,,essays                                
,,towards                               
,,the ,,history ,,of ,,painting4        
,,essays                                
,,towards ,,the                         
,,history ,,of ,,painting4              
,,by ,,mrs4 ,,callcott4                 
,,london3                               
,,edward ,,moxon1 ,,dover ,,street4     
,,mdcccxxxvi4                           
,,london3                               
,,bradbury ,,and ,,evans1 ,,printers1   
,,whitefriars4                          
,,to ,,the ,,miss ,,warrens4      ,,my  
,,dear ,,young ,,friends1    ,when your 
excellent ,father suggested to me to    
engage in some little  work which should
 afford constant and steady employment1 
as the best  means of alleviating the   
wearisomeness of an increasing and      
incurable  disorder1 ,i hoped to have   
had the benefit of his advice during its
  progress4 ,it has pleased ,god that it
 should be otherwise1 and ,i have  had  
to mourn the premature loss of the most 

skilful physician and the  kindest      
friend4 ,yet ,i have followed his advice
 as far as my strength  has permitted4  
,one portion of the task he prescribed  
to me is done2 and  ,i offer it to you  
as a token of my gratitude to him4      
,should ,i live to go on with the second
 portion of the work1 it will1  perhaps1
 be more interesting to you in its      
nature4 ,this1 however1  ,i know you    
will receive affectionately1 when you   
remember at whose  desire it was begun1 
and think of the regard ,i have always  
felt towards  yourselves since ,i have  
known you4                              
,,maria ,,callcott4     ,june #ast1     
#ahcf4                                  
,,contents4                             
,,essay ,i4                             
,,page4    ,introduction4--,lectures on 
,painting4--,history of ,art displayed  
by its remains4--,object of the present 
,essays4--,origin of ,art4--,first      
mention of ,art in the ,book of         
,genesis4--,egyptian and ,chaldean      

,colonies4--,art among the              
,chinese4--,hindoo ,art4--,egyptian     
,art4--,second  ,colonization from      
,egypt4--,egyptian ,arts as practised by
 the  ,israelites4--,the ,ark of the    
,covenant and the ,golden               
,calf4--,hieroglyphical ,writing2 its   
effects upon ,art4--,egyptian           
,painting4--,pigments used by the       
,egyptians                              
#a                                      
,,essay ,,ii4                           
,,of ,,art ,,in ,,ancient ,,italy4      
,italy long a ,civilised ,nation before 
the existence of ,rome4--,the  ancient  
,etruscans4--,the useful ,nature of     
their ,works4--,their  ,tombs4--,those  
of ,chiusi4--,tarquinii and             
,vulscii4--,etruscan  ,vases4--,painted 
,tombs4--,early ,pictures mentioned  by 
,pliny4--,etruscan ,statues in          
,rome4--,roman  ,pictures4--,fabius     
,pictor4--,pacuvius4--,triumphal        
,pictures4--,pictures  used in ,law     
,suits4--,begging                       

,pictures4--,compliment  paid by        
,augustus to ,painting4--,first ,greek  
,pictures  brought to ,rome by          
,mummius4--,pictures brought to ,italy  
by different ,conquerors and placed in  
,temples and ,porticos4--,new  ,italian 
,school of ,pottery4--,schools of       
,painting in ,italy4--,no  good ,roman  
,painters4--,roman ,busts4--,mosaic     
,pictures4--,miniatures4--,books  first 
,illustrated with ,portraits by  ,varro 
and ,atticus4--,antique ,pictures found 
at ,pompeii4--,portrait  ,painting in   
,nero's ,time4--,gradual decay of ,art  
in ,italy                               
#dd                                     
,,essay ,,iii4                ,,of      
,,painting ,,in ,,greece1 ,,first ,,and 
,,second ,,series4    ,earliest         
,painting in ,greece4--,no relic of     
,greek ,pictures remaining4--,the  ,arts
 first cultivated at ,sicyon and        
,corinth4--,their rapid  improvement in 
,greece4--,art in ,asia ,minor4--,vases 
of ,clay  and of ,metal4--,the first    

,greek ,painters4--,progress of         
,painting up  to the time of            
,phidias4--,the ,works of               
,mycon4--,those of ,polygnotus4--,the   
,battle of ,marathon4--,the ,pictures of
 ,delphi4--,apollodorus4--,improvements 
made by him in ,art4--,further          
,improvements made by ,pamphilus4--,and 
still further by ,parrhasius4--,his     
,pictures and ,character4--,zeuxis1  his
 ,pictures4--,timanthes1 his            
,pictures4--,colotes                    
#he                                     
,,essay ,,iv4                  ,,of     
,,the ,,third ,,period ,,of ,,painting  
,,in ,,greece4    ,macedonian ,kings    
,encouragers of                         
,art4--,philip4--,alexander4--,pamphilus
  and ,school of ,sicyon4--,pictures of 
,pamphilus4--,apelles4--,his            
,character4--,his ,pictures4--,his      
,danger in ,egypt4--,his ,picture  of   
,calumny4--,his ,visit to               
,protogenes4--,the ,venus               
,anadyomene4--,protogenes4--,his        

,pictures4--,aristides of ,thebes4--,his
  ,pictures4--,nichomachus4--,his       
,pictures4--,pausias4--,his ,picture of 
the  ,garland ,maker4--,other           
,pictures4--,euphranor4--,antiphilus4--,
familiar ,life                          
,subjects4--,pyreicus4--,interiors1     
animals1 c4--,minor                     
,painters4--,nicias4--,timomachus4--,his
 ,medea4--,conclusion              #acg 
,,essay ,v4                             
,,classification ,,of ,,pictures4       
,inconveniences of the present ,mode of 
,classing ,pictures4--,proposed         
,classification4--,historical ,pictures 
,divisible into  ,four                  
,classes4--,further                     
,subdivision4--,present ,class of       
,dramatic  ,pictures divided into       
two4--,three ,classes of ,portrait      
,painting4--,two ,classes of ,familiar  
,life ,subjects4--,landscape1  its ,four
 ,classes4--,two ,classes of ,animal    
,painting4--,examples  taken from       
,ancient and ,modern ,pictures4--,table 

of ,cebes4--,calumny  of ,apelles4--,old
 ,fresco at ,sienna4--,allegories of    
the ,greek ,painters4--,of              
,giotto4--,prophets and                 
,sybils4--,sistine  ,chapel4--,works of 
,polygnotus4--,some ,works of           
,raffaelle4--,other ,pictures of        
,polygnotus4--,hemelink's  ,three       
,kings4--,cimabue's and ,giotto's ,lives
 of ,st4 ,francis  and the              
,virgin4--,raffaelle's ,loggie4--,luini 
,frescoes4--,andrea  del                
,sarto4--,domenichino4--,pictures of    
,single ,actions  by the                
,ancients4--,many ,examples by the      
,moderns4--,dramatic  ,pictures of the  
,ancients4--,of the                     
,moderns4--,historical  ,portraits and  
,examples4--,familiar ,life ,pictures of
 the  ,ancients4--,of the               
,moderns4--,examples of the ,four       
,classes  of ,landscapes4--,animal      
,painters ,ancient and ,modern          
#afi                                    
,,essay ,,vi4                      ,,on 

,,the ,,materials ,,used ,,by           
,,painters4    ,introduction4--,early   
,pictures1 in ,egypt and ,etruria1 on   
bare  ,sandstone4--,painting on fine    
,plaster or ,stucco4--,on ,wood1        
prepared4--,kinds of ,wood4--,manner of 
,preparing it by  ,ancients and         
,moderns4--,painting on ,linen4--,its   
,antiquity4--,its  use4--,when          
revived4--,pigments4--,vulgar ,error    
concerning  the ,number of ,colours used
 by the ,ancient ,greeks4--,its         
,refutation4--,white ,pigments of the   
,ancients4--,middle                     
,ages4--,moderns4--,yellows4--,reds1    
especially vermilion4--,minium4--,the   
,red ,ochres4--,dragons' ,blood4--,blue 
,colours4--,ultra ,marine4--,the ,blue  
of ,egypt4--,blues used by ,early       
,modern ,painters4--,blue ,earths and   
,indigo1 ,ancient and ,modern4--,green  
,colours1 ,native and                   
,manufactured4--,blacks of the ,ancients
 and ,moderns4--,purples and            
,browns4--,vehicles used by             

,painters4--,difficulty of the          
subject4--,asphaltum1 ,petroleum1 ,wax1 
and ,oil1 used as ,varnishes by the     
,ancients4--,encaustic                  
,painting4--,vehicles certainly known   
to the ,ancients4--,the ,vehicles used  
in the ,tenth ,century1  in the         
,thirteenth1 and by the                 
,moderns4--,metal ,points  used for     
,drawing by the ,ancients4--,the        
,egyptian ,drawings1  made with a ,pen  
or fine ,pencil4--,the ,tools of ,hogs' 
,bristles  have always been the         
same4--,fine ,pencils made of           
,squirrels'  hair in the ,twelfth       
,century4--,conclusion                  
#bag                                    
,,essays4                               
,,essays                                
,,towards                               
,,the ,,history ,,of ,,painting4        
,,essay ,i4     ,the ,historical and    
,literary knowledge of an ,art is1 for  
the learned1   and for ,artists1 what   
maps are for the ,warrior1 the          

,traveller1 and the   ,sailor4          
,,raspe4      ,to write such a book upon
 any art as should be eminently useful  
to  the professors of that art1 as      
instructing them in methods whereby     
they may improve their practice1 and    
avoid the difficulties they have  to    
encounter1 or gracefully evade them1    
would require the hand of a  consummate 
artist1 who1 to great practice1 should  
join large knowledge  of his subject1   
and a minute acquaintance with the      
materials upon whose  nature more of    
practical success depends1 than         
enthusiasts in art are  willing to own4 
,besides1 he should possess sufficient  
learning to  communicate the experience 
of past ages1 for the improvement of    
this2  and a good taste and acquaintance
 with general literature1 to adorn  his 
subject with the graces that all arts   
may borrow from each other1  becoming   
always richer in proportion as they draw
 from their common  treasury1 ,nature4  
,to write a work of just criticism1 upon

 a peculiar art1 the author  should no  
less be a professor1 whose practice     
might exemplify his  criticism1 or at   
any rate might enable him justly to     
appreciate the  merits and defects of   
the peculiar works which he should      
choose as  subjects on which to found   
his criticisms4    ,the lectures of ,sir
 ,joshua ,reynolds made art popular in  
this country1  less because they        
contained excellent precepts and        
well-chosen  examples1 than because1    
like ,johnson's criticism in the ,lives 
of  the ,poets1 they laid open the      
general principles applicable to all    
the arts4 ,poetry and music1 painting   
and sculpture1 architecture  and        
landscape-gardening1 may equally profit 
by them1 the passages  peculiarly       
appropriated to painters being far from 
the most numerous1  though such as none 
but a painter could have written4       
,fuseli appears to be more exclusively a
 critic in his own art4 ,he  had        
prodigious practice in his own wild     

walk1 wherein1 however1 even  he often  
mistook the glare of caprice for the    
light of genius4 ,he had  great         
learning1 the effect of which he injured
 by affectation and  quaintness1 yet    
there are exquisite passages in his     
lectures1 which  will always be read    
with profit and delight both by artists 
and lovers  of art4    ,the practical   
lectures delivered or published by other
 authors1 some  living1 and some whose  
loss we have to lament1 have not been   
popular1  chiefly because they were most
 properly composed for the use of       
artists4 ,and when we consider that they
 have been for the most part the  works 
of men whose lives were passed in the   
most laborious department  of a         
,profession that demands constant       
application1 namely portrait  painting1 
it is surprising how much they did in   
those hours which  nature might have    
claimed as due to rest and relaxation4  
,but such is  the advantage possessed by
 a professor1 when writing on the art be

  practises and understands4    ,i am   
aware that a certain class of           
connoisseurs1 amateurs1 or  enthusiasts 
have lately put forth1 perhaps ,i should
 say revived1 the  strange opinion that 
a practical artist is of all men the    
least fit to  judge of art1 and that it 
belongs to them1 that is the            
connoisseurs  only1 to judge of his     
work4 ,i believe this notion to have    
lurked in  secret in the bosom of many  
an amateur for centuries back2 but it   
required the fostering hand of ,german  
enthusiasm to publish it1 as an  axiom1 
to the world2 and to write books upon   
the absurd notion1 that  those who know 
nothing practically of a subject1 are   
the best judges  and instructors        
concerning it4    ,apelles had different
 notions2 for while he bade the         
shoemaker stick  to his last1 he took   
his advice about the sandals of his     
,venus4    ,in truth1 to use the words  
of the wisest of modern men1 8the       
labours of  speculative men1 in active  

matters1 seem to men of experience1     
little  better than ,phormio's          
discourses of war2 which seemed to      
,hannibal as  dreams and dotage#a40     
,if mere lovers of art will1            
nevertheless1 devote their thoughts and 
pens to her enchanting service1 ,i think
 they may do an acceptable  office1 even
 to painters themselves1 by collecting  
what is1 or has been  known of her      
progress1 following up her history from 
the first faint  traces of her path     
among savage tribes1 to her majestic    
footsteps in  the flourishing states of 
,greece2 nor losing sight of her        
entirely in  her sad hours of           
degradation under ,imperial ,rome1 and  
finally watching  over her gentle though
 slow revival under the brilliant sun of
 ,italy4    ,there is a kind of history 
of art which has been successfully      
cultivated3 ,i mean that which addresses
 itself directly to the eye  by a       
chronological display of the remaining  
works of art in the  great publications 

of ,monfaucon1 ,dagincourt1 ,micali1 and
 the various  archological works of     
different societies#b4 ,but these are   
books  of such price as must always     
render them difficult of access2 and1   
unfortunately1 the descriptions attached
 to the prints seldom admit of          
separation2 and are1 in general1 written
 too dully to interest1 or so  much in  
the spirit of controversy as to render  
them disagreeable4    ,such history can 
never become popular4 ,there remains1   
however1 open1 an  unpretending path1   
yet untrodden1 by which those who love  
art may be  led sufficiently near her   
temple to enjoy her beauties1 understand
 her  virtues1 and be blessed by her    
happy influence1 without encroaching on 
the province of her professed servants1 
or engaging in combat with her  false or
 mistaken friends1 or avowed enemies4   
,tis this path that ,i would pursue1 and
 take along with me those of my  sex and
 country who love the good and the      
beautiful1 and who likewise  love to    

look up through them1 to the fountain of
 all goodness1 and to  the ,author of   
all beauty4    ,a great deal of time and
 much temper have been wasted1 in       
disputes  concerning the native country 
of the arts4 ,china1 ,upper ,india1 and 
,egypt1 have been perhaps the favourites
 of the learned1 though there  have not 
been wanting champions for the claims of
 ,western ,asia1 and  even ,greece4     
,but1 if we could trace all the arts1   
whether springing from the primary      
wants1 or the mere desires and wishes of
 man1 to one original inventor1  we     
should not be much the forwarder4 ,as   
mankind increased1 and formed  separate 
nations1 these arts would naturally and 
necessarily vary1 in  order to          
accommodate themselves to climates and  
circumstances4 ,and we  are as little   
likely to fix1 with any thing like      
certainty1 on the  native country of    
painting or sculpture1 as to discover   
that of the  various kinds of grain1    
which in all ages have formed the       

principal  food of civilized men4 ,the  
discovery of the great ,western ,world1 
long  enough after the art of printing1 
to secure whatever memorials might  be  
written concerning the state of its     
inhabitants1 opened to us a  monument of
 the early condition of all mankind1 a  
thousand times more  instructive than   
pillars of marble or of brass4    ,the  
,spaniards found in ,florida one species
 of grain1 cultivated and  used for     
bread1 in the same way1 and in as much  
ignorance of its  origin1 as wheat in   
the ,old ,world3 and in many provinces1 
a substitute  for the finer grains was  
used1 requiring infinitely more         
ingenuity  in its preparation1 and of   
the origin of which the natives knew so 
little1 as to look upon it as the gift  
of a benevolent enchanter#c4  ,in       
,mexico and ,peru they found many arts  
considerably advanced4 ,the  smelting1  
casting1 embossing1 engraving of metals2
 the making of  very fine pottery2 the  
chiselling of the hardest stones and    

marbles4  ,there1 too1 was painting     
practised1 not as a mere luxury1 but as 
a  matter of prime necessity4 ,for the  
nations were still so young as not  to  
have discovered alphabetical writing2   
therefore1 painting1 mixed  with a      
variety of conventional signs1 almost   
amounting to hieroglyphic  characters1  
was used1 to record the history of the  
nations1 the  transactions of the       
priests and merchants1 and the decisions
 of the  laws#d4    ,since that great   
first discovery1 many and various tribes
 have been  gradually revealed to us1   
none so savage as not to have discovered
 some  longing after arts1 beyond those 
absolutely necessary to existence4  ,the
 cloth of the ,sandwich ,islander was   
stamped with mimic leaves and  branches4
 ,the clubs1 darts1 and hatchets of the 
,new ,zealanders were  covered with     
flowers and foliage2 and not            
unfrequently we find on them  an attempt
 at the human form4    ,the fences of   
the ,morais presented1 on many of the   

poles1 a human head1  grossly cut       
indeed1 but still bearing the impress of
 man's imitative  genius4    ,instances 
of this sort might be multiplied2 but   
for the present ,i have  named enough   
for my purpose1 which is1 to prove that 
it is unnecessary  to trace the arts    
from country to country1 or from house  
to house1 to  give them1 as it were1 a  
formal genealogy2 but that we may expect
 to  find that1 circumstances being     
tolerably alike1 the fine arts will     
spring up in all nations as they advance
 in civilization4    ,the progress of   
art is a separate question1 and must    
have been  influenced by many           
circumstances not naturally connected   
with it4 ,hence  we see it in one nation
 beginning in splendour and advancing   
rapidly  for a time2 when suddenly it is
 stopped as by an enchanter's wand3 the 
handicraft may improve1 but the form1   
character1 and spirit1 remain  for ever 
fixed4 ,in another1 on the contrary1 it 
advances1 firm and  free3 every age     

improves it3 and its career is only cut 
short when the  nation itself sinks     
before a foreign conqueror6             
,differently again1 but still influenced
 by the circumstances of  society1 we   
have beheld the arts almost touching    
upon perfection and  then withering1 by 
slow and sickly decay1 till all that    
ennobled them  has disappeared1 and they
 seem fitted for nothing but to adorn   
the  ephemeral trophies of fashion or   
caprice4    ,having thus so far cleared 
the ground1 ,i will endeavour to collect
 the  scattered notices concerning art1 
in the most ancient times1 and among    
the most anciently civilized nations2   
and so prepare the way for more         
connected details1 when we reach the    
period of common history4    ,the book  
of ,genesis names one of the great      
grandsons of ,cain1 as the  first who   
wrought and graved on metal1 and another
 as the inventor of  musical            
instruments1--a proof that the arts were
 cultivated in very  early stages of    

civilization#e4    ,again1 within four  
centuries after the flood1 we find that 
men had made  images of wood1 and stone1
 and metal1 to worship4 ,they had not   
only  built them cities1 but they had   
tasted of the barbarous civilities  of  
war2 they had erected trophies2 poets   
had extolled the exploits of  heroes2   
and sculptors had already fashioned     
their images1 to adore4  ,constant      
tradition names ,terah1 the father of   
,abraham1 as a maker of  images2 and    
that the worship of them continued in   
his family for nearly  two hundred      
years1 notwithstanding the call and     
conversion of ,abraham1  is proved by   
,rachel's theft of the images of ,laban1
 when she left her  father's house to   
accompany her husband to the land of    
,canaan4    ,but1 if we may believe     
,greek and ,egyptian tradition1 more    
than a  century before the call of      
,abraham1 a colony had been planted at  
,sicyon1 by an ,egyptian leader1        
gialeus1#f who brought with him the     

knowledge of sculpture and painting1 and
 founded the earliest and  purest school
 of ,greek art4    ,another civilized   
colony1 from ,egypt1 soon settled in    
,greece4 ,inachus  founded the city of  
,argos1 while ,abraham was still an     
idolater1 in ,ur4    ,at this period1   
,egypt and ,chaldea both seem to have   
sent out colonies  on every side1 and   
history and tradition alike point to    
this period  also1 as that of the       
invention of alphabetical writing3 or1  
at any  rate1 its establishment in a    
great part of the then civilized world4 
,the claims of the ,egyptian ,memnon and
 the ,phnician ,cadmus to the           
invention1 appear to be equally and     
entirely without foundation2 and        
,pliny's notion that it had existed from
 the beginning1 in ,chaldea and  the    
adjacent countries1 is supported1 by a  
very remarkable passage in  the book of 
,joshua#g4    ,on the victorious march  
of the ,israelites1 under ,joshua       
himself1 to  ,palestine1 we find he took

 ,debir2 i4e4 the place of an oracle or 
wise  discourse4 ,the name of the town  
was before ,kirjath ,sepher1 or city  of
 books or of letters2 therefore books   
and letters were ancient1 in  that      
country1 in ,joshua's time4#h ,that     
pictures and sculpture were so          
likewise1 ,i infer from the command     
given in ,numbers1 xxxiii4 #eb1 to      
destroy the pictures and molten images  
of the natives of ,palestine4    ,if any
 reliance is to be placed on the annals 
of ,china and of ,india1  civilization  
and its attendant arts were at least as 
early with them as  with ,egypt and     
,chaldea1 each claiming the priority1   
and each pretending  to have been the   
teacher of the rest of the world1 on    
equally plausible  grounds4    ,there is
 no doubt of the antiquity of ,indian   
civilization4 ,the ancient  ,greek      
writers talk of the ,indian             
philosophers1 as belonging to a nation  
highly polished1 before a grain of corn 
had been sown in ,greece2 and  the      

pretensions of ,china are supported by  
the ,indians themselves4    ,i have said
 thus much of the general civilization  
of these nations1  because ,i could not 
separate it from the cultivation of the 
arts4 ,i  will now keep closer to my    
subject1 reserving1 however1 the liberty
 of  digressing wherever ,i see         
occasion1 or1 in other words1 whenever  
it  suits my humour4    ,as ,i take it1 
the ,chinese remain1 more nearly than   
any other people1 in  the state in which
 they were two or three thousand years  
ago1 and are1  for their age1 the       
veriest babes that inhabit the earth4 ,i
 will begin  with them1 and see what    
their proficiency in art has ever       
amounted to4    ,it is plain from their 
written signs1 for alphabet they have   
none3  that in early times1 they1 like  
the ,mexicans1 exerted their powers of  
imitation to represent in painting1     
events1 the memory of which they  wished
 to preserve4 ,on dissecting the hundred
 and seventeen elementary  characters1  

whose endless combinations represent    
their language1 it is  not difficult to 
trace the rude forms of men1 birds1     
quadrupeds1 fish1  houses1 trees1 hills1
 and so forth2 and in the very oldest   
writings1  before the circular forms    
were rejected altogether1 these shapes  
were  still more distinct#i4    ,we may 
naturally expect that1 as long as       
painting is thus used1  convenience     
alone would require the once admitted   
forms and colours  to be invariable1 and
 that precautions would be taken against
  innovation1 even for improvement1 lest
 the painted pages should  become       
unintelligible4 ,but the ,chinese had   
advanced far beyond that4  ,their       
characters approach1 even more nearly   
than hieroglyphics1 to  alphabetical    
writing1 and yet their art remained     
stationary and at  a very low point4 ,it
 is very difficult to account for this  
among so  ingenious a people4 ,it was   
not that the ,tartar conquest1 by any   
direct  influence1 lessened their       

civilization or stopped their progress4 
,we  have undeniable witnesses to the   
contrary1 in the ,chinese histories1 as 
interpreted by the missionaries and     
other learned orientalists2 and1  what  
is still more curious and satisfactory1 
in the writings of ,marco  ,paulo1 who  
accompanied the ,tartar conqueror on his
 expedition4    ,the religion of the    
,chinese1 as ,bhuddhists1 is assuredly  
not calculated  to call forth the genius
 of painting4 ,the insipid ,goorus do   
not1 like  the gods of the ,hindoo or   
,greek mythologies1 present subjects for
  fancy to play with2 and the statues of
 ,bhud1 while they have all the         
stiffness1 have none of the grandeur of 
the ,egyptian gods4    ,perhaps1 as the 
,chinese have always been a commercial  
nation1 they  contented themselves with 
cultivating the art of painting1 just so
 far  as to decorate their exquisite    
porcelain and lacquered ware for the    
market1 and sought after nothing more4  
,they had certainly attained to great   

manual dexterity1 and the power  of     
copying servilely whatever inanimate    
subjects were before them2 and  they had
 discovered the method of extracting    
colours from metallic  substances1      
capable of bearing the furnace1 as well 
as those of more  obvious use1 in the   
chalks and earths of their country3     
besides some  of the finest varnishes in
 existence4 ,we ought not to marvel that
  they did not attain1 in their         
painting1 to common1 much less ideal    
beauty1 when we reflect on the general  
character of form1 in their own  nation 
or their ,tartar conquerors1 which is   
very far below that of the  ,indians and
 their western neighbours4 ,and we have1
 perhaps1 no right  to expect better    
human shapes than that of the portly    
mandarin and his  crimp-footed lady1    
upon their plates and dishes4 ,but their
 animals1  whether painted1 modelled in 
clay1 or cast in metal1 are little less 
distorted than their men3 and as to     
perspective1 linear1 or arial1  they    

seem to have no sense of either#aj4 ,in 
flowers and birds1 their  pencilling is 
delicate1 and often true to admiration2 
but1 even in  these objects1 except in  
treatises on botany or ornithology1     
their  peculiar taste breaks out in     
monstrous combinations of leaves and    
flowers1 that never grew in the same    
soil2 and of beaks and wings1  that were
 never hatched in the same nest4    ,the
 ,japanese appear to have carried many  
arts to much greater  perfection than   
the ,chinese2 and even in painting1 the 
very old ,japan  figures approach nearer
 in style to beauty and a certain sort  
of  greatness4    ,but the reading of   
one ,chinese novel or drama1 such1 for  
instance1  as the 8,fortunate           
,alliance10 or 8,the ,adventures of the 
,fair ,shuey  ,ping ,sing1 and the      
,chalk ,ring10 or 8,le ,cercle de       
,craie10 must satisfy  us that1 whatever
 progress that nation may have made in  
science1 or  whatever sagacity it may   
have displayed in internal government or

  in commerce1 a true taste for the     
liberal arts has never ennobled  its    
other pursuits1 or charmed the leisure  
of its philosophers and  statesmen4     
,i do not mean to say that they neither 
look at pictures nor listen to  music3  
but those pictures and that music differ
 so widely in taste and  quality from   
what the greater number of civilized    
nations are agreed in  admiring1 that ,i
 feel justified in considering them as  
insensible to  that standard of taste   
which all the rest of the world         
acknowledges4    ,was ,india then the   
mother of the arts8 and1 among her many 
claims to  distinction can she1 with    
justice1 advance that of having         
instructed  ,egypt and anticipated the  
splendours of ,babylon8    ,it might be 
expected that the remaining works of    
art1 in that most  ancient nation1 might
 decide the question4 ,but far from it4 
,nor does  history or tradition throw   
any trust-worthy light on the subject4  
,the most ancient monuments of ,egypt   

bear a certain resemblance to some  of  
those of ,india1 and what we know of the
 religion of both countries  indicates1 
that1 in some most remote period1 their 
mysteries and rites  had a close        
resemblance4 ,yet1 on some material     
points1 such as their  funeral          
ceremonies1 the difference seems to have
 been so decided that  we are forced to 
conclude that they were of different    
sects1 emanating1  possibly1 from a     
common source4    ,it is curious1 that  
the figures of ,bhud1 whether on the    
continent of  ,india1 or the island of  
,ceylon1 or in ,china1 should present   
the form1  and curled woolly hair of a  
,southern ,african4 ,but the ,bhuddhists
 of  ,india do not appear to have       
produced better works1 in sculpture1    
than  those of ,china4 ,the ,brahmins1  
on the contrary1 have left1 besides     
magnificent architectural monuments1 in 
their caverns1 in which  they are       
rivalled by the ,bhuddhists1 pieces of  
sculpture1 of a very  different         

character from theirs1 where there is   
occasionally grandeur1  and1 not        
unfrequently1 freedom and grace4 ,no    
one1 who has seen the  colossal head of 
the ,trimurti1 in ,elephanta1 can deny  
the grandeur1  almost the sublimity1 of 
that strange work2 and the compartments 
of the  same temple-cavern are examples 
of a gracious feeling of nature4 ,the   
sculptured rock1 at ,mavellipoor1 or    
,mahabalipoor1 called the ,tapas1  or   
,penance of ,arjoon1 is a further       
example of freedom and taste2 and  the  
figures of the elephants1 and other     
animals1 attendant on the holy          
penitent1 are designed with the greatest
 truth4 ,the deformities1 almost        
constant in ,egypt1 of placing the heads
 of animals on men's shoulders1  because
 the qualities of those animals were    
figurative of the  attributes of the    
deities1 are added to by the ,hindoos1  
who1 regarding  the human hand as the   
symbol of power1 have accordingly       
multiplied the  hands of the gods4    ,i

 shewed the late ,mr4 ,flaxman some     
drawings of the sculptured rocks of     
,mahabalipoor3 he was struck with the   
freedom and expression of several  of   
the figures1 in which there was an      
evident attempt to imitate  nature1 and 
especially he was pleased with the      
expression of the  courtiers of ,bali1  
in the design of the ,vamuna ,avater4   
,i must observe that at ,mavellipoor1   
within a circuit of less than two       
miles1 there are1 besides the ruins of  
several large temples1 built of  hewn   
stone1 eight ,monothelite temples3      
small#aa1 but all differing in  form1   
richly and capriciously ornamented2     
several caverns1 on the walls  of which 
there are many mythological subjects    
carved in high relief1  some of the     
figures being seven feet high2 and the  
sculptured rock of  ,arjoon1 which ,i   
have already mentioned4    ,yet1 in most
 of these works1 the execution is       
coarse1 as if the  material had been too
 stubborn for the tools of the workman4 

,i am told  that this defect does not   
exist in some other of the cavern       
temples of  ,india1 but it runs through 
all that ,i have seen4    ,of the       
painting of the ,hindoos1 no specimen of
 anything like ancient  times has been  
preserved#ab2 though1 from their        
undoubtedly ancient  poems and plays1 it
 is certain that they did paint1 and    
that their  pictures were not only      
single portraits1 but compositions1 both
 of what  we call history and familiar  
life#ac4    ,who1 indeed1 can read ,sir 
,william ,jones's pleasant abridgement  
of the  ,hindoo mythology1 his          
translation of ,sacontala1 or the hymn  
to ,camdeo1  and not perceive that the  
,indians wanted neither imagination1 nor
  subjects to exercise it upon1 in their
 religion and poetry8    ,but their     
florid religion1 and exaggerated songs1 
were of later date1  in all probability1
 than that grave and philosophical faith
 which gave  the ,brahmins their        
reputation in ,greece and ,egypt2 and1  

perhaps1 their  more natural pieces of  
sculpture and their pictures belong to  
that  later time rather than to the age 
of the gymnosophists2 or if the  ,indian
 arts furnished examples to ,egypt or   
,chaldea1 we must seek those  examples  
in the hewn rocks1 which represent      
figures nearly as large  as the         
,egyptian ,memnon1 with their hands     
attached to their sides1 and  their feet
 planted together1 and of which some few
 still exist1 within  the ,peninsula1   
and on the ,indian side of the borders  
of ,tartary#ad4    ,what do we know of  
the arts of ,chaldea1 in very early     
times#ae8  ,babylon and ,nineveh have1  
for thousands of years1 been buried in  
utter ruin2 and if here and there a     
bauble1 such as the signet of a         
,satrap1 or the breast-pin of a lady1 be
 picked up1 however delicately  the     
cornelian or the onyx may be chiselled1 
the forms are stiff and  angular1 and   
nothing displays the freedom and grace  
that render art  valuable4 ,the great   

sculptured rocks met with in various    
parts of  modern ,persia1 have          
everywhere the same character4 ,but1    
upon the whole  however1 there is a     
graver and more majestic air than in the
 monuments  of ,india1 and a much       
greater dexterity of hand is displayed  
in the  workmanship1 but there is less  
nature in the design4    ,as to         
painting1 in that country1 there are    
neither relics nor  memorials1 of       
earlier date than our ra#af4    ,it is  
with reverence1 not unmixed with awe1   
that ,i approach the subject  of        
,egyptian art3 and here1 as in ,india   
and the intermediate countries1  ,i must
 consider its sculpture as the only     
satisfactory monument4 ,i am  aware that
 coloured subjects1 by courtesy called  
pictures1 have been  discovered on the  
walls of tombs and caverns1 by persons  
well qualified  to examine and          
pronounce1 as antiquaries1 on their     
meaning and their  merit4    ,but they  
are1 in composition1 entirely           

sculpturesque2 and many of them  are1 in
 fact1 coloured basso-relievos4         
,belzoni told me he had seen1 in ,egypt1
 figures in relief wrought in  stucco on
 the walls of some of the catacombs1    
which were coloured in  simple unbroken 
colours4 ,to these he ascribed a        
marvellous effect1  and said1 they were 
the grandest pictures he had seen4 ,such
 also1  ,i remember1 was the language   
used by my enthusiastic friend ,kestner1
  when1 in #ahbg1 he described to me the
 tombs of ,egyptian character1  opened  
the year before at ,tarquinii1 in the   
country of the ancient  ,etruscans4     
,i can imagine readily that in the      
chambers of the dead1 the plain form    
shadowed out in a simple colour1 and    
lighted by the glare of torches1  may   
have had an awful and ghostly character2
 and if these figures were  of the size 
of life1 or larger1 and further aided by
 the varying tints  afforded by a low   
relief1 as the torches glared upon them1
 a describer  could hardly be charged   

with exaggeration1 whatever effects he  
might  impute to them4    ,still these  
are not pictures1 though the artists    
approached nearly to  picturesque design
 in many of the chiselled figures on the
 walls of the  temples and tombs of     
,thebes1 where the attacking and        
defending towns1  the triumphs of a     
victorious king1 the punishment of      
rebels1 and other  historical facts1 are
 rendered with considerable spirit1 and 
convey  a notion that their authors     
might have become painters1 had they not
  been restrained by custom from change 
or progress4 ,these could not1  however1
 be the beginnings of art4 ,they mark   
already a very advanced  state of       
society1 since such great works of      
ornament could be required  and         
executed2 and they1 it seems1 were      
ancient when ,herodotus visited  ,egypt 
#dej years before our era#ag4    ,but we
 have more authentic documents in favour
 of the antiquity of the  arts in       
,egypt1 even than those afforded by the 

father of ,greek history4  ,fifteen     
centuries before ,herodotus travelled   
into ,egypt1 ,abraham had  been         
entertained there by a powerful king1   
who gave him gifts1 such  as only the   
head of a people already conversant with
 many arts could  bestow4 ,the whole    
history of ,joseph's life in ,egypt#ah  
bears witness  to the progress already  
made there in civility and the arts of  
polished  life4    ,could we read the   
inscription freely1 which covers the    
obelisk of  ,mataryah1 the only remains 
of the stately ,heliopolis1 the ,on of  
,scripture1 perhaps we might find some  
record of that high priest who  gave his
 daughter in marriage to the ,hebrew    
governor4    ,both sacred#ai and profane
 history#bj fix upon the two centuries  
between #afjj and #adjj before ,christ1 
as the period when a prodigious         
movement took place in ,egypt1 and when 
great works were undertaken by  the     
kings1 and important colonies led forth 
into the western parts of  ,asia1 and   

into ,greece4    ,i have already        
mentioned the foundation of ,argos and  
,sicyon1 said to  have taken place      
nearly #fjj years before the period of  
which ,i am now  speaking4 ,they were1  
therefore1 flourishing states when      
,cecrops#ba1  the ,egyptian1 taught the 
people of ,attica to sow corn1 instead  
of  trusting to the precarious chances  
of the seasons in bringing forth  wild  
fruits1 or the still more uncertain     
product of the chase2 and  chose for the
 patroness of his new colony the goddess
 to whom his  native city ,sas was      
consecrated2 ,minerva or ,bubastis4 ,the
 rich country  of ,asia ,minor had not  
been more backward than ,egypt in the   
earlier  times2 nor afterwards less     
forward than ,greece in receiving       
colonies4  ,in the time of ,abraham1    
,damascus was a market1 where slaves#bb 
were  sold2 and forty years after       
,cecrops had founded ,athens1 ,scamander
  settled a colony in ,troy4            
,scarcely a hundred years#bc after the  

,egyptians had carried their  arts and  
their religion into ,attica1 we find the
 first ,panathenaic  procession         
mentioned1 when the whole people of     
,athens solemnly  dedicated themselves  
to the service of the goddess ,athena or
 ,minerva1  and to that of their        
country1 and bore before them to her    
temple her  banner1 or veil1 formed of  
fine linen1 and embroidered with        
subjects  relative to her history or her
 attributes4    ,the fine arts were     
therefore known in ,attica at this early
 time2 for  whether the peplos or veil  
were wrought in ,attica1 or imported    
from  ,sas1 those who followed the      
banner could not be blind to the designs
  and colours that adorned it4 ,it was  
about this time that ,cadmus brought    
from the ,eastern countries to ,greece  
the knowledge of alphabetical  writing2 
at this time1 when ,minos gave his laws 
to ,crete2 while  ,danaus1 believed to  
be an ,egyptian prince1 reigned at      
,argos1 and  ,erichthonius in ,athens2  

that ,rameses was ,phrah1 or king of1 at
 least1  ,northern ,egypt4 ,he had      
caused the descendants of ,abraham to   
build for  him the treasure cities of   
,rameses and ,pithom#bd2 and in his     
reign  ,moses led forth the ,israelites1
 to escape from his tyranny1 into the   
land promised to their forefathers4     
,before ,i say anything concerning the  
arts of ,egypt alone1 or the  changes   
they underwent in different soils1 and  
under different  circumstances1 ,i must 
point out the only minute account we    
have1 that  can be relied upon1 of any  
peculiar works executed by any of the   
various tribes who at that time         
separated themselves from their nursing 
mother4 ,i mean the ark of the covenant1
 fashioned by the direction of  ,moses  
in the wilderness1 and the contemporary 
golden calf and brazen  serpent4    ,and
 here we have1 as far as ,i know1 the   
names of the two most ancient  artists  
recorded3 ,aholiab and ,bezaleel1 whom  
the ,scripture calls the  wise in heart2

 but they had many assistants1 and it   
appears that ,aaron  himself was a      
skilful workman4    ,the arts required  
for the making of the ark and the       
erection of the  tabernacle were the    
preparing and dying of skins2 the       
weaving of fine  linen2 the fine dyes1  
blue1 scarlet1 red1 and purple2         
designing for  the embroiderers#be1 who 
wrought the pomegranates1 the flowers1  
and  the leaves2 every variety of       
carving in wood2 casting and chiselling 
of metals2 and1 finally1 the engraving  
on precious stones1 and setting  them   
according to the jewellers' art4        
,when1 to quiet the impatient           
,israelites1 ,aaron consented to make a 
god  for them1 such as they had been    
used to in ,egypt1 he caused them to    
bring their jewels of gold to him for   
the purpose2 and1 after he had  cast or 
made a molten image1 he finished it with
 the graver#bf4 ,now  this is the       
process of casting figures in metal to  
this very day4    ,here1 then1 we have  

the ,jews designing1 making moulds1     
casting metals1  and finishing with the 
graver4 ,they were1 therefore1 not all  
mere  brick-makers in ,egypt2 but some  
of them1 like ,moses and ,aaron1 had    
been  instructed in the learning1 or at 
least the arts1 of the ,egyptians4      
,again1 for the brass and gold ornaments
 of the tabernacle and the ark1         
,bezaleel made the cherubim#bg on the   
mercy seat of beaten gold2 that  is1    
their faces and wings were embossed and 
chiselled4 ,so likewise was  the great  
candlestick1 with its flowers and its   
almonds1 its leaves and  its buds4      
,the whole putting together of the tent 
of the tabernacle is most  ingenious1   
and denotes an acquaintance with great  
magnificence in  architecture and in    
furniture4 ,the breastplate was composed
 of twelve  precious stones1 from       
diamond the hardest1 down to the most   
easily  wrought1 cornelian2 yet each was
 engraved after the manner of a signet1 
with the name of one of the tribes1 and 

set in its own peculiar setting4        
,such are the particulars we learn on   
undoubted authority of the arts at  that
 early period1 as practised in ,egypt   
for convenience and ornament4    ,but   
,egypt had another use for the arts4    
,she applied them mainly to the  service
 of religion4    ,all nations1 however  
rude1 evince a desire to record their   
own actions  and those of their fathers4
 ,poets1 bards1 senachies1 scalds1 or by
  whatever name the same class of men   
may be called1 are1 like the            
traditionary tale-tellers of the        
,american ,indians1 the earliest of     
historians4 ,their art1 which is that of
 so placing words as to form  sentences1
 whether distinguished by rhyme or by   
only a peculiar rhythm1  more easily and
 pleasantly remembered than the same    
words would be in  the ordinary         
arrangement of speech1 may be practised 
by the warrior  or the huntsman1 without
 interfering with his other avocations4 
,it  is1 therefore1 peculiarly fitted   

for rude tribes1 who cannot afford  that
 any individual should give himself up  
exclusively to an inactive  profession4 
,the rhapsodies of the bards1 however1  
may be forgotten1 and will  probably be 
so in a few generations2#bh and1 if a   
tribe migrate so as  to settle where    
other tongues are spoken1 the songs are 
sung in the  ears of the deaf1 and the  
beginnings of history are swept wholly  
away4    ,how1 then1 shall the memory of
 the past be preserved8 the propensity  
of man to imitation will lead him to    
attempt to form a likeness of  any great
 benefactor to the community4 ,the      
simple stone set up for a  memorial will
 soon be cut into a rude statue4 ,the   
face of a rock will  admit of carving   
figures enough to represent an event of 
importance2  or the outlines may be     
scratched upon a board1 and the use of  
colour1  which abounds everywhere1 is an
 easy step towards the beginning of     
painting4 ,such1 we have positive proof1
 it was in ,mexico2 such1 we may        

reasonably presume1 it must have been in
 ,egypt4    ,but the heroes and         
benefactors of a lively and enthusiastic
 people  soon came to be looked upon as 
something divine4 ,he1 who first in the 
sight of his tribe1 scattered seed upon 
the earth1 and1 trusting to  the certain
 return of the season1 taught how to    
gather in the harvest  and convert the  
grain into bread1 must have stood in the
 light of a  ,creator4 ,when accident   
had attracted observation to the fatty  
nature  of the olive1 he who applied oil
 to the feeding of a lamp would be      
celebrated as a benefactor4 ,the tamer  
of the bull1 who brought kine to  labour
 for men1 and from their milk produced  
such variety of delicious  food1 merited
 still higher gratitude2 and those who  
converted rude  dross and shapeless ore 
into instruments of agriculture1        
mechanical  tools1 weapons offensive and
 defensive1 almost deserved the divine  
honours paid to them4    ,it is neither 
my business nor my inclination to       

discuss the origin or  principles of the
 mythology of any country1 farther than 
as it affected  the arts4    ,the       
pictures and statues of the benefactors1
 or1 as they soon began  to be called1  
of the gods1 were intended to be lasting
 memorials of  their forms and acts4    
,they were to speak a language          
independent of the  tongue4 ,hence it   
became absolutely necessary1 that their 
representative  type should remain for  
ever fixed4 ,so that to whatever        
excellence  the mechanic might attain1  
or whatever improvement the progress of 
science might enable the artist to make1
 all change was forbidden2  and though  
the labour and finish became exquisite1 
it would have been  sacrilege to alter  
the form4 ,hence1 while the statues of  
other nations  not under these          
restrictions1 assumed the freedom and   
grace of nature1  ,egypt saw her ,osiris
 and ,isis retaining their rigid and    
unnatural  characters1 notwithstanding  
the sublime style in which they were    

conceived4    ,the basso-relievos1      
intaglios1 and painted stuccoes of the  
temples and  catacombs1 present greater 
varieties of action and design2 but even
 in  them1 the human figure is still    
monotonous in character4    ,but whole  
statues and pictures engraved on rocks  
and walls of granite  and freestone1 are
 inconvenient registers4 ,hence one well
 known form  was soon allowed to stand  
as the sign of a subject or action2 part
 of  that figure might1 in time1 be     
substituted for the whole4    ,the forms
 of animals whose qualities were        
supposed to bear relation  to those of  
man1 were admitted to represent abstract
 ideas2 as1 for  instance1 in ,india1   
the elephant's head adorned the         
shoulders of the  god of wisdom1 and in 
,egypt1 the watchfulness of the cat     
procured  her the honour of lending a   
mask sometimes to the greatest of the   
goddesses4 ,insects whose appearance was
 constant at particular seasons1  became
 the types of those seasons1 or of the  

heavenly bodies which  regulate them2 so
 by a natural process1 a scheme of      
hieroglyphic  representation1 if we must
 not say writing1 was framed1 which long
  continued in use among the governing  
priests of ,egypt to preserve the       
annals of the country4    ,their        
hieroglyphics were themselves too       
cumbrous for constant use1  and it      
appears certain from ancient tradition  
and modern discovery1  that they        
produced a variety of steps approaching 
more or less to  alphabetical writing2  
and in all probability the learned      
priests who  could not be ignorant of   
the existence of such writing1 preferred
 their  own mysterious and obscure      
characters for the sake of that power   
which  unusual and exclusive knowledge  
always confers4    ,the effect that the 
use of hieroglyphic painting1 whether   
more or  less near to writing1 had upon 
the art of painting itself was most     
disastrous4 ,those who were permitted to
 paint at all1 were bound to  make no   

