,transcriber's ,note ,italic text displayed as3 italic ,,the ,,puzzle ,,of ,,life4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,and ,,parliament ,,street ,illustration3 ,frontispiece ,the ,mammoth4 ,,the ,,puzzle ,,of ,,life2 ,,and ,,how ,,it ,,has ,,been ,,put ,,together4 ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,earth1 ,,with ,,its ,,vegetable ,,and ,,animal ,,life1 ,,from ,,the ,,earliest ,,times1 ,,including ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,pre-,,historic ,,man1 his ,,weapons1 ,,tools and ,,works4 ,,by ,,arthur ,,nicols1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,,with ,,illustrations by ,,frederick ,,waddy4 ,,second ,,edition4 ,,london3 ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 #ahgg4 ,all rights reserved4 ,,to ,,my ,,young ,,friends ,,beatrix1 ,,guy1 ,,sylvia1 ,,may1 ,,and ,,gerald4 ,,the ,,children ,,of ,,george ,,du ,,maurier4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,the favourable reception accorded to the first edition has induced me to give the present a more definite educational character4 ,foot-notes are appended1 referring to the position in the ,british ,museum of all the principal antiquities1 fossils1 and implements mentioned in the text2 so that the specimens can easily be found by any young student who wishes1 with the book in his hand1 to make himself familiar with these records of past time4 ,this will probably facilitate the search for and recognition of specimens by the reader4 ,the additions to the text consist chiefly of a more extended account of the deposition of chalk and other deep-sea formations1 founded on the results of the 8,challenger0 and 8,tuscarora0 expeditions1 and a sketch of the earthworks of the ,ohio mound-builders and the stone monuments of ,easter ,island4 ,examples of pre-historic art and lake-dwellings have been added to the illustrations4 ,a4 ,n4 ,,hampstead3 ,march #ahgg4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition4 ,having found that children could be interested in the history of life upon the ,earth1 and that it appealed forcibly to their understanding1 ,i considered that a little book upon the subject might give them the taste for more extended study in after years4 ,the difficulty of treating the1 to them1 novel conclusions of geology1 often founded on abstract reasoning1 in language simple in form yet stating clearly the great principles upon which this reasoning rests1 will probably be apparent on every page4 ,breadth1 rather than minuteness1 has been aimed at1 in the belief that a general view1 not overcrowded with details1 is likely to be the most impressive4 ,thus1 in the geological part the leading features of the succession of strata have been preserved1 but no details of systematic classification entered into4 ,similarly1 ,primeval ,man is considered mainly with reference to gradual progress from a rude to a more civilized condition4 ,to have been more explicit1 where there is still much difference of opinion1 would have obscured the main facts of the evidence for man's great antiquity4 ,the illustrations are typical examples of the three arbitrary but convenient divisions of the history of life--the vegetable1 the animal1 and the human--such as will be most readily met with in museums4 ,slight as this sketch is1 the liking for it shown by some intelligent children1 who saw it in manuscript1 encouraged me to believe that there are many others to whom it might prove interesting4 ,some acquaintance with the leading facts in science is daily becoming more necessary to those who aspire to liberal culture1 and instruction in them is a recognised feature in the curriculum of some public and leading private schools4 ,thus1 it is hoped that the present volume may to some extent serve as a text-book without the severity of such a form4 ,the best ,english and foreign authorities have been consulted1 and other trustworthy sources--as papers read before scientific societies--drawn upon1 bringing the information down to the latest time4 ,though these pages are designed for young persons1 other readers1 perhaps1 who are not familiar with the subject1 may find some interest in them if they are not deterred by the necessarily simple style4 ,my thanks are due to ,mr4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,woodward1 of the ,geological ,survey of ,england and ,wales1 for some valuable suggestions made during the progress of the work4 ,a4 ,n4 ,,hampstead3 ,november #ahgf4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,the ,,framework ,,of ,,the ,,puzzle #a ,,the ,,geological ,,part #ag ,,the ,,vegetable ,,part #ef ,,the ,,animal ,,part #gg ,,the ,,human ,,part #abj ,,conclusion #afh ,,index #aga ,,illustrations4 ,,the ,,mammoth ,frontispiece ,i4 ,,upheaval3 ,,subsidence3 ,,denudation #ea ,,ii4 ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,plants ,,of ,,the ,,coal ,,forests #fe ,,iii4 ,,trilobite #gi ,,iv4 ,,footprints ,,of ,,labyrinthodon3 ,,footprints ,,of ,,birds1 7#b7 ,,with ,,marks ,,of ,,rain-,,drops #hc ,v4 ,,fish-,,reptiles #hg ,,vi4 ,,bird-,,reptiles #ic ,,vii4 ,,fossils ,,of ,,the ,,chalk #ig ,,viii4 ,,gigantic ,,irish ,,stag 7,,cervus ,,megaceros7 #ajh ,,ix4 ,,the ,,megatherium #aab ,x4 #a4 ,,flint ,,arrow-,,head2 #b4 ,,stone ,,axe ,,in ,,handle2 #c4 ,,flint ,,knife2 #d4 ,,bone ,,harpoon2 #e4 ,,bone ,,needles2 #f4 ,,sceptre ,,made ,,of ,,horn2 #g4 ,,marrow ,,spoon #abi ,,xi4 ,,examples ,,of ,,pre-,,historic ,,drawings #ace ,,xii4 ,,lake-,,dwellings #adh ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,guadaloupe ,,human ,,fossil #aei ,,the ,,puzzle ,,of ,,life4 ,,the ,,framework ,,of ,,the ,,puzzle4 ,you must often have looked with wondering eyes at this ,world of ours1 and asked yourselves questions about it4 ,how did it come here8 ,what is it made of8 ,how old is it8 ,all of them questions not to be answered without a great deal of thought and study1 and even then not so perfectly as we should like4 ,it is easy to say 8,it is here10 and 8,it is made of earth10 and 8,it surely must be old10 but that will not satisfy us4 ,we want to know something more certain than this1 if possible4 ,we can see that a clock goes with wheels1 but we are not very intelligent people if we do not want to find out what makes the clock go4 ,one way of finding out is to pull things to pieces1 but we cannot exactly do this with the ,world4 ,we must think about it1 and put together all the knowledge we can gain from the outside and inside1 and from the other ,worlds around us1 which we can see1 and when we have done this we may get something like answers to our questions4 ,how did it come here8 ,but this is not quite the right way of asking the question1 because the ,world is never for two moments together in the same place4 ,it is travelling in a great circle round the ,sun at the rate of more than sixty thousand miles an hour1 and has been ever since it was formed4 ,that is a wonderful arrangement by which all ,worlds travel round some other ,world larger than themselves1 in greater or less circles1 and we do not know why it is1 though we are certain that it is so4 ,the ,moon travels round us once in about every month1 and we and the ,moon together round the ,sun once in every year4 ,then again1 other planets1 with their moons1 such as ,jupiter1 for instance1 travel round the ,sun in much larger circles than our ,world1 and take many years to do the journey1 while ,venus1 which is nearer the ,sun than we are1 travels in a much smaller circle1 and takes less time4 ,we do not perceive that we are moving so fast because everything we see is moving equally fast with us2 but there is no doubt that we are spinning along at sixty thousand miles an hour4 ,if we ask an astronomer how our ,world came into existence1 he will tell us that it is probably a mass separated from the ,sun1 that it was once red-hot1 and that it slowly cooled down until animals and plants could live upon it4 ,he will tell us besides1 that he can see mountains and valleys in our ,moon1 and land and sea1 snow and clouds1 on the planet ,mars1 with his great telescopes4 ,when he thinks about the planets and our own ,world1 then he believes them to be pieces of some much larger ,world--perhaps the ,sun--which now travel round the ,sun and receive their light and heat from it4 ,the ,world is made of what we call 8earth10 and it is of this ,i mean to tell you now--how it was formed1 what changes have taken place in it1 what plants and animals have lived upon it1 and what reasons there are for thinking that it is an exceedingly old place1 with a long and interesting story to tell4 ,little was known thirty or forty years ago by the most learned men about the age of our ,world1 and it was thought that the human race had not lived here very long4 ,it was indeed known that many large animals1 whose huge bones have been found1 must have lived before man came to inhabit the ,earth1 and that even far smaller creatures--such as fishes1 and crabs1 and insects1 and shell-fish--most probably lived for many generations1 and died and left their bones and shells in the soil long before the first man or the first tribes of men came to share the ,world with them4 ,i hope to be able to tell you something of the strange and beautiful history of all these animals1 and of man himself1 and to show you what reasons there are now for thinking that the human race has inhabited this ,earth for a very long time indeed1 and how all this knowledge has been gained and put together piece by piece4 ,it is something like the different parts of a puzzle-map1 which might be scattered all over the house1 and found at one time or another in different places1 and at last made up altogether4 ,some parts of the puzzle have not been found yet certainly2 but so many have been collected1 and they fit into one another so well1 that we can begin to see its real shape and size4 ,it will perhaps be a very long time before some of the missing pieces are found2 but in the meantime we can go on without them1 and put the framework together1 and no doubt in time we shall see what our puzzle1 the history of life on the ,earth1 was like4 ,before telling you what its parts are1 ,i ought to say where many of them have been found1 and how they are still being looked for4 ,they are found upon the ground1 under it1 in caves1 in rivers1 and in the sea4 ,since railways have been in use a great many tunnels have been made1 as well as very deep cuttings through hills1 and some of these are several miles long4 ,in this way we have come to know something of the ,earth below the surface4 ,some of these tunnels are bored right through high hills and even mountains1 and the cuttings are deep enough to hide high houses if they were put into them4 ,while digging these the workmen have found many of the parts of our puzzle1 which are the bones of animals1 and fishes1 and shells1 and even smaller things--such as insects4 ,these could not possibly have been put there by anyone1 because they were many1 many yards below the surface1 and1 until they were dug up1 nobody imagined that they could be there4 ,many other things besides have been dug out of these places1 but nearer the surface1 such as weapons and tools made of flint1 and stone1 and bone1 and metal1 and pieces of rough crockery1 and various ornaments1 all of which must at some time or other have been made and used by people very like ourselves4 ,in digging canals1 too1 the same kinds of things have been found1 and some caves are almost filled up with them4 ,we have other means1 too1 of knowing what is under the surface of the ground we walk upon4 ,many of the coal-mines are so deep that the ,tower of ,london1 or ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 or ,york ,minster1 or even the ,pyramids of ,egypt could be buried in them6 ,in digging these the workmen have had to go through a great quantity of earth1 sometimes chalk1 sand1 or gravel1 or clay or limestone1 layer upon layer1 placed1 like a pile of books of different kinds and different thicknesses1 one upon the other1 until they have come to the coal4 ,in these different layers of earth parts of the puzzle have been found1 and we shall see by-and-by what parts have been found in the coal itself4 ,then again1 when deep mines are made to get the metals1 iron and gold and silver1 these layers of earth have to be dug through2 and when the beautiful kinds of stone1 like marble and limestone1 are wanted1 they must be dug out of the sides of the hills1 and in doing this still more pieces of the puzzle come to hand4 ,but there are other places where ,nature herself seems to have shown us some of them without the trouble of searching for them4 ,in many parts of the ,world1 by the sea1 and on the banks of rivers1 there are cliffs hundreds of feet high1 like the chalk cliffs at ,dover and ,ramsgate1 and the sandy cliffs at ,folkestone and on the south coast of ,devonshire4 ,these cliffs have been cut into by the sea very gradually1 and a kind of wall has been left1 and from the sides of the cliffs great numbers of the pieces of the puzzle1 bones1 shells1 c41 have been collected and taken away to museums4 ,but the little we can do with our mines and railway tunnels is nothing in comparison with the work of ,nature4 ,in some of the great mountain chains--the ,andes1 the ,himalayas1 and the ,alps1 for instance--parts of the sides of mountains have fallen down1 and rents many miles long have been left1 showing what had been buried there in the different kinds of soil2 and where rivers have cut deep1 narrow channels through the earth1 like the ,caons of ,colorado1 these natural miners have turned out more of the parts of 8the puzzle of life0 than we can with all our labour4 ,it will not be easy at first to understand all the wonders ,i have to show you1 but1 when we get further on1 you will see them one by one1 and there will be very little difficulty4 ,you know now where these things are to be found3 principally in the ground you walk upon1 without knowing all there is beneath you4 ,the creatures here are much more wonderful than any of the monsters of fairy tale or fable1 because the works of ,god are greater than the imagination of men who have invented the stories of flying dragons and griffins1 and trees which grew up into the skies2 but ,i cannot help thinking that this imagination shows what men thought might once have been1 and we shall see that 8truth is stranger than fiction40 ,creatures really did live on this ,earth of such strange shapes and great size that the imaginations of those who wrote the fairy tales did not exaggerate much2 and1 though we know that no flying serpents or immense birds like the ,roc are living now1 and that there is no beanstalk which grows up into the sky while we are asleep1 we shall see that there were lizards as large as whales1 and birds taller than elephants1 and great sloths stronger than the rhinoceros or hippopotamus1 and ferns as high as oak trees1 and mosses as large as gooseberry bushes2 and that perhaps these animals and plants grew much faster than they do now1 and that their dead bodies form a very large part of the earth of our ,world4 ,this is not imagination1 and when you go to a museum you can see all these wonders for yourselves1 just as they were taken out of the earth2 but of course the bones only of the animals are there4 ,the flesh has long since gone away1 and some of the stalks and fronds 7leaves7 only of the ferns remain to show us how large they must have been when they were alive and growing4 ,it will be necessary to use a few scientific names1 most of which are borrowed from the ,greek and ,latin languages1 but ,i will explain the meaning of them all1 so that they will be easily remembered4 ,first of all1 then1 the pieces of the puzzle are called fossils1 and the name comes from a ,latin word meaning 8dug out20 because they have been dug out of the ground either by man in making railways and mines1 or by ,nature in the many ways in which she works by cutting down cliffs and scooping out valleys4 ,these fossils are bones of animals and fishes1 the skins1 shells1 and wings of insects1 and the stalks and leaves of plants1 some of which have lain so very long in the ground that they have become as hard and heavy as stone4 ,but the shape of them always remains1 and the moment you look at them you see that they once belonged to living creatures4 ,i shall give you pictures of some of these fossils2 and no doubt you will be able to find some like them in the chalk and sands of the seaside--beautiful shells and bones of fishes4 ,you may pick these out of the cliffs1 and then go to the pools of salt water left among the rocks by the ebbing tide1 and compare your fossils with the living shell-fish1 and see how nearly those inhabitants of the ancient oceans resemble the creatures we find now1 sporting in the water1 just as these fossils did when the sand and chalk cliffs were under the sea4 ,of course all the bright colours are gone from the fossils1 for the colour of animals fades away soon after they die1 and the flesh does not last long2 but the hard parts--the bones and shells--are not easily destroyed1 because they are made of the same material as rocks4 ,and when we look at the fossil plants we see the same thing4 ,the colours of the green stems and leaves have quite faded1 but the delicate shapes of the leaves and branches1 and the grain of the wood1 can still be seen1 and you will have no doubt that they once lived and bore flowers and fruit1 and died1 as plants are living and dying every day4 ,you have got so far now that you know what fossils are1 and where they may be found4 ,you know that they are the small and large pieces of the 8puzzle of life0--of all sorts of different shapes and sizes--and you know that they are scattered about the ,earth1 deep down in coal-mines1 on the tops of mountains1 at the bottoms of rivers1 in deep caves1 and under the sea4 ,the patience and industry of clever men have been well spent in gathering together all they can find1 and arranging them in museums for our instruction1 and making a history of them which is more wonderful than the ,arabian ,nights1 and more beautiful because it is all true4 ,and1 though you may think it strange that ,i promise to show you creatures more marvellous than those of the fairy tales1 ,i shall keep that promise faithfully4 ,we shall find no ,genii with wonderful lamps and magic rings1 because they never really lived1 though it gave us much pleasure and amusement to read about them2 but we shall see what ,god1 the greatest ,genius of all1 has done by means of ,his magicians--the laws of ,nature4 ,these magicians have built up high mountains and dug out valleys1 and sent mighty rivers sweeping down to the sea1 and even filled up oceans with sand and chalk1 and buried ancient forests deep down under sea and land4 ,they worked with fire1 and air1 and water2 not quickly1 but with such strength that nothing could resist them1 and they gradually moulded the ,earth into the beautiful thing it is1 so that ,in contemplation of created things1 ,by steps we may ascend to ,god4--,milton4 ,but1 lovely as the ,earth is1 we should not perhaps have thought so much of it if there had been nothing to discover4 ,we see that it has been prepared for us an immensely long time ago2 and when we know a little1 we want to search further and find out what the whole plan of ,creation is1 so far as we can4 ,you will be surprised when you know how many signs of past life there are around you--many more than you can see with the eye4 ,the ,earth is one great burying-place of creatures which have passed away4 ,you are walking over their dead and fossil bodies at almost every step4 ,they are built into the walls of our houses1 and there are millions of them in some of the commonest stones of the pavement4 ,those round1 smooth pebbles1 called flint stones1 which we pick out of the gravel walks1 were once partly such soft tender things as sponges2 but time has hardened them1 and they have been rolled together in seas and rivers by the always moving water until they have become quite different to look at from the rough blue flints they were when they were washed out of the chalk beds4 ,when you are walking along the sands of some seacoasts1 you are treading on little specks of these small flints which have been ground down fine in that great mill1 the ocean4 ,the sponges1 then1 did some part in the building up of the ,earth4 ,the very chalk you draw with is composed of the shells of sea-animals4 ,your slates and slate pencils were once a fine mud at the bottom of the sea1 since become so hard that it is used for covering the roofs of our houses1 and in this mud lived myriads of small shell-fish which have sometimes left their frail houses in the slate beds to tell us how they were made4 ,that slate is the hardened mud of an old sea bottom1 there is no doubt at all4 ,there are many other things in common use which show us the life that was4 ,perhaps you did not know that coals are compressed plants1 and that we are now burning the vegetation of the past time6 ,but these will be described in their right places by-and-by1 and you will see how certain it is that some of the commonest things we use were living creatures and graceful plants4 ,here is 8the framework0 of the puzzle1 and ,i think you will agree with me that we shall have pleasure in putting it together with all the queerly-shaped pieces we shall find in the following chapters4 ,we have fossil plants to show us what grew upon the ,earth1 fossil bones to tell us what animals lived here1 and thousands of different kinds of fossil shells and fishes to show us that the seas in the long past time were crowded with life2 and besides1 though there are