,illustration3      ,m4 ,,lie           
,,metchnikoff                           
,,the                                   
,,nature ,,of ,,man                     
,,studies ,,in ,,optimistic ,,philosophy
                                        
,,by                                    
,,lie ,,metchnikoff                     
,,professor ,,at ,,the ,,pasteur        
,,institute                             
,,the ,,english ,,translation           
,,edited ,,by                           
,p4 ,,chalmers ,,mitchell               
,m4,a41 ,d4,,sc4 ,,oxon4                
,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,zoological     
,,society ,,of ,,london                 
,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons              
,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london             
,the ,knickerbocker ,press              
,,copyright1 #aijc                      
,,by                            ,g4 ,p4 
,,putnam',s ,,sons                      
,eleventh ,printing                     
,,editor',s ,,introduction      ,when   
,pasteur died a remarkable article      

appeared in one of the ,paris           
newspapers4 ,the writer described the   
intimate routine of the life at the     
,pasteur ,institute1 and compared it    
with that of a medival religious        
community4 ,a little body of men1       
forsaking the world and the things of   
the world1 had gathered together under  
the compulsion of a great idea4  ,they  
had given up the rivalries and personal 
interests of ordinary men1  and1 sharing
 their goods and their work1 they lived 
in austere devotion  to science1 finding
 no sacrifice of health or money1 or of 
what men call  pleasure1 too great for  
the common object4 ,rumours of war and  
peace1  echoes of the turmoil of        
politics and religion1 passed unheeded  
over  their monastic seclusion2 but if  
there came news of a strange disease in 
,china or ,peru1 a scientific emissary  
was ready with his microscope and  his  
tubes to serve as a missionary of the   
new knowledge and the new hope  that    
,pasteur had brought to suffering       

humanity4 ,the adventurous exploits  and
 the patient vigils of this new ,order  
have brought about a revolution  in our 
knowledge of disease1 and there seems no
 limit to the triumphs  that will come  
from the parent ,institute in ,paris and
 from its many  daughters in other      
cities4    lie ,metchnikoff1 now        
,professor at the ,pasteur ,institute in
 ,paris1 is  one of the most            
distinguished of the disciples who left 
all else to  follow ,pasteur4 ,he was   
born on the third 7#af7 ,may1 #ahde1 in 
a village of  the ,government of        
,kharkoff 7,little ,russia74 ,he was    
educated at the  ,gymnasium and the     
,university of ,kharkoff1 passing       
through the ,faculty of  ,science4 ,from
 #ahfd to #ahgj he worked at ,zoology at
 ,giessen1 ,gttingen  and ,munich1      
successively under three well-known     
zoologists1 ,leuckhart1  ,henle and ,von
 ,siebold1 and was then appointed       
,professor of ,zoology and  ,comparative
 ,anatomy at ,odessa4 ,he made          

expeditions to ,madeira1 ,teneriffe  and
 the ,kalmuck ,steppes in connection    
with his zoological researches4 ,in     
#ahhb1 in consequence of administrative 
difficulties1 arising as part of  the   
troubles that followed the murder of the
 ,tzar1 ,alexander ,,ii41 he  resigned  
the ,professorship and became ,director 
of the municipal  ,bacteriological      
,laboratory4 ,in #ahhh he went to the   
,pasteur ,institute1  and has remained  
there since that time4    ,the earlier  
part of ,metchnikoff's career was       
devoted to ,zoology1 and  chiefly to    
investigation of the embryological      
history of the lower  invertebrates1 and
 the sequence of his discoveries should 
afford food  for reflection to those    
,baconian economists who are unwilling  
to shelter  any tree of knowledge that  
does not give immediate promise of      
marketable  fruit4 ,the labour of many  
years spent in minute tracing of the    
development of insects1 echinoderms1    
worms and jellyfish1 would appear       

sufficiently unprofitable to those who  
give a scanty support to ,botany  as the
 provider of drugs1 who tolerate        
,chemistry because it has supplied      
aniline dyes1 and who patronise the     
physical sciences from a lively  sense  
of the convenience of telephones and    
telegraphs4 ,and yet from  these remote1
 inhuman interests1 ,metchnikoff1       
without intellectual  transition1 passed
 directly to results affecting vitally  
the human race1  and became one of the  
high priests of ,bacteriology and a     
guardian of the  ,pandora's box of      
modern times4    ,from observations made
 originally on water-fleas1 he was led  
to discover  the functions of the white 
corpuscles of human blood4 ,he showed by
 what  mechanism these made perpetual   
war against the intruding microbes of   
disease1 and he laid the foundations of 
knowledge as to the agencies  that      
weaken and the modes of strengthening   
these guardians of our  health4 ,in a   
series of investigations into the       

phenomena of inflammation  in men and   
lower animals1 he carried his           
observations into new fields1  and      
explained the relations of the white    
corpuscles to the juices that  attract  
and repel them 7chemotaxis74 ,it was he1
 for instance1 who  discovered that     
these corpuscles1 under certain         
circumstances1 migrate  into the hairs  
and absorb and remove the pigment1 so   
producing the  blanching of old age4    
,although popularly the most interesting
 this was  far from being the most      
important of the changes of senile decay
 that he  found to be due to the        
activity of the wandering cells of the  
body4 ,and1  as will be seen in the     
present volume1 the actions and         
interactions of  the bacteria harboured 
in the body1 the white corpuscles that  
are a  natural part of the body1 and the
 various juices or serums produced      
naturally or introduced by accident or  
design1 are concerned in life  itself   
and the decay of life4    ,metchnikoff  

is an expert of experts in the science  
of life1 and has  gained the right to a 
hearing by forty years of patient       
devotion and  brilliant research4 ,in   
the volume that he has now given to the 
public1  he has addressed himself to the
 gravest and the most serious problems  
of  humanity1 to life and sex and death 
and the fear of death4 ,from the        
earliest days when man could spare time 
from the satisfaction of his  immediate 
wants to reflect upon his nature and    
destiny1 these problems  and the        
invention of fantastic solutions or     
evasive anodynes have  absorbed his     
attention4 ,the folklore and philosophy1
 the religion and  poetry of all races  
and of all stages of culture1 from      
savage barbarism  to decadent           
refinement1 revolve round these         
obsessions of the mind1 and1  as        
,metchnikoff most plainly shows1 no     
enduring comfort has yet been  found4   
,now for the first time in the history  
of thought1 the exact  methods of       

science have been brought to the        
statement of the problems4    ,in       
revising this translation of            
,metchnikoff's book for the             
,english-speaking public ,i have had to 
content myself with seeing that  the    
plain meaning of the ,french was        
transformed to plain ,english1 and  that
 references to ,french editions were    
changed1 so far as was possible1  to    
corresponding references to ,english    
editions4 ,some of the phrases  that    
recur were difficult to express4 8,human
 nature0 for instance is not  an exact  
equivalent of la nature humaine1 for the
 latter phrase has a  complete          
significance1 and very definitely       
implies not only the mental  qualities  
of man1 but his bodily framework1 with  
its inherited and  acquired anatomical  
structure and physiological functions4  
,the phrase  8human constitution10      
especially in the common medical sense1 
carries  more of the meaning1 and ,i    
have used it occasionally4 ,the word    

8harmony0  means harmony with the       
environment1 and disharmony is want of  
harmony or  imperfect adaptation to the 
existing environment4 ,in the case of   
the  human organism1 which has passed   
through profound changes at a rate      
prodigious in the history of evolution1 
many parts of the constitution  are no  
longer in gear with the existing        
environment1 and it is in such          
disharmonies that ,metchnikoff finds the
 source of the troubles that have       
perplexed mankind4    ,in several parts 
of this volume1 and particularly in the 
chapter dealing  with disharmonies in   
the reproductive functions1 there is    
much plain  speaking on matters that    
modern civilisation attempts to conceal4
 ,i have  not had the impertinence to   
suppress or to alter a line or a word of
  these pages4 ,they are written in high
 seriousness on fundamental facts  of   
the constitution of man2 they relate to 
problems and difficulties  that every   
age in the history of man has had to    

face1 and that are dealt  with in the   
plainest language in the books of all   
the religions4 ,for the  first time     
proper knowledge has been brought to the
 task1 and it is to  be remembered that 
this volume is an attempt to explain    
mysteries of the  flesh and of the      
spirit of which all existing            
explanations have failed  to satisfy    
humanity4 ,the volume is avowedly no    
more than a preliminary  statement1 a   
rallying-point for the work of future   
generations4 ,but it  awakens a new hope
 for humanity now that the old are      
fallen dumb2 as  ,metchnikoff himself   
says1 8,if it be true that man cannot   
live without  faith1 this volume1 when  
the age of faith seemed gone by1 has    
provided a  new faith1 that in the      
all-powerfulness of science40 ,in every 
country1  the new ,order of priests of  
science1 in the vigils of the           
laboratory1 is  working for the future  
of humanity4                            
,p4 ,,chalmers ,,mitchell4              

,,preface      ,in offering this book to
 you1 reader1 ,i feel that ,i must      
justify its  publication4 ,i admit      
freely that more could be said for a    
finished study  in which hypotheses were
 replaced by exact fact4 ,but to get    
together  assured results in a field so 
little explored is a great task1 calling
  for time and much labour4    ,i       
remembered the adage1 8,ars longa1 vita 
brevis10 and ,i decided to  publish what
 is really a programme of work to be    
carried out as fully as  circumstances  
may permit4 ,at all events1 ,i hope that
 such a programme  may have its value   
for younger investigators1 who wish a   
point of  orientation for their labours4
    ,my book is addressed to disciplined
 minds1 and in especial to  biologists4 
,as ,i wrote it1 ,i had not the general 
public in my mind1 and  so ,i did not   
hesitate to devote nearly the whole of a
 chapter to  8disharmonies in the       
apparatus of reproduction40 ,i see in   
that apparatus  the clearest proof of   

the essential disharmony in the         
organisation of  man4    ,i have to     
thank those friends who were familiar   
with my views and whose  advice and     
assistance have helped me to develop    
them4    ,in particular1 ,i desire to   
thank my friends ,dr4 ,e4 ,roux1 who was
 at the  pains to make my ,french more  
,french2 and ,dr4 ,j4 ,goldschmidt and  
,dr4  ,mesnil1 who have read and revised
 the proof-sheets4                      
,,lie ,,metchnikoff4        ,,paris1    
,february #h1 #aijc4                    
,,contents                              
,page   ,,editor',s ,,introduction      
iii     ,,author',s ,,preface           
ix                                      
,,part ,i                               
,,disharmonies ,,in ,,the ,,nature ,,of 
,,man                                   
,,chapter ,i                            
,,introduction--,,summary ,,of          
,,opinions ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of     
,,man                 #c                
,importance of the study of the nature  

of man--,the nature of man       as the 
foundation of morality--,greek worship  
of human       nature--,matriopathy of  
ancient philosophers--,rationalism of   
the eighteenth and nineteenth           
centuries--,degradation of human        
nature by religious                     
doctrines--,influence of these          
conceptions       on actual life and on 
art--,reaction of the ,reformation      
against the degradation of human        
nature--,mutilation of the       human  
body by primitive races                 
,,chapter ,,ii     ,,harmonies ,,and    
,,disharmonies ,,amongst ,,beings       
,,inferior ,,to ,,man            #ag    
,the organised world before the         
appearance of man on the                
earth--,absence of a law of universal   
progress--,fertilisation       of       
vanilla--,the part played by insects in 
the fertilisation       of              
orchids--,mechanism by which insects    
carry the pollen of                     
orchids--,habits of fossorial           

wasps--,harmonies in                    
nature--,useless organs--,rudiments of  
the pollinia of                         
orchids--,disharmonies in               
nature--,unadapted insects--,aberration 
of instincts--,perversion of sexual     
instinct--,attraction of       insects  
by light--,luminous insects--,law of    
natural       selection--,happiness and 
unhappiness in the organised world      
,,chapter ,,iii     ,,simian ,,origin   
,,of ,,man                              
#dj       ,relationship of the human    
species with anthropoid                 
apes--,analogies in the dentition1 in   
the organisation of the       limbs and 
of the brain--,resemblance of the       
vermiform       appendage of man and    
anthropoids--,analogy between the       
placenta and ftus of man and anthropoid 
apes--,blood       relationship of man  
and monkeys shown by serums and         
precipitates--,transmutation of         
species--,sudden transition from        
monkey to man--,j4 ,inaudi1 the         

calculator1 as an example of       the  
sudden appearance of characters in the  
human       species--,rudimentary organs
 in man--,proportion of progressive     
and retrogressive organs in the         
organisation of man                     
,,chapter ,,iv     ,,disharmonies ,,in  
,,the ,,organisation ,,of ,,the         
,,digestive ,,system ,,of ,,man      #fa
       ,perfection of the human         
form--,the covering of hair--,the       
dentition in general1 and the wisdom    
teeth--,the vermiform                   
appendage--,appendicitis and its        
gravity--,uselessness of the       ccum 
and of the large intestine--,instance of
 a woman without       a large          
intestine--,ancestral history of this   
portion of the       digestive          
tract--,injurious effect of the microbes
 of the       large                     
intestine--,frequency of cancer of the  
large intestine       and of the        
stomach--,limited usefulness of the     
stomach--,the       instinct of choice  

of food--,futility of this instinct in  
man                                     
,,chapter ,v     ,,disharmonies ,,in    
,,the ,,organisation ,,and ,,activities 
,,of ,,the     ,,reproductive           
,,apparatus--,,disharmonies ,,in ,,the  
,,family ,,and ,,social     ,,instincts 
#gh                                     
,i       ,remarks on the disharmonies in
 the human organs of sense and          
perception--,rudimentary parts of the   
reproductive       apparatus--,origin   
and function of the hymen               
,,ii       ,evolution and significance  
of the menstrual flow in                
women--,precocious marriage amongst     
primitive and uncivilised               
races--,disharmony between age of       
puberty and age of       nubility--,age 
of marriage--,examples of disharmony in 
the       development of the            
reproductive function                   
,,iii       ,disharmonies in the family 
instincts--,artificial                  
abortion--,desertion and                

infanticide--,disharmonies in the       
social instincts                        
,,chapter ,,vi     ,,disharmonies ,,in  
,,the ,,instinct ,,of                   
,,self-,,preservation                   
#aac       ,the instinct of             
self-preservation in animals--,man's    
instinctive       love of               
life--,indifference to life during      
childhood--,buddhist       legend on    
instinctive self-preservation and the   
fear of       death--,fear of death     
treated in literature--,confessions of  
,tolstoi regarding the fear of          
death--,other opinions on the           
subject--,the fear of death an          
instinctive                             
phenomenon--,development in man of a    
love of life--,treatment of       the   
aged--,murder of old people--,suicide of
 old men--,absence of       harmony     
between the love of life and the        
conditions of human                     
existence--,the part played by the fear 
of death in religions       and systems 

of philosophy                           
,,part ,,ii       ,,attempts ,,to       
,,diminish ,,the ,,ills ,,arising ,,from
 ,,the ,,disharmonies ,,of ,,the        
,,human ,,constitution 7,,religious     
,,and ,,philosophical ,,systems7        
,,chapter ,,vii     ,,religious         
,,attempts ,,to ,,combat ,,the ,,ills   
,,arising ,,from ,,the                  
,,disharmonies ,,of ,,the ,,human       
,,constitution                          
#acg       ,animism as the foundation of
 primitive religions--,the ,jewish      
religion in relation to the doctrine of 
immortality of the       soul--,the     
religions of ,china--,ancestor-worship  
in       ,confucianism--,the conception 
of immortality in ,taoism--,the         
persistence of the soul in the ,buddhist
 religion--,the       paradise of the   
,chinese ,buddhists--,ancestors         
worshipped as       gods--,influence of 
religious faith on the fear of          
death--,pessimism of the doctrine of    
,buddha--,the meaning of                

,nirvna--,resignation as preached by    
,buddha--,objections to                 
immortality of the soul--,irritability  
of the tissues and       cells of the   
body--,religious hygiene--,religious    
means of       controlling the          
reproductive functions and of preventing
       diseases--,failure of religions  
in their attempts to combat       the   
ills arising from the disharmonies of   
the human       constitution            
,,chapter ,,viii     ,,attempts ,,in    
,,systems ,,of ,,philosophy ,,to        
,,remedy ,,the ,,ills ,,arising         
,,from ,,the ,,disharmonies ,,of ,,the  
,,human ,,constitution                  
#aff       ,some philosophical systems  
are in intimate union with              
religions--,ideas of ancient            
philosophers on the immortality       of
 the soul--,the teaching of ,plato--,the
 scepticism of       ,aristotle--,the   
,stoics--,cicero1 ,seneca1 ,marcus      
,aurelius--,modern       philosophical  
systems--,pessimism and its             

origin--,lord       ,byron--,theories of
 ,schopenhauer and                      
,hartmann--,mailaender's                
philosophy of deliverance--,criticisms  
of pessimism--,max       ,nordau--,ideas
 of modern thinkers on death            
,,part ,,iii      ,,what ,,science ,,is 
,,able ,,to ,,do ,,to ,,alleviate ,,the 
,,disharmonies ,,of ,,the ,,human       
,,constitution                          
,,chapter ,,ix     ,,what ,,science     
,,can ,,do ,,against ,,disease          
#bjc       ,formation of the            
experimental method--,the intervention  
of       religion in disease--,disease  
as a basis of pessimistic       systems 
of philosophy--,advance of medical      
science in the war       against        
disease--,the revolution in medicine and
 surgery due       to the discoveries of
 ,pasteur--,the beneficial results of   
,serum ,therapy in the war against      
infectious diseases--,failure       of  
science to cure tuberculosis and        
malignant       tumours--,protests      

against the advance of                  
science--,opposition       of ,rousseau1
 ,tolstoi and ,brunetire--,proclamation 
of the       fallibility of             
science--,return to religion and        
mysticism                               
,,chapter ,x     ,,introduction ,,to    
,,the ,,scientific ,,study ,,of ,,old   
,,age                     #bbh          
,general account of old age--,theory of 
senile degeneration       amongst       
unicellular organisms--,conjugation     
amongst       infusoria--,old age in    
birds and in anthropoid apes--,general  
characters of senile                    
degeneration--,sclerosis of the         
organs--,phagocyte theory of senile     
degeneration--,destruction       of     
higher elements by                      
macrophags--,mechanism of whitening of  
the hair--,serums acting on cells       
7cytotoxins7--,sclerosis of       the   
arteries and its causation--,harm done  
by the microbes of       the alimentary 
canal--,intestinal putrefaction and the 

modes       of preventing it--,attempts 
to prolong human life--,longevity in    
biblical times                          
,,chapter ,,xi     ,,introduction ,,to  
,,the ,,scientific ,,study ,,of ,,death 
#bfb       ,theory of the immortality of
 lower organisms--,immortality of       
the sexual cells in higher              
organisms--,immortality of the          
cellular soul--,occurrence of natural   
death in the case of       certain      
animals--,natural death in the          
,ephemerid--,loss of the       instinct 
of preservation in adult                
,ephemerids--,instinct of       life in 
the aged--,instinct of natural death in 
man--,death of       old men in biblical
 times--,changes in the instincts of man
       and lower animals                
,,chapter ,,xii     ,,summary ,,and     
,,conclusions                           
#bhe       ,disharmonies in the human   
constitution as the chief source of     
our sorrows--,scientific data as to the 
origin and destiny of       man--,the   

goal of human existence--,difficulties  
in the way of       scientific          
investigation of the problem1 ,what is  
progress8--,difficulty of including the 
whole human rate in a       scheme of   
progress and morality--,the instincts of
 life and of       natural              
death--,application to real life of the 
doctrines set       forth in this book  
,,illustrations       ,photograph of lie
 ,metchnikoff                           
,frontispiece   ,figs4                  
,page   #a4      ,catasetum saccatum    
#bd   #b4      ,herminium monorchis     
#bf   #c4      ,cerceris                
#bh   #d4      ,listera ovata           
#cb   #e4      ,pelopus                 
#cd   #f4      ,ccum and vermiform      
appendage of man                        
#dd   #g4      ,ccum and vermiform      
appendage of chimpanzee                 
#de   #h4      ,ftus of gibbon          
#df   #i4      ,human ftus              
#dg   #aj4     ,ftus of gorilla         
#ej   #aa4     ,human ftus              

#ea   #ab4     ,paramecium about to     
divide                                  
#bcj   #ac4     ,conjugation of         
,paramecia                              
#bca   #ad4     ,section of a renal     
tubule invaded by ,macrophags           
#bda   #ae4     ,brain cells devoured by
 ,macrophags                            
#bda   #af4     ,hair becoming grey     
#bdc   #ag4     ,chtogaster about to    
divide                                  
#bfe   #ah4     ,ephemerids             
#bga   #ai4     ,swarms of ,palingenia  
virgo                                   
#bgc   #bj4     ,larva of an ,ephemerid 
#bgf                                    
,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,man               
,,part ,i                               
,,disharmonies ,,in ,,the ,,nature ,,of 
,,man                                   
,,chapter ,i                            
,,introduction                          
,,summary ,,of ,,opinions ,,on ,,the    
,,nature ,,of ,,man        ,importance  
of the study of the nature of man--,the 

nature of man as the    foundation of   
morality--,greek worship of human       
nature--,matriopathy of    ancient      
philosophers--,rationalism of the       
eighteenth and nineteenth               
centuries--,degradation of human nature 
by religious doctrines--,influence    of
 these conceptions on actual life and on
 art--,reaction of the    ,reformation  
against the degradation of human        
nature--,mutilation of the    human body
 by primitive races                     
,notwithstanding the real advance made  
by science1 expressions of              
discontentment with it are familiar4    
,science1 it is said1 no doubt has      
ameliorated the material conditions of  
human life1 but is powerless to  solve  
those moral and philosophical questions 
that interest cultured  people so       
deeply4 ,in this region science has done
 no more than to  destroy the           
foundations of religion4 ,it has robbed 
mankind of the  consolations of religion
 without being able to replace them with

  anything more exact or more enduring4 
,it cannot be disputed that a general   
uneasiness disturbs the world of        
to-day4 ,although his environment is    
most favourable to the fulfilment of    
many of his capacities1 man finds       
himself without orientation when he  has
 to determine the course of his life1 or
 to explain to himself his  true        
relation to such categories of humanity 
as family1 nation1 race and  human race4
 ,this uneasiness reveals itself as     
discontentment1 and it  leads to        
pessimism or to mysticism4 ,most of the 
philosophical systems of  the nineteenth
 century were steeped in melancholy1 and
 led straight to a  denial of the       
possibility of happiness and even to an 
advocacy of  extinction4 ,the frequency 
of suicide has increased greatly among  
all the  civilised peoples4 ,there is no
 need to tabulate proofs of a notorious 
fact4#a    ,a remedy for this malady of 
the age has been sought in the attempt  
to  restore religious and mystical      

faith4 ,on all sides have sprung up     
efforts to found new religions or to    
amend the old4 ,many defenders of       
science have gone the length of         
admitting its incapacity to solve the   
problem of the existence of man2 they   
have held that that problem was         
insoluble for the human mind4 ,such a   
depressing conclusion has been          
formulated in spite of many attempts to 
reach a rational conception of  the     
universe and of man4    ,it is no new   
thing to ask if there be nothing but    
faith to control human  conduct and to  
lead mankind towards universal          
happiness4 ,men of science  and         
philosophers1 in many ages1 have thought
 that human nature itself  could provide
 all the materials for a rational       
morality4    ,in the ancient world and1 
above all1 among the ,greeks1 human     
nature was  held in high esteem4 ,the   
,oriental races1 predecessors of the    
,greeks in  civilisation1 generally     
represented their gods as fantastic or  

grotesque  beings1 composites of men and
 animals4 ,the ,greeks made gods in     
their own  image1 giving them all the   
most beautiful qualities of the human   
race4  ,such a conception was a dominant
 factor in ancient ,greek life and      
civilisation4 ,the adoration of ,man    
embraced the human body1 and led to  the
 despising of every mode of tampering   
with the natural body4 ,thus1  for      
instance1 shaving#b of the face was     
regarded as a humiliation1 for  a smooth
 chin gave an unnatural1 womanish cast  
to the face of a man4    ,the adoration 
of human nature by the ,greeks appeared 
in ,greek plastic  art1 and was the     
cause of its excellence4 ,the ideal of  
art was to copy1  in the most faithful  
way1 the most perfect example of the    
human body1  and ,greek artists made    
measurements of the body so accurately  
that  modern science has confirmed their
 chief results4#c ,as sculpture most    
completely realised the ,greek ideal of 
the human body1 it became almost  a     

national art among the ,greeks4         
,greek philosophy had an equally high   
opinion of human nature1 of the  human  
body1 and of representations of the     
human body4 ,just as ,greek art  aimed  
at the presentation of the body of man1 
so ,greek philosophy  proclaimed the    
nobility of all human qualities1 and    
inculcated the  doctrine of a harmonious
 development of all sides of human      
nature4#d  ,such a doctrine was         
formulated by ,plato1 and became a      
fundamental  principle of the ,old      
,academy2 the ,new ,academy assumed it1 
and handed it  on to the ,sceptics4     
,according to ,xenocrates 7fourth       
century71 who  belonged to the ,old     
,academy1 happiness consisted not only  
in the  possession of human virtue1 but 
in the accomplishment of all natural    
acts4#e    ,the principle of a worship  
of human nature is in itself rather     
vague1  and it is not surprising that   
disputes and contradictions arose in    
relation to its application4 ,thus      

,plato excluded pleasure from his       
conception of the good1 while           
,aristotle1 ,plato's pupil1 held a      
contrary  opinion4 ,for the latter      
pleasure was the natural motive of human
 action1  and its attainment was        
associated as intimately with the       
perfect life as  beauty and health were 
associated with the perfect human       
body4#f    ,under the name ,matriopathy 
there arose1 in the ancient world1 a    
doctrine the object of which was the    
study of the goal of natural  morality4 
,this doctrine was held by many         
philosophers1 but these applied  it to  
the details of actual life in very      
different fashions4 ,thus1 for  the     
,stoics1 the summum bonum and happiness1
 the most lofty aim1 could  not be found
 except by conforming life to nature4   
,conduct was to be  brought into harmony
 with the rational order of nature in   
such a fashion  that every conscious and
 rational being would perform no actions
 that  could not be deduced from the    

general law4#g ,the same principle of a 
life in harmony with nature led the     
,epicureans to the conclusion that      
8pleasure is a natural good1 that is to 
say1 a condition conformable  with      
nature1 and so bringing with it         
intrinsic contentment40#h ,setting  out 
from the same fundamental principle1 the
 theories of the ,stoics and            
,epicureans led in opposite directions4 
,the ,roman philosophers adopted the    
principle of a life strictly natural4   
,seneca1 for instance1#i enunciated the 
maxim3 8,take nature as your  guide1 for
 so reason bids you and advises you2 to 
live happily is to  live naturally40    
,without following through the centuries
 the development of the idea in  detail1
 ,i may content myself with saying that 
resort has been made to  it1 wherever   
there was sought1 outside the sanction  
of religion1 a  rational principle to   
guide human conduct4 ,it recurs even    
among those  convinced ,christians who  
rebelled against the asceticism and     

hatred of  human nature that became     
prevalent in the early centuries of the 
,christian era4    ,the ,greek          
conception of a life in harmony with    
nature found its most  complete         
development in the rationalism of the   
,renaissance1 and of the  centuries that
 followed it4 ,hutcheson1#aj a ,scotch  
philosopher of the  eighteenth century1 
insisted that right was with the        
thinkers of the  naturalistic school1   
and that the realisation of their ideal 
was to be  considered as the highest    
virtue4 ,he thus placed himself directly
  against the ,scotch clergy who        
asserted the greatest contempt for human
  nature4 ,buckle#aa proclaimed that it 
was a high honour for ,hutcheson to     
have been the first ,scotchman to raise 
his voice publicly against the          
degrading views of his time4    ,the    
,french philosophers of the eighteenth  
century1 who sought to replace  the     
religious foundations of conduct by     
rational principles1 again had  recourse

 to human nature4 ,not long before the  
,french ,revolution there  appeared a   
treatise in three volumes1 written by   
,baron d',holbach1 and  entitled1       
8,universal ,morality1 or the ,duties of
 ,man based on  ,nature40#ab ,frankly a 
materialist and atheist1 that writer    
laid it down  as an axiom that 8to be   
universal1 the moral law must be founded
 on the  essential nature of man1 that  
is to say1 on the properties and        
qualities  found constantly in the human
 being1 and that distinguish him from   
other  animals40 ,to be well assured1   
8morality presumes a science of human   
nature40#ac    ,the principle of ancient
 philosophy reappeared in the works of  
rationalists of the nineteenth century4 
,wilhelm von ,humboldt declared  that   
8the ultimate ideal of man1 the ideal   
prescribed for him by the  irrefutable  
and eternal laws of reason1 consisted in
 a development as  harmonious as        
possible of all his qualities in their  
entirety40 ,the  modern historian1      

,lecky1#ad defines the aim of life as   
the full  development of all that exists
 in the proportions determined by       
nature4    ,philosophers and historians 
are not alone in the adoption of ,greek 
rationalism4 ,many naturalists1 and     
among these some very distinguished     
authors1 have spoken in the same sense4 
,it is easy to see the ,greek  principle
 in such phrases as those of ,darwin#ae 
when he wrote3 8,the  term general good 
may be defined as the means by which the
 greatest  possible number of           
individuals can be reared in full vigour
 and health1  with all their faculties  
perfect1 under the conditions to which  
they are  exposed40    ,georges         
,seidlitz1#af an advocate of the great  
,english naturalist1 got  still nearer  
to the conception of the ancients4      
,according to him1 the  moral and       
rational life consisted in 8the         
accomplishment of all the  functions of 
the body1 in due but full proportion40  
,herbert ,spencer1#ag in analysing the  

aim of existence1 came to the           
conclusion that morality should be      
adjusted so as to make life as full  and
 complete as possible4 ,as a criterion  
of physical perfection1 the  ,english   
philosopher would accept only the       
complete devotion of all the  organs to 
the accomplishment of all their         
functions1 while his criterion  of moral
 perfection was contribution to the     
general good4 ,these views  are plainly1
 if not exactly1 expressions of the     
,greek ideal4    ,while1 then1 rational 
philosophers in all the ages have sought
 the  foundation of morality in human   
nature itself1 and have held human      
nature to be good1 or even perfect1 many
 religious doctrines have  displayed a  
very different view4 ,human nature was  
regarded as being  composed of two      
hostile elements1 a body and a soul4    
,the soul alone was  to be honoured1    
while the body was regarded as the vile 
source of evils4  ,such a view led to   
the flagellations and torturings of the 

body which  form so strange and so      
widespread a phenomenon4 ,the ,hindu    
fakirs who  swing themselves on hooks1  
the dervishes and ,mussulman ,assouans  
who beat  in their skulls with clubs1   
the ,russian ,skoptsy who emasculate    
themselves1 and many other instances    
make it plain that natural  perfection  
is not taken as the basis for conduct4  
,buddha#ah in the clearest way showed   
his belief that human nature was  base4 
,coming out from the apartments of the  
women1 there came to him a  8vivid idea 
of the impurity of the body1 a feeling  
of repulsion from it1  and of blame of  
it2 regarding his own body and seeing   
its wretchedness1  he began to despise  
it1 and to formulate conceptions of     
impurity and  purity2 from the sole of  
the feet to the crown of the head1 to   
the  limit of the brain1 he saw that the
 body was born in impurity1 came from   
impurity1 and always let itself be drawn
 to impurity40 ,these  reflections led  
him to the conclusion3 8,what wise man1 

having regarded  his own body1 will not 
see in it an enemy80    ,towards the end
 of the old world1 the ,greek theory of 
human nature  yielded to a very         
different conception4 ,the opposition   
between the  opinions of the ,stoics on 
morality1 and their admiration of human 
nature1 led ,seneca1 one of the last    
,roman ,stoics and a celebrated         
contemporary of ,jesus ,christ1 to break
 completely away from the ancient       
doctrine4 ,convinced of the moral       
weakness and imperfection of man1 and   
of the persisting power of evil1 ,seneca
 declared that human nature  contained a
 vicious and essentially evil element4  
,this element was  seated in the body1  
which he regarded as so essentially vile
 that it is  to be despised4 ,our body  
was no more than the dwelling of the    
soul1 its  temporary home1 a place in   
which it cannot be at rest4 ,the body   
was a  burden which the soul would be   
rid of1 a prison-house from which it    
would escape4 ,according to ,seneca#ai  

the soul must wrestle with the  body1   
for the body brings to it nothing but   
suffering1 while the soul is            
essentially pure and spotless1 and as   
much above the body as divinity is      
above matter4    ,a dualism still more  
pronounced was characteristic of the    
early  ,christian view of human nature1 
and led to the depreciation of the body 
as compared with the soul4 ,in the      
fourth and fifth centuries of our era   
such a view was so dominant that a      
struggle against the material side of   
our nature became a rule of life4 ,the  
most absolute asceticism spread         
throughout the ,christian world4#bj ,a  
struggle against hunger1 thirst1  and   
desire for sleep1 rejection of all      
pleasures that come from  impressions of
 sight1 of hearing1 or of the palate1   
and1 above all1  abstention from sexual 
intercourse1 became1 in the opinion of  
believers1  the true aim of human life4 
,the conviction that human nature was   
essentially corrupt led to a declaration

 of war against it2 all the  pleasures  
were forbidden1 even the most innocent  
of them being thought  vicious4 ,what   
could be more in contrast with the calm 
and joyous  philosophy of the ,greeks1  
for whom there did not exist the idea of
 a  struggle against the supposed       
corruption and imperfection of man8 ,the
  dualistic theory made such demands on 
its proselytes that these1  absorbed in 
the salvation of their souls1 sank from 
the physical point  of view to the level
 of wild beasts4 ,hermits resorted to   
the lairs of  animals1 abandoned their  
clothing and went about naked with      
shaggy and  disordered hair4 ,in        
,mesopotamia and a part of ,syria there 
arose a sect  of eaters of grass2 these 
were people who had no dwellings and who
 ate  neither bread nor vegetables1 but 
wandered on the hills and fed on the    
herbage4 ,cleanliness of the body was   
regarded as an indication of            
corruptness of the soul1 and among the  
most highly venerated of the  saints    

were those who took no care of the body4
 ,athanasius relates with  approval that
 when ,st4 ,antony1 the father of monks1
 became old he never  washed his        
feet4#ba    ,such doctrines soon brought
 about a most serious perversion of the 
innate instincts of the human race4 ,the
 senses of family and of society  became
 so weakened that fanatical ,christians 
were more than indifferent  to their    
kinsmen and countrymen4 ,one saint was  
venerated because he was  hard and cruel
 only to his relatives4 ,it is told of  
the ,abbot ,siseuss  that on a believer 
asking to be received into the convent1 
he inquired  if the suppliant had any   
one akin to him4 8,i have only a son10  
said the  ,christian4 8,well1 then10    
said the abbot1 8take your son and cast 
him  into the river1 for thus only may  
you become a monk40 ,the father set     
about to do the bidding of the abbot1   
and it was only at the last moment  that
 the order was recalled4 ,for admission 
into a ,christian community it  was     

necessary to renounce one's country4#bb 
,such ideas have struck a deep and      
enduring root4 ,in the opinion of the   
ministers of the ,scotch ,church of the 
seventeenth century1 according to       
,buckle1#bc there was nothing so        
surprising as that the earth could      
contain itself in the presence of that  
horrid spectacle1 man1 and that  it did 
not gape1 as in former days1 to swallow 
him in the midst of his  wickedness4    
,for certainly1 in the created universe1
 there could be  nothing so monstrous   
and so horrible as man4    ,it was to be
 expected that when such conceptions    
prevailed1 celibacy and  repudiation of 
the reproductive instinct should have   
been made  obligatory on the clergy4    
,the words1 reported by ,st4 ,matthew   
7xix4 #aa1  #ab71 that 8there be eunuchs
 who have made themselves eunuchs for   
the  kingdom of heaven's sake0 were     
interpreted by some as implying a       
voluntary renunciation of marriage1     
while others insisted on the literal    

meaning and in consequence mutilated    
themselves more or less completely4     
,the breasts of women were removed to   
eradicate the maternal instincts4  ,but 
it is only the sect of ,skoptsy1 by no  
means a small body in ,russia1  that    
applies the gospel command in this      
stringent fashion4 ,the wish  announced 
by ,st4 ,paul 7,corinthians vii4 #g71   
8,i say therefore to the  unmarried and 
widows1 it is good for them if they     
abide even as ,i2 but  if they cannot   
contain1 let them marry1 for it is      
better to marry than  to burn10 soon    
became a command1 and since the fourth  
century the  ,catholic ,church has      
advocated celibacy of the clergy1       
although it was  not enforced until the 
eleventh century 7under ,gregory        
,,vii474 ,a low view  of human nature   
has survived in the ,catholic ,church   
even to our own  times4 ,pope ,leo      
,,xiii41 in his 8,encyclical on         
,freemasons10 proclaimed  it4#bd 8,human
 nature10 he said1 8was contaminated by 

the ,fall1 and as  it is therefore much 
more prone to vice than to virtue1 in   
order to  attain virtue it is absolutely
 necessary to restrain the wild impulses
  of the soul1 and to control the       
appetites by reason40    ,art has       
reflected the ,christian conception of  
human nature4 ,sculpture1  which played 
so great a part in the ancient world1   
and which was  intimately associated    
with ,greek ideals1 began to decline    
rapidly in the  ,christian era4 ,it     
lasted longer in the ,roman ,empire of  
the ,east1 but in  ,italy it was almost 
completely forgotten by the eighth      
century4 ,painting  survived1 but not   
without undergoing an extraordinary     
degeneration4 ,all  the ,italian works  
of art of the ,carlovingian period1     
displayed the  utmost indifference to   
natural form1 and a loss of the sense of
 harmony  and beauty4 ,later on1        
,italian art fell lower still4 8,no one 
dreamed any  longer of studying nature  
or of observing the human body4 ,an     

epoch in  which the interference of     
supernatural forces was generally       
accepted1  and in which the conception  
of the universe was founded on a        
contrast  between the natural and the   
supernatural1 could not admit in its art
 the  rule of natural law or a natural  
order of events40#be    ,the intimate   
connection between the depreciation of  
human nature due to  ,christian doctrine
 and the inferiority of the art of the  
middle ages  cannot be denied4 ,taine#bf
 writes of the period as follows3 8,if  
one  considers the stained-glass windows
 or the images in the cathedrals1 or    
the rude paintings1 it appears as if the
 human race had become  degenerate and  
its blood had been impoverished2 pale   
saints1 distorted  martyrs1 virgins with
 flat chests1 feet too long and bony    
hands1 hermits  withered and            
unsubstantial1 ,christs that look like  
crushed and bleeding  earthworms1       
processions of figures that are wan1 and
 stiffened1 and sad1  upon whom are     

stamped all the deformities of misery   
and all the  shrinking timidity of the  
oppressed40    ,the art of the middle   
ages fell lower and lower until the     
,renaissance1  with its return to the   
,greek ideal1 brought new vigour4 ,the  
great  masters of the ,renaissance were 
in addition scientific men who had      
studied mathematics and who employed the
 technique of mensuration2 such  were   
,alberti1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,michel  
,angelo1 and others4 ,the return  to the
 ,greek ideals and to nature brought    
with it the taste for beauty4    ,when  
the ancient spirit was born again1 its  
influence reached science  and even     
religion1 and the ,reformation was a    
defence of human nature4  ,the ,lutheran
 doctrines resumed the principle of a   
8development as  complete as possible1  
of all the natural powers0 of man1 and  
saw in that  ideal a guide for humanity4
 ,compulsory celibacy was abolished1 and
 free  play was given to all the        
tendencies in conformity with the laws  

of  nature4#bg    ,besides those whose  
religion led them to despise the human  
body1 there  have been many savage races
 and tribes who have practised          
mutilations of  the body4 ,it would be a
 long list were ,i to set out all the   
modes in  which the human body has been 
disfigured4 ,treatises on ,ethnography  
and  the volumes of travellers contain a
 multitude of details of this sort4     
,the hair1 the teeth and the lips have  
been subjected to treatment with  the   
object of making them as unlike the     
natural condition as is  possible4 ,many
 of the lower races discolour their     
teeth1 or remove some  of them1 or file 
them to points4 ,others insert in the   
lips pieces of  wood1 of stone1 or of   
bone4 ,a whole chapter might be occupied
 with an  account of the disfiguring    
devices of tattooers4 ,the skull1 the   
breasts1  and the feet1 have all been   
subjected to deforming treatment4       
,although there is not enough evidence  
to set down these practices to the      

existence of definite and self-conscious
 religious or philosophic  doctrine1 it 
is at least certain that the people     
among whom they occur  are far from     
revering human nature in the fashion of 
the ,greeks1 but  rather attempt to     
distort it in accordance with their own 
taste4  ,discontent with the natural    
conditions of existence is1 as we have  
seen1  so widespread that there is good 
reason for an inquiry as to the         
existence of some general principle     
underlying this diversity of opinion    
regarding human nature4 ,i have already 
shown that this question of human       
nature has for long interested mankind1 
and has shared largely in the  formation
 of ideas of the good and the beautiful4
 ,it is not too soon to  submit the     
problem to rational investigation1 using
 those rigid methods  of science which  
have been learned in our epoch4 ,i shall
 try to give an  exposition of human    
nature in its strength and in its       
weakness4 ,but  before passing to man1  