improvement4 ,the art was jealously kept
 for the adornment of  hideous mummy    
cases#bi and sepulchral chambers1 where 
the nearest  approaches to what is      
properly painting were a sort of        
portraits1 drawn  upon the inner        
coffins1 which were composed of folds of
 linen prepared  with a chalk ground1 or
 basso-relievos either coloured         
themselves1  or imitated in flat colours
 upon the walls4 ,the wood upon which   
the  commoner coffin-painting was       
executed appears to have been sycamore2 
it was prepared with fine lime1 mixed   
with some kind of gum or size  for the  
colourer4 ,the pigments were ochres for 
the most part2 but the  blues and greens
 appear to have been prepared from      
copper4 ,the black  was lamp-black1 and 
the white a very fine lime#cj4 ,these   
colours when  applied on wood1 or       
cotton1 or linen1 were probably mixed   
with gums1  probably gum arabic or the  
,sarcocolla1 which the ,egyptians used  
in  preparing their mummies1 and also   

for glue#ca1 and that gum probably      
formed part of the varnish found on the 
mummy cases4 ,according to ,mr4         
,wilkinson's account1 the pictures in   
the catacombs were executed either  on  
the bare limestone wall1 or on the      
sandstone prepared with fine  lime4     
,whether the groups were to be painted  
or chiselled in intaglio  or relief1    
they were outlined with red ochre1 then 
corrected with  black4 ,the next step   
was the carving the intaglios or the    
reliefs1 or  modelling the stucco       
applications1 after which1 in some of   
the tombs1  plain unbroken colour was   
applied4 ,but even this approach to     
painting  arose from the desire of      
distinguishing objects1 as tribute of   
gold  from tribute of silver1 prisoners 
of white1 tawny1 or black nations1  and 
so on4 ,but nothing like a picture1 as  
we understand the word1 has  ever been  
found2 nothing displaying a knowledge of
 light and shadow1  perspective either  
lineal or arial1 nothing which by means 

of colour  and tint imitates nature3 nor
 have we the name of any ,egyptian      
painter  in the annals of art4    ,under
 some of the ,ptolemys1 artists from    
,greece visited the court of  the       
,grecian kings2 and doubtless the       
merchants of ,alexandria may have  been 
permitted to possess ,greek pictures2   
but the ,ptolemys became  ,egyptians1   
and adopted the hieroglyphic manner of  
recording their acts  and lives2 and    
until the ,christian hermits plastered  
over the mystic  figures of the         
,egyptian priests1 that they might      
without pollution  erect their simple   
altars within the shelter of the        
abandoned temples1  no change appears to
 have taken place with regard to the    
practice of  the arts in ,egypt4    ,it 
was reserved for the followers of       
,mahomet1 who abhorred statuary and     
painting1 to introduce a gay and florid 
architecture among the severe  palaces  
and tombs of the children of ,misraim1  
to use their temples  as quarries for   

building materials1 and to burn their   
statues for  lime#cb4    ,egypt1        
therefore1 though once excelling in     
architecture and religious  sculpture1  
knowing the use of colour1 and          
conferring innumerable  benefits on     
other countries in most of the arts of  
design1 has never  herself been the     
country of painting4      ,extract of a 
,letter from ,,mr4 ,,clift to ,,mrs4    
,,callcott4                             
,november #ahce4    ,i have been        
present1 and assisted in the opening of 
several mummies1  in which1 although    
there was a general resemblance in the  
manner1 yet  there were palpable        
differences too1 arising probably from  
difference  of person1 time1 and price2 
but in none of them was there any       
painting  whatever on the inner linen   
wrappings3 they appear to differ chiefly
 in  the greater or less care taken     
according to the price2 some being much 
more laboriously and carefully prepared 
than others4    ,raspe may have been    

right in the particular to which you    
allude1 of the  inner bandages being    
painted1 if he has not mistaken the     
inner coffin  for bandaging3 as ,mr4    
,pettigrew in his late quarto volume on 
,mummies1  has given a three-quarter    
face portrait1 which ,i think he        
describes as  having been found on the  
surface of the immediate wrappers of the
 body  within the second coffin of a    
specimen in the ,british ,museum1 which 
,i  have not seen2 and he has1 or had1  
the head of a supposed female mummy1    
which had the features of a face and    
head-dress outlined upon the  exterior  
wrapper of the body1 but ,i have seen no
 other example4    ,it is not unusual1  
in the more expensively prepared        
mummies1 to find  the inside of the     
outer or wooden case ornamented with    
figures  in outline2 but ,i do not      
recollect any such that were coloured3  
the  greatest labour appears to have    
been always bestowed on the second or   
internal coffin1 or case which          

immediately contains the body4    ,the  
outer1 or wooden case1 which is         
generally believed to be made  of       
sycamore-wood1 is sometimes wrought out 
of the solid1 that is1  excavated2 and  
sometimes composed of several pieces    
joined by dowels1  or wooden pegs1      
instead of nails4 ,i never saw an       
instance of iron or  metal being        
employed4 ,this outer case is also      
usually of considerable  thickness1     
viz41 from two to three or four or more 
inches1 and  generally coated thickly   
with distemper colour1 on which is      
painted  various emblematical devices in
 a very inferior manner2 the mask or    
face sometimes gilded1 sometimes red    
7male71 sometimes yellow 7female74  ,i  
never observed any appearance of varnish
 having been employed on the  colours of
 this outer case4    ,on wrenching open 
the upper and lower portions of this    
outer or wooden  case1 which are united 
by flat tenons received in sockets and  
fastened  by pegs1 and apparently glue  

in the joint1 the second or inner case  
appears4 ,this case has not any wood in 
its composition1 except a small  piece  
at the bottom1 or foot-board1 on which  
the feet of the mummy  rest4 ,this case 
is composed of at least ten or a dozen  
layers of linen  of the same quality as 
that which envelopes the body2 these    
lamin are  very firmly cemented together
 by a material apparently glue and lime1
  or plaster4 ,this case is originally  
moulded on a rude mass or model of  clay
 and straw1 of the size and form of the 
swathed body intended to  be afterwards 
contained in it1 and when sufficiently  
dry to retain its  form1 the clay and   
straw are scraped or scooped out from   
the back part  which is left open1 or   
rather apparently cut open for that     
purpose1  and then the body is          
introduced1 and the edges of the        
aperture brought  together and secured  
by a very simple and ingenious method of
 drum-like  bracing1 and the seam and   
lacing covered afterwards with a strip  

of  cloth1 glued or cemented1 over them4
 ,this1 with the foot-board1 which  is  
braced in or secured in the same manner1
 rendered the body as it  were1         
hermetically sealed in its chrysalis    
case4    ,the painting on the exterior  
of the inner case is1 ,i believe1 the   
most  laboured part of the process1 and 
,i have seen some which must have       
occupied many days1 perhaps many weeks1 
in the very elaborate outlining  and    
colouring in water-colour or distemper2 
and finally varnishing  or fixing the   
subject of this hieroglyph or allegory4 
,the ground of  this painting is of very
 fine and pure white1 resembling stucco4
 ,the  parts that are drawn on1 and     
apparently outlined with a pen and then 
coloured1 are the only parts that are   
afterwards varnished3--the  blank parts 
of the white ground remain unvarnished1 
except where the  varnish-brush has     
occasionally slipped beyond the outline1
 and there  the white has become yellow4
 ,this white ground may be disturbed by 

a wetted finger1 which is not the case  
with the varnished parts4  ,their       
varnish must have been of excellent     
quality1 as it retains  its transparency
 and gloss in a most extraordinary      
degree2 in some  instances appearing as 
if executed only a few days4 ,in one    
that was  opened in ,sir ,benjamin      
,brodie's new theatre in                
,kinnerton-street1  ,knightsbridge1     
during the last summer1 some persons    
were so deceived as  to believe the     
varnish to have been duly laid on and   
not yet dry2 and  really it might appear
 so to an inexperienced eye1 without    
touching4    ,what the nature of the    
pigments used were1 ,i have no adequate 
knowledge2 they generally appear to be  
earthy or ochreous and opaque3  yet     
their artists understood the art of     
representing transparent  objects with  
them1 for example3--in one which was    
opened about two  years since at the    
,college of ,surgeons in ,lincoln's ,inn
 ,fields1 on  which several figures were

 introduced1 one of them had its limbs  
partly naked1 partly covered by a thin  
transparent robe1 and a third  degree   
seen through a double and thicker part  
of the dress4 ,the body  of this mummy  
was enveloped in at least fifteen or    
twenty layers of  linen filet1 measuring
 ,i think about one hundred and thirty  
yards of  handbreadth strips1 torn the  
length way of the piece4 ,the only      
entire  piece from one end to the other 
of the warp1 which ,i could preserve1   
measured eighteen feet1 which1 folded   
twice1 made the length of their         
ordinary robe or dress 7four feet six   
inches71 of which we met with  several  
examples4 ,the outer general envelope or
 winding-sheet was in  one piece1 about 
seven feet in length1 and nearly two    
yards wide1 of  excellently regular     
manufacture1 with a very good and       
uniform selvage3  there were also       
various pieces of about a yard long1 and
 two yards or  rather more in breadth1  
folded and placed under the hollow parts

 of  the body1 together with three or   
four halves 7all of the left side7 of   
robes or dresses1 torn lengthwise1 that 
had been much worn and darned1  or      
strengthened with much ingenuity and    
neatness4 ,these were folded1  and laid 
behind or beneath the back as a         
palliasse4 ,the name of this  mummy1 as 
deciphered by ,mr4 ,wilkinson and ,mr4  
,pettigrew1 was 8,horseisi1  son of     
,naspihiniegori1 incense bearing ,priest
 in the ,temple of ,ammon  at ,thebes40 
,this inscription was repeated three or 
four times on the  bandaging1 between   
the body and the external surface of the
 wrappers1  but there was no appearance 
of any painting whatever on them4       
,,footnotes3    #a ,lord ,bacon1 on the 
,advancement of ,learning4    #b ,the   
prodigious collection of ,mexican       
relics1 presented by the  publication of
 ,lord ,kingsborough's splendid work1 is
 among the most  interesting records of 
an infant civilization ever laid before 
the  world4    #c ,mandioca1 called1 in 

the ,west ,indian islands1 ,cassava4    
,the  planting1 gathering1 storing the  
roots1 grinding1 and finally  separating
 the meal from the fine gum called      
,tapioca1 suppose a long  period of     
experience and great ingenuity4    #d   
,see ,humboldt's ,researches1 in one of 
the plates to which there  is a picture 
law-suit1 of mixed realities and        
symbols4 ,the small  golden figures1    
thought to be idols1 found in some parts
 of ,peru1 and  of which ,i saw one in  
the possession of ,t4 ,bigg1 ,esq41     
belong to the  jewellers' art rather    
than to legitimate sculpture4 ,that     
which ,i saw1  was ingeniously formed of
 gold wire1 various coils and folds of  
which  were twisted into the form of    
legs and arms1 a body and head1 with the
  features of the face2 very frightful1 
it is true1 but still with a  sufficient
 degree of imitation to be the likeness 
of a man4 ,the ,terra  ,cottas and stone
 or marble figures of ,mexico1 are of a 
higher class4    #e ,see some excellent 

observations of ,mr4 ,wilkinson1 as to  
the  agreement of the book of ,genesis  
and the ,egyptian documents on this     
point4    #f ,pausanias1 in the fifth   
chapter of the ,corinthiacs says1 that  
the  ,sicyonians assert that gialeus was
 the first native of the place1  and    
that he named the country gialeus1 and  
the city gialea4 ,taylor's              
,translation4    #g ,chap4 xv4 v4 #af4  
#h ,i am obliged to a learned friend1   
for the above explanation of the        
meaning of the names ,debir and ,kirjath
 ,sepher4 ,to the same friend ,i owe    
many corrections and suggestions of     
great value to me in the following      
pages4    #i ,see the figures and       
inscriptions on the curious cups        
belonging to  three of the most ancient 
,chinese dynasties1 published in the    
,journal  of the ,royal ,asiatic        
,society4    #aj ,a change is taking    
place in ,chinese art4 ,the portrait    
painters of  the celestial empire are   
beginning to imitate those of ,europe4  

,this  year 7#ahcf7 there is one in the 
,exhibition at ,somerset ,house that was
  taken for the work of a ,european     
artist by the academicians who first    
saw it4    #aa ,the account of          
,mahabalipoor1 or ,mavellipoor1 in the  
first ,volume  of the ,asiatic          
,researches1 is erroneous4 ,the author  
seems to have seen  but two of these    
temples1 and to have mistaken the place 
of them4 ,the  largest is forty-seven   
feet long and twenty-five feet high4    
,the second  is twenty-seven feet long  
and thirty-six feet high4    #ab        
,unless1 indeed1 the recently discovered
 caves1 in ,northern ,india  should turn
 out to be anything more than coloured  
bas-relief4    #ac ,see1 for examples1  
in ,wilson's translations of the theatre
 of  the ,hindoos1 ,malati ,madava1 act 
i41 scene #b4 ,this play was written by 
,bhavabhuti1 who flourished about ,a4   
,d4 #gbj4 ,here the lover draws his     
mistress' portrait1 from memory1 on his 
writing tables4    ,there is another    

very pretty example in ,retnavali1 or   
the ,necklace1 by  ,sri ,hersha ,deva1  
written for the court of ,cashmir1 about
 ,a4 ,d4 #aabj1  where the young lady   
sketches her lover in the character of  
,camdeo1 and  her friend finishes the   
picture by adding her figure as ,reti1  
the bride  of ,camdeo4    #ad ,see      
plates and descriptions in the early    
vols4 of the ,asiatic  ,researches1 and 
,lieutenant ,burnes' most interesting   
travels4    #ae ,ezekiel xxiii4 #ad1    
#ae2 a very remarkable passage4    #af  
,doubtless such magnificent persons as  
the ,kings of ,persia had  painters and 
sculptors4 ,persepolis1 and the ,takht i
 ,rustan prove it4  ,pliny says that a  
,phocean artist1 named ,telephenes1 was 
in the service  of ,xerxes and ,darius2 
therefore the ,persian court offered to 
artists  the prospect of fortune4    ,in
 the very interesting narrative of the  
late ,mr4 ,rich's residence on  the site
 of ancient ,nineveh 7lately published  
by his widow71 mention is  made of the  

remaining decorations of the decayed    
,christian churches4  ,these are of so  
early a date that the art employed on   
them must be the  same with that of the 
times of the fire-worshippers4 ,the     
figures appear  to have been in relief1 
like those of the catacombs of ,egypt1  
and  colour remains in various parts4   
#ag ,curious and interesting as the     
plates are which adorn the work of      
,rosselini1 brought to ,england since   
this essay was written1 they do not  in 
the slightest degree alter my view of   
,egyptian painting4    #ah ,the reign of
 the ,phrah ,osirtisen ,,ii41 ,wilkinson
 says1 was that in  which ,joseph was   
carried down into ,egypt4    #ai ,oxford
 ,bible4 ,quarto4 ,chronology at the    
end4    #bj ,arundel ,marbles4    #ba   
,b4 ,c4 #aehb4    #bb ,eliezar1         
,abraham's servant1 was bought there4   
#bc ,b4 ,c4 #adie4    #bd ,tanis4       
,lightfoot4    #be ,gold was used in    
this embroidery2 the metal was beat into
  exceeding thin plates1 then cut as    

small as wire2 this flat gold           
embroidery is still used in the ,east4  
,exodus1 chapter xxxix41 verse #c4      
#bf ,exodus1 chapter xxxii41 verse #d4  
#bg ,for the supposed figures of the    
cherubim1 see ,lightfoot1 who  thinks   
they had the faces of oxen between their
 wings1 not human heads4    #bh ,the    
song of ,maneros was1 however1 long sung
 in ,egypt2 but that  was accompanied   
with a strangely melancholy air1 which1 
perhaps1  secured its duration4 ,the few
 words said of this air by ,herodotus1  
have  furnished ,mr4 ,seymer with the   
subject of a beautiful tale4 ,see first 
series of ,romance of ,ancient ,history4
    #bi ,see extract from ,mr4 ,clift's 
letter at the end of this ,essay4    #cj
 ,see ,wilkinson4    #ca ,herod3        
,euterpe ,,lxxxvi4 ,not that they were  
ignorant1 probably1 of  glue made from  
the skins of animals1 c4 ,the ,romans   
had it1 and1 as  ,pliny says1 preferred 
that made of bulls' hides4    #cb ,see  
the accounts given by all modern        

travellers4 ,the extreme  beauty and    
delicacy of structure of many of the    
,mosques and the ,tombs  of the         
,caliphs1 ornamented1 even to           
profuseness1 with everything but        
imitations of animated beings1 form a   
contrast almost extravagant1 with  the  
severe1 if not sublime1 masses of       
ancient ,egypt4                         
,,essay ,,ii4                           
,,of ,,art ,,in ,,ancient ,,italy#cc4   
,arts are advanced not so much by them  
that dare make a great show of   ,art1  
as by them that know how to find out    
what there is in ,art4                  
,,isocrates4     ,honour doth nourish   
,arts1 and we are all drawn by glory to 
take pains2   as are also such things   
ever neglected1 as are little regarded  
in the   opinion of men4                
,,cicero4      ,it is very disagreeable 
to unlearn the learning of one's youth1 
and  to give up belief in certain things
 that seem1 from our long familiar      
acquaintance1 as if they made up a part 

of the system of nature itself4         
,but so it must be1 if we will give     
ourselves fair play in examining  into  
the history of art or science1 polity or
 commerce1 in ancient  ,italy4 ,in our  
early education it is ,rome only to     
which the attention is  directed4 ,rome 
is represented as first in arts and     
arms1 as spreading  civilisation along  
with her dominion3 and1 in short1 ,roman
 virtue and  ,roman greatness dazzle our
 young imaginations1 till1 seeing       
nothing but  the glare of her meridian  
splendour1 we forget to look whence and 
how  it arose4    ,yet ,italy must have 
had a long and not inglorious history   
before the  seven-hilled city could     
boast of a shepherd's hut1 or the       
politic  ,romulus1 if such a king ever  
reigned1 found a village considerable   
enough to tempt him to make himself a   
king contrary to the custom of  the     
neighbouring federal states1 one of     
which1 ,cre1 had1 not very long  before 
his time1 expelled its ,lucumon         

7,mezentius7 for little reason but  that
 he had sought to change the annual     
magistracy into a monarchy for  life#cd4
    ,this history will probably remain  
for ever obscure as to the particular   
facts relating to it1 and the names of  
those who might have figured  in it2    
because1 the vainglory of the ,romans1  
infecting even their  writers1 desired  
that their own history and their own    
monuments  should stand foremost in the 
eyes of posterity2 and though the       
ancient books existed1 and the ancient  
language was still understood  to a late
 period#ce1 no use was made of them by  
those who recorded  the achievements of 
the ,romans2 and it is because they     
found it so  difficult to conquer the   
,italian tribes1 one by one1 that we are
 led to  form an idea of their strength 
and importance4    ,many men of learning
 and understanding in ,italy1 had1 from 
time to  time1 thrown doubts on the     
early portion of the ,roman history1    
some  perhaps feeling that their own    

native provinces had been wronged by    
their gorgeous adversary4    ,but the   
fate of ,italy1        ,servir sempre1 o
 vincitrice o vinta1    had lowered the 
energies that1 under other              
circumstances1 would have  boldly       
proclaimed these doubts long ago1 and   
have shown ,rome as she  was1 the       
destroyer of men and of happiness2 a    
conqueror converting  whole well-peopled
 and cultivated provinces into deserts1 
ever which a  few wretched slaves       
wandered to their task work1 instead of 
the free  peasants who once gathered    
their own rich harvests2 a tyrant at    
whose  frown the liberal arts withered1 
and commerce deserted the useless  ports
 and abandoned storehouses of the       
subdued merchants and spiritless        
artists4    ,but the pains-taking       
critics of ,germany had no morbid       
sensibility to  prevent them from       
attacking ,rome2 none of the hopeless   
feeling of those  who would1 but must   
not1 vindicate the fame of their        

ancestors2 and  with something of       
roughness and much of justice1 they have
 taught us  to trample on ancient       
prejudice1 and to dare to look upon     
,italy as not  dependant entirely upon  
,rome4    ,there have not been wanting  
,italians to join in these views1 and to
  acknowledge the merit of their        
trans-alpine critics4 ,among these      
,micali is conspicuous2 and1 as his late
 work1 with its atlas1 throws           
considerable light on a very early      
period of art in ,italy1 ,i shall make  
use of it in preference to any other in 
what ,i have to say of painting  and its
 kindred arts1 before the period of     
,roman authentic history  begins4       
,the scattered notices to be found in   
ancient writers1 leave no doubt  as to a
 few facts3 namely1 that a rude tribe1  
or several rude tribes1  called by the  
various titles of ,opicians1            
,auruncians1 ,oscans1  ,cascans1 or     
,priscan ,latins1 under the general name
 of ,ausonians1 and  all speaking the   

same language1 once possessed1 at least1
 the hill  countries of ,italy2 that    
these were succeeded by a race speaking 
a  different dialect1 resembling the    
,pelasgians1 who appear in several      
countries as the first people possessing
 the arts of civilized life1  beginning 
to build cities1 and introducing regular
 government4    ,then we read of        
,umbrians1 ,siculi1 and colonies from   
,greece and ,phrygia2  and ,italy next  
appears1 long before the foundation of  
,rome1 as chiefly  possessed by a people
 whose native name seems to have been   
,ra-seni1 who  were called generally by 
the ,greeks1 ,tyrrhenians1 and by the   
,latins1  ,tuscans or ,etruscans4    ,it
 is among this remarkable people1       
possessed of some of the sciences  and  
most of the arts of social life1 that   
the fine arts were first  cultivated in 
,italy2 and that they were no mean      
proficients1 will not  be disputed by   
any one who has beheld even a single    
,etruscan vase#cf4    ,they had not     

pyramids or giant temples to boast of4  
,their works were  not for kings or for 
the exclusive profit of the governing   
priests1  like those of ,egypt or       
,india1 but for the public4 ,they have  
left walls  of cities1 solid quays and  
ports1 drains and sluices1 useful even  
at  the present time1 as their          
monuments4    ,but in their country1 as 
well as in ,egypt1 it is in the         
repositories of  the dead that we are to
 look for the relics of whatever was    
beautiful  or ornamental among them#cg4 
,the first steps of art have1 doubtless1
 been the same among all  nations2 but  
the ,tyrrhenians had some advantages in 
their early  cultivation4 ,they were    
early a maritime people2 as merchants or
 as  pirates they visited whatever ports
 the ,phnicians traded to1 in the       
,mediterranean2 and the effect of their 
foreign intercourse is to be  traced in 
whatever we know of their institutions  
or see of their arts4    ,but ,i must   
not allow myself to be seduced into more

 than the very  slightest mention of the
 resemblance of some of their           
institutions to  those of ,greece1 and  
of others to those of ,egypt2 and that  
mention is  only made because the       
influence of the intercourse with other 
nations1  upon the arts of ,etruria1 is 
so conspicuous1 that it is impossible to
  give the slightest sketch of them     
without a reference to it#ch4    ,the   
relics1 confessedly of ,etruscan        
manufacture1 that from time to  time    
have been discovered in various parts of
 ,italy1 had convinced  us that the     
nation was early acquainted with the    
arts1 but there was  little to guide    
antiquaries as to the age of the relics 
themselves1 or  the sources whence those
 arts had been derived4 ,the fabulous as
 well  as the true stories of colonies  
from ,asia1 ,egypt1 and ,greece1 which  
had been left by the ancients1 became   
signals of battle for modern            
disputants1 and much ink has been shed  
in support of all manner of             

contradictory theories4    ,the late    
historical disquisitions of the ,germans
 and ,italians cleared  away a good deal
 of obscurity2 the re-opening of the    
great cemeteries  of ,chuisi1           
,tarquinii1 and ,vulscii1 have1 as far  
as relates to art1 done  much more#ci2  
and we may safely conclude that the     
,etruscan artists1  not mean in         
themselves1 were improved by the        
importation of models from  other       
countries1 and probably by the settling 
of potters and metal  founders from     
,sicyon1 ,corinth1 and other ,greek     
cities among them4    ,that they early  
adopted the deities of other countries  
is also proved  by the opening of the   
tombs of ,chuisi4 ,it is impossible not 
to be  struck with the close resemblance
 to the sculpture and coloured          
bas-reliefs of ,egypt found there2 and1 
saving that the ,tuscans do not  appear 
to have practised embalming1 the mystic 
ceremonies in honour of  the dead are   
shown to be the same4    ,the beautiful 

vases of different kinds and colours1 of
 clay baked or  unbaked1 are covered    
with designs1 in exquisite taste and    
delicately  touched4 ,they are mostly   
painted in one single colour1 or at most
  two or three flat colours1 picked out 
with black or white4 ,some have  figures
 in slight relief2 and1 with few        
exceptions1 the subjects are  from the  
,greek mysteries of ,bacchus1 ,hercules1
 and ,ceres1 when their  attributes     
coincide with those of the ,egyptian    
deities1 ,osiris and  his family4 ,the  
genii1 with two or four wings1 found in 
some of the  most ancient1 mark a very  
early intercourse with the priests of   
both  countries2 and though the most    
offensive particulars belonging to their
  mythologies are totally absent1 the   
great ,egyptian demon of destruction  is
 common on cups1 pater1 and vases#dj4   
,among the great variety of designs     
found in the newly opened tombs1  ,i    
cannot refrain from mentioning one which
 ,micali has published1 of  a domestic  

rural scene1 painted in several colours4
 ,under a canopy  there is a grave      
elderly man seated1 and before him his  
servants are  weighing corn1 brought in 
nets from the field#da4 ,below1 as if in
 a  vault1 others are stowing sacks of  
corn1 which we may suppose have been    
weighed4 ,the resemblance of the subject
 on this patera or plate to some  of    
those found by ,mr4 ,wilkinson on the   
walls of the catacombs of ,egypt1  is   
very remarkable4    ,besides the vases  
of clay1 some utensils of wood and metal
 were found  in the cemeteries4 ,gems   
also1 with chased ornaments1 of         
beautiful fancy  and excellent          
workmanship1 necklaces1 armlets1 rings1 
buckles1 signets1  besides armour1 all  
designed with taste1 and executed with  
skill1 show1  to our regret1 against how
 civilized a people the ,romans made    
war1 and  leave us to lament that the   
selfish vainglory of the conquerors     
thought  of preserving no annals but    
their own4    ,to describe the painted  

sides of the tombs at ,chuisi and other 
ruined  ,italian cities1 would be to    
repeat what ,i have already said of     
those of  ,egypt1 as far as their       
colouring is concerned1 or their        
approach to  the nature of a true       
picture2 but ,i must remark that the    
designs1 if  not so imposing1 have more 
nature and grace1 though they are not to
 be  compared in size1 number1 or       
variety1 with those of ,egypt4    ,but  
there is some reason to believe that the
 ancient ,italians had true  painters   
among them4 ,indeed ,i think the        
evidence for it as good as that  we have
 for any other facts connected with the 
arts4 ,pliny#db1 after  refuting the    
story that painting was brought into    
,italy from ,corinth1  by ,cleophantus1 
a friend of ,tarquinius ,priscus#dc1 who
 had fled from  the tyranny of          
,cypselus1 says expressly#dd1 8,extant  
there be at this  day to be seen at     
,ardea1 within the temples there1       
antique pictures1  and indeed more      

ancient than the city of ,rome4 ,and ,i 
assure you no  pictures ever came to my 
sight which ,i wonder so much at1       
namely1  that they should continue so   
long fresh and as if they were newly    
made1 considering the places where they 
be so ruinate and uncovered  over head4 
,semblably at ,lanuvium1 there remain   
two pictures of ,lady  ,atalanta and    
,queen ,helena1 close one to the other1 
painted naked1 by  one and the same     
hand3 both of them are for beauty       
incomparable1 and  yet a man may discern
 one of them to be a maiden by her      
modest and  chaste countenance1 which   
pictures1 notwithstanding the ruin of   
the  temple where they stand1 are not a 
whit disfigured or defaced#de20 and     
farther on he says1 that at ,cre there  
were pictures of still greater          
antiquity4    ,these were of course the 
works of ,etruscan artists1 and1 as     
,pliny had  opportunities of seeing and 
judging of the best ,greek pictures     
which  successive conquerors had brought

 to ,rome before his time1 his praises  
may be taken as good evidence for the   
general estimation of the skill  of     
those early painters4    ,happily1      
although the barbarous ,romans had not  
taste enough to value  and preserve the 
fame of their ,etruscan rivals1 they did
 not disdain  to employ their artists4  
,one of the ,roman modes of honouring   
their  forefathers was to preserve their
 effigies in plaster1 wax1 stone1 or    
metal2 and on the death of any member of
 a family1 the figures or heads  of the 
ancestors were taken from the family    
treasury to accompany the  body to the  
place of burial1 or to the funeral pyre4
    ,this alone would render the        
,etruscan sculptors popular4 ,one of the
 most  ancient remaining works1 executed
 by them for ,rome1 is the bronze wolf1 
8the thunder-stricken nurse of ,rome10  
preserved in the ,capitol1 and  of which
 ,micali has given an excellent figure4 
,but this1 and also the  most ancient   
statues of the kings and consuls1 must  

have been cast in  ,etruscan towns1 and 
brought to ,rome2 for ,pliny#df tells us
 that the  very first bronze statue cast
 within the city was that of the goddess
  ,ceres1 the expense being defrayed by 
the forfeited goods of ,spurius         
,capius1 who was put to death for       
aspiring to the dignity of king#dg4     
,the ,romans were so fond of the ,tuscan
 statues that they collected them  from 
all quarters4 ,at the taking of         
,volsinum 7now ,bolsena7 alone1 they    
removed two thousand to their own city2 
and the practice of setting up  statues1
 even in the public places1 must have   
become a nuisance1 before  the senate   
made a decree that they should all be   
removed1 excepting  such as had been    
erected by public vote in honour of     
great personages4  ,thus1 when the      
streets and market-places were cleared  
of the nameless  crowd1 the bronze      
portraits of ,poplicola and of ,cornelia
 became of  double importance4    ,among
 the most ancient of the monumental     

bronzes were several  equestrian statues
 in honour of women as well as men4     
,that of ,clelia  was especially prized1
 and there was another of the daughter  
of  ,poplicola held in the highest      
reverence4    ,of colossal figures1     
there was an ,etruscan ,apollo1 of fifty
 feet  high1 placed in the library of   
the ,temple of ,augustus2 of which      
,pliny  says1 8,but the bigness thereof 
is not so much as the matter and the    
workmanship2 for hard it is to say1     
whether is more admirable the  beautiful
 figure of the body1 or the exquisite   
temperature of the  metal#dh40    ,there
 was also the colossal ,jupiter of the  
,capitol1 cast by ,corvillius  out of   
the brazen armour taken from the dead   
bodies of the conquered  ,samnites4     
,besides this taste for statues1 the    
,romans were not slow to acquire a  love
 for ornamented cups and bowls and      
dishes of the precious metals2  nor were
 there wanting among the spoils conveyed
 to ,rome from the  ,etruscan cities1   

lamps and candelabra and other furniture
 of elegant  design1 which the more     
rigid citizens looked upon as tending to
 the  corrupting of the manners of the  
ancients1 the moderate and aged         
dedicated to the gods1 but the multitude
 used and enjoyed4    ,with all these   
examples of beautiful forms daily before
 them1 and  familiar enough with the    
sight of pictures in the neighbouring   
towns1  the inhabitants of ,rome could  
not long be without painters2 indeed1   
painting seems to have been highly      
esteemed at one period1 for the  great  
and noble family of the ,fabii          
cultivated it so fondly1 that one  of   
their distinguishing surnames was       
,pictor4    ,fabius ,pictor1 the father 
of that ,fabius ,pictor who was sent to 
,delphos  to consult the ,oracle of     
,apollo1 on the fate of his country1    
after the  disaster at ,cann1 appears to
 have dedicated the first picture       
publicly  to the gods in ,rome4 ,he     
himself painted the ,temple of ,salus1  

in such a  manner as to be esteemed even
 after the introduction of ,greek       
pictures2  but the painting with the    
,temple itself was destroyed by fire in 
the  reign of ,claudius ,csar#di4       
,pacuvius1 the poet and tragedian1 is   
named as another great painter in  the  
time of the ,republic4 ,he lived about  
sixty years later than ,fabius  ,pictor1
 and was a native of ,brundusium4 ,as   
the nephew of ,ennius1 his  works would 
have been sure of a favourable notice   
from all the wise  and polished ,romans 
of his time2 but1 by what we are told of
 them1  they do not appear to have      
required indulgence4 ,he painted the    
,temple  of ,hercules in the cattle     
market in ,rome1 and the pictures are   
said to  have given dignity to the art  
itself4    ,but a singular use was made 
of painting by the ,roman heroes4 ,their
  inordinate love of military fame      
discovered a mode of feeding that       
ruling passion by means of this charming
 art2 and it appears that  ,valerius    

,maximus ,messala was the first to adopt
 a practice of  exhibiting pictures of  
his own actions1 which became afterwards
 pretty  common1 though condemned by    
some of the chief men of the ,republic4 
,messala then caused a picture to be    
hung up in the ,portico ,hostilia1      
representing the ,battle of ,messana#ej1
 where he had vanquished both  the      
,carthaginians and ,hiero of ,syracuse1 
who had joined his former  enemies to   
resist the invasion of his country by   
the ,romans4    ,by means of this       
picture1 ,messala kept himself before   
the eyes of the  people1 in the         
situation best calculated to further his
 views whenever  he should be a         
candidate for the magistracy4 ,instead  
of sitting himself  in the market-place1
 dressed in the white robe of humility1 
and  pointing to his wounds1 as         
,coriolanus says1 to        8,show them 
the scars that ,i would hide1      ,as  
if ,i had received them for the hire    
,of their breath only10    the picture  

told the story of his achievements to   
the best advantage1  and perhaps placed 
his personal and party enemies in       
doubtful  situations or in disgrace4    
,that some injurious effects were       
occasionally produced by the practice   
is certain1 from the displeasure        
entertained by ,scipio ,africanus       
against his brother ,lucius ,scipio1 for
 placing in the ,capitol  a picture of  
the battle near ,sardes1 which won him  
the title of  ,asiaticus1 but in which1 
his nephew1 the son of ,africanus1 was  
taken  prisoner4    ,again1 ,scipio     
,emilianus was highly offended at the   
display of a picture  of the taking of  
,carthage1 exhibited in the market-place
 by ,lucius  ,hostilius ,mancinus4 ,it  
appears that ,mancinus was the first to 
enter  ,carthage on the taking of that  
city3 and1 on his return to ,rome1 being
  desirous of the consulship1 he had a  
picture painted representing the  strong
 situation of the town1 with its        
fortifications1 and all the  machines   

employed in the attack and defence1     
besides the actions of the  besiegers1  
in which care was taken that those of   
,mancinus should be  most conspicuous4  
,this he hung up in the ,forum1 and1    
seating himself  by it1 he explained to 
the people all the parts of the picture1
  particularly those in which he was    
concerned1 in such a manner1 that  he   
won their good will1 and gained the     
consulship at the very next  election4  
,the lawyers of ,rome also made use of  
pictures in their pleadings1 as we      
learn from ,quintilian1 who censures the
 practice of hanging pictures  of       
murders or other atrocious crimes1 over 
the statue of ,jupiter1 in  the ,forum1 
for the purpose of moving the judges4   
,as an example of the  bad effects of   
such machinery1 he relates the story of 
a pleader1 who1  having undertaken the  
cause of a young woman whose husband had
 been  murdered1 had a picture of the   
murder painted1 in order to produce it  
at the proper moment1 and thereby to    

affect the judges and the audience  in  
her favour4 ,but his design failed1 and 
the painting produced  excessive mirth  
instead of tears2 for they who had      
received directions  for showing it1 not
 properly comprehending them1 displayed 
the picture  as often as the orator     
looked their way4 ,this notice1         
attracted at a  wrong moment1 was       
mischievous enough2 but when the lookers
 on perceived  that the husband was an  
ugly old man1 the contrast between his  
figure  and the representation of the   
pleader was so ludicrous1 that the      
pleading lost all its merit1 and the    
young woman her cause4    ,it appears   
also that pictures of their disasters   
were hawked about1 by  shipwrecked      
mariners1 persons whose houses had been 
burnt1 and other  unfortunate men1 in   
order to move compassion and obtain     
assistance2 and  that painted tablets   
were also hung up by such persons in the
 temples  in thankfulness to the gods   
for their escape4    ,it is probable    

that these pictures were but coarse2 yet
 there must  have been in them          
sufficient individual likeness for the  
people to  recognise the portrait1 and  
the painters must have had skill enough 
in  grouping to have rendered their     
subjects intelligible4    ,to the early 
scene-painters the birds of ,rome are   
reputed to have paid  as great a        
compliment as those of ,greece did to   
the grapes of ,zeuxis2  for when        
,claudius ,pulcher1 during his          
edileship1 exhibited dramas  publicly in
 ,rome1 the scenery representing houses 
and other buildings  was so natural1    
that the ravens and other birds1        
deceived by their  verisimilitude1 came 
to perch there4    ,but by this time all
 ,italy was merged in ,rome the         
conqueror2 and  the posterity of the    
,etruscan artists was confounded with   
her other  military ,helots4 ,yet one   
last compliment was paid to painters in 
,rome  by ,augustus himself4 ,the nephew
 or grandson of that ,pdius1 who had    

been appointed by ,julius ,csar his     
coheir along with ,augustus1 was born   
dumb2 and the ,emperor consulting with  
,messala1 the child's maternal          
grandfather1 determined that he should  
be brought up a painter4 ,he  displayed 
considerable talent1 but died while yet 
a youth4    ,i mention this the more    
particularly1 because some writers have 
asserted1 that after the time of        
,pacuvius painting became disreputable1 
if not infamous1 in ,rome4 ,had that    
been the case1 ,augustus would  not have
 chosen it as a profession for one so   
nearly allied to  him4 ,nevertheless1   
centuries passed before native ,italians
 again  distinguished themselves in the 
fine arts4    ,from the time of the     
,consul ,mummius1 foreign pictures were 
daily  brought to ,rome4 ,the first     
publicly exhibited was a ,bacchus and   
,ariadne1 painted by ,aristides of      
,thebes1 for which ,king ,attalus had   
offered so large a sum1 that ,mummius   
suspected there must be some  secret    

charm attached to the picture1 and so   
broke off the bargain and  took it      
himself to ,rome1 where he dedicated it 
in the ,temple of ,ceres4    ,after this
 example every general seems to have    
been ambitious of  adorning the city    
with the finest pictures and statues    
from ,greece1  ,asia ,minor1 and        
,sicily4 ,julius ,csar enshrined the two
 exquisite  pictures of ,medea and      
,ajax#ea in the temple of ,venus1 where 
he had  hung up the shield covered with 
,british pearl4    ,augustus hung his   
forum with pictures of the horrors of   
war and the  glories of a triumph2 and  
in the temple1 which he dedicated to the
  deified ,julius1 he placed many choice
 pictures1 the first and most  beautiful
 of which was the ,venus ,anadyomene of 
,apelles4    ,another work of the same  
painter1 namely1 ,alexander in triumph  
leading  ,war bound and manacled1 was   
defaced by ,claudius1 who caused the    
face  of ,alexander to be erased1 and   
that of ,augustus to be painted instead4

  ,among many pictures of note in the   
same temple was one of ,castor and      
,pollux1 of especial value4    ,in the  
,comitium also ,augustus placed some    
excellent works of ,nicias of  ,athens1 
and ,philochares his friend1 less       
attractive for their subjects  than for 
the execution and beauty of the design4 
,the ,temple of ,peace was rich in      
pictures of the highest class4 ,there   
was placed the most valued of all the   
works of ,protogenes1 namely1 the       
hunter ,ialysus with his dogs and game4 
,it is said that when ,demetrius laid   
siege to ,rhodes1 and was upon the      
point of taking the city1 he abstained  
from an attack that must have  been     
successful1 on learning that the picture
 of ,ialysus was in the  quarter of the 
town he might have carried1 lest in the 
confusion the  picture should be        
injured2 and the workshop of the        
painter1 being just  without the walls  
at that point1 was another reason for   
sparing it4    ,in the ,temple of ,peace

 also were the ,cyclops of ,timanthes1  
and the  sea-monster ,scylla by         
,nichomachus4    ,in the ,temple of     
,concord there was a precious picture by
 ,zeuxis1 of  ,marsyas bound to a tree2 
and in private hands1 the ,muses and the
 ,helen  of the same painter adorned    
some of the villas of ,rome4    ,in that
 shrine of ,ceres1 where ,mummius had   
placed the ,bacchus and  ,ariadne of    
,aristides1 there were several other    
pictures by the same  painter1 which1   
having been trusted to a restorer that  
they might  appear to advantage in some 
public procession1 were utterly ruined4 
,so  ancient was the practice of        
consulting quack restorers for works of 
art66    ,in the ,temple of ,minerva on 
the ,capitol was the ,theseus of        
,parrhasius1  with the ,rape of         
,proserpine and a victory by            
,nichomachus4    ,the portico of        
,octavia was adorned by pictures of     
,greek ,mythology  and ,history1 painted
 by that finished artist ,antiphilus2   

and that of  ,pompey boasted of a rare  
fragment by ,polygnotus4 ,it was a      
soldier upon  a scaling ladder1 and     
possibly stolen from some of the great  
battle  pieces which he painted in      
honour of his countrymen#eb4    ,the    
,romans were not more ceremonious than  
modern conquerors in their  robberies2  
witness the conduct of the general who  
permitted the tombs  of ,corinth to be  
broken open1 and in the sight of the    
people the urns  containing the ashes of
 their forefathers torn from their      
sacred  asylum1 and publicly sold to the
 highest bidder among the ,romans1 who  
became for a time so passionately fond  
of them1 that not a grave was  left     
unviolated for miles round ,corinth2 and
 it was only when the  market was       
glutted1 and the fashion had passed     
away1 that ,corinthian  vessels were    
laid aside4    ,a new school1 if ,i may 
so express myself1 of pottery was then  
established in ,italy1 where formerly   
the ,etruscan workmen had excelled  all 

others4 ,but as fashion is all-powerful 
in all ages1 a new rage  for earthen    
dishes and bowls of enormous size grew  
to such a pitch1  that the nickname of  
,patinarius was given to ,vitellius1 on 
account  of one large platter which he  
had made for him1 and which cost more   
than a fine wrought vessel of chalcedony
 would have done#ec2 and the  satirical 
poets of that age have named not a few  
of the lovers of large  dishes4    ,but 
to return to our imported pictures4 ,the
 portico of ,pompey was still  farther  
adorned with pictures by ,nicias4 ,there
 was a large portrait of  ,alexander1 a 
figure of ,calypso1 and some animals    
painted by him which  were much prized4 
,the same ,nicias painted that beautiful
 picture of  ,hyacinthus1 which         
,augustus valued so highly1 that1 after 
his death1  ,tiberius consecrated it to 
his memory1 in the temple dedicated to  
him4    ,but the greatest influx of     
,greek pictures at any one time into    
,rome  was during the edileship of      