no written histories of the men whom we shall read about1 they1 too1 have left many things which they used in the caves where they lived and in their graves1 to make us feel certain that they were some of the oldest people that ever lived4 ,with all these things to help us1 it will be strange if we cannot make out a great deal of the history of life upon our ,earth4 ,,the ,,geological ,,part4 ,you will have learned from other books something about the size and shape of our ,world3 for instance1 that it is a great round body1 or rather more like an orange1 a little flatter one way than the other1 and about #h1jjj miles through1 from one side to the other1 and that it turns round once in every twenty-four hours2 but ,i have only to tell you now what it is made of4 ,the material is called rock1 earth1 or soil2 and there are many kinds of it1 such as granite1 gravel1 clay1 sand1 chalk1 mud1 and so on2 and we shall see that many of these different soils contain different fossils4 ,it is supposed that a very long time passed while these were being laid one upon another1 and before many plants or animals lived here1 and there are good reasons for thinking that underneath these soils the ,earth is very hot1 perhaps in a melting state1 because we know that volcanoes like ,vesuvius and tna throw out flame and smoke and lava1 which is melted earth and rock2 and that this lava has run down the sides of the mountains for miles1 in a great stream of liquid material1 and covered up and destroyed whole villages and towns4 ,you have heard of earthquakes1 when the ground shakes and cracks1 and houses are thrown down1 as they have often been in ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,south ,america4 ,this convinces us that the inside of the earth must be very different from the outside4 ,two or three years ago ,mount ,vesuvius was boiling up1 and the people of ,naples feared that it would throw out some of the terrible lava and red-hot cinders1 and burn up their vineyards and perhaps injure their city2 and during the last two or three years many people have been killed by earthquakes in ,south ,america4 ,these things seldom happen in the ,north of ,europe1 and when they do they are only slightly felt1 and people are not killed1 neither are houses thrown down4 ,still1 this shows that there must be some great force underneath us1 and very much heat4 ,we see nothing of this when we look upon the green fields1 and we should scarcely think it possible if there were not histories about these eruptions1 as they are called4 ,but when ,i tell you that ,i have felt the ,earth tremble1 and seen fire rushing out from the top of a high mountain whose sides were covered with snow1 you will understand how real it is--though it may seem so strange4 ,people at one time liked to fancy that powerful spirits lived in volcanoes and made them their workshops3 but we know better now4 ,well1 the interior of the ,earth is evidently very different from the part we live upon2 and it is the outside we have to think about now1 which would be dreadfully cold if the sun did not shine upon it1 though the inside is so hot4 ,i have called this 8the ,geological ,part10 and the name ,geological comes from two ,greek words meaning 8a talk about the earth20 but now you know it in its ,english dress it will be easy to recollect it4 ,geology is then the study of the many kinds of rocks and fossils which makeup our ,world1 but we must know something of the way in which they are placed4 ,you may have noticed1 if you have made many journeys to different parts of ,england or ,wales1 that the rocks or soils are very different in various places4 ,sometimes we find numerous chalk-pits1 as in parts of ,kent1 or ,sussex2 if we go into ,devonshire we may notice the very red colour of the soil and of the cliffs1 especially near ,sidmouth1 ,dawlish1 and ,teignmouth2 in ,north ,wales we find great quarries and hills of slate2 while around ,london we see a great deal of clay used for making bricks1 and called the ,london clay1 as well as many pits in gravel so useful for making paths and mending roads1 and in ,kent and ,sussex chalk cliffs and hills are common4 ,now after studying these various rocks all over our country1 we find that there is a certain regular order in which they are found2 some have been made a long time before others1 and while most kinds contain some fossils1 those found in the oldest rocks are much less like the living plants and animals than the fossils we find in the newer rocks4 ,but you will want to know how it is that we can tell that one rock is older than another1 when both appear at the surface of the earth4 ,it would take a long time to make sure of this for ourselves1 but it will be enough to say that the various cliffs1 quarries1 and railway-cuttings often show one kind of rock resting upon another1 and these always occur in a certain order4 ,thus we never find the ,chalk resting on the ,london ,clay1 but we constantly find the ,london ,clay resting on the ,chalk4 ,and this is proved in another way1 by deep well-borings4 ,underneath ,london many wells have been carried down right through the ,london ,clay1 and if only continued deep enough they always reach the ,chalk4 ,in the same way1 the order of the other rocks has been ascertained in different parts of the country1 by examining all the pits and quarries1 and cliffs and cuttings1 with the help of what knowledge can be obtained from deep mines and wells4 ,you will now begin to wonder why the older rocks should appear at the surface4 ,i have told you about earthquakes1 and you will find that many dreadful earthquakes must in former times have ravaged our country4 ,the reason why the old rocks come to the surface is because they have been lifted up sometimes violently1 but more often very slowly4 ,and the newer rocks which formerly rested on them have very often been quite washed away1 either by the sea or by rivers and little streams which formerly acted upon them4 ,suppose then we take six books1 some thick and some thin1 and pile them up together on the table1 the lowest being a good thick one4 ,the lowest we will call granite1 the next slate1 the third sandstone1 the fourth coal1 the fifth chalk1 and the sixth the ,london clay4 ,these will represent some of the principal kinds of earths1 and you can fancy many more with other names coming between them2 but the ,london clay can never be below the granite nor the chalk below the coal1 for the great coal beds were formed long before the chalk and clay4 ,they generally come in much the same order as we have named them1 hard rocks like granite at the bottom1 and softer earths1 like sandstone1 chalk and clay1 a long way above them4 ,but we do not always find all these earths in one place even if we dig ever so deeply1 though the granite would always be found at the bottom if we went deep enough4 ,sometimes the granite and other old rocks have been pushed through the upper layers by some great force1 and have broken them and risen above them in magnificent mountain chains1 like those of the ,andes in ,south1 and the ,rocky ,mountains in ,north ,america1 the ,wicklow ,mountains in ,ireland1 the ,grampians in ,scotland1 and the ,cornish mountains in ,england4 ,we can easily suppose that the lowest of our books 7the granite book7 has been pushed upwards by some great force from below1 and parts of it broken through the others1 and raised high above them2 and this is what has actually been done with real rocks4 ,and as this kind of upheaval has taken place at different periods of the earths history1 we find that granites have come to the surface at different times4 ,when the layers are thus broken through they are often tilted up on end and tumbled about in confusion4 ,but where there has been no disturbance like this1 they generally rest evenly upon one another in their proper order4 ,granite1 and rocks of the same kind1 are not in the least like chalk1 or clay1 or even sandstone1 and when once you have seen any of these you will not be likely to mistake it for the others4 ,granite is excessively hard1 and has a beautiful appearance when polished1 with a number of brilliant white and some dark specks in it4 ,it is used for paving the streets of towns1 for which purpose it is cut into oblong blocks1 and for the pillars of fine buildings4 ,sometimes it is dark brown1 sometimes reddish1 but generally a bluish grey4 ,this rock is composed of a great quantity of crystals1 and for this reason it is thought it must have been melted at one time by intense heat in the earth1 and afterwards slowly cooled4 ,chalk is very different1 and sandstone1 though it is also hard1 not in the least like granite4 ,,how ,,the ,,rocks ,,were ,,formed4 ,what ,i have just said is about all that we know of the formation of the oldest and hardest granite rocks3 but there is something going on now which confirms the belief that the materials of which they are made were melted together by a greater heat than we can make in our furnaces for melting iron2 for ,i should tell you that it is easier to melt iron and copper than granite rocks4 ,volcanoes often throw out melted earths which when cooled appear to be made of much the same materials as these granites4 ,,sandstone4 ,but we know more of the manner of the formation of sandstone4 ,this rock is composed of rounded grains of sand just like that we find upon the sea shore4 ,if you take a handful of this sand and squeeze it tightly1 it will keep together a little while4 ,now suppose a quantity of this sand was pressed by a very great weight--the weight of a large hill for instance--after many years the grains would stick firmly together1 and become a sort of stone4 ,it is in this way the sandstones must have been formed1 and perhaps heat helped the work1 though not so great a heat as melted the granite4 ,the sand1 after it had been washed upon the sea shore1 became gradually covered with other earths hundreds of feet thick1 and the immense weight above it pressed it into stone3 but you may imagine how very long a time it took to do this4 ,sandstones are used for building1 but they do not last very long2 the frost makes little cracks in them and they soon crumble away to the grains of sand of which they were made4 ,several fossils are found in some of these sandstones1 which have been formed at many different periods of the earth's history4 ,,chalk4 ,you have seen those high cliffs of chalk along the south coast of ,england1 perhaps1 and you have wondered what that beautiful white earth was1 and how it came there4 ,it is found in many parts of the world1 and the south and south-east of ,england are to a great extent composed of it4 ,the material is called by chemists carbonate of lime4 ,it is almost entirely made up of minute shells called foraminifera1 from two ,latin words which mean that there are many openings or chambers in their shells1 and there are many beautiful fossils called ammonites imbedded in the chalk4 ,these are shell-fish1 two or three inches1 and sometimes a foot across1 and their shape is very like that of the young leaves of the common fern before it has opened in the spring4 ,millions of these tiny foraminifera are living now in parts of the ,atlantic and ,pacific oceans1 and when they die their shells sink to the bottom and form a greyish mud1 something like chalk4 ,when ,h4,m4,s4 8,challenger0 was sent out in the year #ahgc1 to find out what was at the bottom of the deepest seas of the ,world1 great interest was felt in the expedition1 because we were sure that we should learn something about the manner in which some of the rocks were formed4 ,we knew that the whole of the beds of the present seas must be receiving the washings of the rivers and the bodies of many fishes and animals1 and that the rocks of the future must be forming down there by these accumulations4 ,long lines were let down from the ship with a dredge at the end1 and thus parts of the bottom of the sea were brought up and carefully examined4 ,it was found that the washings1 stones1 clay1 and mud of the land were carried hundreds of miles out to sea1 and laid upon the bottom4 ,but in the deeper parts1 where the ,alps would be almost covered--there was a fine grey mud composed almost entirely of the shells of the little foraminifera1 and this1 no doubt1 is the chalk of future times1 or perhaps limestone of a harder kind4 ,deeper1 too1 than where this grey mud is found1 there is a reddish mud1 exceedingly fine and soft4 ,we cannot exactly say yet whether this is formed from the remains of shell-fish2 but it is1 at all events1 very like the clay of the land1 and in some future time will most likely become like that stiff mud we know so well4 ,so that even the materials for bricks are being made now1 and perhaps when all those hundreds of islands scattered about the ,pacific ,ocean are joined into one great ,continent1 this red mud will be raised and made use of for building the houses of new peoples and nations4 ,when we see this going on now1 of course it is very easy to conclude that the chalk1 a great deal of which is above the sea now1 must have been formed in the same way at the bottom of an ancient ocean1 and afterwards raised by the same kind of upward force which made the granite break through other earths4 ,if we did not know that the same cause was at work now1 and that the same kinds of shell-fish were living and laying down new beds of chalk under the sea1 we should not know how to account for the quantities of chalk in the world4 ,for innumerable ages these little creatures have thus been paving the floor of the ocean with their dead bodies1 and you may suppose that countless millions of them must have lived and died6 ,in some of the chalks the shells of the foraminifera can be quite distinctly seen with a microscope1 and when these are compared with the shells of living ones1 they are seen to be almost exactly alike4 ,next time you pass through one of the railway cuttings through the chalk in going to ,brighton1 or ,ramsgate1 or ,dover1 remember that those high cliffs were built up by these ,liliputian giants under the sea1 and you may think of the chalk as 8foraminifera earth04 ,,coal4 ,you see this black shining substance almost every day1 and you know it is dug up from very deep pits where the poor miners are often killed by explosions of gas escaping from it4 ,but it is as well to know what it is and how it comes to be so useful to us4 ,in the language of chemistry it is called 8carbon01 and a great writer has given it the poetical name of 8compressed sunlight04 ,but you will ask how sunlight could possibly get into a deep mine1 and how it could be compressed there4 ,you will see that the explanation is really quite simple by-and-by4 ,this coal was once above ground1 and was a splendid forest of waving palm-trees1 and ferns1 and gigantic mosses1 as you will see by the pictures of the fossils of them4 ,many of the animals and plants of past times were giants compared to those living now1 of the same species or kind1 and many of the plants of the present time are dwarfs to those of the same kind which formed the coal beds4 ,many generations of trees must have grown and died1 and others must have sprung up1 and so on1 until beds of them1 some ten1 others twenty1 or even thirty feet thick1 were formed4 ,here1 buried in the coal1 are the stems1 leaves1 bark1 roots1 fruit1 and seeds of these trees1 and we can have no doubt that almost the whole of the coal is composed of them4 ,you must not expect to find the shapes of these in every piece of coal you may happen to look at1 because most of it has been greatly changed by the great weight and pressure upon it1 and the length of time3 but it is certainly all the same substance--wood turned into coal4 ,the fossil plants of the coal are of course entirely black1 but there is no mistake about their having once been living plants4 ,you will ask perhaps how the coal came to be buried so deep4 ,it is not so always1 being sometimes at the surface4 ,but just as the granite has been pushed up through the other rocks1 so has the coal in some places been uplifted and in others has sunk down4 ,it was often covered up by other earths to a great depth1 after the trees which composed it had died2 but where it is now at the surface these newer earths have been afterwards worn away4 ,when the sun shone upon these coal trees they took its warmth and light into their stems and leaves1 for they could not live without1 and this made them grow so fast and become so large that it is not untrue to call coal 8compressed sunlight40 ,charcoal is in some respects so like coal that it would seem to you at once that they were probably the same material4 ,charcoal is simply burnt wood1 and when the coal forests had died down1 and when these beds sank down beneath other layers the pressure and heat together turned the wood and leaves into a hard mass like charcoal in colour1 but heavier and more solid1 and just enough of the stems and leaves have been left to enable us to know with certainty that coal was once wood4 ,we light our fires now and drive our steam-engines with the heat of the sun which shone upon the coal forests1 and has been stored up for many thousands of years in the ,earth1 to be brought out once more to give us light and warmth4 ,,clay ,,and ,,mud4 ,while the ancient forests were growing up to form the coal beds1 and the foraminifera were slowly building up the chalk1 as ,i have explained1 the ,earth was covered with water in some places which are now dry land1 and the sea now flows over parts of the ,world which were once the habitations of plants and animals4 ,these great changes have left their marks upon many a mountain side1 and many an old river or sea bed has become filled up4 ,a map of ,europe during the chalk period would show that the places where ,paris1 ,london1 ,copenhagen1 and ,berlin now are were then under the ocean2 but since then these places have been lifted up1 and mud1 clay1 and gravel swept over the chalk in many places by the action of new rivers and seas4 ,water1 you perceive1 has had a great deal to do with these changes1 and indeed it is one of ,nature's most powerful tools1 for it can wash down rocks and cliffs and cut its way in rivers for thousands of miles over the ,earth's surface4 ,it carries down mud1 and clay1 and gravel1 and this soil1 which has been named alluvium1 is one of the most interesting of all to us1 because it contains the bones of the immense animals we shall talk about presently1 as well as those of the oldest races of men with their weapons and ornaments4 ,the mud age1 and we are in the mud and gravel age now1 belongs to what is called the ,tertiary period1 and we shall see that this age has lasted a very long time already1 so long that though it is still going on1 the most extraordinary animals have lived and died1 and not one of them is now left alive4 ,still the same washing and cutting of water is going on which buried their bones in swamps1 and bogs1 and river caves1 and may perhaps carry away some of the bones of us who are living now1 to be found ages afterwards by future generations who will read our history in these silent witnesses1 as we read the history of the tree ferns and foraminifera in the coal and the chalk4 ,the present age of the ,world's history is the ,mud age1 or1 as we shall call it in future1 the ,tertiary period1 and ,i think you will agree with me when ,i come to describe it1 that it contains the most interesting of all the pieces of 8the puzzle of life40 ,the earth of the ,tertiary period is very different from a great many of the older earths4 ,clay1 mud1 and gravel are the washings only of the older rocks1 the fine particles which have been worn off from them by frost and water and carried down by rivers and left in large beds1 and sometimes they have a good deal of decayed wood and weeds mixed with them4 ,here are found the bones of the great animals which were so much larger and stronger than those of the same kind living now1 or any that lived before them4 ,,upheaval ,,and ,,depression4 ,these two words are so often used in books on geology that we shall not be able to get on without knowing their meaning4 ,we have seen that the rocks have been formed in a certain way--some by heat1 some by water1 and some by dead forests--and that they lie over one another in pretty regular order4 ,but this order has sometimes been disturbed and the layers have been tumbled about among one another very much4 ,in some places the older rocks1 such as granite1 slate1 and sandstone1 have been pushed up through those above1 and in others the coal has sunk down and been covered with thick layers of chalk1 sand1 and mud4 ,when the force below pushes a layer up through the others it is called upheaval1 and when a layer sinks down it is called depression1 or subsidence4 ,both these actions are going on now in different parts of the ,earth4 ,a great part of ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,denmark1 of ,spitzbergen1 ,siberia1 and the north of ,america1 is being slowly raised higher above the sea1 as we know by the height their old sea beaches now are above the water2 while part of the shore of ,america opposite to ,europe and also the south of ,greenland is slowly sinking down1 as we know by the remains of land animals and trees which are now covered by the tide2 and at many places on the coast of ,india this subsidence is also going on4 ,nearer home1 too1 there is an example of it in the island of ,guernsey4 ,all round the coast of this island1 like that of ,jersey1 are found tree trunks and other remains of old forest land beneath the water4 ,old histories refer to this as dry land2 and if a map of it made in #adjf is correct1 this land