,i shall survey the lower forms of life1
 hoping to  fix some landmarks that will
 be useful in the study of the larger   
problem4                                
,,chapter ,,ii         ,,harmonies ,,and
 ,,disharmonies ,,amongst ,,beings      
,,inferior ,,to ,,man        ,the       
organised world before the appearance of
 man on the earth--,absence    of a law 
of universal progress--,fertilisation of
 vanilla--,the part    played by insects
 in the fertilisation of                
orchids--,mechanism by which    insects 
carry the pollen of orchids--,habits of 
fossorial    wasps--,harmonies in       
nature--,useless organs--,rudiments of  
the pollinia of                         
orchids--,disharmonies in               
nature--,unadapted insects--,aberration 
of    instincts--,perversion of sexual  
instinct--,attraction of insects by     
light--,luminous insects--,law of       
natural selection--,happiness and       
unhappiness in the organised world      
,long before man appeared on the earth  

animals and plants were  distributed    
over it4 ,some of these were endowed    
with but vague senses1  while others had
 well-developed instincts1 and some even
 a certain  degree of intelligence which
 they applied for their                 
self-preservation  and for the          
propagation of their own kind4    ,many 
species1 well adapted for the resistance
 of external influences1  have survived 
from very early times to the present    
day4 ,in the  ,carboniferous period     
birds and mammals did not yet exist1 and
 the thick  forests1 with undergrowths  
of gigantic ferns1 were inhabited by    
large  numbers of articulated animals1  
amongst which were scorpions and        
insects4 ,the scorpions of that time    
resemble in every way those that        
actually live at the present day in     
tropical countries2 and amongst the     
insects of that early epoch were some   
very like the cockroaches of  to-day4   
,certain tree-like ferns of the present 
time are also very  similar to those of 

the coal period4 ,amongst the animals   
the bodies of  which are protected by a 
shell1 such as foraminifera and         
mollusca1  certain species have survived
 even from an earlier time than the coal
  period4    ,in contrast with this     
extraordinary survival1 there are       
instances of the  complete disappearance
 of numbers of species of animals and   
plants4 ,in  early times1 during the    
,tertiary epoch1 the virgin forests of  
,europe  were inhabited by a large      
number of monkeys1 of which fossil      
remains are  now found1 especially in   
,greece4 ,these formerly existed even in
 ,europe1  and some anthropoid apes     
7,dryopithecus7 have left traces in the 
tertiary deposits of ,france4#bh ,these 
animals1 notwithstanding that  their    
organisation was superior to that of    
scorpions and cockroaches1  have not    
been able to adapt themselves to the    
altered conditions of  modern ,europe4  
,a similar fate has come upon some of   
the higher mammals1  such as the mammoth

 and the mastodon4    ,these facts do   
not bear testimony to the prevalent idea
 that there  exists in nature a law of  
universal progress tending to the       
production  of organisms more and more  
perfect from the point of view of       
complexity  of structure4 ,it is        
incontestable that forms higher in the  
scale of life  have developed only after
 the appearance of lower forms4 ,but it 
does not  follow that development always
 takes a progressive march4 ,man is one 
of  the later species that have appeared
 upon the earth1 but there are  others  
of still more recent date4 ,it is very  
probable that certain  species of lice  
have appeared subsequent to man1        
particularly the  clothes-louse         
7,pediculus vestimenti74 ,amongst the   
true parasites which  live only in the  
human body are some that have acquired  
their specific  characters after the    
appearance of man4 ,such are certain    
tape-worms and  microbes1 such as a     
species of gonococcus4 ,it is therefore 

amongst  parasites and not to man that  
we must look for the latest products of 
creation4    ,in nature1 then1 there is 
no blind tendency towards progress4     
,organisms  almost innumerable are born 
every day with variable characters4     
,those  amongst them which are adapted  
to existing circumstances survive and   
produce offspring like themselves1 but  
many do not reach maturity1 and1  living
 only for a short time1 die without     
leaving issue4    ,to give the reader a 
better idea of adaptations and of their 
importance  to living creatures1 it     
will1 perhaps1 be as well to devote some
 space  to an account of examples of    
them4 ,amongst organisms that attract   
our  attention by their pleasing aspect1
 there are not many that can rival      
flowering plants4 ,every one admires the
 great beauty of the blossom of         
orchids4 ,there can be no doubt that    
these flowers have not been  developed  
to satisfy the sthetic tastes of man1   
for the simple reason  that orchids     

existed for a long time before man's    
appearance4    ,among orchids there is  
one which1 for more than half a century1
 has been  cultivated by man in many    
tropical countries4 ,this is the        
,vanilla1 the  fruit of which produces  
one of the sweetest of spices4    ,in   
former days the pods of only the wild   
vanilla1 which is an  undergrowth of the
 forests of ,mexico and ,south ,america1
 were gathered4  ,but the employment of 
vanilla to flavour chocolate has        
rendered its  artificial culture        
lucrative2 consequently the plant has   
been  transported to several warm       
countries where it could be             
acclimatised4 ,it  has flourished and   
borne numerous blossoms1 but it has     
never produced  fruit from which alone  
the aroma is obtained4 ,as the question 
of the  sterility of the vanilla was of 
great practical interest to the         
cultivator1 the matter was investigated1
 and it was found that the  flower      
remained sterile because the female and 

male parts could not come  in contact4  
,the pistils and stamens of the flower  
are well developed1  but between these  
sexual organs is a membrane which       
prevents  fertilisation4 ,after this    
discovery was made1 the idea occurred   
that the  pollen of the vanilla flower  
might be transferred artificially to the
  stigma of the pistil so as to bring   
about 8artificial0 fertilisation4 ,a    
young black slave1 ,edmond ,albius1 a   
native of ,runion1 discovered in  #ahda 
a practical method by which the male and
 female elements of the  vanilla could  
be put in contact2 and from this        
discovery there came a  great extension 
of the cultivation of the orchid in many
 countries4 ,at a  certain period a     
small bamboo point or the tooth of a    
comb is introduced  into the vanilla    
flower1 and in this way1 in a short     
time1 a quantity of  flowers may be     
fertilised and so made capable of       
bearing mature  pods4#bi    ,in the     
original home of the vanilla the        

intervention of man is  unnecessary4 ,in
 ,guiana and ,mexico fertilisation of   
the flower is the  work of small bees   
7of the genus ,melipona74 ,they frequent
 the vanilla  flowers to extract nectar1
 the material of their honey4 ,small    
humming-birds also hover over the       
vanilla blossoms1 and by introducing    
their bills into the sexual organs of   
the flowers bring about contact of  the 
male and female elements4    ,sterility 
of the vanilla in the countries to which
 it has been  introduced1 before the    
employment of artificial fecundation1 is
 easily  explained by the fact that in  
these countries there are no insects nor
  humming-birds capable of transporting 
the pollen4    ,but it is not only the  
vanilla that requires the co-operation  
of living  beings to produce its fruits4
 ,it is the case with many other        
orchids4 ,in  the flowers of these the  
pollen is massed together and cannot be 
transported by the air4 ,it needs the   
aid of insects1 as had already been     

pointed out by ,sprengell in the        
eighteenth century1 and above all by    
,darwin1 whose splendid investigations  
are the basis of the following          
passages4#cj    ,insects1 belonging to  
different groups1 such as bees1 wasps1  
flies1  certain beetles1 and many       
butterflies and moths1 visit orchids to 
sip  the nectar produced by the plants  
and stored in definite parts of the     
flowers4 ,in order that their proboscis 
may reach the stores of sweet  juice1   
the insects inevitably touch first the  
upper parts of the  flowers1 where the  
anthers are present4 ,the pollen grains 
are clustered  in masses1 known as      
pollinia1 and these adhere to the body  
of the  visiting insect by means of an  
adhesive fluid which is secreted by an  
organ of the flower known as the        
rostellum4 ,in this way the pollinia    
adhere firmly1 it may be to the         
proboscis of butterflies1 or to the head
  or any other part of the body of      
insects4 ,they can leave the flower and 

fly away without losing the adhering    
pollinia1 and in this manner they  serve
 as the agents for sexual contact and   
for fertilisation of the  orchids4      
,mnire relates that a person who kept   
bees near the garden of  the ,facult de 
,toulouse complained that they returned 
from the garden  with their heads       
covered with tiny yellow bodies which he
 was unable to  clean off from them4 ,it
 was easy to recognise in these bodies  
the  pollinia of orchids very firmly    
attached to the bees' heads4#ca    ,when
 an insect1 bearing these pollinia1     
introduces itself into another  flower  
of the same species of orchid1 it       
inevitably comes in contact  with the   
female apparatus1 more particularly with
 the viscous surface of  the stigma4    
,some of the grains of pollen contained 
in the pollen-mass  adhere to the stigma
 and are thus enabled to fertilise the  
ovule4 ,this  carriage of pollen from   
one flower to another brings about a    
crossing  which is necessary for the    

production of good seed4 ,on the other  
hand1  the seed which is the result of  
self-fertilisation of a flower is       
inferior4    ,an examination of the     
structure and form of the flowers of    
many orchids  show that they are adapted
 in a truly marvellous way to the visits
 of  insects that convey pollen4 ,in    
each part of these flowers one can      
discern some useful arrangement to      
secure cross-fertilisation4    ,for the 
proper transmission of pollen it is     
necessary that the pollinia  should     
adhere very firmly to the body of the   
insects1 and that the  viscous substance
 which holds them together should have  
time to  solidify4 ,it is thus of great 
advantage to the plant if the insects   
remain for a considerable time on the   
flower4 ,in several orchids the  nectar 
is not easily accessible1 and frequently
 the insect has to search  for a long   
time before finding what it desires1 and
 sometimes it even  has to pierce a     
membranous covering before reaching the 

fluid4 ,the  operation takes a certain  
time1 and this is long enough to allow  
the  mucus by which the pollinia adhere 
to the insect to set firmly4    ,in the 
case of orchids the mucus of which sets 
instantaneously1 there is  no reason for
 the visit of the insect to be          
prolonged4 ,in such cases the  nectar is
 easy to extract1 and the insect finds  
it without loss of time4    ,darwin1    
after describing these facts1 proceeds  
to say3#cb    8,in these five species0  
7in which the viscid matter 8is so      
adhesive that  it serves to attach the  
pollinia firmly to the insects without  
getting  hard071 8and in these alone1 we
 find copious nectar ready stored for   
rapid suction in open nectaries4 ,on the
 other hand1 whenever the viscid  matter
 gets hard by exposure for a short time 
to the air1 it would  manifestly be     
advantageous to the plant if insects    
were delayed in  obtaining the nectar2  
and in all such species the nectar is   
lodged  within intercellular spaces1 so 

that it can be obtained only by the     
inner membrane being penetrated at      
several points1 and this will require   
time4 ,if this double relation is       
accidental1 it is a fortunate accident  
for the plants2 but ,i cannot believe it
 to be so1 and it appears to me  one of 
the most wonderful cases of adaptation  
which has ever been  recorded40    ,some
 orchids secrete instead of nectar a    
clear liquid like water4 ,this  fluid is
 collected in a petal inserted at the   
lower part of the flower  and shaped    
into a deep cup-shaped receptacle4 ,it  
does not attract  insects1 but by       
wetting their wings compels them to     
leave the flower by  a different exit   
which passes close to the reproductive  
organs 7i4e41  the anther and the       
stigma74 ,the soft linings of the cup   
are greedily  devoured by certain       
insects1 particularly by bees4 ,dr4     
,cruger1 who  observed this1 has often  
seen bees fall into the cup whereupon   
their  wings became so wet as to prevent

 their flying away1 and they have been  
obliged to get out by the channel that  
carries off the waste from the          
reservoir4 ,as the saturated bees creep 
along the narrow passage after  their   
involuntary immersion1 they come        
inevitably in contact with the  stigma  
and the masses of pollen4 ,the latter   
adhere to the bodies of the  bees and   
can be conveyed to the sticky stigma of 
a neighbouring flower4    ,illustration3
      ,,fig4 #a4--;,catasetum saccatum  
7from 8,la ,lindenia10 ,gand1 #ahij74   
,in other orchids 7,catasetum1 ,fig4    
#a71 the male elements are discharged   
by a spring-like arrangement on the body
 of insects4 ,when certain parts  of the
 flowers are touched1 the pollinia are  
thrown off like arrows1  which1 in the  
place of the barbs1 have viscid         
swellings4 8,the insect1  disturbed by  
so sharp a blow1 or after having eaten  
its fill1 flies  sooner or later away to
 a female plant and1 whilst standing in 
the same  position as before1 the       

pollen-bearing end of the arrow is      
inserted into  the stigmatic cavity1 and
 a mass of pollen is left on its viscid 
surface40#cc    ,after giving detailed  
descriptions of the cross-fertilisation 
of flowers  by such peculiar means1     
,darwin makes the following remark3     
8,who would  have been bold enough to   
have surmised that the propagation of a 
species  depended on so complex1 so     
apparently artificial1 and yet so       
admirable  an arrangement80#cd    ,one  
orchid 7,herminium monorchis1 ,fig4 #b71
 which bears very small  flowers1 is    
remarkable for the way in which it is   
fertilised by insects4  ,only very small
 insects are able to penetrate the      
flowers4 ,the space  being very limited 
these minute insects can enter the      
flower only in a  particular way1 and at
 one of the corners4 ,this causes the   
pollinia to  become attached always to  
the same place1 which is on the outer   
side of  one of the two front legs4     
,when the insect1 the carrier of the    

pollinia1  enters a second flower1 it   
can scarcely fail to fertilise the      
stigma1  which is on the corresponding  
side4 ,darwin said that it would be     
difficult to find a case in which there 
was so marvellously complete an         
adaptation to a very peculiar mode of   
fertilisation as the little flower  of  
,herminium4    ,illustration3           
,,fig4 #b4--;,herminium monorchis       
7after ,sowerby1 8,english ,botany10 ix4
 #ahfi7      ,in addition to orchids1   
there are other flowers the organisation
 of  which is adapted in a remarkable   
way to fertilisation by insects4 ,but to
  find perfect harmony in the nature of 
living beings it is not necessary  to   
confine our observations to flowers4    
,the animal world furnishes us  with    
numerous examples4 ,to avoid going into 
the details of these1 ,i  shall content 
myself with a description of the most   
remarkable  instances4    ,every one has
 seen1 flying near the ground1 small1   
slender1 and pretty  wasps4 ,from time  

to time these bury themselves in the    
earth or sand1 and  re-appear in a few  
minutes4 ,these are the fossorial wasps1
 the  interesting habits of which have  
been studied by ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,fabre1 of 
,avignon4 ,they are not gregarious1 but 
lead solitary lives and differ in  their
 habits from their congeners4 ,bees feed
 their larv with honey and  pollen which
 they take to them during the whole     
period of their  development4 ,wasps are
 carnivorous1 predatory insects1 and    
bring their  spoils to their brood of   
soft and feeble larv which are unable to
  provide for themselves4 ,bees and most
 wasps look after the welfare of  their 
young ones in the fashion of human      
parents in nurseries4    ,fossorial     
wasps act differently2 they never see   
their young4 ,they lay  their eggs in   
burrows1 sunk in the soil and           
hermetically sealed4 ,the  larv are     
hatched underground and are never seen  
by the mother4  ,provision sufficient   
for their development1 however1 is made 

in advance4  ,before depositing eggs1   
the females sink the burrows1 and fill  
them with  the spoils of the chase1     
which consist sometimes of spiders and  
sometimes of crickets or other insects4 
,each species of fossorial wasps  preys 
on a particular kind of insect or on its
 allies1 for the purpose  of            
provisioning the burrows4 ,these wasps  
are most fastidious in the  choice of   
their food1 and behave like collectors  
whose interest is only  in a single or a
 few species of small animals4 ,lon     
,dufour1 the  well-known entomologist1  
was much struck by the ability displayed
 by  certain wasps 7,cerceris1 ,fig4 #c7
 in seeking out and capturing the       
pretty beetles of the genus ,buprestis1 
which he had great difficulty  in       
finding himself4 ,in making a study of  
these beetles he collected the  material
 from the burrows of ,cerceris1 and so  
avoided the laborious  task of obtaining
 them in the natural state of freedom4  
,the burrows were  filled with          

motionless1 but perfectly well          
preserved1 ,buprestes4  ,although dead  
,coleoptera dried up in a short time1   
those recovered from  the burrows       
remained in a good state of preservation
 for weeks4 ,lon  ,dufour came to the   
conclusion that the ,cerceris kill their
 prey1 but  inject into them some       
antiseptic liquid which perfectly       
preserves their  flesh and intestines4  
,illustration3      ,,fig4              
#c4--;,cerceris 7after ,buffon74        
,j4 ,h4 ,fabre pursued the study of the 
habits of fossorial wasps further4  ,he 
ascertained that the captured insects   
were not dead1 but only  paralysed4 ,the
 continuance of the function of certain 
organs  demonstrated that the           
,buprestes1 the weevils and other small 
creatures  collected in the burrows of  
fossorial wasps1 were alive4 ,they could
 even  perform some slight movements1   
but they were incapable of locomotion1  
and so could not escape4 ,the mechanism 
of this paralysis1 as far as  could be  

ascertained by ,fabre1 is one of the    
most remarkable phenomena  in nature4   
,the fossorial wasps1 guided by their   
instinct1 immediately  after having     
seized an insect or spider1 bury their  
sting in the nervous  centre which      
controls the movements of the legs4     
,when animals with soft  bodies1 such as
 spiders and young crickets1 are        
attacked1 the operation  does not       
present any difficulties4 ,but          
,coleoptera in general1 and the         
,buprestes and weevils in particular1   
are furnished with a very hard  covering
 which cannot be perforated by the small
 and slender sting of a  fossorial wasp4
 ,to gain their object the wasps probe  
exactly between the  first and second   
pair of legs in the median line of the  
under surface of  the thorax4 ,the skin 
is thinner at this spot1 and they       
introduce their  sting into the ganglia 
from which arise the nerves of the legs4
 ,in the  case with the ,buprestes these
 ganglia are set close to one another1  

and a single prick suffices to affect   
the nervous centres of three pairs  of  
legs4 ,once the sting has been inserted 
in this way the ,buprestis  becomes     
paralysed1 but lives for many days4     
8,the ,cerceris which preys  on         
,coleoptera10 writes ,fabre1#ce 8appears
 to have made its choice  according to  
the dictates of an exact physiology and 
anatomy4 ,it is  impossible to see in   
its proceedings the results of happy    
chance2 more  than chance is required to
 explain adaptations so precise40       
,after having filled the burrow with a  
sufficient quantity of insects or       
spiders1 fossorial wasps lay their eggs 
and carefully close up the  entrance4   
,in due course the larva is hatched1 and
 devours the food that  it finds close  
at hand4 ,if the gathered insects were  
not paralysed1 they  could easily escape
 from their prison2 if they were dead1  
putrefaction  or desiccation 7according 
to circumstances7 would render them     
unfit for  the larv4 ,it is therefore   

sheer necessity that is the factor in   
the  development of this marvellous     
instinct that induces the fossorial     
wasps  to attack the nervous centres of 
their prey4 ,when one insect has been   
devoured1 the larva proceeds to another1
 and so on1 until it is fully  grown1   
whereupon it envelops itself in a case  
that protects it during  the winter and 
following spring4 ,in summer it changes 
at first into a  chrysalis1 and later   
into a perfect insect4 ,it frees itself 
from the  cocoon1 takes to flight1 and  
enters upon life like that of its       
mother1  which it has never seen4    ,of
 the harmonious phenomena in nature it  
is indeed difficult to find  other      
examples so perfect as those of the     
habits of these fossorial  wasps1 or of 
the mechanism for the fertilisation of  
orchids4 ,these  harmonies in nature are
 constantly met with in the world of    
living  beings1 and it is not           
astonishing that they have for a long   
time  attracted the attention of many   

observers and philosophers4 ,as it      
seemed  impossible to attribute them to 
the organisms themselves1 because of the
  low rank and lack of intelligence of  
these1 it has seemed only natural  to   
set them down as a manifestation of a   
superior force which organises  and     
directs all natural phenomena4 ,this    
argument1 however1 omits one  side of   
the medal4    ,any close investigation  
of organisation and life reveals that1  
beside  many most perfect harmonies1    
there are facts which prove the         
existence  of incomplete harmony or even
 absolute disharmony4 ,the examination  
of  the flowers of orchids would lead   
one to the belief that each part1 even  
the smallest and apparently most        
insignificant1 has its rle in the       
mechanism for fertilisation and         
cross-fertilisation4 ,in reality it is  
not so4 ,there are in certain orchids   
organs which do not fulfil any          
function4    ,even among the species of 
,catasetum1 in which the pollinia are   

thrown  with force on the bodies of     
insects1 there are some female flowers  
in  which the male organs are           
rudimentary and without utility4 ,in    
these  flowers1 according to ,darwin1#cf
 8the two membranous sacks containing   
the rudimentary pollen-masses never     
open1 but they easily separate from     
each other and from the anther4 ,the    
tissue of which they are formed is      
thick and pulpy4 ,like most rudimentary 
parts1 the pollen-masses vary  much in  
size and form2 they are only about      
one-tenth of the bulk of  those of the  
male40 ,there are then1 without doubt1  
some structures that  are of no service4
    ,the existence of these rudimentary 
pollinia1 incapable of being            
transported or of fertilising the female
 element1 is easily explained by  the   
supposition that formerly the flowers of
 the ,catasetum were true               
hermaphrodites1 but that in the course  
of time the male organs have  become    
incompletely atrophied in certain       

flowers1 in which1 on the other  hand1  
the female part has increased4 ,the     
occurrence of an actual  degeneration is
 shown by the existence of rudiments of 
the pollinia too  insignificant to      
accomplish their normal functions4      
,rudimentary and useless organs are     
widely distributed1 and we find them  in
 many places4 ,familiar instances are   
the atrophied eyes of animals  that live
 in the dark1 and the sometimes         
rudimentary sexual organs of  many      
plants and animals4    ,not only are    
orchids and other flowers adapted to    
fertilisation by means  of insects1 but 
many insects display special adaptations
 to their habit  of visiting flowers4   
,butterflies1 bees1 and many other      
insects1 possess  mouth organs modified 
for the purpose of penetrating flowers  
to secure  nectar or pollen4 ,other     
insects1 again1 are not so fortunate in 
this  respect4 ,darwin#cg on one        
occasion 8found an extremely minute     
,hymenopterous insect vainly struggling 

to escape1 with its head cemented  by   
the hardened viscid matter to the crest 
of the rostellum and to the  tips of the
 pollinia 7of an orchid1 ,listera ovata1
 ,fig4 #d74 ,the insect  was not so     
large as one of the pollinia1 and after 
causing the explosion  had not strength 
enough to remove them2 it was punished  
for attempting a  work beyond its       
strength1 and perished miserably40      
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #d4--,listera
 ovata 7after ,barla1 8,flora of ,nice10
 #ahfh74      ,many insects1 well       
adapted for the purpose1 delight        
themselves by  sucking the nectar of    
flowers4 ,many others would wish to do  
the same1  but their want of adaptation 
baffles them4 ,a small 8lady-bird0 loves
 the  sweet juice of flowers2 it tries  
often to suck the nectar of the         
dandelion1 but without success4 ,hermann
 ,mller#ch has described the  behaviour 
of this insect in procuring the nectar  
of ,erodium  cicutorium4 8,the awkward  
way in which this beetle1 unadapted to  

feed on  the plants1 endeavours to      
obtain the honey1 is too ludicrous not  
to be  mentioned4 ,after taking up a    
position on the petal1 it puts its mouth
 in  the direction of one of the        
honeycups which are situated on both    
sides  of the base of the petal4 ,the   
petal soon breaks off1 upon which the   
insect fixes itself on a neighbouring   
sepal or falls to the ground with  the  
petal4 ,in the first case it proceeds to
 creep over the flower and  ends by     
detaching all the petals2 in the other  
case1 on recovering from  the shock1 it 
quickly ascends another stem of the same
 plant and begins  again4 ,i have seen  
the same lady-bird fall four times in   
succession with  petals which it had    
detached without gaining wisdom40       
,the instincts of insects1 well         
developed for certain functions1 often  
present aberrations more or less        
whimsical and remarkable4 ,the          
caterpillars of some butterflies1 before
 changing into chrysalids1  envelop     

themselves in a wellwoven cocoon capable
 of protecting them from  noxious       
influences4 ,protected by this covering1
 the caterpillar changes  into a        
chrysalid1 and later into a butterfly1  
which perforates the end  of the cocoon 
in order to emerge4 ,when any external  
agency destroys the  cocoon1 normal     
metamorphosis becomes impossible1 and   
the larva dies  before its maturity4    
,fabre#ci questioned whether the        
caterpillar during  the time of the     
weaving of the cocoon was capable of    
repairing it if it  was damaged4 ,for   
this object he cut with a pair of       
scissors the end of a  cocoon in the    
course of construction by the           
caterpillar of the beautiful            
peacock-butterfly4 ,in spite of the hole
 thus produced1 the caterpillar         
continued its ordinary work without     
suspicion that it would be of no  avail4
 ,on this occasion 8the caterpillar of  
the peacock-butterfly1  notwithstanding 
the certain fate of the future          

butterfly1 continued  peaceably to spin1
 without in the least modifying the     
regular progress  of its labour2 when   
the time had arrived for the putting in 
of the last  defensive stitches it      
placed them in the perilous breach1 but 
neglected  to mend the destroyed part of
 the barricade4 ,it performed its vain  
task1  ignoring what was indispensable  
for success40    ,even amongst fossorial
 wasps1 the instincts of which are so   
admirably  developed1 harmony is far    
from perfect4 ,fabre endeavoured to     
ascertain  what effect was produced on  
these insects by taking away the egg    
laid in  the burrow4 ,he chose for this 
experiment the fossorial wasp ,pelopus  
7,fig4 #e71 which preys on spiders4 ,he 
took away the egg which had been        
deposited in a carefully-prepared       
burrow1 and watched the subsequent      
manuvres4 8,the ,pelopus continued to   
store up spiders for the stolen  egg2 it
 gathered provisions that were not to be
 eaten2 it redoubled its  efforts to    

replenish a larder that ,i was          
constantly robbing with my  forceps40   
,the insect neither discontinued its    
fruitless task nor  appeared to be aware
 of its fruitlessness4 ,here1 then1 is  
an example of  a foiled maternal        
instinct that gained no useful end4     
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #e4--,pelopus
 7after ,buffon74      ,in connection   
with such a slaughter for the benefit of
 a progeny that  will never exist1 ,i   
may mention observations relating to a  
quite  different order of phenomena4    
,there are many creatures that kill and 
devour their progeny4 ,not infrequently 
rabbits kill and devour all their       
progeny1 or leave them to die without   
food or care4 ,sometimes the  culprits  
are young rabbits without experience2   
but this aberration of  instinct is also
 met with in old rabbits1 which once and
 for all have  contracted the habit of  
abandoning or eating their young4 ,some 
females  of other species of mammals and
 of birds have often been surprised in  

the act of deserting or of killing their
 offspring4    ,perversion of sexual    
instinct is frequent enough amongst     
animals4  ,huber#dj states that when    
male ants have a lack of females they   
ravish  the workers1 the attacks being  
fatal1 as the sexual organs are         
incompletely developed and functionally 
incapable4 ,abnormal pairing has  also  
been observed in the stag-beetle of the 
genus ,lucanus1 in bees1  and1 above    
all1 in cockchafers4#da ,higher animals1
 such as dogs1  furnish analogous       
examples of sexual perversion4          
,onanism is well known amongst mammals4 
,it is frequent among monkeys in        
menageries1 and also in rutting stags1  
the latter discharging the  seminal     
fluid by friction with trees4 ,stallions
 and mares have often  been observed in 
the act of satisfying their sexual      
appetites by  abnormal means4 ,there are
 several other species 7dogs1 bears1    
chamois1  elephants1 parrakeets1 etc417 
which resort to onanism4#db    ,these   

disharmonious instincts do not in the   
least cause the death of the  animals   
that manifest them4 ,but there exist in 
nature instinctive  aberrations much    
more dangerous4 ,who has not seen in the
 summer numerous  insects gathered round
 lamps and candles1 attracted by the    
light8 ,among  these are ,coleoptera1   
,neuroptera 7,phryganea71 ,ephemera1    
and1 most  frequently of all1 small     
nocturnal ,lepidoptera4 ,after flying   
round and  round the light several      
times1 they singe their wings and die in
  numbers4 ,this instinct is so constant
 and so developed amongst many of  these
 insects1 that it has been used against 
them for their own  destruction4 ,thus  
amongst the means advocated for         
destroying a moth1  ,botys sticticalis1 
the caterpillars of which devour cereals
 and  beetroot1#dc is the lighting of   
numerous fires in the fields4 ,the      
moths1 attracted by the light1 fall in  
the flames and die in quantities4       
,when the usual swarms of may-flies     

emerge from the water1 fishers make     
straw fires on their boats1 and the     
insects singe their wings4 ,the         
innumerable bodies incapable of flight  
fall into the water1 and provide  a     
coveted food for the fish4#dd ,this     
disharmonious and fatal instinct  is    
displayed chiefly by nocturnal insects  
that rest during the day and  do not    
leave their retreats till after sunset4 
,in the cornfields  ,coleoptera of the  
genera ,anisoplia and ,rhizotrogus1     
resembling each  other in form and      
general appearance1 are to be found4    
,when a fire is  lighted in the darkness
 of the night it is only the            
,rhizotrogus that  approaches it at the 
risk of its life4 ,the ,anisoplia       
remains quiet in  the midst of the corn4
 ,the latter kind of beetle pairs during
 the day1  while the ,rhizotrogi satisfy
 their sexual desires during the night4 
,moreover1 it is the males only of this 
species that fly about in the  darkness 
and approach the fire1 whilst the       

females rest at home in the  plants4#de 
,it is probable1 therefore1 that light  
induces a sort of  sexual excitement in 
these male beetles4 ,the males1         
searching for the  female1 believe her  
to be in the midst of the flames1       
towards which they  fly without being   
conscious of the danger they incur4     
,such an interpretation of this         
disharmonious and suicidal instinct is  
confirmed by the fact that the moths    
attracted by fire are also almost       
exclusively males4 ,moreover1           
entomologists have advised against the  
lighting of fires by agriculturists in  
the belief that they destroy the        
noxious ,botys1 as they maintain that   
the females are not attracted4  ,these  
latter therefore live on1 and1 being    
capable of laying eggs1  produce a      
generation of voracious caterpillars4   
,of the ,ephemera attracted by fire in  
such great quantities males are  by far 
the more numerous4 ,it is therefore     
really very probable that the  mad      

excitement which leads to the           
destruction of so many male insects1    
represents a sort of sexual aberration4 
,in this connection it is to be         
remembered that1 amongst ,coleoptera1   
species exist of which the females1     
hidden in the grass1 produce intense    
light which attracts the males4 ,in  the
 common glow-worm1 the female1 which is 
devoid of wings1 alone shines  with the 
familiar greenish glitter4 ,even in     
species of which the two  sexes are     
luminous1 the female shines more        
vividly4 ,it is true that  there are    
some beetles with luminous larv1 a fact 
that led ,darwin#df  to remark that the 
production of light by insects may serve
 to frighten  enemies4 ,this is         
possible1 and it is also possible that  
certain insects  make use of their      
luminosity to light their way in the    
darkness4#dg  ,but1 notwithstanding     
this1 the sexual character of the       
luminous organ is  so manifest in       
certain species that it is impossible to

