fostered a belief in contemplation and a desire for the arts apart from any uses that might be made of them by way of civic advertisement2 in so far as it urged that all our pragmatic activities must be realized in things that are worth having or doing for themselves1 the ,country ,house was right1 eminently right4 ,it was no snobbery on the part of ,russian soviet officialism when it opened up some of its ,country ,houses as rest houses for the peasants and workers1 and then insisted that some of the airs of the ,country ,house should be acquired there1 to replace the rough usages of the stable1 the dungpile1 and the field4 ,ruskin and ,samuel ,butler were possibly right when they insisted that the perfect gentleman was a finer product than the perfect peasant or artisan3 he is a finer product because he is essentially more alive4 ,even by its emphasis upon appreciation the ,country ,house did no mean service2 for it called attention to the fact that there were more permanent standards--standards which were common to the arts of ,greece and ,china--than those which were looked upon as sufficient in the local region4 ,in sum1 the ,country ,house emphasized a human best1 which was the sum of a dozen partial perfections2 and so all that was crude and inadequate in the old regional cultures was brought to light and criticized4 ,all these virtues ,i admit2 and they hold just as good today as they ever did4 ,the fatal weakness of ,country ,house culture comes out all the plainer for this admission4 ,the ,country ,house did not see that enjoyment rested upon achievement1 and was indeed inseparable from achievement4 ,the ,country ,house strove to put achievement in one compartment and enjoyment in another2 with the result that the craftsman who no longer had the capacity to enjoy the fine arts no longer had the ability to create them4 ,the effect of an isolated routine of enjoyment is equally debilitating2 for enjoyment1 to the masters of the ,country ,house came too easily1 with a mere snap of the fingers1 as it were1 and the tendency of connoisseurship was to set novelty above intrinsic worth4 ,hence the succession of styles by which ,country ,house decoration has become a thing for mockery3 ,chinese in one age1 ,indian in another1 ,persian in the next1 with ,egyptian1 ,middle ,african1 and heaven knows what else destined to follow in due order4 ,there is nothing to settle to1 because there is no task to be done1 and no problem to work out2 and as soon as the first taste for a style gets exhausted it is speedily supplanted by another4 ,it would be impossible to calculate the extent to which the ,country ,house has degraded our taste but ,i have little doubts as to the source of the degradation4 ,the stylicism which has perverted the arts and has kept a congruent modern style from developing has been the work of ,country ,house culture4 ,i remember well the contempt with which a furniture manufacturer in the ,chiltern ,hills told me about the way in which he produced an original ,sheraton3 his knowledge of sound furniture design was subordinated to some other person's knowledge of 8style0 and the miscarriage of the man's innate craftsmanship made him so mordant on the subject that it seemed as though he had been reading ,thorstein ,veblen's ,theory of the ,leisure ,class4 ,it is the same through all the arts4 ,a visit to the industrial sections of the ,metropolitan ,museum in ,new ,york will show how dismally the taste for novelty1 which led the ,sheratons and ,chippendales to find 8classic motifs0 in one age1 causes the designers of the present day to seek the motifs of ,sheraton and ,chippendale4 ,so much for what happened to the arts when enjoyment and achievement are separated4 #g ,the industrial bearing of the ,renascence ideal is of capital importance4 ,during the ,middle ,age the emphasis in industry was upon the production of tangible goods2 the craft guilds set high standards in design and workmanship2 and the aim of the worker1 in most of the trades1 was to get a living from his work1 and not simply to get enough money to free himself from the necessity of working4 ,this is a broad generalization1 ,i need scarcely emphasize1 and there is plenty of evidence of pecuniary interests under the best of conditions2 but it seems fair to say that the dominant ideals of the older industrial order were industrial rather than commercial4 ,in the trading ventures that the ,country ,house promoted under its ,drakes and ,raleighs1 ventures which were needed to bring them 8,ships from the ,perlas and ,cannibal ,islands10 the emphasis shifted from workmanship to sale2 and the notion of working and gambling to acquire multifarious goods took the place of that earlier ideal which ,henry ,adams so sympathetically described in ,mt4 ,st4 ,michel and ,chartres4 ,thus the good life1 as ,i have said elsewhere1 was the ,goods ,life3 it could be purchased4 ,if the whole community no longer offered the conditions for this life1 one might filch what one wanted from the general store1 and try to monopolize for self or family all that was needed for a good life in the community4 ,what is the chief economic outcome of this ideal8 ,the chief outcome1 ,i think1 is to exaggerate the demand for goods1 and to cause an enormously wasteful duplication of the apparatus of consumption4 ,if the limit to one's possessions should be simply the extent of one's purse2 if happiness is to be acquired through obtaining the comforts and luxuries of life2 if a man who possesses a single house is considered fortunate1 and a man who possesses five houses five times as fortunate2 if there are no standards of living other than the insatiable one that has been set up in the ,country ,house--well1 then there is really no limit to the business of getting and spending1 and our lives become the mean handiwork of coachman1 cook1 and groom4 ,our ,country ,house will not merely be a house3 there will be a chapel1 an art gallery1 a theater1 a gymnasium1 as ,franois ,rabelais imagined4 ,as the common possessions of the community dwindle1 the private possessions of individuals are multiplied2 and at last1 there remains no other community than a multitude of anarchic individuals1 each of whom is doing his best to create for himself a ,country ,house1 notwithstanding the fact that the net result of his endeavors--this is the drab tragedy and the final thing to be said against it--is perhaps nothing better than six inadequate rooms at the end of nowhere in a ,philadelphia suburb4 ,the ,country ,house1 then1 is the chief pattern by means of which the medival order was transformed into the modern order4 ,it does not matter very much whether the ,country ,house is an estate on ,long ,island or a cottage in ,montclair2 whether it is a house in ,golder's ,green or a family manor in ,devonshire3 these are essentially affairs of scale1 and the underlying identity is plain enough4 ,the idolum of the ,country ,house prevails even when quarters are taken up in the midst of the metropolis4 ,more than ever the ,country ,house today tries to make up by an abundance of physical goods for all that has been lost through its divorce from the underlying community2 more than ever it attempts to be self-sufficient within the limits of suburbia4 ,the automobile1 the phonograph1 and the radio-telephone have only served to increase this self-sufficiency2 and ,i need not show at length how these instrumentalities have deepened the elements of acquisitiveness and passive1 uncreative1 mechanical enjoyment4 ,the ,country ,house's passionate demand for physical goods has given rise to another institution1 ,coketown2 and it is the idolum of ,coketown1 the industrial age's contribution to the ,country ,house1 that we have now to consider4 #h ,the chief difference between the individual utopias of the nineteenth century and the 8collective representation0 of ,coketown is that these individual utopias were concerned to repair certain points where ,manchester1 ,newark1 ,pittsburgh1 and ,elberfeld-,barmen fell short of the ideal4 ,in repairing these points1 ,bellamy and ,hertzka were ready to alter the conventional arrangements by which property and land were held1 and capital was accumulated4 ,the final end however was the same2 and the differences are therefore more apparent than real4 ,if the illustrative example of the ,country ,house is in the ,abbey of ,theleme1 that of ,coketown is in the sharp picture of industrialism which ,charles ,dickens presents in ,hard ,times4 ,coketown1 as ,dickens sees it1 is the quintessence of the industrial age4 ,it is perhaps one of the few idola of the modern world which has no parallel in any earlier civilization that we have been able to explore4 ,in order to understand what ,coketown brought into the world1 we must realize that before ,coketown came into existence the center of every important ,european city consisted of a marketplace1 shadowed over by a ,cathedral1 a ,market ,court1 and a ,guildhall2 and frequently there would be an adjacent university4 ,this was the typical formation4 ,the various quarters of the city were subordinated to these central institutions1 and the work which was carried on within the city's walls was more or less concretely realized in the local community4 ,coketown1 on the other hand1 was the outcome of other conditions and necessities4 ,the center of ,coketown's activity was the mill1 set at first in the open country near falling water1 and then as coal was applied to steam engines1 removed to areas more accessible to the coal fields4 ,the factory became the new social unity2 in fact it became the only social unit2 and1 as ,dickens sharply put it1 8the jail looked like the town hall1 and the town hall like the infirmary0--and all of them looked like the factory1 a gaunt building of murky brick that once was red or yellow4 ,the sole object of the factory is to produce goods for sale2 and every other institution is encouraged in ,coketown only to the extent that it does not seriously interfere with this aim4 ,what are the outward physical aspects of ,coketown8 ,to begin with1 the city is laid out by an engineer2 it is laid out with a mathematical correctness and with a complete disregard for the amenities4 ,if there are hills where ,coketown ought to stand1 the hills are leveled2 if there are swamps1 the swamps are filled2 if there are lakes1 the lakes are drained away4 ,the pattern to which ,coketown's activities are fitted is that of the gridiron2 there are no deviations and no allowances in the working out of this plan2 never will a street swerve as much as a hair's breadth to save a stand of trees or open up a vista4 ,in the matter of transportation and intercourse1 the aim of ,coketown is to 8get somewhere02 and it fancies that by laying down straight lines and joining them in rectangles this aim is expedited2 despite the demonstration in every city of older growth that a radial system of intercommunication is much more economical than the gridiron4 ,as a result1 there is no terminus to any of the avenues of ,coketown2 for they begin on a draughting board and end in infinity4 ,it is impossible to approach from the front the jails1 hospitals1 and sanatoria of which ,coketown boasts2 the tendency is to run past them4 ,so much for the physical layout of the industrial city2 what remains is obscured by smoke4 ,the factory is the center of ,coketown's social life2 and it is here that the greater part of the population spend their days4 ,at its purest1 that is to say1 during the first half of the nineteenth century1 and in a great many centers to this day1 the factory is the only institution that provides anything like a social life1 in spite of the fact that the unremitting toil which accompanies its routine reduces the graces of social intercourse to such a minimum that drunkenness and copulation are the only amusements which the inhabitants can engage in as a relief from their noble duty of providing the rest of the world with necessities1 comforts1 luxuries1 and nullities4 ,the ,coketown idolum has been disintegrating a little during the last two decades1 under the influence of the garden cities movement1 and ,i am aware that in certain departments ,i am celebrating a lost cause and an abandoned idealism2 but there still remain in acres and acres of workingmen's dwellings1 such as one finds in ,battersea and ,philadelphia1 and in old-fashioned railway stations1 and in buildings like the ,mechanics ,halls of ,pittsburgh and ,boston1 a notion of what ,coketown stood for when ,coketown1 the ,frankenstein which had been created by the ,country ,house1 had not been repudiated by its master4 ,coketown is devoted to the production of material goods2 and there is no good in ,coketown that does not derive from this aim4 ,the only enjoyment which those who are inured to the ,coketown routine can participate in is mechanical achievement2 that is to say1 activity along industrial and commercial lines2 and the only result of this achievement is--more achievement4 ,it follows that all the standards of ,coketown are of a quantitative kind2 so many score of machines1 so many tons of gew-gaws1 so many miles of piping1 so many dollars of profit4 ,the opportunities for self-assertion and constructiveness in such a community are practically boundless2 and ,i can never confront the mechanical felicities of a printing plant without realizing how fascinating these opportunities are1 and how deeply they satisfy certain elements in our nature4 ,the unfortunate thing about ,coketown1 however1 is that these are the only sort of opportunities that are available2 and work whose standards are of a qualitative sort1 the work of scholars and artists and scientists1 is either frozen out of the community by deliberate ostracism1 or is hitched to the machine2 the artist1 for example1 being compelled to sing the praises of ,coketown's goods or to paint the portrait of ,coketown's supreme esthetic achievement--the ,self-,made ,man4 ,in its pristine state1 ,coketown is not a complete community4 ,so it is natural that the idolum should have provided certain additions4 ,in the first place1 the activities of ,coketown1 whether they are beneficial or wasteful1 satisfy only certain elements in the human makeup2 and although much may be done by compulsory education to discipline the younger generation to the machine1 and to show them the necessity of doing nothing which would interfere with the continued activity of the machine--for work in ,coketown1 as ,samuel ,butler fearfully predicted in ,erewhon1 is in the main simply attendance upon machinery--here and there the igneous instincts of the workers will break through the solidified layer of habit which the school and the factory have produced1 and the arcane energies of the population will flow either into the ,country ,house or into that other simulacrum of the civic life1 ,broadway4 ,coketown for the workaday week1 the ,country ,house for the weekend1 is the compromise that has been practically countenanced2 although the country houses of the working classes may be nothing more than a diminutive extension of the urban slum near sea or mountain4 ,but it must be admitted that there is a permanent ,country ,house and a permanent ,coketown population in the more ideal aspects of the order4 ,mr4 ,wells in the ,time ,machine has given a picture of ,coketown which is perhaps a little exuberant in some of its details--the picture of a happy and careless ,country ,house population1 living on the surface of the earth1 mid all the graces of a jolly weekend1 and that of the factory population1 the ,morlocks1 living in the bowels of the earth and performing the necessary industrial functions4 ,mr4 ,wells' presentation is a little exaggerated1 however1 and we must be content here with such a plain and outright description as ,messrs4 ,bounderby and ,gradgrind would approve of4 ,in the ,coketown scheme of things1 all that does not contribute to the physical necessities of life is called a comfort2 and all that does not contribute either to comforts or necessities is called a luxury4 ,these three grades of good correspond to the three classes of the population3 the necessities are for the lower order of manual workers1 together with such accessory members as clerks1 teachers1 and minor officials2 the comforts are for the comfortable classes1 that is1 the small order of merchants1 bankers1 and industrialists2 while the luxuries are for the aristocracy1 if there is such an hereditary group1 and for such as are able to lift themselves out of the two previous orders4 ,chief among the luxuries1 it goes without saying1 are art and literature and any of the other permanent interests of a humane life4 ,let us note what an improvement the three classes of ,coketown are upon the three classes in ,plato's ,republic4 ,the custom of limiting the earnings of the working classes to the margin of subsistence is singularly effective in keeping them occupied with the business of production--as long as there is no overplus in the market to throw them out of work--and it is thus a safeguard of efficiency and industry which ,plato1 who was deplorably obtuse in these matters1 did not provide4 ,it is likewise obvious that the life of a middle class citizen1 with plenty to eat and drink1 with his life protected by the policeman1 his pocketbook protected by the insurance company1 his spiritual happiness protected by the church1 his human sympathies protected by the charity organization society1 his intelligence protected by the newspaper1 and his economic privileges protected by the ,state--this middle class citizen is1 after all1 a much more fortunate and happy individual than those ,platonic warriors whose life was a perpetual effort to keep the edge on their bodies and minds4 ,as for the ,guardians of the ,state1 it is plain that ,plato did not offer them any inducement to do their work which would attract a normal commercial man3 anyone who was worth a hundred thousand dollars a year would have thought twice before assuming leadership in ,plato's impoverished commonwealth1 whereas in ,coketown he would find that his simple ability to make money would be taken as sufficient proof of his education1 his insight1 and his wisdom in every department of life4 ,more than that1 ,coketown1 when all is said and done1 welcomes the artist with a cordiality that puts ,plato to shame3 ,coketown can afford its luxuries since1 when you look at the matter squarely1 a rare painting might be worth as much as a rare postage stamp2 and it is accordingly an acceptable addition to the ,coketown milieu4 ,coketown has1 in fact1 only one question for the arts to answer3 ,what are they good for8 ,if the answer can be expressed in money1 the art in question is taken to be almost as satisfactory as a device to save labor1 to increase speed1 or to multiply the output4 #i ,there is one phenomenon still to be accounted for in the economy of ,coketown2 one monumental instrument without which the wheels of ,coketown would become clogged and the very breath of ,coketown be extinguished4 ,i refer to the rubbish heaps4 ,the aim of production in ,coketown is naturally more production1 and it is only by making things sufficiently shoddy to go to pieces quickly1 or by changing the fashion sufficiently often1 that the machinery of ,coketown can for the most part be kept running4 ,the rage and fury of ,coketown's production has to be balanced off by an equal rage and fury of consumption--continence would be fatal4 ,as a result1 nothing in ,coketown is finished or permanent or settled3 these qualities are another name for death4 ,coketown makes china to be broken1 clothes to be worn out1 and houses to be torn down2 and if something remains over from an earlier age which made things more soundly1 it is either incarcerated in a museum1 and derided as the monument of a non-progressive age1 or it is demolished as a nuisance4 ,so powerful is the idolum of ,coketown that in the workaday world building after building continues to meet with irreparable ruin at the hands of barbarians from ,coketown3 why1 ,i have even seen innocent little half-timbered fifteenth century cottages whose fronts were obliterated by a nineteenth century plasterer1 in the name of progress4 ,the status of every family in ,coketown can be told by the size of its rubbish heap4 ,in fact1 to 8make a pile0 in the markets of ,coketown is ultimately to make another pile--of dust and junk and litter--on the edge of the town where the factory district dribbles off into the open country4 ,so in ,coketown consumption is not merely a necessity3 it is a social duty1 a means of keeping 8the wheels of civilization turning40 ,at times there appears to be a possibility that this utopia may defeat its purposes by producing goods at such a pace that the rubbish heaps will fall behind the demands of the market2 and while this mars the theoretic perfection of the ,coketown social organization1 it is offset by periods of war1 when the market is practically inexhaustible1 and ,coketown's prosperity increases to a point at which the working classes are on the point of becoming the comfortable classes without having had sufficient previous training to make their contribution to the rubbish heap--a serious pass1 amidst which confusion the working classes of ,coketown might take to reducing their working days and enjoying their leisure without sufficient consumptive effort4 ,this1 then1 is the idolum of ,coketown4 ,there are certain features in it which need to be noticed4 ,the first is that there is a certain solid reality in ,coketown that remains when all its pretensions and idiocies have been incinerated4 ,an environment that is devoted solely to the production of material goods is obviously no sort of environment for a good