,scaurus2 when1 on account of a real or 
pretended debt owing by the people of   
,sicyon to ,rome1 the whole of the      
pictures of that city were seized and   
conveyed to ,italy4 ,among these  the   
most precious appears to have been a    
sacrifice by ,pausius1 the  greatest    
painter of his native town1 and one     
whose playful disposition  and agreeable
 qualities we may gather from even the  
short notices we  can at this distance  
of time collect#ed4    ,such were a few 
of the many pictures1 the prizes of war1
 which were  brought to adorn the       
temples1 palaces1 and public places of  
,rome2  not to speak of those with which
 taste or fashion decorated private     
houses#ee4    ,it is not to be doubted  
that such an influx of excellent statues
 and  pictures caused a revival of the  
taste for the arts4 ,and accordingly    
there grew up new schools of painting in
 ,italy as a matter of course4  ,but no 
name of note has been preserved4 ,pliny1
 to be sure1 tells us of  one ,ludius1  

in the time of ,augustus1 who first     
devised the decoration  of the walls of 
houses with rural scenery2 and nearly at
 the same time  lived ,arellius1 a man  
of talent1 but of dissolute manners4    
,these were  followed by ,aurelius1     
,cornelius ,pinus1 and ,actius ,priscus1
 who were  employed by ,vespasian to    
decorate some temples which he rebuilt2 
but  their pictures are said scarcely to
 have attained mediocrity1 much less    
excellence4    ,in sculpture there is   
proof still existing that great manual  
dexterity  had survived the genius that 
produced the ideal ,jupiter of ,phidias1
  and the ,venus of ,praxiteles4 ,that  
dexterity was happily applied to        
portraits4    ,there is an individual   
expression1 notwithstanding some        
hardness1 in  the ,roman portraits in   
marble down to a very late period1 that 
must  satisfy us that they are genuine  
likenesses1 and that enables us to  read
 the characters of the men as truly as  
if we sat in their company4  ,but the   

artists that wrought in and for ,rome   
were now ,greeks1 and with  the         
exception of some of those who engraved 
gems#ef1 their works are  universally of
 an inferior character4    ,under the   
magnificent ,hadrian there was indeed a 
temporary revival  of art4 ,all that the
 patronage of a ,roman ,emperor1        
ambitious of  distinction as the reviver
 of art and elegance could do1 was done4
  ,the portraits of ,antinos1 which he  
caused to be executed1 whether  with a  
flowery garland1 and beautiful as       
,adonis1 or in the character  of an     
,egyptian priest1 or as a ,greek        
huntsman1 rival the youthful gods  and  
heroes of the sculptors of ,greece#eg4  
,but with ,hadrian and the  ,antonines  
this prosperity ended#eh4    ,the arts  
could not flourish where tyranny1 vice1 
and civil war  alternately reigned4     
,they withered almost to death2 and had 
,constantine  not pillaged the monuments
 of his predecessors his own would have 
remained mere masses of deformity1 to   

mark the degradation of art#ei4         
,while such was the fate of sculpture1  
that of painting was little  better4    
,some of the ,roman conquerors had      
introduced1 from the eastern  provinces1
 a taste for that gross kind of         
painting1 ,mosaic4 ,one of the  finest  
pieces executed in ,italy was the great 
pavement in the ,temple  of ,fortune1 at
 ,prnesti#fj1 by ,egyptian artists in   
the service of  ,sylla the dictator2    
and1 as a pavement1 the coolness and    
cleanliness  of that kind of work must  
have had strong recommendations1 besides
  whatever merit the designs might      
possess4 ,this luxury soon became so    
general1 that1 even in the remote       
province of ,britain1 specimens of      
mosaic pavements1 of no common beauty1  
are from time to time discovered  in the
 neighbourhood of ,roman stations4 ,to  
the workers in mosaic we  are probably  
indebted for part of what little art    
outlived the five  dull ages preceding  
the twelfth century2 and for a larger   

part to the  illuminators of books1     
whose miniatures certainly preserved    
much that  was afterwards used to great 
advantage by the revivers of painting in
  ,italy and ,germany4    ,pliny        
mentions ,aterius ,labeo1 a man of      
prtorian rank1 who in his time  was very
 skilful in small works of painting1    
which ,i conceive to have  been         
miniature4 ,he exercised his art in     
,gallia ,narboniensis1 where he  was    
vice-consul2 and ,i have sometimes      
fancied that his works might  have      
assisted to form the early illuminators 
of missals in the southern  provinces1  
nay1 perhaps1 the ,monk of the ,golden  
,isles himself4    ,i cannot omit to    
mention here1 that the first persons who
 illustrated  books appear to have been 
,varro and ,atticus4 ,in the books of   
their  noble libraries1 they each of    
them inserted small portraits of the    
authors at the head of their works4     
,this was within a century of our  era2 
and so diligent had they been in seeking

 out the portraits of  authors1 that ,m4
 ,varro published a collection of seven 
hundred#fa4    ,cornelius ,nepos says1  
that under each of the heads in his     
collection1  ,atticus wrote four or five
 verses1 describing the deeds and       
honours of  the original4 ,had but a few
 of these miniatures come down to our   
times1  how precious they would have    
been to the artist and the antiquary4   
,among the last names of ancient        
,italian painters given us by ,pliny1 is
  that of ,turpilius1 a noble ,venetian1
 who painted at ,verona in the first    
century1 with considerable reputation2  
and it is remarkable that some  of the  
earliest of modern painters appear at   
,verona1 and that many of  the most     
beautiful miniature illuminations extant
 were executed by very  ancient monks of
 that city#fb4    ,it was in this first 
century that the great catastrophe1     
which buried  several ancient cities in 
one of the most cultivated parts of     
,italy1  occurred4 ,it proved fatal1    

too1 to the extraordinary man to whom we
  owe not only the greatest part of our 
knowledge of the painters of  antiquity1
 but all that is to be depended upon of 
the practice of  the art4 ,pompeii with 
other towns was covered with ashes from 
,mount  ,vesuvius2 and in them such     
works of art as were not portable1      
remained  fresh as at the day of their  
disappearance1 to gratify our curiosity3
  and it was in a visit to ,pompeii to  
observe the phenomena connected  with   
the eruption that ,pliny lost his life4 
,every one must be struck with the great
 disparity between the bronzes  and     
marbles1 and the pictures of ,pompeii4  
,some of the bronze figures  and most of
 the furniture of that metal are        
exquisite in taste and  execution1 and  
many of the marbles are not far behind  
them4 ,but the  pictures are of a very  
inferior character1 generally speaking4 
,single  figures there are indeed of    
great beauty1 and some arabesques       
elegantly  designed2 but the groups are 

for the most part more like sculpture   
than  painting2 and the few landscapes  
are little better than those of the     
,chinese4    ,to account for this in    
some measure1 ,i would suggest1 that the
 pictures  we have found are merely the 
decorations of small private houses1 and
  that they must have been executed late
 in the decline of art1 because  the    
great earthquake which had destroyed the
 temples of ,pompeii1 but  a few years  
before that eruption of the mountain    
which buried the  town1 must have shaken
 the stucco from the walls1 and with it 
whatever  specimens of art of a better  
time might have then existed#fc4        
,besides1  the inhabitants of ,pompeii  
had most of them time to escape with    
their  most precious moveables4 ,now1 if
 any of the residents in that small     
provincial town1 which was to ,rome as  
,folkestone may be to ,london1          
possessed any ,greek pictures1 or others
 of value1 they were painted  on light  
wooden pannels 7larch or sycamore71 and 

were easily removed1  so that1 if not   
saved1 they must have been consumed in  
the fields by  the fiery showers1 that  
destroyed more persons without the gates
 of  the town than within them4 ,hence  
,i cannot think that the pictures of    
,pompeii furnish a fair criterion by    
which to judge of the real nature  of   
antique painting1 any more than the     
arabesques that have been found  in the 
,roman baths and the subterranean       
chambers of the palaces1 which  we      
cannot suppose to have been the places  
where the choicest works of  art were   
placed4    ,two very beautiful pieces of
 antique painting1 now in ,london1 which
  were found near ,rome1 seem to        
corroborate my opinion that the pictures
  scattered through the ,italian        
provinces were generally inferior to    
those belonging to ,rome itself and the 
immediate neighbourhood4 ,one  of these 
is the half figure of a boy1 with a     
double flute2 broad in  colour and      
effect1 and round and fine in form1     

reminding one of the  ,venetian         
frescoes1 particularly those of ,paul   
,veronese4 ,the other is  a ,ganymede1  
very beautiful in form1 and remarkable  
for the effect of  light and shadow4    
,the light is principally on the body of
 the ,ganymede1  in the centre1 and     
carried into the blue sky on the left2  
but a low1  light stone altar on the    
right balances it4 ,over the altar1 the 
eagle1  with outstretched wings1 is     
dark2 and the dark is continued behind  
the  lower part of the figure of the boy
 by a purple mantle4    ,these two      
pictures have none of the stiff1        
sculpture-like look of  almost all the  
other antique pictures ,i have seen4    
,they are real  pictures1 in which the  
artist has attended to light and shadow1
 and to  general effect1 as well as to  
colour and form4 ,whether they were the 
works of ,greeks settled in ,rome1 or of
 their ,italian scholars1 they  give me 
the notion of much more skill in        
painting1 as an art quite  distinct from

 sculpture1 than any other antique      
picture ,i ever saw#fd4      ,by the    
existing statues we perceive that the   
ancient writers did not  exaggerate the 
merit of their sculptors2 why therefore 
should we doubt  their judgment as to   
their painters8    ,but to whatever     
perfection the art of painting might    
have arrived in  the bright days of     
,greece1 it is certain that1 when ,pliny
 wrote1 it  had sunk down to a very low 
degree in that country3 and there is    
good  reason to believe that under the  
,empire there were no great ,roman      
painters2 but this was not for want of  
encouragement4 ,in the towns  preserved 
by the ashes of ,vesuvius there is      
scarcely a house where some  apartment  
is not painted1 where the precious red  
walls1 varnished with  wax#fe1 are not  
decorated with dancing figures and      
arabesques2 and  certainly not one where
 the doorways or the kitchens are not   
adorned or  disfigured1 as it may be1   
with portraits of all manner of utensils

 and  articles of food4    ,i confess ,i
 have been charmed to observe that glass
 decanters1 pretty  like our own1 were  
used for water1 wine1 and sherbet1 at   
the drinking  houses in those ancient   
fishing towns2 that their sirloins were 
cut in  true ,english fashion1 as in the
 picture in what is called the surgeon's
  house1 that dog who is gnawing the    
bones of one could tell2 and that  hams 
and legs of mutton1 to say nothing of   
broiled eels1 must have  looked just    
like our own when brought to table4 ,but
 above all was my  fancy diverted1 when 
,i perceived1 by the sign over the      
school-master's  door1 that the same    
remedies for dulness were prescribed    
eighteen  centuries ago1 as are found   
beneficial now4    ,numerous1 indeed1   
must the painters of the first century  
have been to  supply such demands6 ,but 
not even one name have they left for    
posterity  to dwell upon4    ,there is  
no question but that portrait painters  
abounded4 ,the numerous  portraits of   

the period1 in marble1 attest it1 if we 
had no other  proof4 ,but ,nero himself 
patronised that branch of the art1 and  
ordered  a canvas#ff1 one hundred and   
twenty feet high1 to be strained1       
whereon  his colossal portrait might    
overlook the city1 from the gardens of  
,marius4 ,but his design was frustrated2
 the lightning blasted the  portrait ere
 it was finished1 and we have not even  
the name of the  painter left1 who was  
to have been immortalized along with the
 emperor6    ,some small portraits of   
this period have been preserved among   
the  catacombs1 and it would be a matter
 of great interest to examine  carefully
 those preserved in the cabinets of     
,christian antiquities1  which fill one 
long gallery of the ,vatican4 ,i had too
 short a time  when there to make any   
observations worth setting down4 ,my    
first visit  to these precious cabinets 
was in company with ,canova1 and my     
second1  after a lapse of eight years1  
with ,maia6 ,they drew my attention to  

other objects2 and as ,i then hoped to  
revisit ,rome1 ,i was willing to  be led
 by such guides1 trusting to the future 
for an opportunity of  forwarding my own
 particular pursuits4 ,but some other   
person must  now take my place4         
,infirmity1 not age1 binds me to my own 
fire side4  ,happy that ,i have been    
permitted to see so much to occupy my   
thoughts  and time with pleasant        
retrospect1 under circumstances that    
without  occupation would be dreary     
indeed4    ,in the first century of our 
era1 we may consider painting as a      
merely  decorative art1 little better   
than upholstery1 excepting when applied 
to portraits1 for which human vanity    
will always create a demand4  ,there    
might also be artists employed to copy  
the ancient pictures of  ,greece2 and   
now and then1 among that class of       
painters1 one who would1  in some       
original composition1 imitate the style 
and manner of the older  masters4       
,this is so natural that it scarcely    

wants the confirmation of authority  to 
gain belief4 ,but ,i think we have      
authority in the notices scattered      
through the dialogues of ,lucian#fg1 and
 in the descriptions of  pictures by    
,philostratus#fh1 who erects his        
imaginary gallery on the  shores of the 
bay of ,naples4    ,but a great change  
was taking place in the world3 the gay  
and poetical1  but licentious belief of 
,greece and ,italy1 was fading away4    
,the images  and actions of gods and    
heroes no longer delighted the          
multitude4 ,a  graver1 purer1 yet more  
impassioned faith1 was gradually        
advancing  through many impediments3 and
 it was long ere its votaries had       
leisure  to convert to its service the  
glorious arts that had adorned the      
temples of the old religion4    ,the    
interval during which the change was    
going on1 could not be  otherwise than  
hurtful to those arts2 and accordingly1 
the first  efforts of ,christian        
painting1 as far as we see in the few   

relics we  possess1 were gross and      
coarse4    ,yet there is in them a      
certain dignity of expression1 which    
saves them  from contempt4 ,but the     
revival of art in ,christian times      
belongs rather  to the ,greeks than the 
,italians1 as ,i shall have occasion to 
point out2  for as the conquest of      
,greece by ,rome brought art and artists
 into  ,italy1 so the removal of the    
seat of government attracted them       
eastward  again1 to the new court1 and  
they left the deserted ,capitol of the  
,western ,empire to seek the patronage  
of the rising city4    ,from what ,i    
have said in this ,essay1 it will be    
seen that the time when  ,italy could   
boast of native artists1 equal to those 
of the surrounding  nations1 was before 
,rome existed4    ,that after the ,roman
 conquests1 native artists gradually    
disappeared1  and the very few who have 
left a name seem only placed here and   
there  as beacons1 to show the nakedness
 of the land4    ,that the forced luxury

 of art1 fostered by imported pictures  
and  statues1 foreign artists and       
imperial patronage1 produced in ,italy  
no painter or sculptor of eminence1 even
 in the most flourishing  times of      
,roman politeness2 while the free cities
 of ,greece had  given birth to those   
men of sublime genius1 whose borrowed   
works  gave to ,rome all the lustre she 
could ever boast of in art#fi4          
,,footnotes3    #cc ,i am aware that it 
is unusual to place ,italy before       
,greece in any  ancient historical      
question2 but ,i am induced to do this  
because the  real ancient ,italian art1 
namely that of the ,etruscans1 was      
coeval  with the oldest ,greek schools1 
if not anterior to them2 and that as    
the ,roman conquests destroyed the arts 
of old ,italy before the most  brilliant
 periods of ,greek painting1 ,i may well
 look upon ,italian or  ,etruscan       
painting as having an earlier life and  
death than that of  ,greece4    #cd     
,micali1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #gc4    #ce    

,micali1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cb1 mentions    
certain books of the ancient  ,italians1
 preserved at ,anagni1 so late as the   
time of ,fronto4    #cf ,for whatever   
notices of ancient or modern authors1   
before his  own time1 that can throw    
lustre on ,etruscan art1 ,i must refer  
to  ,tiraboschi1 ,storia delle ,lettere 
,italiane1 ,parte ,prima1 x4 to xviii41 
and to ,micali's work generally4    #cg 
,it is a pity that the want of early    
,italian writers deprives us of  the    
means of judging of the truth of some of
 the marvellous traditional  accounts of
 ,etruscan monuments4 ,the cavern       
sepulchres of ,clusium may  possibly    
have been connected with the labyrinth  
which ,pliny1 ,b4 xxxvi41  c4 #ac1 on   
the authority of ,varro1 says1 was under
 that incomprehensible  tomb of         
,porsenna1 the account of which reads   
like a fairy tale2 and has  uselessly   
employed some modern dreamers in        
impossible restorations4    ,the square 
body of the building1 the four pyramids 

at the corners1 and  that in the centre1
 will remind the traveller of the modest
 monument1  miscalled that of the       
,horatii and ,curiatii1 on the road     
between ,laricia  and ,rome4 ,to me it  
seems to have some resemblance with that
 raised by  ,simon ,maccabeus to his    
family1 about three centuries after     
,porsenna's  time1 #a ,macc4 xiii41 v4  
#bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj4    #ch ,see the     
#bbnd chapter of ,micali for what can be
 known of the  religion of ancient      
,italy1 its gradual alteration1 and the 
introduction  of ,egyptian1 ,oriental1  
and ,greek mysteries by the ,cabiri1    
who1 in their  mixed character of priest
 and merchant1 appear to have influenced
 the  whole system of worship4    #ci ,i
 say the re-opening1 because it appears 
that at some former  time or times1 now 
forgotten1 the sepulchres have been     
searched for the  precious metals which1
 in the form of ornaments of various    
kinds1 were  buried with their owners4  
,some of the tombs remaining open served

 as  refuge for robbers1 for sheep-pens1
 c4 ,see ,tiraboschi as above1 also     
,micali4    #dj ,this demon1 with his   
huge tusks and his large tongue1 might  
be  taken for the ,hindoo demon that is 
to destroy all mankind at the end  of   
the world1 according to some4 ,several  
plates of this destroyer1 who  is       
sometimes to be identified with ,siva1  
sometimes with ,kali1 are to  be seen in
 ,moore's ,hindoo ,pantheon4 ,the       
resemblance between the two  monsters is
 very remarkable4    #da ,from this it  
appears that the whole ear of corn was  
stored in  these nets1 as was the custom
 in ,egypt4    #db ,book xxxv41 ch4 #c4 
#dc ,cleophantus is said to have used no
 other colour than pounded  brick4      
,demaratus1 the father of ,tarquinius1  
had been a fugitive1 and  settled as a  
potter at ,tarquinii4    #dd ,i quote   
the pleasant old translation by         
,philemon ,holland4 ,the #ast  ,book of 
,tiraboschi1 to which ,i have already   
referred1 may be consulted  if any      

doubts concerning ,pliny's account      
should arise4    #de ,pliny mentions    
that1 in his time1 ,pontius1 a          
lieutenant of  ,caligula1 wished to have
 removed the pictures from ,ardea1 but  
found  that the plaster or stucco upon  
which they were painted would not bear  
removal4 ,these pictures could not have 
been painted merely in water  colours1  
for they were not injured by exposure to
 the weather4 ,could  they have been    
painted with the size of oil1 mentioned 
in book xxxvi41  chap4 #bd8 or were they
 not rather true frescoes8    #df ,book 
xxxiv41 ch4 #d4    #dg ,before ,christ1 
#dhe4    #dh ,book xxxiv1 ch4 #g4    #di
 8,c4 ,fabius1 a most noble ,roman1 who1
 when he had painted the walls  of the  
,temple of ,salus1 before dedicated by  
,julius ,bubulcus1 he set  his own name 
to it3 as if a consular1 sacerdotal1 and
 triumphal family  stood yet in want of 
this ornament40 ,val4 ,max4 book viii41 
quoted by  ,junius4    #ej ,modern      
,messina4    #ea ,by ,timomachus1 a     

,byzantine contemporary with ,csar1 who 
was his  patron according to one passage
 in ,pliny's thirty-fifth book2 but     
other passages1 with1 as ,i think1 more 
likelihood1 make him older than         
,apelles4 ,on carefully comparing such  
authorities as we have on the  subject1 
,i cannot help thinking that there were 
two1 if not three1  painters of the     
name4 ,two seem to have been ,thracians4
    #eb ,most probably from the ,pcile1 
where the pictures were not painted  in 
fresco1 but on pannel4 ,the portico of  
,octavia1 with its library and          
pictures1 was burnt in the time of      
,titus4    #ec ,the fashion of the fine 
wrought cups of chalcedony is said by   
,pliny to have been introduced into     
,rome by ,pompey4 ,b4 xxxvii41 c4 #aa4  
#ed ,for his other various merits1 see  
,fuseli's first lecture4    #ee ,among  
the pictures taken from ,greece1        
,tiraboschi names1 on the  authority of 
,vitruvius1 b4 ii4 c4 #h1 some frescoes 
from ,sparta2 which1  by orders of the  

,ediles ,murena and ,varro1 were sawn   
from the walls they  adorned1 and1 being
 tightly wedged in wooden cases1 were   
transported to  ,rome4    #ef           
,dioscorides1 whose works came next in  
beauty to those of  ,pyrgoteles1 ,acmon1
 ,aulus1 and some others in the time of 
,augustus2  ,alpheus and ,anthon in that
 of ,caligula2 ,evodus and ,necander    
under  ,titus2 norus in the reign of    
,marcus ,aurelius1 c4    #eg ,see the   
basso-relievo1 of the size of life1 in  
the ,villa ,albani1  and the statues in 
the ,museum of the ,capitol and the     
,galleries of the  ,vatican4    #eh     
,marcus ,aurelius was himself a painter3
 his master was1 according  to ,julian1 
,diognetes2 whether the same ,diognetes1
 who was his master in  moral           
philosophy1 does not appear4    #ei ,the
 arch of ,constantine in ,rome furnishes
 a perfect example3 such  parts as he   
stole from the forum of ,trajan are of  
great merit1 and do  credit to the      
artists of the last good school of      

antique sculpture4  ,those portions of  
the decorative bas-reliefs1 executed by 
,constantine's  workmen1 are mean and   
deformed--totally worthless in design   
and  contemptible as sculpture4    #fj  
,now ,palestrina4 ,see ,cecconi1        
,historia di ,palestrina4    #fa ,all   
,roman families of rank preserved the   
effigies of their  forefathers1 some in 
wax1 others in clay1 wood1 marble1 or   
bronze4  ,these were carried in         
procession at funerals4    ,the images  
of ,brutus and ,cassius were not        
permitted to appear among  those of     
seventy of the principal houses of      
,rome1 at the funeral  of ,junia the    
widow of ,cassius2 but ,tacitus says1   
that 8before all  the rest ,,they       
flashed upon men's thoughts1 the more   
for not being  there40--,annals1 ,book  
iii4    ,the ,athenians set up the      
statues of ,brutus and ,cassius along   
with those  of ,harmodius and           
,aristogiton4--,dion4 ,cassius1 ,book   
xlvii41 c4 #bj1  quoted by ,colonel     

,leake4    #fb ,of these1 there are     
beautiful examples in the ,libreria at  
,sienna1 and some in the collection at  
,munich4 ,the latter had not been       
arranged when ,i saw them in #ahbg4     
#fc ,in and about the market-place at   
,pompeii1 there are buildings  partly   
repaired1 and also preparations for     
repairing others4 ,so that  the         
consequences of the first catastrophe   
had by no means been fully  removed     
before the second occurred4    #fd      
,these pictures are now in the          
possession of ,sir ,matthew ,white      
,ridley4 ,they were discovered in #ahbc1
 in a vineyard belonging to ,signor     
,santa ,amandola1 to the right of the   
,via ,appia1 near ,san ,sebastiano4 ,the
  boy with the flute formed the centre  
of the vault of a ,columbarium1  and was
 taken down to preserve it4 ,there were1
 in the same tomb1 some  relievos1 in   
stucco1 and some painted arabesques1 of 
considerable  merit4 ,the ,ganymede was 
found in the same vineyard1 as was      

likewise a  fine sarcophagus1 which has 
been published in an archological       
journal4    #fe ,see ,pliny1 ,book      
xxxv41 c4 #aa2 and further1 see ,essay  
#f4    #ff ,see ,essay #e1 also see     
,pliny1 ,book xxxv4 ,it is curious to   
observe  how ,m4 ,durand has twisted    
this passage to suit his own views4 ,it 
is only necessary to compare ,durand's  
paraphrase with the honest  translation 
of old ,philemon ,holland1 to be        
convinced of the ,frenchman's  want of  
fidelity4 ,tiraboschi has1 without his  
usual care1 adopted  ,durand's view of  
this matter4 ,i think wrongly1 for my   
reasons see ,essay  #f4    #fg ,see     
,franklin's ,lucian4 ,in the dialogue1  
,zeuxis1 ,lucian says1  that the        
original picture of the ,centaurs was   
lost at sea2 but that he  saw a copy in 
a picture dealer's shop1 at ,athens4 ,it
 is worth while to  refer to ,lucian's  
dream1 for an account of the customs of 
the sculptors  of his day1--the pupils  
crying casts about the streets1 while   

the  masters were labouring themselves4 
#fh ,see the ,french translation1 by    
,blaise de ,vigenere1 with its  singular
 plates and notes1 ten times more bulky 
than the original work4  ,there is an   
epigram to each of the plates by        
,d',embry4    #fi ,tiraboschi has       
laboured hard to convince himself and   
others that  ,zeuxis was a native of the
 ,italian ,heraclea4 ,but ,i think he   
fails4 ,even  if he succeeded in        
establishing his birth-place in ,italy1 
his life was  passed in ,greece3 there  
he studied and there he painted4 ,his   
being  employed by the ,sicilians at    
,agrigentum1 and by some towns in ,magna
  ,grcia1 only prove their taste for    
,greek art1 not that ,zeuxis was an     
,italian4           99       99       99
       99       99    7,additional ,note
 to ,essay ,,ii47--,it may appear       
strange that ,i have not  mentioned     
,sicily1 which abounded in works of art1
 more particularly  in this ,essay4 ,but
 the truth is1 there was no native      

school of  either sculpture or painting2
 and whoever will take the trouble to   
read ,cicero's fourth oration against   
,verres1 will see in that very          
interesting catalogue1 that with        
trifling exceptions1 all the statues    
and pictures which that guilty ,prtor   
plundered the ,sicilians of1 were       
either imported from ,greece1 or the    
works of ,greek artists4 ,it is a  pity 
that ,cicero has not named the painters 
of those pictures which  hung in the    
temple of ,minerva at ,syracuse#gj1 and 
which he praises so  highly1 especially 
the battle piece1 representing          
,agathocles charging  at the head of his
 cavalry4 ,it would also be interesting 
to know the  authors of those           
twenty-seven portraits of the tyrants   
and other great  men of ,syracuse1 which
 the orator says were so valuable1 not  
only as  likenesses of the persons1 but 
as works of art4 ,cicero1 however1 was  
no  connoisseur1 and when he wished to  
adorn his library1 at ,tusculum1 with   

some work of art fit for the place1 he  
employed a friend to choose it4  ,and   
well did that friend choose1 if the     
beautiful fragment now in the           
monastery1 at ,grotta ,ferrata1 and     
which was found on the site of the      
,tusculan ,villa1 be the very ornament  
sent from ,athens1 in compliance  with  
his request4    #gj ,now converted into 
the cathedral church4 ,it must have been
 a  beautiful specimen of ,greek ,doric1
 but it is hidden and defaced by the    
building and walls necessary for its    
conversion4 ,i saw it in #ahah4         
,,essay ,,iii4                          
,,painting ,,in ,,greece1 ,,first ,,and 
,,second ,,periods4     ,it is no small 
glory to be made partaker of a great and
 worthy matter1   however it be but a   
little you do possess4                  
,,columella4      ,to write of the      
beginning of painting in ,greece1 one of
 two theories  must be repeated4 ,either
 that all nations1 at a certain stage of
  civilisation1 have discovered a       

fondness and aptness for the fine arts  
without communicating with others2 or   
that painting was brought with  the     
other arts ready formed from ,egypt to  
,sicyon and ,corinth4    ,for my part ,i
 am apt to consider both these views as 
partly true4    ,it is not to be        
supposed that the civilised people1     
whatever was its  origin1 which         
possessed ,greece before the time of the
 earliest ,egyptian  colonies1 and which
 in the massy walls and curious         
treasure-houses1  which it has left as  
monuments1 proving a considerable       
advance in the  knowledge of mechanics1 
had made none in those finer arts that  
adorn  and sweeten life4 ,neither are we
 obliged to believe that the ,egyptian  
,colonies1 whether led by an unfortunate
 prince1 or composed of men  flying from
 the tyranny of a harsh government1     
would forget to practise  the arts which
 flourished in their native soil4 ,they 
might improve  the nation on whose      
shores they landed1 and in return be    

improved by  intercourse with it#ga4    
,it is certain1 however1 that whatever  
were the first steps of the arts  of    
,greece1 they soon out-stripped those of
 every other nation1 making  their      
practice the law by which all others    
were to be tried for ever4    ,alas1 for
 the pictures of ,greece6 they have     
perished1 and are now mere  matter of   
history1 and like the hands that        
produced them        ,poca polvere son1 
che nulla sente4    ,but the temples    
they adorned1 the statues that were     
coeval with them1  the bassi-relievi    
conceived in the spirit that inspired   
them1 are not  utterly gone2 and while  
we have them before us1 the history of  
the  pictures of ,greece may still      
borrow a momentary reality as we read   
over the descriptions of the heroes of  
,polygnotus1 and the ,helens and        
,venuses of ,zeuxis and ,apelles4    ,of
 the plastic arts it is scarcely        
possible to doubt that modelling in     
clay must be the earliest that arrived  

at any degree of perfection4 ,the  very 
shaping and moulding of vessels for     
domestic use1 must have given  a        
facility of hand to the potter1 highly  
advantageous when he began to  model his
 first ornamental foliage1 and          
afterwards in his imitations of  men and
 animals4 ,it is a pity not to believe  
that the first portrait  in profile1 and
 the first bust1 owed their common      
origin to love2  and after all it may be
 true4 ,the potter's art may have formed
 the  clumsy likeness of a human head1  
and many a rude outline may have been   
scratched on rocks1 or cut in turf1 or  
drawn in the sands before4 ,but         
,dibutatis tenderly tracing the shadow  
of her sleeping lover1 may still  have  
formed the first individual likeness2   
and her father's filling up  of that    
line1 the first head in clay that       
deserved the name of model4    ,at all  
events1 ,i would have the poets and the 
young believe it4    ,the tale points to
 ,corinth as an early nursery of art2   

and we have  seen how closely the       
beautiful vases of that city and those  
of ,etruria  resemble each other4 ,of   
late years1 vessels almost equally      
beautiful1  and not dissimilar in form1 
have been found delineated in the       
catacombs  of ,egypt2 but it is         
remarkable1 that although they are      
ornamented with  many tracings and      
scrolls like those of ,corinth1 there is
 no instance  of their bearing the human
 form4    ,the designs on the           
,corinthian and ,etruscan vases1 may be 
considered as  pictures in monochrome1  
according to ,fuseli#gb1 whose ingenious
 but  somewhat fanciful account of the  
process by which the monochromes were   
executed1 is probably near the truth4   
,the works of the earliest ,greek       
painters1 therefore1 which we know  were
 called monochromes1 resembled the      
,corinthian and ,etruscan figured       
vases2 and1 perhaps1 it is equally      
credible that the two1 three1 and       
four-tinted vases represent1 with       

tolerable accuracy1 the steps towards   
the many coloured pictures which excited
 the admiration of the ,greeks  in the  
earliest paintings mentioned in         
authentic history4    ,but1 before we   
take up the history of painting         
exclusively1 it will  not be            
uninteresting to name a few of those    
early productions of the  workers in    
metal1 mentioned by the poets or older  
historians1 and1 in  some instances1    
preserved in the treasures of the       
,grecian temples1  particularly those of
 ,delphi1 to a late period#gc4 ,we must 
remember  that the ,greeks of ,europe1  
,asia1 and the ,islands1 practised the  
arts  with equal taste and success2     
that1 by trade or by alliance with the  
,phnicians1 they maintained an          
intercourse with ,egypt1 and also a     
direct commerce with the ,etruscans2 and
 that their border nations on  the      
,asiatic side were cultivated and       
luxurious1 drawing their origin  either 
from the same ancient civilised stock   

with themselves1 or from  ,egypt1 or its
 immediate neighbourhood4    ,the shield
 of ,achilles1 that noble piece of      
chased and inlaid work as  described by 
,homer1 about nine centuries before our 
era1 is an example4  ,its rich design   
could not have been imagined1 unless the
 arts necessary  to produce it had      
arrived at a high degree of perfection  
in his country  at the time he wrote#gd1
 though we may doubt if1 at the period  
of the  war of ,troy1 three hundred     
years before ,homer1 there existed      
artificers  capable of executing it4    
,within a century after the taking of   
,troy1 there was a great movement  among
 the ,greek tribes2 many new colonies   
settled in ,asia ,minor1 and  the       
,heraclid finally regained their ancient
 seats in ,peloponnesus4 ,it  is worthy 
of remark1 that at that period          
,jerusalem was adorned with  her first  
magnificent temple by ,solomon1 and that
 ,david built his  house of cedar4 ,the 
chief workman sent by ,hiram the king of

 ,tyre1 to  assist ,solomon in the      
building of the ,temple1 but more       
especially to  superintend the execution
 of the ornaments1 was the son of a     
,tyrian  artist by a ,jewess of the     
tribe of ,naphthali4 ,according to one  
passage  of scripture he was like his   
master called ,hiram#ge4    ,a little   
before the building of the temple we    
must place the  construction of the tomb
 of ,absalom1 part hewn in the rock1 and
 part  built2 which resembles in those  
particulars1 and1 in my mind1 surpasses 
in taste1 many of those described and   
figured by late travellers in  ,asia    
minor2 while ,i should say1 the cavern  
tombs of the kings of  ,judah have a    
resemblance to those of ,egypt1 or      
rather1 perhaps1 to  the curious        
excavations discovered by late          
travellers1 at ,petra in  ,edom#gf4     
,these are surely proofs that the arts  
were flourishing as  freely in ,syria1  
as in ,asia ,minor at that time4        
,but1 to return to ,greece4 ,about seven

 centuries before the ,christian  era1  
the temple of ,delphi was enriched by a 
number of most precious  gifts by some  
of the kings of ,asia4 ,gyges1 whose    
story has served for  the foundation of 
so many charming tales of enchantment   
and fairyism1  sent to the god at       
,delphi the first foreign offering1 or1 
as the  ,greeks term it1 the first gift 
from a barbarian#gg4 ,it consisted of   
vessels of gold1 silver1 and brass2     
among which1 six golden goblets1        
particularly valued1 were afterwards    
placed1 in a chest or cupboard  called  
the treasury of ,corinth1 which was     
presented by ,cypselus#gh  to the       
shrine1 some years afterwards4 ,midas   
had by a short time  anticipated the    
gifts of ,gyges1 consecrating to the    
,delphian ,apollo  the throne whence he 
dispensed justice1 said to be of        
exquisite  workmanship#gi4    ,halyatus1
 the great-grandson of ,gyges1 sent a   
vase to ,delphi1 precious  for its      
material1 but still more precious on    

account of the workmanship  of the under
 cup which supported it4 ,the vase was  
of chased silver1 the  under cup of iron
 curiously inlaid with silver1 the work 
of ,glaucus of  ,phocis1 said to be the 
inventor of that kind of work in metal4 
,this  was the only one of the gifts of 
the ,lydian kings that remained when    
,pausanias visited the temple4          
,indeed1 the magnificent presents sent  
by ,crsus1 the son of ,halyatus1  would 
have been sufficient to tempt the       
cupidity of a conqueror1 and  perhaps to
 overcome the honesty of the priests of 
,delphi themselves4 ,of  pure gold there
 were a hundred and seventeen bricks or 
tiles1 forming  the floor for a lion of 
great size1 of the same metal1 and the  
statue  of a woman said to have baked   
the bread for the king's household4     
,these were taken by the ,phocians to   
defray the expenses of the sacred  war4 
,there were also many beautiful         
chiselled vases of gold and  silver1    
basins1 ewers1 fountains1 and cisterns4 

,one goblet of silver  was particularly 
precious2 it was said to be the work of 
,theodorus of  ,samos#hj1 one of the    
earliest founders in bronze4    ,crsus  
also enriched other temples with        
precious gifts4 ,the great  temple at   
,ephesus possessed three golden heifers 
and some fine columns  given by him4    
,the shrines of ,thebes in ,botia1 were 
enriched by him2  and to the temples in 
,miletus1 he had sent gifts of equal    
value with  those he consecrated at     
,delphi4    ,in return for a quantity of
 gold given by ,crsus to the            
,lacedemonians1  they sent him a large  
vessel of bronze1 round the mouth of    
which the  figures of all sorts of      
animals were chased or engraved4 ,the   
vase1  indeed1 never reached ,crsus1 who
 was dethroned by ,cyrus while it was   
on its way1 and it fell into the hands  
of some merchants who sold  it for a    
large price4 ,cyrus had the fortune not 
only to obtain the  treasure in the     
precious metals and in the workmanship1 

of the gorgeous  possessions of ,crsus1 
more precious than those metals         
themselves1 but  also to restore to     
,jerusalem the splendid ornaments and   
rich vessels1  the work of the ,tyrian  
artists1 which belonged to the temple1  
and which  were no doubt saved1 by      
having been consecrated in#ha the temple
 of  ,belus1 during the taking of       
,babylon4    ,it will perhaps never be  
known in what degree the taking of the  
,capital  of the ,chaldeans by ,cyrus1  
altered the state of literature and art 
in ancient ,persia4 ,i have already     
referred to the passage in the  prophet 
,ezekiel1 which mentions the portraying 
the figures of men with  vermilion1     
according to the use of the ,chaldeans  
of ,babylon2 and1 it  should be         
observed1 that their many-coloured      
head-dresses are also  mentioned2 so    
that the ,babylonian pictures1 such as  
they were1 were not  monochromes4 ,but  
this belongs to another place#hb4       
,the ,greeks had early adopted or       

borrowed deities from every nation4 ,the
  ,syrian ,astaroth or ,astarte1 and    
,thammuz or ,adonis1 were not neglected1
  but were received as kindly in the    
temples1 as the ,tyrian purple and  the 
fine linen of ,egypt1 in the ports of   
,greece2 and they were too  intelligent 
and tasteful1 not to adopt whatever of  
beautiful or elegant  might be found    
among the artificers and artists of the 
nations with  which they traded4        
,perhaps the ,greeks were less          
inventors1 than quick  and happy        
discerners1 of what was beautiful4 ,they
 seem to have wrought  the rough        
materials of many other nations into the
 happiest forms2  and1 if they borrowed 
largely from others1 they amply repaid  
them by  the beauty of the works they   
produced1 and the excellent artists they
  formed1 and these1 by seeking         
employment in foreign countries1 refined
  no doubt the taste of the great       
barbaric courts4    ,the art of inlaying
 and colouring metals is still possessed

 in  perfection by many of the          
descendants of the nations of ,asia     
,minor and  ,syria4 ,the ,circassians   
especially pride themselves on colouring
 silver1  an art in which in ancient    
times the ,egyptians excelled1 though it
 was  practised by the artists of ,tyre 
and ,sidon#hc4    ,figures and sometimes
 portraits were introduced in the       
patterns of the  stained metals2 and    
though the damasking or colouring       
steel#hd is now  confined to swords and 
fire-arms1 the example of the curious   
under-cup1  seen by ,pausanias at       
,delphi1 shows that it was applied to   
different  purposes by the inventors4   
,i have dwelt more upon the ornamental  
and religious vases1 whether  in clay or
 wrought in metal1 than upon statues in 
bronze or marble1  because their        
subjects1 the manner of treating them1  
and the tools  employed in executing    
them1 seem properly to belong to        
painting4 ,on  the fictile vases1 the   
subjects being chiefly applicable to    

funereal  rites1 represent the mysteries
 of ,ceres1 ,bacchus1 and ,hercules4    
,any  part of the fables concerning     
those divinities sufficed to indicate   
the  mystery4 ,i have seen a beautiful  
design of ,triptolemus with a winged    
car1 a type surely of the burial of the 
body in earth1 while the living  spirit 
shall revive1 even as the corn sown in  
the field springeth up  to beauty and   
use when the winter is gone4 ,the       
struggles of ,bacchus  and ,hercules1   
the death of ,linus1 the descent of     
,hercules to ,hades1  all these are     
compositions belonging strictly to      
picture1 and form  the first steps      
towards it2 departing more from the     
nature of designs  for sculptured       
friezes or tablets in bas-relief1 than  
those other  ,bacchic subjects1 where   
the ,menad and their companions dance at
 fixed  distances and independent of    
each other1 or the graver ,pyrrhic      
dancers  that are supposed to be equally
 emblematical1 and are frequently drawn 

on the vases or on the sides of altars1 
consecrated to the service of  the      
temples4    ,one of the most interesting
 works of the kind1 of which the        
knowledge  has come down to us1 was the 
chest of ,cypselus already mentioned1 in
  the temple of ,juno at ,olympia in    
,elis#he1 it was of cedar1 inlaid with  
gold1 silver1 and ivory2 it was covered 
with designs indicative of the          
mysteries1 or representing funeral      
games4 ,whatever relates to ,ceres  or  
,proserpine1 to ,bacchus or to          
,hercules1 as connected with ,dis1 is   
represented4 ,pausanias describes many  
figures1 which my very imperfect        
knowledge of their mystic meaning would 
lead me to call miscellaneous2  but they
 are doubtless connected with the main  
design4 ,among these are  some          
representing the virtues and the arts4  
,it is clear that the woman  called     
,night1 with a black child in one arm   
and a white one in the  other1 called   
,death and ,sleep1 has a reference to   

the usual mysteries  of death4    ,but  
the fancy of the artificer has brought  
together1 according to the  description1
 all the greater gods and older heroes1 
without any very  perceptible connexion 
as to their position#hf4    ,in the same
 temple where that chest was placed1    
there were statues1  altars1 treasures1 
and vases innumerable4 ,however1 there  
is but one  more that ,i shall notice on
 account of the fitness of the figures  
that  adorned it4 ,it was the table of  
gold and ivory upon which the crowns  of
 the victors in the ,olympic games were 
placed1 and was the work of  ,colotes1  
who1 like his master ,phidias1 was a    
painter as well as a  sculptor4 ,that   
is1 they both of them designed1 and     
sometimes carried on  their drawings1 so
 far as to make them real monochrome    
pictures#hg4  ,this appears to have been
 sometimes done as a preparation for    
working  in relief1 as on the famous    
shield of ,minerva1 designed by ,pantnus
 the  brother of ,phidias4 ,on the front

 of the table or altar were the six     
greater gods more particularly patrons  
of the games2 namely1 ,cybele1  ,juno1  
,jupiter1 ,mercury1 ,apollo1 and ,diana4
 ,on the back the ,olympic  games were  
carved or inlaid--it is not very clear  
which1 as the word  used is only        
representation--and we know there were  
both carving and  inlaying in the chest4
 ,one side contained a battle under the 
direction  of ,mars2 and close by1 were 
,esculapius and ,hygeia2 the other side 
was  filled by ,pluto1 ,proserpine1     
,bacchus and two nymphs1 one of whom    
held  a globe1 the other a key3 both    
symbolical of the mastery of ,pluto or  
death over the world4    ,the earliest  
names of ,greek painters1 discovered by 
the indefatigable  ,pliny1 are those of 
,dynas1 ,hyginon1 and ,charmas4 ,what   
their works  might be we can scarcely   
conjecture2 for it is accounted a great 
improvement that after them ,eumanus the
 ,athenian distinguished man from  woman
 in his figures#hh1 and undertook to    

draw any object he could  see2 and      
,cimon the ,cleonian proceeded so far as
 to place his figures in  different     
positions1 and to give the proper       
direction to the eyes4    ,these all    
preceded ,bularchus1 whose picture of   
the battle of the  ,magnetes must have  
very far surpassed the works of those   
artists4 ,it  was esteemed so highly1   
that ,candaules1 the last ,king of      
,lydia1 of the  race of the ,heraclid1  
bought it at a very high price--it is   
reported1  at its weight in gold--and   
regarded it as a treasure4 ,this was    
about  the eighteenth ,olympiad1 or     
nearly #gcj years before our era4    ,if
 the description given by ,lucian of the
 picture in the temple of  ,diana in    
,taurica1 and which he ascribes to some 
very ancient unknown  painter1 be       
anything but imaginary1 it must have    
been painted about  this time#hi4    ,in
 the half century after ,bularchus1 the 
arts of design1 and especially          
painting1 had made large and rapid      

progress4 ,somewhere about the          
eightieth ,olympiad1 or between four and
 five hundred years before  ,christ1    
prizes for painting were instituted at  
,delphi and at ,corinth2  and we find   
,pantnus1 the brother of ,phidias1      
contending at ,delphi with  ,timagros1  
among the first of the exhibitors for   
the prize4    ,besides the drawings or  
pictures1 which ,pantnus had made in    
conjunction with ,phidias#ij1 he had    
already painted at ,athens the  battle  
of ,marathon1 in which the portraits of 
the leaders of both  armies were        
conspicuous4 ,the two ,mycons1 and      
,timarete1 the daughter  of the second1 
were his cotemporaries2 his elders1     
,aglaiophon1  ,cephysodorus1 and        
,phylus1 were still living4 ,these all  
employed their  genius upon subjects    
relating to the religion or the history 
of their  country4 ,from devotion or    
patriotism they drew their inspiration4 
,hence  the grandeur and severity that1 
according to all authors1 distinguished 

their works4    ,between seven and eight
 centuries before ,christ1 about the    
time  when the ,olympic games became    
fixed1 many of the temples and public   
buildings of ,athens appear to have been
 improved or rebuilt4 ,at that  period  
all the states1 enjoying any advantages 
of situation as to  maritime commerce1  
appear to have been actively employed in
 domestic  improvements1 or in sending  
out foreign colonies4 ,syracuse1        
,corcyra1  ,tarentum1 ,rome1 and many   
other cities were founded4 ,byzantium1  
half  a century later2 and in the       
interval ,necho's ships had sailed round
  ,africa4    ,by the year #eej before  
,christ1 the ,athenians1 under the      
government of  ,pisistratus and his     
sons1 had not only improved in all that 
renders  civilised life delightful1 but 
had extended their commerce1 and        
acquired a degree of wealth and         
splendour1 that drew upon them1 first   
the admiration1 and not long after the  
hostile attacks of the ,persians1       

aided1 it must be confessed1 by the     
revenge of the ,pisistratid1 who  had   
been expelled when the popular          
government was established4    ,it was  
then when the great contest began       
between ,athens and the  ,monarchs of   
the ,east1 who would have oppressed all 
,greece by the  conquest of her first   
free people1 that the arts were called  
into  existence4 ,they lent their aid to
 deepen religion1 to animate            
patriotism1 to reward virtue4           
,themistocles rebuilt in purer taste1   
and with greater magnificence1  some of 
the temples1 and most of the other      
public buildings injured  by the        
,persians4 ,but it is said that his     
works were chiefly those  necessary1 or 
at least most useful to the people4     
,cimon1 the son of that ,miltiades who  
won the battle of ,marathon1  resolved  
to beautify the city with temples1 and  
statues1 and pictures1  part of the     
expense of which he defrayed out of his 
private fortune1  and part was provided 

for by a portion of the ,persian spoils4
    ,struck with the heedlessness of the
 ,athenians1 who1 among their many      
shrines1 had never erected one in honour
 of ,theseus1 their greatest            
benefactor1 he planned and accomplished 
the ,temple of ,theseus#ia1  about      
thirty years before ,pericles' more     
magnificent structure1 the  ,parthenon1 
rose to fix for ever a canon for        
perfection in architecture  and         
sculpture#ib4    ,the expedition of     
,cimon to the ,isle of ,scyros1 to      
recover the bones of  ,theseus1 and to  
punish the islanders for the death of   
that hero1 was  immediately followed by 
the erection of the venerable temple1   
still  standing in honour of his        
remains4 ,its decorations were more     
beautiful  than any that had hitherto   
been seen4    ,mycon1 who was both a    
sculptor and a painter1 had the         
direction of  the structure4 ,the       
sculptured metopes are said to be even  
finer than  those of the ,parthenon#ic  

in execution1 though inferior in taste2 
and the same is said of the two friezes 
that adorn the front and back           
vestibules of the temple4 ,as these     
pieces of sculpture bear marks even  now
 of having been coloured1 ,i must       
consider them as works fitted1  in the  
opinion of one of the greatest painters 
of that age1 to be  considered as       
pictures4    ,the friendship that       
subsisted between ,theseus and his      
cousin ,hercules1  and the gratitude so 
strongly expressed by ,theseus for the  
services  and favours of his friend1    
rendered it natural that a temple to one
 of  these heroes should be decorated   
with the acts of both2 and as in life   
,theseus had always generously given the
 first place to ,hercules1 so in  his   
monument the ,athenians placed the      
pictures of his actions in the  front of
 the temple1 while those of ,theseus    
occupied the back and sides4    ,the    
flat pictures were what we should call  
frescoes2 they were all  painted upon   

the interior walls of the ,theseum1 and 
related solely to  the actions of       
,theseus4    ,it is impossible now to   
know how far ,mycon had departed from   
the  ,egyptian style of painting which  
had prevailed in ,athens and elsewhere  
before this period4    ,where paintings 
of mythological1 or even historical     
subjects were  required in public       
places1 plain unbroken colours1 without 
much regard  to nature1 were applied1 so
 as to produce a dazzling effect at a   
distance1 much like that of an ,eastern 
bazaar1 where separate pieces of        
various coloured brocades produce a     
gorgeous but not unpleasant show4    ,by
 the age of ,mycon some discrimination  
was used in the application of  colour4 
,the coloured foliage and meanders which
 decorated the ,theseum1  the           
,parthenon1 and the ,panhellenic ,temple
 of ,egina#id1 were only  internal      
decorations2 and ,i think the           
descriptions left of the pictures       
contemporary with those of ,mycon1      