must have sunk about #aej feet since that time4 ,thus we can see1 even at the present time1 the very same changes which have worked upon our ,earth for innumerable ages4 ,it is now easy to understand how the forests which must have grown above in the air have1 after a long time1 sunk down to a great depth1 and been turned into coal1 and covered with the sediment1 sand1 gravel1 and chalk from the seas which afterwards flowed over the places where they grew4 ,sometimes the rocks by the sea shore are cut into terraces or steps by the constant wear of the water1 and when we see these water marks far above the present level of the sea we know that the land must have been lifted up gradually above the sea4 ,there are many such terraces in ,norway4 ,to prove whether this is so marks have been cut upon rocks at a measured height above the sea1 and after some years these marks have been noticed to have been raised much above the water by the 8upheaval0 of the earth at that place4 ,generally this change of level has taken place gradually1 and the greatest work in moving the layers of earth and displacing them has been very slow4 ,but in some places violent and sudden shocks have happened1 tearing up the rocks and piling them up in heaps2 and now and then islands have suddenly appeared in the sea and vanished out of sight completely in a short time4 ,islands have thus come up in the ,mediterranean ,sea within the memory of man4 ,in the year #ahca the island of ,julia suddenly appeared near the coast of ,sicily1 and since the year #ahf ,b4,c4 no less than three islands have started up in the bay of the island of ,santorin4 ,in this century islands have appeared among the ,azores1 the ,indian ,archipelago1 the ,philippines1 the ,moluccas1 and on the coast of ,kamtschatka and other places4 ,some of these have appeared suddenly1 others slowly1 and they no doubt have been raised by a great force from below4 ,you will see now how easy it is to account for the changes of the places of the layers of rock4 ,the same thing is going on now which has been going on throughout all time1 only perhaps with more energy formerly than now1 making mountains1 islands1 and continents1 raising up a large tract of land in one place and sinking an island or a sea shore in another4 ,these changes have been of great use to us too4 ,suppose all ,england had been covered with coal or slate1 we should not have been able to grow anything6 ,as it is we have sand and gravel in one county1 chalk in another1 slate or granite in another1 and coal down below in several1 and we can grow a great variety of plants on all these different soils4 ,we have to thank 8upheaval0 and 8depression0 for this4 ,the force which is always working below us has turned up the different soils like a gigantic plough1 and brought some to the top and covered others1 so that instead of having to dig down deeper than ever we have yet1 we have only to go from one county to another to find the different rocks4 ,we know that we could not get at the coal in ,sussex without going down an unknown depth through the chalk and other earths1 but we dig for it in the ,north of ,england1 where we know its depth below the surface4 ,i will try now to give you some idea of the way in which the rocks come in their order1 or the succession of formations as geologists call it4 ,if we started to walk from ,wales to ,london the rocks we should pass over would be--slate and flagstones in ,wales1 and going on towards ,london1 limestone1 old red sandstone1 more limestones1 coal beds1 new red sandstone1 oolite1 greensand1 chalk1 and last ,london clay4 ,we might not always find each of these near the surface1 but they would be found to be the principal rocks on a line between ,wales and ,london1 the oldest being in ,wales and the newest or most recent as we get nearer ,london4 ,that word 8oolite0 which ,i used comes from two ,greek words meaning 8roe0 and 8stone10 because the rock is composed of little rounded grains of a chalky substance shaped like the hard roe of a fish1 or like sago before it is cooked4 ,if you look at the following table you will see how the principal rocks are placed one upon the other1 beginning at the lowest or oldest at the bottom and going up to the newest at the top of the table1 and on the right hand side ,i have written the names of the principal fossils which each kind of earth contains4 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,succession ,,of ,,formations4 ,,tertiary1 or ,upper ,rocks ,peat bogs and caves ,fossil ,man1 with stone implements1 ,river-mud and brickearth1 c41 mammoth1 gravels1 and hippopotamus1 rhinoceros1 boulder clay 7alluvium7 ,irish stag1 cave lion1 c4 ,crag of ,eastern ,counties ,numerous shell-fish1 mastodon ,london clay1 c4 ,turtles1 crocodiles1 shell-fish ,,secondary1 or ,middle ,rocks ,cretaceous ,chalk 7with and without ,foraminifera1 c41 sponges1 flints7 corals1 sea-urchins1 shell-fish ,greensand and gault 7,belemnites1 ,ammonites1 ,wealden clay1 c4 c471 fishes ,oolites ,portland stone ,kimmeridge clay ,coral rag ,immense reptiles1 the ,ichthyosaurus1 ,oxford clay ,plesiosaurus1 ,cornbrash and forest ,megalosaurus1 ,pterodactyl1 marble c4 ,great oolite ,fullers' earth ,animals allied to the opossum ,lower oolite and kangaroo ,lias clay and limestone ,cycads and other plants ,new red marl and sandstone ,,primary1 or ,lower ,rocks ,coal ,ferns1 club-mosses1 a few ,millstone grit firs1 calamites1 c41 in ,mountain limestone great abundance ,old red sandstone ,numerous corals1 shell-fish1 ,silurian limestones and trilobites1 fishes1 c4 slates ,cambrian slates ,the ,laurentian rocks contain ,laurentian rocks the oldest known fossil1 the ,eozon 7or 8life-dawn animal07 ,,igneous1 or ,volcanic ,rocks ,greenstone1 basalt ,of various ages 7no fossils7 ,porphyry ,granite1 c4 ,if you read this table upwards from the bottom you will notice that life began in a very small way with ,eozon 7the 8life-dawn animal071 that fishes appeared afterwards1 that the wonderful forests of the coal period then grew and were covered up by other rocks and pressed into solid coal1 that numbers of great crocodile-like animals lived all through the oolite time1 how the deep wide beds of chalk were laid down by humble foraminifera1 and when we get to the recent newest beds of gravel1 mud1 sand1 clay1 c41 the sweepings by water of the older rocks ground down by ages of wear and tear1 we have the mammoth1 mastodon1 megatherium1 and other great vegetable eaters1 and lastly ,man himself with his simple weapons of stone1 bone1 and horn--our early forefathers4 ,you must always keep in mind that the greatest of these changes have taken place very slowly4 ,mountains have been raised1 and whole continents have been sunk by movements so slow that if the hands of a clock went only once round the dial in a year the hand would go faster than these mountains have risen or the continents sunk4 ,almost always whenever there has been sudden and violent action it has been near volcanoes or during earthquakes2 but these things1 terrible as they are to the people living near1 disturb only a very small part of the surface1 and such violence neither buried the coal beds nor raised the slate hills of ,wales4 ,many of the small effects of the internal force of the earth have been sudden and violent1 but the greatest and grandest have been slower than anything we can imagine4 ,if this had not been so1 we should not find fossil shells just as they sank quietly to the bottom of ancient seas1 quite undisturbed4 ,we should not find delicate ferns and insects with all their breakable parts perfectly preserved1 and as lightly laid as if you had put them away carefully in a cabinet upon cotton wool4 ,yet many of these have sunk down hundreds of feet below the open air where they must have lived4 ,we find the ripple marks of the waves on old sandstones1 and even the prints of the feet of birds and animals as they walked upon that rock when it was soft sand1 and the little pits made by rain-drops on the moist earth4 ,all this speaks of stillness1 and gentle movement1 no violence4 ,so slowly and softly have these rocks settled down1 that we can read in them the history of the life that was4 ,but if there had been any sudden and rough movement all these fossils might have been broken up and we should have had nothing but fragments1 and the 8puzzle of life0 could never have been put together4 ,nature's forces are immense1 but they work slowly1 irresistibly1 and majestically4 ,,the ,,ice ,,age4 ,we have seen now what the principal rocks are made of and the way in which their places have been changed by upheaval and depression4 ,water1 as we know1 has been at work and has done great things in all ages of the ,world's history4 ,i have called it 8one of ,nature's most powerful tools10 and when we look at the quantity of chalk alone that there is in the world1 and remember that this was all laid down in water1 and perhaps a great part of its lime carried down by rivers to the seas where it settled to the bottom1 after the corals and small shell-fish had worked it into their bodies1 we are right in thinking water a great ,magician indeed4 ,why1 even so small a river as the ,thames carries down to the sea every year as much dissolved earth as would make a good large hill2 and what must such rivers as the ,nile1 the ,amazon1 the ,mississippi1 and the great ,chinese rivers do6 ,there must have been gigantic rivers1 too1 in the old times1 or else it would have been impossible that the deep sandstone and slate beds could have been formed2 for these are all laid down by the washing away of earth in water4 ,ice1 which is only solid water1 has also been a powerful tool in shaping the surface of the ,earth1 but it has not been always at work as water has4 ,ice now covers only a comparatively small part of the globe near the north and south poles1 and mountains like those in ,switzerland2 but by watching what ice is doing now in these places we are able to be certain that there has been a time when it covered ,scotland1 ,cumberland1 ,wales1 ,sweden and ,norway1 and nearly all ,north ,america4 ,in watching the great 8rivers of ice10 called glaciers1 in the ,alps1 for instance1 we see that they slip down from the mountains slowly1 creeping on year by year1 and bringing with them pieces of rock and stones4 ,we see also where they have melted that they have been grinding the rocks beneath them with their great weight1 and have cut grooves into1 and scraped and polished the hardest granite4 ,the stones underneath the glaciers have been pressed so heavily upon the rocks that they have left deep marks1 and we find the same kinds of marks and heaps of stones in many mountains where there are no glaciers now4 ,there are other things too which convince us that a great ice sheet spread over almost the whole of ,great ,britain4 ,when the huge icebergs break away from the frozen shores of ,greenland and ,north ,america1 they often have frozen into their ice large blocks of rock1 sand1 gravel1 c41 and when they drift into the warmer seas of the south they melt1 and of course these blocks or 8boulders10 as they are called1 sink to the bottom4 ,just the same kind of boulders are found in many parts of the world1 where icebergs never come now1 and as they are of a different rock from that on which they lie1 they must have been brought there somehow4 ,we naturally suppose then that they were brought by icebergs4 ,sometimes boulders of granite have been found thus among clay1 many miles from where there are any granite rocks on the surface1 and there can be no doubt that they were originally frozen into an iceberg1 which floated away with them and when it melted left them so far from their native place4 ,in many of the midland and eastern counties once floated these icebergs1 dropping the stones and boulders which they brought away from the ,welsh1 ,cumberland1 and ,scottish mountains4 ,the climate of the earth must have been fearfully cold when our country was covered with ice1 just as ,greenland is now4 ,geologists suppose that there must have been more than one age of ice1 and that between these ages the climate of the world was pretty much the same as at present1 although it is certain that there were periods when ,england was much warmer1 because many of the fossil plants could not have grown in a cold climate4 ,you will want to know whether there were any land animals living during the ice periods4 ,it is impossible to be quite certain1 but it is most likely that the mammoth was living both before and during the last ice age1 because its bones have been found among the earths brought down by the glaciers4 ,i have said all you will be likely to remember at present about the nature of the different rocks1 but it will help you to understand better how they have been laid one upon the other1 and how they have been moved and broken by upheaval and subsidence1 if you look at the drawings on page #ea4 ,,denudation4 ,it has often happened that some of the harder and older rocks1 like granite and slate1 have pushed themselves through those earths lying above them1 and then the sea or a great river has washed away all the earths from one side of the rock4 ,the rain1 too1 falling for thousands of years1 has swept them down into the valleys and mixed them together4 ,this is called denudation1 or 8laying bare0 the harder rocks by washing the softer ones away from them4 ,those beds of pebbles on the sea shore also have been battering against the rocks for ages and very gradually wearing them away1 as you can see if you watch the stones being driven into and sucked out of holes and cracks by every wave4 ,thus1 both the loose stones and the solid rocks get polished and ground away1 and ,nature is always destroying and making again by turns4 ,if this destruction went on continually without any raising of the land to make up for it1 the surface of the whole ,earth would in time become level2 but old sea beds are always being slowly raised above the water and prepared for the growth of plants and the habitation of animals4 ,illustration3 ,upheaval4 ,illustration3 ,subsidence4 ,illustration3 ,denudation4 ,if you watch the little rills of water on any rainy day1 trickling down a hill1 or the springs which bubble up at the foot of cliffs on the sea shore1 you will see an example of denudation in a small way4 ,the earth is washed off the surface here and there1 and carried down and laid up in banks in some places1 and the harder ground underneath is laid bare4 ,little beds of stones are collected in one place1 and sticks and straws and such light things in another1 and this is just what has been done on a large scale in mountain regions1 all over the world for many centuries4 ,in the uppermost sketch on page #ea you will see how the granite has been lifted up with the layers of other earth along its sides1 and afterwards even layers have been deposited above2 in the second there has been a great crack in the land1 and a great mass of rock has subsided1 and the hollow has become filled up in time with clay1 and mould1 and rich soil1 so that some one has built a house and made a garden on it2 in the third the river has cut a gorge in rocks which were once continuous from cliff to cliff1 wearing away the softer earths more easily than the harder4 ,if the ,earth was cut into in different places we should find the rocks arranged in a very similar way to that in the three sketches4 ,,boiling ,,springs1 ,,etc4 ,in several different countries there are very strange sights1 but scarcely anything is more astonishing than the fountains of boiling water which shoot up out of the ground4 ,there are a good many of them not far from us1 in ,iceland1 and many hundreds in ,wyoming in ,america1 and they are called 8geysers40 ,steam and boiling water1 and sometimes mud1 are thrown up by these natural fountains to a height of #bjj feet--as high as the top of the spire of a church4 ,the water must come from a great depth in the ground--perhaps many thousand feet down--where the heat is intense4 ,this water springing up with clouds of snow-white steam1 and falling all round in showers1 has a most beautiful appearance4 ,these geysers now and then throw out very little water1 just bubbling up above the ground1 and then travellers boil eggs and chickens and such things in them1 and have a pic-nic near them4 ,it is impossible to say how long they have lasted1 but we know from history that some have been spouting out water for at least #b1jjj years1 and how much longer no one can tell4 ,they may have something to do with volcanoes1 because water may have found its way to the heated interior of the earth1 and being converted into steam1 expands and causes an eruption4 ,now that we have some idea of the construction of the ,earth1 we must go on to the life of the wonderful plants and creatures which have peopled it4 ,,the ,,vegetable ,,part4 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,life4 ,the first beams of the rising sun1 and the first grey light of the morning1 tell us of the coming day2 but we cannot even think of the dawn of that far-off day in the ,earth's history1 when no voice of man or beast was heard1 and no trees or grass covered it1 without solemn wonder at the immense distance that day is from us4 ,a thousand ages are in the sight of the ,creator but as yesterday1 and the period of man's existence is only a moment compared to that of the lowly creatures which built up this ,world for him4 ,in the first seas and on the land nothing was heard but the rushing of waters and the roaring of the fires of volcanoes4 ,it is impossible to be quite certain whether the first living things were animals or plants2 but ,i think it most likely that very simple plants grew first1 and that very simple animals came after or with them4 ,among the first of these1 or perhaps the very first1 were some small animals called ,eozon1 which means the 8life-dawn animal10 and with them grew some simple plants4 ,on the banks of the ,st4 ,lawrence river in ,canada there is a great bed of rock called the ,laurentian rocks1 made almost entirely of the tiny remains of the 8life-dawn animal10 which1 when we look at them through a microscope1 are found to possess nearly the same structure as some lowly organized shells living in the seas now4 ,these rocks are found in many parts of the world besides--in ,eastern ,america1 ,bavaria1 ,scotland1 and ,norway2 and in some places their thickness has been estimated at thirty thousand feet1 or nearly six miles1 or one hundred times as thick as ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral is high6 ,these little creatures you see were at work over a great part of the ,earth's surface1 and you may fancy how many thousands of thousands of years it took them to build up these rocks4 ,the 8life-dawn animal0 is far older than the chalk-building foraminifera1 and so far as we know it lived alone in its seas4 ,there were none of the beautiful twisted ammonite shell-fish1 nor the shark-like fishes of the chalk seas4 ,the eozon was the only kind of living creature1 the 8lord of creation0 for the time2 and though storms raged in the seas it inhabited1 the water was so deep that it lived on undisturbed4 ,when you are able to use a microscope you will be able to see the traces left by these tiny animals in what is now hard stone4#a ,life began in a very small way3 there were none of the great land animals we have now2 but these seemingly insignificant builders were at work so long that they made the immense rocks ,i have told you of4 ,but this is not all4 ,about this time some very simple plants grew on the land1 and were carried down by the rivers and formed deep beds4 ,after a long time these became covered up with different earths and were turned into the substance called 8black-lead10 which you use in drawing pencils4 ,but this is not really lead2 it is almost pure carbon--in fact1 the oldest kind of coal--so old that it will not now burn like coal1 and is entirely made up of fossil plants crushed out of shape1 so that we cannot now trace their forms1 as we can the plants of the coal4 ,when then you next take up a drawing pencil it will be easy to remember that the black substance which marks the paper was once a living plant1 now changed by heat and pressure into almost pure carbon4 ,as the name eozon has been given to the 8life-dawn animal10 ,i will give this black-lead the name of ,eodendron1 or the 8dawn-plant40#b ,two very simple forms of life then occupied the earth and sea at the earliest time when anything at all was living1 and strangely enough we use the dead bodies of both of them4 ,we build houses of the rocks the eozon laid down at the bottom of the sea1 and the beautiful art of drawing is carried on with the carbon from the first plant life of the world--the eodendron4 ,i must take you away presently to the coal1 and sandstone1 and chalk1 and show you how plants and animals gradually increased in number and size1 and fishes began to inhabit the seas1 and all living things were slowly going on to greater perfection2 for as time went on there was a steady progress from creatures like the eozon1 which had scarcely any power of moving about1 to the active1 quarrelsome and greedy things like crabs and lobsters which came after them1 and the gigantic ferns of the coal beds4 ,the peaceful 8life-dawn animals0 drew their food from the vegetable substances dissolved in the waters1 though they perhaps also lived on animals still smaller than themselves2 but1 by-and-by1 creatures1 which must have been monsters to them1 swarmed in the seas and devoured their smaller companions wholesale2 and in time the ,earth became very much the same as it is now1 a place where the struggle