community1 for life is more than a matter of finding what we shall eat and wherewithal we shall be clothed3 it is an interaction with a whole world of landscapes1 living creatures and ideas1 in comparison with which ,coketown is a mere blister on the earth's surface4 ,nevertheless1 with respect to the business of melting steel and building roads and performing certain essential industrial operations1 the aims of ,coketown are1 up to a certain point1 relevant3 we have already encountered them in ,andre's ,christianopolis4 ,there is no need to dismiss the good that lies inside of industrialism because it does not embrace the good that lies beyond it4 ,up to a certain point1 then1 using mechanical power rather than human power is good2 so is large-scale production1 so is the division of labor and division of operation2 so is rapid transportation2 so is the accurate methodology of the engineer2 and so are various other features in the modern industrial world4 ,one might even say a word for efficiency1 as against 8doing things rather more or less40 ,coketown made the horrid mistake of believing that all these things were good in themselves4 ,new factories1 for example1 drew a bigger population into the city3 ,coketown did not perceive that1 as ,plato pointed out1 beyond a certain point the city as a social unit would cease to exist4 ,bigger and better was ,coketown's motto2 and it resolutely refused to see that there was no necessary connection between these adjectives4 ,the whole case for and against ,coketown rests upon our admission of the phrase 8up to a certain point40 ,up to a certain point1 industrialism is good1 especially in its modern1 neotechnic1 electrical phase3 ,coketown1 on the other hand1 believes that there is no limit to the usefulness of industrialism4 ,up to a certain point--but what point8 ,the answer is1 up to the point at which the cultivation of a humane life in a community of humane people becomes difficult or impossible4 ,men come together1 says ,aristotle1 to live2 they remain together in order to live the good life4 ,this determination of the good life is the only check and balance that we can have upon ,coketown2 and it is perhaps because we have been so little concerned with it that the practical effect of the ,coketown idolum has been so devastating4 8,invention and organization10 as ,mr4 ,george ,santayana admirably points out1 8which ought to have increased leisure by producing the necessaries of life with little labor1 have only increased the population1 degraded labor1 and diffused luxury40 ,william ,morris conceived that men in the future might discard many complicated machines because they could live more happily1 aye1 work more happily without them4 ,whether indeed a good part of modern organization and machinery could be scrapt is perhaps a debatable question3 but the possibility of scrapping it is at least conceivable once we become more interested in the actual result of industrialism upon the life and happiness of the people who are part of the organization than we are in the profits which pile up upon paper1 and are finally realized in an ever-growing rubbish heap4 #aj ,by what means can the ,country ,house keep ,coketown working for it8 ,the idolum of the ,country ,house1 which was built up during the ,renascence1 and the idolum of ,coketown1 which was formed in the early part of the nineteenth century1 are obviously two separate worlds2 and in order that each might be realized in our daily life1 it was necessary that some connecting tissue be manufactured to keep them together4 ,this tissue was the social myth1 the collective utopia1 of the ,national ,state4 ,there is a sense in which we may look upon the ,national ,state as a fact2 but that great philosopher of the ,national ,state1 ,mazzini1 realized that the ,national ,state had continually to be willed2 and its existence lies plainly1 therefore1 on a different plane from the existence of a bit of territory1 a building1 or a city4 ,in fact1 it is only by the persistent projection of this utopia for the last three or four hundred years that its existence has become credible2 for all the minute descriptions which the political historian gives to the ,national ,state1 its origins and its institutions and its people1 read a good deal like that fine story which ,hans ,andersen told about the king who walked the streets naked because two rascally tailors had persuaded him that they had woven and cut up for him a beautiful outfit of clothes4 ,it will help us to appreciate this beautiful fabrication of the ,national ,state if we turn aside for a moment and glance at the actual world as it is known to the geographer and the anthropologist4 ,here are the physical facts in defiance of which the utopia of nationalism has been clapped together4 #aa ,the earth that the geographer surveys is divided into five great land masses4 ,these land masses in turn can be broken up into a number of natural regions1 each of which has within its rough and approximate frontiers a certain complex of soil1 climate1 vegetation1 and1 arising out of these1 certain primitive occupations which the inhabitants of the region originally practiced and later1 through the advance of trade and invention1 elaborated4 ,between these natural regions there are occasionally frontiers1 such as the barrier of the ,pyrenees which separates 8,france0 from 8,spain02 but these barriers have never altogether prevented movements of population from one area to another4 ,in order to have a more faithful knowledge of regional groupings in certain important areas1 the reader might with profit consult ,professor ,fleure's ,human ,geography in ,western ,europe4 7,london3 ,williams and ,norgate47 ,these natural regions are the groundwork of human regions2 that is1 the non-political grouping of population with respect to soil1 climate1 vegetation1 animal life1 industry and historic tradition4 ,in each of these human regions we find that the population does not consist of a multitude of atomic individuals3 on the contrary1 when the geographer plots houses and buildings on a topographic map1 he finds that people and houses cohere together in groups of more or less limited size1 called cities1 towns1 villages1 hamlets4 ,normally1 a vast amount of intercourse takes place between these groupings2 and in the ,middle ,age1 before the utopia of the ,national ,state had been created1 the pilgrim and the wandering scholar and the journeyman and the strolling player could have been met with on all the highways of ,europe4 ,under the dispensation of the ,national ,state1 however1 the population1 as the ,german economist ,buecher points out1 tends to be more settled1 and we transport goods rather than people4 ,it is important to realize that1 so far as the geographer can discover1 this trade and intercourse between local groups has been a part of ,western ,european civilization since ,neolithic times1 at least3 it takes place continually between individuals and corporate groups in one place and another1 and as far as geographical facts are concerned might more easily exist between ,dover and ,calais1 let us say1 than between ,calais and ,paris4 ,now the interesting thing about the utopia of the ,national ,state is that it has only the most casual relation to the facts of geography4 ,wherever it suits the purposes of the ,guardians of the ,state1 the facts are ignored1 and an artificial relation is willed into existence4 ,the human communities which the regional sociologist recognizes do not always coincide with those which the statesman wishes to incorporate as 8national territory10 and when this conflict occurs1 the idea rather than the reality triumphs1 if necessary by brute force4 ,in the utopia of the ,national ,state there are no natural regions2 and the equally natural grouping of people in towns1 villages and cities1 which1 as ,aristotle points out1 is perhaps the chief distinction between man and the other animals1 is tolerated only upon the fiction that the ,state hands over to these groups a portion of its omnipotent authority1 or 8sovereignty0 as it is called1 and permits them to exercise a corporate life4 ,unfortunately for this beautiful myth1 which generations of lawyers and statesmen have labored to build up1 cities existed long before states--there was a ,rome on the ,tiber long before there was a ,roman ,imperium--and the gracious permission of the state is simply a perfunctory seal upon the accomplished fact4 ,instead of recognizing natural regions and natural groups of people1 the utopia of nationalism establishes1 by the surveyor's line1 a certain realm called national territory1 and makes all the inhabitants of this territory the members of a single1 indivisible group1 the nation1 which is supposed to be prior in claim and superior in power to all other groups4 ,this is the only social formation that is officially recognized within the national utopia4 ,what is common to all the inhabitants of this territory is thought to be of far greater importance than any of the things that bind men together in particular civic or industrial groups4 ,let us look at this world of national utopias4 ,the contrast between the politician's map and the geographer's would be little less than amazing were our eyes not used to it1 and were we not taught in modern times to look upon it as inevitable4 ,instead of the natural grouping of land masses and regions1 one finds a multitude of quite arbitrary lines3 boundaries like those that separate ,canada and the ,united ,states or ,belgium and the ,netherlands are just as frequent as the natural frontier of sea that surrounds ,england4 ,sometimes these national territories are big1 and sometimes they are little2 but the bigness of empires like those of ,france1 ,england1 or the ,united ,states is not due to any essential identity of interests between the sundry communities of these empires1 but to the fact that they are forcibly held together by a political government4 ,national lines1 in other words1 continue to exist only as long as the inhabitants continue to act in terms of them2 are ready to pay their taxes to support customs bureaux1 immigration offices1 frontier patrols1 and educational systems2 and are prepared1 in the last extremity1 to lay down their lives to prevent other groups from crossing these imaginary lines without permission4 ,the chief concern of the national utopia is the support of the central government1 for the government is the guardian of territory and privilege4 ,the principal business of that government is to keep the territory properly defined1 and to increase its limits1 when possible1 so as to make the taxable area larger4 ,by stressing the importance of these concerns1 and constantly playing up the dangers of rivalry from other national utopias1 the ,state builds a bridge between the ,country ,house and ,coketown1 and persuades the workers in ,coketown that they have more in common with the classes that exploit them than they have in common with other groups within a more limited community4 ,it would seem that this reconciliation of ,coketown and the ,country ,house is little less than miraculous1 even as an ideal2 and perhaps it would be interesting to examine a little more carefully the apparatus by which this is effected4 #ab ,the chief instrument of the ,national ,state is ,megalopolis1 its biggest city1 the place where the idolum of the ,national ,utopia was first created1 and where it is perpetually willed into existence4 ,in order to grasp the quintessential character of ,megalopolis we must shut our eyes to the palpable earth1 with its mantle of vegetation and its tent of clouds1 and conceive what might be made of the human landscape if it could be entirely fabricated out of paper2 for the ultimate aim of the ,megalopolis is to conduct the whole of human life and intercourse through the medium of paper4 ,the early life of a young citizen in ,megalopolis is spent in acquiring the tools by which paper may be used4 ,the names of these tools are writing1 reading1 and arithmetic2 and once upon a time these constituted the main elements in every ,megalopolitan's education4 ,there was1 however1 a good deal of dissatisfaction1 on paper1 against this somewhat barren curriculum1 and so at a fairly early date in the history of ,megalopolis1 various other subjects1 such as literature1 science1 gymnastics1 and manual training were added to the curriculum--on paper4 ,it is indeed possible for a ,megalopolitan student to know the atomic formula of clay without ever having seen it in the raw earth1 to handle pine wood in the workshop without having walked through a pine forest1 and to go through the masterpieces of poetic literature without having experienced a single emotion which would prepare him to appreciate anything different from one of the influential ,megalopolitan magazines1 8,smutty ,stories01 but as long as his hours of attendance can be recorded on paper1 and as long as he can give a satisfactory account of his studies on an examination paper1 his preparation for life is practically complete2 and so he is graduated with a paper certificate of education into the industries of ,coketown1 or into the multitudinous bureaus of ,megalopolis itself4 ,the end of this period of paper tutelage is but a prelude to its continuation in another form2 for the religious care of paper is the ,megalopolitan's life work4 ,the daily newspaper1 the ledger1 the card index are the means by which he now makes contact with life1 whilst the fiction magazine and the illustrated paper are the means by which he escapes from it4 ,through the translucent form of paper known as celluloid1 it has been possible to do away on the stage with flesh-and-blood people2 and therefore the drama of life1 as the ,megalopolitan story writers tell it1 can be enacted at one remove from actuality4 ,instead of his travelling1 the world moves before the ,megalopolitan1 on paper2 instead of his venturing forth on the highways of the world1 adventure comes to him1 on paper2 instead of his getting him a mate1 his bliss may be all but consummated--on paper4 ,in fact1 so accustomed does the ,megalopolitan become to experiencing all his emotions on paper that he can be entertained by the representation of a static bowl of flowers on a moving picture screen2 while his cockney ignorance of nature is so vast that a certain vaudeville performer1 seeking to amuse him by imitating the calls of birds and beasts1 finds it wise to have moving pictures taken of the rooster1 the dog1 and the cat1 in order to give his mimicries reality in minds destitute of any personal image4 ,the notion of direct action1 direct intercourse1 direct association1 is a foreign one to ,megalopolis4 ,if any action is to be taken by the whole community1 or by any group in it1 it is necessary to carry it through the ,megalopolitan parliament1 and have it established on paper1 after innumerable people1 who have no genuine concern in the matter1 have committed their views about it to paper4 ,if any intercourse is to be carried on1 it must be largely conducted on paper2 and if that medium is not directly available1 subsidiary instruments1 like the telephone1 are used4 ,the chief form of association in ,megalopolis is that by political party1 and it is through the political party that the ,megalopolitan expresses his views1 on paper1 as to what is necessary to amend the paper constitution or promote the welfare of the paper community2 albeit he realizes that the promises made by political parties are written on what ,megalopolitans in their more cynical moments call 8non-negotiable0 paper1 and will probably never pass into currency4 ,by its traffic in ,coketown's multifarious goods and by its command over certain kinds of paper known as mortgages or securities1 ,megalopolis ensures a supply of real foods and real staples from the countryside4 ,through incessant production of books1 magazines1 newspapers1 boilerplate features1 and syndicated matter1 ,megalopolis ensures that the idolum of the ,national ,utopia shall be kept alive in the minds of the underlying inhabitants of the country4 ,finally1 by the devices of 8national education0 and 8national advertising0 all the inhabitants of the ,national ,utopia are persuaded that the good life is that which is lived1 on paper1 in the capital city2 and that an approximation to this life can be achieved only by eating the food1 dressing in the clothes1 holding the opinions1 and purchasing the goods which are offered for sale by ,megalopolis4 ,so the chief aim of every other city in the ,national ,utopia is to become like ,megalopolis2 its chief hope is to grow as big as ,megalopolis2 its boast is that it is another ,megalopolis4 ,when the denizens of ,megalopolis dream of a better world1 it is only a paper perfection of that ,national ,utopia which ,edward ,bellamy looked forward to in ,looking ,backward4 ,working in connection with the ,machine ,process of ,coketown1 the ,megalopolis erects a standard of life which can be expressed in commercial terms1 on paper1 even if it does not offer any tangible satisfaction in goods and services and perfections4 ,the chief boast of this standard is its uniformity2 that is1 its equal applicability to every person in the community without respect to his history1 his circumstances1 his needs1 his actual rewards4 ,hence such goods as ,megalopolis creates in profusion are for the most part in the line of plumbing and sanitary devices which1 if they do not exactly heighten the joy of living1 at any rate make the routine of ,megalopolitan life a little less formidable4 ,the total result of these standards and uniformities is that what was originally a fiction in time becomes a fact4 ,whereas the inhabitants of the national utopia may originally have been as diverse as the trees in a forest1 they tend to become1 under the influence of education and propaganda1 as similar as telegraph poles along a road4 ,it is not a little to the credit of ,megalopolis that the ,national ,utopia has pragmatically justified itself4 ,it has created the sort of mental environment on paper which is necessary to a smooth adjustment of ,coketown and the ,country ,house4 ,what is ,megalopolis1 in fact1 but a paper purgatory which serves as a medium through which the fallen sons of ,coketown1 the producer's hell1 may finally attain the high bliss of the ,country ,house1 the consumer's ,heaven8 #ac ,it should be plain that in describing the ,national ,utopia and ,megalopolis ,i have been trying to outline what ,plato would call the pure form4 ,it is equally clear1 ,i trust1 that the pure form is an idolum to which any existing national state or metropolis approximates only so far as the idolum does not conflict too grossly with the real men and women1 the real communities1 the real regions1 the real workaday occupations which continue1 despite the reign of these idola1 to exist1 and to occupy our main attention4 ,formal education has not altogether taken the place of vital education2 loyalty to the state has not altogether succeeded as a substitute for deeper allegiances and affiliations3 occasionally1 here and there1 people meet each other face to face1 they eat real food1 dig in real earth1 smell real flowers instead of coal tar perfumes that arise from paper bouquets1 and embark quite madly on real love affairs4 ,it is true that these realities are a disturbing influence3 they are always threatening to undermine the idola which the politicians and journalists and academic handymen unite so valiantly to build up2 but there they are--and even the most stubborn idealist cannot help himself from occasionally confronting the world that he denies6 ,if you and ,i were perfect citizens of ,megalopolis1 we should never let anything come between us and our loyalty to the ,state3 when the ,state called for our taxes1 we should never think regretfully of the amusements we must forego in order to pay them2 when the ,state demanded that we go to war1 nothing like the claims of a family or an occupation or a moral conviction would ever step between us and our national duty4 ,by the same token1 we should never eat any other food than that which had been nationally advertized1 and never buy anything direct from the producer when we might buy it from a third person in ,megalopolis2 we should never read any literature that is not produced in our own country1 never desire any other climate than our own country can boast1 and never seek to find in any other culture1 remote in space or time1 the things which we seem to miss in our own environment4 ,if only this utopia of nationalism could be realized completely it would be self-sufficient2 and there would be nothing on earth1 in heaven1 or in the waters over the earth which did not bear the authentic trademark of ,megalopolis4 #ad ,the picture of the ,national ,utopia that ,i have drawn is perhaps a little too black to stand out clearly2 and ,i must now add a few high lights for definition4 ,as in ,coketown1 there was a point up to which efficiency in mechanical production was a good thing1 so in the national utopia there is a point up to which uniformity is a good thing4 ,the ,national ,state seems historically to have arisen in some part through the relief which the people of the ,middle ,age experienced in being able to travel under the protection of the ,king's law along the ,king's highway1 and their discovery that common laws and customs1 common weights and measures1 were on the whole an advantage over a multitude of senseless irregularities which continued to exist in particular neighborhoods4 ,it was a distinct triumph for the good life when the men of ,london and the men of ,edinburgh1 let us say1 realized that they had something in common as citizens of a single country1 and emphasized