justify us in concluding that the       
,egyptian practice was already falling  
into disuse4    ,the subjects chosen to 
do honour to ,hercules were1 of course1 
his own  actions1 not exactly those     
called the twelve labours of ,hercules2 
though some of them are mixed with other
 events in the hero's life4 ,the        
subject of the frieze1 over the front   
entrance1 is the war with the  giants1  
in which the superior gods are only     
spectators1 while ,hercules1  ,mars1    
,bacchus1 ,apollo1 and ,mercury1 are    
actively engaged in combat with  the    
giants4 ,the subjects on the metopes1   
relating to ,hercules1 are some  of them
 too much injured to be recognised with 
certainty2 but others  are from his     
common adventures1 such as the ,nemean  
,lion1 the ,hydra1 and  so on4    ,the  
frieze1 in honour of ,theseus1          
represents the battle of the ,centaurs  
and ,lapith4 ,among the groups there are
 some of great beauty2 but ,i  cannot   
help thinking that1 like those of the   

battle of the giants1  there is an      
affectation of a display of strength4   
,there are too many  figures with legs  
outstretched and strained1 and arms     
employed without  a visible necessity2  
very unlike the work of ,phidias1 where 
the action  of every figure is directed 
to its proper purpose4    ,but it is not
 as sculpture ,i speak of them2 all     
these figures were  painted by ,mycon   
and his daughter ,timarete1 reported by 
,pliny to have  been a paintress of     
great reputation4 ,even yet1 ,colonel   
,leake#ie says1  there are traces of    
bronze or gold coloured armour1 garments
 of various  hues1 azure skies1 and     
golden stars4 ,if these artists gave    
natural  colours to the objects they    
treated1 it was already a great         
improvement  on the ,egyptian notion of 
pictures2 but yet their works must have 
resembled those ancient altar-pieces1   
some by the hand of ,albert  ,durer     
himself1 which we still meet with       
occasionally in the ,german             

churches#if4    ,the description of1 and
 apology for1 coloured sculpture in     
,flaxman's  seventh lecture1 leaves     
nothing to be said on that side of the  
question4 ,on the other ,i believe there
 is an universal feeling of  distaste to
 anything so like waxwork4    ,the      
pictures on the inner walls of the      
,theseum were painted on stucco1  which 
here and there still retains vestiges of
 colour4    ,the subjects were most     
probably effaced when the temple was    
converted  into a ,christian church4    
,they were the battle of the ,amazons1  
that of the ,centaurs and ,lapith1  and 
one of an action performed by ,theseus1 
in ,crete1 to convince ,minos  that he  
was indeed the son of ,neptune4 ,it     
appears that the king1  offended with   
,theseus1 had taunted him with          
pretending falsely to a  divine origin1 
and threw a ring into the sea1 desiring 
him1 if he  really had the influence of 
a son with ,neptune1 to restore it4     
,theseus  immediately dived to the      

bottom1 and soon emerging from the tide 
he  presented the king with his signet1 
and displayed the golden crown with     
which ,amphitrite had honoured him while
 below the waves4    ,the best work of  
,mycon1 however1 according to           
,pausanias1 was ,acastus  and his       
horses1 which he painted in the temple  
of the ,dioscuri4 ,his was  also the    
picture of the ,argonauts1 in the same  
temple1 where ,polygnotus  also painted 
some excellent pictures4    ,but leaving
 these things1 ,i must hasten on to a   
work of still greater  importance in the
 history of painting1 and which the     
,athenians likewise  owed to ,cimon4 ,i 
mean the ,stoa or ,portico1 called      
,pcile1 on account  of its many         
colours#ig4 ,the painters who adorned it
 were ,polygnotus1  ,mycon1 and         
,pantnus4 ,here1 both the patriotism and
 filial piety of  ,cimon were gratified4
 ,the memorable acts of the ,athenians1 
from the  time of ,theseus1 the war of  
,troy1 and other historic subjects were 

represented in the ,stoa2 but the       
picture that was of most importance1    
nay1 that almost forced the spectators  
to forget all the others1 was  the      
battle of ,marathon1 by ,polygnotus4    
,i must refer to ,fuseli for a most     
beautiful and spirited sketch of the    
character of the works of ,polygnotus1  
and confine myself to relate the  little
 that history tells of them4    ,alas6  
for the ancient painters that no ,vasari
 among them condescended  to collect    
gossipping anecdotes1 and tell us about 
their houses1 their  dress1 their       
labours1 and their amusements4 ,we      
might1 indeed1 have been  induced to    
believe a few pleasing fables1 but who  
would not delight  in being brought a   
little nearer to those master minds1    
which gave a  character to their age1   
and to grow into acquaintance with them 
at the  expense of a little             
incorrectness4    ,but ,i am obliged to 
take leave of ,mycon1 well paid as we   
are told1 for  his works1 and of his    

daughter1 without knowing more of their 
lives or  deaths2 and in turning to     
,polygnotus1 what can ,i tell of1 before
 he  painted in the ,stoa1 but that he  
was the son and pupil of ,aglaiophon1   
and was born at ,thasos8 ,after he had  
finished his great pictures in the      
,stoa1 and the votive pictures of the   
,gnidians at ,delphi1 ,i can indeed     
show that his patriotism induced him to 
refuse all payment for the  public works
 executed in honour of his country4 ,and
 that the ,greeks1  in return1 were so  
alive to his worth1 that the            
,amphictyonic council  decreed1 that    
wherever he might travel in ,greece he  
should be received  with public honours 
and provided for at the public expense6 
,notwithstanding the coldness of        
,pausanias' description1 we cannot but  
perceive that a true poetical feeling   
governed the composition of the  battle 
of ,marathon4 ,presiding over the whole1
 the hero ,marathon1 after  whom the    
plain was named1 received ,minerva1 the 

patroness of ,athens1  accompanied by   
,hercules1 and soon to be joined by     
,theseus1 whose  shade1 arising out of  
the earth1 thus claimed ,attica as his  
native  soil4 ,the armies are engaged in
 combat3 some of the ,persian chiefs are
  distinguished1 particularly           
,mardonius1 the insertion of whose      
portrait  scarcely gratified the        
,athenians less than that of their own  
commander1  ,miltiades1 along with whom 
were ,callimachus1 ,echetlus1 and the   
poet  schylus1 who was in the battle    
that day#ih4 ,in another part of the    
field the ,persians were routed2 and    
farther on1 some were seen hurrying  to 
their ships to escape1 and others flying
 towards the marshes1 where  the ,greeks
 following were slaying them in their   
flight#ii4    ,i am aware that critics  
require painters to observe what they   
call the  unities1 not less than        
dramatic poets2 and that to represent   
different  actions of the same story1 or
 different parts of the same action1 on 

one and the same canvas1 is to sin      
grievously against their rules4 ,but    
,shakspeare gloriously breaks the laws  
of the drama1 and ,polygnotus had  a    
right to break those1 if they then      
existed1 of the picture4 ,in a  future  
,essay ,i hope to show the great        
advantages that may be derived  from a  
disregard of the unities in painting1   
and to bring forward  examples of its   
success by more modern artists4         
,meantime1 in some of  the other works  
of ,polygnotus1 which ,i am about to    
mention1 it will be  seen that he used  
considerable freedom in this respect4   
,but1 to go on  with those in ,athens4  
,in the temple of the ,dioscorides1     
assisted by  ,mycon1 he painted the     
actions of these heroes#ajj1 and their  
marriage  with the daughters of         
,leucippus4 ,two other pictures adorned 
one of the  buildings of the ,acropolis1
 the subjects being ,achilles among the 
young  women of ,scyros1 and the meeting
 of ,ulysses and ,nausicaa#aja4    ,but 

the great works of ,polygnotus were the 
story of ,troy and the  descent of      
,ulysses into the infernal regions1     
painted in the ,lesche1 or  public hall1
 at ,delphi4    ,from the very          
unartistlike description by ,pausanias1 
,i think ,i can make  out1 that the back
 ground of the picture was filled by the
 town1 the  citadel1 the surrounding    
country1 and the sea4 ,the hero ,epeus1 
naked1  was visible destroying the walls
 of the citadel1 over the top of which  
the head of the famous wooden horse was 
seen#ajb4 ,scattered about  singly1 or  
in groups1 were the dead or the dying4  
,on the margin of the  sea were the     
,greek ships1 on board of which parties 
of the conquerors  were embarking2 while
 their servants were bearing tents1     
furniture1 and  spoil1 to put on board4 
,approaching the foreground1 and        
distributed in groups1 were the         
principal captives1 and some of the     
heroes4 ,helen was sitting attended  by 
her maids1 one of whom was tying her    

sandal1 and gazed upon by  ,briseis1    
,diomed1 and ,iphis4 ,near her1 were    
some of both the nations  whose miseries
 she had caused4 ,the chief of these    
were the captive  ,trojan princesses3   
,andromache1 with her infant1 and one of
 her sisters1  ,priam's daughter1       
,medisecasta1 veiled2 but the poor      
virgin ,polyxena was  bareheaded1 with  
her hair gathered into a knot1 as became
 her years4    ,in front of the city1   
the groups were composed of more        
wretched  captives still1 in various    
attitudes2 some thrown upon couches1    
others  kneeling1 some clinging to their
 native altars1 and1 chief in misery1   
the sad ,cassandra1 with her arms round 
the ,palladium1 crouched upon the  earth
 as ,ajax was drawing nigh the altar1   
where the ,atrid appeared  ready to     
receive his oath4 ,some of the circles  
of the lower town were  laid open where 
this was taking place4 ,there1 boys were
 seen clinging  to the altars1 or       
infants to their mothers1 while         

,neoptolemus was  continuing the work of
 slaughter4    ,such were the grand     
features of the picture4 ,some touches  
of common  nature we find there1 were1  
as if to give truth to the scene4 ,for  
instance1 the horse rolling on the sandy
 shore1 and servants loading a  beast of
 burden#ajc4    ,the other picture was  
the ,descent of ,ulysses1 described by  
,pausanias  with even less feeling than 
the first4 ,it is1 however1 evident that
  the reedy ,acheron1 with ,charon's    
boat1 occupied the foreground2 and  that
 one of the figures in the boat was a   
person initiated into the  ,eleusinian  
rites1 by the covered basket she held1  
thus signifying  the mysterious passage 
between life and death4 ,beyond the     
river1 the  demon ,eurynomus1 of an     
unearthly hue1 was fitly placed1 sitting
 on the  skin of a vulture1 and gnawing 
the bones of the dead#ajd4 ,ulysses1    
performing the incantation1 was properly
 conspicuous2 and the rest of  the      
picture was filled with the women and   

heroes whom he saw or spoke  to while in
 the kingdom of ,pluto4    ,the clumsy  
way in which these pictures1 and those  
in the ,temple of  ,minerva1 in ,botia1 
are described by ,pausanias1 who saw    
them six  hundred years after they were 
painted1 has led even ,fuseli to fancy  
that all the figures were of equal size 
and at equal distance from  the         
spectator4 ,but the inference is surely 
not just2 for an ignorant  man would    
probably 7especially if the horizon were
 placed high in the  picture7 thus speak
 of one group as above another instead  
of beyond  it4    ,any one who has had  
the good fortune to examine1 at leisure1
 ,hemelink's  epic picture of the three 
kings1 formerly in the ,boisere         
collection1  and now at ,munich1 will at
 once comprehend the possibility of     
arranging  the most complicated subject1
 without confusion of parts or division 
of interest2 and ,i cannot comprehend   
why we are to suppose ,polygnotus       
incapable of such arrangement#aje4      

,there are two pictures in the ,pitti   
palace1 by ,andrea del ,sarto1 of the   
history of ,joseph1 arranged as  ,i     
suppose the great works of the ,pcile   
and at ,delphi to have been2  which1 to 
such as admire only ,italian art of the 
best time1 will afford  proof1 if it    
were wanting1 of the excellent effect   
that a departure  from vulgar rules may 
sometimes produce4    ,i must not omit  
to say that ,polygnotus1 like the       
painters of the vases1  wrote the names 
of the principal figures near them4     
,i have now repeated the account        
,pausanius has left us of the pictures  
of ,polygnotus4 ,it remains to consider 
what has been said1 particularly  by    
,pliny1 of the change he effected in the
 art4    ,before his time the faces had 
all one grave set expression2 something1
  as we may presume1 like that of the   
marbles and bronzes of the ,eginetic    
and ,etruscan schools4    ,polygnotus   
first parted the lips1 varied the       
appearance and expression  of the eyes1 

dimpled the cheeks with smiles1 or      
deformed the brow and  nostrils with the
 expression of passion1 however         
imperfectly rendered4  ,he also it was  
who introduced the use of veils and     
other light and  becoming ornaments in  
his female figures1 and adorned their   
heads  with fillets and coronals1 thus  
adding delicacy and grace to his high   
poetical conceptions4 ,in the brides of 
,castor and ,pollux1 in the  captive    
,trojan princesses1 and in the shades of
 celebrated and unhappy  women in the   
descent of ,ulysses1 these qualities    
were particularly  admired4 ,polygnotus1
 then1 must be looked upon as the       
painter1 who1  leaving the practice of  
making mere coloured bas-reliefs1       
rendered  painting a separate art1 and  
established the difference between      
statues  and groups in marble or bronze1
 and true pictures4    ,the name of     
,polygnotus is the greatest that adorns 
what we may consider  as the first great
 epocha of ,greek art4 ,when1 having    

nearly attained  perfection1 sculpture  
in the hands of ,phidias produced the   
perfectly  sublime in his ,jupiter      
,olympias and his ,minerva of the       
,parthenon1 and  formed a model which   
has never been safely departed from1 for
 the  composition of basso-relievo in   
the ,panathenaic procession4 ,but in    
painting1 ,polygnotus1 though he had    
attained to great grandeur and  majesty1
 had still left much to his successors  
to add in correctness1  in expression1  
and in grace4    ,contemporary with     
,polygnotus was ,evenor1 the master as  
well as father  of ,parrhasius#ajf4 ,but
 before ,parrhasius began to distinguish
 himself1  ,apollodorus of ,athens had  
made a great and rapid stride in art1   
and  had painted at least two pictures  
that for six centuries commanded the    
admiration of all men of taste and      
understanding4 ,he therefore may be     
considered as the first of the second   
epocha of ,greek painting4    ,it was   
,apollodorus who first gave the niceties

 of character and  expression to his    
figures2 strength and force without     
exaggeration1  and tenderness without   
insipidity4 ,he added also to the       
mechanical  powers of the painter1 by   
breaking the colours1 and showing the   
value  of light and shade1 of harmony   
and contrast4 ,pliny says1 8,i may well 
and truly say1 that none before him     
brought the pencil into a glorious  name
 and especial credit#ajg40 ,the only two
 pictures of which we know  the         
subjects1 were preserved at ,pergamos1  
at least until the end of  the first    
century of the ,christian era4 ,in one  
the chief figure was  a kneeling priest 
in fervent adoration4 ,the other        
represented ,ajax  ,oileus on a rock1   
stricken by the thunderbolt after       
escaping from his  perishing fleet4     
,it is evident that the effects of such 
subjects must have depended in  great   
measure on light1 and shadow1 and       
colour4 ,accordingly1 the school  of    
,apollodorus produced the painter of    

most note among the ancients  for those 
qualities4 ,i mean the ,heracleot       
,zeuxis2 but ,zeuxis had also  the      
advantage of being a contemporary of the
 ,ephesian ,parrhasius1 and  was thus   
able to avail himself of the            
improvements introduced by that         
extraordinary man4    ,parrhasius no    
doubt made use of the studies of the    
,macedonian ,pamphilus  who painted at  
,sicyon1 and greatly improved that      
famous school1 whence1  half a century  
after the time of ,apollodorus1         
proceeded ,apelles and  other painters  
of note4 ,this ,pamphilus taught his    
pupils arithmetic and  geometry1 without
 which he maintained that it was        
impossible to paint4  ,linear           
perspective was thus improved1 and some 
general rules1 acted  upon intuitively  
before1 were now fixed2 but the delicacy
 of eye1 which  demanded a finer        
perspective1 belonged to ,parrhasius4   
,he introduced  the magic of arial      
perspective2 and the description by     

,pliny1 of the  manner in which the     
objects in his pictures seemed to shadow
 somewhat  behind1 and yet showed what  
they seemed to hide1 may lead us to     
imagine  that he was not ignorant of the
 effect of reflected lights4    ,he is  
praised for the beauty of his features1 
and peculiarly the  sweetness and       
8lovely grace about the mouth and       
lips20#ajh the  softness and fulness of 
the hair2 the blended tints that melted 
away  the outline1 in some instances    
perhaps too much1 as we gather from the 
painter ,euphranor's observation1 that  
the ,theseus of ,parrhasius looked  as  
if he fed on roses1 while his own had   
evidently fed on flesh4    ,two ancient 
writers on painting1 ,antigonus and     
,xenocrates1 now lost1  praised         
,parrhasius especially for the delicacy 
with which he finished  the extremities 
of his figures4 ,they quoted many       
pictures on pannel1  and drawings on    
parchment1 which served as examples for 
other painters1  and as proofs of his   

wonderful skill in this part of his art4
    ,it is to these authors that ,pliny 
ascribes the criticism that the         
interior drawings were not quite equal  
to the outlines of his figures3  not    
that they were inferior to those of     
other men1 but only as one part  of     
,parrhasius' work might be inferior to  
another3 ,parrhasius1 compared  with    
,parrhasius#aji1 who1 as ,horace says1  
---- bade the breathing colours flow1   
,to imitate in every line      ,the     
forms1 or human1 or divine#aaj4    ,we  
have a pretty considerable list of the  
works of this great painter  which were 
in existence when ,pliny wrote2 one of  
these indeed1 which  was at ,rhodes1 was
 held in great reverence1 because1      
although the  pannel on which it was    
painted had been thrice struck with     
lightning1  yet the painting remained   
uninjured2 the subject was a story of   
,meleager1 ,perseus1 and ,hercules4     
,there is scarcely any class of         
subjects which ,parrhasius does not     

appear to have chosen occasionally4     
,one of the most celebrated of his      
pictures was a personification of the   
,demos1 or people of ,athens1 in which  
he is said to have embodied the         
virtues1 talents1 humours1 and          
inconstancy of that witty1 capricious   
democracy4    ,he is praised for the    
majesty of his demi-gods and heroes1 the
 beauty  and expression of his women and
 young men1 and the grace and simplicity
  of his children4 ,in short1 to use the
 words of ,quintilian1 8,parrhasius  was
 so exact in every particular1 that he  
is looked upon even to this  day as the 
lawgiver of painters2 because the       
paintings of gods and  heroes1 such as  
he has left behind him1 are held as so  
many models1  which they make it a rule 
to follow invariably#aaa40    ,of the   
life of ,parrhasius we know nothing1 but
 of his manners we have  a curious      
picture preserved by ,pliny4 ,his vanity
 appears to have been  almost           
insufferable4 ,he clothed himself in a  

purple robe1 and wore a  chaplet of     
golden flowers2 his staff was entwined  
with tendrils of  gold1 and his sandals 
were clasped at the instep and ankle    
with golden  latchets4 ,he affected the 
name of ,abrodrtus1 or the delicate#aab1
  assumed the title of ,prince of       
,painters1 and pretended to have had    
,apollo himself for his forefather4     
,there was something like insanity  in  
the assertion that ,hercules appeared to
 him in the visions of the  night1 that 
he might delineate his form with        
exactness#aac2 and1  perhaps1 his       
insolent demeanour to other painters    
might spring from an  unsound mind4     
,two anecdotes concerning him are well  
known4 ,his contest with ,zeuxis1  in   
which1 though the grapes on the head of 
the boy of ,zeuxis had  deceived the    
birds1 the curtain painted by           
,parrhasius deceived ,zeuxis            
himself#aad4 ,the second story is1 that 
having lost the prize in a  contest with
 ,timanthes of ,samos1 for a picture of 

the contest between  ,ajax and ,ulysses 
for the armour of ,achilles1 he affected
 to pity ,ajax  for being thus a second 
time foiled by a worthless rival4       
,the most celebrated of the             
contemporaries of ,parrhasius was       
,zeuxis of  ,heraclea1 who began to     
attract public notice soon after        
,parrhasius  himself had established his
 reputation4 ,he was the pupil either of
  ,demophiles the ,nemerian1 or ,niceas 
the ,thracian1 perhaps of both4         
,quintilian says#aae1 that 8he painted  
bodies with greater than real           
proportions1 thinking such a form to be 
more august2 and in this it is  thought 
he followed ,homer's manner1 who took   
pleasure in representing  all his       
characters1 even his women1 of large and
 strong size40    ,apollodorus1 of whose
 extraordinary powers ,i have already   
spoken1 paid  the same generous tribute 
to the rising merit of ,zeuxis1 as      
,michael  ,angelo did to that of        
,raffaelle2 and even wrote some verses1 

which have  been lost1 in praise of his 
works4    ,zeuxis' works were so eagerly
 sought after1 that he very soon made  a
 fortune equal to his wishes1 after     
which he refused to work for  money1 but
 gave away his pictures2 for instance1  
to the people of  ,agrigentum he        
presented his great picture of ,alcmena2
 and to ,archelaus1  ,king of ,macedon1 
a large painting of ,pan4 ,we are       
obliged to ,pliny  for preserving the   
subjects of several of his best works4  
,jupiter1  surrounded by the other gods1
 is praised for its majesty2 and the    
picture of the infant ,hercules         
strangling the serpents in his cradle1  
for the expression of the bystanders1   
especially of ,amphitryon and  ,alcmena4
 ,of his ,penelope it is said that he   
had not only painted the  outward charms
 and features of her person1 but the    
inward qualities and  affections of her 
mind4    ,of his famous ,helen1 and of  
the story of his choosing her several   
perfections from several beautiful women

 sent to him by the  ,agrigentines for  
the purpose1 when they entreated him to 
paint their  votive picture for the     
temple of ,juno1 it is unnecessary to   
remind  the reader1 as the story1 true  
or false1 is in every collection of     
anecdotes4 ,we know not ,zeuxis' own    
estimation of that picture1 but  with   
another of his works he was so          
satisfied1 that he is said to  have     
written under it1 8,it will be easier to
 envy than to imitate  me40 ,the subject
 was a wrestler4 ,some writers1 however1
 say that  the inscription1 which was a 
,greek ,iambic verse1 was written by    
,apollodorus1 his master and friend4    
,and this is most natural2 for what  man
 of genius was ever entirely satisfied  
with his own work8    ,i have already   
mentioned the contest of ,zeuxis with   
,parrhasius1 for the  nicest power of   
imitation in painting4 ,the picture of  
the ,muses1 which  was carried to ,rome1
 demanded qualities of a different kind2
 so did the  ,marsyas1 which ,pliny     

likewise saw in ,italy4 ,his drawings in
 a single  colour1 relieved with white1 
appear to have been numerous and greatly
  valued#aaf4 ,like ,raffaelle1 ,zeuxis 
is said to have painted sometimes  on   
earthen ware1 and that vases and cups   
adorned by him were much  prized4       
,possibly he only furnished the designs 
for these4    ,zeuxis was not quite free
 from the same love of show which       
distinguished his great rival1          
,parrhasius4 ,he is reported to have    
shown  himself1 magnificently attired1  
at the ,olympic games1 and to have      
caused his name to be embroidered in    
gold upon his upper garments1 of  which 
he displayed an unusual number of       
changes during the games4    ,another of
 the great men who flourished in this   
second period1 was  ,timanthes4 ,his    
celebrated picture of ,iphigenia1 in    
,aulis1 has been  the subject of much   
criticism4 ,the ancient writers1 with   
one accord1  praise the feeling which   
led the painter to conceal the father's 

face2 and though it is probable that    
most of them either mistook1 or  were   
ignorant of1 the principle on which     
,timanthes1 as an artist1  proceeded1   
they were still right as to human       
nature4 ,reynolds and some  other modern
 critics1 especially ,falconet1 have    
reprobated the idea of  ,timanthes2 but 
,fuseli has1 in my opinion1 set the     
matter at rest in a  very beautiful     
piece of criticism#aag1 which ,i shall  
give below4    ,the picture itself was  
painted in competition with ,colotes of 
,teos1  whom ,i have already mentioned  
as the sculptor of the table of the     
,coronets at ,delphi4 ,the work of      
,timanthes gained the prize1 as his     
,ajax  had done1 when exhibited in      
competition with that of ,parrhasius4   
,there was a celebrated portrait of a   
prince by him1 of which ,pliny  says1   
8,it was thought to be most absolute3   
the majesty is such that  all the art of
 painting a man seemeth comprised in    
that one portrait40  ,timanthes did not 

always confine himself1 however1 to the 
grand and the  pathetic4 ,there is an   
account of a little picture where he    
represented  a ,cyclops asleep1 and a   
number of little satyrs peeping out of  
the  woods2 some of whom1 astonished at 
his size1 are measuring the thumb of    
the unconscious giant with wands4    ,at
 the same time with the four great      
painters1 ,apollodorus1 ,parrhasius1    
,zeuxis1 and ,timanthes1 lived          
,euxenidas1 ,eupompus1 ,echion1         
,therimachus1  and some others not      
unworthy of their fellowship4 ,they were
 remarkable  also as having formed the  
men who flourished in the third and most
  brilliant epoch of painting in        
,greece4    ,as this essay is already   
longer than ,i intended1 ,i will close  
it  here2 and endeavour1 in another1 to 
sketch the history of the highest       
prosperity and gradual decline of art in
 ,greece4 ,the consideration  of the    
causes of that decline belongs to the   
philosophy of general  history4 ,i will 

only remark1 that painting in ,greece   
rose to its  highest excellence by      
individual exertions1 exciting the      
sympathy1 and  therefore the patronage1 
of the public generally2 that it        
flourished  under the encouragement of  
,alexander2 but that the unnatural      
fostering  of power appears to have     
weakened the spirit of art1 which faded 
after his time1 as those delicate plants
 which are cherished into  extraordinary
 beauty by the heat of the stove1 after 
a season languish  and die1 even of the 
effort that seemed to contribute to     
their  luxuriance4      ,,footnotes3    
#ga ,i have heard it objected that the  
,americans of the ,united ,states1      
though they built towns and established 
civil governments and so on1  thought   
little of the fine arts for #bjj years4 
,that is true4 ,but it  should be       
remembered that the fine arts formed    
part of the religion of  the ,egyptian  
emigrants4 ,the ,british emigrants1 on  
the contrary1 had  just quitted a most  

gorgeous communion1 which had employed  
all the arts  in its service1 and thus  
rendered them an abomination to the     
severe  puritans who were in fact flying
 from the persecutions of the great     
patrons of art in their days4    #gb    
,lecture #a4    #gc ,pausanias1 to whom 
we owe the largest catalogue of antique 
works  of art1 travelled about the year 
#agj of our era2 and the objects he     
describes could not have been suddenly  
dispersed even after his time4    #gd   
,contemporary with ,homer was ,jeroboam1
 who set up the two calves or  heifers  
in two cities of ,palestine4    #ge #a  
,kings1 ch4 vii41 v4 #ac4 ,in #b ,chron4
 ch4 ii41 v4 #ad1 he is not  named1 and 
his mother is said to have been of the  
daughters of ,dan2  his qualifications  
were1 that he was 8skilful to work in   
gold and in  silver1 in brass1 in iron1 
in stone and in timber1 in purple1 in   
blue1  in fine linen1 and in crimson2   
also to grave any manner of graving1    
and to find out every device which shall

 be put to him40 ,scripture  tell us    
likewise1 that ,solomon built or        
repaired many cities4 ,balbec  and      
,palmyra are both named4 ,now1 the      
columns and lighter parts of the        
temples at ,balbec look very like       
architecture of the ,roman time2 while  
the massy substructures resemble works  
that are always said to be of  ,pelasgic
 origin4 ,again1 the temples of ,palmyra
 are of ,roman taste2 but  the tombs and
 watercourses1 like the works in        
,palestine ascribed to  ,solomon1 are   
massy and durable4    #gf ,the ,dutch   
traveller1 ,cornelis de ,bruyn1 in his  
#ast folio vol41  published in #afih1   
was among the first to publish a figure 
of the tomb  of ,absalom2 ,pocock has   
given a very faithful representation of 
it2  ,meyer1 who travelled with ,sir    
,robert ,ainsley1 also gave a faithful  
likeness of it and the tombs of the     
kings4 ,the most agreeable points  of   
view of these subjects are however to be
 found in the ,landscape  ,illustrations

 of the ,bible1 published by ,mr4       
,murray1 with descriptions  by the ,rev4
 ,hartwell ,horne4 ,for the excavations 
and buildings of ,petra1  see ,m4 ,leon 
de ,laborde's works4 ,if quite          
authentic1 they1 like ,palmyra1  show   
very ancient excavations and buildings1 
overlaid with ,roman  additions4    #gg 
,unless that of ,arimnus1 a ,tyrrhene   
king1 preceded it1 which is  doubtful4  
#gh ,this is that ,cypselus1 from whose 
tyranny ,demaratus is reported  to have 
fled and taken refuge at ,tarquinii1 and
 to have settled in  ,etruria1 and      
carried on his former occupation of a   
potter4 ,his son1  under the name of    
,tarquin1 became king of ,rome4    #gi  
,the description of the fabulous horse  
of brass1 which makes so  conspicuous a 
figure in the tale of ,gyges1 supposes  
the maker to have  been an ingenious    
mechanic1 as well as an artist of       
talent4    #hj ,pliny1 besides extolling
 the statues this ,theodorus cast in    
bronze1 praises some exquisitely minute 

works of his4 ,contemporary with  the   
gifts of ,crsus to the ,delphic ,apollo1
 was the golden image set up  by        
,nebuchadnezzar at ,babylon2 and1 within
 fifty years1 ,perillus made  the brazen
 bull for ,phalaris1 tyrant of          
,syracuse1 who with a cruel  justice    
consumed the artist himself in it4      
#ha ,ezra1 ch4 vi41 v4 #ad4 ,the vessels
 returned by ,cyrus were #edjj in       
number4 ,ezra1 ch4 i41 v4 #aa4    #hb   
,by the time of ,cyrus1 ,athens had for 
ever shaken off the kingly  government3 
and a polished ,greek city1 ,marseilles1
 had been founded in  barbarous ,gaul4  
#hc ,see ,m4 ,tausch on the             
,circassians1 in the first ,number of   
the  ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic    
,society4    #hd ,damasking1 evidently  
from ,damascus4 ,as silks and linen1    
with  rich varied surfaces1 often of    
different colours1 are also called      
damask4    #he ,pausanias1 b4 v4 ch4    
#ag4 ,the chest is said to be that in   
which  the tyrant was concealed by his  

mother when the ,bacchid would have     
slain him3 some say it was in the family
 meal chest that he was hidden4  ,i have
 seen in very old ,english houses1 and  
some ,italian ones1 meal  chests        
curiously adorned4    #hf ,pausanias1 in
 the beginning of the eighteenth chapter
 of the  ,laconics1 names the statues of
 ,sleep and ,death1 believed to be      
brothers2 and farther on1 in the same   
chapter1 the throne of ,amycls1  made by
 ,bathycles1 the ornaments of which were
 as various and chosen  with as much    
apparent caprice as those on the chest  
of ,cypselus4    #hg ,fuseli4    #hh ,an
 improvement almost equivalent to that  
made by ,ddalus in  sculpture4 ,he1 it  
is said1 first detached the arms from   
the sides1  varied the positions of the 
limbs1 and gave true relief to the      
features4 ,hence the fable that he      
endowed his figures with motion4  ,there
 are some curious ,mexican figures in   
the possession of ,capt4  ,veitch1 they 
are in high relief upon slabs2 holes are

 drilled for the  arm-pits1 the fore    
arms are crossed upon the stomach1 the  
legs only  indicated1 and to give the   
appearance of relief to the nose1 the   
cheeks  are hollowed on each side4      
#hi 8,on the walls of the temple is     
painted1 by ancient artists1 the  whole 
history as engraved on the pillar4      
,there you see ,orestes sailing  with   
his friend1 his ship split on the rock1 
himself taken1 and  ,iphigenia preparing
 to sacrifice him3 in another part he is
 represented  freed from his chains1    
slaying ,thoas and several other        
,scythians2  they are setting sail with 
,iphigenia and the goddess2 the         
,scythians  attempting to board the     
ship1 and hanging on the rudder2 some   
wounded  and repulsed1 others frightened
 and swimming back to the shore4 ,on the
  opposite side of the wall is          
pourtrayed the mutual affection of the  
two friends in their battle with the    
,scythians2 the painter has drawn  one  
of them driving away the enemies who    

attacked the other1 without  regarding  
those who fell on himself1 as if        
careless of his own life1 if  he could  
but preserve that of his friend1        
covering him on every side1  and        
receiving the strokes that were aimed at
 him40                                  
,,franklin',s ,,lucian4      #ij ,pliny1
 b4 xxxv4 ch4 #h1 says 8it is for       
certain reported that  ,phidias himself 
was a painter at the beginning40    #ia 
,before ,christ1 #dfe4 ,leake's         
,topography of ,athens4    #ib ,the     
architect of the ,parthenon was         
,ictinus1 who wrote a treatise1  now    
lost1 upon its construction4    #ic     
,there are casts in the ,british        
,museum4    #id ,i am not aware that any
 pictures adorned this temple1 though   
the  statues were painted4 ,the ,egina  
marbles1 which might have been1 but     
which1 alas6 are not in ,england1 form  
an interesting link between the  free   
finished works of ,phidias1 and the     
stiffer and more conventional  figures  

of early ,corinth and ,etruria4 ,see    
,mr4 ,cockerell's interesting  ,essay1  
with the etchings1 in the #fth ,vol4 of 
the ,quarterly ,journal of  ,science and
 ,art4    #ie ,topography of ,athens4   
#if ,the approach to common life in the 
,german compositions1 renders  their    
colour less offensive perhaps to our    
feelings1 than colour  applied to the   
ideal forms of ,greek sculpture would   
be4    #ig ,and painted ,sta            
next4--,,milton4 ,it was from this      
portico that  the stoics derived their  
name4    ,colonel ,leake quotes         
,synesius to show that the pictures of  
,polygnotus1  in the ,pcile1 were       
painted on pannels1 and that they were  
not removed  till the #dth century4     
#ih ,in the #aeth chapter of ,pausanias'
 ,attics1 ,i know that he does not  name
 schylus as one of the persons          
introduced in the picture2 but in       
chapter #ba1 after speaking of some     
other tragic poets1 he says1 8with      
respect to the image of schylus and the 

picture in which his valour  at         
,marathon is represented1 ,i am of      
opinion that these were produced a  long
 time after his death40 ,what picture1  
if not that of the battle of  ,marathon8
    #ii ,polygnotus neglected nothing   
that could flatter the ,athenians4      
,into this great epic picture he        
introduced a dog1 which having followed 
a soldier to ,marathon1 returned unhurt 
after the battle1 and became a  pet with
 the people4 ,dogs seem to have been in 
favour at ,athens4 ,there  is a story of
 a white dog which trotted through the  
temple of ,minerva  ,polias down into   
that of ,pandrosus1 and placed himself  
in comfort on  the altar1 that stood    
under ,minerva's own olive tree4        
,another white dog  acquired fame by    
tasting of the meat offered in sacrifice
 to ,apollo4  ,there is also a white dog
 referred to in the catalogue of        
monuments of  ,hercules4 ,the numerous  
statues of dogs1 in bronze and marble1  
attest  the gratitude of the ancients to

 those friends and guardians of man4    
#ajj ,castor and ,pollux1 as the        
preservers of seamen1 were very early   
worshipped by the ,athenians4    #aja   
,it was near this building that the     
,graces in marble by ,socrates  stood3  
they were veiled as became the ,graces1 
fashioned by the hand of  wisdom4 ,the  
veil on the work of ,socrates was a real
 veil2 but a friend  has observed1 that 
8the veil was a remarkable part of the  
mythology of  the ,graces1 but it is    
described as invisible1 and having only 
the moral  effect of a veil40    #ajb ,i
 think that as ,epeus is said to have   
invented the wooden horse1  an allegory 
was intended in this part of the        
picture4 ,indeed1 ,i have  somewhere    
seen it remarked1 ,i think in           
,pausanias1 that to suppose that  the   
horse of ,epeus was anything but a      
warlike machine1 is to suppose  the     
,trojans very stupid indeed4    #ajc    
,there are in this part of the picture  
some verses1 by ,simonides1  to the     

following effect3--        ,the artist  
,polygnotus1 for his sire      ,who     
claims ,aglaiophon1 in ,thasos born1    
painted the captured tower of ,troy4    
,taylor's ,translation 7of #agid7       
#ajd ,i cannot help considering the     
figure of ,ocnus1 who was  represented  
as twisting a rope of rushes for a she  
ass to devour1 as an  emblem of the     
inactivity--the doing of nothing in the 
grave4 ,we have a  single picture1 by   
another painter of the same subject1 as 
an emblem  of idleness1 mentioned by    
,pliny4 ,pausanias1 however1 calls the  
ass of  ,ocnus the emblem of a          
thriftless wife4    #aje ,no one can be 
more sensible than ,i am of the great   
merits of the  modern ,german artists4  
,yet ,i think they have carried their   
admiration  of the ancients to excess in
 some points1 and ,i cannot but consider
  the outlines of ,riepenhausen1        
intended to illustrate the descent of   
,ulysses1 by ,polygnotus1 a proof of it4
 ,surely a ,german should have  looked  

at ,hemelink1 and at the history of ,st4
 ,paul1 at ,augsburg1 by the  elder     
,holbein1 where he would have found that
 a double story1 or even  one of many   
parts1 can be treated without violating 
common sense1 or  the rules of painting4
    #ajf ,olymp4 #ic4    #ajg ,holland's
 ,translation1 b4 xxxv4    #ajh ,pliny1 
b4 xxxv4 ch4 #aj4    #aji ,see ,fuseli's
 first lecture4    #aaj ,b4 iv4 ,ode #h4
    #aaa ,institutes1 b4 xii4 ch4 #aj4  
#aab lian4    #aac ,this picture was at 
,lindos in ,pliny's time4    #aad ,it is
 a pity that this anecdote has come down
 to us bald as it  is1 because it seems 
to infer that the lowest kind of        
excellence was  what these great men    
aimed at1 that is1 mere deceptive       
imitation4 ,but  we should remark that  
we have not the writings of a single    
painter or  artist of any kind          
preserved1 and that the relators of the 
story were  notoriously ignorant of art4
 ,it is impossible that the painter of  
the  ,helen of ,agrigentum1 and he who  

conceived the ,demos of ,athens1 could  
have had such narrow views of art4      
#aae ,institutes1 b4 xii4 ch4 #aj4      
#aaf ,i cannot help subjoining1 as a    
note1 ,lucian's description of one  of  
the pictures of ,zeuxis3--8,i will tell 
you a story of ,zeuxis4 ,that  famous   
painter seldom chose to handle trite or 
common subjects1 such  as heroes1 gods1 
and battles1 but always endeavoured to  
strike out  something new1 and exerted  
all his art and skill upon it4 ,amongst 
other  things1 he painted a female      
centaur1 with two young ones2 there is  
an  exact copy of it now at ,athens2 the
 original was said to have been sent    
into ,italy1 by ,sylla1 the ,roman      
general1 and lost at sea1 with the      
whole cargo1 somewhere1 ,i believe1 near
 ,malta4 ,the copy1 however1 #a  have   
seen1 and will describe to you2 not that
 ,i pretend to be a judge  of pictures1 
but because1 when ,i saw it in a        
painter's collection  there1 it made a  
strong impression on me1 and ,i         

perfectly recollect  every part of it4  
8,the centaur is lying down on a smooth 
turf2 that part which represents  a     
mare1 is stretched on the ground1 with  
the hind feet extended  backwards2 the  
fore feet not reaching out as if she had
 laid on her  side1 but one of them as  
kneeling with the hoof bent under1 the  
other  raised up and trampling on the   
grass1 like a horse prepared to leap2   
she holds one of her young ones in her  
arms1 and suckles it like a  child at a 
woman's breast2 and the other at her    
dugs like a colt4 ,in  the farther part 
of the picture is seen a male centaur1  
as watching  from a place of            
observation1 supposed to be the father2 
he is behind1  and discovers only the   
horse part of the figure1 and appears   
smiling1  showing a lion's cub1 which he
 lifts up1 as if to frighten the young  
ones in sport4    8,with regard to      
correctness in drawing1 the colouring1  
light1 and  shade1 symmetry1 proportion1
 and other beauties1 of this picture1 as