 doubt its  function as a means of      
attracting the male4    ,in conclusion  
,i may say that it is not my purpose at 
present to discuss  the meaning of an   
instinct so fatal to insect life4 ,i    
wish only to point  out the frequency of
 the natural occurrence of disharmony1  
so that the  satisfaction of an instinct
 is fatal to so many of its possessors4 
,it is plain that an instinct1 or any   
other form of disharmony leading to     
destruction1 cannot increase1 or even   
endure very long4 ,the perversion  of   
the maternal instinct tending to        
abandonment of the young is  destructive
 to the stock4 ,in consequence1         
individuals affected by it do  not have 
the opportunity of transmitting the     
perversion4 ,if all rabbits1  or a      
majority of them1 left their young to   
die through neglect1 it is  evident that
 the species would soon die out4 ,on the
 contrary1 mothers1  guided by their    
instinct to nourish and foster their    
offspring1 will  produce a vigorous     

generation capable of transmitting the  
healthy  maternal instinct so essential 
for the preservation of the species4    
,for  such a reason harmonious          
characters are more abundant in nature  
than  injurious peculiarities4 ,the     
latter1 because they are injurious to   
the  individual and to the species1     
cannot perpetuate themselves            
indefinitely4    ,in this way there     
comes about a constant selection of     
characters4 ,the  useful qualities are  
handed down and preserved1 while noxious
 characters  perish and so disappear4   
,although disharmonies tend to the      
destruction  of a species1 they may     
themselves disappear without having     
destroyed the  race in which they occur4
    ,this continuous process of natural 
selection1 which offers so good an      
explanation of the transmutation and    
origin of species by means of           
preservation of useful and destruction  
of harmful characters1 was  discovered  
by ,darwin and ,wallace1 and was        

established by the splendid  researches 
of the former of these4    ,long before 
the appearance of man on the face of the
 earth1 there were  some happy beings   
well adapted to their environment1 and  
some unhappy  creatures that followed   
disharmonious instincts so as to imperil
 or to  destroy their lives4 ,were such 
creatures capable of reflection and     
communication1 plainly the fortunate    
among them1 such as orchids and         
fossorial wasps1 would be on the side of
 the optimists2 they would  declare this
 the best of all possible worlds1 and   
insist that1 to secure  happiness it is 
necessary only to follow natural        
instincts4 ,on the other  hand1 the     
disharmonious creatures1 those ill      
adapted to the conditions  of life1     
would be pessimistic philosophers4      
,consider the case of the  lady-bird1   
driven by hunger and with a preference  
for honey1 which  searches for it on    
flowers and meets only with failure1 or 
of insects  driven by their instincts   

into the flames1 only to lose their     
wings and  their lives2 such creatures1 
plainly1 would express as their idea of 
the  world that it was fashioned        
abominably1 and that existence was a    
mistake4    ,as for man1 the creature   
most interesting to us1 in what category
 does  he fall8 ,is he a being whose    
nature is in harmony with the conditions
 in  which he has to live1 or is he out 
of harmony with his environment8 ,a     
critical examination is needed to answer
 these questions1 and to such an        
examination the pages to follow are     
devoted4                                
,,chapter ,,iii                         
,,simian ,,origin ,,of ,,man            
,relationship of the human species with 
anthropoid apes--,analogies in    the   
dentition1 in the organisation of the   
limbs and of the    brain--,resemblance 
of the vermiform appendage of man and   
anthropoids--,analogy between the       
placenta and ftus of man and            
anthropoid apes--,blood relationship of 

man and monkeys shown by serums    and  
precipitates--,transmutation of         
species--,sudden transition from        
monkey to man--,j4 ,inaudi1 the         
calculator1 as an example of the sudden 
appearance of characters in the human   
species--,rudimentary organs in         
man--,proportion of progressive and     
retrogressive organs in the             
organisation of man      ,to understand 
human nature it is necessary first to   
give an account of  the origin of man4  
,this question has preoccupied mankind  
for ages1 and  for a long time it was   
believed that a solution of the problem 
was to be  found in religious dogmas4   
,man was regarded as being of           
supernatural  origin1 the result of a   
special creation4 ,scientific criticism 
has now  shown that there are no grounds
 for such a conclusion4    ,nearly half 
a century ago ,darwin applied to man his
 discovery of the  principle of natural 
selection1 and of the part played by    
that in the  origin and transmutation of

 species4 ,soon after the publication of
 the  8,origin of ,species10 attention  
was given to the special case of man4   
,in  #ahfc ,huxley#dh gave an admirable 
review of the problem in his work on    
8,man's ,place in ,nature40 ,he brought 
forward arguments of the highest        
scientific validity in support of the   
thesis that man is descended from       
animals1 and that he is a mammal most   
nearly related to monkeys1 and  among   
these to the anthropoid apes4 ,in spite 
of this masterly  exposition1 there are 
still persons of high intelligence and  
superior  education who declare that    
science has not yet answered the        
question as  to whence he came1 and that
 the theory of evolution will never     
provide  an answer4#di ,close           
examination of the structure of man has 
proved1 in  the most definite fashion1  
the existence of a near kinship with the
  higher monkeys1 or anthropoids4 ,when 
the chimpanzee and the  ourang-outang   
were discovered1 comparison became      

inevitable1 and many  naturalists1      
including the great ,linnus1 saw that   
the human race must  find its place in  
classification near the anthropoids4    
,now that all the details of the human  
organisation have been studied1  and the
 anatomical structures of man and large 
monkeys without tails  have been        
compared1 bone with bone and muscle with
 muscle1 a truly  astonishing analogy   
between these organisms is made         
manifest1 an analogy  apparent in every 
detail4 ,it is known that in the natural
 history of  mammals the teeth play an  
important part as a means of determining
  differences and relationships4 ,the   
dentition of man bears a very great     
resemblance to that of anthropoids4     
,every one knows the milk teeth and  the
 permanent teeth of man4 ,the anthropoid
 apes bear in this respect  an          
astonishing likeness to man4 ,the number
 7thirty-two in the adult71  the form   
and general arrangement of the crown1   
are identical in man and  anthropoid    

apes4 ,the differences are to be found  
only in minor details1  such as the     
exact shape and relative dimensions and 
the number of cusps4  ,it can be said in
 a general way that in the anthropoid   
apes the teeth  are more strongly       
developed than in man4 ,the canines are 
much longer and  the roots of the       
pre-molars are more complex in the      
gorilla than in man4    ,but the fact   
must not be lost sight of1 that all     
these differences are  less pronounced  
than those which exist between the      
dentition of  anthropoid apes and that  
of all other monkeys4 ,even in the      
cynocephalous  monkeys1 those that most 
nearly approach the anthropoids1 the    
teeth  exhibit marked differences4      
,thus1 the forms of the upper molars are
  quite different in the baboon and in  
the gorilla4 ,the canines are  longer1  
and the pre-molars and molars are still 
more complex in the  baboon4    ,in the 
monkeys of the ,new ,world1 the         
dentition differs still more from  that 

of man and anthropoids4 ,instead of     
thirty-two teeth1 they possess          
thirty-six in the adult condition4 ,the 
number of pre-molars is twelve  instead 
of eight4 ,the general form and the     
crowns of the molars are very  different
 from those of anthropoid apes4         
,these considerations led ,huxley to    
conclude that 8it is obvious that1      
greatly as the dentition of the highest 
ape differs from that of man1 it        
differs far more widely from that of the
 lower and lowest apes40#ej    ,another 
character which shows that anthropoids  
are nearer man than other  monkeys is   
furnished by the anatomy of the sacrum4 
,in monkeys as a whole  the sacrum is   
composed of three1 or rarely four1      
vertebr1 while in  anthropoid apes it   
contains five1 that is to say just as   
many as in man4    ,the whole skeleton1 
and particularly the skull of man1 and  
the higher  monkeys1 present certainly  
some marked differences2 but here again 
the  differences are less than those    

between the anthropoid apes and other   
monkeys4 ,as regards the osteology the  
proposition laid down by ,huxley is     
just4 8,so that1 for the skull1 no less 
than for the skeleton in general1  the  
proposition holds good1 that the        
differences between man and the  gorilla
 are of smaller value than those between
 the gorilla and some  other apes40#ea  
,the believers in the doctrine that the 
human species is essentially  distinct  
from all the known monkeys have laid    
great stress on the  difference between 
the foot of man and that of anthropoid  
apes4 ,this  difference cannot be       
denied4 ,man assumes the direct posture 
habitually1  while monkeys1 even the    
highest of them1 walk on two legs only  
occasionally4 ,there has followed from  
this a greater development of the  feet 
in monkeys4 ,yet this difference ought  
not to be exaggerated4 ,it has  been    
sought to prove that monkeys are        
8quadrumanous10 and that their  hind    
legs terminate in 8hind-hands40 ,but it 

is clearly shown that in all  essential 
respects the hinder limb of the gorilla 
terminates in as true  a foot as that of
 man4#eb 8,the hind limb of the gorilla1
 therefore1  ends in a true foot1 with a
 very movable great toe4 ,it is a       
prehensile  foot1 indeed1 but is in no  
sense a hand2 it is a foot which differs
 from  that of man not in any           
fundamental character1 but in mere      
proportions1  in the degree of mobility1
 and in the secondary arrangement of its
  parts40#ec    ,in all these cases the 
argument is confirmed1 8that be the     
differences  between the hand and foot  
of man and those of the gorilla what    
they may1  the differences between those
 of the gorilla and those of the lower  
apes  are much greater40#ed    ,the     
comparison of muscles and of other      
internal organs leads to the same       
conclusion2 the differences between     
monkeys are more varied and greater     
than those between anthropoids and man4 
,the anatomy of the brain has  been much

 discussed with regard to this4 ,several
 distinguished  zoologists1 amongst them
 ,owen in particular1 have insisted on  
the  absence in all monkeys of certain  
parts of the brain peculiarly           
characteristic of man4 ,such are the    
posterior lobe1 the posterior cornu1    
and the lesser hippocampus4 ,controversy
 on this topic has been animated2  but1 
ultimately1 the opinion of ,owen did not
 triumph1 and now it is  unanimously    
accepted that the parts of the brain in 
question are  8precisely those          
structures which are the most marked    
cerebral  characters common to man with 
the apes4 ,they are among the most      
distinctly simian peculiarities which   
the human organism exhibits40#ee        
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #f4--;,ccum  
and vermiform appendage of man 7after   
,ewald74      ,as regards the brain1 the
 differences between man and anthropoid 
apes  are certainly less marked than    
those that exist between the higher and 
lower monkeys4    ,the digestive tract  

affords another argument in favour of   
the affinity  of anthropoid apes to man4
 ,the human ccum is furnished with the  
very  remarkable and strange vermiform  
appendage which often is the cause of a 
grave and prevalent illness known as    
appendicitis4 ,now1 it is quite         
remarkable that this organ is           
practically identical with the vermiform
  appendage of anthropoid apes4 ,a      
glance at the accompanying figures 7#f  
and #g7 will convince the reader of     
this4 ,yet none of the other monkeys    
present any such resemblance with man4  
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #g4--;,ccum  
and vermiform appendage of the          
chimpanzee 7from a      preparation in  
the ,paris ,museum of ,natural          
,history74      ,it is not surprising1  
in the face of resemblances so numerous1
 that  forty years' science has         
proclaimed the existence of a close     
affinity  between man and the anthropoid
 apes4 ,the view has become an          
established  doctrine1 now that no      

single fact has been brought against it4
 ,since the  theory was enunciated we   
have learned much regarding the natural 
history  of these apes4 ,generally1 when
 a theory is false1 a new set of facts  
overthrows it4 ,attempts may be made to 
trim the new facts to the  existing     
theory1 but such attempts are doomed to 
failure1 and the theory  disappears4 ,it
 is of special interest1 then1 to       
confront the simian  theory of the      
origin of man with a series of facts    
gathered by science  since the theory   
was propounded4    ,when ,huxley wrote1 
the embryological history of anthropoid 
apes was  practically unknown4 ,darwin1 
,vogt1 and ,haeckel1 in their attempts  
to  support the theory of the animal    
origin of man1 had not sufficient       
knowledge of the embryology of monkeys4 
,it is only recently that  important    
work on this subject has been published4
    ,it is known that the history of    
development is very often an excellent  
guide in tracing the relationship of    

organisms4 ,it is therefore  interesting
 to examine the established facts       
concerning the embryology  of anthropoid
 apes4 ,the material for these studies  
is very difficult to  obtain1 and it is 
not astonishing that even our present   
state of  knowledge is still imperfect4 
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #h4--;,ftus  
of gibbon 7after ,selenka74      ,the   
placenta often gives information of     
great importance in the  classification 
of mammals4 ,it is sufficient to glance 
at the zonary  placenta of dogs and     
seals to be convinced of the            
relationship of these  two species1     
which at first sight seem so different4 
,now1 the placentas  of all the         
anthropoid apes examined up to the      
present are of the same  discoid type as
 that of man4 ,the arrangement of the   
umbilical cord of  man1 which was       
formerly considered as quite peculiar to
 him1 is found in  anthropoid apes1 as  
has been established by ,deniker#ef and 
,selenka#eg  ,it is striking that the   

anthropoids resemble man rather than the
 lower  monkeys in the relation of the  
ftus to the ftal membranes4             
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #i4--;,human 
ftus of three months and a half4        
,with regard to the embryos themselves1 
the similarity between those of  monkeys
 and of man is very great4 ,selenka     
insists on the fact that the  youngest  
stages of human development that have   
been obtained can hardly  be            
distinguished from those of the lower   
monkeys either in position or  in shape4
 ,more advanced stages exhibit greater  
differentiation1 and the  later embryos 
of man resemble those of anthropoids    
much more closely  than those of the    
lower monkeys4 ,the ftus of the gibbon1 
figured by  ,selenka 7,fig4 #h71        
presents the most striking likeness to a
 corresponding  human ftus 7,fig4 #i74  
,later on1 the characters that          
distinguish man from even the highest of
  the apes become more and more         
pronounced4 ,in the anthropoids the     

facial  portion becomes more and more   
prominent1 and betrays a bestiality     
absent  from the human form4 ,none the  
less the resemblance between the nearly 
mature ftus of anthropoids and human    
embryos of about the sixth month  is    
evident enough4 ,m4 ,deniker had the    
good fortune to obtain the late  ftus of
 a gorilla--a very rare piece of        
fortune--and he has made an  elaborate  
investigation of its structure4 ,the    
general appearance 7,fig4  #aj7 is quite
 enough to show the close relationship  
with a human ftus of  a corresponding   
age 7,fig4 #aa74 ,it is plain1 moreover1
 that the young  gorilla is more        
human-like than is the adult4 ,detailed 
anatomical  investigation only confirms 
this conclusion4    ,the skulls of the  
young stages of anthropoids are much    
more human in  their character than the 
adult skulls4 ,selenka states that such 
young  skulls of different anthropoids  
not only resemble one another more      
closely1 but are more human4 ,as soon as

 the teeth begin to appear1 the         
individual characters are assumed so    
rapidly1 and become so marked1  that1 in
 the absence of the intermediate stages1
 it would be difficult  to establish the
 kinships4    ,the data derived from    
embryology do not point to any one of   
the existing  genera of monkeys as the  
ancestor of man4 ,they lead us to infer1
 rather1  that man and the anthropoid   
apes had a common origin1 and           
palontological evidence must be scanned 
to find this ancestor4 ,the  greatest   
importance has been attached to a       
discovery in ,java1 made in  #ahid by   
,eugne ,dubois4 ,the remains1 consisting
 of the crown of a skull1  two teeth and
 a femur1 belonging to a creature for   
which the name  ,pithecanthropus        
erectus#eh has been invented1 have been 
interpreted  by several anatomists as   
those of a form intermediate between man
 and  the anthropoid apes4 ,however1 as 
the facts about this creature are       
meagre and have been interpreted        

differently1 ,i shall not make use of   
them in my argument4 ,even apart from   
them1 the simian origin of man may  be  
taken as proved4    ,the series of facts
 that ,i have been employing as evidence
 of the  relationship between men and   
anthropoid apes has been drawn from the 
observations of anatomists and          
embryologists4 ,darwin1 seeking to      
broaden  the basis of the argument1     
called attention to the resemblances of 
the  parasites of men and apes1 as      
evidence of a close similarity of       
physiological processes in the          
creatures4 ,in the last few years1      
investigations in a very different field
 seem capable of throwing a  novel light
 on the question4    ,when the blood of 
one mammal is injected into the body of 
another1 the  latter shows remarkable   
modifications4 ,when there is added to a
 serum1  prepared from the blood of a   
rabbit and consisting of a colourless   
transparent liquid1 a few drops of blood
 drawn from another rodent 7for         

instance a guinea-pig71 nothing unusual 
happens4 ,the blood of the  guinea-pig  
preserves its normal colour1 and its    
corpuscles remain  practically          
unaltered4 ,if1 instead of adding       
guinea-pig's blood to the  serum of     
rabbit's blood1 we add a serum drawn    
from the blood of the  guinea-pig1 still
 no special change occurs4              
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #aj4--;,ftus 
of gorilla 7after ,deniker74      ,if1  
however1 a serum be prepared from the   
blood of a rabbit into which  there had 
first been injected the blood of a      
guinea-pig1 the serum shows  new and    
striking qualities4 ,the addition to it 
of some drops of  guinea-pig's blood    
brings about1 in a very short time1 a   
changed  appearance4 ,the red liquid1 at
 first opaque1 becomes transparent4 ,the
  mixture of the prepared serum of the  
rabbit with the blood of the  guinea-pig
 will assume the colour of claret mixed 
with water4 ,the change  is due to      
solution of the red corpuscles of the   

guinea-pig in the blood  serum of the   
rabbit4    ,illustration3      ,,fig4   
#aa4--;,human ftus of about five months4
      ,this serum has still another     
property not less worthy of attention4  
,if  there is added to it not pure blood
 but only blood serum of the            
guinea-pig1 a disturbance in the mixture
 occurs almost at once1 and  leads to   
the forming of a precipitate more or    
less abundant4    ,the injection of the 
blood of the guinea-pig into a rabbit   
has therefore  changed the serum of the 
latter by introducing new properties3   
that of  dissolving the red corpuscles  
of the guinea-pig and of giving a       
precipitate with the blood serum of the 
same animal4    ,frequently the blood   
serum of animals prepared by previous   
injections of  the blood of other       
species of animals is strictly specific4
 ,in such  cases the serum only gives a 
precipitate with the serum of the       
species  which has furnished the blood  
for the injections1 and only dissolves  

the  red corpuscles of this same        
species4 ,but there are some instances  
in  which a serum of a prepared animal  
dissolves1 not only the red  corpuscles 
of the species which has furnished the  
injected blood1 but  those of allied    
species4 ,thus the blood serum of the   
rabbit1 after some  injections of blood 
of the chicken1 becomes capable of      
dissolving not  only the red corpuscles 
of the chicken but also those of the    
pigeon1  although in a less degree4     
,it has been suggested that assistance  
could be rendered to forensic  medicine 
by making use of this property of       
serums1 to discover the  origin of a    
certain blood4 ,as is well known1 it is 
often very important  to decide whether 
a stain was caused by the blood of man  
or of another  animal4 ,until quite     
recently it was not known how to        
distinguish human  blood from that of   
other mammals4 ,experiments have been   
made to discover  if the red corpuscles 
found in the blood stain could be       

dissolved by the  serum of animals which
 had previously been injected with the  
blood of  man4 ,in a certain case the   
human origin of the stain in question   
was  shown4 ,but it was soon discovered 
that this method was not infallible4    
,it is now found that the method of     
precipitates gives much more  conclusive
 results4 ,it is done in this way3      
,human blood is injected  several times 
into any animal 7rabbit1 dog1 sheep1    
horse74 ,some time  afterwards the      
animal is bled1 and a clear and limpid  
serum1 quite  devoid of corpuscles1 is  
prepared4 ,when there is added to this  
serum one  or several drops of human    
serum1 it forms immediately a           
precipitate  which falls to the bottom4 
,in this way it is discovered whether   
the  prepared serum is sufficiently     
active4 ,it then becomes possible to    
recognise even dried human blood4 ,a    
little of such blood is dissolved in    
normal salt solution1 and placed in a   
tube containing the serum of an  animal 

prepared by means of the injections of  
human blood4 ,if a  precipitate forms in
 the liquid in a short time1 the fact   
indicates that  the stain is really     
human blood4 ,this method is being      
practised in  forensic medicine4        
,this reaction is of great interest to  
us because it is of assistance in       
revealing the relationship between      
species4 ,the serum of an animal        
prepared with the blood of the fowl     
gives a precipitate1 not only with  the 
serum of the fowl itself1 but also with 
that of the pigeon2 on the  other hand1 
it remains undisturbed when the serum of
 mammals is added4  ,the reaction       
indicates then that there is a          
sufficiently marked degree  of          
relationship between the fowl and the   
pigeon4 ,here is another  example3 the  
serum of an animal prepared with the    
blood of an ox gives  an abundant       
precipitate when there is added to it a 
little blood serum  of the ox1 but it   
does not produce this reaction with the 

serum of any  of the other mammals1 not 
even with that of the sheep1 stag and   
deer4#ei ,the relationship between the  
,bovid and these other  ruminants is    
then not so close as that between the   
fowl and the pigeon4    ,how does the   
serum of animals which has been injected
 with human blood  behave8 ,the serum   
capable of giving a precipitate with    
human serum does  not produce the same  
reaction except with the serum of some  
monkeys 7the  small ,papio74#fj         
,gruenbaum1 of ,liverpool1#fa has been  
fortunate enough to procure a           
considerable quantity of the blood of   
three large anthropoid apes--the        
gorilla1 chimpanzee1 and ourang-outang4 
,he has been able to prove that  the    
serum of animals injected with man's    
blood gives a precipitate not  only with
 this blood but also with that of the   
above-mentioned apes4 ,it  was          
impossible for him 8to distinguish this 
precipitate as regards  quality and     
quantity from that which is obtained    

with human blood40    ,to verify this   
result1 ,gruenbaum prepared the serum of
 animals injected  with the blood of the
 gorilla1 chimpanzee1 and ourang-outang4
 ,these  three kinds of serum gave      
precipitates with the blood of these    
three  apes1 and to the same extent with
 the blood of man4 ,it is therefore     
evident that there exists between the   
human species and the anthropoid  apes  
not only a superficial analogy of body  
and of the principal organs1  but a     
close blood relationship4    ,facts of  
this kind could not be foreseen when the
 theory of the simian  origin of man was
 put forward4 ,in spite of this they    
have arisen to  confirm it in a truly   
astonishing way4    ,it is therefore    
impossible to doubt that man is a member
 of the group of  primates having a     
close connection with the higher monkeys
 of the  present time4 ,this result is  
of great importance in all questions    
relating to human nature4    ,it would  
certainly be of considerable interest to

 know more exactly what  steps were     
followed in this simian descent of man4 
,on this question our  knowledge is     
still very imperfect4 ,in his researches
 on anthropoid apes1  ,selenka insists  
on a more intimate relationship between 
the chimpanzee  and man4 8,the great    
resemblance of the pre-molars and of the
 molars in  the permanent dentition of  
the chimpanzee with human teeth appears 
to  indicate that the chimpanzee and man
 have a common origin1 and descend  from
 extinct forms like ,dryopithecus4 ,this
 conclusion1 however1 is  contradicted  
by the fact that the milk teeth of the  
chimpanzee are much  nearer those of the
 ourang-outang than those of man40#fb   
,it is evident that to clear up this    
question it would be necessary to  have 
a greater knowledge of fossil           
anthropoids such as ,dryopithecus  and  
its allies4 ,in the present state of    
knowledge only a very general           
hypothesis can be formulated as to the  
exact mode of human descent4    ,we have

 already shown that the ftus of man and 
of the anthropoid  monkeys resemble each
 other much more than the adult forms1  
and that the  young of these apes also  
bear a greater likeness to man than do  
the  adults4 ,the great development of  
the skull as compared with the face is  
characteristic of young monkeys and of  
man young or old4 ,the jaws  continue to
 develop in the anthropoids1 while in   
man there occurs in  this respect a     
certain arrest of development4 ,the     
hairs1 so small in  man1 also show a    
similar arrest4 ,generally they remain  
during the whole  life in a state of    
incomplete development4 ,it is          
especially on the back  of man that this
 feeble development of hairs occurs4 ,as
 this part of the  body in monkeys1 on  
the contrary1 is much more hairy than   
the under  surface1 it has been held to 
constitute an essential difference      
between  man and monkeys4 ,but          
embryological study enables us to settle
 this  apparent contradiction4 ,the ftus

 of the gorilla examined by ,m4 ,deniker
  possessed an almost entirely smooth   
back4 8,the ftus had true hairs only  on
 the head1 the anterior surface1 and    
around the lips and the genital  organs1
 and the eyelashes and eyebrows4 ,the   
remainder of the body was  smooth or    
covered with down not exceeding a       
millimetre in length40#fc    ,the skin  
of the under surface1 smooth around the 
navel1 was covered with  small hairs    
more thickly than on the back4 ,the     
abundance of hairs on the  posterior    
aspect of the body of monkeys is a later
 acquisition1 which  develops but       
tardily during ftal life4    ,as regards
 the distribution of these hairs man    
resembles much more the  embryos of     
monkeys than adult monkeys4 ,this fact1 
instead of shaking the  theory of       
relationship between man and apes1 gives
 us strong evidence as  to the mode of  
his descent4 ,putting the known facts   
together1 we may  infer that man is a   
case of the arrested development of some

 simian of  ancient days1 as it were1 a 
simian monster from the zoological point
 of  view1 although not from the        
sthetic4 ,man may be regarded as a      
prodigy  sprung from an ape1 born with a
 larger brain and an intelligence more  
highly developed than occurred in his   
parents4 ,such a view is in  accordance 
with known facts4    ,it must be        
admitted that certain kinds of          
organisms1 instead of evolving  at a    
very slow pace1 spring up suddenly1 and 
that in such a case nature  proceeds    
with a considerable stride4 ,darwin     
foresaw this possibility1  but it has   
been made plain to us by the remarkable 
researches of the  botanist ,hugo de    
,vries4#fd    ,de ,vries cultivated for 
fifteen years the ,evening ,primrose1 a 
plant of  ,american origin 7nothera     
lamarckiana74 ,he obtained1 suddenly1 a 
set  of flowers quite distinct from     
those of the original plant4 ,they      
presented such great differences that he
 could separate them as several  quite  

distinct species4 ,during the first few 
years ,de ,vries obtained  three species
 7notera lata1 n4 nanella1 and sometimes
 n4  scintillans71 but variation        
becoming more and more prevalent1 he    
ultimately distinguished a dozen new    
species4 ,these were grown from  seed1  
and transmitted their specific          
characters to their descendants4 ,de    
,vries1 in this way1 was a witness of   
the sudden appearance of new  species4  
,it is probable that man owes his origin
 to a similar phenomenon4 ,some         
anthropoid ape having at a certain      
period become varied in specific        
characters1 produced offspring endowed  
with new properties4 ,the brain1  of    
abnormal size1 placed in a spacious     
cranium1 allowed a rapid  development of
 intellectual faculties much more       
advanced than those of  the parent and  
those of the original species4 ,this    
peculiarity would be  transmitted to the
 descendants1 and1 as it was of very    
considerable  advantage in the struggle 

for existence1 the new race would hold  
its  own1 propagate and prevail4 ,the   
extraordinary development of            
intelligence necessarily led to         
perfections in the choice of            
nourishment1 perfections which          
approached the art of preparing more    
digestible food4 ,the jaws1 under these 
conditions1 had not such a  difficult   
task as before1 and1 moreover1 they were
 no longer required  for attack or      
defence4 ,they became less developed    
than in the true  anthropoid apes4      
,these suggestions involve a conception 
of the mind that is in harmony  with    
known facts4 ,from time to time         
prodigies are born with some talent  far
 greater than the gifts possessed by the
 parents4    ,about twelve years ago a  
young native of ,piedmont1 ,jacques     
,inaudi by  name1 became famous in      
,paris on account of his extraordinary  
power of  calculation4 ,he had an       
astonishing memory for figures1 and     
could perform  mathematical calculations

 with surprising rapidity4#fe ,two      
minutes were  sufficient for him to     
multiply two numbers composed of seven  
and six  figures4 ,other arithmetical   
calculations1 such as the extraction of 
roots1 gave him but little trouble4     
,to attain this result1 ,inaudi made use
 of his extraordinary memory for        
figures1 founded on the persistence of  
auditory images4 ,when he heard  the    
numbers pronounced1 he remembered them4 
,inaudi declared to the  ,commission    
convened by the ,academy of ,sciences1  
that when he tried to  recall the       
numbers he heard them as if repeated    
aloud1 in the tone of  his own voice1   
and that he could hear them for the     
greater part of the  day4 8,in an hour1 
or in two hours' time1 if ,i thought of 
the number that  was uttered1 ,i should 
be able to repeat it as exactly as ,i   
have done  before the ,commission40     
,now this very extraordinary and rare   
auditory memory was developed in an     
altogether abrupt way4 ,inaudi1 the son 

of poor peasants of ,piedmont1  passed  
the first years of his life as a        
shepherd4 ,at the age of six his        
wonderful faculty of calculating figures
 appeared4 ,he did not know at  this    
time how to read or to write4 ,at eleven
 years of age he astonished  the members
 of the ,anthropological ,society of    
,paris by his phenomenal  memory1 and it
 was only much later1 at the age of     
twenty1 that he learnt  to read and     
write4 ,neither of the parents of       
,inaudi had shown in the  slightest     
degree a calculating faculty like that  
of little ,jacques4 ,it  must then be   
admitted that it was developed as       
suddenly as the new  qualities in the   
,evening ,primrose that we have already 
mentioned4    ,the first men1 also1 were
 probably ingenious children1 born of   
anthropoid parents4 ,this hypothesis    
very well explains the fact that man  is
 more like the ftus and the young of    
anthropoid apes than the adult  animals1
 and exhibits only a trace of many      

organs which are much more  developed in
 simian species4    ,a very             
distinguished ,german anatomist1        
,wiedersheim1#ff has given in a         
pamphlet a resum of our actual knowledge
 of the organs of man from  the point of
 view of their descent4 ,he has found   
fifteen organs which  show in the human 
species a considerable advance on those 
of anthropoid  apes4 ,the chief of these
 are the lower limb1 well adapted for a 
constant  erect carriage of the body2   
the strengthening of the pelvis and of  
the  sacrum1 as well as the broadening  
of the more slender pelvis of the       
female2 the curvature of the lumbar part
 of the vertebral column2 the           
development of the buttocks and of the  
calves2 the difference of certain       
muscles of the face2 the nose2 certain  
strands from the brain to the  spinal   
cord2 the occipital lobe of the brain2  
the greater development of  the cerebral
 cortex1 and1 lastly1 the considerable  
differentiation of  the muscles of the  

larynx which permit speech4    ,but     
besides these progressive organs1       
,wiedersheim has counted seventeen      
decaying organs1 still able to fulfil   
their physiological function in a  more 
or less incomplete manner 7amongst these
 are the decadent muscles  of the leg   
and foot2 the eleventh and twelfth pairs
 of ribs1 the toes1  the ccum1 etc471   
and not less than one hundred and seven 
rudimentary  organs which serve no      
useful physiological purpose 7to this   
category  belong the coccyx--the vestige
 of a tail--the thirteenth pair of ribs 
in  the adult1 the muscles of the ear1  
the vermiform appendage1 etc474    ,we  
have already shown in the preceding     
chapter the great importance of         
rudimentary organs as aids to the       
tracing of the genealogy of organisms4  
,these organs1 useless at present1 are  
the vestiges of similar but more        
developed organs1 which fulfilled a     
useful function in our ancestors4       
,the extraordinary quantity of          

rudimentary organs in man furnishes     
another proof of his animal origin1 and 
puts at the disposal of science         
information of great value for the      
philosophic conception of human  nature4
                                        
,,chapter ,,iv      ,,disharmonies ,,in 
,,the ,,organisation ,,of ,,the         
,,digestive ,,system ,,of ,,man         
,perfection of the human form--,the     
covering of hair--,the dentition in     
general and the wisdom teeth--,the      
vermiform appendage--,appendicitis and  
its gravity--,uselessness of the ccum   
and of the large    intestine--,instance
 of a woman without a large             
intestine--,ancestral    history of this
 portion of the digestive               
tract--,injurious effect of the         
microbes of the large                   
intestine--,frequency of cancer of the  
large    intestine and of the           
stomach--,limited usefulness of the     
stomach--,the    instinct of choice of  
food--,futility of this instinct in man 