the likenesses which bound them as men rather than the antagonisms that separated them as cities4 ,if the ,national ,state erected barriers of trade against other countries1 it at any rate broke down barriers that had long existed in even more limited regions1 and that have long continued to exist in certain cities in ,italy and ,france4 ,so much is to the good4 ,but uniformity is not a good in itself4 ,it is a good only in so far as it promotes association and social intercourse4 ,in breaking down minor barriers1 the ,state created major ones1 and it created national uniformities in regions where they were meaningless4 ,moreover1 nationalism is inimical to cultural unity1 and it perpetuates irrelevant conflicts in the ,kingdom of the ,spirit where there should be neither slave nor free1 neither white nor black1 neither citizen nor outlander4 ,as a matter of fact1 the two great international cultural vehicles of the ,middle ,age--the ,latin ,language and the ,roman ,church--were broken down by the propagation of a ,national ,language1 that spoken at the ,national ,capital1 and a ,national ,church1 that which was subservient to the ,state2 and nothing that nationalism has done since has repaired this loss4 ,on one hand1 the idolum of the ,national ,state is too narrow1 because the world of culture is man's common inheritance1 and not the mere segment of it which is called 8national literature0 or 8national science40 ,and on the other hand1 the idolum is too big1 for the reason that there is no bond except a paper one between men who are as far apart as ,bermondsey and ,bombay1 or ,new ,york and ,san ,francisco4 ,the temporal community1 as ,auguste ,comte finely pointed out1 is local1 restricted1 and multiform2 this is its essential nature and limitation4 ,the spiritual community is universal4 ,it was a great cultural misdemeanor when the ,national ,utopia1 in its extension as imperialism1 sought to make the spiritual community restricted and the temporal community universal2 and it is this heresy to the good life which makes all the pretensions of the national utopia so shabby and insincere4 #ae ,if ,coketown and the ,country ,house and the ,national ,utopia had remained on paper1 they would doubtless be entertaining and edifying contributions to our literature4 ,unfortunately1 these social myths have been potent2 they have given a pattern to our lives2 and they are the source of a great many evils that threaten1 like stinking weeds1 to choke the good life in our communities4 ,it is not because these myths are utopias that ,i have been criticizing them so assiduously2 it is rather because they continue to work such wholesale damage4 ,hence it has seemed worth while to point out that they are on pretty much the same level of reality as the ,republic or ,christianopolis4 ,we may perhaps approach our social institutions a little more courageously when we realize how completely we ourselves have created them2 and how1 without our perpetual 8will to believe0 they would vanish like smoke in the wind4 ,,chapter ,,eleven ,how we reckon up accounts with the one-sided utopias of the partisans4 ,,chapter ,,eleven #a ,there have been many periods when men did not think it possible to make life in the community reach much higher levels than it had attained1 without working a change upon human nature4 ,the working of this change has been one of the chief preoccupations of religion2 but no one can pretend that it has met1 during the historic period1 with any overwhelming success4 ,in the eighteenth century men became impatient with the ministrations of institutional religion1 and sought to effect an improvement in the common life by a different method--by improving the political1 economic1 and social mechanisms of society4 ,up to this time the only method that had seemed feasible for improving the technique of social organization was the mandate of law4 ,although ,aristotle1 for instance1 predicted that slavery would come to an end on the condition that the shuttle should weave by itself and the lyre play without human hand1 no one in the ,greek community of his time saw very much likelihood of improvement through mechanical inventions or wholesale innovations in agriculture2 and no one1 apparently1 concerned himself seriously with the mechanical side of affairs4 ,it was the same during the ,middle ,age4 ,if the men of that time were not exuberantly happy over their civilization1 they had the dogmatic conviction that nothing very satisfactory could come of a race that had inherited the curse of ,adam--a race whose only salvation could come when its individuals were purged one by one of sin1 and delivered1 by the intercession of the saints and the grace of ,god1 into a more benignly constituted afterworld4 ,one might relieve the pressure a little if the shoe pinched1 perhaps1 but scarcely anyone dreamed of travelling in seven-league boots1 or of establishing an ,arcadia in which boots could be dispensed with4 ,it was foolish to look for a more perfect society in a world that was rife with imperfect men4 ,the ,renascence1 as we have seen1 changed all this4 ,presently a school of philosophers followed on the heels of the utopians who devoted themselves to preparing fairly minute plans and specifications for the social order4 ,in the beginning1 these plans were devoted to politics and criminal reform1 like those of ,rousseau1 ,beccaria1 ,bentham1 ,jefferson1 ,godwin1 and the eighteenth century reformers generally2 in the nineteenth century the main accent was economic1 and a number of movements arose which could be traced back to the semi-scientific investigations of ,adam ,smith1 ,ricardo1 ,proudhon1 ,malthus1 ,marx1 and perhaps half a dozen other thinkers of outstanding importance1 among whom we should perhaps include such latter day figures as ,mill1 ,spencer1 and ,henry ,george4 ,all of these thinkers have in one way or another influenced our thoughts and deflected our actions2 and if one adds to this galaxy the reforming elements which remained in the churches and the missionary brotherhoods and the philanthropic organizations1 we can observe1 growing up in the nineteenth century1 a multitude of partisan organizations and movements1 each of which is strenuously bent on realizing its private and partisan utopia4 ,it is these private and partisan utopias that ,i purpose to make a slight reckoning with in the present chapter2 but the field is such a huge and formidable one that ,i shall limit my criticism in the main to those that attempted to effect a change in the economic order4 #b ,for all the activities that men engage in we have separate words4 ,this is a great misfortune2 for in using these words we tend to believe that each action takes place in a separate compartment4 ,instead of beginning with a whole man interacting in a whole community1 we are likely to consider only a partial man in a partial community1 and by a mental sleight of hand1 before we know it1 we have let the part stand for the whole4 ,it is this sort of abstraction1 ,i believe1 that has been responsible for a good deal of fallacious thinking with regard to the place of industry in the community4 ,the economists seem to have made the error first by talking of a creature whom they called the ,economic ,man1 a creature who had no instincts but those of construction and acquisition1 no habits but of working and saving1 and no other ultimate purpose than to become such a captain of industry as would make him a candidate for the biographic sketches of ,mr4 ,samuel ,smiles1 and his present successors in the newspapers and popular magazines4 ,now this ,economic ,man was the embodiment of honest labor and rapacious greed4 ,out of the better quality1 ,karl ,marx painted the picture of the faithful laborer in ,coketown whose masters swindled him out of the 8surplus value0 he produced2 out of the worse quality classical economists like ,ricardo painted an equally entrancing picture of the beneficent capitalist1 through whose foresight1 organizing ability1 and boldness business could be conducted on a scale a simpler age had scarcely dreamed of4 ,it was out of these conceptions1 as they were elaborated and rationalized in books like ,porter's ,progress of the ,nineteenth ,century and ,marx's ,capital1 that there grew up the notion that the only fundamental problem in the modern world was the labor problem--the problem as to who should control industry1 who should profit by its advances1 and who should own the complicated instruments by which it was conducted4 ,our business here is not to examine the various programs that were offered during the last century in answer to these problems2 merely to catalog them with the barest explanation of their purpose would be an imposing task1 were it not for the fact that it has been neatly done for us by ,mr4 ,savel ,zimand4 ,it is enough to see here the common element in capitalism1 copartnery1 ,state ,socialism1 ,guild ,socialism1 ,co-operation1 ,communism1 ,syndicalism1 the ,one ,big ,union1 ,trades ,unionism1 and the like2 whether these movements represent actual facts1 like capitalism1 copartnery1 or trades unionism1 or whether they are simply projections1 like ,syndicalism and the ,one ,big ,union4 ,if our excursion through the classic utopias has been of any use1 it must have shown us how pathetic is this notion that the key to a good society rests simply on the ownership and control of the industrial plant of the community4 ,is it any less absurd when we confess that most of the movements which were founded upon this assumption were actuated by generous and humane motives1 and that ,francis ,place1 the tailor of ,charing ,cross1 who believed in a radical application of laissez faire principles1 was just as sincere a believer in the common weal as ,karl ,marx1 who predicted a dictatorship of the proletariat8 ,if a great many of these programs have had the notion that industrial machinery1 under socialism or guildism or co-operation was to be used for the common benefit1 what was lacking was any common notion as to what the common benefit was4 ,all that was common to these partisan utopias was a desire to get rid of positive evils such as overwork or starvation or irregularity of employment4 ,in their rejection of the existing order of ,coketown1 with its rubbish heaps for the disposal of material waste1 and its jails1 hospitals1 sanatoria1 doss houses1 ,salvation ,army ,headquarters1 and charitable organizations for the disposal of the human excrement of industrialism--in turning their backs upon these things and asserting the simple elements of human dignity1 all our radical programs were right and inevitable4 ,to reject what industrial society had to offer its members in the filthy factory districts and wretched slums of ,coketown was obviously to reject barbarism and degradation of the worst sort3 the incredible thing about the industrial revolution1 indeed1 is not that there were a few riots here and there against the use of machinery1 but that the industrial population has not been in a state of continual insurrection1 and that the industrial towns have not been looted and razed again and again4 ,it is nothing less than a tribute to the fundamental good nature and sweetness of human beings that the strikes by which the workers have expressed their sense of grievance have not demolished the material hovels that today stand upright in the valleys of ,york-,riding1 in the valleys of the ,ohio and its tributaries1 or in that terrible slum which stretches in back of the ,jersey meadows from ,elizabeth into ,patterson4 ,there are many districts in these areas which are scarcely worth the respect of orderly demolition4 ,to give a grim rejection to the society that produced them only mildly meets the situation4 ,they should be destroyed by trumpets and ,god's wrath--like ,jericho6 ,so much for what is sound and valid in the various one-sided programs for reform4 ,but if their attitude towards the past performances of industrialism was sound1 their gesture towards the future1 and their attitude towards the whole milieu1 was little less than indifferent4 ,there were to be certain gains in money wages1 in political control1 in the distribution of products1 and so forth2 but the realization of these gains was never projected in any very vivid way--a vague fellowship in peace and plenty under gay red banners was all that was left over when the current efforts to 8educate the masses10 8revise the constitution10 or 8organize the revolution0 were taken for granted4 ,in his ,socialism3 ,utopian and ,scientific1 ,friedrich ,engels made a plea for a realistic method of thought1 which limited itself to a here and now1 as against what he derided as the utopian method1 the attempt on the part of a single thinker to give a detailed picture of the society of the future4 ,yet at the present time it is easy to see that if the utopian socialism of ,owen has been ineffective1 the realistic socialism of ,marx has been equally ineffective2 for while ,owen's kind of socialism has been partly fulfilled in the co-operative movement1 the dictatorship of the proletariat rests upon very shaky foundations1 and such success as it has had is due perhaps as much to ,marx's literary picture of what it would be like as to anything else4 ,i do not doubt that the partisan movements have achieved many specific gains2 consumer's co-operation alone has in ,england measurably lightened the physical burden of existence for a great many people4 ,their weakness consists in the fact that they have not altered the contents of the modern social order1 even when they have altered the method of distribution2 and in addition1 a good many of these partisan utopias1 for lack of any definite and coherent scheme of values1 crumble away as soon as they meet the opposition of such powerful collective utopias as ,coketown or the ,country ,house4 ,in ,america1 particularly1 the labor movement is paralyzed by this perpetual movement into the bourgeoisie--concretely speaking1 into ,suburbia and the ,country ,house--and in ,great ,britain much the same sort of dereliction can be observed within the narrower group from which the leaders of the trades unions and the ,labor ,party are drawn4 ,hence also the less interesting problem of the ,tired ,radical1 which ,mr4 ,walter ,weyl suggestively outlined4 ,there is indeed a pertinent criticism of the paper environment of ,megalopolis1 in the tenacious way in which people continue to cling to abstract programs and to movements which never approach perceptibly nearer their fulfillment4 ,the marvel is that the concrete utopia of the ,country ,house has not exercised a more potent influence than it actually does4 ,when one compares the vast amount of agitation during the last century--the ,chartist ,movement1 the ,socialist ,movement1 the ,international ,peace ,movement--with the actual results in the reconstruction of work1 place1 and people1 or with the actual effects any reconstruction has had upon our polity1 our culture1 our art--it is surprising that these movements have had any effective claim upon our allegiance4 ,men will indeed work for an idea--the notion that they will not is a superstition--but sooner or later the spirit must be made manifest in the flesh1 and if it never comes to birth1 or at best is an abortion1 the idea is bound to wither away4 ,how long would the parliamentary clatter of socialism have mechanically kept on--had it not been for the dislocation of war8 ,how long could its abstract programs have remained in the air1 before coming down to specifications8 ,i obviously cannot answer these questions2 but it seems plain enough that our radical programs have had simply a sentimental interest3 they moved people without giving them a specific task1 they stirred them emotionally without giving them an outlet1 and so1 at best1 they are but partial utopias of escape1 using the powers of organization1 collective meetings1 and pronunciamentos to take the place of the emotional stimuli which the avowed utopia of escape1 like ,news from ,nowhere1 supplies by introducing a beautiful girl4 ,in this aspect1 the ,socialist ,party1 with its revolutionary demands1 did not differ in its psychological performance from the ,republican ,party1 which specialized in the rhetorical device of the full dinner pail2 nor did it differ in any fundamental way from the defunct ,progressive ,party1 which for a time believed in a new heaven and earth to follow the initiative1 referendum1 and recall with an intensity of moral conviction beside which the social revolutionist was positively tame4 ,who doubts the honesty and sincerity of most of the members of these parties8 ,who doubts their devotion to revolution or 8uplift08 ,it is all beside the point4 ,a machine which doesn't work because it is badly constructed is just as useless as one that doesn't work because its maker is a deliberate fraud2 and all the sincerity and good will and honesty doesn't make any one a smile the happier4 ,it is about time that we faced the facts and realized that in all our sundry mechanisms of reform 8there is a screw loose somewhere40 ,this pregnant metaphor of the industrial age is usually applied to neurotic disorder2 and ,i am using it in the present context with fell intentions4 ,i mean that the utopia of the partisan is1 psychologically speaking1 a fetish2 that is to say1 it is an attempt to substitute the part for the whole1 and to pour into the part all the emotional content that belongs to the whole4 ,when a man gets hold of a lady's handkerchief or garter1 and behaves towards that object with as much intensity and interest as he would towards its flesh and blood owner1 the handkerchief or garter is said to be a fetish4 ,i hazard the judgment that ,socialism1 ,prohibition1 ,proportional ,representation1 and the various other abstract 8isms0 are the fetishes of the partisan3 they are attempts to make some particular instrument or function of the community stand for the whole4 ,it is doubtless much easier to filch a handkerchief than to win a girl4 ,by the same token1 it is easier to concentrate on the use of liquor or the ownership of machinery and land than upon the totality of a community's activities4 ,it is easier indeed2 but it is fatal2 for the result of this fetishism is perhaps that the girl remains unmated1 and the society fails to undergo any fundamental change4 ,moreover1 the reforming elements in society become incapacitated by their practice of fetishism to take a normal part in the community's activities2 and remain so much waste material--at best1 they wander between two worlds1 8one dead1 the other powerless to be born40 ,we know these disoriented reformers1 these disillusioned revolutionaries1 these tired radicals2 we could mention names if it were not so needless and so cruel4 ,apart from anything else1 their original mistake was to keep their problem within the compartment of politics and economics1 instead of venting it to the wide world4 ,they forgot that the adjustment of some single activity or institution1 without respect to the rest1 begged the very difficulty they were trying to overcome4 ,if they were anti-militarists1 they saw the world simply as an armed camp2 if they were socialists1 they saw it as a gigantic mechanism of exploitation2 and alas6 they saw only so much of the world as would conveniently fit within these diagrams4 ,the world is perhaps an armed camp and a mechanism of exploitation2 it is all that and much more2 but any attempt to deal with it on a wholesale plan by eliminating all the qualifying elements in the problem is bound to encounter the brute nature of things2 and if the nature of things is essentially antagonistic1 the reform itself will fail4 ,to say all this is to emphasize the obvious4 ,if any further emphasis were needed it would be necessary only to compare the doctrines of ,marx1 as expounded by ,lenin at the beginning of the ,russian ,revolution1 and the doctrines of ,lenin1 as tempered by experience and circumstance a few years later4 #c ,there was still another weakness that characterized all the partisan utopias of the nineteenth century4 ,that weakness was their externalism4 ,if the medival thinkers were convinced that1 on the whole1 nothing could be done to rectify men's institutions1 while men themselves were so easily bitten by corruption1 their successors in the nineteenth century committed the opposite kind of error and absurdity3 they believed that human nature was unsocial and obstreperous only because the church1 the state1 or the institution of property perverted every human impulse4 ,men like ,rousseau1 ,bentham1 ,godwin1 ,fourier1 and ,owen might be miles apart from one another in their criticism of society1 but there was an underlying consensus in their belief in human nature4 ,they looked upon human institutions as altogether external to men2 these were so many straitjackets that cunning rulers had thrown over the community to make sane and kindly people behave like madmen2 and they could conceive of changing the institutions without changing the habits and redirecting the impulses of the people by whom and for whom they had been created4 ,if one devised neat political constitutions1 with plenty of checks and balances1 or laid out pauper colonies and invited the countryside to make use of them--well1 all would be to the good4 ,there was1 it is true1 one great exception to this notion that institutions might be reformed without1 in that process1 making over men4 ,i refer to the belief in education which accompanied these classic criticisms of human institutions2 for this seems to point to a perception that men needed a special training and discipline before they could enter freely into the life of a reconstituted community4 ,but upon examination1 this