  ,i am not a sufficient judge of the   
art1 ,i leave it to painters whose      
business it is to explain and illustrate
 them4 ,what ,i principally  admire in  
,zeuxis is1 his showing so much variety1
 and all the riches  of his art1 in the 
management of one subject1 representing 
a man so  fierce and terrible1 the hair 
so nobly dishevelled1 rough1 and flowing
  over the shoulders1 where it joins the
 horse1 and the countenance1  though    
smiling1 amazingly wild and savage4 ,the
 female centaur is a most  beautiful    
mare1 of ,thessalian breed1 such as had 
been never ridden or  tamed2 all the    
upper part resembling a very handsome   
woman1 except  the ears1 which are like 
a satyr's3 that part of the figure where
  the body of the woman joins to that of
 the horse1 incorporating1 as  it were1 
insensibly and by slow degrees1 so that 
you can scarce mark  the transition1    
deceiving the sight most agreeably4 ,the
 ferocity that  appears in the young    
ones is moreover admirably expressed2 as

 well as  the childish innocence in     
their countenances when they look       
towards the  young lion1 clinging at the
 same time to the breast1 and getting as
  close as possible to their mother4    
8,when ,zeuxis produced this work1 he   
expected undoubtedly to meet with       
universal approbation from the          
spectators2 every body indeed praised   
and admired it2 and how could they do   
otherwise8 ,above all1 they  commended1 
as my friends did with regard to me1 the
 novelty of the  invention2 said it was 
a most uncommon subject1 and unattempted
 by any  of his predecessors4 ,but1 when
 ,zeuxis understood that their          
admiration  was confined entirely to the
 novelty of it1 and that they passed    
over  all the art which he had exerted  
in it1 #8,cover up the picture1' said he
  to his pupil1 #8and let it be carried 
home1 for these people are only in  love
 with the dregs1 as it were1 of the art1
 and take no notice of the  real merit  
of the picture2 the novelty of the      

performance alone runs  away with all   
the praise and admiration40             
,franklin's ,lucian4    ,it is ever the 
same with the vulgar4 ,as soon as any   
art seems to have  arrived at something 
approaching to perfection1 the incessant
 craving  for novelty forces artists to 
seek new ways of gratifying their       
patrons2--sometimes by exaggerating     
form1 sometimes by exaggerating  colour1
 or light and shadow4 ,the painter by   
degrees loses sight of  nature1 and     
produces monsters4 ,the sculptor        
attempts to make marble  flow and       
flutter in the wind2 the musician drowns
 expression in noise2  and the poet     
either sickens his reader with blood and
 murder1 or sends  him to sleep over    
daisies and daffodils4    #aag ,neither 
the ,french nor the ,english critics    
appear to me to  have comprehended the  
real motive of ,timanthes1 as contained 
in the  words 8decere1 pro dignitate1   
and digne10 in the passages of  ,tully1 
,quintilian1 and ,pliny2 they ascribe to

 impotence what was the  forbearance of 
judgment2 ,timanthes felt like a father2
 he did not  hide the face of ,agamemnon
 because it was beyond the power of his 
art1 not because it was beyond the      
possibility1 but because it was  beyond 
the dignity of expression2 because the  
inspiring feature of  paternal affection
 at that moment1 and the action which of
 necessity  must have accompanied it1   
would either have destroyed the grandeur
 of  the character and the solemnity of 
the scene1 or subjected the painter1    
with the majority of his judges1 to the 
imputation of insensibility4 ,he  must  
either have represented him in tears1 or
 convulsed at the flash  of the raised  
dagger1 forgetting the chief in the     
father1 or shown him  absorbed by       
despair1 and in that state of           
stupefaction which levels all  features 
and deadens expression4 ,he might indeed
 have chosen a fourth  mode2 he might   
have exhibited him fainting and palsied 
in the arms of  his attendants1 and by  

this confusion of male and female       
character1  merited the applause of     
every theatre at ,paris4 ,but ,timanthes
 had too  true a sense of nature to     
expose a father's feelings1 or to tear a
  passion to rags2 nor had the ,greeks  
yet learnt of ,rome to steel the  face4 
,if he made ,agamemnon bear his calamity
 as a man1 he made him  also feel it as 
a man4 ,it became the leader of ,greece 
to sanction the  ceremony with his      
presence1 it did not become the father  
to see his  daughter beneath the        
dagger's point3 the same nature that    
threw a real  mantle over the face of   
,timoleon1 when he assisted at the      
punishment of  his brother1 taught      
,timanthes to throw an imaginary one    
over the face  of ,agamemnon2 neither   
height nor depth1 propriety of          
expression was his  aim4    ,the critic 
grants that the expedient of ,timanthes 
may be allowed in  8instances of blood10
 the supported aspect of which would    
change a  scene of commiseration and    

terror into one of abomination and      
horror1  which ought for ever to be     
excluded from the province of art1 of   
poetry  as well as painting3 and would  
not the face of ,agamemnon1 uncovered1  
have had this effect8 was not the scene 
he must have witnessed a scene  of      
blood8 and whose blood was to be shed8  
that of his own daughter--and  what     
daughter8 young1 beautiful1 helpless1   
innocent1 resigned--the  very idea of   
resignation in such a victim1 must      
either have acted  irresistibly to      
procure her relief1 or thrown a veil    
over a father's  face4 ,a man who is    
determined to sport wit1 at the expense 
of heart1  alone could call such an     
expedient ridiculous2 8as ridiculous10  
,mr4  ,falconet continues1 8as a poet   
would be1 who in a pathetic situation1  
instead of satisfying my expectation1 to
 rid himself of the business1  should   
say1 that the sentiments of his hero are
 so far above whatever  can be said on  
the occasion1 that he shall say         

nothing40    ,and has not ,homer1 though
 he does not tell us this1 acted upon a 
similar principle8 has he not1 when     
,ulysses addresses ,ajax in ,hades1  in 
the most pathetic and conciliatory      
manner1 instead of furnishing  him with 
an answer1 made him remain in indignant 
silence during the  address1 then turn  
his step and stalk away8 has not the    
universal voice  of genuine criticism   
with ,longinus told us1 and if it had   
not1 would  not ,nature's own voice tell
 us1 that that silence was              
characteristic2  that it precluded1     
included1 and1 soaring above all answer1
 consigned  ,ulysses for ever to a sense
 of inferiority8 nor is it necessary to 
render such criticism contemptible to   
mention the silence of ,dido  in        
,virgil1 or the ,niobe of schylus1 who  
was introduced veiled1 and  continued   
mute during her presence on the stage4  
,but in hiding ,agamemnon's face1       
,timanthes loses the honour of          
invention1 as he is merely the imitator 

of ,euripides1 who did it before  him4  
,i am not prepared with chronologic     
proofs to decide whether  ,euripides or 
,timanthes1 who were cotemporaries about
 the period of the  ,peloponnesian war1 
fell first on this expedient1 though the
 silence  of ,pliny and ,quintilian on  
that head seems to be in favour of the  
painter1 neither of whom could be       
ignorant of the celebrated drama of     
,euripides1 and would not willingly have
 suffered this master-stroke of  an art 
they were so much better acquainted with
 than painting1 to be  transferred to   
another from its real author1 had the   
poet's claim been  prior3 nor shall ,i  
urge that the picture of ,timanthes was 
crowned with  victory by those who were 
in daily habits of assisting at the     
dramas  of ,euripides1 without having   
their verdict impeached by ,colotes or  
his  friends1 who would not have failed 
to avail themselves of so flagrant  a   
proof of inferiority as the want of     
invention in the work of his  rival3--,i

 shall only ask what is invention8 if it
 be the combination  of the most        
important moment of a fact with the most
 varied effects of  the reigning passion
 on the characters introduced1 the      
invention of  ,timanthes consisted in   
showing1 by the gradation of that       
passion in the  faces of the assistant  
mourners1 the reason why that of the    
principal  one was hid4 ,this he        
performed1 and this the poet1 whether   
prior or  subsequent1 did not and could 
not do1 but left it with a silent appeal
  to our own mind and fancy4    ,in     
presuming to differ on the propriety of 
this mode of expression  in the picture 
of ,timanthes from the respectable      
authority ,i have  quoted1 ,i am far    
from a wish to invalidate the equally   
pertinent  and acute remarks made on the
 danger of its imitation2 though ,i am  
decidedly of opinion that it is strictly
 within the limits of our art4  ,if it  
be a 8trick10 it is certainly one that  
has served more than  once4 ,we find it 

adopted to express the grief of a       
beautiful female  figure on a           
basso-relievo formerly in the palace    
,valle at ,rome1 and  preserved in the  
,admiranda of ,st4 ,bartoli2 it is used1
 though with  his own originality1 by   
,michael ,angelo in the figures of      
,abijam1  to mark unutterable woe2      
,raffaelle1 to show that he thought it  
the  best possible mode of expressing   
remorse and the deepest sense of        
repentance1 borrowed it in the expulsion
 from ,paradise1 without any            
alteration1 from ,masaccio2 and1 like   
him1 turned ,adam out with both his     
hands before his face4 ,and how has he  
represented ,moses at the burning  bush1
 to express the astonished awe of human 
in the visible presence of  ,divine     
nature8 by a double repetition of the   
same expedient2 once in  the ceiling of 
a stanza1 and again in the loggia of the
 ,vatican1 with  both his hands before  
his face1 or rather with his face       
immersed in his  hands4 ,as we cannot   

suspect in the master of expression the 
unworthy  motive of making use of this  
mode merely to avoid a difficulty1 or to
  denote the insupportable splendour of 
the vision1 which was so far from  being
 the case1 that1 according to the sacred
 record1 ,moses stepped  out of his way 
to examine the ineffectual blaze2 we    
must conclude  that ,nature herself     
dictated to him this method as superior 
to all he  could express by features2   
and that he recognised the same dictate 
in  ,masaccio1 who can no more be       
supposed to have been acquainted with   
the  precedent of ,timanthes1 than      
,shakspeare with that of ,euripides1    
when he  made ,macduff draw his hat over
 his face4                              
,,essay ,,iv4                  ,,of     
,,the ,,third ,,period ,,of ,,painting  
,,in ,,greece4     ,the ,poets bring the
 ,gods upon the stage1 and all that is  
pompous1   grave1 and delightful4 ,the  
,painters likewise do design as many    
things   upon a board as the ,poets     

possibly can utter4                     
,,philostratus1 ,preface to the ,picture
 ,gallery4     ,in the fantasies of     
,painters nothing is so commendable as  
that there   be both possibility and    
truth4                                  
,,longinus4      ,among the nations     
bordering upon ,european ,greece1       
,macedonia was most  like it in manners1
 language1 and physical circumstances2  
yet the  ,macedonians were generally    
looked upon as barbarians by those proud
  ,republicans1 who claimed the         
exclusive name of ,greeks4              
,alexander1 the eldest son of ,amyntas1 
,king of ,macedon1 desirous of          
distinction in ,greece1 proposed himself
 as a competitor in some of  the        
,olympic games2 but the ,greeks rejected
 him at first with scorn as  a          
,barbarian#aah4 ,however1 he brought    
proofs of his descent from an  ,argive  
family1 and was thereupon admitted by   
the ,hellanodic#aai to  an equal        
participation with other ,greeks in     

those sacred games4 ,he  obtained a     
victory in one of the races1 and        
dedicated a golden statue  in the temple
 of ,olympia4    ,the title of the      
,macedonians to appear as ,greeks at the
 ,olympic games1  was asserted by the   
successors of ,alexander in person or by
 proxy1 and  ,philip received the news  
that his horses had won the prize in the
 race  at ,olympus1 on the very day when
 the tidings reached him of the birth   
of ,alexander the ,great4    ,in truth1 
the kings of ,macedon had been for many 
generations eager  to civilise their    
people1 by introducing among them some  
of the  refinements of ,greece1 when    
they could snatch an interval of peace  
from the wars they were continually     
forced to wage against their rude       
neighbours to the north4 ,they had      
employed the sculptors and painters  of 
,athens and ,sicyon2 and the forced     
residence of ,philip with the  ,thebans 
during the civil wars in ,macedon1 had  
rendered him at least  intimate with the

 literature and philosophy of ,greece4  
,in choosing ,aristotle for one of the  
tutors of his son1 ,philip probably  had
 a view to improving his taste1 as well 
as cultivating those higher  qualities1 
which1 though they may exist without it1
 derive from it a  grace and a spirit   
which double their value4    ,the same  
feeling which led 8the stern ,emathian  
conqueror0 to                           
spare      ,the house of ,pindarus1 when
 temple and tow'r      ,went to the     
ground1    made him the friend of       
,apelles and the patron of ,lysippus and
  ,pyrgoteles#abj4    ,i am not certain 
whether it was to ,alexander or to his  
father1 though  probably to the latter1 
that ,pamphilus the ,macedonian1 a      
disciple of  ,eupompus1 owed the        
protection which enabled him to         
re-establish the  school of ,sicyon1    
with such enlargement as suited the     
time4 ,in the  public course of         
instruction he procured painting to be  
ranked in the  first degree of liberal  

sciences#aba2 and1 consequently1 all    
youths  of honourable birth were        
understood to learn at least the        
elements of  drawing as part of their   
education#abb4    ,pamphilus had        
cultivated the severe sciences as well  
as the agreeable  ones1 including music 
and poetry4 ,i have already mentioned   
that he  required from his pupils a     
knowledge of arithmetic and geometry4   
,his  course of study1 besides1 appears 
to have been exact1 if not severe4  8,no
 day without a line10 was a precept     
learnt by ,apelles in his school1  where
 he studied for ten years1 paying a     
silver talent for each  year#abc1       
according to some1 while others imagine 
the talent was paid  for the whole ten  
years#abd4 ,at any rate1 ,pamphilus set 
a high value  upon his art1 and         
maintained that none but the free could 
practise it4    ,his own pictures were  
much prized3 ,pliny names one of the    
battle of  ,phlius2 another1 of ,ulysses
 in a small vessel at sea2 and a third  

picture1 containing1 as ,i imagine1     
several family portraits4 ,quintilian   
praises the beautiful designs of        
,pamphilus2 and as many of his original 
works were in ,rome when ,quintilian    
wrote1 he had an opportunity of  judging
 of them for himself4 ,but it is        
,apelles whose name spreads  lustre over
 the most refined and polished ra of    
painting in ,greece4  ,admired1 beloved1
 and consulted in his own time1 and     
praised by every  writer among the      
ancients1 we have to lament not only    
that no picture  of his has come down to
 us1 but that those letters to his      
pupils1 and  those more connected works 
in which he is said to have laid down   
all  the rules and principles--nay1 the 
very secrets of art1 have perished4     
,apelles was born in ,cos1 though       
,lucian1 in one of his dialogues1 talks 
of him as a native of ,ephesus#abe4 ,he 
seems to have been endowed with  the    
sweetest temper and disposition1 as well
 as the finest genius4  ,he was         

generously eager to set forth the merits
 of others1 and the  urbanity of his    
manners was such1 that while he used    
perfect freedom1  he could not give     
offence4    ,as an instance of this1    
,pliny relates that ,alexander1 who     
frequently  visited his workshop1       
allowed himself great licence and       
liberty of  jesting4 ,apelles gently    
reproved him1 entreating him to forbear1
 lest  his pupils and the boys who      
ground his colours should repeat his    
words  and make a jest of the king4     
,the freedom of the painter was so far  
from displeasing1 that ,alexander       
appears to have cultivated an intimacy  
with him1 little usual between a  king  
and conqueror1 and an artist4           
,besides employing him to paint his own 
portrait1 and forbidding any  other     
painter to attempt it1 he took so great 
an interest in the ,venus  ,anadyomene1 
which ,apelles was at work upon when he 
arrived at ,athens1  that he sent him   
the most beautiful of his ,theban       

captives1 named  ,campaspe1 with whom he
 is reported to have been deeply in     
love1 to  serve as a model4 ,apelles1   
moved by her misfortunes and her        
loveliness1  conceived a passion for her
 which could not be concealed1 and      
,alexander  perceiving that his captive 
returned the painter's affection1       
instantly  resigned her to him#abf4     
,but the favour of ,apelles with        
,alexander seems to have procured him   
the ill-will of some of the courtiers1  
particularly of ,ptolemy1 as  was shown 
some years afterwards1 when ,apelles1   
being on a voyage to  ,rhodes1 was      
shipwrecked at the mouth of the ,nile2  
and on getting ashore  repaired to      
,alexandria1 where ,ptolemy1 who had    
become ,king of ,egypt on  ,alexander's 
death1 then held his court4 ,it appears 
that several ,greek  painters had       
already established themselves there1   
and that jealous  of the motives of     
,apelles' visit1 they1 in conjunction   
with a painter  of ,alexandria1 named   

,antiphilus1 planned his ruin by the    
following  artifice4    ,they bribed the
 court jester to invite ,apelles        
formally to sup with  the king4 ,on his 
presenting himself1 ,ptolemy1           
remembering his ancient  enmity1 was    
extremely enraged1 and threatened him   
with death1 unless he  instantly        
informed him of the name and quality of 
his inviter4 ,apelles  being entirely   
ignorant of both1 and unacquainted with 
any person at  court1 took a piece of   
charcoal and drew the face of the       
jester1 which  was recognised instantly2
 the life of the painter was spared2 but
 his  treatment was such that he        
hastened to escape from ,egypt1 and soon
  after painted1 in memorial of his     
danger1 the allegory of ,calumny1  which
 has been highly praised by the         
ancients1 and has furnished  several    
modern painters with a theme#abg4       
,apelles' first voyage to ,rhodes was   
expressly to visit ,protogenes1 at  that
 time extremely poor1 and living in     

obscurity4 ,some of his works  having   
been brought to ,athens for sale1 and   
publicly exhibited1 ,apelles  instantly 
resolved to make acquaintance with the  
painter1 and embarked  accordingly4 ,on 
landing1 he ran eagerly to the house of 
,protogenes1  and1 finding that he was  
abroad1 took up his pencil1 and drew a  
fine  pure line1 such as he thought only
 himself could draw4 ,he left it and    
returned1 when he hoped ,protogenes     
might be found2 but he had been  obliged
 to leave home again1 not1 however1     
without acknowledging the  line of      
,apelles1 for he drew another still     
finer within it4 ,apelles  now added a  
third finer than either1 which          
,protogenes seeing1 now made  it his    
business to discover the stranger1 with 
whom he contracted a  lasting           
friendship#abh4    ,the proverb that a  
prophet is not honoured in his own      
country1 was not1  it seems1 falsified  
in the case of ,protogenes1 whose       
fellow-townsmen1  the ,rhodians1        

esteemed his pictures but lightly1 and  
paid him a very  inadequate price for   
them4 ,apelles1 however1 on inquiring   
the cost of  some works he was engaged  
upon1 declared he thought the sum much  
too  small1 and immediately engaged to  
give fifty talents for them#abi4 ,the   
,rhodians1 astonished at the price1     
imagined that ,apelles had purchased    
them for the purpose of selling again as
 his own4 ,they therefore began  to open
 their eyes to his merit1 and the       
reputation of ,protogenes rose  nearly  
to an equality with that of ,apelles    
himself4    ,in a former ,essay ,i have 
mentioned the compliment paid to        
,protogenes  by ,demetrius1 who refused 
to attack the quarter of the city of    
,rhodes1  where his famous picture of   
,ialysus then hung4 ,it is of that      
painting  that we are told that accident
 produced one of its greatest beauties4 
,protogenes1 being anxious to represent 
the foam from the mouth of one  of the  
overtired dogs1 found it so difficult1  

that1 losing patience1  he threw his    
sponge at it4 ,the softness of the      
sponge just obliterated  so much of the 
form as the foam might naturally have   
hidden1 and the  painter1 improving the 
accident1 rendered the picture          
perfect#acj4    ,but ,apelles1 however  
he might admire and assist ,protogenes1 
used to  find one fault with him1 he    
said he never knew when to have done1   
and  that he sometimes injured his works
 by over-anxiety4 ,in this matter he    
preferred himself to his friend1 as of  
better judgment4    ,yet ,apelles was   
careful beyond what we know of modern   
painters1 as  we learn from the well    
known story of his publicly exhibiting  
his  pictures1 and hiding himself behind
 them1 that he might profit by the      
unrestrained criticism of the multitude4
 ,on one occasion1 a shoemaker  passing1
 remarked that something was wanting to 
the sandal of the  principal figure4 ,in
 the evening1 ,apelles altered the      
faulty sandal1  and when the shoemaker  

passed the next morning1 he was so      
charmed with  the attention paid to his 
observations1 that he extended them     
farther1  and began to find fault with  
the limbs2 upon which1 ,apelles broke   
out  of his hiding place1 exclaiming1   
8,let not the shoemaker go beyond his   
last10 which words have passed into a   
proverb4    ,the most noted work of     
,apelles was his ,venus ,anadyomene1    
which was  afterwards carried to ,rome1 
and so greatly injured in the carriage1 
that it could not be restored4    ,he   
had undertaken to make a duplicate of   
this celebrated figure1 but  died before
 it was finished1 and the imperfect work
 is said to have  been valued as highly 
as his more perfect paintings1 because  
it was the  last thing upon which that  
skilful hand had rested4    ,in the     
,greek ,anthology there are the         
following lines of ,leonidas1 which     
inform us how the painter had treated   
the subject3        ,when from the bosom
 of her parent flood        ,she rose   

refulgent with the encircling brine1    
,apelles saw ,cytherea's form divine1   
,and fixed her breathing image1 where it
 stood4      ,those graceful hands      
entwined1 that wring the spray          
,from her ambrosial hair1 proclaim the  
truth2      ,those speaking eyes where  
amorous lightnings play1        ,those  
swelling heavens1 the harbingers of     
youth3      ,the rival flowers behold   
with fond amaze1      ,and yield        
submission in the conscious gaze4       
,after the ,venus1 the ancient critics  
seem to have prized the famous  portrait
 of ,alexander1 in the character of     
,jupiter the ,thunderer1  which was hung
 in the temple of ,diana of ,ephesus1   
and cost no less  than twenty talents of
 gold1 according to ,pliny4 ,this       
picture is  praised as much for grandeur
 and majesty as the ,venus for          
loveliness4  ,nor was it the only       
portrait of ,alexander he painted1 for  
we are told  that he represented him in 
every action and character1 and that the

  pictures of ,king ,philip1 by         
,apelles1 were almost equally numerous4 
,the  portrait of ,clytus he painted in 
armour1 and that of ,megabyzus1 the     
priest of ,diana1 in his priestly robes1
 performing a sacrifice4 ,of  other     
remarkable portraits by him1 we have the
 names of ,antiochus1 the  king1 whom he
 painted in profile to conceal the want 
of an eye1 which  disfigured him2 of    
,menander1 king of the ,rhodians2 of    
,gorgosthenes1 the  tragedian2 and of   
one ,ancus1 a ,samian4    ,at ,rome     
there was an allegorical picture painted
 by him1 in which  ,castor and ,pollux1 
,alexander1 and a winged victory were   
introduced2 and  also that picture of   
war in chains1 which was afterwards so  
cruelly  defaced by ,claudius1 who1 as  
,i have already mentioned1 had the head 
of  ,alexander scraped out1 and that of 
,augustus substituted for it#aca4       
,other subjects on which he employed his
 pencil have been named by  various     
authors3 for instance1 a ,hercules      

nearly turned from the  spectator2 a    
,hero and ,leander2 ,archelaus with his 
wife and daughter2  and a most beautiful
 picture of ,diana1 with her attendant  
virgins  preparing a sacrifice4 ,this   
last was esteemed by the connoisseurs   
of ,greece as one of his very finest    
works1 though a few preferred a  picture
 of ,antigonus on horseback4 ,he had    
painted the same king in  armour1 on    
foot1 with his horse led by a soldier1  
but this work was  not esteemed nearly  
so much as the other4 ,he seems to have 
been fond  of painting horses1 and      
carried away the prize from several     
rivals in  subjects where they were     
treated1 either alone1 or along with    
their  riders4 ,i am not clear whether  
it were a solitary horse1 or one on     
which he had mounted ,neoptolemus armed1
 and charging some ,persian  soldiers1  
that1 according to ,pliny1 procured him 
the compliment of a  greeting from a    
real horse that was passing by#acb4     
,it is evident1 ,i think1 from what the 

ancients have related concerning  his   
works1 that he never painted in fresco1 
nor do ,i find any mention  made of     
drawings on parchment1 like those of    
,zeuxis and ,parrhasius4 ,he  must then 
have painted upon pannel with the usual 
preparation of chalk  or carbonate of   
lime1 with size4 ,of the peculiar glaze 
or varnish1  which he is said to have   
first used1 ,i shall have occasion to   
speak in  a future ,essay4              
,protogenes1 the friend and rival of    
,apelles1 was born at ,caunus1 in       
,cilicia2 but ,rhodes was his adopted   
country4 ,his poverty was such1 that  he
 was a ship painter during the early    
part of his life4 ,now the ships  of the
 ancients1 though coloured generally red
 or black1 laid on with  pitch1 wax1 and
 oil1 at the bottoms and the seams1 had 
always a figure  painted at the prow1   
representing the tutelary deity1 or hero
 of the  vessel1 much after the manner  
of our figure-heads4 ,on the stern it   
was  customary to paint marine subjects1

 such as ,neptune and ,amphitrite1  the 
,tritons1 the birth of ,venus1 and so   
on#acc4 ,in the course of this  practice
 ,protogenes acquired great knowledge   
and skill in shipping1 and  became a    
considerable marine painter4    ,perhaps
 the sight of some of the ships painted 
by him might have  induced the          
,athenians to invite him to paint some  
of their favourite  ships of war1 in the
 ,portico near ,minerva's temple4 ,the  
great praises  bestowed on his pictures 
by ,apelles1 was another temptation to a
  people so eager after every kind of   
elegance1 to engage him in the  service 
of the city4 ,accordingly1 about the    
fiftieth year of his age1  he accepted  
an invitation to work for the ,republic1
 and having painted  the ,thesmothet of 
the time#acd in the chamber of the      
council of five  hundred1 he painted the
 two galleys1 ,paralus and ,hemionis1 in
 the  portico near ,minerva's ,temple4  
,the ,greek painters were occasionally  
in the habit of surrounding their       

pictures with a border of subjects1     
executed on a smaller scale than the    
main action of the picture2 this  they  
called ,parerga#ace4 ,the parerga to the
 ,paralus and ,hemionis  consisted of   
small vessels1 of various kinds and     
dimensions4 ,pliny says  that the       
painter intended thereby to show from   
what small beginnings1  he1 a painter of
 ships and boats1 had arisen to         
eminence4 ,but ,i think  it more likely 
that he only made his border to suit his
 subject1 which  was dedicated to the   
service of the state and commerce of    
,athens#acf4    ,it is said that while  
,protogenes remained in ,athens1        
,aristotle urged  him1 without success1 
to paint the triumphs of ,alexander4    
,but he  painted some portraits which   
were highly esteemed1 particularly one  
of  ,aristotle's mother4 ,he also       
painted ,antigonus and some other men of
  note in his time4 ,none of his        
pictures1 however1 were so much admired 
as his ,ialysus2 though the ,anapomenes 

or ,satyrs at rest1 the ,cydippe1  the  
,tlepolemus1 and the ,pan1 were greatly 
esteemed4 ,protogenes acquired  as great
 a reputation for his bronze statues as 
his pictures4    ,aristides of ,thebes  
is the next great name in the third era 
of ,greek  painting4 ,he was remarkable 
for the intense expression he threw into
  his figures4 ,his battle pieces1 his  
hunting scenes1 and his chariot  races1 
painted for foreign kings and public    
halls1 though highly  prized1 were far  
below the pathetic groups of his smaller
 pictures1 in  general esteem4 ,there   
was a suppliant sueing so earnestly for 
grace  that his very voice seemed to be 
heard2 there was ,byblis expiring  for  
love2 also a tragic actor1 with his     
attendant on the scene1 and  some other 
pictures1 which were carried to ,rome1  
and hung in the most  honourable        
places#acg4 ,his great merit seems to   
have been a close  attention to nature1 
not only in form but in action and      
expression2  else1 whence arose the     

strong attraction of his ,dying ,man8   
,but the most  touching of all his works
 was that picture of the storming of a  
town1  in which the foremost group      
consisted of a dying mother and her     
infant4  ,the child was creeping towards
 the breast1 she anxiously watching its 
weak movements1 and endeavouring to     
guide it aright4 ,none could look on    
this painting without a tender horror2  
few without shedding tears4 ,it  was    
found in ,thebes1 when the place was    
sacked by ,alexander4 ,he took it  for  
his own1 and sent it to ,pella4 ,the    
following lines1 by ,emilianus  ,nicus1 
convey the sentiments of the painter4   
,suck1 little wretch1 while yet thy     
mother lives6      ,suck the last drop  
her fainting bosom gives6      ,she     
dies--her tenderness survives her       
breath1      ,and her fond love is      
provident in death#ach4    ,nichomachus 
was a painter1 formed in the same school
 with ,aristides4  ,but his mind had a  
freer and more cheerful turn2 and we    

find in ,pliny's  list of his pictures  
some of even a playful cast4 ,for       
instance1 one  of a procession of the   
priestesses of ,bacchus1 in their       
habits1 which  having attracted the     
notice of the sylvan deities1 they are  
peeping  from the woods1 and creeping as
 near as they dare4 ,the rape of        
,proserpine was another of his subjects4
 ,the sea monster ,scylla another4  ,he 
is also known to have painted ,ulysses  
on his raft2 several pictures  of the   
gods1 an ,apotheosis1 and other works1  
which were carried to ,rome4    ,he had 
the reputation of painting with greater 
celerity than any other  man of his     
time1 in proof of which1 we have the    
following anecdote4 ,he  had undertaken 
to paint1 for a certain sum of money1   
the tomb which  ,anstrtus1 tyrant of    
,sicyon1 had built in memory of         
,telestes the poet4  ,the work was to be
 finished by a certain day2 but four    
days before the  time appointed1 the    
painter had not even arrived at ,sicyon 

to begin4  ,upon learning this1         
,anstrtus threatened him with exemplary 
punishment4  ,but1 to the tyrant's      
surprise1 when the day came round1      
instead of  punishment1 he had to bestow
 both the promised reward and the       
highest  praise1 for the excellency of  
the work4    ,i come now to the last    
great painters of ,greece1 ,pausias and 
,euphranor1  who were a little after the
 time of ,apelles and ,aristides4       
,timomachus1 of ,byzantium2 ,nicias1 of 
,athens2 and ,theon of ,samos1  indeed1 
attained to considerable fame2 and there
 were some painters of  familiar life   
and other subjects1 that appear to      
deserve notice for  their reputation1   
even were it less curious to observe how
 ancient and  modern art have followed  
the same paths4    ,pausias was the son 
and pupil of ,brietes1 of ,sicyon1 and  
appears to  have been dexterous in the  
use of every kind of material and tool  
then  known4 ,he was particularly       
celebrated for his pictures in          

encaustic1  of the origin of which      
method of painting ,pliny himself was in
 doubt4  ,his skill in the more ancient 
methods of painting was such1 that he   
was chosen to repair the pictures of    
,polygnotus1 at ,thespi1 which  had     
suffered greatly from time and damp4 ,it
 is true that his work  was considered  
greatly inferior to that of the original
 picture2  not1 indeed1 as ,fuseli says1
 because he used a different method and 
different tools1 but because he wrought 
in a manner to which he  was            
unaccustomed4 ,may we not also say1     
because his gay1 cheerful  disposition1 
delighting in painting children and     
flowers1 did not and  could not enter   
into the high and solemn feelings which 
seem to have  constantly guided the     
pencil of ,polygnotus8    ,the exceeding
 beauty of colour which is said to have 
distinguished  the pictures of ,pausias1
 he owed to love4 ,there lived in       
,sicyon an  exceedingly beautiful girl1 
called ,glycera1 a garland maker1       

celebrated  for the taste and elegance  
with which she wove the coronals1 then  
worn  universally at religious festivals
 and banquets1 public and private4  ,at 
first1 ,pausias resorted to her for the 
sake of painting the fresh  flowers1 and
 catching their combinations of colour  
and form2 but he  soon began to love    
,glycera more than her flowers2 and the 
picture that  he painted of her1 while  
wreathing a garland1 was the finest work
 that  ever came from his hand#aci4     
,akin to this1 was his ,hemerosis1 a    
small picture of a child1 reported  to  
have been painted in a single day1      
though executed with the greatest  care 
and nicety1 to prove how falsely those  
accused him of idleness  who said his   
love of painting children arose from the
 little necessity  there was for care   
and diligence in such subjects4    ,a   
very remarkable picture of his is       
mentioned1 representing a  sacrifice1 in
 which a number of oxen are introduced4 
,the foreshortening  of one of these is 

said to have been imitated1 though      
without success1  by many rivals2 the   
manner of casting the shadows also1 upon
 the more  distant groups1 was a        
distinguishing excellence of ,pausias4  
,this sacrifice1 and other works of this
 most eminent man1 were carried  to     
,rome1 when all the pictures at ,sycyon 
were seized during the  ,edileship of   
,scaurus1 as ,i have already mentioned4 
,euphranor1 the ,isthmean1 was the most 
accomplished of all the ancient         
painters after the time of ,pausias4 ,he
 was equally celebrated as a  sculptor  
in marble and bronze1 and the bowls and 
vases of his embossing  always fetched a
 high price4    ,the great public work  
of ,euphranor was a portico1 in that    
part of  ,athens called the ,ceramicus4 
,one of the subjects was an allegorical 
picture of the early political state of 
,athens4    ,the ,athenian people1      
,theseus1 and the personage of          
,democracy1 were  introduced2 but       
,pausanias1 who mentions the subject1   

gives no account  of its treatment1     
though he says it signified that        
,theseus first  established equal rights
 of citizenship among the ,athenians4   
,in the  same portico1 ,euphranor also  
painted the battle of ,mantinea1 in     
which  the most remarkable group was an 
encounter of cavalry4 ,epaminondas was  
at the head of the ,botians1 and        
,gryllus1 the son of ,xenophon1 led the 
,athenian horse4    ,one end of the     
portico ,euphranor sanctified by        
paintings of the twelve  superior gods4 
,perhaps some slight judgment of the    
tone of these  pictures may be formed   
from the expression of ,euphranor       
himself--that1  while the ,theseus of   
,parrhasius looked as if he had fed upon
 roses1 his  own showed that he lived   
upon flesh4    ,the other principal     
pictures of ,euphranor appear to have   
belonged to  the temple of ,diana at    
,ephesus1 the most remarkable of which  
was the  feigned madness of ,ulysses1   
who was harnessing a horse and an ox to 

the  same yoke4    ,before ,i proceed to
 the painters of less note1 ,i will use 
the words of  ,quintillian to sum up the
 general character of some of the       
greatest men  who distinguished the     
third period of ,greek art4             
8,protogenes distinguished himself by   
his accuracy3 ,pamphilus and  ,melanthus
 by beauty of design3 ,antiphilus by the
 easy and natural  strokes of his       
pencil3 ,theon of ,samos by his lively  
imagination3 and  ,apelles by his       
ingenuity1 and the graces which he      
boasted he had  excelled in3 ,euphranor 
made himself admirable by being         
possessed of  these different qualities 
in as eminent a degree as the best      
masters40    ,the great encouragement of
 art about the time of ,philip1 and in  
the  reign of ,alexander and his        
immediate successors1 called out        
abundance  of talent of various kinds   
and degrees2 from that of the ,egyptian1
 or  rather ,alexandrian ,antiphilus1   
whose attention to nature must have been

  of singular use to him in those scenes
 for the theatre on which he  loved to  
employ himself1 to that pupil of        
,apelles to whom his master  said       
sarcastically1 8,as you have not been   
able to paint your ,venus  beautiful1   
you have made her fine20 in allusion to 
a profusion of gold  chain and other    
ornaments with which he had loaded her4 
,the serious  pictures of ,antiphilus   
which were carried to ,rome1 were the   
death of  ,hippolytus2 several votive   
pictures of ,greek divinities1 and some 
few heroes4 ,he painted grotesques so   
perfectly1 that from one of his         
figures1 a fool named ,gryllus1 with a  
cap and bells1 such subjects got  the   
name of ,grylli4    ,antiphilus is1     
besides1 the first painter1 whose name  
has come down  to us1 who painted       
fire-light effects4 ,his most famous    
work of this  kind was a boy blowing a  
fire with his mouth1 in which the       
natural  character of the boy1 and the  
effect of the light throughout the room1

  were greatly admired4 ,another        
favourite picture represented a number  
of  women spinning and gossiping1 highly
 valued for its truth4    ,pliny seems  
doubtful whether it be not beneath the  
dignity of painting  to praise          
,pyreicus1 who loved to paint interiors1
 especially the shops  of tailors1      
shoemakers1 and sempstresses2 giving    
every thing its true  nature and        
character1 to a degree that attracted   
much admiration and  many purchasers2   
and as he delighted in making pictures  
of the houses  of the humble classes of 
men1 he loved also to paint the animals 
that  especially belong to them4 ,the   
nickname of ,rhyparographus1 was given  
him1 on account of his skill in painting
 asses bringing vegetables and  fruit to
 market4 ,these pictures were of small  
size1 and very highly  finished1 and    
were sold for large prices4 ,serapion1  
the contemporary of  ,pyreicus1 on the  
contrary1 painted nothing but play-house
 scenes1 mock  architecture1 and other  

things of enormous size1 but was        
incapable of  drawing either men or     
animals4    ,heraclides the ,macedonian 
was celebrated as a marine painter4 ,his
  friend ,metrodorus1 ,i conjecture to  
have been a scene painter1 and as he    
combined considerable knowledge of the  
arts1 with the science requisite  for a 
tutor to young men1 he was employed by  
,lucius ,paulus both to  bring up his   
sons1 and to paint his triumphs4    ,but
 ,i will close my account of the        
painters of ,greece with two names  of  
greater eminence1 ,nicias and           
,timomachus1 who lived in the time of   
,julius ,csar4 ,nicias was an ,athenian 
of considerable private fortune1  so    
that having painted a picture of the    
descent of ,ulysses to the  infernal    
regions1 he refused to sell it at a very
 high price to a  foreign prince1 and   
presented it to his native city4 ,he was
 famous  above all for the beauty of his
 women1 and the bold relief of his      
figures1 which are said to have appeared

 ready to leave the ground they  were   
painted upon1 and to walk out of their  
frames4 ,i have mentioned  in the last  
,essay the subjects of some of his      
principal pictures which  were carried  
to ,rome1 and highly prized by ,augustus
 ,csar4 ,there seems  to have been      
another painter of the same name#adj1   
who was also a  sculptor and pupil of   
,praxiteles1 who esteemed him highly on 
account of  the exquisite finish of his 
works4    ,timomachus of ,byzantium     
seems to have delighted most in tragic  
subjects1 though a picture of his1      
containing excellent portraits of       
several generations of one and the same 
family1 is mentioned4 ,his  most        
successful work is said to have been a  
,gorgon's head4 ,he painted  ,iphigenia 
in ,aulis1 ,orestes and ,clytmnestra2   
and1 for ,julius ,csar1 an  ,ajax and a 
,medea4 ,the treatment of the latter we 
may gather from the  following lines1 by
 ,antiphilus1 preserved in the ,greek   
anthology4      ,,on ,,the ,,medea ,,of 

,,timomachus4        ,when bold         
,timomachus essayed to trace      ,the  
soul's emotions in the varying face1    
,with patient thought1 and faithful     
hand1 he strove      ,to blend with     
jealous rage maternal love4      ,behold
 ,medea6 ,envy must confess      ,in    
both the passions his complete success2 
,tears in each threat--a threat in every
 tear2      ,the mind with pity warm1 or
 chill with fear4      ,the dread       
suspense ,i praise1 the critic cries1   
,here all the judgment1 all the pathos  
lies2      ,to stain with filial blood  
the guilty scene      ,had marr'd the   
artist1 but became the queen#ada4    ,i 
think it best to close my account of    
ancient ,greek painting here1  while it 
was still practised by great masters in 
their own land1 not  yet quite enslaved4
 ,from the time of ,augustus1 ,italy    
attracted the best  artists of all      
kinds1 but1 as ,i have already shown1 it
 was not under  the ,csars that the     
liberal arts flourished most4    ,i have

 now given a sketch of the history of   
painting and painters in  ,greece--very 
imperfect1 ,i acknowledge1 but such as  
,i can collect from  the authors who    
either treat on the subject of pictures 
and artists1 or  who have left          
incidental remarks on them1 in such     
works as have come  down to us4    ,the 
first efforts of painting in ,greece    
appear to have been as rude as  we found
 them among the savages of ,polynesia4  
,the earliest steps of  art in ,egypt   
and ,etruria elude our observation1 but 
the nature of the  improvements         
attributed to ,eumanus of ,athens1 teach
 us what they were  in ,greece4    ,the 
art once exercised1 however1 neither    
halted nor tarried4 ,it  was sublime in 
its simplicity in the hands of          
,polygnotus and his  cotemporaries4 ,it 
served their gods and their country4    
,much improved in  beauty1 but still    
grave and dignified1 it grew popular in 
the time of  ,parrhasius and ,zeuxis4   
,under ,apelles and his followers it was

 devoted  to the graces1 revelled in    
beauty1 and ministered to the refined   
pleasures of taste1 rather than as at   
first1 to the gratification of  higher  
moral feelings4    ,brought down thus to
 the commoner tone of general society1  
more  various subjects were thought     
worthy of it4 ,pyreicus anticipated  the
 subjects of the modern ,dutch painters1
 and it should seem with  kindred       
success4 ,the natural desire for        
novelty1 and the anxiety for  individual
 distinction1 produced fire-light       
scenes1 pictures of still  life and     
other varieties4 ,fashion1 rather than  
taste1 became the guide  of purchasers1 
and it may truly be said1 that the      
decline of painting  began with the     
,macedonian conquests1 which altered the
 character of the  ,greeks1 and1        
consequently1 of their arts4            
,,footnotes3    #aah ,herodotus1        
,terpsichore1 c4 #bb4    #aai ,the      
judges of the ,games4    #abj ,pausanias
 does not mention the name of the       

sculptors who executed  either of the   
three statues of ,alexander which were  
at ,olympia4 ,one was  raised to him as 
conqueror in that race called           
,hemerodromos1 because  a great space is
 run through in one day2 another1       
dedicated to him by  a certain          
,corinthian1 represented him in the     
character of the son of  ,jupiter2 and  
the third was an ,equestrian statue1 a  
votive offering of  the ,eleans4--,see  
the ,lists of ,votive ,statues in the   
,v4 and ,,vi4 ,books4    ,lysippus of   
,sicyon was originally a coppersmith2   
afterwards a pupil of  ,eupompus4 ,he   
cast many statues of ,alexander1 one of 
which ,nero caused  to be gilt1 but     
afterwards washed off the gold4 ,a large
 composition1  representing ,alexander  
hunting with his horses and dogs1 was   
dedicated  in the temple of ,apollo at  
,delphi2 and ,lysippus executed many    
other  statues of ,alexander1 and of his
 friends1 especially ,hephstion1 which  
were placed in various temples as       

compliments to the conqueror4           
,pyrgoteles was of all the ,greeks the  
most renowned engraver of gems4    #aba 
,it was unlawful to teach a slave       
painting1 engraving1 or                 
embossing4--7,pliny1 b4 xxxv4 #aj47     
#abb ,box tablets1 properly prepared1   
were used for these  diagraphice4 ,in a 
future essay ,i propose to compare these
 with the  tablets used by the school of
 ,giotto1 of which we have a minute     
account  in ,cennino ,cennini's curious 
work4    #abc ,it appears that          
,pamphilus would not undertake to       
instruct a pupil  for a less term of    
years4    #abd ,if the talent be rightly
 computed at #aicl4 #aes41 the pay1 in  
the first case1 is enormous2 in the last
 very small4    #abe ,dr4 ,franklin1 the
 translator of ,lucian1 without citing  
any  authority1 says1 there was a second
 ,apelles1 and that the ,apelles of     
,alexander and the ,apelles of ,ptolemy 
were different persons4 ,it is  evident 
that ,lucian himself meant the great    

,apelles4 ,and the picture  of ,calumny 
has always been ascribed to him2 ,i     
cannot find any mention  elsewhere of a 
second4    #abf ,in ,lilly's pleasing   
play of ,alexander and ,campaspe there  
is so  pretty a song put into the mouth 
of ,apelles that ,i cannot help copying 
it4        8,cupid and my ,campaspe     
played      ,at cards for kisses1 ,cupid
 paid2      ,he stakes his quiver1 bow1 
and arrows2      ,his mother's doves1   
and team of sparrows2      ,loses them  
too2 then down he throws      ,the coral
 of his lip1 the rose      ,growing on  
's cheek 7but none knows how71          
,with these the crystal of his brow1    
,and then the dimple of his chin2       
,all these did my ,campaspe win4        
,at last he set her both his eyes1      
,she won1 and ,cupid blind did rise4    
,o1 ,love6 has she done this to thee8   
,what shall1 alas6 become of me80       
#abg ,lucian's description of the       
,calumny is as follows3 8,on the right  
hand side sits a man with ears almost as

 long as ,midas's1 stretching  forth his
 hand towards the figure of ,calumny1   
who appears at a distance  coming up to 
him2 he is attended by two women1 who1  
,i imagine1  represent ,ignorance and   
,suspicion4 ,from the other side        
approaches  ,calumny1 in the form of a  
woman1 to the last degree beautiful1 but
  seeming warmed and inflamed1 as full  
of anger and resentment2 bearing  a     
lighted torch in her left hand1 and with
 her right dragging by the  hair of his 
head a young man1 who lifts up his eyes 
to ,heaven1 as  calling the gods to     
witness his innocence4 ,before her      
stands a pale  ugly figure1 with sharp  
eyes1 and emaciated1 like one worn down 
with  disease1 which we easily perceive 
is meant for ,envy2 and behind are two  
women1 who seem to be employed in       
dressing1 adorning1 and assisting  her1 
one of whom1 as my interpreter informed 
me1 was ,treachery1 and the  other      
,deceit2 at some distance1 in the back  
part of the picture1 stands  a woman in 

a mourning habit1 all torn and ragged1  
which we were told  represented         
,penitence2 as she turned her eyes back 
she blushed and wept  at the sight of   
,truth1 who was approaching towards     
her40 ,it is evident  that ,botticelli  
first1 and afterwards ,raffaelle1       
followed this account  of ,lucian4      
,albert ,durer also1 in his decorative  
picture1 on the walls  of the town hall 
at ,neurembourg1 drew from the same     
source4    ,lucian says that ,apelles   
had been held in esteem by ,ptolemy1    
until the  rivals of ,apelles made the  
king believe that he had conspired at   
,tyre1  with one ,theodotus1 against    
him1 and that the defection of ,tyre and
  the loss of ,pelusium were owing to   
the advice of ,apelles4 ,now nothing    
could be more false1 ,apelles never was 
at ,tyre4 ,but ,ptolemy1 without        
considering this1 was about to order him
 to be beheaded4 ,afterwards1  when     
convinced of his innocence1 he is said  
to have given him a hundred  talents1   

and likewise his accuser for a slave4   
#abh ,the antique vulgar was no more    
exempt from the love of the  marvellous 
rather than the beautiful1 than the     
modern4 ,when the pannel  on which the  
rival lines were drawn1 was afterwards  
carried to ,rome1 it  attracted more    
visitors than the finest works of art   
which hung along  with it in the palace 
of the ,csars1 where they and it were   
burned in  one of those calamitous fires
 which destroyed the choicest libraries 
of ,rome1 as well as the most precious  
works of art1 collected from the        
conquered countries4    #abi ,if these  
were ,attic talents1 the sum was #ifhgl4
 #ajs41  certainly a prodigious sum for 
one painter to expend upon the works of 
another4    #acj ,the story is repeated 
and applied to several other painters in
  their horses and dogs2 but ,i believe 
,protogenes has the prior claim1  and it
 seems his friend ,nealces was his first
 imitator4 ,he dashed his  sponge at a  
horse's month1 and produced foam in     

imitation of that of  ,protogenes' dog4 
#aca ,see ,essay ,,ii4 ,this practice of
 defacing ancient pictures  continues   
even to our own times4 ,during the civil
 wars in ,england it  was very          
notorious4 ,canova kept two faces for   
the sitting statue of  ,maria ,louisa1  
one for her family1 and one for the     
world of taste4 ,the  modern changes are
 generally confined to prints of the    
heroes of the  day1 whose faces1 like   
their names1 drive one another out of   
the market4    #acb ,this story is a    
charge upon the ,grapes of ,zeuxis1 and 
furnished  the ,french with the hint for
 that of the ass attempting to eat some 
thistles1 in a picture of ,le ,sueur1 or
 ,le ,brun1 ,i forget which4    #acc    
,the mariner1 when storms around him    
rise1      ,no longer on a painted stern
 relies4                                
,,francis' ,,horace1 ,b4 ,i4 ,,ode #ad4 
#acd ,these ,magistrates chiefly        
superintended the police of ,athens4    
#ace ,parerga4 ,this bordering remained 

in use among the ,greek  painters till  
the revival of art4 ,there is1 in the   
collection of  the ,belle ,arti1 at     
,florence1 a ,greek picture of ,mary    
,magdalene1  the parerga of which is    
made up of small groups1 representing   
her  history1 from the raising of       
,lazarus to her death4 ,among the early 
,fleming or ,burgundian painters1 the   
,van ,eyks followed this practice  with 
good effect1 and the earlier miniature  
painters1 in the borders of  the pages  
of their missals1 did the same4    #acf 
,some modern writers have thought that a
 picture of shipping was  beneath the   
dignity of the ,portico of ,minerva2 and
 have laboured hard  to prove that      
,paralus was a hero2 ,hemionis a        
heroine4 ,but ,paralus  invented long   
ships1 and the ,athenians named their   
favourite galley1  which was a trireme1 
after him4 ,hemionis is another name for
 ,nausicaa1  a sea nymph1 or the        
daughter of a sea king4 ,the vessel     
named after her  was a long ship1 a     

trireme also2 and as the vessels of war 
of ,athens  were sacred to ,minerva1    
what could be a more appropriate        
ornament for  her portico1 than a       
picture of ships8    ,the triremes      
,paralus and ,salamina are mentioned by 
,thucydides1 in  his #crd book1 as      
performing an eminent service to        
,athens1 in the  ,lacedmonian war4 ,it  
seems that ,paralus1 or ,paralia1 was   
the name of  the vessel that brought the
 news of the defeat of gospotamos to    
,athens4    ,so much for the opinion    
that ,paralus may be a hero1 but cannot 
be a  ship4    #acg ,see ,essay ,,ii4   
#ach ,see ,greek ,anthology4    #aci    
,this picture was called ,stephanopolis1
 the flower seller1 and was  bought at  
,athens by ,lucullus1 for two talents of
 silver1 #chg4 #ajs4  ,whoever has seen 
the beautiful picture called ,titian's  
,flora1 in the  ,florence ,gallery1 must
 be reminded of it while reading of the 
garland  maker of ,pausias4    #adj     
,some think they were the same2 but     

there seems to have been  an older      
,nicias than either4 ,perhaps a         
,thracian1 or a ,macedonian4            
,omphalion1 who was employed by the     
,messenians to paint a long series of   
supposed portraits of their ancient     
kings in the temple of sculapius1  at   
,messene1 was the pupil of a ,nicias1 ,i
 suppose of ,nicias of ,athens4         
,pausanias ,messenics1 ch4 #ba4         
#ada ,in ,lucian's ,dialogue of the     
,encomium of a ,house1 there is a       
description of this picture1 in which he
 says1 8the little ones1  unconscious of
 their fate1 sit with smiling           
countenances1 and whilst  they see her  
holding the sword over them1 seem       
pleased and happy40                     
,franklin's ,lucian4    ,but surely if  
they saw their mother brandishing a     
sword or dagger over  them1 her aspect  
must have frightened them4              
,,essay ,v4                      ,,of   
,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,pictures4 
,the more general any word is in its    

signification1 it is the more   liable  
to be abused by an improper or unmeaning
 application4 ,a   very general term is 
applicable alike to a multitude of      
different   individuals1 a particular   
term is applicable but to a few4 ,the   
latitude of a word1 though different    
from its ambiguity1 hath often a        
similar effect4                         
,,campbell4 ,philosophy of ,rhetoric4   
,it will be useful to pause a little1   
between the historic sketch ,i have     
already made of antique painting1 and   
that which is to follow1 of the  entire 
decay1 and first faint revival of the   
,art2 and to consider what  branches of 
painting had been chiefly cultivated by 
the ancients1 and  whether the ordinary 
classification of pictures can be       
satisfactorily  applied to their works1 
or even correctly to the productions of 
modern painters4 ,it will not be        
uninteresting either1 to consider the   
materials and colours used by the       
ancient artists1 as compared with  those

 known to the moderns4    ,i have       
already shown the probable origin of    
painting1 its earliest  application to  
the service of religion1 and its use as 
a method  of recording events among some
 nations1 before the invention of       
alphabetical writing4 ,while it was     
confined chiefly to the latter  purpose1
 it remained fixed1 and incapable of    
improvement2 but as soon  as            
alphabetical writing was either invented
 or adopted in any country1  the        
imitative arts became free1 and improved
 in feeling1 spirit1 and  expression1 as
 well as in execution4    ,while the    
,grecian states and cities were         
struggling for national  independence   
and civil freedom1 the arts maintained a
 severe and almost  awful character1    
devoted exclusively to religion and     
patriotism4 ,but  those great objects   
once attained1 society became more      
polished2 a  larger space was allotted  
to the exercise of the imagination4     
,various  sects of ,philosophers sprang 

up3 a new race of ,poets arose2 and the 
arts losing part of their grandeur with 
their austerity1 began to  partake of   
the blandishments of those luxurious    
times1 that succeeded  to the great     
political struggles of the country4     
,painting was capable of assisting the  
task of the moral teachers1 by  her     
power of expressing passion4 ,she       
illustrated the dreams of the  poets    
with graceful compositions1 formed no   
less of imaginary beings  than of real  
personages2 and1 for a long period1 the 
,virtues and the  ,graces equally       
presided over the painter's study4      
,but it was natural that1 in the great  
diversity of tastes1 some should  seek  
after the mere ornament that the arts   
could furnish4 ,hence the  minor walks  
of painting began to be cultivated apart
 from the greater4  ,and something was  
found to gratify every spectator in the 
various  departments of this enchanting 
art4    ,it has been the custom to      
distribute all the various works of art 

into three or four classes1 each        
comprehending a most incongruous        
variety#adb4    ,the first place is     
always allowed to ,,historic ,,painting1
 which1 as now  understood1 means       
everything that is not portrait1 or     
domestic scenery1  or landscape1 or     
flowers1 or caricature1 from the ,last  
,judgment of  ,michael ,angelo1 down to 
a sleeping nymph1 or a weeping          
,magdalene#adc4    ,,portrait comes     
next1 and even those who have seen      
,giulio ,,ii4 are not  ashamed to place 
in the same class1 the ,lord ,henrys and
 ,lady ,janes1  ,les ,barons de ,t41 or 
,les ,comtesses de ,v41 that annually   
adorn the  walls of the ,london and     
,paris exhibitions4    ,with the        
,,familiar ,,life class1 as now         
understood1 ,i do not quarrel2  if the  
,dutch and ,flemings1 two centuries ago1
 far exceeded all we do  in execution1  
we moderns are much above them in sense 
and feeling2  in having a story to tell 
and telling it well4 ,besides1 the words

  familiar life admit at once every     
variety of subject1 from genteel  comedy
 to broad farce4 ,it appears to have    
been cultivated with some  success by   
the ancients4    ,but the ,,landscape   
class6 ,surely it is strange to put the 
,enchanted  ,castle of ,claude1 and the 
,deluge of ,poussin1 together with views
 on  ,hounslow ,heath1 and scenes in the
 ,waterloo tea gardens6 ,landscape      
painting1 indeed1 seems to be a modern  
art1 as considered by itself2  though it
 must have been practised for the sake  
of backgrounds by the  ancients1 as ,i  
shall have occasion to notice4    ,it   
has pleased the writers upon painting to
 make a class apart of  ,,animal        
,,painting1 and to consider the class as
 an inferior one4 ,it is  right to      
separate it3 but the inferiority will   
scarcely be allowed  by those who know  
the works of ,rubens and ,snyders4 ,at  
any rate1 the  ancients did not consider
 it mean1 by their praise of the animals
 of  ,nicias and ,pausias generally1 of 

the horses of ,apelles1 and the dogs of 
,protogenes1 in particular4    ,in      
,,fruit1 and ,,flowers1 and ,,still     
,,life1 we have again the ancients to   
support us4 ,how lovely were the fresh  
flowers in the ,stephanopolis of        
,pausias6 ,then the grapes of ,zeuxis1  
and the curtain of ,parrhasius1 how     
exquisitely finished6    ,as to the     
delineations of animals1 plants1        
minerals1 c41 for the  purposes of      
natural history1 they must be considered
 as combining the  original uses of the 
graphic art2 namely1 history writing1   
with the  practical improvement of      
modern times2 and ,i shall not make any 
further  mention of them#add4    ,it is 
evident that this classification is as  
absurd and inconvenient1  as it would be
 in poetry to place under the same head1
 ,homer's ,iliad  and the ballad of     
,colin and ,lucy1 because both tell a   
story4    ,if1 however1 in conformity   
with long usage1 we must preserve these 
classes1 they ought to be subdivided1 so

 as to dispose works really of  the same
 order apart from the masses in which   
they are now confounded4    ,i am aware 
that1 however decided the distinction   
may be between the  great works that    
must form the example for each          
subdivision1 it will  be difficult to   
keep the limits so clear1 that the exact
 place of any  particular work may be   
known and fixed at once2 but that is    
surely a  small evil compared with the  
present confusion4    ,the class        
,,history1 has been felt to be so       
indefinite1 that some of  the best      
writers on art have tacitly divided it  
into the strictly  ,historical and the  
,dramatic#ade4 ,as far as it goes1 the  
division is  excellent2 but it still    
leaves such masses to be separated1 that
 ,i  cannot but wish for farther        
distinctions4 ,for instance1 ,i should  
wish  not to place in the same class1   
the taking of ,troy by ,polygnotus1 the 
sacrifice of ,iphigenia in ,aulis by    
,timanthes1 and the single figure of    