,although he is a recent arrival on the 
earth1 man has made great  progress as  
compared with his ancestors1 the        
anthropoid apes4 ,a  comparison between 
even the lower races of man1 such as the
 ,hottentots  or the aborigines of      
,australia and higher types such as the 
inhabitants  of ,europe and of ,north   
,africa1 shows that a very great advance
 has been  made4    ,human art has been 
able to surpass nature in many          
instances4 ,no natural  sound is so     
perfect as some of the more beautiful   
pieces of modern  music4 ,even in the   
production of form1 man has triumphed   
over nature4  ,breeders of flowers or of
 birds seek to produce new varieties4   
,with this  object they often frame a   
conception of what they desire to       
produce1  and1 so to speak1 set about to
 realise their programme4 ,they prepare 
ideal images to serve them as guides in 
the process of production4 ,by  the     
method of artificial selection they     
often succeed in their wishes1  and add 

to their collections some remarkable    
form4 ,in such fashions  aviculture and 
horticulture have produced birds and    
flowers more  beautiful than any found  
in nature4    ,in regard to the human   
body1 attempts have been made to surpass
 nature  and to represent a body        
corresponding to an artistic ideal4 ,to 
arrive at  something more beautiful than
 man1 the wings of birds or the         
characters  of some other creatures have
 been added to his presentment4 ,such   
attempts have had no other result than  
to show that the human form1 as  created
 by nature1 cannot be surpassed4 ,the   
ancient conception of the  human body as
 the artistic ideal has been fully      
justified4 ,the views of  those         
religious fanatics who have thrown      
contempt on the body by  representing it
 in degraded forms1 must be rejected4   
,it is impossible1 however1 to apply    
this result to our conception of the    
nature of man in general4 ,the beautiful
 form of the human body appears  only in

 youth and in maturity4 ,in old age1 the
 bodies of men and women  are generally 
ugly1 and in extreme old age it is      
almost impossible to  see the traces of 
former beauty4    ,nor can conceptions  
of perfection drawn from the human face 
and body be  extended to the whole of   
man's organisation4 ,a glance at some of
 the  organic systems will make this    
plain4    ,the human skin is covered    
with little hairs1 the history of which 
is  interesting4 ,in one stage of       
embryonic life nearly the whole of the  
body  is clad with hairs4 ,this covering
 is known as the lanugo1 and consists   
of strands of hair1 disposed very       
regularly all over the body1 save on    
the nose and the hands and feet4 ,there 
is no doubt but that this is            
functionless1 and is no more than an    
inheritance from the old ape-like       
condition4 ,later on1 it falls out and  
is replaced by the ordinary downy       
covering of the body4 ,in adult life1   
and particularly in old age1 the  hairs 

of the second coat tend to grow very    
long and so to form a  covering that is 
neither beautiful nor in the least      
degree useful4 ,we  may take this as a  
first example of a disharmonious        
condition in the  human body4 ,hairs1   
incapable of protecting the body from   
cold1 survive  merely as an ancestral   
relic and may become even harmful4      
,the human skin is constantly exposed to
 the microbes in dust2 and the          
follicles of the hairs1 in which these  
microbes lodge1 form receptacles  very  
favourable to their multiplication4 ,in 
the hollows of the  follicles1 certain  
microbes1 as for instance some of the   
,staphylococci1 multiply rapidly and    
give rise to acne and to pimples4  ,the 
process may even go the length of       
producing a chronic skin-disease  very  
unpleasant and even dangerous if it be  
associated with suppuration4    ,in the 
human race1 intelligence1 that is to    
say1 the activity of the  brain1        
supplants many other functions1 and man 

is able to protect  himself against the 
inclemencies of weather much better than
 his furry  ancestors were capable of   
doing4 ,he is able to do this through   
his  invention of clothing which may be 
varied with the nature of the  weather4 
,but the obstinate laws of inheritance  
burden him with a  covering of hair1 not
 only useless but frequently harmful4   
,and this is  only one example among    
many4    ,although1 in an extreme case1 
man is able to survive the total loss of
  the teeth1 it cannot yet be said that 
teeth are useless or harmful4 ,none  the
 less1 a study of the human dentition   
reveals that this set of organs  is out 
of harmony with the fundamental needs of
 our race4 ,the monkeys of  the old     
world 7,catarrhines71 although they     
belong obviously to the  brute creation1
 already exhibit a tendency to reduction
 in the number of  teeth4 ,while        
,american monkeys 7,platyrrhines7 may   
possess thirty-six  teeth1 the old world
 forms do not possess more than         

thirty-two in all1  at least as a normal
 occurrence4 ,selenka#fg has shown that 
among  gorillas and ourangs individuals 
with a fourth pair of molars1 bringing  
up the number of teeth to thirty-six1   
are not rare4 ,he found these           
additional molars in #bj per cent4 of   
one hundred and ninety-four adult       
skulls of ourangs4 ,on the other hand1  
in the cases of the chimpanzee and  the 
gibbon1 the third pair of molars differ 
from the others in smaller  size and    
occasional absence4 ,this reduction is  
to be associated with the  smaller jaws 
and less powerful mastication of these  
anthropoids4    ,cases of supplementary 
molars are very rare in man1 and occur  
more  frequently in the lower races1    
such as negroes1 ,australians1 and      
natives  of ,new ,caledonia4#fh ,on the 
other hand1 absence of the third pair of
  molars1 that is to say1 of the wisdom 
teeth1 is quite frequent1  especially in
 the white races4 ,nearly #aj per cent4 
of ,europeans  throughout their lives   

have no more than twenty-eight teeth1   
the wisdom  teeth being absent4 ,this   
absence is more common in the upper jaw1
 where  it occurs in from #ah to #ai per
 cent4 of men4 ,the loss of the wisdom  
teeth#fi is on the whole to be regarded 
as an advantage4 ,certainly from  the   
8physiological point of view the part   
played by the wisdom teeth is           
subordinate4 ,their power of masticating
 is feeble2 the loss does not           
appreciably interfere with mastication4 
,the complete absence of all four  has  
no influence on mastication40#gj ,these 
teeth are cut very late1  often not     
appearing until the thirtieth year and  
sometimes being delayed  to extreme old 
age4    ,even if they were only useless1
 the wisdom teeth would furnish an      
instance of disharmony in the human     
body4 ,but these teeth often are a      
source of trouble which1 although it is 
not often serious1 may lead to  grave   
diseases and even to death4 ,no other   
teeth are so subject to  accident4 ,this

 is due partly to the slowness with     
which they develop and  to the          
difficulty they encounter in cutting the
 mucous membrane4 ,dental  caries1      
moreover1 is specially frequent in      
them4#ga ,the membrane  surrounding them
 is specially subject to small lesions  
by which the  infection spreads to      
adjacent parts4 ,inflammatory conditions
 frequently  arise from these teeth1 and
 tumours1 caries of the jaw-bone and    
even  diffused suppuration1 leading to  
death1 may be sequel of wounds of the   
wisdom teeth4 ,galippe#gb has described 
a case in which one of these  teeth1    
failing to cut the gum in the normal    
position1 made its way  through the     
cheek4 ,this produced an inflammatory   
suppuration of the  cheek with numerous 
fistul and an inflammation of the       
masseter muscle  which made it          
impossible for the mouth to open4       
,notwithstanding the  extraction of the 
wisdom tooth that had been the cause of 
all these  troubles1 the patient died of

 meningitis1 which had started from the 
tooth4 ,other cases have been described 
in which a difficult eruption of  the   
tooth led to formation of an abscess in 
the bone1 from which there  arose a     
fatal abscess of the brain4    ,wisdom  
teeth may be the starting-point even of 
cancerous tumours4  ,magitot#gc writes  
that very many neoplasms of the jaw may 
be traced to  a source of origin in the 
socket of the wisdom tooth4    ,there is
 no useful function of these teeth to   
set against their  disadvantages4 ,it   
was our remote ancestors1 masticating   
hard food1 that  had the advantages of  
these additional teeth4 ,in man they are
  rudimentary organs1 and provide       
another proof of our simian origin4     
,the ccal or vermiform appendage is     
another rudimentary organ in the  human 
body1 and is interesting from many      
points of view4 ,i have already         
referred to its importance as definite  
evidence of our origin from lower       
animals1 and shown how striking is the  

resemblance of the human organ to  that 
of the anthropoid apes4 ,it consists of 
a thick wall1 containing  glands1 a     
muscular layer and lymphoid clumps4     
,that it performs no  function useful to
 man is made clear by the existence of  
undisturbed  health in persons from whom
 it has been removed4 ,thanks to the    
advances  of modern surgery1 this organ 
has been removed very often1 and        
sometimes  even in cases where it did   
not appear to have been diseased4 ,in a 
great  majority of the cases1 the       
removal of the organ succeeded well1 and
 the  patients experienced no harm1 but 
appeared to carry on all the processes  
of digestion with equal completeness4   
,on the other hand1 the ccal appendage  
in man is frequently obliterated1  there
 being no trace of the normal aperture1 
so that there is no  connection between 
it and the general digestive cavity4    
,according to  ,ribbert1#gd nearly one  
person in four possesses the appendage  
in an  obliterated condition1 the       

condition being particularly frequent in
 the  aged4 ,in young persons and       
infants the aperture of the appendage is
  usually open4 ,in cases where there is
 no communication with the cavity  of   
the digestive tract1 the processes of   
digestion appear to be normal4  ,it is  
logical to conclude that in the human   
being the function of the  ccum is      
either absent or very slight4    ,even  
in the anthropoid apes the appendage of 
the ccum appears to be a  rudimentary   
structure1 with a function at most      
accessory to that of the  lymphoid      
clumps4 ,in lower old world monkeys the 
vermiform appendage does  not usually   
exist1 cases such as that of            
,cercopithecus sabaeus1 in  which it is 
present as a little boss1 being rare4   
,it is necessary to  seek the purpose of
 this structure still lower in the scale
 of life4 ,in  some herbivorous         
creatures the ccum is large1 and ends in
 a portion  richly provided with        
lymphoid tissue1 and similar to the     

vermiform  appendage4 ,the rabbit and   
certain marsupials are good examples4   
,undoubtedly1 in their cases1 the       
portion of the digestive canal which    
corresponds to the vermiform appendage  
of man is active in the digestion  of   
vegetable matter4 ,the organ is a very  
old part of the constitution of         
mammals1 and it is because it has been  
preserved long after its function  has  
disappeared that we find it occurring in
 the body of man4    ,rudimentary organs
 for the most part display a congenital 
lack of the  power of resistance1 and1  
as ,darwin suggested1 for this reason   
they are  frequently the seats of       
disease4 ,when ,darwin wrote his work on
 the  8,descent of ,man10 more than a   
quarter of a century ago1 many fatal    
cases  of inflammation of the appendage 
had not been recorded4 ,darwin quoted   
only two cases as known to him4 ,since  
then1 appendicitis 7the name given  by  
,american surgeons to the first acute or
 to the chronic inflammation  of the    

appendage7 has become a well-known      
disease in ,europe and ,america1  and   
occupies considerable space in treatises
 on the pathology of the  digestive     
tract4    ,to give an idea of the       
prevalence of appendicitis1 ,i may      
mention that in  a single ,paris        
hospital 7,hpital ,trousseau7 four      
hundred and forty-three  cases of the   
disease have been treated in the five   
years #ahie-ahii4ge  ,in many of these  
cases the subjects were infants1 as     
these as a rule are  much more subject  
to appendicitis than are the aged4      
,according to  ,treves1#gf the          
well-known ,english surgeon1 #cf per    
cent4 of the observed  cases were under 
twenty years of age4 ,among old men1 on 
the other hand1  appendicitis is a rare 
exception4 ,the varying incidence of the
 disease  at different ages no doubt    
depends on the fact that in old age the 
appendage is often obliterated4 ,the    
more easy communication with the  other 
portion of the gut may be1 the more     

chance there is for  inflammation to    
occur4 ,as it has a muscular layer1 the 
appendage is able  to void its fcal     
contents2 and a ,scotch surgeon1 ,parker
 ,syms1#gg has  seen an appendage that  
he had removed1 in the act of writhing  
about like  an earthworm4 ,such         
movements1 undoubtedly1 would aid the   
discharge of  the contents of the       
cavity4    ,the movements of the        
appendage1 however1 are usually feeble1 
and thus  stagnation of the contents is 
common4 ,foreign matter is often found  
in  the cavity1 such as the pips of     
fruit1 seeds1 hairs1 thorns1 and in rare
  cases pins or even tin-tacks4 ,such   
bodies are capable of wounding the      
inner wall of the appendage1 and so     
giving an opportunity to the  microbes  
that abound in the digestive tube1 with 
the result that  microbial infection and
 inflammation of the organ is produced4 
,often1  too1 intestinal worms pass into
 the appendage and become the carriers  
of  pathogenic organisms4               

,appendicitis is usually a grave        
disease1 and is fatal in from #h to #aj 
per cent4 of cases4 ,it would be        
difficult to find anywhere else in the  
human body so flagrant a case of natural
 disharmony4 ,the organ in  question may
 be obliterated or removed without      
disturbance of function1  and1 moreover1
 in its normal condition is a frequent  
cause of serious  illness6    ,the      
vermiform appendage is not the only part
 of the digestive canal that  is out of 
harmony with the maintenance of life and
 health4 ,the ccum  itself1 of which the
 appendage is only a portion1 is        
degenerating in the  human body1 as ,i  
stated in the last chapter4 ,the human  
ccum1 in fact1  is very little developed
 in comparison with the ccum of most    
herbivorous animals1 in which it is a   
true organ of digestion4 ,in the  human 
embryo the ccum and the appendage are   
relatively better developed  than they  
are in the adult4    ,disharmony is     
exhibited in the human body not only by 

rudimentary organs  such as the wisdom  
teeth and the appendage1 or by          
degenerating organs  such as the ccum4  
,some very large parts of our alimentary
 canal must be  regarded as useless     
inheritances1 bequeathed to us by our   
animal  ancestors4 ,it is no longer rash
 to say that not only the rudimentary   
appendage and the ccum but the whole of 
the large intestine are  superfluous1   
and that their removal would be attended
 with happy  results4 ,so far as        
digestion goes1 the latter portion of   
the alimentary  tract is of little      
importance4 ,even from the point of view
 of absorption  of the products of      
digestion its importance is strictly    
secondary4 ,and  so it is not           
astonishing to find that the removal or 
disappearance of  nearly the whole of   
the large intestine can be supported    
well by man4    ,as one result of the   
astonishing progress of surgery1 it has 
been found  possible to excise certain  
parts of the gut1 and particularly of   

the  large intestine4 ,thus1 in one     
case1 ,krte#gh removed1 along with part 
of the small intestine1 a considerable  
part of the large intestine1  leaving in
 place only the terminal portion4 ,the  
patient1 who underwent  eight successive
 abdominal operations1 recovered4 ,in   
the case#gi of  another patient1        
operated on by ,wiesinger1 two coils of 
the large  intestine 7the transverse and
 descending colons7 which were          
ulcerated1  were isolated from the      
remainder of the gut1 while the upper   
portion of  the large intestine 7the    
ccum and the ascending colon7 was       
sutured to  the rectum4 ,in spite of    
these serious interferences with natural
  structure1 the patients recovered1 and
 appeared to derive great  advantage    
from the loss of the large intestine4   
,i have quoted only two out of many     
similar cases4 ,however1 apart from     
surgical evidence1 there exists proof of
 the uselessness of the large  intestine
 in man4 ,the best argument in favour of

 the proposition may be  drawn from the 
case of a woman who for thirty-seven    
years discharged the  waste matter from 
the alimentary canal through an         
intestinal fistula4  ,the latter had    
opened spontaneously1 as the result of  
an abscess seated  on the right side of 
the abdomen4 ,her complaint1 however1   
had not  prevented her from marrying1   
from bearing three children1 nor from   
pursuing an arduous calling4 ,the person
 in question1 who was a workwoman  in   
,varsovie1 was examined by a surgeon1   
,m4 ,ciechomski1#hj thirty-five  years  
after the establishment of the fistula4 
,the surgeon proposed to  operate1      
hoping to restore her to the normal     
condition1 and the woman  consented4    
,however1 when the abdominal cavity was 
opened1 it appeared  that the large     
intestine had atrophied along the whole 
length1 from the  ccum to the rectum2   
the inner orifice of the fistula had    
passed into  the digestive tract above  
the ccum1 opening into the small        

intestine4  ,in the circumstances it was
 impossible to close the fistula1 and   
the  surgeon had to close up the        
abdominal wall1 leaving the patient in  
her  former condition4 ,the woman       
recovered rapidly1 and continued her    
usual  mode of life4 ,she came under    
observation again two years later1 but  
since then had been lost sight of4 ,the 
fact that a human being was  capable of 
carrying on an apparently normal life   
for thirty years in the  absence of a   
large intestine is good proof that the  
organ in question is  not necessary to  
man1 although it has not yet become     
rudimentary4 ,in  this case again1 to   
find the useful stage of the structure1 
we have to  go to our remote ancestors4 
,the large intestine is much better     
developed in most herbivorous mammals   
than it is in carnivorous forms4        
,although it is useless in the digestion
  of animal food1 it has an undisputed  
importance in the digestion of          
vegetable matter4 ,it has a very large  

calibre in herbivorous creatures1  and  
the voluminous cavity contains          
quantities of microbes which are able   
to digest cellulose4 ,as cellulose is a 
material that resists the  ordinary     
processes of digestion1 it is easy to   
see the advantage derived  from the     
harbouring of the microbes4 ,it is more 
than probable that in  the horse1 the   
rabbit1 and in some other mammals1 that 
live exclusively  on grain and herbage1 
the large intestine is necessary for    
normal life4    ,on the other hand1 the 
large intestine discharges a function   
similar to  that of the urinary bladder4
 ,the urine1 which is being secreted    
continuously by the kidneys1 accumulates
 in the large reservoir provided  by the
 bladder4 ,similarly the waste matter   
from the processes of  digestion        
accumulate in the large intestine and   
remain there for a  longer or shorter   
period4    ,in studying the natural     
history of the large intestine1 it      
striking that  this portion of the gut  

is well developed only among mammals4   
,these  animals1 for the most part1 lead
 an extremely active terrestrial life4  
,most of them have to move about very   
quickly1 the predacious forms in        
pursuit of their prey1 the herbivorous  
forms to escape from their  enemies4 ,in
 such a mode of life1 the need to stop  
in order to empty the  intestines would 
be a serious disadvantage1 and the      
possibility of  retaining the dejecta in
 a large reservoir would be very        
useful4#ha    ,such are the causes that 
have determined the growth of the large 
intestine among mammals4 ,birds1 which  
live1 so to speak1 in the air1 and      
which do not need to arrest their       
locomotion in order to void their       
excreta1 have no large intestine4       
,reptiles and amphibia1 although they   
live a terrestrial life1 do not require 
a voluminous large intestine1  and such 
is not found among them4 ,these animals 
do not have a fixed  temperature2 they  
are what we know as 8cold-blooded10 and 

in consequence  are small eaters4 ,most 
of them are sluggish1 and do not lead an
 active  existence like that of mammals4
    ,in the legacy acquired by man from 
his animal ancestors1 there occur not   
only rudimentary organs that are useless
 or harmful1 but fully developed  organs
 equally useless4 ,the large intestine  
must be regarded as one of  the organs  
possessed by man and yet harmful to his 
health and his life4  ,the large        
intestine is the reservoir of the waste 
of the digestive  processes1 and this   
waste stagnates long enough to putrefy4 
,the products  of putrefaction are      
harmful4 ,when fcal matter is allowed to
 remain in  the intestine1 as in cases  
of constipation1 a common complaint1    
certain  products are absorbed by the   
organism and produce poisoning1 often of
 a  serious nature4 ,every one knows    
that a high temperature may be the      
result of constipation in women after   
childbirth1 or in patients  recovering  
from an operation4 ,this is due to an   

absorption of substances  produced by   
the microbes of the large intestine4    
,similar products may be  the cause of  
an attack of acne or of other skin      
diseases4 ,in fine1 the  presence of a  
large intestine in the human body is the
 cause of a series  of misfortunes4 ,the
 organ is the seat of many grave        
diseases1 among  which dysentery is     
notable4 ,in some tropical climates     
dysentery is a  serious scourge4        
,according to ,rhey1#hb it is 8the      
greatest danger to  which a ,european is
 subjected in ,tonkin4 ,it is           
responsible for more than  #cj per cent4
 of the deaths caused by disease40      
,european troops pay it a  large annual 
toll in the colonies of the ,french and 
,english4    ,malignant tumours seem to 
display a predilection for this region  
of the  digestive tract4 ,thus1 among   
#aadh cases of cancer of the alimentary 
tract recorded in the ,prussian         
hospitals in #ahie and #ahif1 #ajbb1 or 
#hi  per cent41 affected the large      

intestine1 including the rectum and     
ccum4#hc ,the small intestine is the    
only part of the digestive tract  that  
is indispensable1 and it is attacked to 
a much smaller extent1  providing only  
#aa per cent4 of the cases of intestinal
 cancer4 ,the  probable explanation of  
these facts is that the contents of the 
gut  remain in the small intestine a    
shorter time than in the large4         
,stagnation is a familiar cause of      
disease1 and is the probable cause of   
the frequency of cancer of the stomach4 
,of #aj1ecg cases of cancer of all      
parts of the digestive tract recorded in
 the ,prussian hospitals in the  same   
period1 #dbhh1 or more than #dj per     
cent41 affected the stomach4 ,the       
latter organ is one that the human body 
would do well to be rid of4 ,it  is not 
so useless as the large intestine1 since
 it is the chief seat of  digestion of  
albuminous substances1 but the small    
intestine could take  its place4        
,moreover1 cases are known in which     

surgeons have removed  cancerous        
stomachs4 ,the results of such          
operations were favourable1 to  the     
extent that the patients survived and   
were able to absorb sufficient          
nourishment4 ,they had to eat rather    
more frequently1 and performed the      
processes of digestion by means of the  
secretions of the small intestine  and  
pancreas4    ,it is not surprising to   
find so many instances of useless or    
harmful  organs in the alimentary tract4
 ,our ancestors were creatures that fed 
on  crude and rough materials1 such as  
wild plants and unprepared flesh4 ,man  
has learned to cultivate plants that are
 digested easily1 and to prepare  his   
meats in such a fashion as to be readily
 digested4 ,the organs that  were       
adapted to the mode of life of the      
animal predecessors of man have  become 
to a large extent superfluous4 ,many    
creatures that have found the           
opportunity of obtaining their nutriment
 in a highly digestible  condition have 

lost1 more or less completely1 the      
digestive organs4 ,many  parasites are  
instances of this1 as for example the   
tape-worms1 which  live in the human    
digestive tract1 bathed by a nutritive  
fluid which  they absorb directly2 they 
have lost the digestive tract           
completely4    ,in the case of man such 
an evolution has not occurred1 and there
 remains  in the body a harmful organ   
like the large intestine4 ,in           
consequence1 it  is impossible for him  
to take his nutriment in the most       
perfect form4 ,if  he were only to eat  
substances that could be almost         
completely absorbed1  the large         
intestine would be unable to empty      
itself1 and serious  complications would
 be produced4 ,a satisfactory system of 
diet has to  make allowance for this1   
and in consequence of the structure of  
the  alimentary canal1 has to include in
 the food bulky and indigestible        
materials such as vegetables4    ,at    
this point ,i may refer to a topic of   

considerable general interest4          
,animals1 in the choice of food for     
themselves or for their young1 are      
guided by a blind and innate instinct4  
,as ,i have shown in my second  chapter1
 creatures like the fossorial wasps     
select only particular  species of      
spiders or insects4 ,instinct directs   
them to the kind of food  best suited to
 the wants of their progeny4 ,bees are  
attracted by the  sweet juices of       
flowers2 the silkworm instinctively     
devours the leaves  of the mulberry and 
rejects most other plants4 ,in higher   
animals1  instinct plays the chief part 
in the choice of food4 ,the difficulty  
of  getting rats to eat poisoned food is
 well known2 an instinct warns them  of 
the danger of the material offered to   
them4 ,in the same way dogs  refrain    
from food that has been poisoned4       
,every one has seen the minute attention
 bestowed by a monkey on food  before   
beginning to eat it4 ,it turns over what
 is offered1 smells it  carefully1      

cleans it1 and before beginning to eat1 
subjects it to an  examination that     
seems to us ridiculous4 ,monkeys often  
throw away food  without even biting it4
 ,none the less1 in spite of an instinct
 so highly  developed1 monkeys poison   
themselves with all sorts of dangerous  
substances1 even when these exhale a    
strange odour4 ,i have seen monkeys  die
 poisoned by the phosphorus of matches1 
or even by iodoform which  they had     
contrived to steal4    ,in the case of  
man1 aberrations of instinct in the     
choice of food are  common4 ,as soon as 
babies begin to walk1 they lay hold of  
everything and  try to eat it4 ,bits of 
paper1 lumps of sealing-wax1 the mucous 
matter  from the nose1 all appear to    
them to be things to eat4 ,constant     
guard  has to be kept to prevent them   
from doing themselves an injury4 ,fruits
  and berries they cannot resist4 ,cases
 of poisoning very naturally are        
extremely frequent1 and as every one    
must know of instances1 ,i shall        

mention only a single case4 8,messrs4   
,beadle and ,sons1 oil manufacturers  at
 ,boston1 had thrown out1 from the door 
of their establishment1 a  quantity of  
castor beans that were decayed and      
useless4 ,some children  playing in the 
street mistook the seeds for pistachio  
nuts1 and shared  them with their       
friends4 ,all the children seem to have 
eaten of them1  with the result that    
more than seventy showed serious        
symptoms of  poisoning40#hd    ,the     
consumption of ergotised rye and of     
maize contaminated with certain         
leguminous plants 7,lathyrus7 frequently
 produces epidemics of  poisoning       
without instinct intervening to protect 
the victims4    ,while the large        
intestine1 acting as an asylum of       
harmful microbes1 is a  source of       
intoxication from within1 the aberrant  
instinct of man leads  him to poison    
himself from without with alcohol and   
ether1 opium and  morphia4 ,the         
widespread results of alcoholism show   

plainly the prevalent  existence in man 
of a want of harmony between the        
instinct for choosing  food and the     
instinct of preservation4    ,the       
digestive apparatus1 then1 affords      
abundant proof of the  imperfection and 
disharmony of our nature4 ,moreover1    
there are many  other proofs1 as ,i     
shall show in the chapters to follow4   
,,chapter ,v    ,,disharmonies ,,in     
,,the ,,organisation ,,and ,,activities 
,,of ,,the ,,reproductive               
,,apparatus4 ,,disharmonies ,,in ,,the  
,,family ,,and ,,social ,,instincts     
,i       ,remarks on the disharmonies in
 the human organs of sense and          
perception4--,rudimentary parts of the  
reproductive apparatus4--,origin and    
function of the hymen    ,the digestive 
organs are not alone amongst the parts  
of the human body  in exhibiting a      
greater or lesser disharmony4 ,more than
 fifty years ago1  a great ,german      
physiologist1 ,johannes ,mller1 showed  
that although the  human eye was        

regarded as a very perfect organ1 its   
power of correction  for aberration of  
light was poor4 ,helmholz1 another      
famous ,german man of  science1 stated  
that the optical study of the eye       
brought complete  disillusion4          
8,nature10 he said1 8seems to have      
packed this organ with  mistakes1 as if 
with the avowed purpose of destroying   
any possible  foundation for the theory 
that organs are adapted to their        
environment40  ,not only the eye1 but   
the other organs by means of which we   
are  conscious of the outside world1    
present natural disharmony4 ,therein    
lies  the cause of our want of certainty
 about the sources of our perceptions4  
,memory1 the faculty that registers our 
mental processes1 becomes active  much  
later than other faculties lodged in the
 brain4 ,if the new-born  human child   
were relatively as well developed as the
 young guinea-pig1  it is probable that 
we should know far more as to the       
history of our  consciousness of the    

external world4 ,but without lingering  
over the  disharmonies in our senses and
 faculties1 ,i shall pass at once to a  
consideration of the apparatus for      
maintaining the species4    ,i have     
shown that the alimentary tract1 the    
chief organ involved in the  maintenance
 of the individual life1 affords no     
proof of the theory that  human nature  
is perfect4 ,is it the case that the    
organs of reproduction  give a better   
result8 ,when ,i wished to describe the 
most perfect  examples of harmony to be 
found amongst plants1 ,i chose the      
mechanism by  which fertilisation is    
accomplished in flowers4 ,the           
persistence of the  species is secured1 
in the case of flowers1 by a marvellous 
series of  structures and functions4    
,is the maintenance of the human species
 similarly provided for8 ,a  detailed   
investigation of the male and female    
human reproductive organs  shows that   
these contain parts of diverse origin4  
,the apparatus contains  portions of    

extremely ancient origin1 and portions  
that have been  acquired recently4 ,the 
internal organs display traces of a     
remote  hermaphroditism4 ,in the male1  
there occur traces of the female        
apparatus1 rudiments of the uterus and  
fallopian tubes4 ,in the female1  on the
 other hand1 rudiments of the male      
structure persist4 ,these traces  date  
very far back in the history of the     
race1 for they occur also in  most other
 vertebrates4 ,the facts seem to        
indicate that1 at a very  remote period1
 the ancestral vertebrates were         
hermaphrodite1 and that  they became    
divided into males and females only     
gradually1 still  retaining in each sex 
traces of the other sex4 ,such traces   
occur  frequently1 even in adult man1 in
 the form of rudimentary organs 7known  
as the organs of ,weber1 of ,rosenmller1
 and so forth74 ,the rudiments not  only
 are functionless but sometimes1 as     
frequently happens with  atrophied      
structures1 form the starting-point of  

monstrous growths1 or  of tumours that  
interfere with health4 ,thus the        
hypertrophy of a part of  the male      
prostate gland 7the organ of ,weber7    
brings about the formation  of a uterus 
masculinus1 and so produces a sort of   
abnormal  hermaphroditism4 ,the         
rudimentary organs in the male          
reproductive  apparatus frequently are  
the starting-points of hydatid cysts4   
,in the  female1 cysts such as those of 
the parovaria are produced by the       
proliferation of rudimentary structures4
 ,these1 although usually benign1  not  
infrequently become malignant4 ,lawson  
,tait1#he a celebrated ,english         
surgeon1 has published a case of this   
kind4 ,he removed from a young  woman a 
parovarian cyst that was apparently     
benign1 but in six weeks  symptoms of   
cancer arose1 and the patient died of   
cancer in three  months4    ,a          
comparison of the rudimentary organs in 
the human reproductive  apparatus with  
those in the similar structures of lower

 animals1 shows  that many relics have  
degenerated further in man than in other
 animals4  ,thus the duct of the        
embryonic kidney 7known as the ,wolffian
 body7 is of  rare occurrence in adult  
man1 although it is retained throughout 
life in  the case of some herbivorous   
animals1 in which it is known as        
,gaertner's  duct4 ,there are1 however1 
many rudimentary organs in the human    
reproductive apparatus1 organs that are 
always useless and not  infrequently    
more or less harmful to health and life4
    ,alongside organs which have been   
useless from time immemorial1 the       
reproductive system of man possesses    
structures of recent acquisition4       
,these deserve special attention1 as it 
might have been supposed that in  them  
would have been found special instances 
of adaptation to the  reproductive      
function4    ,i have already referred   
7chap4 iii47 to the discussions that    
have taken  place over the simian origin
 of man4 ,all attempts to demonstrate   

the  presence in the human brain of     
parts that were absent in the simian    
brain have failed4 ,it is a curious fact
 that man displays a more marked        
difference from monkeys in the structure
 of the reproductive system than  in the
 structure of the brain4 ,there is no os
 penis in man4 ,this bone1  which       
facilitates intromission1 occurs in many
 vertebrates1 not only  among rodents   
and carnivora1 which are widely         
separated from man1 but in  many        
monkeys1 and most notably in anthropoid 
apes4#hf ,for some reason  impossible to
 establish1 man has lost this bone4 ,it 
may be that certain  ossifications of   
most rare occurrence#hg may represent an
 atavistic  inheritance from our remote 
ancestors4    ,in the male sex the      
difference between man and the          
anthropoid ape is the  loss of an organ2
 in the female sex it is the acquisition
 of an organ4  ,the hymen1 the physical 
indication of virginity1 is peculiar to 
the  human race4 ,that organ would serve

 the purpose of those disputants who    
make every effort to discover the       
existence of a structure peculiarly     
human1 far better than the posterior    
lobe of the brain1 or the  hippocampus  
minor4 ,bischoff#hh has determined its  
absence in the  anthropoid apes1 and his
 result has been confirmed by other     
observers4  ,deniker#hi failed to find  
it either in the ftal gorilla or in the 
young gorilla4 ,in the case of the ftus 
of the gibbon1 he found a slight        
elevation round the entrance to the     
vagina 8which might be homologised  with
 the hymen10#ij but which1 however1 was 
not the membrane in  question4          
,deniker#ia himself decided that the    
8membrane was absent in  anthropoid apes
 at all ages40 ,weidersheim1 in his     
summary of the  organisation of the     
human body1#ib also sets down the fact  
that 8in  monkeys a hymen is not        
present40    ,the fact that this        
structure appears late in the           
development of the  female ftus bears   

out the supposition that it has been    
acquired  recently by the race4         
,according to several observers1 who    
agree in this  matter1 the membrane does
 not develop until at least the         
nineteenth week  of ftal life4          
,although organs very ancient in origin1
 and now become degenerate  rudiments1  
may be useless1 it is to be expected    
that an organ of recent  appearance and 
still in a progressive condition1 would 
have an important  function4 ,of what   
utility is this membrane to a woman8    
,wiedersheim#ic  remarks that its       
function has not been made out4    ,the 
hymen sometimes plays a large part in   
family and social relations1  and1      
regarded as the evidence for virginity1 
has had moral significance  bestowed on 
it4 ,a minute examination of this       
structure is frequently a  part of the  
judicial procedure in cases of supposed 
rape and so forth4  ,the destruction of 
the hymen has led to the death of many  
hundreds of  men and women4    ,from our

 point of view1 however1 it is the      
possible physiological  function of this
 structure that is interesting4 ,it     
seems impossible to  conclude otherwise 
than that in existing races it has      
practically no  functional value4 ,its  
atrophy as the result of sexual congress
 not only  is no bar to sexual          
relations1 but removes an unpleasant    
impediment4 ,in  many races the         
structure is removed as soon as         
possible4 ,in some parts  of ,china it  
is destroyed as part of the toilet of   
young children1 and  indeed many        
,chinese physicians are ignorant of its 
existence4 ,a similar  state of affairs 
occurs in some parts of ,india4 ,in     
,brazil1 among the  tribe of            
,machacuras1 virgins1 in the ,european  
sense1 do not exist1 for  the mothers   
destroy the hymen in female children    
soon after birth4 ,in  ,kamchatka the   
aborigines regard it as disgraceful to  
be married with the  hymen intact1 and  
the mothers operate on their            

daughters4#id ,among  other races1      
again1 the disagreeable duty of         
defloration is assigned to  special     
persons4 ,among the natives of the      
,philippines there formerly  existed    
well-paid public officials the duty of  
whom was to destroy the  virginity of   
the girls and so to make marriage       
pleasanter for the  husbands4 ,a similar
 custom occurs among the inhabitants of 
,new  ,caledonia1 and ,moncelon states  
that there virginity is held in little  
esteem4 8,i have proof of the curious   
circumstance10 he wrote1 8that when  a  
husband shrinks from destroying the     
virginity of his wife1 he employs  some 
one from a regular profession to take   
his place40    ,such examples1 selected 
from amongst many1 may be taken as proof
 that  even such a peculiar and recently
 acquired organ has not a physiological 
use4    ,on the other hand1 especially  
among ,christians and ,mahomedans1 the  
existence of the hymen in an intact     
condition is regarded as very           

important4 ,the ancient ,jews began to  
set a high value on virginity4          
,according to the old ,mosaic law1 if1  
at the time of her marriage1 a  young   
girl were found to be no longer a       
virgin1 8,then they shall bring  out the
 damsel to the door of her father's     
house1 and the men of her  city shall   
stone her with stones that she die2     
because she hath wrought  folly in      
,israel1 to play the whore in her       
father's house0 7,deut4 xxii4  #ba74    
,the religions that have sprung from    
,judaism have retained this old  view of
 virginity1 although in an attenuated   
form4 ,among some ,christian  peoples1  
material proofs of virginity at the time
 of marriage are  demanded1 and among   
some ,mahomedans such proofs are        
exhibited to friends  and relations on  
the day after marriage4 ,however1 the   
actual defloration  is not always left  
to the husband1 but among ,arabs and    
,copts and amongst  the natives of      
,egypt1 the operation is performed by a 

specially selected  matron4#ie    ,it is
 plain1 then1 that this membrane is of  
no direct service in the  sexual        
process4 ,it may even give rise to more 
or less serious  misfortune4 ,thus1 when
 it is unusually rigid1 the adjacent    
peritoneum  may be torn and the results 
may be disastrous4 ,occasionally the    
rupture  of an abnormally vascular      
membrane may give rise to bleeding of a 
prolonged and even fatal character4#if  
,moreover the membrane is a  frequent   
seat of ulcers1 specific or             
otherwise4#ig    ,i have already        
mentioned that among some races a       
rigorous toilet  involves the           
destruction of the hymen4 ,it is plain  
that the existence of  the membrane     
interferes with strict hygiene of the   
vagina1 especially at  the periods4     
,probably some blood is retained by the 
membrane and  furnishes a soil for      
microbes that may be dangerous to       
health4 ,it is  quite possible that     
certain forms of anmia1 as for instance 

the  chloranmia of virgins1 may be      
produced by microbial growth4 ,this     
would  easily explain why marriage is   
the readiest cure for such anmia1 as    
marriage involves destruction of the    
membrane1 and so makes possible the     
complete discharge of fluid from the    
vagina4#ih    ,what then can be the     
meaning of this organ1 useless as it is 
for the  sexual functions1 sometimes    
dangerous to health1 an organ that is no
  ancestral heritage and that must be   
destroyed by the act of sexual  union8  
,formerly1 when it was accepted that    
characters acquired in  individual life 
could be transmitted to offspring1 the  
question was  asked as to why this      
membrane had not disappeared4 ,the      
instance was one  of those which helped 
to overthrow the dogma of the           
inheritance of  acquired characters4    
,although it is useless to existing man1
 this organ may yet come to be          
explained by science4 ,as yet we have to
 fall back on suppositions4 ,the        

hypothesis which seems most probable is 
that in the earlier period of  the      
existence of the human race1 sexual     
relations were begun at a very  early   
age1 before the male organs were mature4
 ,under such circumstances  the hymen   
would not only not have been a barrier1 
but would have made  congress more      
satisfactory4 ,gradually the hymen would
 have become  dilated without being     
torn1 until it was capable of admitting 
the adult  organ4 ,this hypothesis      
implies that in early times the membrane
 was not  brutally torn1 but that it was
 gradually dilated and that violent     
rupture is a modern necessity4 ,in      
support of the hypothesis it may be     
mentioned that amongst certain living   
races sexual union begins at a  very    
early age4 ,in ,ceylon1 marriage takes  
place when the boys are from  seven to  
ten years old and when the girls are    
from four to six years1  according to   
,roer1 or about eight years according to
 ,beierlein4 ,after  the actual wedding 

ceremony the bride returns to the house 
of her  parents1 and it is only a few   
years later1 when she is adult1 that she
  goes to her husband4 ,roer states that
 he has seen cases where a father  and  
son were attending school together4     
,among the ,vedas1 a low caste of       
tropical ,india1 boys marry at the age  
of  from fifteen to sixteen years1      
certainly before the sexual organs have 
attained their full dimensions4 ,the    
missionary ,etern was struck with the   
agitation of the natives of ,keradif 7in
 ,abyssinia7 when they were  ordered    
within fourteen days to marry all their 
boys more than fourteen  years old to   
girls more than nine4#ii ,in            
,madagascar1 in the beginning  of the   
seventeenth century1 it was the custom  
for boys to marry at an  age of from ten
 to twelve years4 ,the natives of       
,german ,new ,guinea marry  their boys  
at the age of fourteen to fifteen4 ,even
 in ,england a law  still exists        
permitting marriage to boys fourteen    

years old4 ,the law is  now a dead      
letter1 but is evidence of the ancient  
practice4    ,it is known that even at  
the present time the hymen is not always
  ruptured in sexual congress4 ,budin   
has recorded its existence in  seventeen
 per cent4 of primiparous women4 ,among 
seventy-five cases of  women in their   
first confinements he found the hymen   
intact in thirteen  cases4 ,since       
provision for children has fallen on    
fathers these have  taken to deferring  
marriage to a later age than when       
children were left  to the mother4 ,that
 is the probable reason why there are   
now fewer  married boys4 ,thus1         
formerly1 the proportion of women who at
 the first  childbirth still possessed  
unruptured hymens1 was much greater1 and
 it  is not difficult to suppose that in
 still earlier times such a condition   
was normal4 ,it is plain that there is  
here an instance of a very  recently    
acquired disharmony4    ,the homology   
between certain portions of the male and

 female  reproductive apparatus is well 
known4 ,the male homologue of the female
  hymen is a little fold that hinders   
the mingling of urine with the  seminal 
fluid during emission1 and that is known
 to anatomists as the  caput            
gallinaginis or colliculus seminalis4   
,it is very much smaller  than the      
hymen1 so that we cannot regard the     
latter as a rudimentary  homologue of a 
useful organ4 ,however1 the prepuce of  
the male is a clear  instance of the    
presence in the male organs of useless  
parts4 ,it is  removed by circumcision  
among very many races1 such as the      
,hebrews and  ,arabs1 and other         
,mahomedans1 and amongst ,persians1     
negroes1 ,hindus1  ,tartars1 and its    
absence seems to bring about no         
inconvenience4                          
,,ii   ,evolution and significance of   
the menstrual flow in                   
women4--,precocious   marriage among    
primitive and uncivilised               
races4--,disharmony between age  of     

puberty and age of nubility4--,age of   
marriage4--,examples of disharmony      
in the development of the reproductive  
function4    ,notwithstanding their     
imperfections1 the human organs of      
reproduction  are able to fulfil their  
functions4 ,a close scrutiny1 however1  
shows  that there are many sides on     
which they are disharmonious or badly   
adapted4    ,the occurrence of bleeding 
is usually a sign of disease4 ,bleeding 
from  the nose or of the lungs or       
intestines or kidneys is an indication  
of  disease more or less serious4       
,discharge of blood from the female     
reproductive organs may also be an      
indication of disease1 as for  instance 
when due to tumours of the uterus4 ,the 
only exception to the  rule is the      
periodic flow in the case of women1 by  
which they lose  hundreds of grammes of 
blood 7#ajj to #fjj gr474 ,there is     
something  paradoxical in such a        
physiological occurrence1 and it        
deserves minute  consideration4         