exception melts away4 ,the emphasis in the new programs of education was upon the formal1 institutional acquirement of the apparatus of knowledge2 and they1 too1 began with the clean slate of a new generation1 whereas the critical difficulty was that of getting the adult community sufficiently educated1 in a realistic sense1 to be able to make over its educational institutions2 and in this respect the reformers were just as much in ,cuckooland as--well1 ,campanella4 ,so it follows that the ,country ,house and ,coketown shared honors in building up the new educational organizations2 and the outcome of the sort of education that the public school and college provided was to make these redoubtable utopias practically unassailable4 ,besides1 there were the adults3 consider ,robert ,owen6 ,robert ,owen1 one of the most sanguine advocates of popular education1 was himself a living example of the need for a different kind of discipline than his narrow and homiletic mind1 with its childish interpretation of religious belief and its equally childish rationalism1 was capable of framing4 ,no one ever frustrated so many good ideas1 from the plan of garden cities down to the project for co-operative production than this same ,owen1 whose bumptiousness1 arrogance1 and conceit were bound to provoke reactions in other people which would have defeated the plans of ,omnipotence itself4 ,the capital difficulty was to get any sort of social improvement in a world that was full of refractory ,owens4 ,a locomotive may1 in a sense1 be a more perfect thing than the man who made it2 but no social order can be better than the human beings who take part in it2 for whereas the locomotive can stand apart from its operatives and perform all its functions effectively even if the workers themselves are deficient in every other respect than mechanics1 with a social order the product and the producer continue to be one4 ,not merely does a community need a ,buddha1 let us say1 before it can produce ,buddhism2 it needs a whole succession of ,buddhas if the religion itself is not to fritter away into the hideous ecclesiastical grind it became in ,thibet4 ,this principle has a general application4 ,the social critics of the last century confused the mechanical problem of transforming an institution or of creating a new organization with the personal and social problem of spurring people to effect the transformation and see it through4 ,their tactics were those of a general who would go into battle without training his army2 their strategy was that of the demagogue who talks of a million armed men springing up overnight4 ,the personal problem1 the problem of education1 was as easy as that6 ,if we are to account for the poverty of our achievements in renovating the community1 in contrast with the enormous amount of quite justifiable economic and political agitation1 research1 and criticism1 it is perhaps not altogether fair to put the entire burden of failure upon the partisan's lop-sided utopia4 ,the plans of our reformers have indeed been weak and jerrybuilt in themselves2 but that is not all4 ,what has perhaps been even more conspicuously lacking has been people who are accessible to the existing knowledge1 people whose minds have been trained to play freely with the facts1 people who have learned the fine and exacting art of co-operating with their fellows2 people who are as critical of their own mental processes and habits of behavior as they are of the institutions they wish to alter4 ,as ,viola ,paget says3 8,the bulk of thinking and feeling intended to help on human improvement has not really been good enough for the purpose4 ,not good enough in the sense of not sufficiently impersonal and disciplined40 ,between our programs1 our utopias1 and their fulfillment there has usually dropt a thick veil of personalities2 and were the plan itself the collaborate product of the best minds of the race2 as ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells satirically pictured in ,boon1 it would still have to take its chances with the wild asses of the devil that human weakness1 apathy1 greed1 lust for power1 might release4 ,walt ,whitman said of ,carlyle that behind the tally of his work and genius stood the stomach1 and gave a sort of casting vote4 ,so one may say of every social movement1 that behind the tally of its theoretic background and its concrete programs stand human beings--hale and sick1 neurotic and stable1 well-intentioned and malicious--and give the casting vote4 ,anyone who has read an important book1 and then met the author1 who has respected an apparently significant social movement1 and then met the leaders behind the scenes1 will realize how frequent is the difficulty of reconciling theoretic agreement with the inaccessibilities and prejudices and repugnances of particular personalities4 ,no one can join the work of even the most trivial sort of committee--be it a delegation to shake hands with the ,congressman or a body designated to revise the rules of a tennis club--without discovering how the work in hand is perpetually being balked and diverted by the play of personalities4 ,it is not a little significant that popular speech gives the word 8personalities0 a derogatory meaning4 ,again and again the success or failure in large collaborations hinges upon human factors that have no bearing on the question at issue4 ,pope's satiric words about wretches hanging that jurymen may dine touches the point neatly4 ,our programs for reconstruction that have not reckoned with the perpetual cussedness of human nature and have no method for exorcising it are as shallow as those older theologies which sought to make men live in grace without altering the social order in which they functioned4 ,perhaps they could learn something from the story of that ancient agitator who cured the blind1 the maimed1 the sick1 and the halt before he bade them enter into the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 ,emerson well said in his essay on ,man the ,reformer that it was stupid to expect any real or permanent change from any social program which was unable to regenerate or convert--these are religious phases for a common psychological phenomenon--the people who are to engineer it and carry it through4 ,it would be so easy1 this business of making over the world1 if it were only a matter of creating machinery4 ,there has probably never been lacking the sort of energy and talent that is needed for this sort of work2 and at any rate1 during the last three centuries1 with the growth of technology1 the mechanical services at the command of our engineers and organizers are huge and adequate4 ,unfortunately1 we are still in the same ditch that ,carlyle mordantly pointed out in his essay on ,characteristics3 ,given a world of knaves1 we are trying by various cunning devices to produce an honesty from their united action4 ,i do not share ,carlyle's contempt for human nature in the raw1 but he is quite right1 ,i believe1 in making fun of the superficiality of our partisan utopias4 ,these utopias were so concerned to alter the shell of the community's institutions that they neglected to pay attention to the habits of the creature itself--or its habitat4 ,that is why mechanical devices play such an important part1 perhaps1 in all these utopias1 from ,jeremy ,bentham1 with his ,panopticon method of reforming criminals1 down to the hideous cog-and-wheel utopia of ,edward ,bellamy4 ,the conceptions of human life that our reforming groups have had have been pretty thin and unsatisfying4 ,any adequate conception of a new social order would1 it seems to me1 include the scenery1 the actors1 and the play4 ,it is a mark of our immaturity that we never seem able to get beyond the scene shifting4 ,our social theorists1 in so far as they consider the actors at all1 are inclined to treat them as mechanical puppets4 ,as for the play itself--the universal drama of courtship and trial and adventure and contest and achievement1 in which every human being is potentially the hero or heroine--the play itself has hardly entered into their consciousness4 ,their values have not been human values3 they have been such values as have been authenticated by commerce and industry1 values such as efficiency1 fair wages1 and what not4 ,these1 at any rate1 have been the immediate objects of effort1 and if human values hung vaguely in the background1 they were to be realized in a distant and unascertainable future4 ,so one often feels that no matter how base and deteriorated the modern community is1 it nevertheless retains in its totality a greater measure of human values than many of the groups that have attacked its inadequacy have to offer4 ,all this comes out pretty plainly in the attitude of the labor groups towards the current situation4 ,whether they are organized for political action or for industrial warfare1 their aims are curiously similar4 ,in the very act of contending against the present order1 they have accepted the ends for which that order stands and have been content to demand simply that they be universalized4 ,this perhaps accounts for the essential uncreativeness of the labor movement4 ,by a revolution they do not mean a transvaluation of values3 they mean a dilution and spreading out of established practices and institutions4 ,there may indeed be plenty of excuse for this attitude in any particular situation--a group of unorganized and semi-destitute workers such as those in many ,american steel plants--but the worst of it is that this attitude characterizes the more advanced and economically secure groups1 and creeps into such ultimate programs as one can deduce from attempts to create workers' educational institutions--as if a change in ownership or the balance of power would alter the face of ,coketown so that its fires would no longer burn and its cinders no longer smut4 ,i have emphasized what is the weakness1 as it seems to me1 of the labor movement2 not because ,i am necessarily out of sympathy with any particular measure that might be proposed1 but because it illustrates upon an enormous scale the point which ,i desire to make4 ,the prohibition movement1 or the charity organization movement--towards both of which ,i feel1 on the contrary1 a cordial antipathy--would serve just as well for illustration2 for they all have this common distinction3 they lack any explicit1 consciously projected humane ends which would make any particular measure that they might offer justified4 #d ,let me now anticipate the answer which this criticism will probably meet4 ,to some people it will seem that the current movements for reform are inevitably secular2 that they have no business to concern themselves with the ultimate faith of men2 that they inevitably deal with a limited here and now1 a dollar more of wages1 a drop less of liquor1 a touch more of uniformity1 and so forth4 ,in short1 our partial utopias need not concern themselves with any of the questions that have to do with the life of the spirit4 ,the simple answer to this crude philosophy is--so much the worse for them4 ,the breach between the institutions that deal with the material life and those that deal with the ideal life results either in a complete dissociation1 by which each set of institutions becomes paralytic and imbecile2 or1 as so often happens1 in a capitulation of the spiritual power to the temporal1 and its complete engrossment in temporal ends4 ,i am aware that these phrases1 8spiritual0 and 8temporal10 have a certain old-fashioned smell2 but they precisely express my meaning3 it is plain that every community contains the corresponding institutions--one group being devoted to values and the other to means4 ,when our reforms are not touched by a sense of values1 the result is that purely temporal ends are taken as ultimate1 and we have such notions as efficiency or organization regarded as the very touchstone of social improvement4 ,this is scarcely an improvement over the old order of things1 with which we are now so dismally familiar--the state in which our values were not fertilized by any intercourse with the concrete and actual world about us1 and so remained remote and sterile4 ,in short1 unless our reformers concern themselves with the ultimate values of men1 with what constitutes a good life1 they are bound to pander to such immediate faiths and superstitions as the ,national ,state1 ,efficiency1 or the ,white ,man's ,burden4 #e ,there is a final criticism of the partial utopias3 our one-sided reforms have had this fatal defect--they are one-sided4 ,this partisanship was expressed by their relation to the facts upon which their programs were based1 and in their attitude towards the people who were to be affected by them4 ,the mood of partisanship has been that of a lawyer who is getting up an argument and is looking for such facts as will bolster up his case4 ,that mood is inimical to free and intelligent thought3 its object is rhetorical triumph4 ,now it happens that in all the matters which intimately concern a community1 a person's attitude towards the facts not merely seems more important than the facts themselves1 but seems so deucedly important that the facts are ignored4 ,the attitude of a group of ,southern whites who will lynch a negro on the report that he has raped a white woman before they investigate the truth of the assertion is a bestial exaggeration of a very natural human tendency4 ,men are built for action rather than thought2 or rather1 since thought1 on the psychologist's interpretation1 is inhibited action1 the business of inhibition naturally comes a little hard to us2 and when we are in a place where we have the rough choice of pushing through the obstacle1 under a strong impulse of resentment 7instinct of pugnacity7 or may quietly withdraw from the obstacle1 survey it1 and frame a plan of action to circumvent it1 our fundamental impulse is to follow the first mode4 ,it is easy to see1 for example1 how the hideous human suffering which accompanied the growth of the capitalist organization--and still exists6--caused the socialists to concentrate attention upon the subjects of ownership and profits1 and long blinded them to the specific problems of organization1 distribution1 and control within the industries that might be affected by the program of socialization4 ,this concentration upon the particular aspect of a problem1 like the concentration upon a particular aspect of the solution1 has the weakness of ignoring the total situation1 and it too crudely simplifies the difficulties4 ,in their haste to arrive at solutions and remedies--for the life of man is short and the needs of the moment are pressing--the partisans neglect to make a complete tally of the facts2 and they are too ready to let 8common knowledge0 take the place of a thorough investigation of the data4 ,this weakness arises out of an almost instinctive tendency towards partisanship2 and it is one of the reasons that partisanship continues4 ,if nothing else prevents groups from getting together1 their failure to agree about the facts1 and their lack of a method for getting at the facts and focussing them1 is responsible4 ,if an examination of the facts did nothing else1 it might show at least the impossibility of drawing any conclusion from them1 and it might warn the partisan to step warily4 ,thus the testimony that was offered for and against ,prohibition came from fairly high authorities on both sides2 and if there had been anything like right reason in the strategically stronger camp1 it would have convinced those who were interested in the welfare of the community that nothing could be wisely done while the very basis for judgment--scientific knowledge as to the place of alcoholic stimuli in the life of the human organism--had not been established4 ,it is of course conceivable that men will quarrel and split when they are fully apprised of the facts3 we may well remember the story of the ,british ambassador who confessed to his ,french colleague that the reason he did not get on very well with the ,americans was that both countries unfortunately spoke the same language2 but it is inconceivable that they should ever reach an intelligent agreement before they are in common possession of the facts4 ,by ignoring the necessity for substantiating his claims and assertions the partisan frequently not merely fails to see his whole problem in all its implications1 but also prevents any one else from seeing it4 ,even when the partisan is not intentionally blind1 he lacks the discipline which is essential to an open-eyed judgment of the case4 ,what that discipline may be ,i shall attempt to discuss in the next chapter4 ,the second weakness of partisanship is that it breaks the community into vertical divisions1 and promotes fictitious antagonisms and kinships which run against the horizontal affiliations and loyalties of a man's life4 ,this tendency was nicely illustrated in a play by ,mr4 ,st4 ,john ,ervine1 called ,mixed ,marriage1 which dealt with the love affair of a young girl and a young man who were separated by the religions that had been handed down by their parents4 ,in ,mr4 ,ervine's wretched little ,ulster community1 these religions served as an excuse to keep people from being friendly and decent to their neighbors4 ,now it is obvious that mating1 and making friends with those who have common interests and sentiments1 and mixing freely within the whole community1 are highly important horizontal interests2 they tend to unite people in a common bond which is fundamental for the reason that these interests and activities are essentially human4 ,the antagonism between two ,christian sects1 on the other hand1 undermines the good life as a whole1 because it insists that there is no other good than a religious good--a good embodied in a pope1 or in the practice of scoffing at a pope--while it is obvious to anyone who has possession of his senses that kissing a pretty girl is good1 and having a friendly pipe with one's neighbor is good1 and that institutions which prevent one from doing these things at appropriate times are perverted and antisocial4 ,it is true that people who emphasize religious interests take 8high ground10 as the saying is1 and that those who value the friendly pipe seem by implication to take low ground3 but what the partisans fail to see is that there is a good human case for low ground1 and that1 for the great majority of people it may prove to be not merely the only practicable ground1 but in its own right a good and sufficient one4 ,now for ,catholic and ,protestant in ,mr4 ,st4 ,john ,ervine's play one may substitute ,democrat and ,republican1 ,white ,guard and ,red ,guard1 ,socialist and ,financier1 ,prohibitionist and anti-,prohibitionist and the results will be just as deplorably the same4 ,there are any number of interests in a well-wrought life which lie altogether beyond these categories1 and it is the chief misdemeanor of partisanism1 as opposed to utopianism1 that it tends to slight these general interests1 and either bring them into the service of the 8ism0 or urge that they be neglected in devotion to the 8cause40 ,the first method has been used by the apostles of nationalism4 ,the ,national ,state1 recognizing that art and culture and science could not be altogether engrossed in the strategy of political warfare1 promptly put these goods in the pigeon hole labelled national resources4 ,the partisans of the ,state talked about ,american science as opposed to ,german science1 of ,italian art as opposed to ,french art2 and thus emphasized the things which men in ,america had with other ,americans in order to mark off more clearly the things they had apart from men of similar interests in other countries4 ,the same thing happened in the ,russian communist state1 with its attempt to set aside the common cultural heritage of mankind at large and define a purely proletarian culture4 ,the results in every case are1 ,i believe1 incurably mischievous2 and those who would promote the good life must cease this infantile practice of asserting vainly that 8my father knows more than your father10 8my mother is more beautiful than your mother0--and so on4 ,for the most part the second method has been indefatigably used4 ,in the political state the partisans make a great show of the gulf which separates the political party in power from that which is outside1 and every other interest in life is supposed to be secondary to this abysmal cleavage4 ,in relatively crude communities1 like the ,united ,states and ,ireland1 these differences seem to be taken by the great mass of people at their face value2 whereas in ,england1 which at least has the virtues of disillusion1 it is the great tradition of ,parliament that all the animosities of the floor are ignored in the bar of the ,house of ,commons1 while all the congenialities and convivialities that bind men together are emphasized4 ,lest ,i be accused of prejudice where none exists1 let me add that in the most substantial reconstruction movement that ,ireland possesses--,i refer to agricultural co-operation as promoted by ,sir ,horace ,plunkett and ,a4 ,e4--the horizontal interests which bind men together as farmers and members of a local community are successfully emphasized to the exclusion of irrelevant vertical differences1 at least in matters touching the organization and conduct of the ,irish ,agricultural ,organization ,society2 and that1 as far as ,i can see1 this single organization has done more to promote the good life in ,ireland than any other institution1 with the possible exception of the equally non-partisan literary association which grew up in ,dublin under the leadership of ,a4 ,e41 ,william ,butler ,yeats1 ,lady ,gregory1 and the rest of that fine and glorious crew4 ,obviously1 it is not