,ajax by ,apollodorus1 but to allow each
 of those to be the example of a        
separate division2 and quite apart from 
those1 ,i should wish to place  all     
allegorical and didactic subjects1 as   
well as those in which the  machinery of
 superior or inferior natures is        
introduced4    ,thus1 those subjects now
 clumsily thrown together1 under the    
name of  ,,history1 would come naturally
 to form four distinct classes1 each of 
which ought1 in strictness1 to be again 
broken into subdivisions4    ,the four  
classes ,i should propose to call1      
#ast4 ,,ethic or ,,didactic4     #bnd4  
,,epic4     #crd4 ,,historical4         
#dth4 ,,dramatic4    ,each of these will
 admit of farther subdivision4 ,the     
,ethical subjects  should be distributed
 into--     ,the ,,purely ,,didactic2   
,the ,,emblematic2     ,and ,,satire1 or
 the ,,higher ,,caricature4    ,of the  
,,epic class ,i should make but two     
great divisions1 each1 however1  capable
 of very marked partition4     #ast4    

,the ,,christian ,,religious ,,subjects4
     #bnd4 ,the ,,antique ,,mythological
 ,,subjects1 whether painted by ancients
 or   moderns4     #ast4 ,the           
,,christian division depending upon the 
introduction of ,saints1   ,angels1 and 
even more awful natures1 but not        
comprehending ,christ   while on earth4 
#bnd4 ,the ,,antique upon the           
introduction of the deified heroes and  
gods   of ,paganism4     ,the really    
,,historical class of pictures may be   
divided into those in   which a whole   
history is treated in a single picture4 
,those in which a history is treated in 
a series of pictures4     ,those in     
which a single point of history forms   
the picture4    ,the ,,dramatic class   
might comprehend the familiar life      
subjects2 but ,i  have thought it better
 to leave those as they have hitherto   
stood1 by  themselves2 and to reckon    
only in this class     ,the single      
actions of higher tragedy3     ,single  
actions of a mixed character4    ,in    

,,portrait painting it will be readily  
allowed that there are strongly  marked 
distinctions between     ,the           
,,historical ,,portrait2     ,the       
,,scenic ,,portrait subjects2     ,and  
,portraits of common characters4    ,the
 ,,familiar ,,life class naturally      
divides into1     ,grave ,comedy2       
,light ,comedy1 or ,farce4    ,of       
,landscape1 the distinct varieties are1 
,the ,,epic ,,landscape2     ,the       
,,historic ,,landscape2     ,the        
,imaginary1 or ,,poetic ,,landscape2    
,and the mere ,,portrait ,,landscape4   
,animal painters have naturally made two
 classes3     ,the ,dramatic2     ,and  
the mere ,portrait4    ,of each of these
 subdivisions1 ,i will point out        
specimens1 which ,i hope  will support  
what ,i have said as to the propriety of
 a more precise  classification than has
 hitherto been adopted4 ,not that ,i    
mean to make  a catalogue for every     
class1 though ,i believe such a thing   
would have  its use4    ,the difficulty 

of making such a catalogue would be very
 great1 because  the subjects so often  
force the painter into a greater degree 
of  relation with neighbouring classes  
than can be reconciled with any  thing  
like a strict classification4           
,,of ,,the ,,ethic ,,class4    ,at the  
head of the first1 or purely didactic   
division of this class1 ,i  shall place 
the picture1 or 8,table of ,cebes10 as  
it is commonly called4  ,the picture may
 have been painted1 or it may have      
existed only in the  imagination of that
 amiable disciple of ,socrates4 ,in     
either case his  description shows the  
importance which was attached to        
painting by the  ancients as an         
instrument of public instruction#adf4   
,he says there was a picture hung in a  
certain temple1 and that one of  the    
persons attached to the temple was      
always at hand to exhibit it  to        
visiters1 and to explain its meaning2   
and he gives the dialogue  between the  
exhibitor and a visiter at length1 that 

he may introduce  a description of the  
whole composition1 as well as an account
 of the  moral end of the picture4 ,the 
action represented is ,human ,life as a 
whole2 and the parts are the            
vicissitudes to which it is subject4    
,the ground-work of the table seems to  
have been a landscape in various  parts1
 of which the different situations occur
 most proper for the  purpose of the    
painter4 ,the landscape is subdivided   
into separate  enclosures1 at the first 
gate of which is placed the ,genius of  
,human  ,life1 ushering in those who are
 about to begin their pilgrimage4 ,they 
first meet upon their road with         
,deception1 who offers them the ,cup  of
 ,error and of ,ignorance2 then come    
,opinions1 and ,appetites1 and          
,pleasures to delude them4    ,the next 
great object in the picture is ,fortune1
 who1 with her  followers1 occupies a   
considerable space1 near which are the  
,vices1 who  naturally lead to the den  
of ,punishment1 where they meet with    

,sorrow1  ,anguish1 ,lamentation1 and   
,despair4    ,some1 however1 happily    
reach the dwelling of ,repentance1 and  
thence set  forth to seek ,education4   
,here again some go astray and entangle 
themselves with ,false ,education1  by  
whom they are once more betrayed to the 
,passions and to wrong  ,opinions2 but  
the ,happy1 by the assistance of ,self  
,command and  ,perseverance1 reach the  
mansion of ,true ,education1 whom they  
find with  her daughters1 ,truth and    
,persuasion4 ,these introduce them to   
,knowledge  and the ,virtues1 who       
conduct them to the palace of their     
mother1  ,happiness1 by whom they are   
crowned as victors in the race of life4 
,the ,calumny of ,apelles1 of which ,i  
have copied ,lucian's description in  a 
note to a former essay1 is another      
example of this kind of painting  among 
the ancients4    ,i shall cite one      
modern fresco work1 now nearly effaced  
from the walls  upon which it was       
painted by ,lorenzetti1 one of the      

earliest restorers  of painting in the  
fourteenth century4    ,in the palace of
 government1 in the city of ,sienna1    
this remarkable  picture is still to be 
traced4 ,in the time of the freedom of  
the city1  the magistrates could not go 
daily to their public duties without    
passing through the hall where it was   
painted1 to remind them of the          
blessings of peace and good government1 
and the curse of war and  misrule4      
,the part that is sufficiently preserved
 for the design to be  intelligible1 is 
immediately opposite the window4 ,in the
 centre1  the ,almighty ,ruler sits1    
holding a globe2 over his head are      
,faith1  ,hope1 and ,charity2 on his    
left hand are ,magnanimity and ,justice2
 on  his right1 ,prudence1 ,fortitude1  
and ,peace1 each with her several       
attributes4 ,beyond ,peace1 sits        
,diligence2 above whom is ,wisdom4 ,two 
scales hang1 one on each side of        
,diligence1 from which angels are       
distributing riches and honour to the   

followers of ,diligence and  ,wisdom4   
,on the side where ,justice and         
,magnanimity are placed1 enough  of the 
design remains to show the punishment of
 ,crime--the absolving  of ,innocence1  
and generous forgiveness where lenity is
 possible4  ,below these figures a      
procession of the citizens of ,sienna   
appears to  be moving towards the       
,almighty ,ruler and ,protector of their
 state4  ,upon the wall to the left are 
traced the effects of good government   
and public security2 on one side        
cultivated fields1 with a busy and      
cheerful peasantry1 and hard by1 a      
flourishing city1 with persons  engaged 
in trade and commerce1 and other        
occupations of peace4 ,the  rest of the 
wall is filled up with cheerful         
landscape1 in various  parts of which   
the social amusements of dancing1       
hawking1 riding1 c41  are enjoyed4 ,the 
opposite wall did contain a             
representation of all  the evils of bad 
government1 ,vain ,glory1 ,war1 ,famine1

 ,beggary1 and  ,cruelty#adg4    ,the   
second division of the ,ethical class of
 pictures comprises emblems  and        
allegories4    ,i have already mentioned
 two remarkable emblematical pictures of
 the  ancients3 the ,demos of ,athens by
 ,parrhasius1 and ,euphranor's popular  
estate4 ,to these ,i will add the       
allegories of the shield of ,achilles1  
and the emblems so beautifully imagined 
on medals1 coins1 and gems1  besides the
 innumerable pictures chiefly upon vases
 referring to the  mysteries of the     
,pagan worship1 particularly as         
connected with the  passage of the soul 
from this life1 through death1 to       
another4    ,the modern painters have   
also dealt largely in allegory4 ,not to 
go  farther back among ,christian       
painters than ,giotto1 his marriage of  
,st4  ,francis with ,poverty at ,assisi 
is a striking example2 and so are the   
figures of the ,virtues and ,vices1 so  
beautifully designed by him in the      
chapel of the ,nunziata dell' ,arena1 at

 ,padua4    ,but passing over           
innumerable pictures of the kind1 ,i    
will go at once to  the ,sistine        
,chapel1 where ,michael ,angelo's       
,prophets and ,sybils demand1  at the   
first view1 a class apart from ordinary 
historical subjects1  and1 as moderns1  
to stand at the head of that class4     
,then follow  ,prophets and ,sybils by  
,raffaelle2 ,peruzzi's all but sublime  
,sybil at  ,sienna1 and a thousand more1
 among which the ,allegories of ,rubens 
claim  a distinguished place#adh2 not1  
indeed1 for refinement of thought1 but  
for skill in composition4    ,the third 
division into which ,i desire to break  
the class of ,ethical  pictures         
comprehends the higher caricature4      
,the ancients certainly practised this  
species of painting1 but ,i do not  know
 that the description of any has been   
preserved4    ,there is1 however1 in    
,fortefiocca's life of ,cola di ,rienzi 
a very  remarkable account of some which
 that extraordinary man caused to be    

painted1 in order to stir up the ,romans
 of his time to a sense of their        
degradation#adi4 ,one was painted upon  
the wall of the palace of the  ,capitol1
 looking towards the ,forum2 the other  
near ,st4 ,angelo4 ,in both1  the nobles
 and magistrates of ,rome were treated  
with bitter satire1 and  the city and   
commonwealth represented as in the      
lowest state of misery4  ,the effect    
these caricatures had upon the people   
may be read in the  original life of    
,rienzi1 written in the vernacular idiom
 of ,rome in his  own time4    ,it would
 be most unjust not to consider1 as     
preeminent in this walk of  art1        
,hogarth1 whose satirical pencil was    
employed in the chastisement  of vice1  
and the promotion of virtue4 ,his works 
are a school in  themselves2 and are as 
far removed1 as a 8greatest is from     
least10 from  the mean and filthy       
caricatures that libel private life1 and
 from the  evanescent exaggerations of  
political squibs4                       

,,epic ,,pictures4    ,the examples for 
the first division of this class1       
containing  supernatural agents of a    
,christian character1 must1 of course1  
be taken  exclusively from modern works4
    ,first of these1 the ,last ,judgment
 of ,michael ,angelo will occur to every
  imagination4 ,with it ,i will name a  
work that he himself looked upon  with  
the highest admiration2 the chapel1     
painted by ,luca ,signorelli1  at       
,orvieto1 many of the figures of which  
were adopted by ,buonarotti  himself1   
who1 perhaps scarcely ever surpassed in 
expression the group  of blasphemers    
struck by the thunderbolt#aea4    ,nor  
can ,i omit ,raffaelle's ,heliodorus in 
the ,temple3 these are  instances of the
 terrible in this class4    ,of that    
sublime1 the key to which is            
stillness#aeb1 ,raffaelle's  dispute of 
the ,sacrament is the most perfect      
example4 ,though in the  ,spanish       
,chapter-,house of ,st4 ,maria ,novella1
 in ,florence1 that elder  painter1     

,taddeo ,gaddi1 in a subject of the same
 kind1 has in one or two  figures       
reached the grand and the awful4    ,to 
the ,christian division of the ,epic    
class also belong all those  magnificent
 pictures which represent the ,ascension
 of ,christ1 the  ,assumption of the    
,virgin1 the ,martyrdoms and the        
,miracles of ,saints1  with their       
supernatural appearances1 and also many 
of the subjects  taken from the ,old    
,testament4    ,michael ,angelo's       
,creator1 in the several acts of calling
 light out of  darkness1 and enduing man
 with life2 and the other great         
conceptions  in the roof of the ,sistine
 chapel1 occupy the first rank among    
these  works of genius4 ,raffaelle's    
,vision of ,ezekiel is conceived in the 
same spirit1 and his ,madonna of ,san   
,sisto#aec1 in my mind1 far  exceeds all
 other ,madonnas in glory1 though the   
place is a high one1  which may justly  
be claimed for ,titian's                
,assumption#aed4 ,the same  painter's   

,peter ,martyr#aee1 ,domenichino's      
,saint ,jerome#aef1 ,francia's  ,saint  
,sebastian#aeg1 may be named as some of 
the most important  works which form    
this grand and very distinct division of
 the ,epic  class of pictures2 it also  
comprehends ,raffaelle's lovely ,madonna
 del  ,pesce#aeh1 ,christ's ,agony in   
the ,garden by ,correggio#aei1 and all  
those pictures where angelic natures are
 introduced4    ,of examples for the    
second division1 the best and greatest1 
as far as  we may judge from            
description1 were the works of          
,polygnotus4 ,when he  introduced the   
tutelary deity and protecting heroes of 
,athens into  the battle of ,marathon1  
he was inspired by the same genius that 
led  ,raffaelle in the ,stanze to send  
forth ,saint ,peter and ,saint ,paul to 
turn back the host of barbarians from   
,rome4    ,the descent of ,ulysses to   
the kingdom of ,pluto1 is another       
example of  which ,i have already       
spoken4 ,the ,wars with the ,giants of  

,mycon1 and  some other artists1 and all
 subjects of apotheosis belong to this  
class4    ,i cannot cite the ,wars of   
the ,giants by ,julio ,romano1 in       
,mantua1 as a  successful example of a  
modern rendering of the subject4 ,and1  
in truth1  after the ,pagan gods ceased 
to be objects of devotion1 the ,greek   
and  ,roman mythologies were of         
infinitely too gay a character to       
inspire a  painter with any but the most
 jocund and graceful compositions4      
,the ,parnassus of ,raffaelle1 and his  
,psyche of the ,farnesina#afj1  are     
charming examples of this4 ,but these   
should form the chief of a  very        
delightful class of pictures which      
cannot justly be called ,epic1  but     
which have fully as little title to     
their old name of historical  pictures4 
,reynolds called his exquisite pictures 
of children1 fancy subjects4  ,but the  
term ,,fancy1 in this sense is grown1   
very undeservedly1 as ,i  think1 into   
disrepute2 or ,i should say it would    

designate perfectly  the pictures ,i am 
now seeking a name for4 ,among them are 
,titian's whole  families of ,dianas and
 ,venuses1 of ,loves and ,graces2 the   
rival ,auroras  of ,guido and ,guercino2
 ,paulo ,veronese's and ,luini's        
,europas2 ,annibale  ,caracci's         
,farnese2 ,poussin's classical          
compositions1 and some others  which    
seem to deserve a place very near the   
,venus ,anadyomene of ,apelles  and     
,zeuxis' ,helen4    ,i am aware that ,i 
am not adhering strictly to my own      
classification1  but ,i have not the    
presumption to propose an absolute rule4
 ,that must  be for some one who1 with  
the authority of a critic and an artist1
 can  command attention and reverence   
enough to enforce a new arrangement4    
,i must therefore be content to leave   
the ,,fancies as an appendix to the     
mythological division of the epic class1
 and proceed to cite examples  of the   
three great branches of legitimate      
historical pictures4                    

,,historical ,,pictures4    ,here ,i    
know that in the very outset ,i shall   
shock all the sticklers for  the        
unities2 for my very first section must 
consist of whole histories  represented 
in the same picture2 admitting not only 
a variety of  actions belonging to the  
history1 but even a repetition of the   
persons  engaged in it when it is       
essential1 or even when it is convenient
 for  the narrative4    ,the second     
section contains those histories which  
are related in  a series of             
compositions1 each forming a whole in   
itself1 though  belonging to a cycle4   
,and the third section includes those   
works in which a single point in        
history makes the picture4    ,first of 
the first section1 ,i must name the     
taking of ,troy by  ,polygnotus1 painted
 in fresco on the walls of the ,lesche1 
at ,delphi4  ,the description ,i have   
already given after ,pausanias renders  
any  further account of it unnecessary4 
,the next example ,i shall cite is of   

the highest character and of the        
highest authority4 ,it is the most      
glorious justification of the breach  of
 the cold rules of critics1 and shows   
that in some cases to abide by  the     
unities would destroy the spirit and    
sublimity of the work4    ,i speak now  
of the transgression and chastisement of
 man in the roof of  the ,sistine       
chapel1 by ,michael ,angelo4    ,in that
 composition there are not only two     
parts of the same history  told in the  
same picture1 but the principal figures 
themselves are  repeated with equal     
force2 and rendered1 as to the picture1 
of equal  importance4 ,and in what other
 way could the crime and its punishment 
have been so closely1 so awfully        
connected8    ,it is impossible to go   
into that chapel without feeling that   
the  pictures there are formed to make  
the rule for art1 not to receive it2    
and that the folly of confining genius  
by the flimsy laws of ordinary          
criticism1 is only equalled by that of  

the tyrant of old1 who is  reported to  
have paved the bed of the ocean where it
 rolled beneath his  capital with gilded
 tiles1 and to have expected it to      
reverence the  boundaries of his work4  
,but a number of those great men who had
 laboured in the long neglected  field  
of painting1 and had stirred and        
loosened the soil1 and prepared  it for 
the hands of ,michael ,angelo and       
,raffaelle1 appear to have  disregarded 
the unities whenever the nature of the  
subject rendered it  convenient1 and    
with excellent effect1 as ,i hope to    
show when ,i come to  give an account of
 their works4    ,there is one picture  
of this kind by an ancient ,flemish     
artist of such  transcendant merit1 that
 ,i shall endeavour to describe it as a 
model  for this treatment of historical 
subjects4 ,the picture is by ,hemelink1 
and is now in the possession of the     
,king of ,bavaria#afa4    ,the shape of 
the picture is long and narrow1 and the 
horizon is placed  very high1 by which  

means room is given for the different   
actions  represented4 ,one rich and     
varied landscape fills the whole        
picture1  forming the back ground to the
 groupes of actors in the history1 which
  are placed with consummate skill1 and 
so ordered by means of linear and  arial
 perspective1 as to produce a most      
attractive whole1 while each  part is   
carefully dealt with4    ,the subject is
 usually called the ,journey of the     
,three ,kings or ,wise  ,men to worship 
the ,infant ,jesus2 but the picture has 
two episodes1 the  ,adoration of the    
,shepherds1 and the ,resurrection and   
,ascension1 one of  which occupies the  
right side1 and the other the left4     
,the extreme distance is formed of a    
ridge of hills1 a little in  advance of 
which three mounts are distinguished1   
and the ridge is  farther broken by an  
inlet of the sea1 over which the sun is 
rising  in splendour4 ,the shape of the 
bay is graceful1 and it is enlivened  by
 ships2 the shore has wood and sand1 and

 the termination of a great  road to    
diversify it4 ,one of the mounts forms a
 promontory to the left  of the mouth of
 the bay1 which is on the right of the  
picture4 ,between  it and the second    
mount is seen the star1 not interfering 
with the  splendour of the sun1 but     
having a bright distinct light of its   
own4    ,we may suppose it discovered at
 once by three groupes1 apparently      
engaged in worship1 on the summits of   
the three mounts4 ,on account  of their 
great distance1 they are just indicated2
 the only thing  distinguishable in     
each1 being a coloured banner4    ,at   
the foot of the first mount a river     
winds through the country1 and  appears 
as if it found an outlet to the bay     
behind a rising ground  near the middle 
of the picture1 on the slope of which1  
forming also  the middle distance1      
stands the city of ,bethlehem2 and      
outside of the  gates1 quite in the     
foreground1 is the place of the         
,nativity4    ,from the country of the  

kings1 a road which crosses the river by
 a  bridge1 leads to ,bethlehem1 and    
along this road the kings are seen      
advancing1 each with his proper         
attendants1 armour1 and banner4         
,baldassar1 the ,moor1 has a white      
banner1 on which a negro in red is      
painted2 ,melchior1 the eldest king1 has
 a blue banner1 distinguished by  a     
golden moon2 and ,caspar1 the third     
king1 has a banner also blue1 but       
speckled with white stars4    ,these1   
with their retinue1 all meet near the   
bridge1 which they cross1  and enter    
,bethlehem together4 ,the figures are   
repeated at the meeting  and at the city
 gates4 ,while in the town1 the train of
 the wise men  disperse themselves      
through the streets1 mixing with the    
inhabitants1  while in an open corridor1
 the three kings are seen eagerly       
conversing  with ,herod4 ,once more they
 are seen taking leave of him before    
they  are finally brought to the feet of
 the infant ,saviour1 who1 seated on    

the lap of his virgin mother1 receives  
them with a benignity and grace  worthy 
of the pencil of ,raffaelle himself4    
,of the skilful grouping of the central 
subject1 commonly called the  ,wise     
,men's ,offering1 of the beautiful and  
true action of each person1  the rich   
dresses of the attendants1 the drawing  
of the figures1 and  also that of the   
horses and camels1 it is not my province
 to speak any  more than of the         
exquisitely finished execution4 ,yet all
 these assist  the history powerfully1  
and we might have been satisfied that   
all was  told4    ,but the painter did  
not rest here4 ,on a broad road1 winding
 along a  rocky valley1 the kings are   
once more seen1 after having paid their 
homage to the ,christ1 going to their   
own land by a different way4 ,some  of  
their attendants have already reached   
the shores of the distant bay1  and are 
preparing the ships to receive their    
masters4    ,meantime1 the effects of   
,herod's disappointment are             

discoverable4  ,on the other side of the
 town of ,bethlehem1 towards the bridge1
 the  murder of the innocents takes     
place2 it is distant enough to veil its 
horrors1 near enough to distinguish the 
facts4 ,but we are assured that  the    
child1 and his mother1 and ,joseph1 are 
safe2 for we see them on the  road to   
,egypt1 on the same side of the picture 
whence the southern king  arrived4 ,as  
they pass1 an idol1 placed upon a       
column1 bows and falls1        ,while   
each peculiar power foregoes his wonted 
seat4    ,and thus the history of the   
,adoration of the ,three ,kings1 or     
,wise ,men1  with its immediate         
consequences1 is completed4    ,of the  
two episodes1 the smaller preparatory   
one to the left contains  three scenes1 
divided from each other by portions of  
woody landscape4  ,the most distant is  
the ,annunciation2 the middle is the    
,angel appearing  to the ,shepherds2 and
 the nearest1 the ,adoration of the     
,shepherds4 ,all  composed and finished1

 as carefully as the scenes of the main 
action1  but by skilful management never
 interfering with it4    ,the greater or
 supplementary episode begins near the  
foreground1 in a  recess of the hills   
through which the road leads1 by which  
the kings  depart from ,bethlehem4      
,christ is risen1 and appears with the  
banner of  salvation1 freed from the    
garments of the dead6 ,farther off he   
appears  to ,mary ,magdalene in the     
garden1 and then to his mother2 and     
farther  still he walks with the        
disciples towards ,emmaus1 where he     
breaks bread  and blesses it4 ,hard by1 
on the mount of the ,ascension1 the     
disciples  are kneeling1 while the form 
of ,christ is faintly seen through the  
glory that mingles with the sky4 ,but   
the purpose of his being on earth  would
 not be shown1 were not the descent of  
the ,holy ,spirit seen on  the right    
hand4 ,the event in itself has produced 
a beautiful picture1  and taken1 as it  
should be1 along with the great whole to

 which it  belongs1 completes and       
perfects the history4    ,to the three  
remarkable works ,i have quoted as      
examples of histories1  with a variety  
of events treated in one and the same   
picture1 ,i might  add many more2 but ,i
 will content myself with naming a work1
 too much  neglected by modern          
travellers1 in the chapel of ,san       
,felice1 in the  great church of ,st4   
,anthony1 at ,padua4 ,it is by          
,aldighieri1 a pupil  of ,giotto1 and   
is1 unfortunately1 darkened by the      
erection of a huge  insulated marble    
altar-piece before it4 ,the subject is  
the ,crucifixion4  ,the journey of      
,christ to ,calvary forms one great     
preparatory incident1  the crucifixion  
itself1 and its attendant miracles1 the 
main action3  and the casting lots for  
the sacred vestments1 is the concluding 
scene4--,this is not the place to speak 
of the pathos ,aldighieri has  thrown   
into the first division1 the dignity    
amounting to grandeur in  the main      

action1 or the skilful grouping and     
expression of the last  scene4 ,but ,i  
think it will be allowed that the       
painter has done well  to unite the two 
minor actions with the greater1 and thus
 complete the  history4 ,the examples of
 one history carried on through a series
 of  pictures1 are so numerous that the 
difficulty lies in choosing the  most   
striking4 ,cimabue's and ,giotto's lives
 of ,saint ,francis at ,assisi1  where  
each event is the subject of a separate 
picture2 and ,giotto's  life of ,christ 
and of the ,virgin at ,padua1 may be    
thought by some  readers too antiquated 
to form authorities for the practice4   
,to such1 therefore1 ,i will recommend  
the example of ,raffaelle in the        
,loggie1 where the history of the ,old  
,testament is carried on in that        
beautiful series of designs which ranges
 in order along the ceiling of  those   
magnificent corridors#afb4    ,luini's  
series of pictures at ,saronno1 ,andrea 
del ,sarto's at ,florence1  and those of

 ,domenichino at ,grotto ,ferrata1 are  
among the finest works  of these great  
masters4 ,every series contains a       
history4    ,luini's are the life of the
 ,virgin4    ,those of ,andrea del      
,sarto relate to the life of ,saint     
,john the ,baptist1  and are among the  
most admired of his compositions4    ,in
 one of the pictures at ,grotto         
,ferrata1 where ,saint ,nilus1 the  hero
 of the series1 casts out the evil      
spirit from the demoniac boy1           
,domenichino strives not unsuccessfully 
against the demoniac in the             
,transfiguration1 where1 for once1 it   
must be allowed1 that ,raffaelle  has   
fallen below ,domenichino in truth of   
expression4    ,my third section of     
historical paintings is acknowledged by 
even those  who object to the others4   
,it contains such pictures as show a    
single  action complete in itself4    ,i
 shall name a few examples among the    
antique painters1 such as the  ,ajax    
struck with the thunderbolt by          

,apollodorus1 and the ,infant  ,hercules
 of ,zeuxis4 ,i am not sure whether to  
place the ,contest of  ,ulysses and     
,ajax for the ,armour of ,achilles1 in  
this or the next class4  ,the pictures  
of ,apelles appear to have been all     
either portraits  or belonging to the   
fancies4 ,the ,battle of ,alexander and 
,darius1  by ,philoxenus1 seems1 from   
description1 to belong strictly to this 
section1 and no doubt there are very    
many others2 but1 as we are no  where   
told how many of the subjects were      
treated1 it is impossible to  class     
them4    ,of modern pictures belonging  
to this section1 the first and greatest 
is the ,raising of ,lazarus by          
,sebastian del ,piombo#afc1 one of  the 
finest oil pictures in the world2       
,raffaelle's ,entombment of             
,christ#afd2 his ,spassimo#afe2         
,titian's ,christ scourged#aff2         
,correggio's ,nativity#afg2 ,fra        
,bartolomeo's ,presentation of ,christ  
in  the ,temple#afh2 ,daniel da         

,volterra's ,descent from the           
,cross#afi2  ,albertinelli's            
,salutation#agj2 ,spagnoletto's         
,entombment#aga2 the  small picture by  
,rembrandt of the ,adoration of the     
,shepherds#agb2  ,rubens' famous        
,descent from the ,cross at ,antwerp2   
and a thousand  others1 that a moment's 
recollection will bring to every body's 
remembrance4 ,there are also a number of
 profane subjects treated so  as to     
bring them under this class2            
particularly ,poussin's ,death of       
,germanicus1 and his ,testament of      
,eudamidas4 ,the great rival designs  of
 ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,michael       
,angelo1 namely1 the ,battle of the     
,standard and the ,surprise at the      
,bridge1 now lost1 were1 if we may      
trust descriptions1 and some few        
remaining fragments1 so treated1 as  to 
bring them also into this section#agc2  
and ,i think no ,german would  forgive  
me if ,i were to omit ,albert ,durer's  
,massacre of the ,christian  ,legions by

 ,sapor the second#agd4    ,connected   
with this class1 in the same manner as  
the ,fancies are  with the ,epic        
pictures1 is a whole class composed of  
single figures  of an historical        
character4 ,among the first of these is 
,bellini's  ,christ#age3 several of     
,raffaelle's ,madonnas find their place 
here4  ,his ,apostles certainly do#agf1 
as well as his ,saint ,margaret#agg4    
,there are many beautiful examples of   
this kind of picture by ,giotto  at     
,florence1 by ,luini at ,milan and      
,soronno1 and by ,bellini at ,venice1   
especially one in the little church of  
,santa ,maria del ,fiore4 ,the  ,judith 
of ,allori is likewise a fine           
specimen#agh2 but among the very  finest
 are ,fra ,bartolomeo's ,christ1 and his
 ,saint ,mark#agi4 ,these will  not     
belong to the pictures where            
supernatural beings are introduced1     
they have too much the character of     
portraits1 and might indeed be  called  
imaginary portraits2 and no doubt the   

feeling intended to be  excited by the  
earliest of them was1 the belief in     
their being true  representations of the
 objects of veneration4 ,among pictures 
of this  character are many ,ecce       
,homos1 of which the most afflicting to 
look  upon is that of ,cigoli#ahj2 and  
we must also class here ,coreggio's     
beautiful ,magdalene#aha4    ,the       
imaginary heads called ,sybils1 by      
,domenichino1 ,guido1 and ,guercino1    
the ,magdalenes of ,guido1 the          
,cleopatras1 ,sophonisbas1 and          
,lucretias1  are surely left near enough
 to their old dignity of historical     
pictures1 when ranged under the same    
head with those ,i have just named4     
,,dramatic ,,pictures4    ,this class is
 naturally divided into two sections3   
the higher ,tragedy1  and ,drama of a   
mixed character4    ,the ancients1 from 
what we learn by description1 cultivated
 both kinds4  ,for examples of the first
 we have the ,iphigenia of ,timanthes2  
the  ,theban mother of ,aristides1 and  

the ,medea of ,timomachus4    ,of the   
second kind1 there were the ,feigned    
,madness of ,ulysses by  ,euphranor2 the
 ,great ,sacrifice by ,pausias1 and     
several others1 which we  can now never 
know but by description4    ,when ,i    
speak of the higher tragedy1 ,i do not  
mean such only where blood  is shed     
before the spectator1 but that grave    
kind which brings all the  inmost       
serious thoughts together1 and prepares 
the mind for the sublime  and the       
terrible4    ,i do not fear to name the 
,last ,supper of ,leonardo da ,vinci    
first in  this class4 ,seen only in its 
decay1 and only to be studied in        
separate  drawings of the heads1 or in  
,uggione's copy#ahb1 it still obtains  a
 power over the imagination that few    
other works of art ever reach4  ,the    
sublime calmness of the ,saviour in     
pronouncing that one of them  shall     
betray him1 allows us for the moment to 
sympathise with the  heart-struck       
apostles1 who1 according to their       

various characters1  self-confident1 or 
self-doubting1 are ready with the words1
 8,lord6 is  it ,i80 or1 8though ,i die 
with thee ,i will not betray thee40     
,never was  expression more intense1 or 
action more true4 ,again we turn to the 
,saviour1 and feel that in his soul the 
sacrifice was already complete1  the    
bitterness of death had been tasted1 and
 the full agony of the  cross           
endured#ahc4    ,at ,viterbo there is in
 the church of the ,franciscans an      
altar-piece1  designed by ,michael      
,angelo1 and painted by ,sebastian del  
,piombo4 ,it is  composed of two figures
 only4 ,a very pale moonlight shows the 
figure of  the ,virgin seated on the    
earth1 and pressed close to the body of 
her  crucified son1 which is extended on
 a white linen cloth before her3 her    
face is turned upwards in the attitude  
of prayer4 ,words cannot convey  an idea
 of the awful and reverential feelings  
excited by this picture4    ,but        
,raffaelle is above all others a        

,dramatic painter4 ,the ,miracle of     
,bolsena in the ,stanze is a marvellous 
scene4 ,the officiating priest2  the    
self-convicted1 and now convinced1      
doubter2 the reasoning1  calculating    
spectators on one side2 the enthusiastic
 believers on the  other1 all conduce to
 the great event which is to produce a  
further and  permanent effect4    ,the  
,incendio del ,borgo is another         
strikingly tragic composition1 and  were
 this a proper place1 it would be easy  
to prove the claims of the  ,cartoons to
 a high rank in the class1 but for my   
purpose it is enough  to name them as   
belonging to it4    ,the ,crucifixion by
 ,tintoret is among the grandest        
,dramatic pictures  ,i have seen#ahd2   
and there is a picture at ,venice which 
accident  prevented my seeing1 but      
which1 if it deserves ,vasari's         
description1  ranks among the first of  
this class4 8,a picture 7by ,giorgione7 
in the  college of ,san ,marco1 where   
the turbid sky thunders1 the very       

canvass  trembles1 and the figures start
 and disperse themselves through the    
scene in the darkness of the            
shadow#ahe40 ,the subject was the       
bringing  of the body of ,saint ,mark to
 ,venice on board of ship4    ,a picture
 by ,caravaggio1 less seen than it      
deserves to be1 must be  named here4 ,it
 is in the chapel of ,saint ,john the   
,baptist attached to  the great church  
at ,malta1 and represents the           
decollation of the saint4  ,saint ,john 
and the executioner occupy the immediate
 foreground3 a woman  leaving the court 
of the prison1 where the scene is       
placed1 applies her  hands to her ears  
that she may not hear the fall of the   
axe2 while two  prisoners are looking1  
with the curiosity of terror1 from the  
grated  window of the gaol4 ,the        
composition1 colour1 and expression are 
all  terrible and highly dramatic4      
,to the second1 or mixed class of       
,dramatic pictures1 belong many of      
,paul ,veronese's great works1 such as  

the ,great ,supper of ,saint ,gregory   
in the ,refectory of the ,servites1 at  
,santa ,maria del ,monte1 near          
,vicenza3 his ,marriage at ,cana2 the   
pictures in the church of ,saint        
,sebastian at ,venice1 and many others4 
,a great number of ,tintoret's  pictures
 also find their proper place here#ahf4 
,here also ,i would  place ,titian's    
,presentation of the ,virgin in the     
,temple#ahg2 and here  some of          
,bonifaccio's beautiful pictures1       
particularly the ,feasting of  the      
,prodigal ,son1 a work that1 for        
composition1 colour1 and expression1  is
 among the most beautiful ,i know#ahh4  
,i must not omit ,andrea  ,mantegna's   
,triumphs#ahi1 nor ,rubens' imitations  
of them4 ,poussin's  ,triumphs of       
,david#aij are certainly dramatic1 and  
so1 perhaps1 are his  ,sacraments#aia4  
,but it is time to consider the variety 
of character among the  ,portraits1 and 
to endeavour to class them4             
,,of ,,portrait4    ,by historical      

portrait1 ,i do not mean merely the     
likenesses of persons  whose names are  
to be found in history1 or ,lely's and  
,kneller's  works would have a chance of
 overpowering ,raffaelle and ,titian4   
,but such portraits as ,apelles painted 
of ,alexander1 or ,protogenes  of the   
tragic writer1 ,philiscus1 sitting      
musing in his study1 or as  ,raffaelle  
painted of ,giulio ,,ii#aib1 and ,csar  
,borgia#aic1 or ,titian  of ,charles    
,v4#aid1 and the ,doge ,grimani#aie1 or 
,andrea del ,sarto of  the astute       
,machiavelli#aif1 or ,velasquez of ,pope
 ,innocent ,x#aig1  and ,king           
,philip#aih1 to say nothing of          
,rembrandt's ,burgomasters1 or  ,rubens'
 ,duke of ,alva1 or ,vandyke's ,charles 
,i4 and his unhappy ,queen1  and        
scarcely less unhappy courtiers4 ,these 
are all single portraits  historically  
treated4    ,the second division of     
portraits must comprehend those so      
treated1  and composed of more than one 
figure4 ,such are the ,leo ,x4 and his  

secretaries at ,florence by ,raffaelle2 
,titian's unfinished ,leo with his  two 
attendants at ,naples1 and his ,cornaro 
family#aii2 ,paul ,veronese's  ,pisani  
family in the characters of the family  
of ,darius#bjj2 ,rubens'  ,conversation 
piece1 composed of ,grotius1 ,muersins1 
,lipsius1 and  himself2 ,vandyke's      
,charles ,i4 with his ,children2 and    
such is also  ,holbein's family of ,sir 
,thomas ,moore4    ,but even the        
nameless persons painted by great men   
have often a  character and style which 
belong to historic treatment1 and must  
not  be confounded with what ,fuseli    
aptly calls 8the remembrancers of       
insignificance10 a class1 however1 not  
without merit1 for it often  gratifies  
the affection of friendship1 recals     
pleasing recollections1  and at worst1  
affords the painter occasions for the   
study of nature4                        
,,pictures ,,of ,,familiar ,,life       
,admit of being distributed into        
,grave familiar subjects2      ,and     

subjects of ,farce or ,caricature4      
,that the ancients cultivated this      
branch of painting1 ,i have already     
mentioned1 and given an example in      
,pyreicus1 nick-named ,rhyparographus1  
on account of his pictures of shops and 
booths1 of markets1 and those  who      
supplied them1 along with their beasts  
of burden4 ,callicles and  ,calaces were
 both painters of little pictures1      
exhibited along with  plays and         
interludes1 and no small number of      
painters caricatured the  remarkable    
public and private men of their times1  
by representing them  under the forms of
 animals and insects of different kinds4
    ,of the graver familiar life        
painters among the moderns1 ,ostade1    
,jan  ,stein1 ,gerard ,dow1 ,metzu1     
,terburg1 have left innumerable         
examples1 nor  have they failed in the  
class where ,teniers holds the          
pre-eminence of  broader farce4    ,had 
,i not resolved against naming our own  
living artists1 ,i should have  great   

examples to place in both these classes4
 ,in caricature1 from the  days of      
,patch and ,bunbury to the present time1
 we have exceeded all  times and        
nations4                                
,,landscape4    ,of the four distinct   
kinds of landscape1 the ,epic landscape 
in the  hands of ,titian or ,poussin    
unites with the grandest subjects of    
painting4 ,how admirably the landscape  
in the ,peter ,martyr aids the  subject6
 and in ,sebastian del ,piombo's        
altar-piece at ,viterbo1 how  grand is  
the effect of that low horizon and rocky
 barren distance seen  faintly by the   
moonlight6 ,poussin's ,deluge is of the 
same sublime  character and hue1 and as 
in the other two examples lends force to
 the  figures to which it is            
subordinate4    ,of a more cheerful     
character other landscapes of ,titian1  
some of  ,mola1 and many of ,poussin1   
which ,i should call historical1 divide 
the  interest with the figures1 or      
rather the figures gain by being placed 

in such scenes2 ,poussin's ,burial of   
,phocion#bja1 his two ,israelites       
bearing the ,bunch of ,grapes from the  
promised ,land#bjb1 the ,exposure  and  
the ,finding of ,moses#bjc1 are but a   
few of those he has painted of  this    
character1 in which he is the great     
master4    ,the ,antique landscapes must
 sometimes have resembled these1 or they
  would have been unsuitable to the     
subjects to which they formed           
backgrounds4 ,rocky1 wild1 and terrible 
must have been the island1  and lurid   
the colour of the sea and sky1 in which 
,apollodorus placed  his ,ajax4 ,when   
gayer subjects peopled the scene1 such  
as the young  ,satyrs watching the      
sleeping ,cyclops1 we learn that woody  
scenery was  imitated1 and painting for 
the theatre had accustomed the ancients 
to  represent buildings and open        
country4    ,in the ,imaginative1 or    
poetic landscape1 ,titian claims the    
first place4  ,it is enough to name the 
,feast of the ,gods1 began by ,john     