,these periodic losses1 unlike the      
possession of a hymen1 are not a        
peculiarity of the human female4 8,heat0
 in lower animals is analogous1         
although in that case the chief         
indications are swellings of the mucous 
membrane with a slight discharge of     
fluid1 hardly tinged with blood4 ,the   
state indicates the awakening of the    
sexual instinct and readiness for       
coition4#ajj ,among monkeys there has   
been observed a flow much more  closely 
resembling that of woman4 ,in the case  
of macaques and  cercopitheci1 it has   
been observed even that the flow is     
monthly4  ,heape1#aja while in ,british 
,india1 took advantage of a valuable    
opportunity for making observations on  
this subject4    ,among two hundred and 
thirty females of ,macacus rhesus of    
which the  greater number were adult or 
nearly so1 seventeen displayed signs of 
menstruation1 consisting of a swelling  
of the genitalia accompanied by  the    
discharge of a pale and viscid fluid4   

,usually the flow assumed a  pale rose  
tint1 due to the presence in it of blood
 corpuscles1 but cases  where it was    
highly coloured were rare4    ,although 
they are distinctly analogous to the    
menstrual flows of women1  these        
occurrences in monkeys are distinguished
 by the predominance of  the swelling of
 the genitalia1 the viscid character of 
the discharge1  and the relative absence
 of blood4 ,they present a condition    
intermediate  between the 8heat0 of     
lower animals and the human phenomena4  
,in anthropoid apes a similar           
menstruation has been observed4 ,bolau1 
,ehlers1 and ,hermes1 record it in the  
case of the chimpanzee4 8,at this       
period10 wrote ,hartmann1#ajb 8swelling 
and reddening of the genitalia          
occurred4 ,the labi majores1 which are  
usually inconspicuous1 enlarged         
greatly1 and a similar increase took    
place in the labi minores and the       
clitoris40    ,in the case of women     
swelling of the genitalia is very       

slightly marked1  and the chief         
occurrence is the flow of blood4 ,it is 
plain1 then1 that  something new has    
been acquired in the menstruation of    
women4    ,the condition of the flow at 
the present time is probably the result 
of  modifications acquired recently in  
the history of the race4 ,among         
primitive peoples sexual union occurred 
at a very early age1 and  pregnancy     
occurred before menstruation4 ,the      
latter did not appear during  pregnancy 
nor in the time of suckling1 and        
probably the latter was  hardly over    
before a new pregnancy had occurred4 ,in
 that way there was  no opportunity for 
the onset of menstruation4    ,the human
 capacity for procreation throughout the
 year made the race  extremely prolific4
 ,probably this prolificness is the     
reason why man has  spread over the     
surface of the earth1 and has multiplied
 so enormously1  in spite of the        
barriers to his progress and the high   
rate of mortality  to which he is       

subjected4    ,instances are known from 
recent observation of pregnancies       
occurring  before the onset of          
menstruation4 ,according to ,rhode1     
among the ,guatos1  ,indians inhabiting 
the mouth of the ,rio ,so ,lourenzo in  
,paraguay1  married women not more than 
five to eight years of age are to be met
  with1 and these must have married     
before menstruation4 ,among the ,vedas  
of tropical ,india1 girls marry before  
they are nine years of age1 and  have   
relations with their husbands before    
sexual maturity4 ,in ,chiras in         
,persia1 girls marry before puberty1 and
 while their chests are still  flat4 ,in
 ,syria1 according to ,robson1 girls    
marry at the age of ten1 and  so before 
puberty4 ,du ,chaillu related that the  
,achira of ,west ,africa did  not defer 
marriage until after the appearance of  
puberty4 ,abbadie1 while  on his voyage 
in ,nubia1 found that men bought young  
girls and had sexual  relations with    
them before the time of menstruation4   

,among the ,atjeh of  ,sumatra1 girls   
marry at an age certainly before that of
 puberty1 as they  have hardly lost     
their first set of teeth4 ,although the 
husbands are a  few years older1 they   
are still unfitted for sexual union4    
,the couples  sleep together1 and       
attempt sexual union before they are    
fitted for it4  ,among the islanders of 
,viti1 again1 marriage takes place      
before puberty4    ,the ancient ,hindoos
 married at a very early age4 ,btlingk  
quotes from  the ,sanscrit poems in     
which hell was awarded to the fathers of
 girls who  had not been married when   
puberty came on4 ,in other verses it was
  written that not only the father but  
also the mother and the elder  brother  
were to be carried down into hell if the
 daughter began to  menstruate before   
she had been married2 the girl herself  
was to descend  to the lowest degree of 
dr1 and was never to be taken as a wife4
    ,there is no doubt as to the        
possible fertility of marriages         

contracted  at these early ages4        
,polak#ajc gives examples taken from    
,persia4 ,it is  not necessary for      
impregnation that it should have been   
preceded by a  menstrual flow4 ,facts   
making this clear have occurred not only
 in warm  climates but in our own       
latitude4 ,rakhmanoff1#ajd in ,russia1  
attended  in childbirth a woman not more
 than fourteen years of age1 of poor    
constitution1 and badly nourished1 and  
with features still infantine4          
,menstruation had not yet taken place2  
the confinement was normal4    ,it is   
reasonable to suppose that in former    
times these early marriages  of girls   
under the age of puberty were more      
common1 if indeed they were  not        
customary4 ,in such circumstances       
menstruation would have been a rare     
phenomenon4    ,it must be remembered   
that the examples of menstruation       
observed in the  case of monkeys were   
taken from creatures living in abnormal 
conditions1  isolated in zoological     

gardens and passing their lives in      
captivity4 ,it  is highly probable that 
the periods as they exist to-day1 with  
copious  sanguineous discharge1 are a   
recent acquisition of the human race4   
,as he emerged from the primitive       
condition man had to restrain his       
prolificness4 ,the history of savages   
and of civilisations shows that         
progress and culture have been          
accompanied by a rise in the age for    
marriage4 ,in this way the menstrual    
periods could develop without check1    
and attain the present condition4 ,in   
these circumstances it is not  wonderful
 that menstruation should appear so     
abnormal and even  pathological4 ,a     
copious discharge of blood1 preceded and
 accompanied by  pain and by nervous and
 mental distress as so frequently       
happens1 has no  apparent kinship with  
the processes of normal life4    ,it is 
now easy to see why among so many races 
there are special rules  made for women 
during this period4 ,most of the races  

of the earth1 says  ,ploss1 regard      
menstruating women as impure4 ,the      
occurrence is so  widespread that it is 
unnecessary to adduce particular cases1 
but a few  with some point of special   
interest may be noticed4 ,thus1 among   
the  ,hindoos a high-caste woman is     
regarded as a pariah in the first day of
  the period1 and as one of the         
murderers of ,buddha on the second day4 
,among many races a woman in this       
condition is forbidden to come near     
men1 or to touch a number of objects1 as
 she is regarded as capable of  setting 
up many diseases and of doing serious   
damage4 ,the ,germans of the  eighteenth
 century believed that the hair of a    
menstruating woman buried  in manure    
would engender snakes4    ,it is not    
surprising that the origin of           
menstruation has been attributed        
frequently to evil spirits4 ,the        
,iranians held that it appeared first in
  ,dchahi1 the goddess of               
immorality4#aje ,such opinions implied  

vaguely  that there was something       
abnormal in the process4 ,the history of
 the  evolution of menstruation explains
 well the origin of such a notion4      
,another bizarre and apparently abnormal
 feature of the reproductive  processes 
receives explanation in the history of  
its evolution4 ,the  feature in question
 is the painfulness of childbirth4 ,it  
is truly  astonishing and singular to   
find a phenomenon essentially normal    
from  the point of view of physiology   
accompanied by pain of so marked a      
character4 ,no doubt other animals      
suffer during labour1 but among the     
mammalia woman undergoes the severest   
pain4    ,observations made on several  
,europeans who have been brought to bed 
at  an abnormally early age have shown  
that1 contrary to all expectation1      
parturition was easy and the sequel     
normal4#ajf ,moreover1 ,dr4 ,dionij  has
 stated his opinion that of two cases of
 a first childbirth at the  ages        
respectively of fifteen and of forty    

years1 he would prefer the  earlier age4
 ,the daughters of the colonists in the 
,antilles were  accustomed to marry at  
very early ages4 ,in #affg ,du ,tertre  
related that a  young woman of that     
region had informed him that the birth  
of her first  child took place when she 
was twelve years and a half of age1 and 
that  the process lasted no more than a 
quarter of an hour and had been         
painless4 ,the missionary ,beierlein    
practised for long in ,madras1 where    
marriages were very early1 and found    
that parturition was much more easy     
than in ,europe4#ajg    ,on the other   
hand1 certain facts show that too young 
mothers are subject  to a very heavy    
rate of mortality during childbirth1 and
 soon after it4  ,the most salient fact 
in this connection is furnished by      
,hassenstein1  who has stated that the  
mortality of labour cases in ,abyssinia 
is #cj per  cent41 and who has          
attributed this death-rate to the       
circumstance that  marriage takes place 

before the body of the woman is         
sufficiently  developed4#ajh ,in        
,british ,india the disadvantages of    
precocious  marriage have been          
repeatedly urged2 and in a petition     
relating to this  subject1 ,dr4 ,mansell
 referred to the case of a woman of     
twelve years of  age in whom parturition
 was interfered with by the undeveloped 
condition  of the pelvis1 so that the   
head of the child had to be destroyed4  
,matthews ,duncan1 the well-known       
,english obstetrician1 paid much        
attention to the mortality of labour    
cases1 with the object of deciding  the 
best age for marriage4 ,he came to the  
conclusion that women from  twenty to   
twenty-four years of age were best      
fitted for labour1 that is  to say1     
showed the lowest rate of mortality     
during labour or as a result  of labour4
 ,he also showed that such women were   
most fertile1 and that  the development 
of the pelvic bones was completed at    
that period of  life4 ,women who were of

 a lower or higher age showed a greater 
mortality  rate in connection with      
childbirth4    ,the facts of which ,i   
have just given a summary lead directly 
to a most  striking instance of         
disharmony exhibited in the order of the
  development of the human reproductive 
apparatus4 ,puberty declares itself  in 
a woman by the beginning of menstruation
 at a time when girls still  possess    
infantile characters and when the bones 
of the pelvic basin are  not yet fully  
developed4 ,obviously there is a        
disharmony between puberty  and the     
general maturity of the body1 that is to
 say1 the nubile  condition4    ,this   
disharmony becomes still more evident   
upon a closer examination of  the phases
 of development of the different        
reproductive functions4 ,in  the human  
race1 reproduction is brought about by  
the union of the sexes  suggested by    
sympathy or mutual love4 ,the sexual    
union makes it possible  for the male   
elements or spermatozoa to reach the    

eggs and fertilise  them by passing into
 them4 ,it might have been expected that
 the  different steps in the process    
would have been attuned so as to act in 
harmony4 ,as a matter of fact there is  
no such relation4 ,the different        
factors of the sexual function develop  
independently and unharmoniously4       
,love and the sexual sense in the human 
race appear before the other  factors in
 the process4 ,ramdohr1#aji in the      
eighteenth century1 stated  that little 
boys frequently exhibit amorousness     
towards women4 ,they are  capable of    
being strongly affected by jealousy and 
by desire of  exclusive possession of   
the coveted woman4 ,this fact is well   
known1 and  has been related of famous  
personages4 ,thus ,dante1 at the age of 
nine1  fell in love with ,beatrice2     
,canova was in love when he was little  
more  than six years of age1 and ,lord  
,byron was in love with ,mary ,duff at  
the  age of seven4#aaj    ,sexual       
excitability appears at an age when     

there is no question but that  the      
sexual elements are undeveloped4 ,in    
infants still in the cradle1  observers 
have noticed movements and attitudes    
showing the presence of  sexual         
excitability4 ,curschmann and           
,frbringer1#aaa both competent          
clinicians1 have noticed these feelings 
in children under the age of  five4     
,later on in life1 the development of   
the sensibility is more  common1 and is 
practically universal among boys before 
the time at which  the spermatozoa are  
ripe4    ,this disharmony is the cause  
of onanism1 which is common everywhere  
among boys4 ,before ordinary sexual     
congress is possible for them1 boys     
experience the characteristic pleasure  
of the sexual sensations1 and by  a kind
 of natural instinct learn              
self-gratification4 ,onanism is         
sometimes defined as a 8gratification of
 the sexual desire by unnatural         
means40#aab ,but it is man's            
constitution itself that permits the    

development of the sensation            
precociously1 before the development of 
sexual maturity4 ,letourneau is right   
when he says that such sexual           
aberrations are abnormal1 but not       
unnatural1 as they occur among  animals4
    ,in the case of young boys the habit
 is so common that1 according to        
,christian1#aac 8very few are able to   
say that they have avoided it           
completely40 ,the same writer asks the  
question3 8,if it be remembered  that   
onanism among certain peoples1 at       
certain times1 has been  recognised as  
an ordinary event1 it is difficult to   
avoid asking if  there be not a latent  
vice1 hidden in the depths of human     
nature1 and  ready to be provoked into  
activity by very small causes80 ,the    
answer is  sufficiently plain4 ,the     
cause of onanism1 this 8vice0 or        
8crime10 as  ,tissot and other authors  
have called it1 undoubtedly is the      
result of a  natural disharmony in the  
human constitution1 of a premature      

development  of sexual sensation4 ,among
 the most civilised races and the lowest
  savages the mode of satisfying the    
premature demand is equally common4     
,it is to be noticed that onanism is    
more common and earlier developed in    
the male sex4 ,the development of sexual
 irritability in the female  occurs very
 irregularly4 ,in some races onanism is 
so much a custom among  little girls    
that no attempt is made to conceal the  
practice4 ,this  occurs1 for instance1  
among certain ,hottentot tribes1 and is 
referred to  openly in talk and         
legends4#aad ,similar instances occur   
elsewhere1 but  in most races the       
practice is thought wrong1 and is       
concealed as much as  possible4         
,among girls1#aae onanism is less       
frequent than in the case of boys1 a    
circumstance in relation with the fact  
that sexual sensation usually  appears  
much later in the female sex4 ,it is    
almost a general rule that  girls who   
have arrived at sexual maturity have not

 acquired sexual  irritability1 while to
 many it comes only gradually after     
marriage4  ,sometimes it does not occur 
until after the first child has been    
born4  ,on the other hand1 love begins  
very early in young girls1 although it  
long retains a platonic character and is
 not associated with sexual  sensation  
until much later4    ,the maturity of   
the spermatozoa in the male comes long  
after the  development of sexual        
irritability and of love4 ,none the     
less1 it comes  before the organism of  
the male is actually ready4 ,it happens1
 in  consequence1 especially among the  
highly civilised peoples1 that  marriage
 and regular unions are impossible at   
the right time4 ,the youth  has his     
education to finish1 his profession to  
choose1 and he must be  ready to support
 children before he is able to marry4   
,as civilisation  advances1 the age of  
marriage becomes later and later4 ,in   
the case of  ,europeans1 sexual maturity
 occurs in the male at the age of twelve

 to  fourteen years1 while the average  
age at the first marriage is shown in   
the following table3--                  
,table of ,age at ,first ,marriage4#aaf 
,nationality4 ,age in years of males4   
,age in years of females4               
,english                       #be4id   
#bd4fi        ,french                   
#bh4da                    #be4cb        
,norwegians                    #bh4ea   
#bf4ih        ,dutch                    
#bi4ae                    #bg4gh        
,belgians                      #bi4id   
#bh4ai    ,these figures show clearly   
what a gap there is between the coming  
of  sexual maturity and the age at which
 marriage can be undertaken4    ,the    
decay of the reproductive functions     
shows a series of disharmonies  similar 
to those that occur during development4 
,spermatozoa continue to  be formed     
throughout the greater part of the life 
of a man1 and may  still be found even  
in very old men4 ,pawloff1 for instance1
 discovered  that they were present in  

abundance in the case of a man at the   
age of  ninety-four1 and this           
observation is not unique4#aag ,but the 
presence  of ripe spermatozoa is not the
 only condition necessary for functional
  virility4 ,in the case of old men it  
happens frequently that there is        
incapacity to make normal use of the    
spermatozoa that are produced4 ,this    
brings about a series of discomforts in 
the sexual functions of advanced  life  
which1 however1 do not prevent the      
retention of the specific  sensation and
 desire until a very extreme old age4   
,doctors1 in hospitals  devoted to old  
men1 have noticed to what an extent     
their patients are  engrossed by        
sexuality4 ,even some of the ancient    
authors have noticed  how the amorous   
sentiments of old men turn into a       
perverted attraction  to youths4        
,sexual irritability and amorousness not
 only appear before sexual  maturity and
 general fitness of the organism for    
marriage1 but they  remain after the    

disappearance of these4 ,it is          
remarkable to notice how  profound is   
the difference between the disharmonies 
of the reproductive  functions in man   
and the perfect condition of adaptation 
of the same  functions in the higher    
plants4 ,in the case of the higher      
plants1 as ,i  described in my second   
chapter1 the arrangements are           
complicated on  account of the necessary
 mediation of insect life4              
,notwithstanding this1  the perfection  
of the adaptation is remarkable4 ,at the
 exact time when  the reproductive      
products are ripe1 the petals open and  
the nectar is  secreted1 while1 in      
addition1 at this time many flowers     
discharge odours  agreeable to insects4 
,attracted by the scents and colours1   
the insects  visit the flowers in quest 
of pollen or nectar1 and1 becoming      
dusted  with pollen1 carry it to the    
stigmas of the next flowers they visit4 
,as  soon as fertilisation has taken    
place the petals fade1 the scents are no

  longer produced1 and the insects cease
 to visit the flowers to which  they are
 no longer necessary4    ,it is not     
surprising that the disharmonies in the 
human reproductive  apparatus are a     
frequent source of trouble4 ,little     
children1 in whom  sexual irritability  
has awakened prematurely1 learn to      
satisfy it by  means called 8unnatural40
 ,in many cases damage rapidly follows4 
8,in the  child10 wrote ,dr4 ,christian1
 8there is no secretion of spermatozoa1 
and  it is in the child that the results
 of onanism are most disastrous to  the 
organism1 and disastrous almost in      
inverse proportion to the  age4#aah ,it 
is in early infancy that this aberration
 merits the evil  reputation that it has
 acquired2 it compromises health1       
intelligence1  and even life4 ,quite    
young children wither1 becoming pale1   
stupid1 and  fragile1 when they have    
acquired this disastrous habit4 ,the    
evil is  almost entirely a consequence  
of the unripeness of the organism for   

sexuality40 ,happily these evil         
occurrences are rare4    ,a publication 
by ,tissot1 a ,swiss doctor1 on the     
subject of onanism1 made  a sensation in
 the eighteenth century4 ,the book was  
full of  exaggeration1 and it was very  
inexact1 but it contained interesting   
confessions from persons who had        
contracted the habit4 ,a woman wrote to 
,tissot in the following terms3 8,but   
for the restraint of religion1 ,i       
should have put an end to my life1 which
 is ruined by my own fault40 ,not       
infrequently the vice leads to          
melancholia4    ,other unfortunate      
results come from the ripening of the   
sexual products  before the organism is 
ready for marriage1 and before the      
character has  been formed4 ,as men     
cannot contract marriage before they are
 ready for  it1 irregular and frequently
 harmful sexual aberration may occur4   
,the survival of this specific          
irritability until too late a period of 
life is another source of disaster4 ,old

 men who can neither excite  passion nor
 satisfy it1 often become victims of    
their own amorousness  and unassuaged   
passions4 ,it has been shown that       
passion may survive  after the complete 
atrophy of the functions of the organs4 
,similarly it  is the case that women   
from whom the ovaries have been removed1
 may  continue to retain sexual         
irritability completely4    ,disharmony 
of sexuality may also occur between     
persons of different  sexes4 ,the fact  
that sexuality is usually more          
precocious in the male  sex often       
produces a disharmony in the case of    
married persons4 ,at the  time when a   
woman is still in full possession of    
this specific  irritability1 the        
appetite in the man may be on the wane4 
,from this  disharmony there often      
follows conjugal infidelity or passion  
between  persons of the same sex4       
,schopenhauer devoted attention to this 
subject and wrote as follows3  8,that   
nature herself may produce a condition  

totally opposed to the  natural function
 offers a paradoxical problem of very   
deep  interest40#aai ,it is clear1      
however1 when we consider the           
disharmonies  in the development and    
activities of the functions in question1
 that the  apparently paradoxical and   
strange aberrations of sexuality are    
natural  enough4    ,the existing       
disharmony gives rise to many evils from
 earliest youth to  advanced age1 and1  
consequently1 it is not surprising to   
find that  religions have denounced     
sexuality more or less severely4 ,dr4   
,christian  expresses his astonishment  
8that in nearly all religions it has    
been  considered a homage to the ,deity 
to abstain from sexual                  
intercourse40#abj ,it is simply because 
the disharmonies of sexuality  lead to  
sexual aberrations that religions have  
found cause for  denouncing human nature
 as vile4#aba                           
,,iii   ,disharmonies in the family     
instincts4--,artificial                 

abortion4--,desertion          and      
infanticide4--,disharmonies in the      
social instincts4    ,as the functions  
of reproduction are seated deep in the  
organic world  and none the less present
 cases of striking disharmony in        
mankind1 it is  not surprising to find  
similar want of adaptation in the family
  instincts of man1 as these instincts  
have been acquired more recently  and   
are less widespread in the living world4
    ,it has been shown that the animal  
world provides many examples of  onanism
 and of aberrations of sexual congress4 
,on the other hand1 there  are no cases 
in the animal world in which pregnancy  
is destroyed by  aberrant instincts4    
,to the human race belongs the          
distinction of having invented modes of 
sexual congress which are necessarily   
barren4 ,no doubt the loss of the  os   
penis has made such occurrences more    
easy1 as the presence of that  bone     
would render interruption of coition    
more difficult4 ,but there are  many    

ways in which the spermatozoa may be    
prevented from accomplishing  their     
function1 and these are so common and so
 familiar that it is  unnecessary to    
enumerate them4 ,in civilised countries 
procreation is  limited chiefly by such 
means4 ,in its early days1 the human    
race must  have been distinguished by   
its unusual procreative capacity1 but   
with  the growth of civilisation many   
devices have been employed to limit     
that4    ,savages and races of low      
civilisation have recourse to artificial
  abortion rather than to means for     
preventing fertilisation1 and abortion  
is almost universal among them4    ,the 
great treatise of ,ploss1 8,das ,weib10 
to which ,i have made repeated          
reference1 contains a whole chapter#abb 
on this subject4 ,deliberate  abortion  
with the object of limiting the number  
of children is customary  all over the  
globe4 ,in most primitive races and     
among peoples of low  civilisation it is
 practised openly without the smallest  

restraint4 ,many  of these peoples have 
adopted the custom of limiting the      
family to two  children by procuring    
abortion in subsequent pregnancies4 ,the
 aborigines  of ,kaisar and of the      
islands of ,watubela observe the rule   
strictly4  ,among the natives of the    
islands of ,aaru it is rare to find more
 than  three children in a family1      
because any others are destroyed by     
artificial abortion4    ,a similar      
custom is widespread in ,india1 being   
quite as common among the  ,hindoos who 
are ruled by ,england as among          
independent races4 ,in the  peninsula of
 ,kutch1 women frequently procure       
abortion1 and one woman  boasted to     
,macmurdo that she had made use of the  
practice five times4  ,abortion is      
equally common in ,africa and ,america4 
,even in ,europe there are nations      
amongst which abortion is permitted     
within certain limits4 ,the ,turks do   
not regard a ftus as being really  alive
 until after the fifth month1 and have  

no scruple in causing its  abortion4    
,even at later stages1 when the         
operation becomes criminal1 it  is      
frequently practised4 ,in #ahgb1 at     
,constantinople1 more than three        
thousand cases of abortion were brought 
before the ,courts in a period of  ten  
months4 ,under such circumstances it is 
not surprising that  illegitimate       
children are rare in the ,east4         
,artificial abortion is not a modern    
invention1 but was common in ancient    
times4 ,the old ,greeks practised it    
openly1 without any legal restraint4    
,plato regarded it as within the        
province of the midwife1 and ,aristotle 
permitted it to married people when a   
pregnancy that was not desired  took    
place4    ,steller1 writing of the      
natives of ,kamchatka of the eighteenth 
century1  stated that among them        
marriage was contracted rather for      
sensual  gratification than for the     
procreation of children1 because they   
interfered with pregnancies by various  

kinds of medicaments and by  violent    
operative interferences4    ,the arts by
 which abortion has been produced are   
numerous and varied4 ,in  addition to   
the administration of drugs1 chiefly of 
vegetable origin1  implements have been 
employed4 ,the natives of ,greenland use
 the ribs of  seals or of the walrus1   
and the ,hawaians of the ,sandwich      
,islands employ  for the purpose a      
wooden implement fashioned as a deity4  
,on the other hand1 certain races have  
strongly opposed the practice of        
abortion4 ,in the ancient world such    
races were the ,medes1 the ,bactrians1  
the ,persians1 and ,jews4 ,among the    
ancient ,incas1 abortion was a crime    
punished with death4 ,later on1 the     
,christian nations followed this view4  
,however1 the reprobation of abortion   
occurs only in a comparatively  small   
number of the nations of the earth1 and 
even amongst these the  practice is     
common in secret4    ,animals which are 
unable to procure abortion very often   

destroy their  young1 as ,i described in
 the second chapter of this volume4 ,in 
the human  race1 infanticide is too     
common4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans did not
 regard  the newly born infants as      
possessing any right to live4 ,the old  
,germans  held themselves free to expose
 their infants4 ,the ,arabs1 before the 
faith of ,islam had spread to them1 were
 in the habit of burying many  female   
children alive4 ,in ,india a similar    
custom is common1 and in ,china  it is  
notorious4 ,according to figures        
collected by ,eitel1#abc the  ,chinese  
of the province of ,canton very often   
kill female children  immediately after 
birth4 8,it may be said10 he wrote1     
8that the murder of  female infants is  
the general rule among the ,hak-lo1 and 
especially  among the ,hak-ka of the    
agricultural classes4 ,the ,hak-ka      
themselves  estimate the number of      
female children exposed as about        
two-thirds of  those born40 ,in a little
 village in which the author lived for  

several  years1 an investigation1 made  
with the help of some ,christians1      
showed  that without exception women who
 had given birth to two children had    
killed at least one of them4    ,in     
,tahiti two-thirds of new-born children 
are killed1 those of the  female sex    
making up the greater part of the       
numbers4 ,the first three  infants and  
all twins are killed1 and as a rule not 
more than two or at  most three are     
actually reared4#abd ,among the         
,melanesians the custom of  infanticide 
is very common4 8,it must also be       
assumed10 said ,ratzel1#abe  8that in   
,ugi 7,solomon ,islands7 all the infants
 are killed1 to be  replaced by the     
,bauros40    ,it is not surprising that 
such a widespread occurrence of         
artificial  abortion and of infanticide 
among primitive races is bringing about 
a  rapid diminution in the numbers of   
these1 and may lead even to their       
extinction4 ,this is taking place in the
 case of the natives of ,new ,south     

,wales1 of ,new ,guinea1 and of the     
islands of ,aaru4 ,nothing could show   
more plainly the feebleness of the human
 family instinct4 ,in more highly       
civilised nations1 the rude proceedings 
of savages have been replaced by  clever
 devices to prevent conception1 and     
infanticide has become rare4            
,artificial abortion is excited by      
modern methods suggested by the         
progress of science4 ,the embryonic     
membranes are pierced not by the ribs   
of seals or hair-pins1 but by sterilised
 sounds1 and the operation is  performed
 with strict asepsis4 ,in averting the  
natural results of  passion the woman is
 subjected to the smallest possible     
risk4    ,it is indubitable that more   
than one race has perished because of   
its  lack of the instinct of family4    
,however1 it need not be feared that the
  human race itself will disappear      
because of the failure of procreation4  
,but it is plain that the readiness with
 which devices to prevent the           

production of children have been adopted
 shows the weakness of the  family      
instinct in man1 and opens up a problem 
to which the attention of  moralists and
 legislators may well be directed4      
,the family instinct is deeply seated1  
as it arose among animals more  ancient 
than man2 none the less it exhibits     
disturbances and aberrations  in the    
human race capable of bringing about the
 extinction of peoples or  nations4 ,it 
is1 however1 strong enough to secure    
that man will persist  in the future4   
,man certainly is a social animal1 but  
the instinct impelling him towards      
union with his fellows is of recent     
origin4 ,such animal societies as are   
to be found among insects are not       
comparable with human associations4     
,among mammals1 the nearest allies of   
man1 the social instincts are  developed
 only to a slight extent1 and even the  
anthropoid apes show  very little       
progress in this direction4 ,many of    
these creatures have  shown in captivity

 the aptitude to become friendly with   
man or with  other animals1 and thus    
have displayed the beginnings of the    
capacity to  form societies4 ,but1 in   
the wild condition1 anthropoids live    
only in  families1 and these contain few
 individuals4 ,as regards the social    
capacities of the chimpanzee ,dr4       
,savage wrote3#abf 8,they cannot be     
called gregarious1 seldom more than     
five1 or ten at most1 being found       
together4 ,it has been said on good     
authority that they occasionally        
assemble in large numbers in gambols4   
,my informant asserts that he saw  once 
not less than fifty so engaged2 hooting1
 screaming1 and drumming  with sticks on
 old logs1 which is done in the latter  
case with equal  facility by the four   
extremities40    ,we have little        
acquaintance with the social life of the
 anthropoids1  but1 so far as we know1  
these creatures present only the merest 
beginnings of the social instinct4 ,man 
has moved much beyond them in  that     

direction4 ,even the lowest races and   
the most primitive of living  peoples   
such as1 for instance1 the ,bushmen or  
the aborigines of  ,australia1 display a
 well-developed social instinct4#abg    
,the universal presence of the social   
instinct among human beings would  seem 
to afford the basis of a happy life4 ,in
 the numerous attempts made  to find a  
purely rational principle that may serve
 as the basis for  morality without the 
intervention of supernatural sanction1  
abundant use  has been made of man's    
craving to live in association with his 
fellows4  ,those who have tried to      
deduce moral law from the essential     
constitution  of man have relied largely
 upon the innate sympathy between man   
and his  fellows4 ,such a line of       
argument is so common and has been      
employed so  frequently that ,i need not
 spend much space in developing it4 ,i  
shall  limit myself to a few examples4  
,towards the end of last century        
,bchner1#abh a ,german physician1       

published a materialistic code of       
morality that made a considerable       
sensation4 ,he wrote as follows on the  
question now before us3 8,what we  term 
the moral sense arose from the social   
instincts and habits which1  under pain 
of extinction1 are developed in every   
society of men and  animals4 ,morality  
depends on sociability1 and varies with 
the peculiar  conditions of each        
particular association4 ,as man is      
essentially a  social animal1 and to be 
regarded1 apart from society1 merely as 
a wild  beast1 it is plain that the     
needs of the community must impose on   
him  certain restrictions and directions
 that in time will pass into a  settled 
code of morals40    ,half a century     
later practically the same idea was     
repeated4  ,haeckel1#abi the well-known 
,german naturalist1 expressed it as     
follows  in a volume that appeared a few
 years ago3--    8,modern science shows 
that the feeling of duty does not rest  
on an  illusory #8categorical           

imperative1' but on the solid ground of 
social  instinct1 as we find it in the  
case of all the social animals4 ,it     
regards as the highest aim of all       
morality the re-establishment of a      
sound harmony between egoism and        
altruism1 between self-love and the     
love of one's neighbour4444 ,if a man   
desire to have the advantage of  living 
in an organised community he has to     
consult not only his own  fortune but   
also that of the society and of the     
#8neighbours' who form  the society4 ,he
 must realise that its prosperity is his
 own prosperity1  and that it cannot    
suffer without his own injury4 ,this    
fundamental law  of society is so simple
 and so inevitable that one cannot      
understand how  it can be contradicted  
in theory or in practice2 and yet that  
is done  to-day and has been done for   
thousands of years40    ,the sexual and 
family instincts may be satisfied in    
many different ways1  and this is also  
the case with the social instincts4     