altogether for nothing that men have joined together in vertical organizations which are as broad as a continent1 let us say1 or the ,european world4 ,there is a sense in which the ,christians of ,jerusalem have more in common with the ,christians of ,rome than they have with the ,jews and ,mohammedans of their local region4 ,in the same way1 ,i find myself more deeply drawn to certain friends of mine in ,bombay and ,london than ,i am towards my next door neighbor1 with whom the only recognizable bond is our common animus against a rapacious landlord4 ,so long as the vertical affiliation with people of the same views in politics or religion or philosophy is a spiritual affiliation a great deal of good may come out of it4 ,when1 however1 the things that draw people together as members of a vertical group are used as a means of inflicting similar opinions or practices upon the local community1 without respect to its regional qualities1 the results are little less than disastrous4 ,the rain falls on the just and the unjust2 more than that1 the food that we grow1 the houses that we build1 the roads that we lay down1 the thoughts that we think1 belong to us as members of the human species who have inherited the earth and the fullness thereof2 and it is absurd to let differences in our idola prevent us from participating equally in this common heritage4 ,at long last1 the things that unite human beings as human beings1 the social inheritance that enables them to realize their stature as human beings1 are more important than any particular element that the partisan may lay hold of4 ,whether our partisanism consists in being first and foremost an ,american or first and foremost a ,theosophist1 it tends to limit the world with which we may have commerce and so impoverishes the personality4 ,the person who insists upon being a hundred per cent4 ,american has by that very emphasis become something less than half a man4 ,by fastening attention upon a segment of the world1 the partisan creates a segment of a personality4 ,it is these segments or sects that any movement which aims at a general good in the community must contend against4 ,so long as work for the common welfare meets with irrelevant partisanisms1 so long will we lack the means of creating whole men and women2 and so long will the main concerns of civilization be side-tracked4 #f ,what a vision these partisan utopias present6 ,they are like the scattered bones that the prophet saw in the terrible valley1 and one doubts whether even the breath of the ,lord could knit them together again into real bodies4444 ,one of these partisan utopias issues from a bundle of red-tape2 everything is filed and ticketed and labelled there2 and anything in life that cannot be treated in this fashion does not exist4 ,another is a mechanical contraption2 somehow it seems to litter little mechanical contraptions2 and its aim is1 it would seem1 to do away with vegetation and reproduction1 so that everything under the sun might be performed with the sterile accuracy of the machine4 ,a third utopia of the partisan calls human beings1 with all their color and thickness1 8individuals10 and makes the good life a matter of legal relationships without any regard to their necessities in time and space2 such a utopia could almost be carried in one's pocket1 so much is it a matter of verbal statement4 ,we need not go down the line4 ,singly1 it is plain that not one of these utopias would create a happy community2 while if all of these partisanisms could be realized the result could scarcely be anything else than discord--such a discord as now exists and every day becomes more raucous4 ,it would seem that we are at an impasse4 ,even if ,i have absurdly exaggerated the futility of the reformers and revolutionaries1 their lack of any fundamental program and their inability to conceive an essential reorientation in modern society1 come out pretty plainly4 ,if our analysis did not prove this1 the atmosphere of disillusion which we breathe today1 and which permeates every branch of literature1 would tell as much4 ,in so far as we have accepted the modern social order we are in ruin2 and the next war that now threatens will1 if it actually comes to pass1 only carry the ruin a little further4 ,in so far as we have pinned our hopes to current movements for reconstruction or revolution1 our plans are sickly and debilitated4 ,in fact1 the only genuine signs of life seem to be in regions like ,ireland1 ,denmark1 ,india1 and ,china1 which have stood outside the movement of industrial civilization and have retained the values of an order which elsewhere has been undermined and almost destroyed4 ,it is not a pretty situation to face2 and small wonder that we are so slow and so reluctant to face it4 ,whichever way we look1 bankruptcy seems to threaten us4 ,it is time we endeavored to cash in the paper roubles of the partisan4 ,if our civilization is to hold together we must place its intellectual currency on a new basis2 we must exchange our abstract idealisms1 our abstract programs1 our paperized pursuit of happiness for some of the golden coinage of life1 even though we cannot have our gold without mixing it with baser metals4 ,,chapter ,,twelve ,how the half-worlds go1 and how eutopia may come2 and what we need before we can build ,jerusalem in any green and pleasant land4 ,,chapter ,,twelve #a ,the sort of thinking that has created our utopias has placed desire above reality2 and so their chief fulfillment has been in the realm of fantasy4 ,this is true of the classic utopias that we have surveyed1 and it is true--though not perhaps quite so apparent--of the partial utopias that were formulated by the various reconstruction movements during the last century4 ,while the classic utopias have so far been nearer to reality that they have projected a whole community1 living and working and mating and spanning the gamut of man's activity1 their projections have nevertheless been literally up in the air1 since they did not usually arise out of any real environment or attempt to meet the conditions that this environment presented4 ,this defect has been suggested by the very name of ,utopia1 for as ,professor ,patrick ,geddes points out1 ,sir ,thomas ,more was an inveterate punster1 and ,utopia is a mock-name for either ,outopia1 which means no-place1 or ,eutopia--the good place4 ,it is time to bring our utopian idola and our everyday world into contact2 indeed1 it is high time1 for the idola that have so far served us are now disintegrating so rapidly that our mental world will soon be as empty of useful furniture as a deserted house1 while wholesale dilapidation and ruin threaten the institutions that once seemed permanent4 ,unless we can weave a new pattern for our lives the outlook for our civilization is almost as dismal as ,herr ,spengler finds it in ,der ,untergang des ,abendlandes4 ,our choice is not between eutopia and the world as it is1 but between eutopia and nothing--or rather1 nothingness4 ,other civilizations have proved inimical to the good life and have failed and past away2 and there is nothing but our own will-to-eutopia to prevent us from following them4 ,if this dissipation of ,western ,civilization is to cease1 the first step in reconstruction is to make over our inner world1 and to give our knowledge and our projections a new foundation4 ,the problem of realizing the potential powers of the community--which is the fundamental problem of eutopian reconstruction--is not simply a matter of economics or eugenics or ethics as the various specialist thinkers and their political followers have emphasized4 ,max ,beer1 in his ,history of ,british ,socialism1 points out that ,bacon looked for the happiness of mankind chiefly in the application of science and industry4 ,but by now it is plain that if this alone were sufficient1 we could all live in heaven tomorrow4 ,beer points out that ,more1 on the other hand1 looked to social reform and religious ethics to transform society2 and it is equally plain that if the souls of men could be transformed without altering their material and institutional activities1 ,christianity1 ,mohammedanism1 and ,buddhism might have created an earthly paradise almost any time this last two thousand years4 ,the truth is1 as ,beer sees1 that these two conceptions are still at war with each other3 idealism and science continue to function in separate compartments2 and yet 8the happiness of man on earth0 depends upon their combination4 ,if we are to build up genuine eutopias1 instead of permitting ourselves to pattern our behavior in terms of fake utopias like ,coketown1 the ,country ,house1 the ,national ,state1 and all the other partial and inadequate myths to which we have given allegiance1 we must examine anew the idola which will assist us in reconstituting our environment4 ,so we are forced to consider the place of science and art in our social life1 and to discuss what must be done in order to make them bear more concretely upon 8the improvement of man's estate40 #b ,there was a time when the world of knowledge and the world of dreams were not separated2 when the artist and the scientist1 for all practical purposes1 saw the 8outside world0 through the same kind of spectacles4 ,what we call 8science0 today was in its primitive state part and parcel of that common stock of knowledge and belief which makes up a community's literature1 or1 as ,dr4 ,beattie ,crozier would have said1 its 8,bible40 ,the departure of science from this main body of literature begins for the ,western ,world1 probably1 with the death of ,plato and the institution of ,aristotle's collections in natural history2 and from that point onwards the separate sciences1 increasingly isolate themselves from the general body of knowledge1 and utilize methods which had been unknown to the earlier philosophers and sages2 so that by the time the twentieth century dawns the process of differentiation has been completed1 and philosophy1 once the compendium of the sciences1 has disappeared except as a sort of impalpable1 viscous residue4 ,when ,aristotle divided his writing into the exoteric and esoteric groups1 into the popular and the scientific1 he definitely recognized the existence of two separate branches of literature1 two different ways of taking account of the world1 two disparate methods of approaching its problems4 ,the first branch was that of the philosophers1 the prophets1 the poets1 and the plain people4 ,its background was the generality of human experience3 its methods were those of discussion and conference3 its criteria were those of formal dialectics3 its interests were specifically those of the community1 and nothing human was foreign to it4 ,with the petrification of ,greek thought that followed the collapse of the ,alexandrian school1 the second branch was slow in coming into its own4 ,as late as the eighteenth century its adherents were called natural philosophers1 to distinguish them from the more humane variety2 and it is only with the nineteenth century that the subject became universally known as science and its practitioners as scientists4 ,in the ,phdrus ,socrates had expressed the humanist outlook of literature by saying3 8,trees and fields1 you know1 cannot teach me anything1 but men in the city can40 ,the shortest way of describing the attitude of science is to say that it resolutely turned its back on men in the city and devoted itself to the trees and fields and stars and the rest of brute nature4 ,if it paid attention to men at all it saw them--if we may abuse an old quotation--as trees walking4 ,socrates had said3 ,know thyself4 ,the scientist said3 ,know the world that lies outside man's dominion4 ,as science progressed these attitudes became more rigid1 unfortunately1 and a conflict grew up between literature and science1 between the humanities and natural philosophy1 which has given both art and science the peculiar twist we shall presently examine4 ,now the developments in modern science go back1 through the ,arabic thinkers1 to ancient ,greece2 but the great advances that have been made date back scarcely three centuries4 ,on the basis of the precise knowledge of physical relations which became available in mathematics1 physics1 mechanics1 and chemistry the startling changes which have been crudely labelled the 8industrial revolution0 were carried through4 ,if the essential relationship between the world of ideas and the world of action were ever in doubt1 the industrial revolution1 especially in its later phases1 would be a final demonstration2 for beneath the ostensible skyscrapers1 subways1 factories1 telephone lines1 and sewers of the modern industrial city lie the immaterial foundations of western physical science1 laid down stone by stone in the remote1 theoretic researches of ,boyle1 ,faraday1 ,kelvin1 ,leibniz1 and the rest of that great galaxy4 ,with the far reaching effect of the idola of physical science it is hardly necessary to deal4 ,everyone realizes how dependent the advance in technology has been upon theoretic science1 even though the scientist himself1 as ,kropotkin pointed out1 is sometimes slow in admitting the debt of science itself to practical invention4 ,the actual world of machinery is at present1 it seems fair to say1 a parasite upon this body of knowledge1 and it would speedily starve to death if the host were annihilated4 ,science has provided the factual data by means of which the industrialist1 the inventor1 and the engineer have transformed the physical world2 and without doubt the physical world has been transformed4 ,unfortunately1 when science has furnished the data its work is at an end3 whether one uses the knowledge of chemicals to cure a patient or to poison one's grandmother is1 from the standpoint of science1 an extraneous and uninteresting question4 ,so it follows that while science has given us the means of making over the world1 the ends to which the world has been made over have had1 essentially1 nothing to do with science4 ,accordingly1 as ,i have suggested1 the idola of the ,country ,house and ,coketown and the ,national ,state1 which were built up by literature and art1 have given the effective direction to these transformations4 ,so far1 science has not been used by people who regarded man and his institutions scientifically4 ,the application of the scientific method to man and his institutions has hardly been attempted4 ,even when one qualifies this last generalization1 its outline remains pretty sharp4 ,the development of what are called the social sciences was dimly outlined in ,bacon's ,novum ,organon2 but it was not till the eighteenth century1 with ,quesnay and ,montesquieu1 that the movement gained any real headway1 and down to this day a large part of what is called science in ,economics1 ,politics1 and ,sociology is only disguised literature--work in which the jargon of science is accepted as a substitute for the scientific method of arriving at factual truth1 and in which the effort to mold conduct overwhelms the attempt to reach correct conclusions4 ,indeed1 among the economists and sociologists there has been a persistent dribble of discussion as to whether or not their subjects entitled them to the august designation of scientists4 ,it is not without reason that the social and human sciences have been distrusted by the devotees of physical science1 so that1 for example1 the ,british ,association has long had a single section devoted to the social sciences in which ,sociology1 the mother of them all1 is permitted to enter as a subclassification of ,anthropology6 ,the nearer the investigator gets to man1 the more easily he is overwhelmed with the complexity of his subject2 and the more tempted he is to adopt the swift and easy partisan methods of the novelist1 the poet1 the prophet4 ,the mere concealment of this act of seduction under the rough1 grey cover of scientific jargon means frequently that the social scientist has added to the offense of not being a good scientist by not even being a good literary man4 ,hence there is a great gap between the more external part of the world which has been affected by science1 and that part1 nearer to man and man's institutions1 which has yet for the greater part to be conquered4 ,while the physical equipment of ,new ,york compares with that of fourth century ,athens as ,athens itself would compare with an ,aurignacian cave1 the life of men in the city is perhaps more disordered and futile and incomplete than the author of the ,republic found it4 ,the moral of this contrast need hardly be pointed in so many words4 ,the idolum of science is incomplete2 for it chiefly touches life in its physical sector2 and it remains to complete the span so that every activity and condition may be described1 measured1 and grasped in scientific terms4 ,with the vast modern improvement in our physical arrangements in view1 it must occur to almost anyone that a permanent advance in social life depends upon a much more thorough and realistic acquaintance with the facts than the social sciences have yet been able to provide4 ,before an army moves over the land it is well for it to have moved in someone's mind over a topographic map4 ,lacking such maps1 all our day to day improvements have been wasteful sallies into eutopia1 proceeding without order1 without a sufficient equipment1 and without any general plan4 #c ,there is a point up to which each science may well be left to cultivate its field for its own sake1 without any regard for the fruits4 ,mr4 ,thorstein ,veblen1 in ,the ,place of ,science in ,civilization1 has well pointed out the way in which science arises out of idle curiosity2 and science1 studied and advanced for its own sake1 is surely one of the great playthings of the race4 ,in this aspect1 while science seeks a quite different path to the contemplative life than art takes1 its end is the same--the dominant interest is an esthetic one1 the joy of pure perception4 ,science is thus a sort of world in itself1 and it is self-sufficient3 there is no need for it to make contact with the real world in which we fight and love and earn our daily bread4 ,in its own world1 science is no better and no worse than theosophy or astrology or fables about deity4 ,but the divorce of science from the daily life of the community is not altogether an advantage4 ,if it fosters a whole-hearted cultivation of science for its own values1 it tends to lose sight of realities without which its values are meaningless4 ,it is hard perhaps to locate the point at which science1 divorced from every day realities1 ceases to have any social relevance2 but it seems to me that such a point exists2 and when the sciences remain disparate and unrelated one to the other1 they tend to pass over from a public world to the private world of the specialist2 and the knowledge which obtains in that world can with difficulty be brought out again to irrigate the common life of the community2 or if it is brought out1 as bacteriology is brought out in relation to the treatment of disease1 it is divorced from a consideration of the total situation in a way that makes so many specialist advances in medicine1 for example1 the stamping ground for the fanatic4 ,this loss of contact1 ,i believe1 is highly dangerous2 for it lessens the effect of scientific discipline upon daily affairs quite as much as a cloistered religion1 by erecting impossible sanctions1 opens the way for much unalloyed slackness and baseness1 and by demanding that ,pistol and ,falstaff live like ,christ prevents these biological rapscallions from achieving so much as the level of ,robin ,hood4 ,the upshot of this dissociation of science and social life is that superstition takes the place of science among the common run of men1 as a more easily apprehended version of reality4 ,today the whole corpus of knowledge is in an anarchic state1 and it lacks order precisely because it lacks any definite relations to the community which creates it1 and for which it1 in turn1 provides the spectacles through which the world is seen4 ,against the gains that have come from the increasing specialization of the sciences1 we have to set off the losses which the community suffers from the development of crude forms of science1 and from quackeries like astrology and spiritualism which succeed in giving a complete account of man's place in the universe in terms that are fairly intelligible to the lay mind4 ,it seems to me1 then1 that in the cultivation of the sciences a definite hierarchy of values must be established which shall have some relation to the essential needs of the community4 ,the independence of science from human values is a gross superstition3 the desire for order1 for security1 for esthetically satisfactory patterns--along with the desire for fame or the favor of princes--have all played their parts in the development of science4 ,though the logic of science may discount the human factor as far as possible in its internal operations1 it is because men have placed a certain value upon disinterested intellectual operations that these activities are pursued in modern communities to the exclusion of other interests and claims4 ,let us put the problem concretely4 ,a community which cultivates chemical science to the point at which it is able to wipe out a whole city by a few explosions of poisonous gas is in a pretty treacherous situation4 ,if the science that it possesses has not helped to found a eutopia1 it has at any rate provided the foundations for a kakotopia1 or bad place3 in short1 for a hell4 ,indeed scientific knowledge has not merely heightened the possibilities of life in the modern world3 it has lowered the depths4 ,when science is not touched by a sense of values it works--as it fairly consistently has worked during the past