,bellini1  but finished1 and the whole  
landscape added1 by ,titian#bjd1 or the 
landscape of the ,bacchus and           
,ariadne#bje1 and those of the fine     
pictures in the ,bridgewater ,gallery1  
impressed as they are with the  grandeur
 of the wild forests and bold mountains 
of his native province4  ,poussin       
follows him closely in this department1 
but his excellences are  owing to       
careful choice and study1 combining much
 of antique feeling  with the rich      
sources he found in nature4 ,his        
,calisto#bjf is a very  fine example3   
his ,arcadia#bjg another1 and so1       
generally speaking1 are  all those where
 he has introduced ,bacchanalian        
subjects4    ,where the landscape itself
 without accompanying figures is        
considered1  ,claude ,lorraine is       
unrivalled1 whether he chooses the sober
 hue of the  ,enchanted ,castle#bjh1 or 
the glowing sunsets seen from the shores
 of  ,italy1 with all the riches of     
architecture and shipping1 or softened  

by  inland landscape such as only ,italy
 can suggest#bji4    ,highly imaginative
 also are the landscapes of ,salvator   
,rosa1 who  is among painters1 like the 
writers of romance among poets1 bold1   
wild1 and interesting4 ,but ,i must only
 name ,gaspar ,poussin1 ,annibale       
,caracci1 and ,domenichino among the    
,italian landscape painters1 and  then  
hasten to ,rembrandt1 whose grand and   
characteristic landscapes  equal in     
sentiment and effect his historical     
works and his portraits4  ,nor is       
,rubens less remarkable3 witness his    
,saint ,george#baj1 and the  landscapes 
of the ,munich ,gallery4 ,cuyp1 whether 
representing the cattle  and grazing    
grounds1 or the busy river and canal    
scenes of his native  country1 is       
inimitable2 and ,ruysdael and           
,vanderveldt each stand at the  head of 
a class far above the painters of mere  
views4    ,yet views in some hands      
acquire value1 if not dignity4 ,the very
 truth  of ,canaletti's ,venice becomes 

poetical4 ,and now and then ,vernet has 
made a seaport fit to gratify the vanity
 of his master1 ,louis ,,xiii41 in  more
 senses than one4    ,thus have ,i      
endeavoured to distribute into classes  
that charming  department of the art    
which the poet loved who hung his bower 
of  enchantment with        ,whate'er   
,lorraine light touch'd with soft'ning  
hue1      ,or savage ,rosa dashed1 or   
learned ,poussin drew4    ,it now only  
remains to speak of the painters of     
animals4 ,every body  will at once feel1
 that if the ,greeks counted ,apelles1  
and ,pausias1  and ,nicias1 among their 
best animal painters1 that if           
,polygnotus chose  to introduce a dog   
even into the ,battle of ,marathon1 and 
that if  part of the great fame of      
,protogenes arose from the manner in    
which  he painted the dogs and the game 
in his ,ialysus1 the moderns have to    
boast of ,rubens1 whose various         
excellences would have been incomplete  
without his hunts of the lion and the   

boar2 and ,snyders1 though  professing  
little else1 raised his animals to the  
dignity of history1  by his manner of   
treating them4 ,i might quote the       
pampered lap-dogs of  ,titian#baa1 and  
the graceful favourites of ,paul        
,veronese#bab1 and  even the tame       
partridge of the grave ,john            
,bellini#bac1 as well as the  horses of 
,vandyke and ,velasquez1 as instances of
 occasional success in  these things4   
,but ,i cannot regard the diligent ,paul
 ,potter as more than a very  excellent 
cattle portrait painter1 so unequal are 
his choice of subject  and his treatment
 to his exquisite execution4 ,of ,cuyp's
 animals1 ,i can  only repeat what ,i   
have said as to his landscape1 with     
which they are  so intimately connected1
 that they form a part of it2 and the   
same is  true of ,adrian ,vanderveldt's4
    ,this essay has grown to great      
length1 because ,i have been tempted to 
a  larger list of instances and examples
 than ,i intended2 but yet ,i have      

abstained from naming many others well  
suited to my purpose4 ,of those ,i  have
 quoted1 with the exception of antique  
works1 there are not six of  which ,i   
have not myself seen the originals4     
,,footnotes3    #adb ,fuseli felt the   
incongruity and inconvenience of        
throwing  together all the variety of   
pictures which commonly take the name of
  historical paintings1 and has         
judiciously divided1 and eloquently     
supported the division of that class of 
pictures into nearly the same  sections 
as ,i have proposed4 ,but he looked too 
disdainfully on all  art which he did   
not practise1 to have great weight2 and 
is on that  account1 as well as on some 
others1 less followed than he deserves2 
he  has not condescended to notice any  
other branch of painting except the     
historical portrait4    #adc ,for the   
truth of this1 see any catalogue of     
either ancient or  modern masters4      
#add ,pliny says1 b4 xxv4 ch4 #b1 that  
the ,greek authors on ,physic1          

,cratevus1 ,dionysius1 and ,metrodorus1 
painted every herb in colours2 and      
under their portraits they couched and  
subscribed their several names  and     
effects4--,holland's ,trans4    #ade    
,reynolds for instance4 ,but ,fuseli    
more particularly1 as ,i have  mentioned
 in a former note4    #adf ,it is worth 
the reader's while to turn to an        
abridged account of  this curious table 
in ,moor's three ,essays4 ,cebes        
himself1 seated by  the death-bed of    
,socrates1 and learning to hope with    
something like  confidence for the      
immortality of the soul1 furnishes a    
beautiful moral  picture1 which even the
 disagreeable translation of the ,phdo1 
by  ,taylor1 cannot spoil4    #adg ,from
 ,,ms4 notes on the old pictures of     
,italy4 ,of this class1  there is a     
magnificent early ,flemish picture1 of  
which ,i never saw the  original3 it is 
,van ,eyck's worship of the ,lamb4      
,there is an excellent  description of  
it in ,madame ,schopfenhauer's pleasant 

volumes on the  ancient ,flemish schools
 of art2 and one in a periodical work   
published  at ,brussels1 in which there 
is an etching of the whole subject4     
#adh ,if painting were not exclusively  
my subject1 ,i might here mention  a    
number of ingenious allegorical prints1 
especially the various dances  of death4
    #adi ,about the year #acde4 ,i shall
 have occasion hereafter to notice      
these pictures again4 ,but ,i here      
subjoin a literal translation of the    
description of the first of them4 8,in  
the second place the aforesaid          
#aej;,cola admonished the governors and 
people to do well by an  allegory1 which
 he caused to be painted on the ,palace 
of the ,capitol  opposite the market1 on
 the outer wall above the chamber2 the  
painted  allegory was in this form4     
,there was painted a vast sea1 the waves
  horrid and much troubled2 in the midst
 thereof was a ship little less  than   
foundered1 without a rudder1 without a  
sail2 in this ship1 so  dangerously     

placed1 there was a widow woman1 clad in
 black1 girded  with the girdle of      
grief2 loose her scarf from her bosom1  
and her hair  dishevelled as if she     
wept2 she was on her knees1 her hands   
crossed and  pressed to her breast as in
 prayer1 as she were perishing1 for such
 was  her danger2 above was written     
,,this ,,is ,,rome4 ,around this ship1  
below the  water1 there were four sunken
 ships1 their sails fallen1 their masts 
broken1 their rudders lost2 in every one
 a drowned woman1 dead4 ,the  first was 
called ,babylon2 the second1 ,carthage2 
the third1 ,troy2 the  fourth1          
,jerusalem4 ,the superscription bore1   
that these cities had been  brought by  
injustice1 first to danger and then to  
destruction4 ,a label  from the mouths  
of these four women was inscribed--     
,thou wast raised high above every      
sovereignty1      ,now we await thy     
final wreck4    ,on the left hand were  
two islands1 on the one a woman sitting 
in a  posture of shame1 with the        

superscription1 ,,this ,,is ,,italy2 her
 label of  speech bore--        ,thou   
tookest the guardianship of all lands1  
,and only me thou ownedst for a sister4 
,in the other island were four women1   
their cheeks on their hands1 their      
elbows on their knees1 in most sorrowful
 action1 and saying1--        ,thou wast
 accompanied by every virtue1      ,now 
thou art abandoned on the wide sea4     
,these were the four cardinal virtues1  
,temperance1 ,prudence1 ,justice1  and  
,fortitude4    ,on the right was a      
little island in which was a kneeling   
woman2 her  hand stretched to heaven1 as
 in prayer2 she was dressed in white1   
her  name was ,christian ,faith1 and her
 verse was--        ,oh6 highest father1
 my lord and conductor1      ,if ,rome  
perish what becomes of me8    ,above all
 this1 on the right hand1 were four     
orders of animals1 with  horns at their 
mouths1 blowing like winds and causing  
tempests on the  sea1 and helping to    
increase the danger of the ship4 ,the   

first order  was of lions1 wolves1 and  
bears4 ,the inscription bore1 these are 
the  potent ,barons and unjust          
,governors4    ,the second order were   
dogs1 pigs1 and he-goats2 their         
inscription was1  ,these are evil       
councillors1 the parasites of the       
nobles4 ,the third  order were rams1    
dragons1 and foxes2 their inscription   
was1 ,these are  the false officers1    
judges1 and notaries4 ,the fourth order 
consisted of  hares1 cats1 goats1 and   
apes2 their superscription bore1 that   
they were  the populace1 thieves1       
murderers1 adulterers1 and spoilers4    
,above all was painted heaven2 in the   
midst of which was the divine  ,majesty 
coming to judgment2 out of his mouth    
proceeded two swords1 one  pointing one 
way1 the other1 the other3 on one hand  
was ,st4 ,peter1 on  the other ,st      
,paul1 in prayer4    ,and when the      
people saw this allegory every one      
marvelled40    #aej ,rienzi's nick-name1
 from ,nicolo ,rienzi4    #aea          

,reynold's1 in his ,fifth ,discourse1   
says that ,michael ,angelo  8never      
needed1 or seemed to disdain1 to look   
abroad for foreign help10  and contrasts
 this originality with ,raffaelle's     
practice of using  occasionally the     
inventions of his predecessors4 ,but    
,reynolds1 if he  had been acquainted   
with the work of ,signorelli1 would have
 seen that  ,michael ,angelo took from  
him1 not only single figures of great   
power1  but at least one group of       
importance1 which he used with little   
change  in the ,last ,judgment4    #aeb 
8,,be ,,still1 ,,and ,,know ,,that ,i   
,,am ,,god40    #aec ,at ,dresden4      
#aed ,in ,venice4    #aee ,in ,venice4  
#aef ,in ,rome4    #aeg ,at ,bologna4   
#aeh ,in ,spain4    #aei ,in the        
possession of the ,duke of ,wellington4 
#afj ,raffaelle's engraved designs of   
the same subject are still more         
charming than those of the ,farnesina4  
,the decorations of his own villa1  near
 the ,porta del ,popolo1 and those still

 existing in ,mr4 ,m----'s  villa1 on   
the ,palatine ,hill1 yield to neither4  
#afa ,hans ,hemelink is said to have    
been a soldier1 who1 after  receiving a 
severe wound1 was cured in the hospital 
at ,bruges2 and  that the first of his  
pictures that attracted public          
attention1 he  painted in consequence of
 a vow made while under cure4 ,having   
recovered  his health1 and fulfilled his
 vow at home1 he went on a pilgrimage to
  ,saint ,jago de ,compostella1 in      
,spain1 and was heard no more of4 ,the  
fine  picture described formed part of  
the ,boisere collection4 ,there are two 
exquisite heads in the ,florence        
,gallery1 by ,hemelink4    #afb ,these  
designs are the originals of the set of 
prints usually  called ,raffaelle's     
,bible4    #afc ,in our ,national       
,gallery4    #afd ,at ,rome in the      
,borghese4    #afe ,in ,spain4    #aff  
,at ,paris4    #afg ,at ,dresden4       
#afh ,at ,vienna4    #afi ,at ,rome1 in 
the church of the ,trinit del ,monte4   

#agj ,florence ,gallery4    #aga ,at    
,naples1 in the church of ,san ,martino4
    #agb ,in the ,national ,gallery4    
,the expression in this picture makes   
me prefer it to the ,woman taken in     
,adultery4 ,i should have named the     
,blinding of ,sampson in the ,schnborn  
collection at ,vienna1 but for the      
atrocious choice of the painter as to   
the time and action4    #agc ,a picture 
in brown and white1 after ,michael      
,angelo's cartoon1  exists at ,holkham4 
,a drawing was made by ,rubens of part  
of the ,battle  of the ,standard1 from  
which the print published by ,edelink   
was taken4    #agd ,this very beautiful 
work is in the ,belvedere ,gallery at   
,vienna4  ,an excellent copy1 by        
,rottenhamer1 is in the ,king of        
,bavaria's  collection4    #age ,at     
,dresden4 ,when the ,russian army was at
 ,dresden1 in #ahad1 this  picture was  
borrowed for an altar-piece for         
,alexander's temporary  chapel3 on      
removing1 the picture was packed up and 

carried off as  lawful plunder1 but the 
curator of the ,gallery chose his time  
and place  of remonstrance so well that 
it was restored4    #agf ,in the church 
of ,st ,paul's1 without the walls of    
,rome4    #agg ,now in ,russia4    #agh 
,in the ,florence ,gallery4    #agi     
,both in the ,pitti ,palace1 ,florence4 
#ahj ,in the ,pitti ,palace4    #aha ,at
 ,dresden4    #ahb ,marco ,uggione1 a   
contemporary1 made an oil copy1 thought 
very  inferior at the time1 but it is   
now the best memorial of the picture3   
it belongs to the ,royal ,academy4 ,some
 works in fresco1 of great merit1  by   
,uggione1 are collected in the ,brera at
 ,milan4    #ahc ,of the innumerable    
8,last ,suppers0 painted after this1    
none  reached this sublimity of         
expression4 ,gravity and dignity are the
  highest characteristics of the best1  
such as that of ,andrea del ,sarto4     
,many degenerated into the pure         
picturesque3 and once in the hands of   
,tintoret1 the subject became almost    

absurd4    #ahd ,at ,schleissheim4      
#ahe ,the picture was rolled up as it   
had come from ,paris4 ,the  description 
is from the preface to the third book of
 the ,lives of the  ,painters1 where in 
many of the later editions the picture  
has been  given to ,palma4    #ahf      
,particularly those in the ,scuola di   
,san ,marco4    #ahg ,painted for the   
,carit1 now in the ,gallery of the ,fine
 ,arts1  ,venice4    #ahh ,gallery at   
,venice4    #ahi ,several of these are  
at ,hampton ,court1 others at ,munich4  
#aij ,at ,dulwich4    #aia ,in the      
,bridgewater collection4    #aib ,at    
,florence4    #aic ,borghese palace1    
,rome4    #aid ,vienna1 and in ,spain4  
#aie ,grimani palace1 ,venice4    #aif  
,doria palace1 ,rome4    #aig ,doria    
palace1 ,rome4 ,this pope was of the    
,panfili ,doria family4    #aih ,often  
repeated4    #aii ,belonging to ,his    
,grace of ,northumberland1 who allows   
nobody to  see it4 ,the copy by         
,gainsborough is fine2 and is in more   

liberal hands4    #bjj ,pisani palace1  
,venice4    #bja ,in ,france4    #bjb   
,in the possession of ,earl ,spencer4   
#bjc ,in the ,louvre4    #bjd ,in the   
collection of ,camuccini1 at ,rome4     
#bje ,in the ,national ,gallery4    #bjf
 ,in the possession of the ,marquis of  
,westminster4    #bjg ,in the possession
 of the ,duke of ,devonshire4    #bjh   
,in the possession of ,mr4 ,wells of    
,redleaf4    #bji ,some very fine ones  
of this description are in the ,national
  ,gallery1 and some in the ,bridgewater
 ,collection4    #baj ,in our ,national 
,gallery4    #baa ,particularly in the  
picture of the ,child in the ,strozzi   
,palace at  ,florence4    #bab ,those   
pretty greyhounds1 which appear under   
the table in the  ,supper at the house  
of ,simon1 the study for which ,mr4     
,rogers has1 and  which are often1      
repeated4    #bac ,the pretty bird is   
picking up the crumbs under the table at
  ,emmaus4                              
,,essay ,,vi4                      ,,on 

,,the ,,materials ,,used ,,by           
,,painters4     ,however admirable his  
taste may be1 he is but half a painter  
who can   only conceive his subject1 and
 is without knowledge of the mechanical 
part of his art4                        
,,reynolds' ,,notes ,,on ,,du ,,fresnoy4
      ,when first scholars began to     
study the works of the ancients1 at that
  busy period distinguished by the      
revival of letters and the arts1 the    
discoveries they made were so new and so
 surprising1 that a kind of  enchanted  
mist overspread every object in their   
eyes1 and all they  looked back upon was
 magnified or distorted4    ,they found 
so much wisdom and knowledge in the     
writings of the  ancients1 that they1 as
 is natural1 thought that all antiquity 
was  wise and knowing2 and in proportion
 to their exaggerated esteem for  the   
ancients1 they encouraged a contempt for
 their contemporaries and  countrymen1  
at least as extravagant4    ,a little   
consideration would have told them1     

however1 that many  things must continue
 unaltered in nature1 though fashion or 
accident  should vary the form in all   
societies1 after the first conveniences1
  comforts1 and luxuries of civilised   
life have been invented4 ,but here  the 
pride of unusual learning stepped in1   
and it would have mortified  the scholar
 to think that what he pored over by his
 midnight lamp in  the books of ,greece 
and ,rome1 could have anything in common
 with the  manners and occupations of   
his vulgar neighbours4 ,thus an         
ignorance  founded on prejudice was     
begotten1 and has been maintained in    
part even  to the present day1          
notwithstanding the stores of common    
knowledge  opened to us by the discovery
 of ,pompeii and its neighbouring towns4
  ,scholars and antiquaries rejoiced    
indeed at the finding of those towns1   
because their position1 long matter of  
controversial speculation1 was          
ascertained2 but ,i very much doubt if  
they did not also feel something  like  

mortification1 on beholding open proof  
that the materials and  contrivances of 
the cooks of these our degenerate days  
continue  like those of the ancients1   
and that there is no ,greek method of   
eating#bad4    ,every day is adding     
something to the conviction of those who
 required  proof1 that where the end to 
be answered is the same1 the tools and  
materials1 employed in different ages   
and countries1 cannot choose but  be    
wonderfully alike4    ,this homely way  
of considering such matters is not1 ,i  
know1 agreeable  to the moderately      
learned1 who think much of small        
acquirements2 but1  to real scholars and
 philosophers1 truth is at all times1   
and under  every form1 acceptable4    ,i
 purpose in this essay to give such an  
account as ,i can collect1 of  the      
materials used by painters2 the         
substances upon which they painted1  the
 pigments they coloured with1 the       
vehicles by means of which the  colours 
were applied1 and the tools employed in 

painting4    ,it would appear1 from the 
judiciously conducted researches of some
 late  travellers1 that some of the     
earliest coloured work in ,egypt is upon
  bare sand-stone4 ,where that rock is  
of very fine grit the water-colours     
seem to have answered well1 but where   
the grit was coarse the work  became    
gross and uneven4 ,a remedy was         
therefore applied2 a plaster of  very   
fine lime and some kind of size was     
spread over the stone1 and  the colour  
applied most probably before the plaster
 was dry1 and so  approaching to fresco 
painting1 which doubtless grew out of   
that older  manner4 ,the lately opened  
,etruscan tombs show the same variety2  
colour  upon the bare sand-stone and    
colour upon thin fine plaister4    ,the 
advantage of applying colour upon a damp
 or even wet ground must  have been     
abundantly apparent1 from the success of
 the painted vases so  early brought to 
perfection in ,greece and ,tuscany2 and 
accordingly1 in  the earliest pictures  

of any magnitude described as painted in
 either  country1 we recognise genuine  
fresco painting#bae4    ,but walls were 
not always at hand for the painter2 and 
many were eager  to have pictures which 
they might transport to other countries 
than  those of the painter1 either for  
the religious purposes of decorating    
temples and fulfilling vows1 or purely  
for the pleasure of possessing  works of
 art1 or1 finally1 for the purposes of  
trade4    ,a substitute easily occurred4
 ,wooden panels1 well seasoned1 and     
smeared  over with plaster1 smoothed    
either with pumice1 or some substance   
answering the same purpose1 were found  
to answer admirably4 ,yet even  here it 
would seem that the ,egyptians led the  
way2 for in order to  prepare the       
coffins of their mummies for their      
painted decorations1  they were in like 
manner prepared with a fine plaster of  
lime or chalk1  exceedingly thin#baf4   
,the mummy cases were made of various   
woods2 among others the  ,egyptian fig1 

which is often translated sycamore#bag4 
,from ,pliny's  description#bah it is   
not certain which of the known figs was 
the  ,egyptian sycamore4 ,the grain is  
light1 close1 and tough1 and the timber 
is best seasoned in water4    ,the wood 
usually employed for panels for large   
pictures was the heart  of the female   
larch4 ,pliny says1 that painters have  
found by experiment  that it is smooth  
and clean1 and not apt to split or warp2
 he adds that  it will last for         
ever#bai4 ,theophrastus speaks of the   
same wood for  the same purposes1 and   
also of the cornel#bbj4 ,the cedar and  
cypress  appear also to have been used4 
,for smaller pictures it is probable    
that a greater variety of trees         
furnished tables for the painter4  ,the 
tablets used in the schools at ,sicyon  
are said to have been of  box-wood4     
,holly was also particularly fitted for 
the purpose1 by the  closeness of its   
grain and its durability4 ,the earliest 
modern ,italians  used also the wood of 

the fig tree well dried and             
seasoned#bba1  besides the larch1 ilex1 
sycamore1 and walnut tree4    ,the      
ancients prepared their boards or       
tablets with a thin ground of  chalk and
 size of some kind#bbb1 whether a size  
of flour paste1 or  weak carpenter's    
glue1 does not appear4 ,in the          
thirteenth century  the painters took   
the trouble to make the white for laying
 grounds  themselves4 ,cennino's        
directions on the subject are curious on
 more  accounts than one4 ,he says1     
8,take the pinion bones and ribs of     
chickens1 the staler the better1 and1   
just as you find them under the         
table#bbc1 put them into the fire till  
they become whiter than the  ashes      
themselves40 ,after this he gives       
directions to pound1 wash and  dry them 
thoroughly1 and to keep them in a dry   
paper for use2 he allows  certain bones 
of the sheep also to be used1 but1 as he
 always insists  on staleness1 ,i       
suppose he wishes them to be free from  

grease#bbd4  ,cennino's boards were     
prepared with great care1 washed with   
many  waters1 and pumiced to perfect    
smoothness2 the ground to be laid on    
thin and rendered smooth and even with  
the hand1 or1 as he says1 the  fat part 
of the thumb4    ,so far the boards for 
the school of ,sicyon and those for the 
school  of ,giotto appear to have been  
much alike4 ,the next step seems to me  
also the same4 ,the pupils were to draw 
very lightly with a metal               
point--,fuseli calls the antique one a  
cestrum--upon the white ground1  and if 
anything was amiss it was easily        
effaced4 ,cennino directs  that the tool
 should be tipped with silver1 whatever 
metal the main  part might be made of1  
that it should be moderately sharp1 and 
very  smooth#bbe4    ,we have not any   
direct evidence that linen cloth or     
canvass was used to  paint upon before  
the reign of ,nero1 who ordered an      
immense portrait  of himself to be      
painted on a linen cloth one hundred and

 twenty feet  in height4 ,pliny1 who    
relates the fact1 does not say whether  
it were  stretched on a frame1 or       
whether it covered planks1 to prevent1  
in  some degree1 the warping and        
splitting1 to which so many joinings as 
would have been necessary in a table of 
that size must have rendered  them      
liable4    ,several writers1 and        
particularly ,monsieur ,durand#bbf1 have
 imagined  that ,pliny says1 painting on
 linen had never till then been heard   
of4  ,i think1 however1 that it is the  
colossal size of the picture that  had  
not been heard of because we find that1 
at that very time1 it  was no uncommon  
thing to decorate the places for the    
exhibition of  prize-fighters with      
hangings1 on which were pictures of     
remarkable  fights2 these1 ,pliny       
expressly says1 were painted cloths#bbg1
 and1  were it of consequence1 ,i think 
passages might be collected to show  the
 great probability that linen cloth was 
used by painters where works  of little 

durability were required4 ,the          
preparation with chalk and size  must   
have been the same as that for painting 
on panel4    ,the use of linen books1   
for the registering private affairs is  
mentioned as common1 before paper made  
of the papyrus came into general        
use#bbi4 ,fronto saw many books of linen
 preserved in the ancient  archives of  
,anagni#bcj4 ,and even after the papyrus
 and parchment came  into use1 ,pliny   
mentions that several ,eastern nations  
still made their  letters on woven      
cloth4        ,but is your worship's    
folly less than mine1      ,when ,i with
 wonder view some rude design      ,in  
crayons or in charcoal1 to invite       
,the crowd to see the gladiators fight8 
,methinks in very deed they mount the   
stage1      ,and seem in real combat to 
engage3      ,now in strong attitude    
they dreadful bend1      ,wounded they  
wound1 they parry and defend4           
,,francis' ,,horace1 ,book ii4 ,sat4 #g4
    ,we are told that both ,parrhasius  

and ,zeuxis were in the habit of making 
drawings on parchment#bca4 ,we know also
 that ,greek herbalists drew and        
coloured the plants they wrote of in    
books4 ,it is therefore improbable  that
 they should have overlooked the light1 
pliable1 yet tough  material1 linen     
cloth4 ,it might seem less lasting than 
panel2 but for  small subjects it was   
surely preferable either to paper or    
parchment1  and as the use of it was not
 unknown for writing upon1 why should we
  suppose painters so long neglected it8
    ,the ,mexicans1 though certainly    
acquainted with the use of painting  on 
wood1 used also the prepared skin of a  
small deer1 and the paper  made from the
 ,agave ,americana2 but they preferred  
cotton cloth1 which  they prepared with 
a white shining earth1 as they did their
 paper and  parchment1 and as the       
,egyptians prepared their coffins1 and  
the ,greek  planters their tablets4     
,vasari1 whose carelessness is so       
notorious that nobody now thinks of     

depending on anything he says1 beyond   
what it is certain he could  have seen1 
attributes to ,margaritone1 about ,a4,d4
 #abgj1 the first  use of fine linen    
cloth1 which he says he pasted over his 
panels to  prevent cracks and rents4    
,but there are many examples of ,italian
  pictures before ,margaritone1 where   
the panel is covered with linen1        
whether for the purpose above mentioned1
 or for the sake of securing  a more    
equal ground1 is of no importance4 ,it  
is enough if we find the  practice      
established among those most likely to  
have inherited at least  the mechanical 
part of ancient painting4 ,cennino gives
 particular  directions for laying down 
cloth upon panel1 and he professes to   
teach the practice of ,giotto4 ,but     
,giotto's first works go back to the    
thirteenth century#bcb1 and he adopted  
the practice of his master1  ,cimabue1  
and learned whatever his friend ,gaddo  
,gaddi could teach him  of the methods  
of the ,greek painters1 in company with 

whom ,gaddo had  been employed in       
decorating ,saint ,mark's1 in ,venice1  
and ,santa ,maria  ,maggiore1 in ,rome2 
and we may hence conclude that          
,margaritone only did  what older       
painters had done before4    ,indeed    
from his personal character it is       
unlikely that he should have  set the   
example of a new practice1 for he is    
said to have been weary of  life on     
account of the new fashions in art that 
were obtaining towards  the end of his  
career1 and to have envied the younger  
painters for  their success#bcc4    ,as 
the ancient painting on marble appears  
to have been merely for the  sake of    
capricious additions to the beautiful   
variegated veins of  nature1 it is not  
worth naming4    ,with regard to the    
pigments used by the ancients1 the      
greater number  are employed still4 ,all
 the ochres1 the vermilion1 white lead1 
lamp-black1 and so on1 appear to have   
been prepared and applied either  in    
fresco or distemper1 as they are now4   

,with regard to the colours for         
pictures on panel also1 there appears to
 be only the difference that  modern    
improvements in chemistry have          
introduced4    ,it may not be without   
interest to compare ,pliny's account of 
colouring  substances in the first      
century with that of ,cennino in the    
fourteenth1  and these with the list of 
pigments now employed4 ,it will be more 
difficult to collect information as to  
the vehicles used in painting2  but ,i  
do not despair of suggesting to the     
consideration of the  antiquarian artist
 a few points which may lead to farther 
knowledge4    ,but1 before ,i proceed1  
,i must notice the common belief1       
founded1 it is  true1 upon an expression
 of ,pliny's1 that the ancient painters1
 even  ,apelles himself1 used but four  
colours1 and that these were white and  
black2 and red and yellow ochres4       
,the absurdity of the thing ought of    
itself to have awakened the  spirit of  
criticism1 apt enough sometimes to      

detect errors4 ,but  this was so        
marvellous a thing1 and raised the      
ancients so far  above all              
contemporaries in skill1 that the       
seduction to moderns  was irresistible1 
so one after another1 scholars and      
critics1 have  repeated the             
four-coloured passage1 without regard to
 the context1  without comparing one    
assertion of the author with another4   
,if the whole passage where the famous  
sentence is found be read1 it  will     
appear that ,pliny is declaiming after  
his accustomed manner  against the      
luxury of the ,romans1 of his time1 and 
particularly their  indulgence in fine  
colours1 their very walls1 and ships1   
and funeral  cars being coloured1 as he 
says1 with blue and scarlet of the most 
costly kind2 while the ancient painters 
produced their fine works with  only    
four colours1 naming the commonest and  
coarsest he can recollect  for the sake 
of contrast2 and produces as witnesses1 
the works of the  painters1 ,apelles1   

,echion1 ,melanthus1 and ,nichomachus4  
,now1 whoever will take the trouble to  
read a little farther1 will find  that  
,pliny exclaims with as much bitterness 
against the use of large  earthen dishes
 as against the luxury of colour2 and   
brings examples  equally forcible to    
prove that it was wise and virtuous to  
love little  cups4    ,and1 again1 if   
the nineteenth book be referred to1 what
 pathetic  complaints of the decline of 
cabbage eating will be found1 and how   
monstrous he thought it that a man      
should buy a fish or a fowl at  market  
when his forefathers fed upon salad6    
,then the enormity committed  by        
,apicius in teaching young ,drusus not  
to like cabbage sprouts so well  as     
broccoli1 and the reprimand of ,tiberius
 addressed to the youth on  the         
occasion1 are good specimens of ,pliny's
 love for the 8wisdom of  his           
ancestors10 and his little consideration
 for the great benefits he  himself     
enjoyed from more modern improvements4  

,then he laments that  asses may eat    
thistles while the common people of     
,rome are debarred  from cardoons and   
artichokes2 and ,i verily believe1 that 
were his  respect for ,cato not in the  
way1 we should have had a philippic     
against  those who presumed to eat      
asparagus larger than wheat-straw2 but  
,cato1  it seems1 was among the first   
who had asparagus beds near ,rome2 so   
with  one growl at such as devoured the 
monstrous plants from ,ravenna1 he      
allows that cultivated asparagus may be 
eaten4    ,but ,pliny himself           
contradicts the story of the four       
colours4 ,in the  instance of ,apelles1 
how could the ,venus ,anadyomene1 she   
who was rising  from the green or azure 
ocean1 under a bright blue sky1 have    
been painted with lamp-black1 white     
chalk1 ruddle1 and yellow ochre  only8  
,then ,apelles lived after ,zeuxis2 and 
if ,zeuxis painted grapes1  whence got  
he the green and purple1 if none but the
 four chaste1 grave1  and solemn colours

 were known8 ,what becomes of the       
monochromes1 which  ,pliny himself says 
preceded by far the time of ,apelles1   
yet they were  painted1 according to    
him1 with dragon's blood1 a pigment by  
no means  resembling any of the four    
orthodox colours8    ,but such instances
 occur at every page4 ,i will point out 
one more1 in  which we have other       
authority for contradicting him besides 
his own4 ,he  tells us that ,micon      
painted the temple of ,theseus4         
,pausanias and others  say the same4    
,now ,micon was contemporary with       
,polygnotus1 consequently1  at least    
#aej years before ,apelles' time4 ,some 
of his pictures were  painted flat on   
stucco within the temple2 the rest were 
coloured  bas-reliefs4 ,but the stucco1 
though the traces of pictures and       
subjects  are gone1 retains the marks1  
or rather stains of the colours--so does
  the sculpture2 and among those colours
 we find vestiges of bronze  and        
gold-coloured arms1 of a blue sky1 and  

of blue1 green1 and red  drapery#bcd4   
,in the catacombs of ,egypt1 in times   
long anterior to the great painters  of 
,greece1 blues and greens are as        
commonly found as yellows and reds4  ,in
 the ancient sepulchres of ,etruria1    
blue and green are employed along  with 
other colours1 and sometimes            
capriciously enough1 for there is a     
very conspicuous blue horse in one of   
the chambers4    ,but we have an        
authority far above these4 ,moses       
expressly mentions  the colours1        
scarlet1 red1 blue1 and purple1 when he 
describes the  furniture of the ark of  
the covenant1 and the vestments of the  
priests4    ,with these facts before    
them1 it appears incomprehensible that a
 single  hasty expression of an author1 
however respectable1 should have been   
dwelt upon and adopted almost as an     
article of faith by painters and        
critics in ,italy1 ,france1 and         
,england4    ,if1 instead of the        
expressions of ,pliny1 writers upon     

colours had  adopted the words ,plato   
puts into the mouth of ,socrates about  
midway  between the times of ,polygnotus
 and ,apelles1 we should have had the   
orthodox number of colours increased to 
twelve4    ,in the ,phdo1 in that last  
beautiful fable which ,socrates relates 
to  comfort his friends1 just before he 
bathes and prepares to drink the        
poison1 he tells of a world inhabited by
 the immortals1 to whom the  guidance of
 human affairs is given1 as well as of a
 world prepared for  the spirits of good
 men2 and says1 this superior 8world1 if
 surveyed  from on high1 appears like a 
globe covered with twelve skins1 various
  and distinguished with colours1 a     
pattern of which are the colours  found 
among us1 and which our painters        
use#bce40    ,but there would have been 
nothing marvellous1 nothing out of the  
reach  of other men1 in admitting that  
the greatest painters of antiquity were 
provided with a good palette of colours4
 ,it was more agreeable to make  them   

execute extraordinary works with        
inadequate means1 and so keep  them as a
 race apart1 and far excelling what     
these degenerate days can  produce4     
,it would not have been worth while to  
notice ,pliny's splenetic sentence  on  
the four colours1 had it not been       
rendered important by the use1  or      
rather abuse1 of it in modern times1 and
 ,i could not let it pass  unnoticed and
 uncontradicted1 when so many proofs of 
its want of  foundation were to  be     
found in his own book1 and in numberless
 facts  connected with the most ancient 
works of art in existence4    ,i will   
now proceed to give such an account as  
,i have been able to glean  from writers
 in different ages1 of the pigments     
either formerly or now  in use4    ,of  
the white colouring matters1 that most  
used by modern painters  could not have 
been of great value to the ancients1    
unless they had  some oils1 or vehicles 
equivalent1 wherewith to apply it2 for  
it turns  black when used in water or   

fresco painting4 ,i mean ceruse1 or     
white  lead#bcf4 ,pliny speaks of that  
from ,spain as the best for painters2   
and he also names calcined ceruse1 the  
use of which was discovered by  the     
accident of a ship taking fire in the   
port of ,pirus1 when the  ceruse in pots
 which was on board was consequently    
calcined4 ,it is  remarkable that these 
pots of ceruse had been brought from    
,spain for  the use of the ,greek       
ladies1 who painted their faces with it4
    ,cennino praises the same white     
highly2 but warns fresco painters       
against it#bcg2 and our modern artists  
use it to temper most of their  colours 
in oil4    ,next to the ceruse1 the     
ancients valued as white a natural earth
 from  ,egypt1 ,crete1 and ,cyrene1     
which ,pliny tells us is said to be     
hardened  sea foam mixed with mud1 and  
that accordingly minute shells were     
found  in it4 ,this should be the       
meerschaum1 so valued for the bolls of  
tobacco-pipes in ,germany1 but the      

meerschaum has no shells4 ,he calls it  
,partonum1 and says it made the best and
 finest wash for walls and fine  stucco4
 ,there was also a very fine white      
pigment1 made of chalk1 ground  with the
 white glass of which rings and other   
ornaments were made2 it  was therefore  
called annulare4    ,next to this1 as a 
natural earth1 that called ,eretria1    
both raw and  calcined1 was valued2 and 
then ,melinum1 from the isle of ,melos2 
which  last was1 however1 often too     
unctuous for painters' use1 in which    
case  it suited the fullers better4     
,giotto's white was called ,bianco di   
,san ,giovanni1 and seems to have  been 
composed of the finest lime1 repeatedly 
washed and beaten to  purify it1 and    
then made into small cakes1 and dried in
 the sun4 ,the  natural white earths    
were also used1 especially in fresco    
painting4    ,in modern practice many   
white earths and some preparations of   
shells  are used4 ,besides these1 and   
white lead1 there are also preparations 

of  zinc1 tin1 and barytes1 which are   
available in different departments of   
art4    ,of yellows1 it was impossible  
for any one seeking to miss them1 as    
they  abound in most countries2 and     
those of the most durable and best      
kinds1  namely the ochres4    ,the      
,attic and ,gallic sils or ochres were  
pale1 and were used for lights  by      
,polygnotus and ,micon2 but there were  
many ochres found in ,campania  and in  
the hills not far from ,rome1 which were
 used both raw and burnt4  ,the burning 
of ochres generally renders the colours 
more transparent  and darker1 so that   
some of the ochres assume a reddish hue1
 especially  the ,sienna earth4 ,common 
yellow ochre1 when burnt1 is the colour 
called  light-red1 admirable for flesh  
tints2 and so indeed are many of the    
other red ochres1 whether natural1 or   
artificially coloured by fire4    ,the  
ancients used the ochres of ,scyros and 
,lydia for shadows4 ,the dark  earths   
from those countries resemble that      

called umber1 produced in  ,umbria1 the 
use of which might be unknown to the    
,greeks#bch4    ,these different ochres 
continue even now to be used1 and to    
them are  added varieties of modern     
discovery1 produced in ,england1 ,spain1
 and  other countries4    ,orpiment1 or 
the sulphuretted oxide of arsenic1 was  
known as a pigment  to the ancients4    
,its hue1 approaching to gold1 induced  
,caligula to  attempt to extract gold   
from it2 and it is said that he         
succeeded  in procuring a small quantity
 from some brought from ,syria4 ,we are 
ignorant how the ancient painters       
applied it4 ,cennino says1 it is        
neither good nor lasting in fresco or   
distemper2 but that with glue or  size1 
it may be used in other pictures4 ,it is
 still used by painters1  but is an     
uncertain colour#bci4    ,the most      
brilliant and most valued red was       
vermilion4 ,i suppose also  that it was 
one of the most ancient pigments4 ,homer
 says1 in the  catalogue of the ships1  

the twelve galleys of ,ulysses were     
painted  with it#bdj2 and ,i suspect    
that there was some mystical sacredness 
attached to it1 because it was the      
custom in ,rome1 that the first  act of 
a ,censor on entering into office1 was  
to rouge ,jupiter's face  with          
vermilion#bda4 ,they painted all the    
gods' faces with it4 ,horace  flatters  
,augustus by making him received among  
the gods1 and drinking  nectar between  
,hercules and ,pollux1 with a vermilion 
face4 ,at ,athens1  cords stained with  
powdered vermilion were employed to     
drive the  people to the public         
meetings4 ,the dramatic poets introduced
 this  custom frequently on the scene2  
and it would appear that the hindmost   
had the worst1 those who were caught    
with their robes stained by the  cords1 
were fined for non-attendance at their  
public duties4 ,this same  vermilion was
 certainly early used by painters1 and  
was much improved1  as ,theophrastus    
says#bdb1 by ,callias1 an ,athenian1 who

 calcined it1  and brought it to its    
very fine colour4 ,in its rough state it
 is known  as cinnabar2 and hence1 both 
in ancient and modern times1 it has been
  taken for other mineral reds2 and1    
what is worse1 often adulterated  with  
them4 ,in its pure state1 it is a       
lasting colour4 ,cennino calls it       
cinabro4 ,his cinabrese is a red used   
for flesh when mixed with  white in     
fresco works2 it is made from sinopia1  
or red bole or ochre1  native in        
,cappadocia1 and of the ,bianco ,san    
,giovanni#bdc4    ,minium1 or red       
lead#bdd1 seems to have been confounded 
by the writers  on colours with native  
cinnabar2 though the painter would soon 
have  reason to regret using minium for 
vermilion1 as minium blackens on        
exposure to light and air1 unless       
secured by strong varnishes or coats  of
 wax4    ,of the red earths or ochres   
,pliny places the sinopia1 of which ,i  
have  already spoken1 first4 ,it is now 
sold in the shops as ,armenian bole1    

and is used in some manufactures4       
,mattioli1 quoting from ,dioscorides1   
says1 that the best was considered to be
 that of a deep liver colour1  smooth1  
and heavy4 ,akin to this is the common  
ruddle or red earth1 used  by the       
ancients as well as the moderns1 in the 
process of gilding2 and1  being properly
 ground and washed1 useful in most kinds
 of painting1 but  especially fresco4   
,dragon's-blood was known to the        
ancients as a pigment2 but1 from        
,pliny's account of it1 they were       
clearly ignorant of its nature4         
,cennino names it but with contempt1 and
 it is not much valued by the           
moderns#bde4    ,with the ancients1 who 
do not appear to have known any of the  
lakes1 it  was different2 they valued it
 much1 and1 it is said1 used it for     
their  monochrome pictures#bdf4 ,if they
 did so1 it confirms ,fuseli's account  
of the process of painting1 or rather of
 drawing1 those pictures4 ,it  is a     
resin of a warm semi-transparent1       

dullish red colour2 and is best  used as
 a varnish which darkens on exposure to 
the air4 ,if this varnish  were laid    
over the white ground of the            
monochromes1 after the first  process of
 drawing with the point1 the outline    
would be seen through1  and the         
indentation made by the point upon the  
tender chalk ground  being filled up    
with the varnish1 would present a dark  
outline1 the  point being then applied1 
would cut down to the white ground1 and 
so  produce the light reliefs#bdg4      
,the other reds known to the ancients   
appear to have been mostly opaque4      
,cennino mentions ,lac or ,lake4 ,but it
 appears that in his days it  was       
principally procured by discharging the 
colour from shreds of  scarlet and      
purple cloths4 ,his editor imagines that
 he also knew and  recommended gum lac4 
,be that as it may1 neither the ancients
 nor the  school of ,giotto seem to have
 known anything of the fine lakes2      
whether  prepared from the ,indian gums1

 from madder1 or from other substances1 
that enrich the palette of painters1    
both in oil and water-colours now4  ,sir
 ,humphrey ,davy1 however1 seems to     
think that lake made from madder  may   
have been known to the ancients#bdh4    
,of blue colouring substances1 the most 
beautiful known to the  ancients1 as to 
us1 was ultramarine4 ,pliny says the    
best of azures  came from ,egypt1 the   
second kind from ,scythia1 and a third  
from  ,cyprus4 ,it is not possible to   
determine accurately whether all these  
were true ultramarine1 for it appears   
that then1 as now1 it was often         
adulterated1 and even imitated1 by      
boiling native blue earths with  woad1  
or by grinding smalt with it4 ,that     
manufactured in ,spain1 and at          
,puteoli1 was entirely artificial#bdi4  
,it is said1 on the authority of        
,theophrastus1 that one of the kings  of
 ,egypt invented the method of making   
the beautiful ,armenian blue1  so       
precious that kings sent presents of it 

to each other4 ,and this  corresponds   
with the value of ultramarine at all    
times4 ,the ,lapis  ,lazuli1 from which 
the colour is made1 is found in         
,siberia1 and on the  borders of        
,persia1 as well as in ,china1 where the
 preparation of the  colour has long    
been known4 ,it is probable that the    
superiority of the  colour brought from 
,egypt was owing to the method of       
preparing it1 for  the most genuine     
kinds were certainly likely to be those 
of ,scythia  and ,armenia#bej4    ,of   
that brought from ,scythia there were   
four preparations of different  degrees 
of beauty and intensity of colour2 and  
shortly before ,pliny  wrote1 one       
,nestor had invented a new preparation  
from the lightest part  of the ,egyptian
 blue4    ,the earliest ,christian      
painters appropriated it to painting the
 robes  of the ,virgin ,mary1 and called
 it after her name1 and it is much more 
probable that those artists inherited   
the mode of preparing it1 than  that it 

was invented in the still rude times in 
which the arts began  to revive4 ,i saw 
in the middle church of the sacred      
convent at ,assisi1  a large jar which  
had been sent to the painters1 ,cimabue1
 ,giotto1 and  their pupils1 full of    
ultramarine by the ,queen of            
,cyprus#bea1 for the  purpose of        
painting that magnificent church4       
,some of the ancient imitations were1 as
 ,i have said1 composed of earth  boiled
 with woad1 those of ,cennino's time    
were boiled with indigo  instead of     
woad4    ,the blue earths from ,germany 
appear to have been long known1 indeed  
the  cobalt1 though that name had not   
then been given to it1 was necessary    
for colouring the glasses and pastes    
used for fictitious gems by the  ancient
 artists#beb4    ,indigo had been       
introduced into the west from ,india not
 long before  ,pliny's time4 ,painters  
had1 however1 immediately adopted it for
 shadows  and for strong lines4    ,the 
green colours were procured in great    

part by the ancients as they  were in   
the middle ages1 and are now1 by the    
mixture of blues with  yellows4 ,there  
were1 however1 several green earths in  
use1 and many  oxides of copper1        
sometimes used in a fluid1 sometimes in 
a solid  state4 ,the principal green    
earth used by the ancients was          
chrysocolla1  or borax4 ,macedonia1     
,armenia1 and ,spain1 furnished the best
 raw  material2 but the best manufactory
 appears to have been in ,cyprus4 ,one  
kind of it1 by boiling with dyers' weed1
 assumed a golden yellow hue1  and was  
then called orobites4 ,the best method  
of using it was1 to lay  first a ground 
of the white earth1 partonum1 then to   
wash that over  with vitriol1 and so lay
 on the chrysocolla1 which is very      
brilliant1  over that ground4 ,the green
 made from orobites mixed with azure is 
not  durable1 though bright#bec4    ,the
 borax is1 doubtless1 the terra verde of
 ,cennino1 the terre verte of  the      
moderns2 the best is now procured from  