,onanism and  perverted passion may     
satisfy the sexual instinct2 celibacy1  
artificial  abortion and infanticide    
exist alongside the love of the wife and
 the  parental cares4 ,so also the      
social instinct of a criminal may be    
satisfied by his association with other 
criminals4 ,it is well known that  the  
most hardened criminals have their own  
codes1 and they join  faithfulness to   
their own companions to an atrocious    
attitude towards  the rest of the world4
    ,it is not enough then merely to    
give scope to the social instincts that 
we all possess4 ,we have to determine   
how far1 and towards which of our       
fellow creatures1 we are to exercise    
such instincts1 and it is here that  the
 difficulty arises which as yet has not 
been resolved by religion or            
rationalism4 ,must our social instincts 
reach to our relatives near or  distant1
 or to our fellow townsmen1 or          
compatriots1 or to all white men1  or to
 all men1 white and black1 or to the    

good only1 or to the good and  bad      
alike8 ,perhaps we should limit the     
operation of the instinct to  those of  
our own religion1 or who share our views
 of life8 ,the  instinctive feeling is  
quite silent on these points1 and it is 
precisely  on them that the difficulties
 arise4 ,it is well known that at       
different  epochs and in different      
circumstances very different answers    
have been  given to such questions4     
,when religion was predominant1 a common
 faith  was a bond transcending         
patriotism4 ,later on1 patriotism itself
 became  the dominant bond4 ,in recent  
days1 a conception of international     
solidarity began to appear4 ,thus1 for  
instance1 there was recently a          
combination of different nations against
 ,china1 and nationality was  forgotten4
 ,some of the ,european nations banded  
themselves together and  even assumed an
 ,asiatic race in the union1 with the   
object of punishing  a common enemy4    
,what was the bond that united nations  

so different8 ,it  was not religion1 for
 the bond included ,catholics and       
,protestants1  orthodox ,christians and 
,buddhists4 ,most probably the bond of  
union was a  community of interest1 the 
result of similar civilisation and      
military  and political organisation4   
,it has been suggested occasionally that
 the social instinct1 or human          
sympathy1 for the terms are practically 
identical1 may stretch further  and     
further and become so widespread that   
all the members of the human  stock will
 unite and act only for the common good4
 ,but the problem is  complex4          
,sympathy1 when pushed too far1 may     
become harmful4 ,nations have  taken    
part in a campaign1 impelled by some    
feeling of sympathy1 and have  brought  
harm on themselves4 ,sympathy extended  
to criminals and wicked  persons is     
equally harmful4 ,the social instinct   
itself must be regulated  for the good  
of the community which it holds         
together4    ,ought we to extend our    

sympathy to all humanity1 or to limit it
 to some  particular section8 ,theorists
 have spoken of the solidarity of all   
humanity1 believing it possible to      
extend our sympathy to the races        
furthest removed from us4 ,in countries 
in which different races are  brought in
 contact1 very practical difficulties   
are encountered by the  theorists4 ,in  
,america and in some other countries1   
for instance1 laws  have been passed    
against the ,chinese1 excluding the     
latter from the  consideration granted  
to other races4 ,the negro question also
 is very  difficult in those countries  
in which the black race dwells amongst  
whites4 ,in ,europe it has been the     
custom to condemn the action of         
civilised races in taking their land    
from natives of primitive type4         
,sutherland1 the author of a striking   
work on the origin and development  of  
morality1 justifies such arbitrary      
conduct4 ,to the question1 8,was it     
right for the whites to take possession 

of the ,australian forests of the       
blacks80 he replied in the affirmative4 
8,no doubt10 he said1 8there is a  moral
 instinct against it1 but the action    
undoubtedly was right40#acj  ,in a      
summary of his conclusions he lays down 
that moral conduct is a  compromise     
between the individual and social       
instincts that so often are  opposed4   
,but he has no more to say than his     
predecessors as to the  rational basis  
of the compromise4    ,the social       
instinct has been acquired by mankind   
too recently1 and it is  still too      
feeble1 to be a trustworthy guide in all
 conduct4 ,to obviate  this difficulty1 
at many different times1 divine sanction
 has been  evoked to control the        
relations among men4 ,the categorical   
law has been  formulated with the same  
object4 ,thus by one means or another1  
some kind  of social order has been kept
 up4 ,the efficacy of these additional  
guides is seen clearly on those rare    
occasions when some special  combination

 of circumstances has set people free   
from them4 ,thus at  ,moscow1 in #ahab1 
before the arrival of the ,french army  
restored  authority1 and lately1 after  
the eruption in ,martinique1 the        
ordinary  authority lapsed1 the         
anti-social instincts of the people were
 loose1  and a clear idea was given of  
the inherent weakness of the human      
social  instinct4    ,i have shown that 
in man the instinct for choosing food   
and the sexual  and social instincts are
 still so weak that it is impossible to 
trust to  them in the absence of other  
guidance4 ,it is as equally necessary to
  determine what kind of food is most   
suitable for men in different           
conditions of life1 and what means are  
best fitted to satisfy rationally  his  
sexual and family instincts4 ,so also it
 is urgent to determine  exactly the    
direction and object of the social      
instinct4 ,for the love of  our fellow  
creatures we should seek the best ways  
of making them happy4    ,but what is   

happiness8 ,is it the feeling of        
well-being experienced by  the          
individual himself1 or is it the        
judgment of others on his  sensations8  
,it is notoriously difficult to         
pronounce on the happiness of  another4 
,from the outside1 when a man seems to  
enjoy health1 to have a  family and     
comfortable means of subsistence1 we are
 inclined to call him  happy2 but the   
individual himself may have a very      
different opinion  about himself4 ,it is
 often impossible to rely on the        
judgment of others4  ,on the other hand1
 the opinion of an individual himself on
 his own  condition may be equally      
fallacious4 ,very often the feeling of  
well-being is a symptom of general      
paralysis1 as may be inferred from  the 
following quotation3 8,the patient is   
well pleased with himself1 and          
delighted with his constitution and     
circumstances4 ,he boasts without       
ceasing of his robust health1 his       
muscular strength1 the clearness of  his

 complexion and of his general          
#8fitness4' ,his clothing is magnificent
  and his residence palatial4 ,in a more
 advanced stage of the disease1 the     
exaggeration becomes extreme4 ,he       
believes that he is able to blow down   
the walls with his breath1 or that he   
could carry a ton1 or drink a  hogshead 
of wine1 or that nothing could tire him 
out4 ,then megalomania  begins1 and the 
patients believe themselves in          
possession of titles1 of  power1 and    
wealth4 ,they are members of parliament1
 noblemen1 princes1  generals1 kings1   
emperors1 and popes1 or ,god            
,himself40#aca    ,as general paralysis 
is a result of syphilis1 in order to    
make a large  number of persons believe 
themselves thoroughly happy1 it would be
  necessary only to spread this disease4
 ,without lingering on this  paradox1 ,i
 may at least point out that the problem
 of happiness1 which  is associated     
intimately with social life1 is         
extremely difficult4    ,the social     

instinct is equally powerless to solve  
the problem of justice  in its relation 
to the general interest of humanity4 ,it
 is plain enough  that1 in the existing 
condition of human knowledge1 we all    
inflict and  undergo injustices of      
different degrees4 ,this misfortune is a
  consequence of the disharmony of human
 nature4    ,from what ,i have already  
said1 it must be clear that before we   
can find  a rational guide to direct us 
in the operation of our social instinct1
  we should have to determine exactly   
the nature of true happiness for the    
individual and of true justice4 ,then   
only should we be in a position to  set 
about making human life as happy as is  
possible4                               
,,chapter ,,vi                          
,,disharmonies ,,in ,,the ,,instinct    
,,of ,,self-,,preservation        ,the  
instinct of self-preservation in        
animals--,man's instinctive love of     
life--,indifference to life during      
childhood--,buddhist legend on          

instinctive self-preservation and the   
fear of death--,fear of death    treated
 in literature--,confessions of ,tolstoi
 regarding the fear of    death--,other 
opinions on the subject--,the fear of   
death an instinctive                    
phenomenon--,development in man of a    
love of life--,treatment of the         
aged--,murder of old people--,suicide of
 old men--,absence of harmony    between
 the love of life and the conditions of 
human existence--,the    part played by 
the fear of death in religions and      
systems of    philosophy      ,it is not
 to be wondered at that man's social    
instinct exhibits so many  imperfections
 and disharmonies1 seeing that it is    
still in an unsettled  condition1 and is
 a recent acquisition4 ,on the other    
hand1 we should  expect to find that    
love of life and the instinct of        
self-preservation  had reached a high   
degree of harmony1 since these have been
 in process  of development throughout  
the whole animal series that culminated 

in  man4 ,even in the lowest forms of   
life many contrivances exist for        
purposes of protection4 ,creatures1 the 
bodies of which are merely  microscopic 
drops of protoplasm1 the living         
material1 may be protected  by shells   
from external influences which threaten 
their destruction4  ,plants protect     
themselves1 sometimes by means of thorns
 which prevent  them from being eaten1  
sometimes by secretions either merely   
irritant in  character or actually      
poisonous4 ,among animals the means     
employed for  self-preservation are even
 more numerous4 ,shields and shells1 the
  secretion of fluids exhaling          
unpleasant odours1 or facilitating      
escape  by clouding the water1 as in the
 case of the ink of the cuttlefish1     
offensive weapons1 strong teeth1 and    
many other characters1 serve no  other  
purpose than to protect the individual  
life4 ,the exposition of  this subject  
would involve writing a complete        
treatise on the  comparative anatomy of 

plants and animals4    ,among lower     
animals the preservation of life is     
accomplished without  mental connivance1
 conscious or unconscious4 ,soon1       
however1 protective  instincts begin to 
appear4 ,simple cases of these are      
flight at the  approach of danger1      
protection by a covering of slimy froth 
secreted by  the creatures themselves1  
or built up from this excreta1 or from  
foreign  matter4 ,such facts show that  
the love of life and the instinct of    
self-preservation are almost universal  
in the living world4    ,all these      
devices for the avoidance of danger and 
escape from death  could have been      
developed in animals before these had   
any distinct idea  as to what death was4
 ,we know that some animals can         
distinguish between  living and dead    
prey4 ,some carnivora recognise the     
smell of dead bodies4  ,those which are 
accustomed to feed on living creatures  
refuse all  others1 detecting the       
difference by the absence of movement4  

,as in such  cases the idea of death is 
imperfect1 it is easy to deceive the    
creatures by offering carcases          
artificially set in motion1 or living   
prey rendered motionless by some means  
or other4 ,in order to escape from      
enemies so readily imposed upon1 many   
insects when alarmed become  motionless 
and feign death2 and that may be        
regarded as yet another  instance in the
 category of natural means for the      
protection of  individual life4         
,moreover1 the higher animals1 such as  
mammals1 exhibit a profound  ignorance  
of death1 many of them remaining        
completely undisturbed in the  presence 
of dead companions1 or even devouring   
the latter at the risk of  contracting a
 fatal disease4 ,rats1 for instance1 eat
 the bodies of rats  which have died of 
plague1 and while appeasing their hunger
 themselves  contract the disease which 
they transmit to other animals1         
particularly  to human beings4 ,unlike  
those animals1 however1 which are       

indifferent to  the death of their kind1
 there are others that instinctively    
shrink at  seeing the dead bodies of    
their own species4 ,horses on passing a 
dead  horse show signs of discomfort1   
and attempt to run away4 ,bullocks when 
witnessing the slaughter of others also 
exhibit evidences of distress  and fear4
 ,in spite of these examples1 however1  
it is quite certain that  animals1 even 
those highest in the scale of life1 are 
unconscious of the  inevitability of    
death1 and of the ultimate fate of all  
living things4  ,this knowledge is a    
human acquisition4    ,in man1 the      
instinct of self-preservation is well   
developed4 ,hardly  appreciable during  
infancy1 it manifests itself in a marked
 degree in  young children4 ,at the     
sight of a human corpse1 children become
  panic-stricken1 as though confronted  
by a wild beast or snake4    ,in young  
adults this instinct of                 
self-preservation1 which is closely     
connected with an instinctive fear of   

death1 is not fully developed4 ,it      
often takes some special circumstance to
 awaken it1 such as a dangerous         
illness1 an accident1 or the perils of  
war4 ,young people who while in  good   
health believe their lives to be in     
danger1 often take it to heart  so as to
 make themselves really ill4 ,relating  
his impressions during the  siege of    
,sebastopol1 ,tolstoi1 who at that time 
was only twenty-six years  of age1      
writes as follows3 8,notwithstanding the
 distractions offered by  various and   
urgent duties1 the instinct of          
self-preservation1 and the  longing to  
quit this horrible place of death was   
present in the hearts  of all4 ,this    
desire was equally strong in all2 in    
those mortally  wounded1 and in the     
volunteer rushing with all his might    
into the centre  of the fray to open a  
path for the horse of the general1 in   
the general  himself as he directed and 
controlled his men4 ,the officer of     
marines1  in the middle of a battalion  

in action1 crushed so that he could     
hardly  breathe1 felt it equally with   
the wounded man carried on a stretcher  
by  four soldiers until1 further        
progress being impossible1 he had been  
set  down just under the ,nicolai       
battery1 or the artilleryman who had    
served  his gun for sixteen years40 ,in 
the normal course of life1 however1 the 
young do not show an instinctive        
clinging to life in any marked degree4  
,they often risk their lives for        
trifling reasons1 and commit all sorts  
of indiscretions hurtful to life or     
health without a thought of the         
consequences4 ,they may be inspired by  
the highest motives1 but they are       
equally ready to fritter strength away  
in the gratification of the  lowest     
appetites4 ,youth is the age of         
disinterested sacrifice1 but also  of   
indulgence in all kinds of excesses1    
alcoholic1 sexual and others4  ,youths  
seem to think that they will always     
attach the same value to  life1 and that

 between death at thirty years of age   
and death at sixty1  there is a         
difference only of time4 ,as their love 
of life is  indifferently developed1    
young people are often extremely        
exacting1 the  pleasure they enjoy being
 but moderate1 whilst the suffering     
provoked in  them by the slightest      
annoyance is intense4 ,they consequently
 become  epicureans in the lowest sense 
of the word1 or else abandon themselves 
to exaggerated pessimism4    8,edite1   
bibite1 post mortem nulla voluptas0 was 
the motto of ,german  students1 greedy  
for pleasure1 and unknowing that a love 
of life  develops with age in every     
human being4 ,on the other hand1 in     
order to  keep the balance between joy  
and sorrow1 youth1 true to its          
instincts1  undervalues the former and  
exaggerates the latter1 thus arriving at
 a  pessimistic view of life1 and       
declaring that existence is a misfortune
  in itself4 ,it is significant that    
,schopenhauer published his theory of   

pessimism at the age of thirty-one4 ,his
 successor1 ,r4 ,hartmann1 when         
twenty-six years old1 proclaimed that   
human existence is an evil which  one   
should get rid of at all costs4         
,optimistic theories1 on the other      
hand1 have been set forth either by     
persons advanced in years or by  persons
 whom special circumstances have caused 
to appreciate the joy of  living4 ,as a 
counterbalance to the pessimism of      
,german philosophers1  ,duhring         
formulated a theory of optimism in his  
book 8,der ,wert des  ,lebens10 but was 
himself blind at the time4 ,sir ,john   
,lubbock published  some years ago a    
book entitled 8,the ,pleasures of       
,life10 which opens with  the following 
sentence3 8,life is a great gift40 ,his 
attitude towards  life is entirely      
opposed to that of the pessimists1 but  
then he  formulated it at the age of    
fifty-three4    ,it has long been       
recognised that the old attach a higher 
value to life  than do the young4 ,j4   

,j4 ,rousseau1 for instance1 says3      
8,life becomes  dearer to us as its joys
 pass away4 ,the old cling to it more   
closely  than the young40#acb    ,this  
reflection is absolutely correct1 and is
 proved by a number of  facts4 ,i once  
knew very intimately a scientific man   
who had passed a  very unhappy youth4   
,being hypersensitive to pain1 he tried 
to assuage it  by every means in his    
power4 ,some trifling annoyance         
sufficing to throw  him into a state of 
utter prostration1 he was in the habit  
of resorting  to the aid of narcotics4  
,in order to escape from mental anguish 
he  inoculated himself with poisons4 ,by
 the time he had arrived at an  advanced
 age his hypersensitiveness gave place  
to feelings much less  acute4 ,he ceased
 to resent the ills of life so bitterly 
as he did in his  youth2 while he came  
to appreciate better the positive side  
of life1 and  even in moments of        
unhappiness he did not contemplate      
putting an end to  his existence4    ,in

 youth he was pessimistic1 and insisted 
upon the preponderance of evil  over    
good4 ,as he became older1 his attitude 
towards existence became  entirely      
modified4    ,i do not say1 however1    
that it is necessary to be old in order 
to  realise the misfortune of death4    
8,he who pretends to face death without 
fear is a liar10 said ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau4
 8,that all men fear to die is the      
great law dominating the thinking world1
 and without which all living  things   
would soon cease to exist4 ,this fear is
 a natural impulse1 and is  not merely  
an accident but an important factor in  
the whole order of  things40#acc    ,one
 often hears people express their       
indifference to death1 but an           
examination into their real feelings on 
the subject soon shows the true  state  
of affairs4 ,i once happened to be      
present when a lady1 already  well      
advanced in years1 expressed a wish for 
death1 and said that she  had no fear of
 it whatever4 ,on acquiring a fuller    

knowledge of her case1  ,i recognised   
that she was seriously ill1 and that she
 regarded death as  the only possible   
termination to her sufferings4 ,as soon 
as she found  that recovery was         
possible1 she manifested intense delight
 at the  prospect of a prolonged life   
freed from incessant pain4              
,instinctive love of life1 and fear of  
death1 which is only a  manifestation of
 the former1 are of an importance in the
 study of human  nature impossible to   
over-estimate2 it is therefore necessary
 to  consider a few instances throwing  
light upon the subject4 ,even the       
ancients were interested in the problem4
 ,the subject is perhaps as well  dealt 
with in a ,buddhist legend as           
anywhere4#acd 8,the young ,prince       
akya-,mouni1 the founder of the         
,buddhist faith1 being desirous of      
discovering the true meaning of life1   
expressed a wish to leave the  world and
 devote himself to a religious life4 ,in
 order to turn him from  his purpose1   

his father built him a magnificent      
palace1 wherein he could  indulge in    
every sort of pleasure1 and in which he 
would be protected  from all sorrow4    
,under this system he never saw old     
people1 nor those  who were diseased1   
nor the dead4 ,in spite of being thus   
strictly  guarded1 the young prince     
often contrived to escape into the outer
 world  in order to drive about4 ,during
 his first drive1 he met a broken-down1 
decrepid old man1 with varicose veins1  
decayed teeth1 a wrinkled skin1  and    
grey hair1 bent double with age like the
 roof of a house1 leaning  upon a stick2
 all traces of youth had departed from  
him1 only  inarticulate words came from 
his throat1 his procumbent body resting 
on  the stick1 and his limbs and every  
part of them trembling40 ,having  learnt
 from his coachman that this was an old 
man1 and that 8in all  living creatures 
age creeps upon youth10 that every one  
came to it and  that 8there was no way  
out of it10 the prince was so deeply    

impressed  that he said to his coachman1
 8,what a misfortune to be a weak       
foolish  person1 whose intelligence1    
blinded by the pride of youth1 sees     
nothing  of old age4 ,turn round my     
chariot4 ,i would return4 ,what are     
games and  pleasures to me whose body is
 the future dwelling-place of old age80 
,another time akya-,mouni met on the    
road a man consumed by fever1 his  body 
weakened1 his breathing difficult4      
,informed by his coachman that  the man 
was suffering from disease1 the young   
prince exclaimed2 8,health1  then1 is a 
mere dream1 and the fear of disease     
takes a terrible form4  ,what wise man1 
having seen such a phase of human       
existence1 could  continue to be gay and
 happy80 ,shortly after akya-,mouni went
 out for  the third time1 and 8saw a    
dead man placed on a bier covered by a  
pall1  surrounded by his relations1 all 
weeping1 lamenting1 wailing1 their hair 
disordered1 placing dust upon their     
heads1 and beating their breasts40  ,the

 violent emotion produced by the sight  
of the dead man caused the  prince to   
say to himself3 8,woe to youth          
threatened with old age6 ,woe to        
health1 the prey of every kind of       
disease6 ,woe to the life of man which  
lasts but a little while6 ,woe to the   
attractions of pleasure which  seduce   
the hearts of the wise40 ,these         
reflections of akya-,mouni are the      
basis upon which ,buddhism is founded1  
and that religious philosophy is        
impregnated with pessimistic doctrines  
relating to human life4    ,modern      
pessimists hold views resembling        
,buddhism4 ,schopenhauer from  early    
youth was engrossed by the great        
problems of human life4 ,his  mother1 in
 a letter to him#ace reproached him with
 8grumbling at the  inevitable10 which  
shows that at twenty-seven years of age 
he had  revolted against the idea of    
death4 ,the problem of mortality was one
 of  those in which he was most deeply  
interested1 and his fear of disease  and

 death was such that he left ,berlin at 
the first outbreak of cholera  in #ahca 
7influenced by the death of ,hegel1 who 
succumbed to the  disease71 and went to 
live at ,frankfort1 a town unvisited by 
the  epidemic4 ,he affirms#acf that 8the
 greatest1 and generally speaking the   
worst1 misfortune that can befall any   
one is to die1 and there is no  fear    
equal to the fear of death40 ,it was the
 impossibility of escape  that suggested
 to him the idea of a pessimistic       
philosophy4    ,the literatures as well 
as the philosophies of all periods have 
dealt with the problem of death4 ,edmond
 de ,goncourt tells in his  8,journal0  
how1 in conversation with his friends1  
this question was  always recurring4    
,the following is an account of one of  
these  conversations3#acg 8,our old     
established dinner of five took place   
to-day4 ,flaubert was missing1 so there 
were only ,tourguneff1 ,zola1  ,daudet1 
and me4 ,the ethical ennui of some of   
us1 the physical  sufferings of the     

others1 led the conversation to death1  
which we  discussed until eleven        
o'clock1 sometimes passing to other     
subjects1  but always coming back to the
 gloomy topic4 ,daudet declared that in 
his case it was an obsession1 a         
poisoning of his life1 and that he      
never moved into a new house without    
looking round for the place  where his  
coffin would come to lie4 ,zola told us 
that his mother had  died at ,mdan1 and 
that1 as the staircase proved too       
narrow1 the  coffin had had to be       
lowered from a window2 he declared that 
he  never looked at that window without 
wondering who would be taken out  that  
way next1 he or his wife4 8,yes10 he    
said1 8ever since that day  death has   
always been in the background of our    
thoughts1 and very  often during the    
night1 looking at my sleepless wife1 ,i 
feel that  like me she is thinking of   
it1 and we lie quietly without saying   
aloud what is in our minds--for shame1  
yes1 for very shame--,oh6 it is         

terrible1 that thought--and the terror  
of it becomes visible6 ,there  have been
 nights when ,i have leapt suddenly out 
of bed1 and held  myself for a second or
 two in a state of abject terror40      
,jean ,finot#ach was told in confidence 
by ,e4 de ,goncourt that if he  could   
banish the thought of death from his    
mind life would be relieved  of an      
almost intolerable burden4 ,jean ,finot 
also relates that in the  course of a   
memorable evening spent with ,victor    
,hugo at the house of the  latter1      
nearly all of the distinguished persons 
who were present1 when  questioned as to
 their ideas on the subject of death1   
frankly admitted  that the thought of it
 inspired them with fear and sadness4   
,amongst  modern authors ,count ,lon    
,tolstoi has dealt most with the problem
 of  death4 ,in many of his works whole 
pages of memorable reflections on the   
subject are to be found1 but the most   
harrowing and terrible picture he  ever 
painted is contained in his             

8,confessions40#aci ,the reader will    
pardon my propensity for quoting        
passages relating to death4 ,he will    
recall the account of the ,siege of     
,sebastopol already quoted by me1 in    
which every one was described as fearing
 death when faced by danger2 but  this  
fear1 as the author was a young man of  
twenty-six1 was not wholly  absorbing4  
,shortly before he attained his fiftieth
 year1 ,tolstoi became bitterly         
tormented by the thought of death4 ,he  
describes the beginning of this  mental 
crisis in the following words3 8,first  
there came moments of  perplexity1 of   
arrest of vital force1 as though ,i had 
lost the power of  living and moving2 ,i
 felt utterly lost1 and fell into a     
state of  complete dejection4 ,this     
passed away1 however1 and ,i continued  
to live  on as before4 ,before long the 
moments of perplexity became more       
frequent2 the arrest of my living       
energies was always manifested by a     
renewal of the same questions1 #8,why8  

and ,what comes after8'0#adj ,for  some 
time ,tolstoi did not pay much attention
 to his mental condition1  but by       
degrees he began to analyse it1 and     
reached the following  conclusion3 8,the
 fact is that life is a blind alley4 ,i 
had lived1 worked  and marched onward1  
and had arrived at the edge of an abyss1
 and nothing  remained to me but to fall
 into it4 ,and yet ,i could neither stop
 nor  retrace my footsteps1 nor shut my 
eyes in order not to see suffering and  
inevitable death4 ,it was a void1 a     
complete annihilation40#ada 8,in this   
condition ,i felt that ,i must cease to 
live1 and1 fearing death1 ,i had to     
employ various ruses to prevent myself  
from taking my life40#adb 8,i  could    
attach no reasonable meaning to any     
action of my life4 ,i was  merely       
astonished to think ,i had failed to    
realise the position from the           
beginning4 ,all that1 ,i said to myself1
 must have been patent to all the  world
 long ago4 ,if not to-day1 then         

to-morrow1 disease and death--they  are 
already here--will attack elderly       
persons--me--and there will remain  only
 corruption and worms4 ,my deeds1       
whatever they may be1 will be  forgotten
 sooner or later1 and ,i shall be no    
more4 ,why then take pains  about       
anything8 ,how a man can know all this  
and yet go on living amazes  me4 ,one   
can only go on living just so long as   
one is intoxicated with  life2 once     
sober1 however1 one cannot fail to see  
what an idiotic fraud  it all is4 ,it is
 also true that there is nothing even   
amusing or  intelligent about it2 it is 
simply stupid and cruel and nothing     
more40  ,seeing no way out of this1     
,tolstoi turned his reflections on      
family  love3 8,my family 444 ,i say to 
myself 444 but then my family1 my wife1 
and children are also merely human      
beings6 ,they live under the same       
conditions as ,i myself4 ,they have the 
choice between living a lie or  facing  
the horrible truth4 ,why then should    

they live at all8 ,why should  ,i love1 
cherish1 and protect them8 ,in order    
that they may experience the  same      
despair1 or that they may go through    
life like idiots8 ,loving them1  ,i     
cannot conceal the truth from them2     
every step forward in knowledge  leads  
to this truth2 and the truth is         
death40#adc ,to conclude this  series of
 quotations1 which must have given the  
reader some idea of the  love of life   
and the fear of death1 ,i shall give one
 more example1  taken1 not from the pen 
of a master but from daily life4#add ,it
 refers  to the death in the ,christian 
community of a 8minister of ,god1 who   
was  pious as a ,s4 ,francis of ,assisi1
 candid as a young girl1 of a rigid     
asceticism1 and renowned for his        
charity40 ,logically speaking1 the death
  of such a man should have been        
peaceful4 ,had he been a fictitious     
character1 his author would not have    
described his death except in the       
conventional fashion4 ,this is what     

really occurred1 according to the       
letters of an intimate friend of the    
dying man1 who wrote as follows3  8,our 
poor friend is fighting death inch by   
inch in a way that is  positively       
tragic4 ,he who was so full of          
resignation1 so serene1 so  perfectly at
 peace with his own soul1 is terrified  
by the approach of  death4 ,it is a     
horrible sight1 that moves one to tears4
 ,we are  powerless not only to afford  
him physical relief but to console the  
terrible anguish which assails the clear
 intellect that clings so  desperately  
to life1 and which death will claim     
while fully alive4 #8,i  could still1'  
he cried1 #8give a course of lectures on
 theology or  political economy1 and ,i 
must die4444 ,it is terrible to be fully
  conscious4444 ,how much better it     
would be if ,i could not think6444 ,and 
what is it that we ask of ,god8 ,eternal
 happiness6 ,it is just as if one  of   
your workpeople came and asked you for a
 thousand francs for a day's  work6'    

,you would answer him1 #8,what nonsense 
you talk1 you must be mad1  my friend6' 
,it is hard to die4 ,i confess to you1  
my friend1 that this  makes one         
reconsider religion and philosophy4444  
,the goodness of ,god is  not what we   
think 444 there is a mystery over us4444
 ,is death then  truly the ,king of     
,terrors for those who have led good    
lives80    ,what is this love of life   
which makes death so terrible8 ,it is a 
very  interesting question1 and ,tolstoi
 himself has published an essay on 8the 
fear of death40#ade    ,he tries to     
prove that the feeling arises from a    
false conception of  life4 8,those who  
fear death10 he says1 8fear it because  
it seems an  empty darkness1 but the    
darkness and emptiness present          
themselves merely  because they have a  
false conception of life40#adf          
,according to ,tolstoi  man should have 
no greater fear of death than of any of 
the other  changes to which it is       
subjected by life4 8,no one is afraid of

 falling  asleep10 he says1 8and yet the
 phenomena of sleep are like those of   
death--there is the same loss of        
consciousness4 ,man does not fear sleep1
  although the arrest of consciousness  
is as complete as in death40#adg        
,tolstoi thinks that the fear of death  
is a superstition1 and that it          
disappears when we see life as it       
is4#adh    ,tokarsky1#adi another       
,russian writer1 a few years ago        
published a  treatise on the fear of    
death1 and tried to show how little     
reason there  was for it4 ,the writer   
was a physician for the insane1 and knew
 himself  to be afflicted with an       
incurable and fatal disease4 ,his       
observations on  the fear of death were 
probably based on his own feelings4     
,judging from  the evidence of a number 
of persons who had been in mortal       
danger1  ,tokarsky declared that death  
had no terror1 and that it was          
unnecessary  to fear it4    ,tokarsky's 
theory was supported in recent years by 

,finot#aej whose  arguments in its      
favour were similar to those of his     
predecessor4 ,he  held that man himself 
created the fear of death1 and that the 
prospect  of an unknown future played a 
considerable part in it4 8,beyond that  
which we see10 says ,finot1 8there is   
always something that we cannot  see1   
and it is the invisible that we         
fear40#aea ,the idea that death is      
generally attended by pain seems to     
,finot quite erroneous1 and he comes  to
 the conclusion that 8our ignorances and
 prejudices are responsible  for the    
creation of this superstition1 so       
terrible to contemplate1 so  far removed
 from the truth40#aeb ,instances which  
have occurred of  people threatened with
 death and suddenly restored to life1   
give proofs1  according to ,finot1 that 
death1 far from being painful1 is       
attended by  pleasant sensations4 ,with 
regard to this1 ,heim1 a ,swiss savant1 
says  that tourists who have had serious
 falls while mountaineering1 and have   

been so near to death that they         
experienced all the premonitory         
symptoms1 felt above all a sensation of 
ecstasy4    ,it cannot be denied that   
some forms of death are pleasant1 but it
 is no  less certain that in many other 
cases1 and these too the majority--the  
sensation of approaching death is1 on   
the contrary1 extremely painful4  ,this 
question1 however1 is not necessarily   
connected with the fear of  death that  
may come to those who are not yet about 
to die4 ,but it is  precisely the latter
 mode of fear that is so important a    
factor in human  life4 ,men who are     
dying of starvation do not feel         
painfully hungry at  the moment of      
death4 ,the actual pain of hunger lasts 
only for a limited  period1 probably1 in
 the case of man1 only about twenty     
hours1 after  which it is succeeded by a
 condition of lassitude and general     
weakness1  which however is different   
from painful hunger4 ,the fear of death 
is  similar1 for in certain cases it    

does not last up to the end of life4    
,the pain of thirst1 on the other hand1 
is much more persistent1 lasting  up to 
the end4    ,finot discussed the        
instinctiveness of the fear of death4   
8,the  question10 he wrote1 8is         
important4 ,for if the fear be          
instinctive1 it  is independent of our  
will and not to be controlled by reason4
 ,it would  then break out in every case
 at the approach of death4 ,now the     
evidence  of many persons who have no   
more than escaped mortal danger is      
clearly  against the view40#aec ,hunger 
is certainly instinctive1 and yet is not
  always felt when the body is exhausted
 by want of food or menaced by  death   
from starvation4    ,closer             
investigation leaves no doubt but that  
the fear of death is truly  an instinct4
 ,in some of the higher animals it      
exhibits itself in the  same fashion as 
other instincts4 ,the intimate friend1  
whom ,i have  already mentioned1 was for
 years in constant expectation of death1

 and  faced its approach with perfect   
calmness4 ,believing that he had played 
his part in life to the best of his     
power1 not only did he think it  quite  
natural that he should cease to live1   
but he regarded the  possibility of a   
decrepid and painful old age with the   
greatest possible  repugnance4 ,in his  
case1 neither reason nor desire led to a
 fear of  death4 ,when1 however1 it was 
definitely diagnosed that he suffered   
from  a disease which might prove fatal1
 there was aroused in him a certain     
sensation which must have been the fear 
of death4 ,analysis of ,tolstoi's       
statements in his 8,confessions0 makes  
it clear that his sensations on         
reflecting that he too would cease to   
be1 and that there would be left  only  
corruption and worms1 were no other than
 the instinctive fear of  death1 a fear 
that his reason was powerless to        
control4 ,to follow  ,tolstoi in telling
 any one that the fear of death is a    
form of  superstition which must be     

subdued by the intelligence1 is no      
better  than to attempt to console a    
woman about to undergo ovariotomy by    
telling her that as in future she will  
be unable to bear children she  ought to
 subdue her sexual instincts4 ,she will 
find out that her desire  is not under  
control of the will but is a pure       
instinct4    ,the fear of death has long
 been recognised as an instinct4        
,schopenhauer1#aed for instance1        
interpreted it in that way4 ,according  
to him1 8from the point of view of      
intelligence there is no ground for     
fearing death4 ,reason1 which is the    
outcome of knowledge1 does not  present 
death to us as an evil4 ,it is certainly
 not the rational1  conscious part of   
ourselves which fears death2 the fuga   
mortis which  pervades all living beings
 is an emanation of the blind will40    
,this  8blind will0 is no other than a  
pure instinct which is independent of   
our rational will4    ,i need not pursue
 the subject1 but ,i may recall that    