for life is always going on4 ,it is certain that animals have fed upon one another from the very beginning2 but this is no doubt a wise law of the ,creator to prevent them from increasing too fast1 as they would do if all that were born lived1 and none were destroyed4 ,we know much less about the vegetation--the plants and grasses--of the early ages of the world than of the animals2 because plants rot away faster than bones and shells1 and1 besides1 are less likely to be found in places where they would be preserved4 ,a dead tree might be eaten up entirely by insects1 as the white ants eat up fallen trees in a short time in tropical countries1 and what is left of them crumbles away to fine powder and mixes with the soil4 ,immense trees are thus devoured now by millions of tiny insects no longer than your thumb nail1 in ,india and ,australia4 ,no such thing as a whole and perfect fossil tree with every twig and leaf has been found2 but then the coal beds are really great forests which have been buried for so long a time that they have quite altered in appearance4 ,still1 among these coal beds we often find the bark1 fruit1 stems1 and branches of trees very much like firs1 and ferns1 and huge club-mosses1 which have the same shape they had when living1 though they are quite black1 and burn exactly like coal4 ,but there were plants long before the coal forests lived1 and many fossil sea weeds are found in the old sandstones and limestones in ,wales and other places4#c ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 whose position you can see below the coal in the table of succession of formations1 page #db1 does not give us many fossil plants1 though fishes and shells are common4 ,this rock is found in ,scotland1 ,herefordshire1 ,devonshire1 and ,ireland1 as well as other places1 and is often more than #b1jjj feet thick4 ,it was not all formed in salt water we know1 because many of the fossil fishes and shells it contains are fresh water kinds4 ,it must all have been made of the pieces of still older rocks worn away by rivers and settled like a sediment in immense lakes1 some of which were fresh water4 ,then1 after the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 came a time when the limestones below the coal were laid down at the bottom of a vast sea1 and here the remains of land plants are of course few4 ,then it seems there must have been a very long time when there were large continents all over the world raised above the seas1 but not very much1 and on these the forests grew which afterwards became coal fields4 ,until this time the plants had been mostly water weeds1 reeds1 rushes1 and sea weeds1 and it was not until ,england and ,ireland became one continent1 as they were once and covered with woods1 that the great period of vegetation began4 ,the growth of plants was then most wonderful2 but although coal is found in many different parts of the world1 it was not all formed at one time1 and though it is plentiful in ,england and ,wales1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,france1 ,belgium1 ,russia1 ,hungary1 ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,china1 and ,borneo1 it is older in some countries than in others4 ,it is fortunate1 however1 that this useful material was made in ,nature's workshop in so many different countries1 or it would have to be carried from one to another4 ,the coal forests were not the same trees as we have now--oaks1 elms1 ashes1 limes1 and so on4 ,most of them had rather hollow trunks and splendid waving tops like ferns and reeds1 though there were some like our fir-trees4 ,if you lie down in the long grass before it is mown1 and look through the stalks and fancy yourself an inch high only1 you will have some idea how the coal forest would have looked if you had lived then4 ,but there were no human beings on the ,earth then1 and ,i do not think there were any large animals1 at least none have been found in the coal itself1 except in ,switzerland1 where a few bones of the mammoth 7an ancient elephant7 and of the rhinoceros have been discovered in the much newer beds of coal1 and also those of a large reptile like a crocodile in the coal beds of ,ohio in ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,ii4 ,fossil ,tree ,fern4 ,calamites4 ,lepidodendron4 ,different ,kinds of ,plants of the ,coal ,forests4 ,in such immense forests insects must certainly have been plentiful1 and some of the fossil bodies of beetles1 dragon-flies1 and spiders1 have been preserved1 and a few tree lizards4#d ,of course the edges of the coal forests were washed here and there by the salt sea1 and there must have been some fresh water rivers and ponds1 for we find both fresh and salt water shells in these beds4 ,it was almost dark in these forests1 so thickly did the plants grow together4 ,there were enormous club-mosses close together and as high as most houses1 with their leaves interlaced making a complete network to shut out the sun4 ,but the sun which shone on the forests was warm1 and the air which went through them was soft1 or they would not have grown so wonderfully4 ,indeed1 there can be no doubt that the climate of northern regions was once much warmer than it is now4 ,a thick bed of coal was discovered by the ,arctic ,expedition in #ahge-f actually within five hundred miles of the ,north ,pole1 where the ice on the sea is now thirty or forty feet thick6#e ,the forest which formed this coal could only have grown in a temperate climate1 and there are no forests there now2 it is so intensely cold they could not live4 ,there must then have been a great change in the climate of the ,arctic regions since that coal was living vegetation4 ,the few plants and mosses which can live there now are of a very different and more hardy kind than those of the coal forests4 ,if you look at the engraving facing page #fd1 you will see a drawing of one of the tree ferns with its delicate fronds which grew so abundantly in the coal forests1 and there are many other plants1 some like the common 8mare's tails10 or calamites1 growing in shallow ponds and ditches now--only the 8mare's tails0 or calamites of the coal forests were as high as poplars4#f ,you can imagine what a splendid sight these forests of ferns1 club-mosses1 and 8mare's tails10 must have been1 and what a multitude of beautiful insects and butterflies must have flitted about in them2 but their frail bodies have almost all perished1 so that we know very little of the animated creatures of the time4 ,besides several sorts of coal both soft and hard there is a substance called 8lignite10 which is scarcely wood and scarcely coal1 of a brown colour4 ,in fact1 lignite is wood almost turned to coal1 and it has helped us to learn that coal was once living wood2 but it is not nearly so old as the coal4 ,then again there is the beautiful substance called 8jet0 used for making bracelets4 ,this is a kind of fossil gum or pitch dropped from the trees while they were growing1 and1 though different in colour1 it is much the same in kind as amber4 ,amber is often found with flies1 spiders1 and small leaves imbedded in it4 ,when this fossil resin or gum was flowing out of the ancient pine-trees1 and was quite sticky1 flies settled upon it and became entangled in it1 and as more of the gum flowed out they became quite covered4 ,then the gum dropped from the tree and hardened1 and it is now found in lumps on the shores of the ,baltic ,sea1 and in beds of sand and clay with fossil wood4 ,it is of a beautiful bright yellow colour1 and beads for necklaces and other ornaments are made out of it4 ,if we arrange the things we have been talking about in order1 the oldest first1 they would come thus3 plumbago or black-lead--or1 as ,i have called it1 eodendron1 8the life-dawn plant0--first1 then hard coal1 then soft coal1 then lignite and jet1 then bog oak and peat4 ,but ,i must tell you something about bog oak and peat4 ,in many of the swamps and bogs of the ,world the trunks of dead trees are found1 which have become quite black and almost like lignite1 because they have been buried so long4 ,thus1 in the bogs of ,ireland oak trees are often found1 and they were most likely living when the reindeer inhabited ,ireland4 ,this old bogwood is made into beads for necklaces and other ornaments4 ,peat is a partly decayed vegetable substance1 with beautiful little plants growing on its surface1 and is really coal in its infancy4 ,it is found all over the world more or less in wet places1 and consists of the roots and stems of mosses and reeds1 some of which are like the gigantic plants of the coal period1 but very small in comparison4 ,i have no doubt that in time some of these peat bogs may be turned into coal if they sink down and become covered with other earths1 but at present they are all on the surface and so soft that they are dangerous to walk upon because one may sink in and be smothered4 ,this1 as far as we can trace it1 is a sketch of the history of vegetable life on our ,earth4 ,we will go back to the coal for a moment and see what the animal life of that time was4 ,the seas of the time of the coal forests were sometimes shallow1 sometimes deep1 and in the limestone rocks of the oceans which separated the great continents of that time there is a record of the inhabitants of the seas4 ,the land plants were of more than #a1jjj different kinds1 and there were more than #bjj kinds of fishes in the waters1 and corals1 shells1 and small crab-like animals innumerable4 ,the fishes were fellows with terrible teeth1 and their bodies were covered with strong hard scales4 ,one of these fish was thirty feet long1 and there were others of considerable size4 ,it is curious that the fishes of this time remind one of reptiles 7lizards and crocodiles71 just as the birds of a future time seem to have something of the reptile about them1 as you will see by-and-by4 ,i dare say you have remarked while reading that all the plants and animals of the early ages of the world seem to be made on a simple plan1 and as the ,earth grows older they become more perfect1 and this is just what ,i want you to take notice of all through4 ,the plants of the coal period1 you have seen1 were nothing like so perfect in construction1 beautiful as they were1 as the forest trees of the present time1 neither were the animals so perfect as those living now4 ,there has been progress1 step by step1 throughout the vegetable and animal creation2 and1 though many of the lower forms of the early ages exist now1 there are others far superior to them which did not exist then3 but all this will come in 8,the ,animal ,part40 ,about the middle of the ,earth's age came the wonderful period of vegetation which gave us our coal1 and after that there was a great and busy time1 when huge reptiles and reptile-like birds1 and then true birds1 made their appearance4 ,but that belongs to the next part of the 8puzzle of life40 ,if we look with astonishment at the coal forests1 we may also well think of them with thankfulness4 ,here is the sunshine of past ages stored up for our use1 and we bring it out again to warm ourselves1 cook our food1 make all our iron things1 and drive our steam-engines6 ,can any romance be finer than this1 that we are carried across to ,america and ,india and ,australia in steam-boats driven by the 8fossil sunlight0 of ages and ages past1 and whirled along at sixty miles an hour over iron rails by the same stored-up strength8 ,if you doubt this1 think of living trees4 ,do they not live by the air and sunlight8 ,will they grow without these8 ,they spread their branches and leaves to gather the warmth and light from the air1 and when they are cut down and dried1 and you put a match to the wood1 all the old warmth and light come out again2 and we know that the coal is only fossil wood4 ,our ,creator wastes nothing4 ,even when there were no people living to rejoice in the sun1 ,he thought of those people who should come in time1 and not one of the fiery rays of the fierce sun was lost4 ,these mighty forests were sent to gather it1 and when they had died down they sank below the surface and were covered from the air1 that none of their light or heat should escape4 ,in such forests it is strange that there were no birds1 especially as there were swarms of insects1 and no doubt abundance of worms4 ,but no bone of bird or any trace of feathered songster of these lovely groves has yet been found4 ,little lizards chased flies and beetles up and down the stems of the club-mosses and ferns1 and larger reptiles lurked in the long damp grass under the shade4 ,the pools and ponds were filled with curious fishes1 and reefs of beautiful white coral fringed all the shores of the seas4 ,but the ,earth was not fit for the habitation of man4 ,the fruits of the trees were not such as he could have eaten1 and their wood was not hard enough to build houses of4 ,still it was being got ready for him1 and not a leaf waved uselessly in the bright1 warm air1 and not a tree fell to the ground1 but it was to be turned into coal1 and to come forth again one day a hard black lump1 without any of its former beauty1 but to give back the light and heat it had gathered from the sun ages and ages ago4 ,many periods in the ,earth's history have passed since the coal period1 and in every one of these the trees have been increasing in perfection1 though there have never since been such great numbers of a few kinds growing4 ,when we come to the more lately formed beds of earth we begin to find the cypress1 willow1 ash1 oak1 elm1 and other forest trees which are living now4 ,the trunks of these trees1 blackened by age1 lie buried in peat bogs and swamps all over ,europe4 ,the mighty ,mississippi river brings down immense quantities of dead trees1 and as these sink to the bottom near its mouth they are forming future coal beds4 ,along the coast of ,norfolk and ,suffolk1 too1 and stretching far away under the ,german ,ocean1 is an old ,english forest4 ,in some places the trunks of the buried trees may be seen standing upright just where they grew4 ,the nets of the fishermen are continually bringing up pieces of wood1 roots1 and seeds2 and when the sea washes away the soft cliffs here the bones1 teeth1 and tusks of the elephant1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 and other large animals which inhabited this forest1 may be seen in great numbers4 ,down below the waves of ocean have these woods sunk with all their once living creatures1 and though you may suppose that it must have been very long ago that they grew1 they are of the same kind as those which now make the hills and valleys of ,england beautiful4 ,sometimes a forest must sink very fast1 for travellers have told us how they have sailed on rivers and lakes over the tops of sunken trees1 and1 looking down into the clear water1 have seen the branches waving below--tall trees standing upright at the bottom1 and the boats sailing over their tops6 ,we must now pass on to the living creatures which peopled the ,earth1 and their story can be told with more certainty than that of the perishable plants which clothed the surface of the ground1 and1 while they rendered it beautiful1 also served as food and shelter for innumerable animals1 and have become so useful to us as coal1 lignite1 black-lead1 and other productions of ancient forests4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,specimen in ,table-case #ae1 ,room ,v41 ,north ,gallery ,british ,museum4 #b ,the name ,eophyton has also been suggested for the earliest vegetable forms4 #c ,divisions ,a and ,b of ,case #a1 ,room ,i41 ,north ,gallery1 contain some of the oldest known fossil plants4 #d ,fossil insects in ,table-case ,no4 #ad1 ,room ,v4 #e ,in #ha #dd ,n4 latitude4 #f ,specimens of plants from the coal in ,cases ,no4 #b1 #c1 #d1 in ,room ,i4 ,,the ,,animal ,,part4 ,we must now go back and collect the smaller pieces of 8the puzzle0 which make up the animal part4 ,the great periods of vegetation ended in our country with the coal forests1 and there has been no such wonderful growth of plants since the time when the ,new ,red ,sandstone1 lying above the coal1 was formed2 though no doubt trees and plants have since flourished1 as they do now on the ,earth1 but not in such quantities as during the coal period4 ,we remember that the eozon1 8the life-dawn animal10 is the oldest animal we know of1 and that it lived so long ago as when the ,laurentian rocks were laid down at the bottom of the seas of that time2 then in later rocks we find the burrows of sea worms in the stone1 and later still simple shells with two valves like the common mussel1 and other animals of a simple kind1 like the corals1 sponges1 and star-fishes which exist now4 ,there must have been millions of these creatures in the older limestone seas1 for the rocks are almost entirely composed of their fossil shells and bodies4 ,by-and-by a rather superior animal inhabited the seas of ,wales1 called a trilobite1 of which you will see a picture on the opposite page4 ,this curious animal was of the same family as the shrimps and prawns1 but much larger1 and he must have been a giant among the others4 ,none of these animals had any bones1 you must understand2 but they had a hard shelly covering to support their soft bodies inside1 and no doubt the trilobites were able to swim about very fast4#g ,illustration3 ,,iii4 ,trilobite4 ,what ,i want you to take notice of now is the progress that has been going on from the almost motionless eozon to the shell-fish and star-fish1 which could crawl along the bottom of the sea and over the rocks1 to this active1 quick-moving trilobite1 with his great paddles4 ,then the next step is a very great one1 when we come to animals with bones4 ,the first of these are fishes4 ,all the other bones are joined to the backbone1 therefore all animals with bones are called vertebrata1 which is a ,latin word meaning having a backbone with joints4 ,now animals with bones are plainly superior to those with only shells1 and when we find fishes among the rocks of ,wales and ,devonshire we know that we are beginning to pick up some important pieces of the 8puzzle of life40 ,these fishes were most of them related to the sturgeon1 and their bones and teeth are found in great quantities in the ,old ,red ,sandstone rocks1 just below the coal4#h ,it is not until we get above the coal into the oolite or egg-stone rocks that still larger and altogether superior animals1 both of sea and land1 began to increase1 and this is called ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,reptiles4 ,this has been called the reptile age because there were such numbers of animals like crocodiles1 lizards1 and tortoises 7which are all reptiles71 and some of them were of immense size4 ,for instance1 there was a huge creature something like a frog1 but as large as a ,shetland pony1 called the ,labyrinthodon1 with a great many curious teeth1 and this animal has left footprints in the ,new ,red ,sandstone which have been dried and buried1 we can't tell how long1 and there are the cracks made by the sun drying the place he walked over when that was soft earth4 ,there is a drawing of some of these footsteps in the picture on the next page1 and there are also the footprints of a large bird1 and you can see where he walked over the soft earth and made a long line of footmarks2 and if you look at the footprints of birds on the snow or mud now you will notice marks just like these4 ,then there is another picture of a single footprint of a large bird1 and all those round dots are where rain-drops fell and left their marks in the soft earth4 ,illustration3 ,,iv4 7#a7 ,footprints of ,labyrinthodon4 7#c7 ,footprints of ,birds1 7#b7 with marks of ,rain-drops4 ,i dare say you will wonder how it is that these footprints have not disappeared4 ,well1 when the animals and birds that made them had gone the marks became filled with dry sand1 no doubt blown in by the wind1 and then the mud dried hard1 and at last it became covered with other earths and sank slowly down1 just as the coal forests had done before1 and remained there until we dug it up with these tracks of the birds and animals that lived then4 ,some of these birds must have been larger than any living now1 because their footmarks are so long4 ,none of their bones have been found yet1 ,i believe1 but plenty of the teeth and some bones of the labyrinthodon have4 ,the real footmarks1 of course1 are very large1 though they are small in the picture4#i ,in the great beds of ,lias there are many other strange animals1 and among them are two great fish-lizards called the ,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus4 ,both of these lived in the water and perhaps came on land sometimes1 and it is certain that they must have been very ferocious creatures1 from their great size and sharp teeth4 ,the plesiosaurus would be able to raise his long neck above the water and snap at some of those curious birds rather like bats which lived at the time1 and of which ,i shall have something to say presently4 ,some of these fish-lizards were as large as whales1 and their bodies have been so beautifully preserved in the limestone rocks that we can actually sometimes find in their stomachs the food they lived on4 ,illustration3 ,v4 ,ichthyosaurus4 ,plesiosaurus4 ,,fish-,,reptiles4 ,now we have got to a higher order of creation still1 these fish-lizards1 and they remind one of the next step in progress--birds4 ,you know that all birds lay eggs1 so do almost all reptiles1 such as crocodiles1 lizards1 and most snakes1 so that they are alike in this4 ,then the plesiosaurus with his long neck reminds us of such birds as the heron and the swan1 but he is altogether more like a reptile than either a fish or a bird4 ,there were