,holland1 where the art of  preparing it
 is understood4 ,for some ages this art 
was in the hands of  the ,venetians1 who
 imported the borax from ,india1        
,persia1 and ,china1  where it is       
produced at the bottom of some lakes4   
,it is also found in  similar situations
 in ,tuscany#bed4    ,but verdigris1    
variously prepared1 was used both by    
painters and the  manufacturers of glass
 for ornamental purposes1 as well as by 
surgeons  and physicians for potions and
 plasters among the ancients4 ,in       
,giotto's  time1 it entered into the    
composition of many tints1 several of   
which1  however1 faded easily4 ,with the
 moderns it is not much used1 as being  
apt to disagree with some other         
pigments1 and difficult of application4 
,it was an ingredient in the painter's  
black1 called atramentum#bee4  ,however1
 most of the blacks used were of the    
soot collected from  burning various    
substances1 such as resin1 or pitch1    
very little  different from common      

lamp-black1 which1 mixed with copperas1 
was  mostly used for writing ink4       
,polygnotus and ,mycon made their black 
of the refuse of the wine-press1  burnt4
 ,apelles used burnt ivory4 ,of the     
,indian black#bef the nature or         
manufacture was unknown to ,pliny1 as it
 is to us4 ,an excellent black  was     
procured both from the soot and ashes of
 torch-wood1 the soot  adhering to the  
dyers' coppers was also sought after1   
and some painters  imagined that the    
ashes from a funeral pile were          
preferable to all4  ,this is properly   
treated by ,pliny as mere superstition4 
,when any of these blacks were used as  
ink1 gum of some kind was added4  ,for  
painting on walls size was the necessary
 vehicle4 ,but vinegar was  in all cases
 found to be the best ingredient to mix 
the colour properly4    ,dioscorides    
says that the soot from glass furnaces  
was used for ink4    ,to these blacks1  
,cennino adds the burnt stones of       
peaches1 and shells  of almonds1 or     

burnt vine twigs4 ,they were to be mixed
 with various  vehicles according to the
 work required4 ,in ,india a fine black 
is made  from burnt cocoa-nut shells4   
,there was a colour very much used by   
the ancients for glazing4 ,it was       
roset1 or purple-red1 procured by       
throwing ,tripoli stone into the  vats  
where fine purple dyes were boiling#beg4
 ,to make a fine red in  painting1 the  
ground was laid with sandyx#beh1 and    
then glazed with  roset mixed with white
 of egg4 ,when a fine purple was        
required the  ground was laid with blue1
 over which the roset was applied with  
the  same vehicle4 ,the roset of        
,puteoli was reckoned the best1 though  
finer  dyes were produced by the        
,tyrians1 ,getulians1 and               
,lacedemonians4    ,the colour mentioned
 by ,cennino most akin to this1 is his  
ametisto1  which he describes as a      
native mineral colour4    ,armenino     
talks of a pavonazzo still more like it 
in its properties4    ,we have a purple 

mineral1 found in the ,forest of ,deane1
 but in general  our purples and purple 
browns are now produced from madder1 or 
from  metallic oxides4    ,such is the  
scanty information ,i am able to give   
concerning the ancient  pigments1 with  
any degree of certainty4 ,various earths
 were brought  into the market from     
,germany and ,gaul2 and it is improbable
 that the  ,cologne1 and other rich     
brown earths1 should have been          
neglected4  ,cyprus appears to have     
furnished the painters' shops with the  
greatest  number and variety1 both of   
native and manufactured colours1 and no 
doubt the ,venetians succeeded to her   
knowledge and skill in this  matter1 as 
they did to her commerce and maritime   
power#bei4    ,i have spoken with more  
confidence on the subjects of most of   
the  antique colours than ,i should     
otherwise have done1 from having a clear
  recollection of a conversation ,i had 
with ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 just after   
he had been engaged in examining several

 jars of antique pigments  that had been
 discovered on an estate belonging to   
the ,archbishop  of ,tarentum#bfj4 ,he  
told me that not one of those he had    
examined  differed in substance from    
those now used for the same purposes4   
,it will be very difficult indeed to    
point out with tolerable  probability   
the vehicles used for painting by the   
ancient painters2  certainty1 excepting 
to a very limited extent1 is impossible4
  ,time1 which has in some instances    
spared colours so as to permit a        
satisfactory examination into their     
nature1 has uniformly dried up  the     
substances of the vehicles with which   
they were laid on2 so that  it is only  
where such things are actually named by 
ancient authors1  and that is very      
sparingly1 that we can feel any         
confidence as to the  matter#bfa4       
,there is1 however1 a source of probable
 conjecture which ought not to  be      
neglected4 ,the use of oils1 resins and 
gums in medicine has been  recorded2 and

 the mixtures of those incidentally     
named1 are so nearly  what we find used 
among the earliest painters1 of whose   
works we have  any technical account1   
that it is scarcely possible to believe 
that  they were overlooked by the       
ancients4    ,for the early pictures on 
walls1 whether the ground were of stone 
or  stucco1 lime-water was doubtless    
found to be a sufficient binder4  ,but  
to adorn the mummy coffins something    
more than water must have  been         
required4 ,the ,egyptians had the       
advantage of several native  gum-bearing
 trees4 ,the ,acacia ,nilotica1 which   
produces the ,gum ,arabic2  the         
,sarcocolla#bfb1 the gum of which ,pliny
 expressly says is used by  painters as 
well as physicians2 and the tree or     
shrub producing the ,gum  ,senegal2 the 
,terebinth1 yielding the manna thuris1  
,gum ,ammoniac#bfc  and ,sandarach#bfd1 
were likewise all to be found on the    
borders of  ,egypt2 and some of these1  
we know from ,herodotus1 were employed  

in  embalming1 and therefore very       
probably as vehicles for the colours    
with  which they honoured and ornamented
 the dead4    ,the desire of showing    
respect to the remains of those we have 
once  loved is a blessed principle of   
our nature4 ,it is at once the cause    
and the effect of that tender care of   
human life which becomes one  of the    
first principles of civilisation4 ,it is
 respect and duty1  bestowed where no   
selfishness can ever expect a return1   
and by the very  occupation it forces   
upon us1 breaks the first overwhelming  
violence of  grief1 when the day of     
death1 of which no preparation ever took
 away  the bitterness1 arrives1 and     
allows us time and occasion to exert    
that  moral resolution necessary to a   
due submission to the will of ,,him1 who
  knoweth best when to give and when to 
take away4    ,the solemn death-rites of
 the ,egyptians were practised by       
priests and  physicians1 aided by       
professional embalmers2 and their daily 

practice  must have led to a knowledge  
of many physiological facts advantageous
  to the science of medicine4 ,the      
search after substances calculated to   
preserve the body could not fail to lead
 to chemical discoveries of  equal value
 to the arts4 ,the country itself       
furnished some of these  substances1 but
 ,arabia and the neighbouring nations   
still more4    ,among these1 the        
asphaltum1 pissasphaltum1 and petroleum1
 brought from  the ,dead ,sea1 from     
,babylon1 and from the province of      
,mazenderan1 appear  to have been most  
generally used2 and it is a curious     
fact1 that a  substance arising from the
 partial decomposition of the bodies1   
mixed  with these mineral substances1   
should1 very early under the name of    
mummy1 have been employed by ,arabian   
and ,jewish physicians in medicine4  ,it
 is still stranger that it should have  
kept its place in the materia  medica of
 most nations till very lately1 and ,i  
question whether it be  yet entirely    

expunged from them4    ,as a colouring  
matter1 the same mummy was highly       
esteemed1 and is  still often used4 ,but
 it is giving way to other preparations 
of  asphaltum with wax1 oil1 or some    
equivalent substance4 ,the prejudice    
which led to the seeking among the      
costly embalmed bodies of ,egypt a      
remedy for disease1 is akin to that     
which is not yet quite exploded  even in
 ,england1 and which leads the vulgar to
 pass the hand of a  hanged man over    
scrophulous swellings as a certain cure4
 ,from this  strange superstition even  
,boyle was not so free1 but that1 in    
giving  a recipe for some preparation1  
he mentions the calcined arm bone of a  
hanged man reduced to powder as an      
ingredient6 ,this same prejudice1  or   
something like it1 led the painters of  
antiquity to rake1 as ,pliny  says1     
among the ashes of a funeral pile for a 
superior black pigment1  and induced    
more modern artists to use mummy brown4 
,the common bitumen or asphaltum1 was   

known by the early physicians to  mix   
readily with oil1 and was much used as  
an external application2  very ancient  
artists also varnished their statues of 
wood or metal with  that mixture1 to    
preserve them from the action of the    
air#bfe4    ,but there was a finer      
substance1 called by ,pliny an earth1   
ampelitis1  which being softened in oil 
worked like wax4 ,besides the use of the
  ampelitis for plasters1 the antique   
men of the world used it to blacken     
their eyebrows and colour their         
hair#bff4    ,with these uses of        
asphaltum and ampelitis1 softened or    
dissolved in  oil1 the antique painters 
must have been familiar1 and it is      
difficult  to imagine that they did not 
avail themselves of so agreeable a      
colour  and varnish4 ,it answers1 in a  
great degree1 to the account given of   
the dark fluid with which ,apelles      
varnished his pictures4 ,it would       
certainly preserve them from the effects
 of dust and wet2 it would make  the    

colours richer1 and1 at the same time1  
soften the harshness of the  more       
glaring ones4    ,pliny enumerates many 
resins which were to be dissolved in oil
 before  they could be used as          
liniments4 ,they are such as flow from  
the  terebinth1 larch1 lentisk or       
mastic1 and cypress2 besides the pine   
or pitch trees4 ,he also names many gums
 which might be dissolved in  water1 or 
wine1 or vinegar1 or a mixture of       
vinegar and wax4 ,some  of these gums he
 occasionally names as useful to        
painters2 and it is  not unreasonable to
 conclude1 that those preparations of   
them with  oil1 which would render them 
so peculiarly convenient as vehicles for
  colour1 or varnishes for preserving   
pictures1 were not overlooked4    ,such 
must have been the varnish employed by  
the ,egyptian painters2  the brilliant  
appearance of which is mentioned in ,mr4
 ,clift's letter1  printed at the end of
 the first ,essay4    ,there is the     
authority of ,vitruvius for the ancient 

use of oil in  painting doors and other 
wood-work exposed to the weather4       
,with regard to ships1 it appears that  
their colours--and we know from  ,homer 
that they were painted in very ancient  
times--could not have been  laid on with
 water4 ,i am ignorant how far          
petroleum1 which was known  to          
,herodotus1 was calculated to resist    
weather1 or whether any of the  resins  
or juices from the various kinds of fir 
and pine might1 by being  mixed with it1
 render it fit for the purpose4         
,pliny mentions the substance scraped   
off the bottoms of ships1 as a  mixture 
of pitch and wax1 of which a plaster of 
great efficacy for some  kinds of sores 
was made4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that 
pitch and wax  were both used to defend 
the bottoms and seams of the ships from 
the  effects of the water1 and1         
probably1 also to render them smoother1 
and  so to offer less resistance to the 
waves4    ,but the vermilion-prowed     
ships must have been painted1 and very  

probably in the encaustic manner2 that  
is1 by laying on the colour or  the wax 
to defend it1 hot2 this would answer the
 double purpose of  shielding the       
colour1 and sending the wax or pitch    
farther into the  substance of the wood1
 which would thus be better preserved4  
,indeed1  until the general adoption of 
oil as a vehicle for colour1 nothing    
but the encaustic process could have    
preserved the figure-heads and  the     
designs on the sterns of the ancient    
ships during the shortest  voyage#bfg4  
,it is a pity that ,pliny has not left  
us a more minute account of the  process
 of encaustic painting2 but it appears  
to have been so commonly  known and     
practised in his time1 that he has not  
considered it worth  while to describe  
it particularly4    ,he mentions the    
doubtfulness of its origin and of its   
inventor1 but  speaks of most of the    
beautiful works of ,pausias as having   
been  executed in that manner4 ,in a    
subsequent passage1 writing of vermilion

  and minium1 and of the great luxury at
 which the ,romans of his time had      
arrived in fine colours1 he mentions    
that walls coloured with those          
expensive pigments were apt to blacken  
unless defended by a varnish of  wax1   
for which he gives the following        
recipe3--    8,take white ,punic wax1   
melt it with oil1 and while it is hot   
wash the  painting over with pencils1 or
 fine brushes of bristles1 dipped in the
  same varnish4 ,when laid on it must be
 well rubbed1 and heated again  with    
red-hot coals of gall-nuts1 held close  
to it1 till the wall may  sweat and fry 
again1 then rub it well with waxed      
cloths1 and then with  clean linen      
cloths#bfh40    ,this1 ,i believe1 is   
the longest and clearest account we have
 of this  method of painting or rather  
varnishing4 ,but there is another       
passage  in the same author1 from which 
it would appear that colours were made  
up with wax for use4 ,for that case the 
above varnish would be most             

appropriate1 and without the            
inconveniences of such varnishes as are 
composed of matters which do not        
correspond with the nature of the       
colours and vehicles they cover4 ,the   
passage is as follows3 8,if one  be     
disposed to make black wax1 let him put 
thereto--i4 e4 to bleached  ,punic      
wax--ashes of paper1 like as with an    
addition of orchanet1 it  will be red4  
,moreover1 wax may be brought to all    
manner of colours for  painters1        
limners1 and enamellers1 and such       
curious artificers1  to represent the   
form and similitude of anything they    
list4 ,and for  a thousand other        
purposes men have used thereof1 but     
principally to  preserve their walls and
 armours withal#bfi40    ,we know1 then1
 that the ancients used water1 white of 
egg1 solutions  of various gums1 vinegar
 and wax1 with or without oil4 ,we may  
infer  also that they used solutions of 
resinous substances in oil1 asphaltum1  
and petroleum1 because they were well   

acquainted with preparations of  these1 
and their application to a variety of   
purposes4 ,but it would be  rash as     
useless to assert that they painted with
 this or that material1  having no      
positive information on the subject1 and
 no examples of  antique pictures1 which
 can do more than indicate the nature of
 their  works in fresco or distemper4   
,mr4 ,raspe1 in his ingenious essay on  
oil painting1 as known to the  ancients1
 has laboured to prove too much1 and has
 therefore not  received all the credit 
he deserves#bgj2 but his printing the   
text  of the monk ,theophilus1 and of   
part of ,heraclius on the arts of the   
,romans1 deserves our gratitude#bga4    
,both these authors direct1 that colours
 for painting doors1 and for  preparing 
panel for pictures1 should be ground in 
linseed oil2 and they  observe1 that all
 kinds of colours bear grinding in oil4 
,but all cannot  be ground with gum1 and
 therefore white and red lead and       
carmine must  be ground with white of   

egg1 where oil is not used4 ,when a     
transparent  painting was required over 
a ground of oil1 then colour mixed with 
linseed oil was absolutely              
necessary#bgb4    ,the next period at   
which we know from a contemporary writer
 what  vehicles were used1 is the end of
 the fourteenth century1 or the         
beginning of the fifteenth1 when        
,cennino wrote2 but he professes to     
give the exact process of ,giotto1 a    
century earlier1 being himself very  old
 when he composed his work1 and having  
been the apprentice of ,taddeo  ,gaddi1 
the immediate pupil1 assistant1 and1 in 
some particulars1 the  rival1 of        
,giotto4    ,the usual vehicle or       
tempora appears to have been the whole  
egg beat  up with a gill of pure water  
to each egg1 and mixed with the milky   
juice of the fig-tree1 where it was     
procurable4    ,several colours1        
however1 could not be used with this    
ordinary vehicle1  because of the yellow
 colour of the yolk1 which turned the   

blues green1  and injured some other    
pigments4 ,in that case1 the white of   
egg  clarified was used1 or fine size   
made of the clippings of parchment1 or  
even flour paste well1 but not too much1
 boiled4 ,a vehicle of the yolk  of egg 
alone1 for such colours as were not     
injured by the yellow1 was  found to    
answer equally well in fresco1 in       
distemper1 and on panel4    ,though     
,cennino knew1 and perhaps occasionally 
practised painting in  oil1 it is       
evident that the oil was used by him and
 his masters chiefly  as a varnish4 ,he 
directs it to be prepared nearly        
according to the  recipe of the monk    
,theophilus2 the difference being1 that 
the oil is to  be simmered till one half
 is evaporated1 and the pure resin is to
 be  added1 in the proportion of an     
ounce to every pound of the raw linseed 
oil4    ,armenino1 in ,a4 ,d4 #afjj1    
repeats nearly all ,cennino says of     
vehicles2  he adds several compositions1
 one of which only ,i shall notice1     

because he tells us that he had heard   
from the scholars of ,corregio1  that it
 was used by that great man4 ,a varnish 
composed of the purest  turpentine#bgc1 
made hot1 to which was added an equal   
measure of  petroleum1 was spread over  
the picture1 previously warmed in the   
sun  or otherwise4 ,this is said to have
 been thin1 lucid1 and durable4    ,as  
to modern vehicles1 there is no new oil 
discovered by chemists that  has not    
been tried1 nor any combinations of gums
 and resins1 with oils1  whether fixed  
or essential4 ,the desire of quickly    
drying substances  has also produced a  
variety of vehicles and varnishes1 all  
of which1  in particular cases1 and for 
certain purposes1 seem to have answered4
  ,but their use has disappointed the   
artist in others4 ,perhaps so great  a  
variety by tempting to injudicious      
mixtures1 may have caused the  partial  
failure4    ,this is a question1        
however1 for practical artists2 my      
business is only  to relate historically

 what has been done1 not to comment on  
what is  actually doing1 or should be   
done4    ,and now we must inquire what  
tools were used by antique artists4     
,here  again ,mr4 ,wilkinson is our best
 informant4 ,in the unfinished pictures 
in some of the catacombs1 he saw traces 
of the use of charcoal points1  and also
 of red outlines1 corresponding not only
 with the practice  recommended by      
,cennino1 but with what ,i saw in the   
,campo ,santo at ,pisa1  where1 the     
upper stucco having fallen off1 upon    
which the pictures  themselves had been 
painted while wet1 a line drawn in red  
earth1 like  the bole of ,sinope1       
appeared upon the coarser ground1 and   
had evidently  been corrected           
preparatory to laying the true ground   
and colour4 ,the  metal points used for 
drawing by the early ,greeks1 were most 
likely  used also by the ,egyptians1    
where required2 but the paintings we are
  best acquainted with1 namely1 those on
 the mummy cases1 are outlined1  if not 

with a pen or reed1 with a fine pencil4 
,in the curious collection of ,egyptian 
furniture1 tools1 c41 brought  together 
by ,mr4 ,sams1 there were some palettes2
 they were oblong1 and  had a sort of   
case at one end for the pencils and     
brushes1 and at the  other a handle4    
,the plates in ,rossellini's ,egypt show
 the manner in  which these were used4  
,d',agincourt gives some tracings from  
an illuminated ,,ms4 ,dioscorides1  in  
the library at ,vienna1 in two of which 
we find an artist's study2  in one1 a   
paintress is at work upon a picture     
sketched upon a moveable  frame1 not    
unlike those used for needle-work2 her  
colours appear to be  in a box1 as water
 colours would be1 and she has a small  
palette held  in the palm of her left   
hand4    ,the other is a painter        
employed in drawing a plant2 his easel  
is  three-legged1 his paper is pinned or
 tacked to a widish board1 his  palette 
is like that of the paintress1 and his  
colour box the same2 the  pencils seem  

as fine as pens in both4    ,cennino    
directs that pencils shall be made      
either of the tails of grey  squirrels1 
called ,vair#bgd1 answering to sable1 or
 of hogs' bristles4  ,he points out with
 minuteness how to select the longest   
hairs of the  vair1 and how many tails  
must contribute the longest1 in order to
 make  a good pencil2 what is more1 he  
mentions that these soft brushes were   
to be used of all sizes1 from those     
which were drawn into the hollow  of a  
pigeon's feather1 to those requiring a  
vulture's quill4 ,as to the  bristle    
tools1 they appear to be exactly what we
 now use2 and the art  of making which  
appears to be one of those handed down  
from the ,greeks  and ,romans1 without  
any change worth notice4    ,i have thus
 endeavoured to bring together what is  
to be known  historically of the        
mechanical part of painting4 ,dry and   
wet plaster1  that is1 distemper and    
fresco1 have been employed in all       
countries1  from ,egypt to ,mexico1 for 

grounds4 ,pannel1 prepared with a thin  
coat  of chalk or plaster and size1 has 
been the next general material4 ,the    
painted inner mummy cases1 where the    
linen was prepared with plaster1  are   
the earliest pictures on linen1 so far  
as we can judge4 ,the linen  painted    
hangings for prize fighters1 and ,nero's
 famous canvas1 show  that the practice 
of painting pictures on linen was not   
unknown to the  ancients2 but when it   
was first used as a ground1 or if its   
use ever  became general until modern   
times1 we do not know4    ,the early    
,italian painters used it at first to   
strengthen and smooth  their pannel2    
and1 ,i think1 the ,venetian painters   
were they who  rendered its use general4
    ,the most important pigments of the 
ancients appear to have been  identical 
with our own4    ,the vehicles for      
colour have afforded matter for very    
needless  controversy4 ,the ancients    
generally used water1 gums1 and white of
 egg2  they frequently1 especially in   

the later schools of painting1 used wax1
  often mixed with oil of some kind4    
,they were acquainted with the use of   
oil as a varnish1 and may have used both
 it and naphtha to paint with           
occasionally4    ,as early as the tenth 
century1 oil was often used for         
particular  kinds of painting2 by the   
fourteenth1 attempts were made 7,i need 
not  say1 without success7 to paint with
 it on plaster2 by the end of the       
fifteenth century1 it had pretty well   
superseded other vehicles for all  but  
fresco and distemper upon walls4    ,as 
to the tools1 a palette1 colour box1    
soft and hard brushes1  scrapers1 c41 of
 forms and materials differing but      
little1 with a  sponge and pumice stone1
 were used by all2 and very few required
 more1  when their pigments were once   
prepared4 ,but the ancient painters1    
like the old ,italians and ,germans1 had
 their colours ground in their  own     
work-rooms3 for this purpose1 slabs of  
porphyry1 or some other  hard stone1    

with mullers to correspond2 mortars of  
marble1 or brass1  or iron1 with pestles
 of wood or metal1 were requisite2 and1 
in some  cases1 the very furnaces for   
calcining their ochres1 or dissolving   
their gums1 were of their own           
construction4    ,hence the frequent    
mention of apprentice boys1 who never   
reached  higher in the art than         
colour-grinders4 ,others became mere    
mechanical  copyists1 multiplying in    
ancient times the actual patterns of    
certain gods and heroes1 and in later   
times1 favourite saints1 or  even whole 
compositions4 ,but the better sort      
either equalled or  excelled their      
masters4 ,apelles surpassed ,pamphilus1 
,giotto excelled  ,cimabue1 ,raffaelle  
and ,michael ,angelo left their masters 
,perugino and  ,ghirlandaio far behind4 
,,footnotes3    #bad ,i have mentioned  
the antique picture before1 that proves 
that the  ancient ,italians horsed the  
boys and used the rod1 just as was done 
ten years ago in ,england 7and may be   

still in remote counties71 as the  best 
way of improving the memory4 ,i have the
 authority of ,pausanias1  that boys    
used strings to set off their tops1 and 
that young ladies  played at what       
,scotch children call chuckie stanes1 in
 ,old ,greece4    #bae ,pantnus1 the    
brother of ,phidias1 used a plaster or  
stucco in the  ,temple of ,minerva at   
,elis1 mixed with milk4 ,this should be 
something  like the beautiful           
marble-like stucco or chunam-work of    
,india4 ,i once  saw a floor laid at    
,madras1 among the materials of which   
were jaggree1  or coarse sugar water and
 milk4 ,ram ,raz1 in his treatise on    
,hindu  ,architecture1 says3            
8,chunam1 intended for fine plastering  
and ornamental works1 is  ground by     
women on an oblong granite stone1 and a 
cylindrical upper  stone about four     
inches in diameter2 the mixture is      
sometimes ground  two1 three1 and four  
times1 to bring it to the required      
fineness and  purity4 ,in all the       

operations of chunam-work1 jaggery      
water1 i4  e4 a solution of molasses or 
coarse sugar1 is invariably added by the
  builders1 and its use appears to have 
prevailed from the remotest ages4       
,there are various opinions among the   
modern practitioners regarding  its     
usefulness1 but those who have had the  
most extensive practice in  building    
hold it as an indispensable ingredient  
in the formation of a  durable and hard 
cement2 and it is stated that the       
operator evidently  perceives the       
dissolvent property of the jaggery      
water1 on its being  tempered with the  
prepared mortar40    #baf ,i must make  
an undignified1 though ,i believe an    
intelligible1  comparison--the plaster  
is very like that applied to wooden     
dolls of  the old school1 and which     
children used to call alabaster4 ,i     
believe  it was made of finely pounded  
marble1 and was largely used in the     
manufacture of ,saints for ,roman       
,catholic churches4    #bag ,our        

sycamore is a maple1 and its fruit is   
not eatable4    #bah ,book xiii4 ch4 #g4
    #bai ,book xvi4 ch4 #ci4    #bbj    
,theophrastus died ,b4,c4 #bjh years1 at
 the age of #ajg4    #bba ,cennino      
,cennini trattato della ,pittura1 ch4   
#f4    #bbb ,in the #acth book and #abth
 chapter of ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 
he tells us the size or paste used by   
bookbinders was made with fine  wheaten 
flour1 boiling water1 and a little      
vinegar1 which is our common            
shoemaker's paste4 ,and in book xi41    
chapter #ci1 we learn that the  stronger
 glue was made1 as now1 of the hides of 
cattle boiled down4  ,he says bull's    
hide makes the strongest glue4 ,the     
ancients seem  to take some strange     
things for granted4 ,a bull is stronger 
than a  cow--therefore--his hide makes  
stronger glue4 ,an ,english mechanic    
would  have tried the experiment4       
#bbc ,this tallies with ,erasmus'       
description of ,english houses at       
nearly the same period1 in one of his   

letters4    #bbd ,this white is         
phosphate of lime4    #bbe ,the tool1   
and the outline produced by it1 were no 
doubt  legitimately descended from the  
antique ,,cestrum and ,,skiagrum of     
,fuseli4  ,there is an unfinished       
picture by ,giovanni ,bellini1 in the   
,florence  ,gallery1 in which the white 
ground on the board is visible4 ,the    
marks  of the tool are also distinct1 a 
little indented1 and the shadowed  part 
is hatched4 ,over this there is a brown 
transparent colour1 which  has thickened
 in the indented lines and hatchings1   
rendering the  lines darker2 had he     
hatched again through the transparent   
ground to  the white ground in the      
lights1 we should have had1 as ,i       
conceive1 a  perfect monochrome4    #bbf
 ,in his ,histoire de la ,peinture      
,ancienne1 wherein he has printed  what 
he calls the thirty-fifth book of       
,pliny1 with his translation2 but  he   
has left out what pleased him1 and      
inserted other parts of the work1  and  

omitted the numbering of the chapters1  
so as to render it difficult  to detect 
his want of fidelity4    #bbg ,book     
,,xxxv4 ch4 #g4 ,a passage in one of    
,horace's ,satires describes  pictures1 
whether on cloth or wood1 suspended at  
the entrances to the  public shows at   
,rome1 nearly as we should now describe 
the pictures  exhibited for the same    
purposes by ,gingel and his ingenious   
brethren1  to invite spectators to their
 itinerant playhouses1 and such as the  
lamented ,pidcock used to allure them to
 the shows of elephants and  tigers4    
,if some fam'd piece the painter's art  
displays1      ,transfix'd you stand1   
with admiration gaze#bbh2      #bbh ,in 
the original the painter's name is      
mentioned2 it is ,pausias of  ,sicyon4  
#bbi ,pliny1 ,natural ,history1 ,book   
xiii4 ch4 #aa4    #bcj ,libri sacri     
scritti in tela di lino1 sorta di volumi
 antichissimi  molte di quali vide      
,frontone custoditi in                  
,anagni4--,,micali4 ,storia  degli      

,antichi ,popoli ,italiani1 page #cb4   
,in ,wilks' ,history of the ,south of   
,india1 there is an account of the      
cudduttum1 curruthum1 or currut1 used as
 books in that province4 ,it  is a strip
 of cotton cloth1 covered on both sides 
with a mixture of  paste and charcoal4  
,the writing is done with a pencil of   
lapis ollaris1  called balopium1 and may
 be rubbed out like that on a slate2 the
 cloth  is folded in leaves like a      
pocket-map1 and tied up between thin    
boards  painted and ornamented4 ,this   
mode of writing was anciently used for  
records and other public papers1 and in 
some parts of the country  is still     
employed by merchants and shopkeepers4  
,it is very durable1  indeed probably   
more so than either paper1 parchment1 or
 the palm leaf4  ,colonel ,wilks        
supposes it to be the linen or cotton   
cloth on which  ,arrian states that the 
,indians wrote4    #bca ,pliny          
contradicts himself on the subject of   
parchment4 ,in b4  xxxv4 he says that   

,parrhasius painted or drew upon it2 but
 b4 xii4 c4  #aj1 he ascribes the       
invention of it to ,eumenes1 king of    
,pergamos1 who  lived after the time of 
,parrhasius1 saying that he invented    
parchment  because ,ptolemy1 king of    
,egypt1 had prohibited the exportation  
of paper  made of the papyrus4 ,i cannot
 help believing that parchment was known
  before the time of ,eumenes4 ,he may  
have improved it1 and hit upon a  method
 of rendering it more fit for writing   
upon4    #bcb ,giotto was born in #abgf2
 his master1 ,cimabue1 in #abdj2 his    
gigantic ,madonnas are painted on wood4 
,i had no opportunity of  examining     
whether there was linen under the       
plaster ground4 ,margaritone  was born  
about #abej2 ,gaddo ,gaddi1 #abci1 or   
thereabouts4    #bcc ,the ,venetians1   
owing to their commerce with the ,east1 
are the  most likely of all the         
,italians to have been influenced by the
 practice  handed down by the ,greek    
painters2 and we first find the general 

use of  canvass1 especially of very     
large size1 at ,venice4    #bcd ,colonel
 ,leake's ,topography of ,athens4       
,additional notes on the  temple of     
,theseus1 p4 #djj4    #bce ,taylor's    
,plato--,phdo4 ,the twelve colours are  
not named1 but  further on there is the 
expression1 8all the objects are        
rendered  beautiful through various     
colours--purple of wonderful beauty1    
golden hue1 pure white1 emerald10 c4    
#bcf ,carbonate of lead1 with a         
proportion of oxide4    #bcg ,some of   
the pictures in the ,campo ,santo at    
,pisa have suffered  lamentably from the
 neglect of this caution4 ,the high     
lights have  become absolutely black4   
#bch ,see ,pliny1 book xxxiii4 end of   
ch4 #ab1 and the whole of ch4 #ac4      
#bci ,in the manufactory of porcelain1  
japan-ware1 c41 it is much  used4       
,perhaps ,caligula's chemists flattered 
him1 by pretending to find  gold in the 
orpiment4    #bdj        ---- ,twelve   
galleys with vermilion prores1          

,beneath his conduct sought the         
,phrygian shores4                       
,pope's ,iliad1 book ii4      #bda ,i   
have seen the poor gods of the ,hindoos 
of low caste thus rouged4    #bdb ,about
 the year of ,rome #bdi4    #bdc        
,cinabrese is praised by ,armenino1 who 
wrote in #afjj4 ,i do not  always       
mention ,armenino when ,i might2 #ast1  
because ,i prefer ,cennino's  authority2
 #bnd1 because ,armenino is a coxcomb   
whose work ,i have no  pleasure in2 and 
#crd1 because it is useless to multiply 
quotations4  ,however1 he is a writer of
 value on these matters4    #bdd        
,minium--red oxide of lead4    #bde ,the
 ancients believed that it was really   
the blood of dragons1  which had sucked 
the blood of elephants1 and had died1   
crushed under  the weight of that       
enormous quadruped4    #bdf ,dragon's   
blood is the resin of the 8,dracna      
draco0 of ,linnus4  ,the resin itself is
 opaque and brittle4 ,the powder is of a
 crimson  colour1 insoluble in water4   

,with us it is soluble both in alcohol  
and  in the fixed oils2 the ancients1 as
 they had not alcohol1 may have used  it
 with oil4    ,this was probably the    
crimson colour which the ,frenchman1    
mentioned  in the little account of     
,pompeii1 published by the ,society for 
the  ,diffusion of ,knowledge1 bought of
 the workmen employed in excavating  the
 town1 and used with success as a body  
colour4 ,he does not appear to  have    
analysed it1 or in any way endeavoured  
to ascertain its nature1  for the       
benefit of art4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #ef4  
#bdg ,see note to p4 #h4    #bdh ,the   
colour of the mantle of the ,ganymede in
 the ancient fresco  belonging to ,sir  
,m4 ,w4 ,ridley looks like discoloured  
lake4    #bdi ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 in  
his paper in the first part of the      
volume  of the ,philosophical           
,transactions for #ahae1 on the colours 
used in  painting by the ancients1 says1
 that the artificial blue found in the  
baths of ,titus is a frit made by means 

of soda1 and coloured with oxide  of    
copper4 ,he imagines it to have been the
 blue invented by an ancient  king of   
,egypt mentioned in the text1 and the   
same also with that  crulium1 the art of
 making which was brought from ,egypt to
 ,puteoli1 by  ,vestorius4 ,that was    
made by heating together sand1 flower of
 nitre1 i4  e4 soda1 and filings of     
copper4    #bej ,certain balls of a fine
 blue colour have been brought from the 
,egyptian tombs since ,sir ,humphrey    
,davy's paper was written4 ,i do not    
know whether they have been analysed1   
but their appearance is like that  of   
the frit found in the baths of ,titus4  
#bea ,she was of the ,lusignan family1  
and is buried at ,assisi4    #beb ,it is
 to be regretted that ,baron ,bertholdy 
did not live to  complete and publish   
his essay on the glass and paste of the 
ancients1  as applied to the production 
of cameos1 intaglios1 c41 in imitation  
of true gems4 ,he had collected a great 
mass of materials1 and had had  some    

very beautiful specimens engraved4      
,among other fragments1 ,i saw in  his  
possession1 in #ahai1 several handles of
 drinking-cups1 on which the  maker's   
name and place of residence1 namely1    
,sidon1 were stamped before  the glass  
was cold1 some in ,greek1 some in ,roman
 letters4    ,mr4 ,hatchet has analysed 
many of the ancient glasses and pastes2 
but he  did not find cobalt in any of   
them4 ,in some very ancient beads found 
in one of the oldest tombs of ,egypt1 he
 found the colouring matter  was        
manganese4 ,yet ,davy speaks of a blue  
glass which appeared to him  to be      
tinged with cobalt as common among the  
ruins of ,rome2 and says1  moreover1    
that on analysing different ancient     
transparent blue glasses1  he had found 
cobalt in all of them4    #bec ,pliny1  
book xxxiii4 ch4 #e4    #bed ,borax is a
 salt with excess of soda4 ,the ancients
 used it as we  do1 as a flux1 and a    
solder for metals4    #bee ,also used by
 shoemakers to blacken leather shoes4   

#bef ,most probably ,indian ink4    #beg
 ,purple dye1 the purple of ,puteoli1   
was not procured simply from  the       
shell-fish1 but was mixed with the juice
 of madder and the megalob  berries4    
,hence1 probably1 the superior quality  
of the pigment4    #beh ,sandyx is a    
colour procured by calcining common     
ruddle and  sandarach together4         
,sandarach is a red substance found     
near1 and in  silver mines4 ,an island  
in the ,red ,sea produced a great deal4 
,sandarach  is also gum from the        
juniper1 but ,pliny means the           
mineral4--,book xxxv4  ch4 #f4 ,virgil1 
however1 must mean the juniper when he  
says1 that  browsing upon sandarach     
rendered the fleeces of the sheep red4  
#bei ,the early establishment of the    
manufacture of glass and the            
beautifully coloured ,venetian beads in 
,murano1 where a remnant of  the art    
still exists1 ,i think warrants my      
supposition4 ,the ,queen of  ,cyprus's  
gift of ultramarine to the church of    

,assisi1 may be taken  as a proof1 that 
so late as #acjj the island had not lost
 its colour  manufactures4    #bfj ,this
 was later by four years than his       
examination of the colours  found in the
 baths of ,titus1 the paper upon which  
in the ,philosophical  ,transactions ,i 
have quoted4    #bfa ,the word vernix   
7varnish7 was entirely unknown to the   
ancients4  ,lyttleton1 in his ,latin    
,dictionary1 says it is derived from the
 fact1  that in the spring1 ver1 the    
juniper1 begins to yield its resin2 and 
that juniper1 or gum sandarach1 was the 
first substance from which true  varnish
 was prepared4 ,he ought to have added  
in ,europe3 for certainly  true varnish 
was used in ,china long before the      
period at which he  places the first use
 of the word vernix1 and1 as will appear
 by the  text1 ,i have no doubt that the
 thing1 if not the name1 was known by   
our  ancients in ,europe also4    #bfb  
,supposed the ,pena sarcocolla2 the gum 
is in the form of small  whitish grains1

 of a bitter sweetish taste2 it is      
almost entirely  soluble in water4      
#bfc ,supposed to be produced by a      
species of ferula4 ,it is soluble in    
water and in vinegar4    #bfd ,the resin
 of the juniper4    #bfe ,pliny1 b4     
xxxv4 ch4 #ae4    #bff ,pliny's account 
of ampelitis appears to agree with that 
given by  ,field1 in his ,book on       
,colours1 of some specimens of native   
asphaltum1  brought to him direct from  
,persia4 ,it did not dissolve with oil  
or  turpentine1 but ground well with    
drying oil1 and made a fine colour4     
,for ampelitis1 see ,pliny1 b4 xxxv4 c4 
#af4    #bfg ,a boat1 or ship-builder1  
when he pays the bottoms of his  vessels
 with boiling pitch1 is really painting 
in the encaustic manner4    #bfh ,b4    
xxxii4 ch4 #g4 ,the word here translated
 waxed cloths1 is  literally candles2   
but1 as candles were made of wax1 ,i    
adhere to  ,holland's expression1 as    
giving ,pliny's meaning4    #bfi ,b4    
xxi4 ch4 #ad4 ,the wax so coloured was  

the finest white punic  wax2 we must not
 forget that waxen images were among    
those exhibited in  funeral processions4
    #bgj ,in his quotations from        
,vitruvius and ,pliny he unaccountably  
translates red wax for ,punic wax4 ,now 
,pliny says expressly that  ,punic wax  
was the whitest of all1 and particularly
 describes the manner  of bleaching it4 
#bga ,the work of ,theophilus was       
composed certainly not later than ,a4   
,d4 #ajjj1 probably earlier2 that of    
,heraclius1 de ,artibus ,romanorum1 was 
written about the same period4 ,raspe   
published ,theophilus under the  title  
of 8,theophilus ,monacus de omni        
scientia artis pingendi1 e codice       
manuscripto ,collegii ,trinitatis       
,cantabrigiensis40    #bgb ,linseed oil 
does not dry well without management1   
any more than  the nut oils4 ,theophilus
 directs that it should be simmered in a
 new  pipkin over a slow fire 7but by no
 means boil71 till one-third was        
evaporated2 then powdered fornice1 i4e4 

resin from the pitch-tree1  stirred in2 
and observes1 that every kind of        
painting glazed with this  becomes      
glossy and durable4 ,thus the simple oil
 varnish was known and  used at least as
 early as the eleventh century1 four    
hundred years  before the ,van ,eycks4  
,a ground1 named by ,theophilus1 and    
afterwards by ,cennino1 for  cementing  
panel1 was composed of powdered lime and
 cheese1--the chief  ingredients1 if ,i 
am not mistaken1 of ,vancouver's and    
other strong  cements4    #bgc ,venice  
turpentine1 perhaps4    #bgd ,a term    
now1 ,i believe1 only used in heraldry1 
either in ,english  or ,french4 ,in     
,rome they now make pencils of the fine 
hair of kids4                           
,,the ,,end4                            
,,london3                ,,bradbury     
,,and ,,evans1 ,,printers1              
,,whitefriars4          ,,errata4       
,page #ai1 line #f1 for ,trimuti read   
,trimurti       #eb1 in the note1 l4 #c 
from bottom1 for ,sira read ,siva       

#ajg1 l4 #f1 for cotemporary read       
contemporary      #add1 l4 #aa1 for     
,nausicta read ,nausicaa      #afc1     
bottom line1 for cotemporary read       
contemporary      #afg1 l4 #ab1         
the same           the same      #bji1  
l4 #e1 for ,guileo read ,giulio         
#bbe1 l4 #i1 omit the full stop         
#bec1 in the second note1 for terula    
read ferula                             
,,just ,,published                      
,,by ,,edward ,,moxon1                  
,,dover ,,street4                       
,i4                     ,in #c ,vols4   
price #al4 #gs4 #f;d4 cloth1            
,,the ,,prose ,,works ,,of ,,charles    
,,lamb4                                 
,,ii4                            ,price 
#gs4 #f;d4 cloth1                       
,,the ,,poetical ,,works ,,of ,,charles 
,,lamb4                                 
,,iii4                        ,in #b    
,vols4 price #ads4 cloth1               
,,specimens ,,of ,,english ,,dramatic   
,,poets3                                

,,with ,,notes4                         
,,by ,,charles ,,lamb4                  
,a ,new ,edition4                       
,,iv4                        ,in #b     
,vols4 price #ahs4 boards1              
,,letters1 ,,conversations1 ,,and       
,,recollections                         
,,of                         ,,samuel   
,,taylor ,,coleridge4                   
,v4                                     
,price #ds41                            
,,ion4 ,a ,,tragedy1                    
,,by ,,mr4 ,,serjeant ,,talfourd4       
,,vi4                                   
,price #is4 cloth1                      
,,the ,,poetical ,,works                
,,of                                    
,,thomas ,,campbell4                    
,,vii4       ,in #b ,vols4 illustrated  
by #abh ,vignettes1 price #bl4 #bs4     
boards1                                 
,,the ,,poetical ,,works                
,,of                            ,,samuel
 ,,rogers1 ,,esq4                       
,,viii4                                 

,price #es4 cloth1                      
,,selections ,,from ,,wordsworth4       
,a ,,new ,,edition4                     
,,ix4                        ,in #f     
,vols4 price #cjs4 cloth1               
,,the ,,curiosities ,,of ,,literature4  
,,by ,i4 ,d',,israeli1 ,,esq4           
,,ninth ,,edition4                      
,x4                        ,in #b ,vols4
 price #abs4 boards1                    
,,philip ,,van ,,artevelde1             
,a ,dramatic ,romance4                  
,,by ,,henry ,,taylor1 ,,esq4           
,,second ,,edition4                     
,,xi4                                   
,price #es4 cloth1                      
,,letters ,,and ,,essays4               
,,by ,,richard ,,sharp1 ,,esq4          
,,third ,,edition4                      
,in the ,press1                         
,,the ,,letters ,,of ,,charles ,,lamb1  
,,with ,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,his ,,life2   
,,by ,,his ,,executor1                  
,,mr4 ,,serjeant ,,talfourd4            
,transcriber's ,notes    ,obvious       

punctuation errors and omissions have   
been corrected4    ,the errata have been
 corrected4    ,page #ca3 8a peculiar   
rythm0 changed to 8a peculiar rhythm0   
,page #ce3 8hieroglyhic painting0       
changed to 8hieroglyphic painting0      
,page #ei3 8a singulur use0 changed to  
8a singular use0    ,page #hg3 8,poco   
polvere son0 changed to 8,poca polvere  
son0    ,page #aci3 8,lists of ,votive  
,statutes0 changed to 8,lists of ,votive
  ,statues0    ,page #adj3 8,cenino     
,cennini's curious work0 changed to     
8,cennino ,cennini's  curious work0     
,page #ade3 8in the from of a0 changed  
to 8in the form of a0 8,boticelli       
first1 and aftewards ,raffaelle0 changed
 to 8,botticelli first1 and  afterwards 
,raffaelle0    ,page #adh3 8himself to  
to his friend0 changed to 8himself to   
his friend0    ,page #agb3 8seen ,guilio
 ,,ii40 changed to 8seen ,giulio ,,ii40 
,page #age3 8by ,timanthus0 changed to  
8by ,timanthes0    ,page #aie3          
8,rafaelle himself0 changed to          

8,raffaelle himself0    ,page #bjf3 8it 
it enough to0 changed to 8it is enough  
to0    ,page #baj3 8example in          
,pireicus0 changed to 8example in       
,pyreicus0    ,page #bbf3 8di volumi    
autichissimi0 changed to 8di volumi     
antichissimi0  8,autichi ,popoli        
,italiani0 changed to 8,antichi ,popoli 
,italiani0    ,page #bbh3 8noboby now   
thinks0 changed to 8nobody now thinks0  
,page #beb3 8gum sanderach0 changed to  
8gum sandarach0    ,page #bfa3 8he      
unaccountbly0 changed to 8he            
unaccountably0