century--towards a complete dehumanization of the social order4 ,the plea that each of the sciences must be permitted to go its own way without control should be immediately rebutted by pointing out that they obviously need a little guidance when their applications in war and industry are so plainly disastrous4 ,we must be prepared to recognize that 8truths0 do not stand together on a high and lofty pedestal3 some are important and some are trivial1 some are innocent and some are dangerous1 and while the pursuit of truth is a good in itself--and complete freedom in that pursuit is a sine qua non of a good social life--certain departments of investigation may need to be offset and corrected by work in other fields4 ,in a modern ,western ,european community1 a sociological insight into the causes and conditions of war and peace is a needed corrective to the crudities of applied physical science and without such correction the mere increase of scientific knowledge1 of which we boast so vacuously1 may be highly inimical to the practice of the good life in the community4 #d ,if the sciences are to be cultivated anew with respect for a definite hierarchy of human values1 it seems to me that the sciences must be focussed again upon particular local communities1 and the problems which they offer for solution4 ,just as geometry in ,egypt arose out of the need for annually surveying the boundaries that the ,nile wiped out1 and as astronomy developed in ,chaldea in order to determine the shift of the seasons for the planting of crops1 as geology in modern times developed out of the questions that a practical stone mason1 like ,hugh ,miller1 found himself confronted with--so may the sciences which are today incomplete and partial develop along the necessary lines by a survey of existing conditions and intellectual resources in a particular community4 ,on one hand1 science must be in contact with the whole idolum of scientific thought--with that vast overworld of scientific effort which is the product of no single place or people or time4 ,on the other hand1 it must be related to the definite local community1 limited in time and in space1 in which its researches and its speculations will be realized and applied4 ,out of these surveys of existing conditions we should find1 ,i believe1 that in social psychology1 in anthropology1 in economics there are a vast number of facts and relations which remain to be described2 and that1 similarly1 certain departments like craniology and jurisprudence and folklore have been vastly overcultivated in proportion to any genuine importance that their researches may have upon our control over the community's development4 ,such an investigation would bring out1 above all1 the weakness of contemporary sociological thought1 with its diabetic flatulence of special sociologies1 and its lack of any general agreement as to the field which is to be cultivated4 ,apart from its great function as a plaything1 science is valuable only to the extent that its researches can be brought to bear upon the conditions in a particular community1 in a definite region4 ,the difference between science as a plaything and science as an instrument for enabling us to establish more effective relations with other men and with the rest of our environment1 is the difference between firing a shot at a target and firing at a buck for provender4 ,the practice one gets in firing at a target is great fun1 and incidentally it improves one's marksmanship2 such idle sport is perhaps one of the stigmata of a civilized community4 ,nevertheless1 unless one's skill can be definitely brought home it remains a personal achievement2 and the community as a whole is not a pound of meat the better for it4 ,if science is to play the significant part that ,bacon and ,andre and ,plato and the other great humanists desired it to1 it must be definitely brought home and realized in our here and now4 ,the need for this humanization of science has already been perceived in ,great ,britain4 ,during the last decade a movement has gathered headway in the schools and extended itself to associations outside the schools4 ,the title of this movement is 8,regional ,survey10 and its point of origin is1 ,i believe1 the ,outlook ,tower in ,edinburgh which was well described more than two decades ago as the 8world's first sociological laboratory40 ,the aim of the ,regional ,survey is to take a geographic region and explore it in every aspect4 ,it differs from the social survey with which we are acquainted in ,america in that it is not chiefly a survey of evils2 it is1 rather1 a survey of the existing conditions in all their aspects2 and it emphasizes to a much greater extent than the social survey the natural characteristics of the environment1 as they are discovered by the geologist1 the zoologist1 the ecologist--in addition to the development of natural and human conditions in the historic past1 as presented by the anthropologist1 the archologist1 and the historian4 ,in short1 the regional survey attempts a local synthesis of all the specialist 8knowledges40 ,such a survey has been conducted in the ,southeastern counties of ,england under the auspices of various local scientific societies2 and the result of it is a complete description of the community's foundations1 its past1 its manner of working and living1 its institutions1 its regional peculiarities1 and its utilization of physical1 vital1 and social resources4 ,each of the sciences draws upon its general body of knowledge to illuminate the points under observation2 and when problems arise which point definitely to the lack of scientific or scholarly data1 new trails are opened and new territory defined4 ,in looking at the community through the ,regional ,survey1 the investigator is dealing with a real thing and not with an arbitrary idolum4 ,in so far as the local community has certain elements in common with similar regions in other countries1 or has absorbed elements from other civilizations1 these things will be given their full value1 instead of being disregarded because they weaken the identity of the local community with that precious myth1 the ,national ,state4 ,the greater part of the data that is thus brought to light may be plotted on a map1 graphically presented in a chart1 or photographed4 ,in ,saffron ,walden1 ,england1 there is an admirable little museum devoted to such an exhibition of its region2 and in the ,outlook ,tower1 at ,edinburgh1 there used to be a library and an apparatus of exhibition by which one could begin at the point where one was standing and work outwards1 in thought1 to embrace the whole wide world4 ,knowledge that is presented in this fashion is available so that whoever runs may read2 it has every feature1 therefore1 of popular science as it is purveyed in the cheap newspaper and magazine1 whilst it remains real science and is not presented as something that verges from a miracle to a superstition4 ,the knowledge embodied in the ,regional ,survey has a coherence and pithiness which no isolated study of science can possibly possess4 ,it is presented in such a form that it can be assimilated by every member of the community who has the rudiments of an education1 and it thus differs from the isolated discipline which necessarily remains the heritage of the specialist4 ,above all1 this knowledge is not that of 8subjects10 taken as so many water tight and unrelated compartments3 it is a knowledge of a whole region1 seen in all its aspects2 so that the relations between the work aspect and the soil aspect1 between the play aspect and the work aspect1 become fairly simple and intelligible4 ,this common tissue of definite1 verifiable1 localized knowledge is what all our partisan utopias and reconstruction programs have lacked2 and lacking it1 have been one-sided and ignorant and abstract--devising paper programs for the reconstruction of a paper world4 ,regional survey1 then1 is the bridge by which the specialist whose face is turned towards the library and the laboratory1 and the active worker in the field1 whose face is turned towards the city and region in which he lives1 may come into contact2 and out of this contact our plans and our eutopias may be founded on such a permanent foundation of facts as the scientist can build for us1 while the sciences themselves will be cultivated with some regard for the human values and standards1 as embodied in the needs and the ideals of the local community4 ,this is the first step out of the present impasse3 we must return to the real world1 and face it1 and survey it in its complicated totality4 ,our castles-in-air must have their foundations in solid ground4 #e ,the needed reorientation of science is important2 but by itself it is not enough4 ,knowledge is a tool rather than a motor2 and if we know the world without being able to react upon it1 we are guilty of that aimless pragmatism which consists of devising all sorts of ingenious machines and being quite incapable of subordinating them to any coherent and attractive pattern4 ,now1 men are moved by their instinctive impulses and by such emotionally colored pattern-ideas or idola as the dreamer is capable of projecting4 ,when we create these pattern-ideas1 we enlarge the environment1 so that our behavior is guided by the conditions which we seek to establish and enjoy in an imaginary world4 ,however crude the ,marxian analysis of society may have been1 it at least had the merit of presenting a great dream--the dream of a titanic struggle between the possessors and the dispossessed in which every worker had a definite part to play4 ,without these dreams1 the advances in social science will be just as disorderly and fusty as the applications of physical science have been in our material affairs1 where in the absence of any genuine scale of values1 a patent collar button is regarded as equally important as a tungsten filament if the button happens to bring the inventor as great a financial reward4 #f ,up to about the middle of the seventeenth century1 before modern physical science had rigorously defined its field1 the breach between literature and science1 which ,aristotle had made1 was not altogether complete2 and while the humanist ideal was intact both literature and science were regarded as coeval phases of man's intellectual activity4 ,the two dominating figures of the ,renascence1 ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,michael ,angelo1 were artists1 technicians1 and men of science2 and in a comparison between a translation of ,michael ,angelo's sonnets and a photograph of ,st4 ,peter's the sonnets come off rather well4 ,the great contribution of the ,renascence was the ideal of fully energized human beings1 able to span life in all its manifestations1 as artists1 scientists1 technicians1 philosophers1 and what not4 ,this ideal exercised a powerful influence on lesser figures1 like the ,admirable ,crichton and ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 and even down to the time of ,descartes it contributed to that exuberance of the intellectual life which was the ,renascence at its best4 ,when ,john ,amos ,comenius wrote his remarkable little book called ,the ,labyrinth of the ,world and the ,paradise of the ,heart in #afbc1 he combined the outlooks of science and art in a remarkable synthesis2 for the first part of this work is a picturesque survey of the actual world as ,comenius found it1 and the second a picture of the transition to the heavenly world promised in the ,christian religion4 ,the idea behind ,comenius' ,labyrinth was the same that inspired ,andre2 and were it not for the complete otherworldliness of this theological utopia1 the ,paradise of the ,heart1 ,comenius' discourse would take a high place in the history of utopian thought4 ,there is no genuine logical basis1 as far as ,i can see1 in the dissociation of science and art1 of knowing and dreaming1 of intellectual activities and emotional activities4 ,the division between the two is simply one of convenience2 for both these activities are simply different modes in which human beings create order out of the chaos in which they find themselves4 ,such is the humanist view4 ,as an instance of this1 when the ,royal ,society was projected in ,england in the middle of the seventeenth century1 ,johann ,andre advised his friend ,samuel ,hartlib1 then in ,london1 not to neglect the humanities while furthering the pursuit of the physical sciences4 ,unfortunately1 the men who gathered together to form the ,royal ,society were specialists in physical science2 and in the lapse of the humanist tradition through the religious acerbities of the time1 they had lost some of their desire for a complete life4 ,as a result1 the original charter of the society confined its work to the physical sciences4 ,insignificant as it now appears in the annals of science1 this decision seems to me to mark a definite turning point in human thought4 ,henceforth the scientist was to be one sort of person and the artist another2 henceforth the idolum of science and the idolum of art were not to be cemented together in a single personality2 henceforth1 in fact1 the dehumanization of art and science begins4 ,it is interesting to note that with the divorce of the humanities from science1 art and science entered upon separate careers which1 for all their diversities1 are curiously similar4 ,both art and science1 for example1 ceased to be the common property of the community2 and each of them split up into a multiplying host of specialisms4 ,in this process1 art and science made many notable advances2 so that this period is usually spoken of as a period of enlightenment or progress2 but the result on the community was what we discovered in our examination of ,coketown and the ,country ,house4 #g ,we must now consider the development of the arts in the modern community4 ,at the height of the ,middle ,age1 as in fifth century ,athens1 the arts formed together a living unity4 ,a citizen did not go into a concert hall to hear music1 to a church to say his prayers1 to a theatre to see a play1 to a picture gallery to view pictures3 it was a mean town1 indeed1 that could not boast a cathedral and a couple of churches2 and in these buildings1 drama and music and architecture and painting and sculpture were united for the purpose of ringing changes on the emotional nature of men and converting them to accept the theological vision of otherworldly utopia4 ,the splitting up of these arts into a number of separate boxes was part of that movement towards individualism and protestantism whose effects most people are familiar with in the field of religion alone4 ,henceforward1 music1 drama1 painting1 and the other arts developed largely in isolation2 and each of them was forced to build up a separate world4 ,the greater part of the gains that were made in these worlds was not carried over into the community at large1 but remained the possession of the artists themselves or their private patrons and critics in the ,country ,house4 ,with such exceptions as the ,italian and ,japanese woodcuts of the eighteenth century1 and the few survivals of ballad and drama that slipt over from the ,middle ,age1 popular art became another name for all that was coarse and stunted and depressed4 ,the popular architecture of the nineteenth century is the sordid little redbrick rabbit hutch3 popular religion is embodied in the stunted sheet-iron or brick chapel 7as it is called in ,england7 of the ,baptists and ,methodists3 popular music is the latest barrel organ lilt3 popular painting is the calendar lithograph3 and popular literature is the dime novel4 ,the divorce of the art of the cultivated classes from that of the whole community tended to deprive it of any other standards than the artist himself was content to erect4 ,here again the comparison with science is curiously pertinent4 ,the world of art is in a sense a separate world1 and it can be cultivated for a time without reference to the desires and emotions of the community out of which it has sprung4 ,but the motto 8,art for art's sake0 turns out in practice to be something quite different--namely1 art for the artist's sake2 and art which is produced in this manner1 without any external standard of performance1 is frequently just an instrument for overcoming a neurosis or enabling the artist to restore his personal equilibrium4 ,divorced from his community1 the artist was driven back upon himself3 instead of seeking to create a beauty which all men might share1 he devoted himself to projecting a poignant angle of his personal vision--an angle which ,i shall call the picturesque4 ,the cause of this divorce ,i have already pointed out in the chapter on the ,country ,house2 it is with the effects of this divorce1 for which the artist was not greatly to blame1 that we are here concerned4 ,this conflict between 8beauty0 and the 8picturesque0 is perhaps common to all the arts1 and with sufficient factual detail ,i might be able to trace its effects on literature and music4 ,for the sake of clearness and simplicity ,i shall confine myself to painting and sculpture1 with the proviso that our conclusions will apply1 by and large1 to the whole field4 ,let me emphasize1 before going any further1 that ,i am using the terms 8beauty0 and the 8picturesque0 in quite different senses from the vague ones that are usually attached to them2 and that ,i use them without any preliminary judgment as to their place and value in the good life4 ,the picturesque1 in the quite arbitrary sense in which the word is used here1 is an abstract quality of vision1 sound1 or meaning which creates what we might call pure esthetic experience4 ,in painting1 the picturesque probably arose with the discovery1 on the part of the leisured classes in the ,country ,house1 that it was possible to achieve rapture1 a sort of esthetic trance1 a complete state of beatitude1 by the more or less prolonged contemplation of a pictorial subject4 ,up to the time of this discovery1 painting was simply a branch of interior decoration2 the great paintings of the ,christian ,world served1 for the public1 as illustrations to that outline of history which medival theology provided3 they had a habitat1 a social destination4 ,with the splitting off of the picturesque from the main body of ecclesiastical art1 painting came into its own as an end in itself1 apart from any place that it might have in the scheme of the community's affairs4 ,the symptom of this change is the rise of landscape painting3 in the search for pure esthetic experience the painter began to look for themes which were divorced from any human interest but that of pure contemplation4 ,during the last century this split between painting as a form of social art and painting as a means of achieving contemplative ecstasy has become deeper3 even those academic painters who followed the methods of the older artists no longer have the same field to work in1 whilst the revolutionist--the impressionists of one period1 the cubists of another1 and the post-impressionists or expressionists of a third--are forced by the general irrelevance of art in ,coketown to produce work which only the more or less initiate will appreciate4 ,now1 ,i would not for worlds underrate the gains which have been achieved by the divorce of art from the whole life of the community4 ,in their isolation from the social group that produced them the modern artists have been able to pursue their solitary way to limits which the common man is probably incapable of reaching3 they have widened the field of esthetic delight and have introduced new values into the world of painting1 values which will remain even though the disease which created them disappears1 just as one can salvage a pearl from an oyster whose sickness is healed4 ,the view from the mountain top is none the worse because many people are afflicted with dizziness and nausea before they have reached the summit2 and1 like the pursuit of truth1 the pursuit of esthetic values is a good in itself apart from any values which may be realized in the community4 ,on these terms1 ,czanne and ,van ,gogh and ,ryder1 to mention a few of the dead1 will hold their own1 and keep the boundaries of art from ever shrinking again1 ,i trust1 to its academic limits4 ,nevertheless1 the effects of focussing on the picturesque can no more be overlooked in art than the dangers of specialization in science4 ,it is almost a banality to point out how1 historically1 as the picturesque developed in art1 beauty has tended to disappear from life4 ,whilst the cultivated few have become gloriously alive to more exquisite sensations than their ancestors had probably ever experienced1 the 8mutilated many0 have been forced to live in great cities and in abject country towns of a blackness and ugliness such as the world1 if we are to judge by the records that exist1 has never seen before4 ,in other words1 we have become more sensitive to experiences--to the contents of our inner worlds--only to become more callous to things1 to the brash surfaces of the world without4 ,in our preoccupation with the inner worlds we have to a large extent lost our hold upon beauty1 which1 in the limiting sense in which the word is used here1 is the quality by which anything1 from a torso to a building1 shows its adaptation to an end and its sensitiveness to esthetic values--values which are abstracted and intensified in the pure picturesque--that are involved in such an adaptation4 ,in this sense1 the beautiful1 as ,emerson said1 rests on the foundations of the necessary3 it is the outward token of an inward grace2 its appearance is the manifestation of a humanized life2 and its existence and development constitute1 in fact1 a sort of index to a community's vitality4 ,the divorce of the artist from the