also huge land reptiles1 which lived in the forests of the time1 and must have been a terror to the smaller animals4 ,from the bones of one of these which have been found in the oolite clays near ,weymouth in ,dorsetshire 7the ,cetiosaurus71 we see that it must have been nearly as large as an elephant1 and there are others called the ,megalosaurus1 ,dinosaurus1 c4 ,all these names end with saurus1 a name taken from the ,greek word meaning lizard2 and you will see now why the oolite1 or 8,jurassic0#aj age1 as it is sometimes called1 is well named the 8reptile age10 for these creatures swarmed on the land and in the sea4 ,specimens of these you can see for yourselves in the cases on the walls of the third room in the ,north ,gallery of the ,british ,museum1 where all the fossils are collected4 ,but still more extraordinary animals than any of these lived at the time1 and we can scarcely tell whether they were birds or reptiles1 as they were something like both1 but ,i suppose we must call them flying reptiles1 and they are the nearest approach to birds that had yet existed4 ,these creatures are called ,pterodactyles1 from two ,greek words which mean 8wing-fingered40 ,suppose the little fingers of both your hands were a yard longer than the others1 and suppose a thick leathery skin was stretched from the tips of your long little fingers to each of your feet1 you would have wings something like a pterodactyl and also something like the wings of a bat4 ,but the pterodactyl had a long neck and a long beak-like mouth1 full of long sharp pointed teeth4 ,it could not walk much ,i think1 but it could hang itself up by its hind limbs to a tree or rock1 head downwards like a bat1 and must have been able to fly very strongly1 with its huge leathery wings1 but it had no feathers4 ,there were swarms of these curious half lizard half bird-like animals on the land1 and they were of all sizes1 some no bigger than a crow1 and some as large as the albatross1 measuring twelve feet across their outstretched wings4 ,their skeletons are some of the commonest fossils in the oolite rocks1 all through the great reptile age4#aa ,now you see we have come to a reptile that can fly1 but1 excepting for its wings and some of its bones1 more like a crocodile than a bird4 ,a little further on we find another curious animal in the oolite rocks1 which is much more like a true bird than the pterodactyl1 because it had feathered wings4 ,it is called the ,archopteryx1 which means 8ancient wing10 and ,i have given a picture of it on the same page as the pterodactyl1 so that you may compare them together4 ,the blade-bone and 8merry-thought0 of this creature were exactly like those of a bird1 and so were the feet and legs1 which would enable it to walk easily1 or perch on the branch of a tree1 but the tail was long and many-jointed like that of a lizard1 with a fan of feathers growing on each side of it1 and short feathered wings4 ,then it most likely had teeth like a lizard1 and there were short claws at the bend of the wings4 ,this bird-reptile was about the size of a crow1 and was the first we know of with feathers1 and the limestone rock has preserved it most beautifully through all the long ages which have passed since it flitted over the land of the oolite period4#ab ,later still than these1 there lived in ,america1 about the time the chalk was formed in ,england1 two strange birds called ,hesperornis and ,ichthyornis1 both of which had teeth in the jaws4 ,the former was an immense fellow like the penguin1 with short wings1 and the latter was about the size of a pigeon with large feathered wings4 ,they are finding more of these curious creatures every now and then in ,america4 ,some are without teeth1 and have a horny bill like that of a real bird1 and in other ways more nearly resemble living birds2 still they have not lost the appearance of reptiles in their principal bones4 ,illustration3 ,,vi4 ,pterodactyl 7,wing-finger74 ,archopteryx 7,ancient-wing74 ,i have been particular in describing some of these fish-lizards and bird-reptiles2 because they1 or their near relations1 were the principal inhabitants of land and sea from the end of the coal period to the end of the chalk1 though there were of course swarms of fishes and shell-fish2 but ,i ought to tell you that even so early as this there was at least one animal known which suckled its young ones1 and this was a small insect-eating creature not larger than a rat1 of the same family 7called ,marsupial7 as the kangaroo of ,australia1 which carries its young ones in a pocket or pouch in its skin4 ,all this time we have been hunting for parts of 8the puzzle0 in those ancient oolite rocks between the coal and the chalk1 and those we have found are very important4 ,we have seen the slow progress from simple sea shells to simple fishes1 and then onwards to fish-lizards and bird-reptiles with one little marsupial animal1 of a far higher kind1 in between1 as if to tell us beforehand what more complete and perfect animals we might expect by-and-by4 ,after the fishes we have found fish-lizards1 then bird-reptiles with wings1 but no feathers1 and later still a bird-reptile with wing and tail feathers4 ,how different the life of the ,earth was at the end of the 8reptile age0 of the oolite rocks1 to the far back ,laurentian time when one little creature1 our old friend eozon1 alone held possession of the seas6 ,,the ,,cretaceous ,,period4 ,now let us look into the rocks next above1 and see what is to be found there4 ,we have arrived in the ,cretaceous period1 or time when the chalk was formed4#ac ,you remember ,i told you you might call this 8foraminifera earth0 because so much of it was made up of the shells of these tiny animals1 thousands of which could be put into a thimble4 ,whenever you make a mark with a piece of drawing chalk you rub off a number of them1 and you will see what pretty little creatures they were if you look at the drawings of some of them on the next page as they are seen under the microscope1 magnified thousands of times their natural size2 but there are others of different shapes4 ,on the same page too there is a handsome shell1 called an ammonite1 and of its real size1 common in chalk rocks4 ,the seas of the time must have been very deep as ,i have explained before1 and the chalk contains numbers of bones of fishes everywhere1 and many of the remains of the reptile-like creatures of the time before4 ,corals1 sea-urchins1 crabs1 c41 abounded1 and as you can scarcely ever see chalk without immense flint stones in it1 you may suppose what millions of sponges lived on the rocks1 for these flints are partly made up of their fossil bodies4#ad ,another ,cretaceous period is beginning now at the bottom of the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans1 where it is deep enough to cover the ,alps1 for these little foraminifera are living on the surface in countless millions1 and day by day their fossil shells are settling down to the bottom and forming a soft grey mud1 full of the carbonate of lime like chalk4 ,the climate of the ,cretaceous age was mild and pleasant1 as we know from the kind of animals in the seas4 ,slowly the water began to get shallower and shallower by the upheaval of the bed1 and at last the bottom of this mighty chalk ocean came up to the light and sun1 to be covered in some places with the drift and worn particles of older rocks swept over it by rivers1 and to receive new plants and new animals1 and in some places to remain almost bare1 as it is on the downs of ,brighton4 ,illustration3 ,,vii4 ,,fossils ,,of ,,the ,,chalk4 #a ,ammonite4 #b #c #d ,foraminifera 7,chalk-builders74 ,now we take one more step upwards into almost a new world--the world on which mighty animals lived1 and which man came to share with them4 ,,the ,,tertiary ,,period4 ,the reign of the reptiles is now passed4 ,the ichthyosaurus and pterodactyl no longer inhabited the seas and continents4 ,great changes had taken place in the shape of the land4 ,a river larger than the ,rhine swept majestically through ,england from the borders of ,wales right out into the ,german ,ocean1 and its banks were covered with forests and marshes1 where the new animals which had come to take possession of the earth lived and moved and had their being4 ,the mountains of the ,pyrenees were raised above the sea1 and parts of ,surrey and ,sussex appeared too4 ,it was most likely in the early part of the ,tertiary period that the stone was formed of which almost all ,paris is built4 ,fancy a great city built of the shells of dead animals6 ,one can scarcely believe it3 but the microscope lets us into this secret of ,nature4 ,if we take a piece of this stone and examine it in a powerful microscope we see that it is made almost entirely of tiny shells1 so small that myriads of them could be packed in a nut-shell4 ,how long must they have been working to make all the stone beds of which ,paris is built8 ,we cannot measure the time1 we can only know it must have been enormous6 ,all kinds of animals both of sea and land increased in numbers and perfection4 ,the ammonites were dead1 but their even more beautiful relation1 the nautilus1 was living as it is now4 ,the trilobite was gone1 but his next relation1 the lobster and crab1 appeared4 ,fishes abounded4 ,whales which suckle their young ones appeared1 and the numbers of vertebrata1 or animals with backbones1 were more numerous than they had ever been before4 ,just as animals with bones are more perfect than those with only skins or shells1 so animals which suckle their young ones are more perfect than those which only lay eggs4 ,thus the whale is a more perfect animal than the shark1 though both inhabit the water2 and elephants and even rats and mice more perfect still2 and because there were so many of these 8sucklers10 or mammalia as they are called1 in the ,tertiary period1 we know that all living creatures were becoming more perfect4 ,it will interest you too to learn that monkeys began to appear now1 and that they were common in ,france1 while at the present time the only part of ,europe where they are to be found is on the rock of ,gibraltar4 ,but ,i want particularly to tell you of the giant animals--the ,mammoth1 ,mastodon1 ,megatherium1 ,dinotherium1 and others1 and first let us see what the mammoth was like4 ,in former times1 when people accidentally found the bones of these animals1 they actually thought they had belonged to giant men1 and we can scarcely wonder at that3 but we know better4 ,if only one small bone is shown to ,professor ,owen or ,professor ,huxley1 he can tell at once whether it belonged to a man or an animal1 a fish or a bird1 and very often the particular animal too4 ,well1 the bones of the mammoth were found in the north of ,russia on the banks of the river ,lena in #ahjj3 but the ,russians knew of them before that1 and the name they gave the animal means 8earth10 because they supposed it burrowed in the earth like a mole4 ,this one is now in the ,museum at ,st4 ,petersburg1 and its brownish coat and long black hairs1 and even the hoofs and some of the flesh1 can be distinctly seen4 ,the drawing in the frontispiece is taken from it4 ,it was strange that any people could have supposed that this huge creature1 larger than an elephant and with great curved tusks ten feet long and weighing #afj lbs41 could have got underground of its own accord3 but that was the only way in which they could account for finding it buried in the earth on the banks of the rivers4 ,look at the picture in the frontispiece2 what a splendid animal he was1 this old elephant2 larger and stronger than any living elephants6 ,immense quantities of their bones are found in ,siberia1 and the tusks and teeth are brought in ship-loads to ,england1 where they are sold for their ivory4 ,their skeletons have been found in most countries of ,europe1 in many parts of ,asia1 and in ,north ,america1 and these animals must have been common at one time near ,london1 for their bones have been dug up in the brick earth at ,ilford in ,essex and other places near the ,thames4 ,there is a skull with tusks set up with iron supports in the ,british ,museum4#ae ,there was besides another animal very much like this called the ,mastodon2 but it had tusks in the lower jaws as well as the upper1 four in all1 and the lower tusks dropped out when the animal grew old4 ,the whole skeleton of one of these is also put up in the ,museum1 which you ought to go and see4#af ,mastodons' bones have been discovered in ,england and other parts of ,europe1 and in ,north and ,south ,america and ,india1 so that they were spread pretty well all over the world4 ,they had very curious pointed teeth rather like a lot of fir cones piled together1 not flat grinders like those of the mammoth and all living elephants1 and perhaps they fed upon fruits and nuts1 and boughs1 as ,i do not think they could have managed well to chew grass and leaves with such pointed teeth4 ,the teeth in their old dead jaws are still beautifully white and look like china4 ,both the mammoth and the mastodon had long trunks of course1 and they must have been grand looking creatures marching about in the ,english forests4 ,we should be very much startled if we were to meet one of them now in an ,english wood3 but there is no chance of that1 they have all passed away1 and the only relations they have living are the elephants of ,africa and ,asia4 ,during this ,tertiary period1 or at least the early part of it1 besides the mammoth and mastodon1 the hippopotamus and rhinoceros were plentiful about the ,thames4 ,those same ,ilford marshes in ,essex have been a complete storehouse of the remains of these animals4 ,the bones of a hundred different mammoths and eighty rhinoceroses have been dug up lately from the damp1 black soil1 as well as many belonging to the hippopotamus1 and we can have no doubt that all the swamps along the north side of the river were inhabited by large herds of these huge beasts1 or so many of their skeletons could not have been collected in one place4 ,it is very likely they were overtaken in a flood of the river and drowned1 and their bodies sank down in the mud of the river bank3 but anyhow1 there they are to tell us that they lived and died almost within sight of the ,tower of ,london1 if it had been built then1 as of course it was not4 ,illustration3 ,,viii4 ,gigantic ,irish ,stag 7,cervus ,megaceros74 ,long long ago too1 before there was a single brick where ,london stands1 and when the few human beings who were living were obliged to hide themselves in caves1 great lions might have been heard roaring at night in the forests of the ,thames ,valley4 ,the bones of this lion have been found in many different parts of ,england1 and a terrible fellow he must have been1 for some of his canine teeth 7the long sharp teeth in cats and dogs7 were more than six inches long4 ,indeed they were like small swords1 and this is why he has been called the 8sabre-toothed0 lion4 ,there were also bears1 like the great grisly bear of ,america1 and leopards1 hyenas1 and wolves1 and besides two kinds of ox far larger than those we have now4 ,but one of the handsomest animals was the great ,irish stag4 ,when standing upright the top of his horns would be as high as two tall men4 ,he was indeed a fine fellow with his immense spreading antlers4 ,the deer in our parks would look dwarfs beside him4 ,he inhabited both ,england and ,ireland3 but1 being found more often in ,ireland1 he has got the name of the ,irish stag4 ,as many as thirty of the skeletons of these stags have been found together under a bog in ,ireland1 and in some of the bones the marrow is still preserved1 and they burn well4 ,fences have been made of these bones in ,ireland1 and when the people of a small village in the county of ,antrim heard of the battle of ,waterloo they made a great bonfire of the bones and horns of the ,irish stag to rejoice over the victory4 ,i dare say these stags were hunted by wolves1 and perhaps driven on to the ice of ancient lakes1 where they broke through and got drowned1 for so many of their skeletons are found together4 ,i could not pass this magnificent stag by without giving you a picture of him4#ag ,he was a much nobler looking animal than the reindeer1 which lived along with him at the time in ,england1 and from his appearance ,i should say he was a swift runner and great fighter4 ,some antlers have been found locked together1 just as these stags died in mortal combat1 and ,i never see ,sir ,edwin ,landseer's beautiful picture of two red-deer stags fighting without thinking what a grand sight it would have been to see two of these great ,irish stags rushing at each other with their powerful horns4 ,not one of those animals is living now1 and none of them is mentioned in any history or tradition whatever1 and though there is no doubt that men living in ,europe saw the mammoth alive 7as you will find in the next chapter71 they knew of no kind of writing in which to tell us of them2 these fossils are the only records left1 but they speak plainly enough of the time when ,england and the whole of ,europe were inhabited by these races of huge animals4 ,illustration3 ,,ix4 ,the ,megatherium4 ,now ,i must carry you away to ,south ,america1 where there are more wonders4 ,if ,i were to tell you of all the singular monsters people have found in the beds of the rivers there it would make a book of itself4 ,you know what large rivers there are in that country1 and how they run for thousands of miles through almost flat plains called 8,pampas40 ,well1 these rivers have often changed their beds by cutting new channels in the soft soil4 ,the old dry beds of the rivers are the burying-places of some most curious animals1 but ,i have not room to tell you about more than one of them at present4 ,he is called the ,megatherium1 which means 8great beast40 ,his size and strength were enormous4 ,the largest hippopotamus looks small by his side4 ,his leg bones are bigger than your body4 ,he was more like the sloth than any other living animal1 but he could not climb4 ,he stood on those huge1 broad hind feet1 with his strong tail as a sort of third leg1 and tore down the branches of the trees to feed on1 or even rooted them up to get at the leaves4 ,standing by his skeleton in the ,british ,museum#ah one feels quite a shrimp1 and he looks strong enough to walk away comfortably with an elephant on his back4 ,another immense animal inhabited ,south ,america at the time1 which geologists have called ,dinotherium1 or 8dreadful beast40#ai ,he was a relation of the mastodon1 but his tusks were very curious4 ,instead of being in the upper jaw and turned upwards they stuck out from the lower jaw and curved downwards1 giving him a very odd appearance4 ,he most probably had a trunk like the mammoth or mastodon1 but perhaps not so long4 ,all these of course were vegetable feeders4 ,the ,tertiary period is so remarkable for the numbers of animals more or less related to elephants and spread all over the world1 that we might almost call it the 8elephant age10 as the oolite has been named the 8reptile age40 ,these elephantine animals abounded in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,north and ,south ,america1 and though none of this kind have yet been found in ,australia and ,africa1 ,i cannot help thinking they will be discovered in ,africa at all events1 for there is no doubt that ,africa and ,europe were once joined4 ,australia you know possesses that animal so unlike all others that when we first see it we are quite astonished--the kangaroo4 ,the bones of a huge fossil kangaroo have been found in ,australia which must have stood fourteen or fifteen feet high ,i should think when on its hind legs1 or more than twice as large as any living now4#bj ,then there were giant birds in ,new ,zealand 7something like the ostrich7 called dinornis or 8dreadful bird40 ,these fellows had no wings1 and they must have been very much taller than the ostrich or emu4 ,to look at their leg bones you would think they were the bones of oxen instead of birds1 they are so immensely thick and strong4 ,i do not think any of these are living now1 because they have been sought for carefully1 and none of the natives even can say that they have seen one4 ,but their skeletons are common in the surface earth1 and their bones1 cracked to get the marrow out of them1 are often dug out of the heaps of refuse collected about ancient cooking places4 ,so that they were used for food1 and perhaps they have not been extinct--that is to say1 died out--more than a few hundred years2 and this is more likely because feathers are sometimes attached to the remains1 and undecayed sinews on the feet4 ,a human skeleton has been found in a grave in ,new ,zealand1 too1 with the egg of one between its arms1 and little piles of pebbles are often seen among their bones1 where the stomach would be1 which the bird swallowed to digest its food1 just as many birds do now4 ,the natives called it the ,moa1 and they have some traditions about it1 and1 all things considered1 it is probably one of the most recent fossil animals1 and that is the reason why ,i have left it to the last4#ba ,now ,i dare say you will wish to know when the animals living now took the place of those ,i have described1 and which have all passed away4 ,this cannot be told with certainty1 but you will see in the 8,human ,part0 that ,men were living when the mammoth1 mastodon1 and some other extinct animals1 inhabited the ,earth1 and that the reindeer1 ox1 bear1 wolf1 hyena1 c41 have survived to the present day4 ,throughout these immense periods of time there are gaps which we cannot yet fill up4 ,no one can yet say1 for instance1 when the last of the mammoths disappeared1 