,lord ,byron came to  the conclusion    
that the fear of death is an instinctive
 manifestation of  the soul4 ,in 8,cain0
 he expressed this view sufficiently    
clearly3--                              
,i live1             ,but live to die2  
and living1 see nothing             ,to 
make death hateful1 save an innate      
clinging1             ,a loathsome1 and 
yet all invincible             ,instinct
 of life1 which ,i abhor1 as ,i         
,despise myself1 yet cannot overcome--  
,and so ,i live4    ,later on in the    
same poem ,byron makes ,cain say of his 
father ,adam3--                         
,ere he plucked                  ,the   
knowledge1 he was ignorant of death4    
,alas1 ,i scarcely now know what it is2 
,and yet ,i fear it1 fear ,i know not   
what4    ,it is then indubitable that   
among the instincts of man there is one 
which loves life and fears death4 ,this 
instinct develops slowly and            
progressively with age4 ,in that respect
 it is astonishingly different  from    

other instincts4 ,when hunger or thirst 
or sexual desire is  gratified a        
sensation of satisfaction is            
experienced1 and this readily  passes   
into satiety or even indifference4 ,the 
mood lasts for a certain  time1 and then
 the instinctive needs reawaken4 ,the   
instinct of life1  however1 behaves very
 differently4 ,in most human beings it  
develops  slowly and becomes stronger   
and stronger as the years pass by4 ,in  
childhood and early youth we are very   
anxious to 8grow up10 but when we  are  
adult we have no desire to grow old4 ,we
 are greatly disturbed by the           
appearance of wrinkles and grey hair4   
,instead of being glad to have  finished
 a great part of our mortal career1 we  
feel sad at being nearer  the inevitable
 end4 ,old age1 as it usually presents  
itself1 is marked by  ugly features1 and
 often by repugnant or even horrible    
characters4  ,little children are       
usually terrified by the appearance of  
very old  persons1 and it is a familiar 

nursery threat to send for an old man4  
,the murder of the aged is a custom     
widespread amongst the lower races4     
,the natives of ,fiji bury their old men
 alive1 on the pretext that they  have  
become utterly useless4 ,the custom is  
in existence throughout  ,melanesia1 and
 occurs in ,new ,caledonia and in most  
of the adjacent  ,polynesian islands4   
,old age is universally despised in that
 part of the  world4 ,the natives of    
,australia respect old people so long as
 they  retain their activity1 but once  
they become unable to take care of      
themselves they are abandoned4 ,often   
they are killed and eaten1 and this     
custom is favoured by their religious   
beliefs4#aee ,the ancient  inhabitants  
of ,germany1 according to the           
investigations of ,grimm1  8killed the  
old and the sick1 and often buried them 
alive40    ,the modern civilised world  
has certainly made considerable         
progress4 ,the  old are no longer       
killed2 they are tolerated1 and accorded

 liberty to  commit suicide4 ,in many   
countries work is often refused to the  
old on  the plea that they are not      
strong enough for it1 and at the same   
time  they are refused admission to     
almshouses on the pretext that they are 
not yet old enough4 ,dealing with the   
question of the average life and of  the
 normal life1 ,paul ,bert#aef expressed 
himself with regard to the  aged as     
follows3 8,they deserve congratulations1
 care and consideration1  but the       
prolongation of their lives does not    
demand any special  solicitude from     
society40    ,however1 in spite of the  
characters of old age which make it     
horrible  and useless1 and at best no   
more than to be tolerated1 and in spite 
of  the physical and intellectual       
weakness that accompany it1 the         
instinctive love of life is preserved in
 the aged in its strongest form4  ,to   
make quite certain about this ,i have   
visited almshouses for the aged1  and it
 was easy to see that all the inmates   

hoped that their days might  be         
prolonged4 ,in a ,home occupied by      
fairly well-educated persons1 ,i        
discovered that one and all felt as if  
they were continually being  threatened 
by death1 as if they were convicts      
awaiting the day of  execution4 ,at the 
,salptrire1 where there are a number of 
very old  women1 septuagenarians are    
regarded almost as young girls4 ,the    
great  ambition of women of eighty is to
 live to one hundred1 and the desire to 
live is almost universal4    ,this seems
 a contradiction of another fact        
demonstrated by statistics1  that age   
increases the frequency of suicide4 ,it 
is certain that more old  men commit    
suicide than young men1 but on careful  
inquiry into the  statistics of the     
subject1 it becomes evident that the    
chief incentive  to suicide does not lie
 in the cessation of the will to live1  
but in the  difficulties experienced by 
old people of earning a living1 and in  
the  frequent presence of disease in the

 aged4 ,deprived of the means of        
existence1 refused the shelter of       
charitable institutions1 old men are    
apt to fall back upon a rope or the     
fumes of charcoal4 ,statistics  relating
 to the suicide of the aged show that   
the greatest number of  victims belong  
to the poorer classes4 ,the suicide of  
rich old men is  generally prompted by  
the presence of incurable disease4      
,there is1  however1 need for much wider
 inquiry into the subject4 ,it would be 
interesting1 for instance1 to obtain    
more detailed information regarding  the
 motives which urge the old to put an   
end to themselves4 ,in recent  times the
 suicide of ,max von ,pettenkofer       
aroused public attention4 ,after  a     
distinguished scientific career1 he     
resigned his post of ,professor at  the 
,university of ,munich at the age of    
seventy-six4 ,he went to live a  little 
way outside the town on a property where
 he devoted himself to  gardening and   
other country pursuits4 ,although a     

sufferer from diabetes1  his intellect  
remained unimpaired1 but he became a    
prey to extreme  melancholy1 owing to   
the death of some friends to whom he was
 greatly  attached4 ,moreover1 during   
the latter part of his life he suffered 
from  a septic affection of the neck4   
,this disease1 not fatal in itself1 was 
the indirect cause of ,pettenkofer's    
death1 which occurred by suicide at  the
 age of eighty-three4 ,the post-mortem  
examination#aeg showed a  fairly well   
preserved organic system1 healthy1 with 
the exception of  chronic inflammation  
of the membranes of the brain and       
atheroma of the  cerebral arteries4 ,the
 circumstances relating to this         
particular case of  suicide are         
unusually well known1 and yet there are 
many obscure points  about it which are 
of the highest importance4 ,the chronic 
meningitis  from which the aged         
scientist suffered conclusively         
precluded the theory  that the motives  
which led him to commit suicide were    

prompted by the  phenomena of normal    
life4 ,on the other hand1 instances are 
not wanting  of old men of good         
education and refined surroundings who  
cling  tenaciously to life1 even at a   
much more advanced age than the ,munich 
professor4    ,the instinctive love of  
life resembles the sexual instinct in a 
great  many women4 ,just as the love of 
life goes on increasing when the best of
  life is past1 sexual pleasure is often
 unfelt by women until their  beauty is 
already faded4    ,another character    
common to the love of life and the      
sexual instinct is  that they both      
persist throughout old age1 although    
they can no longer  be satisfied4       
,edmond de ,goncourt relates in his     
diary that at his runions of literary   
celebrities 7,zola1 ,daudet1 and        
,tourgneff71 the conversation turned    
most  frequently upon the subjects of   
love1 life and women4 8,death or love1  
strangely enough10 says ,edmond de      
,goncourt1 8are always what we talk     

about after dinner40#aeh ,old age was   
even then knocking at the doors of  the 
distinguished writers mentioned1 and so 
it is quite natural that  their interest
 should have been wholly absorbed by the
 two instincts  which exhibit such      
enigmatic and paradoxical tenacity4     
,we saw in the preceding chapter how    
disharmonious is the sexual instinct    
which often only develops at1 and nearly
 always persists until1 a period  of    
life when its normal and regular        
functional activity is no longer        
possible4 ,we saw1 too1 the ill         
resulting from this disharmony in the   
reproductive apparatus4 ,the ill1       
however1 although serious1 only amounts 
in that case to an inconvenience which  
can be endured4    ,far worse is the    
disharmony of the instinctive love of   
life which  manifests itself when death 
is felt to be near at hand4 ,it is then 
incomprehensible and particularly       
terrible1 and humanity1 from time       
immemorial1 has sought the key to the   

tragic puzzle1 and tried by all  the    
means in its power to unravel the       
mystery4 ,the religions of all  times   
have been concerned with the problem4   
8,religion10 says ,guyau1#aei  8consists
 for the most part of meditation upon   
death4 ,if we had not to  die there     
would probably be still more            
superstitions among men1 but  there     
would probably be no systematised       
superstitions nor religions40           
,philosophy also has tried to solve the 
question of death4 ,some ancient        
philosophers held the opinion that      
philosophy is only a meditation upon    
death4 ,socrates and ,cicero#afj have   
well said that 8the life of a           
philosopher is a continual meditation   
upon death40 ,in our own day            
,schopenhauer developed the same theory4
 8,death10 he said1#afa 8is the  real   
inspiring genius of philosophy4444      
,without death it is doubtful if        
philosophy would exist at all4 ,it is   
therefore quite natural that a  special 

essay on ,death should preface the last1
 the most serious1 and  the most        
important of my books40    ,judging from
 the facts set forth in the last three  
chapters1 there can  be no doubt but    
that the human constitution1 although in
 many ways  perfect and sublime1        
exhibits numerous and serious           
disharmonies1 which  are the source of  
all our troubles4 ,not being so well    
adapted to the  conditions of life as   
orchids are1 for example1 in the matter 
of their  fertilisation by the mediation
 of insects1 or the burrowing wasps for 
the protection of their young1 humanity 
resembles rather those insects  the     
instinct of which guides them towards   
the flame which burns their  wings4     
,even at a time when humanity had       
attained no definite knowledge of       
itself1 a vague suspicion prevailed as  
to the existence of disharmonies1  and  
an effort was made to remedy the evil4  
,the following chapters will  show what 
man has done with a view to remedying   

the natural disharmonies  of his        
constitution4                           
,,part ,,ii  ,,attempts ,,to ,,diminish 
,,the ,,ills ,,arising ,,from ,,the     
,,disharmonies ,,of ,,the ,,human       
,,constitution                          
7,,religious ,,and ,,philosophical      
,,systems7                              
,,chapter ,,vii   ,,religious ,,attempts
 ,,to ,,combat ,,the ,,ills ,,arising   
,,from ,,the ,,disharmonies ,,of        
,,the ,,human ,,constitution            
,animism as the foundation of primitive 
religions--,the ,jewish religion    in  
relation to the doctrine of immortality 
of the soul--,the religions    of       
,china--,ancestor-worship in            
,confucianism--,the conception of       
immortality in ,taoism--,the persistence
 of the soul in the ,buddhist           
religion--,the paradise of the ,chinese 
,buddhists--,ancestors worshipped as    
gods--,influence of religious faith on  
the fear of death--,pessimism of    the 
doctrine of ,buddha--,the meaning of    

,nirvna--,resignation as preached    by 
,buddha--,objections to the immortality 
of the soul--,irritability of    the    
tissues and cells of the                
body--,religious hygiene--,religious    
means of    controlling the reproductive
 functions and of preventing            
diseases--,failure of religions in their
 attempts to combat the ills    arising 
from the disharmonies of the human      
constitution      ,humanity did not     
await the discovery by science of the   
existence of  disharmonies before trying
 to find remedies for them4 ,the will to
 live1  to preserve health1 to satisfy  
the instincts and to make them act in   
unison1 have driven mankind1 in the very
 earliest days of reflection1 to  invent
 remedies for the imperfection of the   
human constitution4    ,i have shown    
that1 even in the case of animals1 the  
instinct as to  choice of food does not 
save them from certain harmful          
substances4 ,man  himself has for long  
recognised that this instinct of his is 

no safe  guide1 and has tried to        
discover surer methods of distinguishing
 between  substances that are useful as 
foods and substances that may cause     
disease or death4 ,the best wisdom of   
primitive man must have been given  to  
the observation of the effects of       
substances which had been eaten1  and to
 a consequent framing of dietary rules4 
,the reproductive functions1 in the same
 way1 must have attracted the  notice of
 man in very early times1 as he must    
have found the harm that  came from a   
blind following of instinctive desire4  
,above all other reasons1 man must have 
been impelled by his instinctive  love  
of life and fear of death to find some  
way out of his dangerous  situation4 ,to
 preserve his life1 man must have sought
 wise choice of  food and control of    
sexuality4    ,since the dawn of        
intelligence1 man has tried to judge the
 unknown from  the analogies given by   
what he knows best1 that is to say1 by  
his own  self4 ,thus he came to         

attribute to everything around him      
qualities like  his own qualities1 and  
motives like his own motives4 ,he came  
to think  not only that all living      
beings were possessed of will and       
intelligence1  but that inanimate things
 conducted themselves like human beings4
    ,such a primitive idea is the basis 
of what ,tylor has called 8,animism10   
the foundation of the philosophy and    
religion of savage and civilised  man   
alike4 ,when a man was seen to die1 it  
was plain that he did not  entirely     
disappear1 but merely became transformed
 into a new condition4  ,the dead body  
was not alive as we are1 but1 none the  
less1 it was alive  in a fashion of its 
own4 ,this was the answer to the desire 
for the  preservation of life1 to the   
fear of death1 that is to say1 of total 
extinction4 ,it is practically identical
 with faith in immortality and a  future
 life4    ,the animistic conception is  
almost world wide4 ,it is plain that it 
afforded the most efficacious palliative

 for minds revolting against the        
inevitability of death1 and that it     
harmonised with our intense will to     
live4 8,such child-like ignoring of     
death10 wrote ,tylor1#afb 8such         
child-like make-believe1 that the dead  
can still do as heretofore1 may  well   
have led the savage to bury with his    
kinsman the weapons1 clothes1  and      
ornaments that he used in life1 to try  
to feed the corpse1 to put a  cigar in  
the mouth of the skull before its final 
burial1 to lay  playthings in the       
infant's grave4 ,but one thought beyond 
would carry  this dim blind fancy into  
the range of logical reasoning4 ,granted
 that  the man is dead1 and his soul    
gone out of him1 then the way to provide
  that departed soul with food or       
clothes or weapons is to bury or burn   
them with the body40    ,it is needless 
to recapitulate the various animistic   
customs which were  in vogue among      
primitive peoples1 and which have left  
marked traces  amongst nearly if not all

 civilised races4 ,the details may be   
found in  the works of several authors1 
notably ,tylor1 ,lubbock1 and           
,waitz-,gerland4#afc ,i shall mention   
only a few1 choosing those that seem    
most plain4 ,the ,turanians of ,eastern 
,asia bury with their dead all sorts  of
 implements1 such as axes and flints1   
and food1 such as meat and  butter1     
believing that the departed will have   
need of these during the  long voyage in
 the land of the spirits4 ,a ,tasmanian1
 on being asked why  spears were buried 
with the dead1 replied1 as if the answer
 were  self-evident1 8,of course for the
 use in combat of him who has fallen    
asleep40 ,the ,greenlanders place bows  
and other weapons in the tombs of  their
 men1 and knives1 needles1 and other    
instruments for sewing are  buried with 
their women1 in the full belief that    
such objects will be  useful in the     
other world4 ,in the ,congo region1 the 
curious custom  exists of leaving a hole
 in the grave over the mouth of the dead

 body1  and once a month passing into   
this hole meat and drink4    ,many races
 are not content to place merely        
inanimate objects in the  graves4 ,the  
,caribbeans1 believing that the human   
spirit after death is  carried to the   
kingdom of dead souls1 sacrifice slaves 
on the tombs of  their chiefs1 in order 
that the latter may be attended in the  
next  world4 ,with the same object they 
bury dogs and weapons4 ,the negroes of  
the ,gold ,coast1 at the funeral of a   
great man1 kill women and slaves  that  
he may be provided for in the next      
world4 ,moreover1 they bury with  him   
his finest apparel1 his gilded fetishes1
 and corals and pearls1 so  that the    
dead man may continue to make use of    
them4    ,tylor states that such        
animistic conceptions occur amongst all 
savages  without exception4 ,according  
to ,herbert ,spencer1 if we take groups 
of  the human race1 such as tribes1     
societies1 and nations1 we find abundant
  evidence that all1 or nearly all1 have

 a belief1 vague or clear1 in the       
resurrection of a double of the dead    
man4 ,it has been suggested that the    
origin of this widespread belief is the 
image of the departed that comes  to us 
in dreams4 ,these images are taken as   
real visits of the dead4    ,in         
civilised races there are numerous      
relics of the old beliefs4 ,the         
,spaniards set bread and wine on the    
graves of their relatives on the        
anniversaries of their deaths4 ,the     
,bulgarians hold a feast of the dead  on
 ,palm ,sunday4 ,they eat and drink     
well1 and then leave the remains of  the
 banquet on the graves of their         
relatives that these may consume them   
in the night4    ,saint-,foix#afd       
relates that when ,bertrand du ,guesclin
 was buried at ,st4  ,denis1 in #achi1  
several horses were sacrificed4 ,the    
,bishop of ,auxerre  first blessed them1
 laying his hands on their heads1 and   
then they were  killed4 ,at ,treves1 in 
#agha1 at the burial of ,general        

,frederic ,casimir1  his horse1         
according to the custom of the ,teutonic
 ,order1 was led in  front of the bier1 
and when the ,general had been laid in  
the tomb1 the  horse was killed and     
buried with him4#afe    ,although the   
sacrifice of men and animals is no      
longer made by civilised  peoples at    
burials1 many funeral customs have an   
obviously animistic  origin4 ,in        
,russia1 for instance1 rice is placed   
alongside the corpse1  and pine branches
 are strewed along the way to be        
traversed by the  procession4 ,the      
wreaths of 8immortelles10 used so       
largely at funerals by  the modern      
,french1 have an extremely ancient      
origin4 ,they were employed  by the     
,romans1 and probably their use implied 
a conception of a future  life in a     
region where plants and flowers grew4   
,the belief in life after death1 so     
widespread in the world1 has been the   
foundation of all religions4 ,i cannot  
follow this question here as  closely as

 it deserves4 ,to investigate it        
elaborately would take more  space than 
this volume affords1 and more knowledge 
than ,i possess4  ,however1 it is       
important to my argument to insist that1
 among races that  have inhabited very  
different parts of the earth1 that have 
had very  different manners and have    
passed through different stages of      
civilisation1 the conviction has been   
strong that death is not the end  of    
all1 but only a door leading from one   
kind of existence to another4  ,because 
of the high importance of the existence 
of this conviction1  however1 ,i must   
discuss some of the criticisms that have
 been made as to  its universality4     
,it has been asserted repeatedly that   
the idea of a future life was not a     
part of the ,jewish religion1 as        
formulated in the ,bible4 ,haeckel has  
recently repeated a common opinion that 
belief in the immortality of the  soul  
was absent from the oldest and purest   
form of the ,jewish religion4  8,there  

is not to be found10 he said1 8either in
 the ,pentateuch or in  those more      
ancient parts of the ,old ,testament    
which were written before  the          
,babylonian captivity1 any idea of the  
persistence of the human  soul40 ,this  
is true only within limits4 ,no doubt   
the books of ,moses  contain no         
reference to a future life nor to heaven
 and hell in the  sense of modern       
creeds1 but it is no less true that the 
ancient ,jews  shared with other races  
the conception of a survival after      
death4 8,like  almost all primitive     
nations10 wrote ,renan1#aff 8the        
,hebrews believed  in a kind of double  
personality1 in a shadow pale and thin  
which1 after  death1 descended          
underground and passed a sad and        
colourless existence  in the sombre     
halls of the dead4 ,the dead dwelt      
there1 without feeling1  or knowledge1  
or memory1 in a world without light1    
abandoned by ,god4 ,at  the most the old
 ,hebrews hoped to obtain for themselves

 a quiet  resting-place1 a pleasant     
couch for the time when they would be   
with the  dead4 ,it comforted them to   
picture themselves as lying amongst     
their  ancestors in quiet communion40   
,ancestor-worship1 which is associated  
closely with the idea of a future  life1
 appears repeatedly in the ,pentateuch4 
,jacob1 when he felt death  coming upon 
him1 called his son ,joseph and said    
unto him1 8,bury me not1  ,i pray thee1 
in ,egypt2 but ,i will lie with my      
fathers1 and thou shalt  carry me out of
 ,egypt1 and bury me in their           
burying-place40 ,according to           
,chantepie de la ,saussaye1#afg 8we are 
coming to recognise more and more  how  
strongly the children of ,israel1 and in
 fact all other peoples1 were  tinged   
with animism and ancestor-worship40     
,it is very remarkable how the idea of a
 future life1 which was vague in  the   
early days of ,israel1 grew more and    
more clear4 ,ezekiel 7sixth  century    
,b4,c471 when he had 8seen the visions  

of ,god10 prophesied of  things to come1
 and declared that ,god would breathe   
life into the dry  bones of the dead4   
,the ,book of ,daniel 7second century   
,b4,c47 expressed  the same idea in a   
stronger fashion3 8,and many of them    
that sleep in the  dust of the earth    
shall awake1 some to everlasting life   
and some to  shame and everlasting      
contempt0 7,daniel xii4 #b74 8,it is    
plain10 said  ,renan1#afh after quoting 
these words1 8that ,israel had now      
reached the  last stage in the secular  
development of her ideas1 and had       
reached the  conception of the kingdom  
of ,god1 as synonymous with the future  
world  and the resurrection4 ,as the    
conception of a soul distinct from the  
body  was foreign to her1 she could not 
conceive of a future life apart from    
resurrection of the body40    ,still    
later1 in the ,talmud1 the conception of
 a future life is clothed  with details4
 ,paradise is depicted as a region      
filled with sweet odours1  while hell is

 an unclean place1 thick with mire and  
smoke4 ,according to  the ,talmud1 in   
the life beyond the grave1 8there is    
neither eating nor  drinking2 the good  
sit there with crowns on their heads and
 see ,god in  bliss40#afi    ,at the    
date of the ,cabalistic philosophy1 the 
,jews had embraced the  doctrine of     
transmigration of souls1 and had come to
 believe that the  spirit of ,adam had  
entered ,david and would pass on to the 
,messiah4 ,some  human souls passed into
 the bodies of animals1 into the leaves 
of trees1  or even into stones4    ,it  
is plain that the idea of a future life 
was a part of the ,jewish  religion4    
,it has been said1 also1 that the idea  
of a future life was absent from  the   
religions of the ,chinese4 ,bchner1#agj 
for instance1 who came to be  almost the
 official representative of the         
materialism of the second half  of last 
century1 asserts that 8,buddhism1 that  
famous religion1 the most  widespread   
and one of the most ancient1 which      

counts among its followers  nearly a    
third of the inhabitants of the earth1  
ignores completely the  immortality of  
the soul40 ,haeckel1 also1 in the       
8,riddle of the  ,universe10 a volume   
that sums up the materialism of the end 
of the last  century1 makes a similar   
statement4 8,the higher oriental        
religions  include no belief whatever in
 the immortality of the soul2 it is not 
found in ,buddhism1 the religion that   
dominates #cj per cent4 of the  entire  
human race2 it is not found in the      
ancient popular religion of  the        
,chinese1 nor in the reformed religion  
of ,confucius which succeeded  it40#aga 
,this question demands a somewhat closer
 investigation4 ,it has been  thoroughly
 proved that the basis of the ancient   
religion of the ,chinese  was no more   
than an extreme development of          
ancestor-worship4 ,every  important     
event in family affairs was accomplished
 8in the presence of  the ancestors40   
,it was a bond with relatives beyond the

 grave4 ,as in  other cases of animism  
and ancestor-worship1 meats were offered
 to the  dead1 and objects were buried  
with them to be of service to them4     
,according to ,a4 ,rville1#agb the      
,chinese as a whole 8fully recognised   
the conception of personal survival     
after death2 if there were no other     
reason for stating this1 it would be    
enough to point out that offerings  of  
real food would be incomprehensible1 if 
made to persons supposed to  be         
non-existent or reduced to complete     
unconsciousness40 ,as they offer  to the
 dead1 food and clothing and precious   
things1 it is plain that the  ,chinese  
think of life beyond the grave as not   
very different from this  life4 8,the   
dead maintain their interest in the     
affairs and persons and  food that was  
familiar to them40    ,as the idea of   
immortality became developed further1   
the ,chinese  modified their customs4   
,instead of offering to the dead        
material  objects1 as is still done by  

many peoples1 they came to substitute   
emblems4 8,houses and clothing and food 
imitated in paper1 and dolls of  paper  
and straw to represent slaves1 are      
burned1 so that the spiritual  forms of 
these objects may be offered to the     
spirit they wish to  honour40#agc       
,one of the chief motives of            
ancestor-worship is fear lest the dead1 
if  neglected1 may visit their wrath on 
the living by sending plagues and       
pestilence upon them4#agd    ,the       
worship of the dead had laid hold of the
 ,chinese so firmly that even           
,confucius1 notwithstanding his         
intelligence and scepticism1 paid it a  
large tribute4 8,confucius the          
philosopher10 said ,rville1 8regarded it
  as a duty to offer to his ancestors   
the gifts of food that princes had  sent
 to him desiring to honour him40#age    
,confucius and his followers were       
reticent and ambiguous in their         
references to a future life1 but that   
attitude did not prevent them from      

8observing the customs and ceremonies as
 carefully as if they had had a         
confident faith in the immortality of   
the soul40#agf ,although ,lao-tseu      
himself believed neither in heaven nor  
hell1 and professed the most            
rationalistic views1 his disciples none 
the less accepted the doctrine  of      
immortality1 and even came to believe in
 rewards and punishments  after death4  
,the followers of ,lao-tseu1 the        
,taoists1 devoted themselves specially  
to  the problem of immortality4 ,they   
made efforts to discover an elixir that 
would be capable of prolonging earthly  
life to eternity4 8,one of the  chief   
claims of ,taoism10 wrote ,rville1 8was 
the possession of a  specific against   
death4 ,it was true that they admitted  
this to be not  only very difficult to  
obtain1 but still more difficult to     
employ4  ,however1 if certain rules were
 observed strictly they were at least   
confident of great prolongation of life4
 ,it was only the very few  ,taoists who

 had reached perfection who could hope  
to pass into the  better world without  
being subjected to the pains of         
death40#agg 8,and  so some of the       
masters of ,taoism1 such1 for instance1 
as ,chang-,tao-,ling1  ascended to      
heaven without dying1 by climbing a     
lofty peak and vanishing  into the      
skies40#agh    ,the ordinary ,taoists   
accepted fully the idea of immortality4 
,they  8taught the doctrine of purgatory
 for those who were not evil4 ,to arrive
  at this1 ,lao-tseu simply expanded and
 applied to mankind generally an  idea  
that was already familiar to him1 the   
conception of the  transmigration of one
 soul through several successive bodies4
 ,by means  of such expiatory           
transformations1 a man who had not      
reached it directly  through the        
holiness of his life1 could attain the  
immortality of genii  and the           
blessed40#agi    ,it was believed for   
long that the ,taoists1 following the   
teaching of  their master1 did not      

recognise a hell4 ,but this opinion has 
had to be  abandoned1 because the       
8,taoist clergy have provided1 in the   
temples  dedicated to the tutelary      
deities of their cities1 paintings      
illustrating the torments prepared for  
the guilty by the ten courts of  justice
 that sit in the depths of an ocean     
hidden in the interior of the           
earth40#ahj    ,clearly then1 many      
,chinese1 both ,taoists and followers of
 ,confucius1  believe in the existence  
of a world beyond the grave4 ,however1  
the  denial of immortality has been     
ascribed to ,buddhists in particular4   
,buddha accepted the ,brahmanist        
doctrine of transmigration of the soul4 
,this has been established clearly on   
the evidence of several documents  of   
admitted authenticity4 ,orthodox        
,buddhism is somewhat vague on the      
immortality of the soul4 ,buddha himself
 avoided making a decisive  statement on
 this matter4 ,in such circumstances    
8those who were  terrified at           

annihilation1 and who could not give up 
the hope of eternal  happiness1         
interpreted the silence of ,buddha      
according to their own  desire1 and     
inferred that he did not forbid them to 
hope40#aha    ,there are many instances 
of the evasions of ,buddhist teachers   
when they  were pressed with this       
disturbing question4 ,pasnadi1 the king1
 once met  ,khm1 the nun1 a disciple of 
,buddha1 renowned for her wisdom4 ,the  
king  put to her the following question3
 8,does the ,perfect ,one 7,buddha7     
exist  after death80 8,the ,sublime     
,one1 ,o great king1 has not revealed to
 us the  existence of paradise beyond   
the grave40 8,then the ,perfect ,one    
exists no  longer now that he is dead1  
,o reverend lady80 8,neither1 ,o king1  
has the  ,sublime ,one revealed that ,he
 who is perfect does not exist now that 
,he  is dead40 8,am ,i to believe1 then1
 ,o reverend lady1 that the ,perfect    
,one  still lives1 although ,he is dead1
 and at the same time does not live8 ,am

  ,i to believe1 ,o wise lady1 that the 
,perfect ,one being dead1 neither       
exists nor does not exist80#ahb    ,take
 again the mode in which ,soumirmit1#ahc
 8the son of a god1 and  surrounded and 
preceded by a crowd of gods10 worshipped
 ,bouddha  7,tathgata73 8,thou art the  
physician1 skilful to save1 and who     
givest  the gift of life everlasting40  
,the ,buddhists1 as they were not given 
clear doctrines on this subject1  very  
naturally followed their inclinations by
 accepting the idea of life  beyond the 
grave4 ,and certainly ,buddhism does not
 teach annihilation of  the body after  
death1 although this has been lightly   
taken for granted4  ,on the contrary1 it
 is so persuaded of survival after death
 as being the  rule1 that it grants only
 to rare and elect souls the privilege  
of at  length laying down the burden of 
continuous life4#ahd    ,the ,chinese   
,buddhists retained the fundamental     
conceptions of the  ancient religion of 
their land and continued to worship     

their ancestors  and to seek the        
readiest path to immortality4 ,they soon
 came to  transform ,nirvna into        
paradise1 and to inculcate in the       
,chinese race  the doctrine of future   
rewards and punishments4 8,the ,buddhist
  monasteries in ,china for the most    
part possessed a set of little rooms1   
in which there were depicted1 in vivid  
colours1 crowded scenes from the        
eighteen hells of tribulation and       
lamentation4 ,for there exist under the 
earth eight hells filled with the       
torments of fire1 and ten with the      
equally terrible horrors of ice40#ahe   
,the paradise of the ,chinese           
,buddhists1 or ,ni-pan 7,land of the    
,pure71 is  a region abounding in 8gold 
and silver1 and precious stones4 ,rivers
 of  crystal run on golden sands covered
 with splendid lotus-flowers and        
traversed by delightful paths4 ,lovely  
music is always to be heard4 ,three     
times a day a shower of blossoms falls4 
,there are to be seen there  gorgeous   

birds1 pheasants1 and parrots1 and many 
others2 and these1  every quarter of an 
hour1 in a choir of melodious voices1   
trill out the  beauties of religion and 
recall to their hearers the ,buddha1    
,dharma1 and  ,sungha4 ,these are some  
of the wonders prepared for those who   
are born  again after death4 ,into that 
land neither sin nor any evil           
enters40#ahf    ,i need no longer       
accumulate details to show the falseness
 of the view  that a third of humanity  
profess materialism to the exclusion of 
any  belief in survival after death4 ,on
 the other hand1 it is quite certain    
that the vast majority of mankind is    
convinced that death puts no  definite  
term to existence1 and that this life is
 no more than a passing  stage leading  
to a life to come4 ,however1 although   
many simple races  believe that the     
future life is merely a continuation of 
this life1 the  more subtle-minded races
 present the future life as filled with 
delights  for the good and with torments

 for the wicked4    ,such an idea of the
 next world1 which is very generally    
accepted1 is  probably the basis of     
religions4 ,from it have come the       
conceptions of  supreme beings and      
divinities ,many facts go to show that  
the primitive  gods were no other than  
the relatives and ancestors of the      
living1 now  dead1 yet living in another
 world and ruling the affairs of this   
world4  ,wicked ancestors became        
transformed into evil spirits1 while    
good  ancestors became mild and         
benevolent deities4    ,very many       
peoples offer prayers to their ancestors
 and treat them as  gods4 ,the ,kaffirs 
pray and sacrifice to their dead        
relatives1 believing  that the spirits  
of the dead haunt their late            
dwelling-places1 and1  according to     
their characters1 help or torment their 
descendants4 ,as  they are able to cause
 good or evil after death1 these play   
the part of  gods4 ,but1 as ,lubbock    
points out 78,origin of ,civilisation071

 it must be  remembered that the god of 
a savage is only a being like unto      
himself1  although probably rather more 
powerful1 and ,i shall show that there  
are  many intermediate stages between   
true gods and mere dead parents whose   
malice is to be feared1 or whose        
kindness is to be supplicated4    ,the  
,north ,american ,indians#ahg pray to   
the spirits of their  forefathers for   
good weather or luck in hunting1 and    
fancy when an  ,indian falls into the   
fire that the ancestral spirits pushed  
him in to  punish neglect of the        
customary gifts1 while the natives of   
,louisiana  are said to have even gone  
so far as to build temples for dead men4
 ,in  ,polynesia 8at ,tanna1 the gods   
are spirits of departed ancestors1 aged 
chiefs becoming deities after death1    
presiding over the growth of yams  and  
fruit-trees1 and receiving from the     
islanders prayer and offerings  of first
 fruits40#ahh ,in the ,malay ,islands   
8the souls of deceased  ancestors are   

looked to for prosperity in life and    
help in distress40  ,in ,africa         
ancestor-worship is well developed4 ,the
 ,zulu warriors1  8aided by the         
amatongo1' the spirits of their         
ancestors1 conquer in  the battle4 ,even
 the little children and old women1 of  
small account  in life1 become at death 
spirits having much power1 the infants  
for  kindness1 the crones for malice4   
,but it is especially the head of each  
family who receives the worship of his  
kin40#ahi ,the ,zulu adores his  father1
 when he is a chief1 above all others1  
and is convinced that a  father         
remembering his love for his children1  
will not forget them  when he is dead4  
8,the ,zulu follows up the doctrine of  
divine ancestors  till he reaches a     
first ancestor of man and creator of the
 world1 the  primeval ,unkulunkulu40#aij
    ,so great is the number of instances
 that it is too difficult to choose     
from them4 ,the fundamental idea is     
always identical1 although details  and 

accessories vary1 as one passes from the
 hardly idealised relatives  of negro   
tribes and goes progressively to the    
8,father ,almighty1 ,maker of  heaven   
and earth0 of the ,nicene ,creed4       
,the conception of a future life in the 
form of immortality or some  kindred    
state1 associated with the conception of
 many gods or of one  ,god1 has been    
developed to satisfy the craving for    
life and to combat  the fear of death1  
that is to say1 to defeat the greatest  
contradiction  in the constitution of   
man4 ,i must now inquire how far the    
different  religions have been          
successful in this object4    ,many     
primitive races have absolute faith in  
the tenets of their  religion1 and      
believe in the promise of life beyond   
the grave as in a  certain fact4 ,thus  
the aborigines of the ,fiji islands are 
convinced that  they will be born again1
 in another world1 in the exact         
condition in  which they leave this     
life2 and so they wish to die before    

being  afflicted with any infirmity4 ,as
 it is very difficult to reach old age  
without being the victim of some illness
 or infirmity1 when a man feels  the    
approach of age1 he tells his children  
that the time has come for  him to die4 
,if he himself fails to give this       
notice1 the children  undertake the     
duty4 ,a family council is called1 the  
day is appointed1  and the grave made   
ready4 ,the old man is allowed to choose
 between being  strangled and being     
buried alive4 ,the following instance   
will show the  strength of a belief in  
life to come4 ,hunt1 an ,english        
traveller1 quoted  by ,lubbock1 received
 a visit from a young native of ,fiji1  
whose purpose  was to give an invitation
 to the funeral of his mother which was 
to take  place next day4 ,mr4 ,hunt     
accepted the invitation and joined the  
procession1 but as he was surprised to  
see no dead body1 inquired about  it    
from the son4 ,the son pointed out his  
mother1 walking in the  procession and  

as gay and animated as any of the       
others4 ,mr4 ,hunt stated  his surprise1
 and asked why he had been deceived by  
being told that the  mother was dead1   
when she was plainly as much alive and  
as well as any  one else4 ,he received  
the reply that the death festival was   
about to be  celebrated2 that presently 
they would bury her2 that she was old1  
and  that his brother and he1 thinking  
that she had lived long enough1 and     
should be put to death1 had obtained her
 cheerful consent4    ,this case is far 
from being solitary1 because many       
villages have been  described as        
containing no inhabitants of a greater  
age than forty  years1 all those older  
having been buried4 ,it is not difficult
 to  understand that death should have  
no terrors for persons possessed of a   
faith as strong as this4 ,the ,american 
,indian1 according to ,lubbock1 has     
very little fear of death4 ,he does not 
fear transference to a realm in  which1 
as he has been told all his life1 there 

is no sorrow and  abundance of joy4     
,i know a case of a young girl of the   
,catholic faith who believed so  firmly 
in the joys of ,paradise that1 when     
stricken with a mortal  illness1 she    
awaited death with a great impatience4  
,before she died1 she  cried out that   
8already she could see the beautiful    
flowers and hear the  sweet music of the
 birds that fill heaven40    ,but it is 
rare to find faith so strong in such a  
case4 ,more often faith  is not strong  
enough to subdue the fear of death1 and 
in proof of this ,i  may recall the     
instance of the clergyman already       
given4#aia ,stricken  with an incurable 
disease1 he1 in spite of his religion1  
underwent  extreme agony1 and could not 
reconcile himself to the idea of death4 
,the  fear of death showed itself so    
strongly in this case that ,i have      
chosen  it as a characteristic instance 
of the feeling4    ,it is only with     
fanatics and simple or primitive persons
 that blind  faith can subdue this      

instinctive fear4 ,for this reason1     
since the most  ancient times1 religions
 have sought out something more than the
 promise  of paradise to mitigate this  
chief disharmony of our nature4 ,in this
  connection the doctrines of ,buddha   
are those most interesting4 ,here ,i    
shall not deal with that modified and   
transformed ,buddhism1 in which1 as  ,i 
have already shown1 there was a return  
to the doctrine of future life1  with   
its hell of torments and heaven filled  
with delights4    ,buddha made no       
reference to the great blot on human    
life4 ,his doctrine1  in its original   
form1 was extremely pessimistic4 ,take1 
for instance1  some of his sayings on   
this subject3 8,miserable in truth is   
this world1  in which there is          
beginning1 birth1 growing old1 death1   
disappearance  and renewal4 ,but we know
 not how to escape from this world1 full
 of  horror though it be4 ,alas1 because
 of old age1 illness1 death1 and their  
like1 we know not who shall put an end  

to this world1 which is so full  of     
horror4 ,to all who are1 there comes old
 age1 and illness1 and death1  and their
 like40#aib    ,when the ,buddha came   
upon the sorrows of the world1 as ,i    
have already  described 7p4 #aai71 he   
reflected as follows3 8,woe upon youth1 
threatened  by old age6 ,woe upon       
health1 which so many maladies destroy6 
,woe upon  the life of man1 which lasts 
but a little space6 ,woe on the         
temptations  of the flesh1 which lure   
the heart of the wise6 ,would that there
 were  neither old age nor illness1 nor 
death and the pains of death1 which     
come from the five elements of life     
7,skandhas76 ,would that there were     
neither old age nor illness nor death1  
which are for ever bound up  together6  
,nevertheless1 when ,i return again ,i  
shall consider  deliverance40#aic       
,having pondered for many days on these 
problems1 ,buddha thought that he  had  
discovered the only solution1 and taught
 men resignation4 ,when a man  was young