community1 and the turning away of his energies from beauty1 in which the picturesque might be fulfilled1 to the picturesque itself1 separate from any practical needs1 has scarcely been compensated by the advances that have been made in the separate world of art4 ,the result has been that work which should have been done by artists of great capacity has been done by people of minor or degraded ability4 ,anonymous jerrybuilders have erected the greater number of our houses1 absurd engineers have laid out our towns with no thought for anything but sewers and paving contracts2 rapacious and illiterate men who have achieved success in business discourse to the multitude on what constitutes the good life--and so on4 ,there is really no end to the number of things which we do badly in the modern community1 for want of the artist to do them at all4 ,this generalization applies to the whole range of the arts4 ,the greater part of the creative dreaming and planning which constitutes literature and art has had very little bearing upon the community in which we live1 and has done little to equip us with patterns1 with images and ideals1 by means of which we might react creatively upon our environment4 ,yet it should be obvious that if the inspiration for the good life is to come from anywhere1 it must come from no other people than the great artists4 ,an intense social life1 as ,gabriel ,tarde pointed out in his fine utopian fantasy1 ,underground ,man1 has 8for its indispensable condition the esthetic life and the universal propagation of the religion of truth and beauty40 ,the common man1 when he is in love1 has a little glimpse of the way in which the drudgery of the daily world may be transmuted through emotional stimulus2 it is the business of the artist to make the transmutation permanent1 for the only difference between the artist and the common man is that the artist is1 so to say1 in love all the while4 ,it is out of the vivid patterns of the artist's ecstasy that he draws men together and gives them the vision to shape their lives and the destiny of their community anew4 #h ,no matter how the modern artist may use or fritter away his abilities1 it is plain that he has an enormous reservoir of power at his disposal4 ,what1 for instance1 has made ,america so wholly devoted to the conquest of material things8 ,why are we so given over to collecting those vast miscellanies of goods which are temptingly displayed in the advertising sections of our illustrated weeklies and monthly magazines8 ,the necessity for ameliorating the hard1 crude life of the pioneer has indeed been an important influence2 but the traditions of this life in turn produced all the minor 8artists0 or 8artlings0 who write and draw for the popular papers1 who create the plots of plays and motion picture scenarios2 and since most of these poor wretches have never been educated in the humanist sense to any degree--since they know no other environment than ,new ,york or ,los ,angeles or ,gopher ,prairie1 since they are acquainted with the achievements of no other age than their own1 they have devoted themselves wholeheartedly to idealizing a great many of the things that are crude or ugly or stupid in their beloved community4 ,so the idola of business have been perpetuated by 8artlings0 who themselves know only the standards of the business man4 ,because of the limited horizons of the ,american artist1 therefore1 the rising generation aspires after the things that ,messrs4 ,jack ,london1 ,rupert ,hughes1 ,scott ,fitzgerald1 and heaven knows who else have thought good and fine2 the younger generation talks like the heroes and heroines of a melodrama by ,mr4 ,samuel ,shipman1 when they do not attain the higher level of comic cuts2 the younger generation thrills to the type of beauty which ,mr4 ,penryhn ,stanlaws sets before its gaze4 ,the notion that the common man despises art is absurd4 ,the common man worships art and lives by it2 and when good art is not available he takes the second best or the tenth best or the hundredth best4 ,the success of ,mr4 ,eugene ,o',neil1 one of the few playwrights of any girth who has contributed to the ,american stage1 proves that the only way that people can be kept away from good art is by not providing it4 ,the younger generation might just as well have had its idea-patterns shaped by ,sophocles1 ,praxiteles1 and ,plato1 if our genuine artists were not so aloof to their responsibilities1 and if they were intellectually mature enough to accept the full burden of their vocation4 ,it is a sign of a terrific neurosis--and no mark at all of esthetic aptitude--that our genuine art is so completely disoriented and so thoroughly out of touch with the community4 ,we must turn to a man of such uneven parts as ,mr4 ,nicholas ,vachel ,lindsay before we have anything like a recognition of the classic rle of the artist4 ,art for the artist's sake is largely a symptom of that neurotic individualism which drives the artist out of a public world which baffles him into a private world where he may reign in solitude as an unruly demiurge4 ,art for the public's sake1 on the other hand1 substitutes the vices of the extrovert for the vices of the introvert4 ,when ,i say that art must have some vital contact with the community ,i do not mean1 let me emphasize1 that the artist must cater to public whim or demand4 ,art in its social setting is neither a personal cathartic for the artist1 nor a salve to quiet the itching vanity of the community3 it is essentially a means by which people who have had a strange diversity of experiences have their activities emotionally canalized into patterns and molds which they are able to share pretty completely with each other4 ,pure art is inevitably propaganda4 ,i mean by this that it is meant to be propagated1 and that in so far as it fails to impregnate the community in which it exists with its ideas and images1 in so far as the community is not changed for better or worse by its existence1 its claims are spurious4 ,propagandist art1 on the other hand1 is inevitably impure since instead of bringing people together on a common emotional plane1 as men1 it tends to accentuate their differences1 and to void emotions which are proper to art into a realm where the emotions of the missionary's tent or the soapboxer's platform hold exclusive sway4 ,it is just because the 8artist0 in ,america has been impure in motive--a propagandist for ,pollyanna in the face of ,euripides1 a propagandist for 8just folks0 in the face of ,swift1 a propagandist for niceness in the face of ,rabelais--that he has failed miserably as an artist1 and has left our communities to stew so completely in their own savorless juice4 #i ,for examples of what the artist might be1 and what his proper relation to the community might be when he was mature enough to recognize it and discipline himself to it1 let us look at ,mr4 ,william ,butler ,yeats or ,a4 ,e4 ,there are doubtless a good many other examples that might be offered in ,europe2 but these are particularly good2 for the reason that with ,a4 ,e4 one can see in his ,the ,national ,being how the conceptions of art enter into the tissues of all his plans for renovating life in the ,irish ,countryside4 ,in the work of these artists and their fellows we have a clue to one of the most promising attempts to establish a concrete eutopia which shall rise out of the real facts of the everyday environment and1 at the same time1 turn upon them and mold them creatively a little nearer the heart's desire4 ,in the account of ,four ,years which ,mr4 ,yeats published in ,the ,dial he explains his attitude towards the literature and social life of ,ireland2 and ,i recommend that account to all the forlorn revolutionaries and reformers who wonder why the dry bones of their doctrines remain dry bones1 instead of knitting themselves together and becoming alive4 ,this passage in particular1 defines the relation of the artist both to the tradition of his art and to the community in which he must find a root3 8,the ,huxley1 ,tyndall1 ,carolus ,duran1 ,bastien-,lepage coven1 asserted that an artist or a poet must paint or write in the style of his own day1 and this with the ,fairy ,queen and the ,lyrical ,ballads and ,blake's early poems in its ears1 and plain to the eyes1 in book and gallery1 those great masterpieces of later ,egypt1 founded upon that work of the ancient kingdom already further in time from ,later ,egypt than ,later ,egypt is from us40 ,he dismisses this claim with the just assertion that the artist is free to choose any style that suits his mood and subject2 for in the world of art time and space are irrelevant2 and he goes on to say1 8,we had in ,ireland imaginative stories1 which the uneducated classes knew and even sang1 and might we not make those stories current among the educated classes1 rediscovering1 for the work's sake1 what ,i have called #8the applied arts of literature1' the association of literature1 that is1 with music1 speech1 and dance2 and at last1 it might be1 so deepen the political passion of the nation that all1 artist and poet1 craftsman and day laborer1 would accept a common design4 ,perhaps even these images1 once created and associated with river and mountain1 might move of themselves and with some powerful1 even turbulent life1 like those painted horses that trample the rice-fields of ,japan40 ,by citing ,mr4 ,yeats' conceptions ,i do not mean to limit the artist to a single function--that of patterning the good life4 ,it is quite plain that pure esthetic experience is a good in itself2 and when the artist has rendered this experience in a picture1 a poem1 a novel1 a philosophy1 he has performed a unique and indispensable piece of work4 ,could italics keep this passage from being ignored ,i should employ them4 ,what ,i have called the picturesque is in reality just as self-sustaining and delightful as the radiant good health which ,sir ,thomas ,more rated so highly in his ,utopia4 ,if the community went to the dogs1 it would still be exuberantly self-sustaining1 whilst anyone had the time or the capacity to enjoy it4 ,what ,i protest against is the way in which the field of the genuine artist1 during these last three hundred years1 has been whittled away1 so that it has become more and more a mark of the artist to concern himself solely with the narrow province of pure esthetic experience1 and to protest his complete aloofness from anything that lies outside this realm4 ,such an attitude would have struck ,euripides or ,milton or ,goethe or ,wagner as undignified and stupid1 ,i am sure1 because art is as large as life1 and it does not gain in vigor or intensity by reducing its scope to that of the puppet stage4 ,the point is that there is an artistic function to be performed in the community1 for the community1 as well as in the world of art1 for those who are lifted up to art4 8,nations1 races1 and individual men10 as ,mr4 ,yeats says again1 8are unified by an image1 or a bundle of related images1 symbolical and provocative of the state of mind that is of all states of mind not impossible1 the most difficult to that man1 race1 or nation because only the greatest obstacle that can be contemplated without despair rouses the will to full intensity40 ,whether these images shall be provided by patrioteers1 hack editors1 politicians1 advertising men and commercialized 8artists0 or whether they shall be created by genuine playwrights and poets and philosophers is an important question4 ,the function of creating these images is an artistic one1 and the artist who evades his responsibility is making life for himself and his kind more difficult1 since in the long run a community whose sacred literature is written by ,colonel ,diver and ,scadder and ,jefferson ,brick--the great heroes of ,civilization as the star of empire westward makes its way--will make even the most solitary cultivation of the arts a thorny and difficult task4 ,in the good life1 the purely esthetic element has a prominent place2 but unless the artist is capable of moving men to the good life1 the esthetic element is bound to be driven farther and farther away from the common realities1 until the world of the artist will scarcely be distinguishable from the phantasia of dementia prcox4 ,already1 the symptoms of this corrosive futility have appeared in literature and painting in ,western ,europe and ,america2 and such light as comes forth from this art is but the phosphorescence of decay4 ,if the arts are not to disintegrate utterly1 must they not focus more and more upon eutopia8 #aj ,it comes to this then3 our plans for a new social order have been as dull as mud because1 in the first place1 they have been abstract and cockney1 and have not taken into account the immense diversity and complexity of man's environment2 and in the second place1 they have not created any vivid patterns that would move men to great things4 ,they have not been 8informed by science and ennobled by the arts40 ,through the paralysis of the arts and sciences our contemporary programs for revolution and reform have done very little to lift our heads over the disorderly and bedraggled environments in which we conduct our daily business4 ,this failure to create a common pattern for the good life in each region has made such excellent efforts as the garden city movement seem weak and ineffectual when we place them alongside the towns that medival civilization1 which had such a common pattern1 created4 ,without the common background of eutopian idola1 all our efforts at rehabilitation--the new architecture1 the garden city movement1 the electrification of industry1 the organization of great industrial guilds such as the ,building ,trades have achieved in ,england and the garment workers seem on the point of effecting in ,america--without these common idola1 ,i say1 all our practical efforts are spotty and inconsecutive and incomplete4 ,it was not1 let us remember1 by any legislative device that the cities of the industrial age were monotonously patterned in the image of ,coketown4 ,it was rather because everyone within these horrid centers accepted the same values and pursued the same ends--as they were projected by economists like ,ricardo1 industrialists like ,stephenson1 and lyric poets like ,samuel ,smiles--that the plans of the jerrybuilder and the engineer expressed to perfection the brutality and social disharmony of the community4 ,the same process that gave us ,coketown can1 when our world of ideas is transformed1 give us something better than ,coketown4 ,the chief use of the classic utopias that we have surveyed is to suggest that the same methods which are used by the utopian thinkers to project an ideal community on paper may be employed1 in a practical way1 to develop a better community on earth4 ,the weakness of the utopian thinkers consisted in the assumption that the dreams and projects of any single man might be realized in society at large4 ,from the bitter frustration of ,fourier1 ,cabet1 ,hertzka1 and even ,john ,ruskin those who are in search of the beloved community may well take a warning4 ,where the critics of the utopian method were1 ,i believe1 wrong was in holding that the business of projecting prouder worlds was a futile and footling pastime4 ,these anti-utopian critics overlooked the fact that one of the main factors that condition any future are the attitudes and beliefs which people have in relation to that future--that1 as ,mr4 ,john ,dewey would say1 in any judgment of practise one's belief in a hypothesis is one of the things that affect its realization4 ,when we have projected the pattern of an ideal community and tend to warp our conduct in conformity with that pattern1 we overcome the momentum of actual institutions4 ,in feeling free to project new patterns1 in holding that human beings can will a change in their institutions and habits of life1 the utopians were1 ,i believe1 on solid ground2 and the utopian philosophies were a great improvement over the more nebulous religious and ethical systems of the past in that they saw the necessity for giving their ideals form and life4 ,in fact1 it has been in the pictures of ideal commonwealths such as ,plato's that the 8ideal0 and the 8actual0 have met4 ,it is true that the pure utopians have overlooked the fact that every institution has a momentum of its own3 its speed may be quickened or reduced1 it may be switched on another track1 as the ,roman ,church during the ,reformation was switched from the main line of civilization to a subsidiary route2 and at times1 in the catastrophe of war or revolution1 an institution may jump the track altogether and be wrecked4 ,the critical problem for the eutopian1 the problem of the transition from one set of institutions to another1 from one way of life to another1 was overlooked4 ,plato's ,republic1 for example1 was a fairly attractive place2 but one wonders in what ,greek city in the ,fourth ,century ,b4,c4 the transition could have taken place4 ,a transition implies not merely a goal but a starting point3 if we are to move the world1 as ,archimedes threatened to with his lever1 we must have some ground to stand on4 ,it is only by paying attention to the limitations of each region1 and by allowing for the driving force of history1 that we can make the earth come to terms with man's idola4 ,this is perhaps the most difficult lesson that the eutopian must learn4 #aa ,what1 then1 is the first step out of the present disorder8 ,the first step1 it seems to me1 is to ignore all the fake utopias and social myths that have proved either so sterile or so disastrous during the last few centuries4 ,there is perhaps no logical reason why the myth of the national state should not be preserved2 but it is a myth which has done very little1 on the whole1 to promote the good life1 and has on the contrary done a great deal to make the good life impossible2 and to continue to cling to it in the face of perpetual wars1 pestilences1 and spiritual devastations is the sort of fanaticism which will probably seem as blind and cruel to future generations as persecutions for ,christian heresy do to the present one4 ,on the same grounds1 there are a number of other social myths1 like the proletarian myth1 which run so badly against the grain of reality that they cannot be preserved without ignoring a great many values which are essential to a humane existence2 and on pragmatic grounds it would be fine and beneficial to drop them quickly into limbo4 ,there is no reason to think that there will be a quick conversion from these myths3 the holocaust of war has only intensified the myth of the ,national ,state2 and our experience with religious myths suggests on the contrary that the forms at any rate will be preserved long after the last shred of reality has disappeared4 ,but the sooner those who are capable of intellectual criticism abandon these particular myths1 the sooner will these idola fall into the state which has been happily described as 8innocuous desuetude40 ,if our knowledge of human behavior counts for anything1 however1 we cannot put aside old myths without creating new ones4 ,the eighteenth century agnostics very wisely realized that if they wished to maintain the values which had been created by ,deism1 they could not abandon ,god without inventing him all over again4 ,in turning away from obsolete and disastrous social myths ,i do not suggest that we give up the habit of making myths2 for that habit1 for good or bad1 seems to be ingrained in the human psyche4 ,the nearest we can get to rationality is not to efface our myths but to attempt to infuse them with right reason1 and to alter them or exchange them for other myths when they appear to work badly4 ,here is where we reap the full benefit of the great utopian tradition4 ,in turning away from the social myths that hamper us1 we do not jump blindly into a blankness3 we rather ally ourselves with a different order of social myth which has always been vivified and enriched by the arts and sciences4 ,the idolum of eutopia which we may seek to project in this or that region is not a carte blanche which any one may fill in at his will and caprice2 certain lines have already been fixed2 certain spaces have already been filled4 ,there is a consensus among all utopian writers1 to begin with1 that the land and natural resources belong undividedly to the community2 and even when it is worked by separate people or associations1 as in ,utopia and ,freeland the increment of the land--the economic rent--belongs to the community as a whole4 ,there is also a pretty common notion among the ,utopians that1 as land is a common possession1 so is work a common function2 and no one is let off from some sort of labor of body or mind because of any inherited privileges or dignities that he can point to4 ,finally1 there is the almost equally common notion1 among the utopians1 that the perpetuation of the species leaves plenty of room for improvement1 and that1 as far as human knowledge and foresight are worth anything1 it should be applied to propagation2 so that the most reckless and ill-bred shall not burden the community with the support of their offspring while those of finer capacity are neglected or overwhelmed in numbers4 ,besides these general conditions for the good life which the utopians unite to emphasize1 there are certain other points in the utopian tradition of which one writer or another has given the classic statement4 ,with ,plato we see the enormous importance of birth and education2 we recognize the part good breeding1 in every sense of the word1 must play in the good community4 ,sir ,thomas ,more makes us aware of the fact that a community becomes a community to the extent that it has shared possessions1 and he suggests that the local group might