and the first of their near relations1 the ,indian and ,african elephants1 took their place4 ,these are the missing parts of 8the puzzle of life0 which you may perhaps one of these days find when you come to study the subject1 and when you have learned all that is known at present4 ,but you may be sure of this1 that throughout all time there has been progress1 the lower forms of animal life have been followed by more perfect forms as the ,earth grew older4 ,it is true the lower forms of life have not all died out4 ,these imperfect animals have run through all the ages--the chalk builder of the ,cretaceous age lives in the ocean now--and there are many other simple animals which lived in ,old ,red ,sandstone times1 and are not extinct yet1 but wherever a superior kind of animal has passed away another more perfect has taken its place4 ,this will be seen at once if we compare the 8,reptile ,age0 with the ,tertiary4 ,the great ichthyosaurus1 plesiosaurus1 and pterodactyl are gone1 but now we have the more perfect crocodiles and birds4 ,the mammoth is gone1 but we have the elephant4 ,there are no giant mosses or towering tree ferns1 but our forest trees are more perfect and more varied4 ,the plants which formed the coal forests and once clothed the ,earth with beauty have dwindled away to the lowly forms which we must stoop to examine in swamps1 and these humble plants are all the surviving relatives of their once noble family4 ,the lordly oaks and elms1 stronger1 and even more lovely in the sweet drapery of their foliage1 and much better fitted for our use1 have succeeded all those soft-stemmed plants which grew so fast and were the best possible kind for forming coal4 ,when you are able to study what is called comparative anatomy you will see how wonderful the plan of creation is1 and how beautifully it has been worked out by its great ,designer4 ,you will see in the bones of the reptiles of the oolite rocks a prophecy as it were of the birds and animals which were to come4 ,what could be more prophetic of animals with the power of perfect flight than the leather-winged pterodactyl1 half lizard and half bird8 ,in some of these animals you will see bones only half formed1 and useless to that creature1 which were brought to perfection in later times1 and became the most important part of the body4 ,it is very difficult for me to make all this plain to you1 but if you are really interested in it you will go to a museum where the fossils are collected1 and then ,i am very much mistaken if you do not find a new and strange world opened to you4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,numerous specimens in ,case ,no4 #g1 ,room ,v4 #h ,specimens of fossil fishes from various rocks in ,wall-case ,no4 #a1 ,room ,,ii4 #i ,see examples in the large ,wall-cases in ,rooms ,i41 ,,ii41 and ,,iii41 ,north ,gallery4 #aj ,so called because the mountain chain of the ,jura ,alps was raised during this period4 #aa ,several specimens in ,room ,,iii41 and in ,table-case ,no4 #af1 ,room ,,iv4 #ab ,wall-case ,no4 #aa in ,room ,,iii41 several specimens1 imperfect4 #ac ,from the ,latin word 8creta10 meaning chalk4 #ad ,ammonites in the ,table-cases in ,rooms ,v4 and ,,vi4 ,for enlarged models of foraminifera1 see ,case ,no4 #ae in ,room ,v4 #ae ,room ,,vi41 ,north ,gallery4 #af ,in the same room4 #ag ,complete specimens of male and female in the middle of ,room ,v4 #ah ,room ,,vi4 #ai ,head and tusks in ,wall-case ,no4 #b1 ,room ,,vi4 #bj ,skull in ,wall-case ,no4 #a1 ,room ,,vi4 #ba ,several specimens in ,wall-case ,no4 #aa1 ,room ,,iii4 ,,the ,,human ,,part4 ,the history of the human race is of course even more interesting than that of the plants and animals which lived so long before man and prepared the way for him1 because man is the 8crown of creation40 ,when first placed on this ,earth he must have been but little superior to the animals in his outward life1 though he had very different powers within him4 ,he could gather the fruits of the ,earth like them1 and perhaps used some of the smaller creatures as food1 but he could do little more4 ,he scarcely knew that he possessed the faculties which would in time make him lord of the ,earth and the creatures inhabiting it4 ,by slow and painful experience he was to gather those stores of knowledge that were to enable him to overcome difficulties1 to provide him with shelter from the weather and protection from dangerous animals1 give increasing comfort and power1 and set him so far above all other created things4 ,he found plants and animals for his use1 and the dwellings in caves and holes ready made by ,nature4 ,he could neither build houses nor make weapons4 ,the first weapon he ever used probably was a stone1 which he could throw at small animals4 ,then he would find out that long1 sharp-pointed sticks could be thrown like spears1 and he also found that a long pliant piece of wood when bent would fly back1 and in this he would see a means of throwing smaller pointed sticks like arrows1 and ,i dare say the discovery of the way of making a bow with a string of twisted animal skin was a great invention1 and it certainly would be a very valuable one4 ,many generations must have passed away before he got even as far as this4 ,it is very easy for us1 who see bows and arrows from our childhood1 to understand their use at once3 but the first human inhabitants of the world had to find them out for themselves4 ,they began with no knowledge at all4 ,the beasts of the field and the fruits of the ,earth were given them1 but they could ,,make nothing4 ,they had not even the natural covering of hair1 or wool1 or feathers1 which animals and birds have1 and they must first have clothed themselves with skins of these4 ,the wants of their daily life were so great that they had no time to think of anything else1 but when it became easier to satisfy these bodily wants their minds turned to other things4 ,they must have seen that when the seeds and fruits of plants fall upon the ground they grow and produce the same kind of plant1 but they did not at first think of gathering a great number of these seeds and sowing them in one place and making a garden4 ,they could wander about and gather all they needed as they became ripe1 for there were few people then4 ,their life was like that of the lilies of the field1 they 8toiled not neither did they spin10 as ,christ says of the flowers1 but when they began to increase in number something more was wanted4 ,people began to feel something within them which we call 8intellect10 and this must be satisfied4 ,it was not enough to live as if they were no nobler than the animals4 ,something stirred in their minds which told them they must not stand still4 ,the ,creator has made both us and the wood and stone and metals1 and has given to us the power to make other things out of them4 ,thus we are nearer to ,him in power than any of the animals who cannot change the rough materials into other forms4 ,we admire the simple and really beautiful nest of the bird1 but we feel that our power is greater when we consider our splendid buildings and steam-engines1 our ships1 and our many conquests over difficulties4 ,but if we did not use these greater powers of mind and hand well1 we should find them grow weaker and weaker until we might almost lose them4 ,you may easily suppose that there was a time when men could not write1 and there were no books of any kind1 nor any other means of exchanging thoughts except through spoken language4 ,the earliest histories about the human race always speak of men who lived before those histories were written4 ,we have nothing about the earliest men written by themselves4 ,it is always someone else who writes of them1 referring to their deeds1 and to events which happened long before4 ,the art of writing has grown up gradually and very slowly1 for when the inhabitants of the ,earth became numerous they felt the need of some way of expressing themselves to those at a distance from them1 and for making a record of things that happened and might be forgotten4 ,some of the earliest means of writing were by pictures1 like the picture writings of ,mexico#bb found by the ,spanish conquerors1 and something of the same kind is even now used by the ,chinese and ,japanese4 ,their writing is made up partly of pictures and partly of queer signs which stand for the names of things1 as you know if you have ever seen one of their books4 ,one of the oldest forms of writing known is the hieroglyphic1 which is said to have been first used by the ,egyptians about #b1ajj years before ,christ1 and another is the arrow-shaped writing of the ,assyrians4 ,these were cut on stone and metal tablets1 and most of them are the histories of their kings4 ,but there are some writings on stone in ,india which are thought to be older still4 ,the ,egyptians made great progress in writing afterwards when papyrus was invented4#bc ,this is a kind of paper made from a reed which grows abundantly in the river ,nile1 and many of these papyrus writings are preserved in the ,british ,museum1 as well as the writings on stone of the ,egyptians and ,assyrians1 and learned men have spelled out a great deal of the history of these nations from them1 though the language is quite different from any spoken or written now4 ,picture writing was most likely one of the earliest inventions in this way3 but it was so troublesome that signs were used to express the same things as the picture4 ,for instance1 suppose a history of a king was to be written4 ,the word 8king0 would be shown by something he always wore1 such as his crown1 and this sign would become more simple until at last it might not be anything like a crown2 but it would be remembered that the sign stood for a king all the same4 ,the first letter of the ,hebrew alphabet1 aleph1 means an ox1 and the letter is something like the shape of the head of that animal with its horns2 and another letter1 called shin1 which in ,hebrew means a tooth1 is actually very like a tooth with three points4 ,in many languages these signs have become so altered that they do not now resemble the things they at first stood for2 but the first steps in the invention of written language were certainly made by signs representing the thing of which the person wished to give an idea4 ,but you will learn all about these ancient writings from other books4 ,the men whose lives ,i am going to describe lived long before any of these writings were invented4 ,they spoke a language of course1 though there is nothing left to show that they knew of any kind of writing1 and they are called ,pre-historic men because they lived before there were any histories either written by themselves or about them4 ,but they could draw a little1 as we know from the pictures of animals1 birds1 and fishes scratched upon pieces of slate1 and bone1 and stone found in their graves4 ,perhaps these pictures were memorials of their great or wise men1 or showed that they were clever hunters1 or fishermen4 ,they knew the use of fire4 ,half burnt bones and wood and ashes are plentiful in the caves where they lived4 ,they had none of the means we possess for kindling fire1 and there are only two ways by which they could have got it4 ,they might have rubbed two pieces of very dry wood together until the heat lighted them1 as many savages do at the present time2 or they might have struck sparks from flint upon rotten wood and blown the spark into a flame4 ,we may be sure that when once a fire was lighted they would take care it did not go out1 and if they wanted to travel they would carry with them a piece of smouldering wood to light the fire again4 ,i do not suppose that these pre-historic men were any more civilized than the savages of ,australia and other countries1 and ,i have often thought when looking at these savages that they live in almost exactly the same way as the earliest inhabitants of ,europe did4 ,they have the same shaped weapons and tools made of stone1 and these are fixed to the handles in the same way4 ,they have the same kinds of needles and fish-hooks made of bone1 and they sew skins together with threads made from the sinews of animals4 ,thus we see men living now in many parts of the world who are quite as uncivilized as the old inhabitants of ,europe1 who lived perhaps thousands of years before the ,egyptians and ,assyrians4 ,these very ancient men knew nothing about metals4 ,all their tools were made of flint1 or bone1 or stone1 and they were of the rough shape you see in the pictures on the next page1 and it is for this reason that this has been called the ,stone ,age4 ,these were chipped out with great trouble and labour1 and most of them were not even polished4 ,with these they had to kill animals for food1 to cut down trees1 and fight against their enemies4 ,the skeleton of a mastodon was found in the state of ,missouri in ,america about thirty-five years ago with numbers of these flint arrow-heads underneath and near it4 ,perhaps it had been shot at with arrows1 and when it died the flint points fell out of its decaying flesh4 ,but it is not likely that these pre-historic men could have killed many such large animals1 unless they caught them in pits covered over with branches of trees and earth1 into which they might fall1 as elephants are sometimes caught in ,africa4 ,illustration3 ,x4 #a4 ,flint ,arrow-head4 #b4 ,stone ,axe in handle4 #c4 ,flint ,knife4 #d4 ,bone ,harpoon4 #e4 ,bone ,needles4 #f4 ,sceptre made of ,horn4 #g4 ,marrow ,spoon4 ,nothing shows us so well the immense time which must have passed since the men of the stone age lived as that these flint weapons and tools are found nearly all over the world1 in ,northern ,europe1 including our own country1 in ,spain1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,greece1 ,palestine1 ,africa1 ,japan1 ,america1 c42 and yet none of the present inhabitants of these countries have any history or tradition of the time when they were used4 ,metals are now used instead1 and there is no record of the time when flint only was known4 ,we are quite certain however that the stone age men lived at the same period as the great animals of the ,tertiary age1 the mammoth1 the mastodon1 the woolly rhinoceros1 the ,irish stag1 the cave bear1 and others you have read of in former chapters1 because flint and stone weapons are found in the same beds of earth with these animals4#bd ,suppose one of the present ,indian or ,african elephants with his rider were to fall into a river and they were to sink to the bottom and be covered with mud1 and suppose his rider had in his pocket some of our sovereigns4 ,if that elephant should be accidentally dug up thousands of years to come1 when most likely all elephants will have died off the earth1 people would know for certain1 from the date and figure of the ,queen on the money1 that elephants were used by the ,english in this reign1 even if all our books and monuments had perished1 and a new people inhabited the ,earth4 ,something of the same kind has happened to prove to us that the stone-age men saw the mammoth alive4 ,in one of their graves there is a slice of a mammoth's great back tooth with a beautiful picture of the animal1 with his bristly hair1 scratched on the ivory1 and there are also many of the flint and stone weapons which show that the skeleton in the grave was that of a primeval man4 ,this little picture tells its tale more faithfully than any history4 ,it is all the more certain to tell it truly because it was never meant to tell one4 ,when that man was buried with this sign that he was a mighty hunter of the mammoth1 or an artist1 no one could imagine that he would ever be dug up to show us1 who come so long afterwards1 that he saw the mammoth roaming through the forests of the far away past4 ,there can be no doubt that it is a very good drawing of the mammoth with its long turned-up tusks1 like those in the picture at the beginning of the book4 ,in another place a picture of a fight between some reindeer scratched upon a piece of slate has been found4 ,this was in a cave in ,france1 and it1 as well as the numbers of bones of these animals in the caves1 shows that the reindeer1 which now only inhabits the ,arctic regions1 must have been common then in ,france4 ,you will see drawings of both these on page #ace4 ,these primeval people built no houses4 ,they lived in natural caves1 and scattered the remains of their food about the floor1 so that we know what they ate4 ,among the animals they used for food were the horse1 the reindeer1 the ox1 the cave-lion and bear1 the wolf1 the hyena1 the goat1 the hare and several others1 besides salmon and other fish4 ,they were very fond of the marrow of the bones1 which they cracked with stone hammers1 and had little spoons made of bone with which to pick it out4 ,they had places for making flint weapons too4 ,at ,cissbury ,camp1 near ,worthing1 there is one of their old workshops4 ,there are galleries dug into the chalk where they got the flints1 and there are thousands of chips of flint lying about1 with half finished arrow-heads1 and some of the tools they dug with4 ,they had no spades or pickaxes2 but they used the broad1 flat1 shoulder-blade bone of the ox as a spade1 and the sharp brow antler of a deer's horn for a pickaxe1 to get these flints out with4 ,it must have been very hard work for them1 because bone spades and horn pickaxes would soon wear out1 and would not be nearly so useful as ours made of iron4 ,illustration3 ,,xi4 ,picture of ,mammoth ,scratched on ,ivory4 ,fight between ,reindeer ,scratched on ,slate4 ,it is difficult to be certain how these stone-age people cooked their food4 ,of course they could have roasted it1 and the half-burnt bones in some caves show that they did so2 but in some caves in ,france there is not a single burnt bone to be found4 ,in these ,french cave dwellings1 too1 there are no pieces of earthenware1 as there are in some others2 so that the people could not have boiled it1 unless they had wooden pots and dropped red-hot stones into the water in them until the meat got boiled1 as some savages do now4 ,or they might have cooked it under the hot ashes4 ,the people who used earthenware must have made more progress4 ,it is easy to understand how they made this useful discovery4 ,suppose they had lighted a fire upon a damp clay soil1 the earth would get baked hard and crack off in pieces1 and they would see that this soil could be worked in the hands while soft into the shape of pans and dishes1 which could be dried quite hard in the sun or baked in hot ashes1 just as boys make clay marbles now4 ,they could live much more comfortably even with these rough earthenware things1 and cook their food more conveniently2 but they still used the stone and flint tools and weapons1 and iron was still unknown to them4 ,the people of whom ,i have been speaking are principally the men of the ,first ,stone ,age1 when the art of polishing tools and weapons had not been found out4 ,they simply chipped these things out of the flints and left them very rough2 but the men of the next1 or ,second ,stone ,age1 made great improvements4 ,they ground their flint knives and axes with other stones1 and rubbed them down to sharp edges and points1 so that they must have been much more useful for killing and cutting up the animals they hunted4 ,all their bone and horn tools are much better made1 and sometimes ornamented prettily with marks cut upon them4 ,the ,second ,stone ,age men evidently wore clothing1 most probably made of the skins of animals--for the long strips of bone with a hole at one end which you see in the picture could not have been used for any other purpose1 except to draw threads through something4 ,the threads were very likely either the sinews of animals pulled out of the flesh1 or thin strips of their skins1 or perhaps the inner bark of a tree twisted into a kind of string4 ,in the colder parts of ,europe and ,america these ancient people would need some protection from the weather4 ,how then did the people of the ,first ,stone ,age manage1 if they had no bone needles1 as ,i think they had not1 with which to make clothing8 ,they must have wrapped themselves in the skins just as they came from the backs of the animals4 ,it is not easy to be always sure1 when we find a cave and all these relics of pre-historic man1 whether the inhabitants belonged to the ,first or the ,second ,stone ,age4 ,sometimes there are signs of polishing and grinding on the tools1 and then we may suppose that men were gradually getting more skilful1 until they finished off all their weapons beautifully4 ,but there is such a very great difference in the perfection of these useful articles found in some places and those found in others that we have no doubt men made slow progress1 from the rough or ,first ,stone ,age1 to the polished or ,second ,stone ,age4 ,in neither the first nor second stone period had men yet learned to build any kind of habitations4 ,they lived in caves simply1 like wild animals4 ,on the banks of the river ,vezre in ,france1 which has cut its way deeply through the rock1 there are some celebrated caves once inhabited by pre-historic men1 and some of them are very large4 ,they were most likely hollowed out in the cliff by water1 and many generations of men lived here4 ,in one of them four human skeletons were found1 with plenty of stone and flint tools1 besides the bones of the mammoth and lion1 reindeer and other animals4 ,the mammoth then as well as the reindeer lived at that time in the valley of the ,vezre4 ,there is no doubt that these caves were inhabited at separate times by people who used only the roughest and simplest stone tools1 and by others who had made some progress and could polish their tools and make them of bone and could scratch pictures of animals upon slips of bone and slate4 ,it is curious that all these drawings are side-view drawings1 and they are only outlines1 just like the drawings of children now1 and the ,esquimaux of the ,arctic regions2 because these people1 although they were grown up1 had not discovered the art of drawing in perspective and shading the figures4 ,still the pictures are wonderfully true to nature1 and must have been copied from living animals4 ,there is no earthenware in any of these caves1 so that the useful art of making pottery had not been discovered1 neither is there any in the caves in ,switzerland1 where the bones of the mammoth1 lion1 and rhinoceros are also found1 and the tools and weapons are much the same as those in the ,french caverns4 ,it is impossible to say whether the cave-dwellers of ,france and ,switzerland lived at the same time exactly1 but they were in about the same condition of civilization1 and they must both have been quite familiar with the appearance of the mammoth and lion1 and other animals1 which are not mentioned in any history1 however old it may be1 as inhabitants of these countries4 ,a discovery has lately been made in ,france of a large cavern near ,belfort1 in the limestone rock1 which has been covered up for ages4 ,the quarrymen while cutting out the stone came upon a small opening leading into a very large cave1 in which there was a great quantity of human skeletons and bones and some beautifully ornamented vases1 polished stone bracelets1 and a mat of plaited rushes4 ,to these people1 then1 the arts of pottery and weaving were known1 and this was probably one of their burying-places4 ,they were evidently much more civilized than the ancient people of the valley of the ,vezre2 but this cave must also be of a great age1 and its inhabitants have left no record of their history in any kind of writing4 ,quite lately1 too1 we have learned something of the early races of man in ,colorado4 ,many of the caves in that country have been altered and made more like regular houses1 and some appear even to have been cut out of the rock entirely by human hands2 and in the plains there are ruins of large cities4 ,though still in the stone age1 for all the weapons yet found among these ruins are of stone1 the ,colorado people were more civilized than the stone-age people of the ,vezre caverns1 because they had begun to build and knew how to make pottery4 ,it is strange1 too1 that the present natives of ,colorado are not so civilized as the early people1 and if they have descended from them they have not improved1 but rather the contrary4 ,there are other caverns in various parts of the world containing these curious relics of races long since passed away1 but some of the principal have been mentioned1 enough perhaps to interest you and show you that men were living in ,europe together with the large animals of the ,tertiary period1 and that they had made very little progress in the arts and manufactures1 and had not even begun to build the roughest houses4 ,in many parts of the world even now there are savages nearly as uncivilized as the cave-dwellers of ,europe were then4 ,when ,captain ,cook visited ,new ,zealand1 more than a hundred years ago1 the natives there had nothing but stone and bone tools1 very like those found in the ,european caverns1 and the inhabitants of some of the islands in the ,pacific ,ocean still use stone axes and hammers and bone needles4#be ,captain ,moresby1 too1 who made a voyage to the south-east coast of ,new ,guinea a few years ago1 tells us that the natives have beautiful stone axes1 but they were so ignorant of the use of iron that they refused to give him one of their stone axes for a new iron hatchet which he offered them4 ,no doubt the stone weapon cost a great deal of labour and patience to make1 and perhaps the iron one was made by machinery in a few minutes1 and was really more useful1 but the native had proved his own axe and knew nothing of the iron one1 so that it is no wonder that he refused it4 ,but what a history these two axes tell--the stone and the iron6 ,the stone shows us man in his childhood1 and the iron man in his manhood1 and what an immensely long time there is between the two4 ,how much thought1 and trial and failure1 and patience and industry1 were spent by mankind before the stone axe grew into the iron6 ,in ,europe man has long since grown out of his childhood1 but in many parts of the world he is no more civilized than the men who saw the mammoth crashing through the forests of ,england and ,france1 and heard the lion roar at night on the banks of the ,thames1 and watched the hippopotamus swimming across the river at ,westminster4 ,it is most likely1 then1 that ,europe and parts of ,asia and ,america were inhabited long before those places where men are even now in the stone age--such as the islands in the ,pacific ,ocean1 ,new ,guinea1 ,australia1 c4 ,what a life the pre-historic men of ,europe must have lived6 ,here they were surrounded by huge dangerous animals1 and had no means of protecting themselves against them but with these rough stone weapons4 ,where ,london now stands with its miles of streets and busy life there was a mighty forest1 and the mammoth and rhinoceros tramped through it by day1 and the lion and hyena hunted the deer at night4 ,when the pre-historic men came down to the banks of the ,thames in the day-time to spear salmon1 they saw the hippopotamus plunging about in the water among the rushes1 sweeping the long grass into their wide mouths1 and swimming from side to side with their young ones perched upon their necks4 ,it must have been a grand sight1 but a fearful one too1 and it is no wonder that men thought the caves the only safe places to live in4 ,sometimes in ,india the elephants come into the villages at night and throw down wooden houses and kill people1 and they are very much feared1 so that we can suppose how much more terrible the mammoth might have been to the uncivilized cave-dwellers4 ,if they shot at him with the flint-pointed arrows they could scarcely hurt him1 and it is more likely that they got out of his way as quickly as possible whenever they met him1 and took good care never to interfere with the lion and rhinoceros4 ,,the ,,lake-,,dwellers4 ,among the earliest inhabitants of ,europe1 there were some who did not live in caves2 but ,i think they must have lived a long time after the cave-dwellers1 when they built their houses out in the middle of the lakes4 ,these houses were built in a very curious way1 and the remains of them have been discovered in ,ireland and ,scotland1 ,switzerland and other countries4 ,the people carried quantities of stones1 and earth1 and sticks out into the lake and let them sink to the bottom4 ,then when they had piled up enough to make an island1 they laid wood across and set up their huts1 and lived there surrounded by water4 ,these were very poor houses of course2 but when men had begun to build for themselves1 they would find how much more comfortable they were than in damp and dark caves4 ,they must have had some kind of boats or canoes1 or they could not have passed between their lake-dwellings and the land unless they swam to them2 but ,i do not think that any of these boats have been found4 ,perhaps they were made of the dried skins of animals stretched over wooden frames1 as ,i have seen savages make boats4 ,illustration3 ,,xii4 ,lake-,dwellings4 ,there was another way of building these lake-dwellings1 and a better way too4 ,long poles were driven into the earth at the bottom of the water1 and when the builders had got enough of these together they laid other poles across them1 and built their huts on this floor above the water4 ,people are living now in much the same way near the ,orinoco river in ,south ,america1 in ,new ,guinea1 and in ,central ,africa4#bf ,the land all round is covered with water from the overflowing of the rivers1 which are very large1 and the huts are built up on these poles out of the way of it4 ,the lake-dwellers of ,europe would thus be safer in their houses from dangerous animals than if they were on land4 ,they were more civilized than the cave-dwellers1 but still a great many of their tools and weapons were of stone and bone2 yet we know that they had made wonderful progress1 because they had learned to make pottery1 and even to weave cloths out of hemp or flax4 ,they had most likely begun to plant and cultivate the land1 too1 for corn is found about these dwellings1 and the bones of domestic animals are very numerous4 ,they had left the cave-dwellers a long way behind in many things1 in wearing artificial clothing1 in cultivating the land1 and in keeping domestic animals2 but their implements--that is1 their weapons and tools--were not much improved1 and were very much like those of the cave-dwellers1 though better finished and more polished than some of theirs4 ,but not all the articles used by the lake people were of stone and bone4 ,some of those who lived in the ,swiss lakes had ornaments1 such as bracelets and hair-pins1 made of the metal called bronze1 and no doubt they made spear-heads of the metal1 because they would look to usefulness before ornament4 ,now you see how these people seem to have lived3 first the old stone age men1 then those of the newer or polished stone age1 and lastly the lake-dwellers4 ,the people of both the first and second stone ages certainly saw the mammoth1 hippopotamus1 rhinoceros1 lion1 and reindeer alive in ,france1 ,switzerland1 and ,england2 but when the lake-dwellings were built1 all these animals1 except perhaps the reindeer1 had died1 and most of the animals were the same as they are now4 ,none of these people have left us any kind of history whatever1 except that which their simple works tell us1 their flint and bone weapons1 and their dwellings4 ,they have set up no gigantic monuments like the ,egyptians or the ,druids4 ,they thought of no men to come after them who would take an interest in their ways2 but it is fortunate that what they did make was of such lasting materials as stone and flint1 or we should have known next to nothing about their lives4 ,it is impossible to say how many thousands of years may have passed before the rough stone weapons were replaced by the polished stone1 or the cave was exchanged for an artificial house in a lake2 but you must feel in your minds that the time was immense1 and the more we study the ways and works of pre-historic man1 the more certain we become that it is longer than the whole time that has passed since men first began to use any kind of writing4 ,,kitchen-,,middens4 ,i dare say you have seen untidy people in country places1 and even in towns1 throw oyster-shells and broken dishes and dirt outside their doors until quite a heap is formed4 ,this is called a 8midden10 and the habit of doing this is a very old one4 ,we learn just a little more of the history of man from great middens made by ancient people in several countries4 ,they were first discovered in ,denmark1 and since then they have been found in ,scotland1 ,brazil1 and ,new ,zealand4 ,they are sometimes very large1 and must have been used by the whole village as places to throw the refuse of their cookery in4 ,when these heaps have been dug into all sorts of things have been found in them--the shells of oysters and mussels1 bones of fishes1 birds1 and animals1 pieces of broken earthenware1 little ornaments1 stone axes1 arrow-heads1 wood ashes1 burnt bones1 and other odds and ends4 ,in ,brazil many of these kitchen-middens are on the sea shore1 and it seems as if the people who made them came there to live on the shell-fish1 for the shells are the same as those living in the sea close by now4 ,in ,new ,zealand the middens contain many of the bones of the ,moa1 which was described in 8,the ,animal ,part10 and has now perished1 and these are cracked in such a manner that the people evidently wanted to get at the marrow in them1 and it shows too that this gigantic bird was common in ,new ,zealand then4 ,the midden makers seemed to have lived in the open air1 and wherever food was most plentiful4 ,perhaps they built huts of the bark and small branches of trees like the ,australian savages1 but such houses would not last4 ,we only know of the life of the midden makers from these heaps4 ,their weapons are of the same kind and pattern as those of the ,second ,stone ,age1 but they had learned to make rough earthenware dishes and basins1 and some pieces of a woven material have been found1 and pieces of wood and bone worked with a little skill4 ,whether they lived after or before the lake-dwellers ,i cannot say1 but ,i should think about the same time4 ,these pre-historic people1 nevertheless1 were not always thinking of making things which were useful4 ,they thought too of making ornaments1 many of which are found in their dwellings and graves4 ,like ourselves1 they had an idea that little trinkets improved their appearance4 ,in one grave a skeleton was found with a small pile of shells under its neck1 which no doubt had been strung together as a necklace1 and when the string rotted the shells parted and fell in a heap under the head1 to be a memorial of that ancient man or woman's possession of the same feelings as our own4 ,various little articles1 too1 found about the lake-dwellings show that people liked to decorate themselves4 ,we shall never know what language they spoke1 but they must have been able to tell their thoughts to one another4 ,it was most likely a simple language with few words as names for things and a simple grammar1 like the language of savages1 because they had not so many things to talk about as we have4 ,the names of animals would perhaps be imitated from their cries and the noises they made4 ,these cries would be among the most familiar sounds to them1 and when they wished to speak of some animal the simplest way would be to imitate the noise it generally makes4 ,if we think of our own language1 we shall see how very likely this was4 ,we have many such words4 ,we teach our children the names of animals by the sounds they make4 ,the dog we call 8bow-wow10 the cow 8moo-moo10 the duck 8quack-quack10 and many other names of the same kind which you will think of yourselves4 ,at the present time even the name by which the ,egyptians call the donkey has almost exactly the same sound as our 8hee-haw40 ,this trick of doubling or repeating the sound1 too1 is very common among savages1 who are as far behind us as the pre-historic men were4 ,the natives of ,australia give these double names to a great many animals and things1 and sometimes do the same with ,english words4 ,they call fish 8ningy-ningy10 and a certain tree the 8bunya-bunya10 and their language is full of such words4 ,but it is not only the names of things which have been made in this way4 ,verbs as well as nouns have grown up thus4 ,when we whisper to one another1 that word imitates the low sound we make4 ,i shall leave you to trace the natural origin of the following words1 and think how much of man's spoken language is taken from common sounds4 ,thus we have roar1 shriek1 whistle1 hiss1 sigh1 sing1 ring1 thump1 bump1 clash1 clang1 bang1 twang1 clap1 smack1 slap1 smash1 swish1 swirl1 gong1 thong1 boom1 bellow1 batter1 chatter1 clatter1 snap1 snip1 whip1 gurgle1 shiver1 quiver1 rumble1 roll1 rattle1 prattle1 and a hundred more4 ,words thus derived from familiar sounds abound in all languages1 and they1 no doubt1 are the easy steps by which men climbed to a more complicated speech4 ,the earliest men must have been obliged to pay great attention to animals and birds1 which have voices of their own2 for to hunt and catch them was the principal occupation of their lives2 therefore1 when speaking of them to one another1 they would naturally call them by names resembling the sounds they made4 ,our verbs 8to squeak0 and 8to squeal0 are certainly taken from the cries of animals when in pain2 but ,i have said enough to show you how language grew up among pre-historic people4 ,we do not know for certain that they had any musical instruments1 but they would hear the sighing of the wind among the trees1 and it would almost certainly be found out that blowing down a hollow stick or reed1 open at one end and closed at the other1 would make a whistle2 but if they used any of these things they would not last like the stone tools1 and have decayed away2 and we do know that they had begun to draw upon such imperishable materials as bone and slate4 ,there is a very interesting specimen of a human fossil in the ,british ,museum1 which you ought to go and see1 if you can2 but in case you are not able there is a drawing of it on page #aei4bg ,this specimen was brought to ,england about the year #ahad4 ,others like it have since been found imbedded in the hard breccia limestone rock at the same place on the shore of the island of ,guadaloupe4 ,the skeleton most likely was that of a woman1 from the shape of some of the bones1 and most probably was of the race of ,caribs1 of whom there are none living now4 ,perhaps this was originally a burying place of the ancient inhabitants of the island1 and when the sea washed the small broken pieces of shells and corals over it 7all of which contain lime7 they hardened into breccia rock1 and the skeleton became completely imbedded in it4 ,this must have taken a very long time1 at all events2 but ,i do not think the ,guadaloupe fossils are as old as the people who lived in the caves in ,france4 ,some little ornaments and articles of human workmanship are found with these skeletons1 which show that the people to whom they belonged were still in the ,stone ,age4 ,there is very little to judge from when we wish to get some idea of the time these fossils have been in this breccia3 but at this particular place the rock is formed pretty quickly1 as we can see2 and it is quite likely that these skeletons were buried there long after the mammoth1 rhinoceros1 and hippopotamus died out of ,europe4 ,however1 they are the most complete specimens we have of any fossil human beings4 ,in looking at the drawing you will see the leg bones and hips1 part of the backbone1 the ribs of one side1 and an arm bone2 but you see no skull1 because the bones of the skull are very thin1 and have become crushed down into the limestone4 ,in one of these fossils1 which they have in ,paris1 taken from near the same place1 the bones are much more distinct1 and part of the lower jaw with some teeth in it can be seen4 ,these fossil men no doubt lived before the period of written human history began2 but they are not considered to be at all the oldest of pre-historic men4 ,illustration3 ,,xiii4 ,the ,guadaloupe ,human ,fossil4 ,two periods in the life of mankind followed all these long-lost and forgotten people1 and they are called the ,bronze ,age and the ,iron ,age2 but now history comes in1 and there are plenty of old records and books to tell you about these4 ,bronze is a mixed metal of copper and tin1 and it was used by the oldest nations who have left any histories--the ,egyptians1 ,hebrews1 ,greeks1 and ,romans4 ,it was better than stone because it could be made sharper and would not chip1 and swords and armour1 vases1 axes1 hammers1 needles1 c41 were made of it4#bh ,the ,stone ,age is beyond all history1 the ,bronze begins with it1 and the ,iron ,age began at some distant time before the dawn of authentic history4 ,thus we are told1 in ,genesis iv4 #bb1 that ,tubal ,cain taught people to make it4 ,it was used also by the ,egyptians for perhaps #b1jjj years before the ,christian era2 but the real ,iron ,age is that in which we are living now4 ,we can1 indeed1 make all metals much better than any of the older nations4 ,but there is a wide gap between the time when people left off using stone and discovered bronze and iron2 and if one of the ,druids could come to life he might help us to fill it up1 because those old ,british priests had many secrets1 which they told to one another from generation to generation4 ,if the ,spanish conquerors had not destroyed the civilization of ,mexico and ,peru1 we might know something of the discovery of the metals there1 and the people of ,india and ,china must have used them long ago2 but the first use of metal in any country where it was found out would most likely be before the people had begun to put their language into any kind of writing1 so that the time would be forgotten among the many scraps of lost knowledge which we have tried to collect from the remains of the industry of pre-historic man4 ,we have seen how much these ancient people differed from us in their civilization1 and how far they were behind us in everything2 but we must not suppose that they were very different in bodily size and shape4 ,some of their skulls might have belonged to a philosopher1 or they might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage4 ,the skulls from the ,cromagnon and ,engis caves are quite equal in size and shape to those of several uncivilized1 and even of some civilized races of the present time1 and there are people in all large cities whose heads are not better formed4 ,though the outward signs of their civilization then were so different from ours1 it is not certain that their mental capacity was much less4 ,a race possessing considerable civilization may1 we know1 pass away1 as the ,assyrians and the ,pyramid builders have4 ,in one of the ,pacific islands--,easter ,island--a thousand miles from the nearest land1 there are hundreds of carved images of stone1 fifty or sixty feet high1 and weighing perhaps a hundred tons each4 ,the people who made these must have been very numerous and must have had considerable skill4 ,yet they have passed away4 ,the arts of ,nineveh