develop such a common life as the old colleges of ,oxford have enjoyed4 ,when we turn to ,christianopolis1 we are reminded that the daily life and work of the community must be infused with the spirit of science1 and that an acute practical intelligence such as we find today among the engineers need not be divorced from the practice of the humanities4 ,even the nineteenth century utopias have a contribution to make4 ,they remind us by their overemphasis that all the proud and mighty idealisms in the world are so many shadows unless they are supported by the whole economic fabric--so that 8eutopia0 is not merely a matter of spiritual conversion1 as the ancient religions taught1 but of economic and geotechnic reconstruction4 ,finally1 from ,james ,buckingham and ,ebenezer ,howard we can learn the importance of converting the idolum of eutopia into plans and layouts and detailed projections1 such as a townplanner might utilize2 and we may suspect that a eutopia which cannot be converted into such specific plans will continue1 as the saying is1 to remain up in the air4 ,taken together1 there is a powerful impulse towards creating a good environment for the good life in the classic utopias we have examined3 from one or another utopia we may draw elements which will enrich every part of the community's life4 ,by following the utopian tradition we shall not merely escape from the fake utopias that have dominated us3 we shall return to reality4 ,more than that1 we shall return upon reality and perhaps--who can tell8--we shall re-create it6 #ab ,in discussing the foundations of ,eutopia ,i am conscious of a certain abstractness in my method of argument2 conscious that ,i have not been a good utopian in dealing with these proud idola that we may project in every region4 ,let us come down to earth now and realize what all this amounts to when we turn away from the library and mingle again on the highways that lead past our door4 ,first of all1 ,i conceive that we shall not attempt to envisage a single utopia for a single unit called humanity2 that is the sort of thin and tepid abstraction which the discipline of the ,regional ,survey will tend to kill off even in people who are now inured by education to dealing only in verbal things4 ,all the human beings on the planet are a unity only for the sake of talking about them2 and as far as that goes1 there is very little profitable conversation that can apply to a ,greenlander1 a ,parisian1 and a ,chinaman1 except the mere observation that they are all on the same little boat of a planet and would probably be much happier if they minded their own business and were not too insistent about inflicting their institutions and their idola upon their neighbors4 ,we shall have to dismiss1 as equally futile1 the notion of a single stratification of mankind1 such as the working class1 serving as the foundation for our ,eutopia3 the notion that the working class consists simply of urban workers is a cockney imbecility1 and as soon as one rectifies it and includes the agricultural population1 we have 8humanity0 pretty much all over again4 ,finally1 if we are to give eutopia a local habitation it will not be founded upon the ,national ,state1 for the ,national ,state is a myth which sane people will no more sacrifice their lives to than they would hand their children into the furnace of some tribal ,moloch2 and a good idolum cannot be founded on the basis of a bad one4 ,as far as extent or character of territory goes1 we will remember that the planet is not as smooth as a billiard ball1 and that the limits of any genuine community rest within fairly ascertainable geographic regions in which a certain complex of soil1 climate1 industry1 institutional life and historic heritage has prevailed4 ,we shall not attempt to legislate for all these communities at one stroke2 for we shall respect ,william ,blake's dictum that one law for the lion and the ox is tyranny4 ,there are some #ae1jjj1jjj local communities in the world1 the ,postal ,directory tells us2 and our eutopia will necessarily take root in one of these real communities1 and include within its co-operations as many other communities1 as have similar interests and identities4 ,it may be that our eutopia will embrace a population as great as that in the ,metropolis of ,london or ,new ,york2 but it is needless to say that the land which lies beyond the limits of the metropolis will no longer be regarded as a sort of subterranean factory for the production of agricultural goods4 ,in sum1 as ,patrick ,geddes has finely said1 in the ,kingdom of ,eutopia--the world ,eutopia--there will be many mansions4 ,the inhabitants of our eutopias will have a familiarity with their local environment and its resources1 and a sense of historic continuity1 which those who dwell within the paper world of ,megalopolis and who touch their environment mainly through the newspaper and the printed book1 have completely lost4 ,the people of ,newcastle will no longer go to ,london for coals1 as the people in the provinces have in a sense been doing this last century and more3 there will be a more direct utilization of local resources than would have seemed profitable or seemly to the metropolitan world which now has command of the market4 ,in these varied eutopias1 it is safe to say1 there will be a new realization of the fact that a cultivated life is essentially a settled life3 their citizens will have discovered that the great privilege of travelling from ,brooklyn to ,bermondsey1 and from ,bermondsey to ,bombay is scarcely worth the trouble when the institutions of ,brooklyn1 ,bermondsey1 and ,bombay1 and every other purely industrial center1 are identical--sanitary drinking devices and canned goods and moving pictures being the same wherever mechanical duplication of goods for a world market has taken the place of direct adaptation to local needs4 ,it should not surprise us therefore if the foundations of eutopia were established in ruined countries2 that is1 in countries where metropolitan civilization has collapsed and where all its paper prestige is no longer accepted at its paper value4 ,there was the beginning of a genuine eutopian movement in ,denmark after the war with ,germany in the 'sixties3 under the leadership of ,bishop ,gruntwig came a revival of folk traditions in literature and a renascence of education which has renewed the life of the ,danish countryside and made an intelligent farmer and an educated man out of the boor4 ,it would not be altogether without precedent if such a eutopian renascence took place in ,germany1 in ,austria1 in ,russia2 and perhaps on another scale in ,india and ,china and ,palestine2 for all these regions are now face to face with realities which the 8prosperous0 paperism of our metropolitan civilization has largely neglected4 ,if the inhabitants of our ,eutopias will conduct their daily affairs in a possibly more limited environment than that of the great metropolitan centers1 their mental environment will not be localized or nationalized4 ,for the first time perhaps in the history of the planet our advance in science and invention has made it possible for every age and every community to contribute to the spiritual heritage of the local group2 and the citizen of eutopia will not stultify himself by being1 let us say1 a hundred per cent ,frenchman when ,greece1 ,china1 ,england1 ,scandinavia and ,russia can give sustenance to his spiritual life4 ,our eutopians will necessarily draw from this wider environment whatever can be assimilated by the local community2 and they will thus add any elements that may be lacking in the natural situation4 ,the chief business of eutopians was summed up by ,voltaire in the final injunction of ,candide3 ,let us cultivate our garden4 ,the aim of the real eutopian is the culture of his environment1 most distinctly not the culture1 and above all not the exploitation1 of some other person's environment4 ,hence the size of our ,eutopia may be big or little2 it may begin in a single village2 it may embrace a whole region4 ,a little leaven will leaven the whole loaf2 and if a genuine pattern for the eutopian life plants itself in any particular locality it may ramify over a whole continent as easily as ,coketown duplicated itself throughout the ,western ,world4 ,the notion that no effective change can be brought about in society until millions of people have deliberated upon it and willed it is one of the rationalizations which are dear to the lazy and the ineffectual4 ,since the first step towards eutopia is the reconstruction of our idola1 the foundations for eutopia can be laid1 wherever we are1 without further ado4 ,our most important task at the present moment is to build castles in the air4 ,we need not fear1 as ,thoreau reminds us1 that the work will be lost4 ,if our eutopias spring out of the realities of our environment1 it will be easy enough to place foundations under them4 ,without a common design1 without a grand design1 all our little bricks of reconstruction might just as well remain in the brickyard2 for a disharmony between men's minds betokens1 in the end1 the speedy dilapidation of whatever they may build4 ,our final word is a counsel of perfection4 ,when that which is perfect has come1 that which is imperfect will pass away4 ,,bibliography ,for the benefit of the reader who wishes to travel further along the trails opened up in this survey of utopias1 ,i am giving a list of the principal books on the subject4 ,this list includes all the important utopias that are accessible in ,english1 as well as a few that are not2 but it is not exhaustive1 for the region of ,utopia has its swamps and arid places as well as its fertile and cultivated land2 and no one but a scholarly explorer need attempt to enter the more forbidding parts of the country4 ,needless to say1 in dealing with our historic utopias ,i had a rough criterion of selection4 ,i set out to treat such plans for the improvement of the human community as had been embodied in complete pictures of an ideal commonwealth3 this excluded important essays in politics like ,hobbes' ,leviathan and ,harrington's ,oceana2 and it ruled out any treatment of abstract idealisms which1 however important1 did not exemplify the essential utopian method4 ,next1 ,i resolved to deal at length only with those utopias which have exercised some influence on thought and life1 particularly in the ,western ,european world4 ,third1 ,i sought to emphasize what was common in the methods and ends of the classic utopias2 making plain their relations within the world of utopias and their relevance in the present day1 rather than attempting to show in any detail the social milieu in which each utopian wrote4 ,in dealing with the nineteenth century my criterion became a little shaky2 and ,i frankly chose the nineteenth century utopias on the basis of their association with temporal movements like state socialism1 the single tax1 and syndicalism1 rather than because of their conformity to standards which served to weed out irrelevant utopias in the earlier centuries4 ,in devoting a little space to ,fourier and ,spence and giving short shrift to ,owen ,i have tried to restore these interesting and significant figures to the place that they deserve4 ,there will doubtless be disagreements over my selections and the amount of space ,i have allotted to various writers2 but at least1 where there has been madness there has also been method4 ,certain parts of the argument are not covered by this list of utopias4 ,the best introductions to utopian literature in general are in ,german2 see ,r4 ,blueher's excellent pamphlet on ,moderne ,utopien2 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,geschichte des ,sozialismus1 ,bonn3 #aibj4 ,while ,mr4 ,van ,wyck ,brooks put me independently on the trail of ,rabelais' ,abbey of ,theleme ,i must acknowledge1 with as much grace as possible1 that ,herr ,blueher anticipated me in grasping this clue to ,renascence culture2 and if any credit is due1 he deserves it4 ,the most exhaustive catalogue of pre-nineteenth century utopias is contained in ,kautsky's ,vorlufer des ,modernen ,sozialismus4 ,max ,beer's ,history of ,british ,socialism has an excellent discussion of the relation of the ,utopians to socialism4 ,see also ,moritz ,kaufmann's ,utopias2 or ,schemes of ,social ,improvement1 from ,sir ,thomas ,more to ,karl ,marx1 ,london3 #ahgi4 ,in the excellent ,history of ,utopian ,thought1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,o4 ,hertzler 7,macmillan3 #aibc71 the phantasists are sympathetically treated4 ,the chapter on the ,country ,house might well be prefaced by ,mr4 ,thorstein ,veblen's ,theory of the ,leisure ,class1 a satire which seems to me unique in scholarship and originality4 ,the importance of our social myths and our collective representations has been noted by a whole school of ,french sociologists who follow mile ,durkheim2 and the dynamic force of ideas has been treated by ,alfred ,fouille4 ,on both these topics there is a whole literature2 and it would give a sense of false simplicity to single out any particular essay4 ,there is a fairly popular discussion of the place of myths and ideals in the ,george ,sorel's ,reflexions on ,violence1 and ,benjamin ,kidd's ,science of ,power 7especially ,chapter ,v474 ,as a loose illustration of the general method and outlook embodied in this book ,i refer to the ,making of the ,future ,series1 edited by ,messrs4 ,patrick ,geddes and ,victor ,branford and published by ,williams ,norgate1 ,london4 ,there is an able exposition of the regionalist movement and of the fundamental realities upon which this movement is based in two books published in that series2 namely1 ,professor ,fleure's ,human ,geography in ,western ,europe and ,c4 ,b4 ,fawcett's ,the ,provinces of ,england4 ,two works by the editors1 ,the ,coming ,polity and ,our ,social ,inheritance are likewise suggestive4 ,professor ,geddes is the outstanding exponent of the ,eutopian method both in thought and in practical activity2 and the reader should consult his ,city ,development 7#aijd7 and his ,town-,planning towards ,city ,development3 a ,report to the ,durbar of ,indore1 #b vols4 ,indore1 #aiah4 ,both of these books are mines from which all sorts of precious thoughts can be quarried4 ,remaindered copies of the first can be obtained from ,john ,grant1 ,bookseller1 ,edinburgh2 while the second is sold by ,botsford1 ,high ,holborn1 ,london4 ,professor ,geddes' work exemplifies concretely a good part of what ,i have sought to explain and define in not altogether adequate prose4 ,,utopias ,,plato 7#dbg ,b4,c4-#cdg ,b4,c474 ,the ,republic4 ,translated with notes and essays by ,benjamin ,jowett4 ,oxford3 #ahid4 ,see also ,plato's ,critias and ,statesman in the same edition4 ,the ,laws1 which is a more detailed attempt to work out the details of a good polity1 is so lacking in ,plato's original inspiration that1 but for ,aristotle's allusion to it1 one would promptly take it for the work of another hand4 ,,more1 ,,sir ,,thomas 7#adgh-aece74 ,utopia4 ,published originally in ,latin in #aeaf4 ,there are numerous modern editions4 ,see ,ideal ,commonwealths1 edited by ,henry ,morley4 ,,andre1 ,,johann ,,valentin 7#aehf-afed74 ,christianopolis4 ,published in #afai and translated in #aiaf by ,felix ,emil ,held under the title of ,christianopolis3 ,an ,ideal ,state of the #agth ,century4 ,oxford ,university ,press4 ,mr4 ,held's introduction contains an account of ,andre's life4 ,,bacon1 ,,francis 7#aefa-afbf74 ,the ,new ,atlantis4 ,published in #afbg4 ,bacon contemplated writing a second part which would deal with the laws of his ideal commonwealth4 ,see ,ideal ,commonwealths4 ,,campanella1 ,,tomasso 7#aefh-afci74 ,the ,city of the ,sun4 ,published in #afcg as ,civitas ,solis ,poetica3 ,idea ,reipublic ,philosophi4 ,see ,ideal ,commonwealths4 ,,allais1 ,,denis ,,vairasse ,d' 7--74 ,l',histoire des ,sevarambes4 ,written in #afgb and translated into ,english as ,the ,history of the ,sevarites1 written by one ,captain ,siden1 ,london3 #afge4 ,in ,kautsky's ,vorlufer des ,modernen ,sozialismus this utopia is given high praise and is ranked as the ,french parallel of ,more's ,utopia2 but ,i feel that this is a sad error in judgment which perhaps arose out of the bare fact that the first law of the great dictator ,sevarias was to put all private property in the hands of the state1 to be disposed of absolutely by its authority1 and to do away with distinctions of rank and hereditary dignity4 ,there is little that is fresh or imaginative in ,vairasse's treatment1 however1 and there is nothing like ,more's detailed effort to guard against usurpation of power by the ruling classes4 ,as simple fiction1 the ,history of the ,sevarites is1 however1 readable4 ,see also ,l',histoire des ,gallignes1 by ,tiphaigne de la ,roche2 likewise the excellent satire1 ,giphantia4 ,the description of ,salentum1 under ,mentor1 in ,fnlon's ,telemachus should not be neglected4 ,the ,abb ,morelly's ,basiliade is little more than a definition of his ,code de la ,nature4 ,,mercier1 ,,louis ,,sebastien 7#agdj-ahad74 ,memoirs of the ,year #bejj4 ,published in ,french in #aggb and translated into ,english1 ,liverpool3 #ahjb4 ,,spence1 ,,thomas 7#agej-ahad74 ,description of ,spensonia4 ,constitution of ,spensonia4 ,london3 #agie4 ,privately printed at the ,courier ,press2 ,leamington ,spa3 #aiag4 ,,fourier1 ,,charles ,,fran,,ois ,,marie 7#aggb-ahcg74 ,trait de l',association domestique agricole4 #b vols4 #ahbb4 ,le ,nouveau ,monde ,industriel4 #b vols4 #ahbi4 ,see also ,albert ,brisbane in his ,general ,introduction to the ,social ,sciences 7,fourier's 8,social ,destinies071 and ,selections from the ,works of ,fourier1 translated by ,julia ,franklin1 with an introduction by ,charles ,gide1 ,london3 #aija4 ,,cabet1 ,,tienne 7#aghh-ahef74 ,voyage en ,icarie4 ,published in #ahde and numerous editions followed during the next five years2 see that of the ,bureau du ,populaie1 ,paris3 #ahdh4 ,,buckingham1 ,,james ,,silk 7#aghf-ahee74 ,national ,evils and ,practical ,remedies1 with a plan for a model town4 ,london3 #ahdh4 ,,bulwer-,,lytton1 ,e4 7#ahjc-ahgc74 ,the ,coming ,race2 or the ,new ,utopia4 ,london3 #ahe--4 ,a fantastic romance about a people who live underground1 possess detachable wings1 and command a potency known as 8vril40 ,it is perhaps not altogether without significance that this new hierarchy of industrial angels was conceived by ,lytton in the same decade that saw the building of the ,crystal ,palace4 ,,pemberton1 ,,robert 7--74 ,the ,happy ,colony4 ,london3 #ahed4 ,this is an appeal to the working class1 somewhat similar in temper and method to ,buckingham's appeal to the middle class4 ,pemberton had an individual system of psychology which he desired to apply in education4 ,this utopia has now only a limited historical significance4 ,,bellamy1 ,,edward 7#ahej-ahih74 ,looking ,backward2 ,boston3 #ahhh4 ,equality2 ,boston3 #ahig4 ,,hertzka1 ,,theodor 7#ahde-874 ,freeland3 ,a ,social ,anticipation4 ,first edition published in ,german1 #ahhi2 ,english translation published by the ,british ,freeland ,association in #ahia4 ,a ,visit to ,freeland1 or the ,new ,paradise ,regained4 ,translation published by the above ,association1 ,london3 #ahid4 ,the first work lays the foundations for the utopia2 the second is the ideal commonwealth in action4 ,,morris1 ,,william 7#ahcd-ahif74 ,news from ,nowhere4 ,london3 #ahij4 ,there have been numerous editions4 ,,howard1 ,,ebenezer 7#ahej-874 ,garden ,cities of ,tomorrow4 ,london3 #aijb4 ,first published as ,tomorrow in #ahih4 ,unique among utopian books in that its eutopia has been partly realized4 ,see numerous descriptions of ,letchworth1 the first ,garden ,city4 ,,hudson1 ,w4 ,h4 7--74 ,a ,crystal ,age4 ,london3 #aijf4 ,,thirion1 ,,mile 7#ahbe-874 ,neustria3 ,utopie ,individualiste4 ,paris3 #aija4 ,this is one of the rare1 deliberately individualistic utopias1 founded on work1 liberty1 and property4 ,it assumes that a colony of ,girondists were able to establish themselves in ,south ,america4 ,,herzl1 ,,theodor 7#ahfj-aijd74 ,altneuland4 ,leipzig3 #aijc4 ,,tarde1 ,,gabriel 7#ahdc-aijd74 ,underground ,man4 ,london3 #aije4 ,a deft and well-conceived fantasy1 full of excellent criticism4 ,towards the past it is a utopia of reconstruction1 towards the future--but herein lies much of its charm6--it is one of escape4 ,,wells1 ,h4 ,g4 7#ahff-874 ,a ,modern ,utopia4 ,new ,york3 #aije4 ,,cram1 ,,ralph ,,adams 7#ahfc-874 ,walled ,towns4 ,boston3 #aiai4 ,dr4 ,cram does not classify this work as a utopia2 but the honest critic cannot help giving it that label4 ,dr4 ,cram sees no basis for eutopia without the system of values and the sanctions perpetuated by the ,christian ,church2 since this leaves the greater part of humanity in ,darkness1 ,i cannot agree with him4 ,dr4 ,cram1 however1 is a fine scholar and a stimulating critic2 and if one could only grant his assumptions his conclusions would be magnificent4 ,,morley1 ,,henry4 ,ideal ,commonwealths2 ,plutarch's ,lycurgus1 ,more's ,utopia1 ,bacon's ,new ,atlantis1 ,campanella's ,city of the ,sun1 and a ,fragment of ,hall's ,mundus ,alter et ,idem1 with an introduction by ,henry ,morley4 ,london3 ,g4 ,routledge1 #ahhf4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,chapter ,one did not indicate the beginning of section 8#e04 ,transcriber added it by referencing an earlier edition of the book4 ,text mostly uses 8utopia0 but sometimes uses 8eutopia04 ,both retained here4 ,page #ajd3 8the tale end0 was printed that way4 ,page #bbd3 8perfunctory seal upon0 was printed as 8perfunctory real upon02 changed here4 ,page #bca3 8advertized0 was printed that way4 ,page #bid3 8,a4 ,e40 was the pseudonym of ,george ,william ,russell4