and ,babylon have only lately become known1 so that1 you see1 the works of a race may easily become hidden from us who follow4 ,quite lately1 too1 the works of a partly civilized people have been discovered in ,ohio in ,america4 ,there are there hundreds of mounds and earth embankments forming fortified camps4 ,some of them are several miles round1 and they could only have been made by a very numerous and intelligent people who knew something about geometry2 for the circles1 squares1 and angles of these earthworks are quite as correct as we could make them4 ,among the multitude of things found here are copper tools made by hammering1 ornamental pottery1 silver beads1 plates of mica with scrolls and designs engraved on them1 and carefully carved pieces of stone4 ,these carvings are most curious and excellently finished4 ,they represent human heads and many animals1 such as the bear1 otter1 wolf1 beaver1 raccoon1 frog1 rattlesnake1 heron1 crow1 c4 ,a people1 then1 who could do these things and took pleasure in doing them must have possessed great intelligence and a knowledge of things far beyond a simple state4 ,they even had religious ideas1 such as they were1 for they had places for sacrifice4 ,all their works are now overgrown by forests1 but it is impossible to mistake them2 yet the native ,indians of ,ohio living now have no idea that such a people lived in their country before them1 and no tradition at all about a people whose civilization was so far superior to their own4 ,we may come nearer to our own times1 and look at the ,assyrians and ,egyptians4 ,until quite recently nothing was known about the ,assyrians except what could be learned from the few references made to them in ,scripture and some ancient writers2 but ,mr4 ,layard dug up their cities1 and found that they possessed the arts of building1 sculpture1 working in metals1 and a written language4 ,all this was buried under the sand of a desert6 ,then there is the great ,pyramid of ,egypt1 built in a way that we could not surpass1 and with much knowledge of geometry and other sciences4#bi ,the men who designed and constructed these works could not have lived among a half-barbarous people2 and as these are the highest works of the people1 how much there must have been that went before1 of which there is no trace now1 when ,assyria and ,egypt were in their age of stone axes and flint arrow-heads4 ,i do not think that the ,stone-,age men of ,europe were nearly so civilized4 ,at all events1 they have not left any such imperishable monuments as the gigantic images of ,easter ,island1 the earthworks of the ,ohio people1 or the sculptures1 writings1 and buildings of the ,assyrians and ,egyptians2 but they might have been more civilized than they seem to have been from their simple weapons and tools4 ,they might have made many things which were perishable1 and have been destroyed by time--things which would have given us a higher belief in their intelligence and civilization4 ,the past history of the human race may be compared to the rise and fall of the tide4 ,wave after wave has risen higher and higher on the everlasting shore of ,time1 and when the tide was at its highest it has fallen again slowly1 to rise again and again in the same way through many ages4 ,we know that man may rise slowly from a simple condition to much civilization and power1 and may again sink back almost to barbarism1 as has been the case with the people of whom we have been speaking1 and then again a new civilization may grow up4 ,it is possible that all now savage nations are the sinking descendants of some1 in comparison1 once civilized people4 ,modern nations are taking up the ground of savages all over the world1 and soon there will be no trace of these simple people4 ,thus it may have been with mankind throughout all the time during which they have occupied the earth1 and so it may be perhaps again4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,a fine ,mexican ,,ms4 on diapered cloth1 with figures and mystical signs1 has lately been added to the ,,ms4 department of the ,british ,museum4 #bc ,some fine examples of papyrus writings on the ,north-west ,staircase1 ,upper ,floor4 #bd ,british ,antiquities ,room1 upper floor1 ,middle and ,upper ,shelf-cases1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and #e-ab1 flint and stone implements4 ,table-case ,b1 horn implements from ,french caves and ,swiss lake-dwellings4 #be ,examples of stone implements of ,new ,zealanders in ,ethnographical ,room1 ,cases ,no4 #de-dh1 upper floor4 #bf ,in ,lake ,mohrya4 ,across ,africa1 by ,v4 ,l4 ,cameron4 #bg ,at the end of ,room ,,vi41 opposite the door1 ,north ,gallery4 #bh ,see examples in the ,bronze ,room1 upper floor1 ,british ,museum4 #bi ,built of nummulitic limestone1 composed of shells of foraminifera4 ,see ,case #ae1 ,room ,v41 ,north ,gallery4 ,,conclusion4 ,i have now put 8,the ,puzzle of ,life0 together as well as ,i can1 and there is not much more to say4 ,you must do the rest for yourselves by going to the ,museums1 where all the pieces are collected1 and seeing them with your own eyes4 ,when you stand before these silent witnesses to the great age of our ,earth1 and all that is on it1 you will feel how wonderful the story they tell is4 ,they have no words to speak to you1 but there is a power in your own minds which interprets their history through your own thoughts4 ,they are only lumps of rock and lifeless bones1 but they seem to say to you1 8,we are living again now1 because we are teaching you a lesson which the great ,builder of this ,universe wishes you to learn from us4 ,there is not a stone or fossil among us but it has its tale to tell--a tale of time and tide1 and long past ages1 and innumerable changes1 and a life that was1 and progress from a lower to a higher existence4 ,we have obeyed the same eternal laws of one ,creator from the beginning1 as all things will to the end of time4 ,we have opened the great ,book of ,nature from the first page of the #8life-dawn animal' to the last1 on which the hand of the ,almighty has written the name of ,man--his most perfect work4 ,we1 you1 and all things which have lived and will live1 have bodies made of particles which will be returned to the ,earth1 no single atom of which has been destroyed since the first1 but has been fashioned over and over again into innumerable forms of tree and flower1 of gossamer-winged insect and towering mammoth1 throughout the long ages in which our ,globe has known day and night1 cold and heat1 summer and winter40 ,there is nothing sad1 if we look at it rightly1 in this constant succession of life and death4 ,it is ,a moulding ,of forms1 and a wondrous birth1 ,and a growing and fair unfolding ,of life from life1 and life from death4 ,for death1 a mother benign1 ,transformeth but destroyeth not1 ,and the new thing fair of the old is wrought4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,armstrong4 ,is it not worth while then to listen to these stories of the ,earth--to spell them out for ourselves8 ,they are written everywhere1--in the mountains and valleys1 the rivers and seas1 on the hard faces of granite cliffs1 on the rounded pebbles of the sea beach1 and even in the finest dust of the roads4 ,we have not to go far to hear them3 every foot-step on the ground covers a chapter great or small in the universal history1 and the stone walls of our houses could speak with ten thousand tongues of all they witnessed in their long life on the floor of an ancient ocean4 ,we can scarcely have a more pleasant occupation and greater interest than in searching for and putting together the pieces of this wonderful and beautiful puzzle1 and in doing our utmost to 8,summon from the shadowy ,past the forms that once have been40 ,,index4 ,age of bronze1 #afa2 of iron1 #afa2 of reptiles1 #ha ,aleph1 #abe ,amber1 #fi ,ammonites1 #ij1 #ig ,animal ,part1 the1 #gg2 animals of coal period1 #ga ,ants1 white1 #fa ,arctic climate1 #fg2 expedition1 #fg ,archopteryx1 #ia1 #ic ,australian savages1 #abg ,babylon and ,nineveh1 #afd1 #afe ,bear1 grisly1 #ajf ,beginning of life1 #eh ,bird forms1 earliest1 #hi2 reptiles1 #he ,blacklead1 #eh ,boulders carried by ice1 #dh ,bogwood1 #gj ,boiling springs1 #ed ,bronze1 age of1 #afa1 #afb2 implements in ,british ,museum1 #afb ,brighton ,downs1 #ii ,burning mountains1 #ai ,calamites1 #db1 #fh ,caons of ,colorado1 #h ,caves of ,engis and ,cromagnon1 #afc2 near ,belfort and of ,switzerland1 #ada2 of the ,vezre1 #aci ,cetiosaurus1 #hf ,chalk1 nature of1 #bf2 pits1 #bj2 ammonites and foraminifera in1 #bg2 period1 #ie2 under the ocean1 #bi1 #ii 8,challenger0 expedition1 #bg ,changes have been gradual1 #dc ,cissbury camp1 #acd ,clay1 ,london1 #ba1 #bb2 and mud1 #cc ,climate1 ,arctic1 and of coal formations1 #fg ,club-mosses1 #fa ,clothing1 #ach ,coal beds1 #ca2 in ,arctic regions1 #fg2 plants of the1 #fc2 is fossil wood1 #gc2 is sunlight compressed1 #cj ,colorado1 the people in1 #adb ,compressed plants1 #ae ,conclusion1 #afh ,cookery1 #acg ,corals1 #gh ,creation1 the plan of1 #aag ,cretaceous period1 #if ,cromagnon and ,engis1 caves of1 #afc ,dawn of life1 #ef2 plant1 #ei ,denudation1 #di1 #ej ,dinornis1 specimens of1 in ,british ,museum1 #aaf ,dinosaurus1 #hi ,dinotherium1 #aad ,drawings1 pre-historic1 #ace ,dwellings and food of men1 #acg ,early histories1 #abc2 plant life1 #ei ,earth1 early history of1 #a1 #b1 #c2 interior of1 #ah2 intense heat of1 #bd2 climate of1 #dh2 not yet fit for man1 #ge2 #8foraminifera earth'1 #cj ,earthquakes1 #ah1 #ai ,earthworks of ,ohio1 #afe ,easter island monuments1 #afd ,egypt1 monuments of1 #aff ,eodendron1 #ei ,eophyton1 #ei ,eozon1 #eg1 #gg ,first weapons1 #aba ,fish-lizards1 #he ,fishes1 fossil1 #ga ,flint1 origin of1 #ad2 in chalk1 #if2 weapons1 where found1 #aca2 tool manufactory1 #acd ,foraminifera1 #bj2 #8foraminifera earth'1 #cj2 drawings of1 #ig2 specimens of1 in ,british ,museum1 #ii ,forests under the sea1 #ge1 #gf ,fossil1 derivation of1 #aj2 plants1 #fa2 sunlight1 #gc2 footprints1 #hc2 human1 #aeg1 #aei ,food and dwellings1 #acg ,footprints1 fossil1 #hc ,flying reptiles1 #hi ,geological part1 #ag ,geology1 derivation of1 #ai ,geysers1 #ed ,gigantic animals1 #aja2 birds1 #aae ,glaciers and icebergs1 #dg ,granite1 raised1 #bc2 appearance of1 #bd ,gravel1 c41 #ce ,great ,irish ,stag1 drawing1 c41 of1 #ajh ,guadaloupe human fossil1 #aeg ,heat of the ,earth1 #c1 #ah ,hebrew letters1 #abe ,hesperornis1 #ib ,hippopotamus in ,england1 #aje ,histories1 early1 #abc ,human part1 the1 #abj2 fossils1 #aeg ,ice age1 #de2 more than one1 #dh ,icebergs and glaciers1 #dg ,ichthyornis1 #ib ,ichthyosaurus1 #he ,implements1 flint and stone1 in ,british ,museum1 #aca2 bronze1 #afb ,india1 elephants in1 #ade ,insects in coal forests1 #fd ,irish stag1 #ajg ,islands appear and disappear1 #ci ,jet1 #fi ,jurassic age1 #hi ,kangaroo1 fossil1 #aae ,kitchen-middens1 #aeb ,labyrinthodon1 #b ,lake-dwellers1 #adf2 dwellings in ,europe1 ,africa1 ,asia1 and ,new ,guinea1 #adi ,language1 origin of2 and of pre-historic man1 #aee ,laurentian rocks1 #eg ,lena river1 mammoth found1 #ajb ,life1 the dawn of1 #ef2 #8life-dawn animal'1 #eg ,lignite1 #fi ,lion1 ,english sabre-toothed1 #ajf ,mammalia1 #ajb ,mammoth1 #di1 #ajb-c2 bones of1 in ,siberia1 ,asia1 ,north ,america1 c42 drawing of1 on ivory1 #ace2 in ,essex1 #ajd2 skull of1 in ,british ,museum1 #ajd ,man and his works1 #aba2 his earliest inventions1 #abb2 mammoth1 mastodon1 reindeer1 c41 contemporary with1 #aaf2 pre-historic1 #abg1 #aca2 dwellings and food of1 #acg ,marsupial animal1 #ie ,mastodon1 #ajb2 in ,europe1 ,america1 ,india1 c41 #ajd2 in ,missouri1 #abh2 skeleton of1 in ,british ,museum1 #ajd ,megalosaurus1 #hi ,megatherium1 in ,south ,america1 #aaj2 drawing of1 #aab2 account of1 #aac2 skeleton of1 in ,british ,museum1 #aac ,mexican writings1 #abd ,middens1 kitchen1 #aeb-d2 makers1 life of1 #aec ,moa1 #aae-af ,monkeys1 fossil1 #ajb2 at ,gibraltar1 #ajb ,monuments of ,easter ,island1 #afd2 of ,egypt and ,assyria1 #aff ,mountains1 burning1 and covered with snow1 #ai ,moresby1 ,captain1 in ,new ,guinea1 #adc ,new ,guinea1 stone age of1 #adc ,new ,zealand dinornis1 #aae2 moa1 #aaf2 stone age of1 #adc ,nineveh and ,babylon1 ruins1 c41 of1 #afd1 #afe ,norway1 raised terraces of1 #ch ,ohio1 earthworks of1 #afe ,oolite1 #da1 #hf ,origin of language1 #aee ,papyrus writings1 #abe ,paris1 built of shells1 #ajj ,parts1 the1 are called fossils1 #aa ,past life1 the signs of1 #ac ,peat1 #gj ,plan of creation1 #aag ,plants of coal forests1 #fc ,plesiosaurus1 #he ,pottery1 #ada1 #adb ,pre-historic art1 #acc2 drawings1 #ace2 man1 #abg1 #aca2 weapons and tools1 #abi ,pterodactyl1 derivation of1 #hi2 description of1 #ij ,puzzle1 the framework of1 #a-af2 parts of1 where found1 #e ,pyrenees1 when raised1 #ajj ,rain-drops1 marks of1 #hd ,reindeer1 drawing of1 on slate1 #ace ,reptiles1 the age of1 #ha ,rhinoceros in ,england1 #aje ,rocks1 raising of the2 how placed1 #ba1 #be2 carried by ice1 #dh ,sandstone1 formation of1 #be1 #bf2 ,old ,red1 #fb1 #ha2 ,new ,red1 #gg ,slate hardened mud1 #ae ,sponges1 #ae1 #gh ,star-fish1 #gh ,stone age1 #abh2 first stone age1 #acg2 second1 #ach2 of ,new ,guinea and ,new ,zealand1 #adc1 #ade ,subsidence1 #cg ,succession of formations1 #da1 #db ,sucklers1 #ajb ,sunlight1 fossil1 #gc ,tertiary period1 #cd1 #ajj ,time1 the work of1 #afg ,tools1 polished and rough1 #aci ,trilobite1 #gh ,upheaval and depression1 #cf1 #ch ,vegetable part1 the1 #ef ,vertebrata1 #aja ,volcanoes and earthquakes1 #ai ,water1 a powerful tool of ,nature1 #cd1 #de2 thrown out of the earth1 #ed ,weapons1 early1 #aba2 and tools1 where found1 #aca ,whales1 #aja ,world1 early history of the1 #c1 #d2 size and shape1 #ag2 materials of1 #ag2 heat of1 #ah ,work1 the1 of time1 #afg ,writing1 origin of1 #abc2 ,mexican1 ,egyptian1 and ,assyrian1 #abd1 #abe2 on papyrus1 #abe2 by signs1 #abe ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,and ,,parliament ,,street ,,opinions ,,of ,,the ,,press4 #8,the present little work1 which is specially addressed to children1 is written in so pleasant and easy a style1 and its descriptions of life on the earth are on the whole so simple and accurate1 that we can heartily recommend it to the attention of those who seek such a guide4 ,the illustrations are good1 and the general appearance of the book such that it may compare most favourably with other primers of geology4' ,,geological ,,magazine4 #8,written in clear and simple style1 especially attractive to children4 ,it includes an account of pre-historic man1 and shows in many other ways that the writer is familiar with some of the latest phases of geological thought4' ,,academy4 #8,the avowed object of this charming little book is to place the results of these researches within the grasp of children1 by presenting them in language at once clear1 simple1 and winning4444 ,in this hard task ,mr4 ,,nicols has succeeded admirably1 without resorting to that base subterfuge--the attempt to clothe instruction in the guise of fiction4444 ,this is true education1 for it teaches children first to observe and then to reason4444 ,though the style of this delightful book is simple and childlike1 it is as far as possible removed from being childish4' ,,pall ,,mall ,,gazette4 #8,the language is plain1 the descriptions are lucid1 the illustrations apt1 and the broad facts of the science are very correctly stated4 ,the work1 too1 is free from all attempts at fine writing4444 ,we wish the book success as at any rate an attempt to lay before the young fact instead of fiction4' ,,quarterly ,,journal of ,,science4 #8,the book is a successful attempt to explain the simplest facts of geology1 and of the succession of life on the earth4' ,,westminster ,,review4 #8,the idea is a happy one1 and will recommend itself to children2 and we are bound to say that ,mr4 ,,nicols has carried out his idea remarkably well1 and produced a work which will do much to spread sound notions upon the gradual development of our earth and its inhabitants to the condition in which we now see them4444 ,we can safely recommend ,mr4 ,,nicols' little book as one that will have a most beneficial effect in opening the minds of its young readers4' ,,popular ,,science ,,review4 #8,this is a good little book1 cleverly written by an able geologist1 and well adapted for children4 ,we can recommend the volume as a present to any intelligent boy or girl4' ,,lancet4 #8,this book appears to be1 in style1 language1 and scope1 eminently adapted for its purpose1 which is to awaken among the little folks an interest 8in the history of life upon the earth10 and 8give them the taste for more extended study in after years40' ,,illustrated ,,london ,,news4 #88,though these pages are designed for young persons10 says the ,author1 8other readers1 perhaps1 who are not familiar with the subject1 may find some interest in them1 if they are not deterred by the necessarily simple style10--which1 we venture to say1 they most assuredly will not be4444 ,to many grown persons1 therefore1 as well as their descendants1 will this book be a great boon1 which1 if they are at all liberal-minded1 they will advocate as well as appreciate4444 ,like the ,science ,primers of ,professors ,huxley1 ,roscoe1 ,balfour ,stewart1 c41 if duly read and weighed1 it will tend to unravel and sweep away a deal of baneful superstition4' ,,land and ,,water4 #8,that ,mr4 ,,nicols has succeeded in the object he proposed to himself may be safely affirmed4 ,he has done his work briefly and lucidly1 and has produced a book capable of arresting the attention1 not only of children1 but of those from whom they receive their earlier lessons4' ,the ,,country4 #8,a perfect 8,open ,sesame0 for young scientific students1 and so cleverly composed as to make students of those who are not scientific3 not merely the young1 but older people too4 ,mr4 ,,nicols thoroughly understands his work4' ,,notes and ,,queries4 #8,easily and attractively written for young people4444 ,the treatment of so wide a subject1 and the condensing it into a volume of #aej pages is no light task4 ,we can1 however1 congratulate ,mr4 ,,nicols upon having accomplished it in so judicious1 perhaps1 better still1 so suggestive a manner2 and we have no doubt that his little book will become a well-worn favourite in the hands of all thoughtful and intelligent children who may be so fortunate as to possess it4' ,,engineer4 #8,the manner in which the pieces of the puzzle--fossils--are found1 put together1 and interpreted1 is related in language readily understood by children2 the description of the vegetable1 animal1 and human parts being peculiarly interesting4 ,the illustrations are the best of the kind with which we are acquainted4444 ,we strongly recommend it4' ,,schoolmaster4 #8,it is the puzzle as to the history of life on the earth unravelled in a manner to interest and enlighten the minds1 and to develop the observing and reflecting faculties of children4444 ,the results of costly and laborious investigations in many different branches of science are concentrated in these free and easy lessons or colloquial lectures to young children4444 ,calculated to arouse an interest in all but the dullest and most indifferent juvenile minds4444 ,will be found invaluable to teachers and a great help in the rational cultivation of the intelligence of the rising generation4' ,,school ,,board ,,chronicle4 #8,the statement of these facts1 though made with all the sobriety due to a scientific discourse1 has all the interest of a story for the young2 and the narrative1 if we mistake not1 will interest other readers than those for whom it is primarily written4 ,a word of commendation must be given to the illustrations1 which are exceedingly well drawn4' ,,educational ,,times4 #8,to place the 8simple truths of science0 in rivalry with fairy tales and merry picture-books is not so hopeless as at first sight may seem2 and certainly the simple1 attractive style in which the marvels of the physical world are here set out must not only interest1 but charm every bright child of eager intellect4 ,simplicity is observed to the utmost1 but it is the simplicity of truth1 so that the child is not interested at the expense of having afterwards to unlearn what he has read or listened to4' ,,liverpool ,,weekly ,,albion4 #8,mr4 ,,arthur ,,nicols has attempted a task which at first sight seems extremely difficult1 but which he has successfully achieved4444 ,children can scarcely help understanding and being interested in the wonderful story of the earth's crust1 and of past organic life upon it1 which he unfolds4 ,there is nothing childish about his style1 yet he writes with perfect simplicity4444 ,a better book to put into the hands of thoughtful children1 or for use as a text-book by persons engaged in the private tuition of the young1 it would be difficult to find4' ,the ,,scotsman4 #8,facts are stranger than any fancies which emanate from the writers of even fairy tales1 and when they can be brought home to youthful students by ocular demonstrations the facts are invariably preferred to the fancies4444 ,the illustrations which adorn the book are well drawn1 and sufficiently numerous for the purpose4444 ,the ,author is a genial and reliable guide to a solution of the puzzle of life4' ,,english ,,mechanic4 ,london1 ,,longmans ,,co4 ,transcriber's ,notes pg #bi ,changed3 ,for innumerable agest hese little creatures to3 ,for innumerable ages these little creatures pg #ia ,changed3 ,footnote #a3 ,wall-case ,no4 #aa in ,room ,,iii41 several specimens1 mperfect to3 ,footnote #a3 ,wall-case ,no4 #aa in ,room ,,iii41 several specimens1 imperfect pg #aca ,changed3 lived as that these flin weapons and tools to3 lived as that these flint weapons and tools