 he would ask of his father3 8,lord1    
would that old age would  never come    
upon me1 and that ,i should keep for    
ever the warm colour of  my youth2 that 
,i should be always filled with health1 
and that no  disease should come near   
me2 that my life should be prolonged for
 ever1  and that death should pass me   
by6 ,such an one later on must learn to 
give up these longings40#aid    ,in his 
famous 8,sermon at ,benares10 ,buddha   
gave in brief the outlines of  his      
doctrines in the following words3       
8,hear1 oh monks6 the holy truth of  the
 springs of sorrow6 ,sorrow is born of  
lust of life1 that drags us  from       
incarnation to incarnation1 and of      
pleasure and desire1 which seek  their  
fulfilment hither and thither2 the lust 
of pleasure1 the lust of  life1 the lust
 of power4 ,hear1 oh monks6 the holy    
truth of the conquest  of sorrow2 it is 
the killing of this lust by the utter   
abandonment of  desire1 the giving up of
 all desire1 the forgetting of all      

desire1 the  freeing of the body of all 
desire1 until there is no place left for
  desire40#aie    ,in such a spirit of  
resignation1 ,buddha became himself a   
monk1 and lived  according to the strict
 rules of the pure life that he himself 
had laid  down 78the belief pure1 the   
will pure1 the language pure1 the deeds 
pure1 the means of livelihood pure1 the 
study pure1 the attention pure1  the    
meditation pure074 ,however1 he did not 
find many kindred souls to  follow the  
same precepts4 ,buddhism soon moved away
 from these original  tenets1 and became
 a religious doctrine of the ordinary   
kind4    ,we are inclined to associate  
with ,buddhism the doctrine of ,nirvna1 
as  if the latter were the goal to which
 human life should be directed4 ,many   
philosophers1 and the pessimists chief  
among them1 naturally with              
,schopenhauer at their head1 have       
adopted ,nirvna as the goal of mankind1 
as they see the world4 ,however1 the    
word ,nirvna has had many               

interpretations put upon it1 the which  
is less surprising as ,sanscrit         
scholars differ4 ,i do not intend to    
join in the discussion1 as ,i myself  am
 not acquainted with ,sanscrit1 upon    
which the argument must be  founded4    
,however1 ,i cannot pass it by without  
comment on the pretext  that it has not 
yet been settled definitely by          
specialists1 as it is the  case that    
many thinkers regard ,nirvna as the goal
 of human existence4    ,for long       
,nirvna was represented as a sort of    
blank1 in which there was  no display of
 any mental operations4 ,max ,mller1#aif
 the celebrated  ,oxford professor1     
opposed this interpretation on the      
ground that1  according to him1 in 8all 
passages of ,buddhistic origin in which 
,nirvna  occurs there is nothing to     
betoken annihilation4 ,most of these    
passages1  if not all of them1 would be 
quite unintelligible if we were to      
replace  in them the word ,nirvna by the
 word annihilation40    ,many other     

specialists share this view1 and cannot 
agree that the goal  of human life was  
to be annihilation4 ,rhys ,davids1 for  
instance1 thinks  that ,nirvna is to be 
interpreted as a tranquillity of the    
soul1  possible of achievement in this  
life1 and that the word is best         
translated by the term 8sanctity40      
,according to him1 ,nirvna does not     
mean extinction or annihilation1 but    
rather freedom from the great  passions1
 such as envy and hate4 ,pfungst#aig    
agrees with ,max ,mller2 he  is         
convinced that the first adepts of      
,buddha could not have conceived of     
,nirvna as extinction4 ,dahlmann#aih on 
the other hand1 tries to prove  that    
,nirvna in its primitive signification  
implied the abolition of the  will to   
live1 and really corresponded to        
annihilation4    ,i must add1 however1  
that ,nirvna did not occupy a place in  
,buddhism so  important as has been     
ascribed to it by several commentators4 
,in many of  the ,buddhist authorities  

mention of ,nirvna is only accidental4  
,in the  8,lalita ,vistara10 for        
instance1 the word occurs very seldom1  
and then  only in unimportant           
connections4 ,however1 the latter       
document contains a  good deal that     
serves to explain the conception of     
,nirvna4    ,when the young ,buddha1    
still very exacting1 asked his father to
 obtain  for him perpetual youth1       
health1 life everlasting1 and freedom   
from  death1 he added the following     
words3 8,lord1 if you cannot give me    
these  four gifts1 at least bring it    
about that after this life ,i shall have
 no  more metempsychoses40#aii    ,as ,i
 have already stated1 ,buddhism had     
embraced the ,brahmanistic  doctrine of 
transmigration of souls4 ,according to  
the legend1 before his  birth as a      
prince1 the ,buddha had passed hundreds 
of earlier existences4  ,his soul had   
been the soul not only of fifty-eight   
kings1 but of  eighteen monkeys1 four   
horses1 four snakes1 three lizards1 two 

fish1 and  of other creatures4#bjj ,such
 continual transferences of the soul to 
so  many different animals was a source 
of perplexity and sorrow to  believers4 
,it was natural that a great thinker    
like ,buddha should have  conceived the 
desire of sparing himself and his       
faithful followers so  many             
transmigrations4 ,he thought of these   
rebirths as a great evil1 from  which a 
pure life might set one free4    ,in the
 poetical language of the ,hindoo       
,buddhists1 metempsychosis was  compared
 to the ocean2 the waves that change    
from moment to moment were  the         
continual rebirths2 our temporary body  
was the foam of the crests of  the      
waves1 while ,nirvna was the opposite   
shore4 ,he who reaches ,nirvna  would   
never again plunge into the great sea of
 ,sangsra4 ,in a passage  quoted by     
,rhys ,davids1 and ascribed to ,kma     
,sutta1 it is stated  expressly that    
8the sea is an image of the ,sangsra or 
transmigrations1  while ,nirvna is an   

island upon it4 ,once the shores have   
been reached1 a  soul will no longer be 
plunged in the waves of the ocean1 and  
will be  freed from the successive      
births of metempsychosis40    ,in other 
words1 to avoid being tormented after   
death by perpetual  rebirths1 some of   
which may be humiliating1 it is         
necessary to live a  pure life and so to
 secure repose or ,nirvna4 ,nirvna is by
 no means the  cessation of all         
consciousness1 but merely the end of    
transmigrations4  ,from such a point of 
view1 it is possible to interpret all1  
or at least  nearly all1 the passages in
 which ,nirvna is spoken of4    ,when he
 was old and full of disease and        
afflicted with grievous pain1  ,buddha1 
being at the point of death1 thought of 
his disciples and called  them to him   
and said3 8,it is not meet that ,i      
should enter ,nirvna  without having    
spoken with those who have cared for me1
 without speaking  to the community of  
disciples4 ,by the force of my will ,i  

shall subdue  this disease and hold the 
life within me40 ,some time afterwards1 
the  reverend ,ananda went to ,buddha   
and spoke to him1 saying amongst other  
words as follows3 8,the ,sublime ,one   
will surely not enter into ,nirvna  ere 
he has made known unto the community of 
disciples his wishes  regarding them40  
8,growing more and more feeble1 the     
spirit of ,buddha  passed from ecstacy  
to ecstacy without ceasing1 and knew    
every delight2  then he entered into    
,nirvna4 ,and the earth trembled1 and   
thunder rolled  across the skies40#bja  
,it is clear that in this passage       
,nirvna was associated with death4 ,but 
it was with the death of a saint who had
 lived a pure life4  ,metempsychosis    
would not be inflicted on him1 and he   
would enjoy repose4  ,it is probable    
that the term ,nirvna later on came to  
be applied to the  state of mind of a   
saint who1 by living the pure life1     
would avoid  transmigration after death4
    ,as the importance of ,nirvna lies  

in its contrast with metempsychosis1  it
 is easy to see why the precise state of
 mind involved in it has not  been      
described exactly4 ,however1 a survey of
 the ,buddhistic writings  makes it     
plain that at least ,nirvna was not     
associated with  annihilation4 ,in this 
respect ,max ,mller's verdict must be   
taken as  correct4    ,buddha's attempt 
to remedy the ills of human life1 then1 
lay in a  complete renunciation of all  
the joys and pleasures of life1 and in  
perfect resignation4 ,the mere fact that
 primitive ,buddhism did not  persist1  
but rapidly passed into an ordinary     
religion1 is sufficient  proof that     
,buddha did not achieve his purpose4 ,it
 was the promise of a  life to come that
 attracted so many men and spread       
,buddhism over so  large a part of the  
earth4 ,however1 this faith has been    
able to maintain  itself only in certain
 strata of society to which the         
rationalistic  conception of the mental 
processes has not penetrated4 ,since the

  awakening of the scientific spirit in 
,europe1 it has been recognised  that   
the promise of a future life has no     
basis of fact to support it4  ,the      
modern study of the functions of the    
mind has shown beyond all  question that
 these are dependent on the functions of
 the body1 in  particular of those of   
the central nervous system4 ,a slight   
lowering of  the rate of the circulation
 of the blood1 a fleeting anmia of the  
brain1 at once arrests consciousness1   
that is to say1 the fundamental         
sensation of the individual mental life4
 ,ansthetics1 used in doses so  small   
that they do not influence certain parts
 of the nervous system1  as1 for        
instance1 those that control the heart  
and lungs1 completely  abolish          
consciousness4 ,persons who are put     
under chloroform for surgical  purposes 
fall into a state of absolute           
unconsciousness4 ,sometimes1 after      
undergoing painful sensations1          
especially sensations of oppression1 the

  patients imagine themselves to be in  
rapid motion1 and in a few moments  have
 the sensation of falling into an       
immense gulf1 after which comes         
nothingness1 the annihilation of        
sensations and of consciousness4 ,in    
other cases1 patients1 without any      
sensation of catastrophe1 lose all  idea
 of reality1 and every psychic and      
sensorial function is abolished4  ,such 
states are very closely similar to      
death1 which indeed is the  result1 in  
certain rare instances1 of the ordinary 
process of being  chloroformed4         
,neither the narcosis produced by       
chloroform nor that produced by any     
other form of ansthetic1 affords any    
particle of ground for the view  that   
there is consciousness in any form apart
 from the body4 ,the action  of morphine
 sometimes brings about a strange       
current of happiness and an  apparent   
weightlessness of the body2 but here    
again there is no  suspicion given as to
 the existence of any mental phenomena  

apart from  the body4    ,consciousness 
of personality is of supreme interest   
from the point of  view of personal     
immortality1 and this mental phenomenon 
develops only  slowly and progressively 
in an infant4 ,this fact1 again1 like   
the facts  of narcosis1 shows the       
dependence of consciousness on the      
action of the  bodily organs4 ,just as  
our consciousness comes out of nothing  
in the  first months1 or years1 of our  
life1 so it will pass into nothing at   
the  end of our life4    ,mental disease
 confirms this conclusion1 and it1 too1 
gives no ground  for the belief in a    
survival of the mind after death4       
,certain internal sensibilities in the  
depths of our organism survive our      
personal consciousness4 ,when the heart 
has ceased to beat1 and when the  anmic 
brain is certainly incapable of personal
 consciousness1 some  portions of the   
body may still retain vitality4 ,the    
muscular fibres are  still able to      
contract when they are stimulated1 and  

the white  corpuscles of the blood can  
still exhibit their specific movements4 
,it  is certain1 moreover1 that these   
white corpuscles possess a specific     
sensibility1 and1 by a sort of sense of 
taste1 respond to the kind of           
environment that surrounds them4 ,our   
consciousness1 however1 is  absolutely  
out of touch with the sensations of     
these globules1 which1  however1 none   
the less are part of our organism4 ,it  
happens1 therefore1  that in certain    
diseases1 the white corpuscles1         
stimulated by the  presence of          
particular substances1 perform extensive
 movements of  migration within our     
bodies4 ,such migration is quite outside
 the sphere  of consciousness4 ,the     
corpuscles1 directed by their           
sensibility1 are in  constant pursuit of
 microbes that have entered the body1   
and yet these  actions1 too1 are not    
made known to our consciousness4 ,in the
 same  fashion1 the thousands of active 
spermatozoa in the male organs and the  

ova in the female possess specific      
sensibility4 ,these reproductive        
elements contain the germ of individual 
consciousness1 but it is not  until they
 have developed into the new generation 
that it is possible to  impute to them  
individual consciousness1 and the       
organism that shelters  them has no idea
 of what it harbours4 ,the sensibility  
of the white  corpuscles and of the many
 other cells composing our body1        
although  certainly a reality1 has no   
part in the absolutely special sensation
  that we call individual consciousness1
 and which is all we think of in        
wishing to escape death4    ,the idea of
 a future life is supported by not a    
single fact1 while there  is much       
evidence against it4 ,the phenomenon of 
intercommunication across  a distance1  
sometimes called telepathy1 may be      
actual1 but affords no  support to the  
conception of the existence of souls    
apart from bodies4  ,it may be that     
emanations are given off by certain     

organs1 and that  these are capable of  
being appreciated by the organs of      
another body at  a distance2 but1 even  
if such were the case1 we should have to
 deal  simply with other bodily         
functions4 ,moreover1 the supposed      
phenomena  that fall within this        
category are so rare1 so difficult to   
observe1 and  so obscure1 that no       
certain argument for the continuance of 
existence  after death can be deduced   
from them4    ,it is easy to see why the
 advance of knowledge has diminished the
 number  of believers in the persistence
 of consciousness after death1 and that 
complete annihilation at death is the   
conception accepted by the vast         
majority of enlightened persons4        
,apart from their chief function of     
consoling men for the inevitability  of 
death1 religions have concerned         
themselves with some of the results  of 
other disharmonies of the human         
constitution4 ,from time immemorial     
they have claimed the direction of diet1

 the control of the reproductive        
functions and the prevention or cure of 
all kinds of disease4    ,the dietary   
regulations given by the religions are  
familiar4 ,even at the  present day1 the
 cookery of many races is regulated by  
their religion4  ,the ,jewish diet1     
notably1 is regulated by the ,mosaic    
law1 down to the  most minute detail4   
,for instance1 it was forbidden to eat  
the blood of  animals4 ,moses commanded3
 8,notwithstanding1 thou mayest kill and
 eat  flesh in all thy gates1 whatsoever
 thy soul lusteth after1 according to   
the blessing of the ,lord thy ,god1     
which he hath given thee2 the unclean   
and the clean may eat thereof1 as of the
 roebuck1 and as of the hart4  ,only ye 
shall not eat the blood2 ye shall pour  
it on the earth as  water40#bjb ,later  
on3 8,only be sure that thou eat not the
 blood2 for  the blood is the life2 and 
thou mayest not eat the life with the   
flesh40#bjc 8,thou shalt not eat it1    
that it may go well with thee1 and  with

 thy children after thee1 when thou     
shalt do that which is right in  the    
sight of the ,lord40#bjd ,the ,books of 
,moses also contain receipts  for the   
cooking of certain meats4 8,eat not of  
it raw1 nor sodden at all  with water1  
but roast with fire1 his head with his  
legs1 and with the  purtenance          
thereof40#bje    ,it has been suggested 
that these rules were founded on ideas  
of hygiene  in consonance with the      
results of modern science4 ,some of     
them1 it is  true1 such as the          
prohibition of uncooked or partially    
cooked meat1 are  confirmed by our      
modern knowledge4 ,but the greater      
number of the ,mosaic  rules1 as1 for   
instance1 the prohibition of the        
consumption as food of  blood or the    
flesh of pigs or hares and so forth1 are
 in direct  opposition to a modern      
knowledge of hygienic diet4 ,religious  
cookery has  no more than a historical  
interest4    ,the religions have been   
greatly occupied with the functions of  

the  reproductive organs4 ,most of the  
founders of the great faiths have paid  
a keen attention to the disharmonies of 
this side of our constitution4  ,they   
became persuaded of the merit of        
abstention1 which they practised        
themselves and preached to others4      
,buddha1 after devoting his youth to    
all the pleasures and not being         
satisfied1 passed to absolute           
asceticism4 ,he and his adepts formed an
 order of monkhood1 on which an         
absolute celibacy was imposed4 ,if a    
member of the order had intercourse     
with a woman1 he was considered to be as
 guilty as a murderer or a  thief4 ,in  
the ,buddhist rules framed even for     
laymen1 8sexual intercourse  outside    
marriage was forbidden1 on the ground   
that it was  degrading40#bjf    ,the    
views of the ,christian religion on     
sexual matters are well known4  ,the    
leaders of ,christianity abstained from 
sexual intercourse and  recommended     
their conduct to others4 ,st4 ,paul more

 than once affirmed  his own continence4
 8,for ,i would that all men were even  
as ,i myself2 but  every man hath his   
proper gift of ,god1 one after this     
manner1 and  another after that4 ,i say 
therefore1 to the unmarried and widows1 
,it is  good for them if they abide even
 as ,i2 but if they cannot contain1 let 
them marry1 for it is better to marry   
than to burn40#bjg    ,the religions of 
savage races are equally concerned with 
the  reproductive functions4 ,there are 
many extremely strange facts known      
concerning this matter1 and among such  
,i may mention that the ,sandwich       
,islanders have a deity who presides at 
abortions4 ,this god is made in  the    
form of an elongated wooden instrument1 
and is known as 8,kapo40 ,the  upper    
part of the deity is shaped into a      
grotesque head1 while the lower  portion
 terminates in a point and serves to    
induce abortion by entering  the uterus 
and rupturing the ftal membranes4#bjh   
,many other idols are used by savages as

 protections against disease4           
,ploss-,bartels1#bji in his treatise on 
8,medicine among ,primitive ,races10    
has described a large collection of     
talismans of this kind4 ,the ruling     
idea in the manufacture of these is that
 diseases are due to the  presence of   
evil spirits1 who are to be scared away 
as soon as possible4  ,the ,goldi of    
,siberia construct straw or wooden      
figures of men and  animals to absorb   
the spirits of diseases4 ,the ,guilaks  
make wooden human  figures1 on the      
breasts of which are fashioned images of
 toads4 ,these  talismans are used as   
remedies for diseases of the chest and  
stomach4    ,in higher forms of religion
 there remain abundant traces of such   
notions4 ,even ,martin ,luther declared 
that disease was supernatural in        
origin4 8,behold a matter on which there
 is no room for doubt10 he  stated1 8and
 that is that the plague1 fevers1 and   
other diseases are the  work of the     
devil40 ,a number of religious          

ceremonies were specified as  the best  
remedies for diseases4    ,the plague   
has left many deep marks on human       
history1 and it is natural  that a      
malady so terrible should have attracted
 serious attention4 ,it  was usually    
attributed to divine wrath1 which was to
 be appeased by  purification and       
sacrifice4 ,human beings were slain on  
altars to appease  the wrath of ,god and
 to lessen the mortality from plague4   
,such religious customs have disappeared
 almost completely with the  advancing  
culture of man1 but traces of them      
survive and become apparent  on         
occasions4 ,quite recently1 when the    
,king of ,england1 ,edward ,,vii41 was  
afflicted with an abdominal suppuration1
 he was given the assistance of  the    
most highly skilled modern surgery1 but 
at the same time special  services were 
held in the churches to aid the cure of 
the royal invalid4    ,every one has now
 come to regard such events as mere     
relics of old  customs without intrinsic

 importance4 ,hygiene in the kitchen and
 the  prevention of disease are no      
longer under the control of religion1   
but  are regulated on scientific        
knowledge obtained by the experimental  
method4 ,i need pay no further attention
 to these matters4 ,however1  religion  
is still occupied with the problem of   
death4 ,the solutions  which as yet it  
has offered cannot be regarded as       
satisfactory4 ,a future  life has no    
single argument to support it1 and the  
non-existence of life  after death is in
 consonance with the whole range of     
human knowledge4 ,on  the other hand1   
resignation as preached by ,buddha will 
fail to satisfy  humanity1 which has a  
longing for life1 and is overcome by the
 thought  of the inevitability of death4
    ,it was to be expected that in such 
a state of affairs philosophers would   
have sought an issue from the dilemma4  
,certainly many philosophical  theories 
have been propounded to explain life and
 death4 ,as the subject  is of extreme  

importance ,i shall reserve a chapter   
for it4                                 
,,chapter ,,viii   ,,attempts ,,in      
,,systems ,,of ,,philosophy ,,to        
,,remedy ,,the ,,ills ,,arising ,,from  
,,the                   ,,disharmonies  
,,of ,,the ,,human ,,constitution       
,some philosophical systems are in      
intimate union with religions--,ideas   
of ancient philosophers on the          
immortality of the soul--,the teaching  
of    ,plato--,the scepticism of        
,aristotle--,the ,stoics--,cicero1      
,seneca1 ,marcus    ,aurelius--,modern  
philosophical systems--,pessimism and   
its origin--,lord    ,byron--,theories  
of ,schopenhauer and                    
,hartmann--,mailaender's philosophy of  
deliverance--,criticisms of             
pessimism--,max ,nordau--,ideas of      
modern    thinkers on death             
,systems of philosophy are closely      
attached to religious doctrine4         
,buddhism1 for instance1 originated in a
 philosophic theory which  acquired a   

religious character in the hands of the 
followers of ,buddha4  ,similarly1 many 
systems of philosophy are merely        
religious dogmas which  it has been     
attempted to support by rational        
argument apart from  supernatural       
revelation4    ,the idea of life beyond 
the grave has long since furnished one  
of the  principal bases of various      
philosophic doctrines1 the ultimate     
object of  which was to solve the       
problem of death4 ,ancient philosophy is
 full of  such4 ,plato describes the    
tragic death of his master ,socrates1   
and in  connection with it expresses    
very clearly his ideas upon death4 ,he  
puts  these words in the mouth of       
,socrates in the 8,phaedo03 8,far from  
being  depressed by the death of a      
friend1 ,i felt1 on the contrary1 that  
he was  to be envied2 as ,i witnessed   
his attitude1 and listened to his words1
  and noticed the courage with which he 
faced death1 ,i became convinced  that  
he did not quit this life without some  

divine support that drew him  towards   
another world in which he would find the
 most perfect happiness  man could      
wish40    ,plato attributes to ,socrates
 a very definite view as to future      
retribution3 8,in truth10 said          
,socrates1 8if ,i did not expect to find
 in  another life gods at once good and 
wise1 and men better than those of  this
 life1 it would be foolish of me not to 
be disturbed by the approach  of death4 
,but ,i know that ,i look to finding    
myself among just men4 ,i do  not fear  
to die1 because ,i am confident that    
something still remains  after this     
life1 and that1 according to the old    
belief1 the good will be  treated better
 than the bad40    ,as such views were  
not derived from a body of revealed     
truth1 it was  necessary to support them
 by reasoning4 ,plato therefore went on 
to try  to convince us of the           
immortality of the soul by speculative  
hypotheses4  ,he recalled the           
,pythagorean doctrine of metempsychosis1

 and suggested  that the souls who had  
abandoned themselves to injustice1      
tyranny1 and  plunder would pass into   
the bodies of wolves and hawks and      
falcons1 for  souls of that nature could
 not go elsewhere2 while the souls of   
those  who had practised the social and 
civic virtues known as temperance or    
justice1 would inhabit the bodies of    
peaceful and gentle creatures such  as  
bees and ants1 or would even enter other
 human bodies and again  become good    
men4    ,plato referred also to the law 
of contrasts in support of his theory4  
8,as the most strong often springs from 
the feeblest1 or the most swift  from   
the slow1 so life gives rise to death1  
and from death life  springs40 8,from   
that which is dead10 said ,socrates1 8is
 born all that  lives and has life4 ,and
 so our souls after death pass to the   
infernal  regions40 8,as we must grant  
that the dead are born from the living  
as  much as the living from the dead1 it
 is plain that the souls of dead men    

exist somewhere1 whence they may return 
to life40    ,by such arguments ,plato  
tried to prove the immortality of the   
soul1 the  fundamental basis of his     
philosophy1 and put them in the mouth of
 his  master ,socrates on his deathbed4 
,in the dialogue he tried to refute all 
kinds of objections4 ,but1 in spite of  
the assurance with which he  formulated 
his doctrine1 there may be seen         
underlying the argument a  note of      
doubt1 and it is just this that         
distinguishes philosophy from  religion4
    ,it is evident that the whole of    
,plato's system was the result of an    
effort to solve the problem of death4   
,again and again he said that the  true 
philosopher lived only to be ready to   
die2 that being so1 he  declared it to  
be childish for men at the last to      
shrink from what they  had so long been 
making ready for4 ,it was himself that  
,plato wished to  convince of a future  
life4 8,i do not seek10 he said1 8to    
persuade all  those who are here of the 

truth of what ,i say1 although to do so 
would  greatly please me2 what ,i aim at
 is to convince myself4 ,behold me1 dear
  friend1 in pursuit of an argument     
that1 as you see1 interests me deeply2  
if what ,i say turns out to be true1 it 
is good to have believed it1 and  if    
there be nothing after death1 at least  
,i have gained this1 that while  ,i am  
still with you1 ,i am not borne down    
with grief40    ,the doubt which was    
only latent in ,plato was much more     
active in some  other ancient           
philosophers4 ,aristotle#baj at one time
 admitted that  part of the soul was    
immortal1 but that the other part was   
mortal4 ,the  two parts came together at
 the beginning of a life and separated  
at its  end4 ,later on1 however1        
,aristotle abandoned this theory of the 
immortality of the personal             
consciousness1 and argued strongly      
against  the ,platonic theory of the    
immortality of the soul1 although1      
however1  he still believed in the      

indestructibility of the 8rational      
spirit10 an  immortal principle4    ,the
 ,stoics still further developed such a 
conception4 ,they held that  besides the
 individual soul there was a universal  
soul1 a presiding  influence in which   
all others had their being4    ,cicero1 
again1 discussing old age and death1    
tried to establish belief  in a future  
life4 8,i am convinced10 said ,cicero to
 ,scipio and ,laelius1  8that your      
illustrious fathers1 who were so dear to
 me1 are still full  of life1 and of the
 only life worthy of the name2 for the  
body is1 as it  were1 our prison-house1 
within which we must accomplish the     
tasks laid  on us by necessity4 ,when ,i
 think of the activity of the human     
spirit1  its vast memory1 its prevision1
 its store of art and knowledge1 and    
experience1 ,i am convinced in the      
depths of my being that an existence    
with such qualities cannot be mortal4   
,the soul is continually active1  and   
its activity comes not to it from       

without2 the soul is a  self-supporting 
activity1 and cannot come to an end4    
,moreover1 as the  soul is a simple     
substance1 unalloyed by any mixture of  
materials1 it  can neither be divided   
nor made to perish40 ,by such arguments 
,cicero  sought to prove the immortality
 of the soul4 8,i will tell you10 he    
said1  8why old age1 so far from being  
grievous to me1 is full of delight40    
,but  in the end1 he himself saw the    
weakness of his proof1 and the note of  
scepticism appeared in him more strongly
 than in his predecessors1 so  that he  
came to say as follows3 8,if ,i am      
deceived as to the immortality  of the  
soul1 ,i am deceived gladly1 and ,i     
would not have the belief torn  from me 
while ,i live4 ,if1 when ,i am dead1 all
 feeling is arrested within  me1 as some
 pretended philosophers hold1 at least  
,i have not to fear  that after my death
 they will come and mock me for my      
error40    ,scepticism becoming more and
 more definite1 belief in the           

immortality of  the soul persisted only 
in the purely religious form4           
,philosophical  systems freed themselves
 of it1 and replaced it by a vague form 
of  pantheism4    ,seneca tried to      
support the thesis of immortality1 but  
one gets the  impression strongly that  
there was no vigour in his belief4 ,he  
is  content with poetry rather than with
 reason4 8,the events of this mortal    
life10 he wrote in one of his celebrated
 8,letters10 8are the mere  prelude of a
 better and more lasting existence4 ,as 
our mother's womb1  bearing us for nine 
months1 shapes us not to live there for 
ever1 but  for our place in this world  
in which it places us1 with the strength
 to  breathe this air and to withstand  
surrounding things3 so1 also1 the time  
that passes from our infancy to our old 
age is a preparation for a  second      
birth4 ,another beginning and another   
world await us4 ,until then1  we could  
not endure1 save from afar1 the         
splendour of the heavens4 ,learn  then1 

,o man1 to face without a shudder the   
decisive hour1 the last hour  of the    
body1 but not of the soul4 ,what you see
 around you consider but  as the        
furniture of an inn2 soon you are going 
further on4 ,the day that  you dread as 
your last day is your birthday into     
immortality40    ,in the midst of these 
glowing visions1 however1 ,seneca is    
assailed by  dark and gloomy thoughts4  
8,yes10 he cried1 8all that is must     
perish2  death comes to every living    
thing4 ,every day1 every hour1 reveals  
to man  the coming of death2 there is   
always some new lesson to remind him of 
the fragility he had forgotten1 and from
 a dream of eternity to turn his        
thoughts to the grave40    ,these       
heights and depths of spirit led ,seneca
 towards a new theory in  which he gave 
a final expression of his views on the  
great problem of  human existence4 8,all
 beings pass through definite stages2   
they must be  born1 grow and die4 ,the  
stars that we see revolving above us1   

the earth  on which we are carelessly   
scattered and which seems to us so      
solid2 all  is threatened and all will  
come to an end4 ,old age comes on       
everything2  although the period is very
 different1 the same end comes to       
everything4  ,everything that now is    
will cease to be2 but for all that the  
world will  not perish2 it will         
dissolve4 ,dissolution is destruction   
for us4 ,as a  matter of fact we think  
of things only as they concern          
ourselves2 our  degenerate soul1        
incapable of detaching itself from the  
body1 sees  nothing beyond that2 none   
the less we should endure the idea of   
the  death of ourselves and of those    
near to us with a greater fortitude were
  we to realise that nature is a        
constant routine of birth and death1    
that  all composite bodies must         
dissolve1 that the dissolved substances 
reform1 and that the creative power of  
,god displays itself in this cycle  of  
change throughout the universe40 ,from  

such a final conception of the  universe
 he draws the consolation3 8,a great    
soul should know how to obey  ,god and  
submit willingly to the order of the    
universe4 ,if it be not for  a better   
life that we are to quit this life1 if  
not to find a home in  the skies more   
tranquil and more brilliant1 our souls1 
free from  suffering1 will return to the
 spirit that gave them birth and will   
mingle in the great all40    ,in other  
words1 abandoning the image of life     
after death that played so  consoling a 
part in primitive beliefs1 philosophy   
became content to  advocate resignation 
to the inevitable laws of nature1 and to
 console  itself with the promise of a  
vague return to some universal1 eternal 
principle4    ,the conceptions of the   
,stoics1 especially in the form         
presented by  ,seneca1 found an ardent  
and brilliant exponent in ,marcus       
,aurelius1 whose  8,thoughts0 are known 
to all the world4 ,he had much to say of
 the problem  of death and of the       

attitude of the philosopher towards it4 
8,death10  said ,marcus ,aurelius1 8like
 birth1 is one of nature's mysteries4   
,in the  two are present the same       
elements3 in the one case in the phase  
of  combination1 in the other in that of
 dissolution40 ,in death 8there is      
nothing repugnant to the essence of an  
intelligent being1 nor to the  general  
plan of our nature40 ,but his ideas on  
death were vague4 8,death  may perhaps  
be a dispersal or resolution into atoms1
 or an annihilation  in the sense of    
extinction or deplacement40 8,alexander 
of ,macedon and  his mule-driver were   
reduced at death to the same condition1 
that is to  say they returned alike to  
the originating principle of the        
universe1 or  one and the other were    
scattered as atoms40    ,although he was
 definitely a deist1 ,marcus ,aurelius  
was undecided as to  the immortality of 
the soul4 8,if souls have not           
disappeared10 he said1  8how can the air
 contain the eternal generations of     

them80 8,remember  well10 he said in    
another place1 8that that feeble and    
composite  creature1 your soul1 will one
 day resolve into its atoms2 the faint  
spark of life will be extinguished1 or  
be assigned to some other               
dwelling-place40 ,clearly enough1 there 
was no consoling hope of a future  life 
to be derived from these halting        
dubieties4 ,it was needful to  replace  
by some other anodyne the belief that   
for so long had brought  comfort to poor
 humanity4    ,marcus ,aurelius tried to
 counteract the fear of death by the    
following  reflection3 8,to fear death  
is to fear either being deprived of all 
feeling or being subjected to some other
 kind of feeling4 ,but1 if we are       
deprived of all feeling1 we shall have  
no evil to fear2 if we are to  find new 
kinds of sensations1 our existence will 
be different1 but still  existence40    
,however1 he probably realised the      
weakness of such a  consolation1 for he 
tried to link the problem of death with 

the general  principles of human        
conduct4    ,as ,i mentioned in the     
first chapter of this volume1 ,marcus   
,aurelius1  like many of the            
philosophers of antiquity1 held the view
 that man ought  to live according to   
the dictates of human nature4 ,the      
theory recurs  again and again in his   
8,thoughts40 8,the fig tree lives       
according to its  kind1 the dog like the
 dog1 bees like bees1 and man like man40
 ,he  expresses this view still more    
emphatically in the following words3    
8,man  must live in conformity with the 
laws of his nature40 8,no one will      
prevent you from living according to the
 laws of nature1 and nothing can  happen
 to you that is not in accordance with  
nature's universal law40  8,neither hand
 nor foot can do that which is contrary 
to the laws of  nature1 because the foot
 can only fulfil the functions of the   
foot1 and  the hand those of the hand4  
,similarly with man1 to behave as a man 
is  not to defy nature's laws1 because  

it is only fulfilling the functions  of 
man4 ,and that which is not against     
nature cannot be evil40    ,being full  
of this theory1 ,marcus ,aurelius       
applied it to death1 which1  being a    
natural phenomenon1 was to be accepted  
without protest4 8,for1  after all1     
nature forges the links and nature      
breaks them4 ,is she about  to sever    
them8 ,very well1 let us then say       
farewell as if we were taking  leave of 
our friends1 but let there be no tearing
 of the heart strings1  and let us go   
willingly1 and so avoid being dragged   
away4 ,this1 too1 is  in accordance with
 the laws of nature40 8,philosophy10    
according to  ,marcus ,aurelius1 8is to 
await death peacefully1 and to regard it
 as  merely the dissolution of the      
elements which compose the human frame4 
,such is the law of nature1 and whatever
 is in conformity with nature is  not   
evil40    ,death1 being a phenomenon in 
conformity with nature1 must be         
submitted  to4 8,do not abuse death10   

advises ,marcus ,aurelius1 8but accept  
it with  resignation1 as being in       
accordance with the will of nature4 ,do 
we not  pass on from infancy to youth1  
grow up1 and become tall and attain     
manhood8 ,do not our teeth come1 our    
beards grow1 and our hair turn  white8  
,if we marry1 do we not beget children8 
,are not all such events in  their due  
season1 and the work of nature8 ,death  
comes through the same  agency4 ,it     
therefore behoves a wise man to approach
 death with neither  anger1 repugnance1 
nor contempt1 but to await it like any  
other  operation of nature40            
,resignation1 then1 is what this form of
  philosophy amounts to4 ,not only must 
death be accepted as inevitable  when it
 comes after a long life1 but even if it
 surprise us at an  unexpected time4    
8,he who dies after reaching the        
uttermost limits of  human life10 says  
,marcus ,aurelius1 8has reached no      
further than he who  comes to a         
premature end4 ,it is the same in the   

end1 whether there are a  hundred years 
to look back upon1 or whether there are 
only three40    ,in his book on ,marcus 
,aurelius1 ,renan#baa compares his      
philosophy of  resignation with the     
,nirvna of the ,buddhists4 8,like       
,jesus1 akya-,mouni1  ,socrates1        
,francis of ,assisi1 and three or four  
other wise men1 ,marcus  ,aurelius was  
victor over death4 ,he could laugh at   
it1 because it had no  longer any       
meaning for him40 ,but1 just as the     
theories of ,buddha became  transformed 
into a religion which promised the      
immortality of the soul1  and as ,nirvna
 gave way to the ,paradise of the       
,easterns with its  delights1 so the    
sceptical resignation of ancient        
philosophy was  vanquished by           
,christianity with its promises of a    
future life and  immortality4    ,thus1 
in the course of the centuries1         
philosophy has been drowned in the      
floods of sentiment and of religious    
notions1 and it has been a labour  of   

,sisyphus to restore reason to humanity4
 ,there is the less need to  follow the 
stages of this resurrection1 as1 in the 
end1 they come to  little4 ,for long1   
philosophical systems set themselves the
 task of  supporting the dogmas of      
religion by arguments independent of    
divine  revelation4 ,the gods were      
replaced by philosophy or by matter1 and
 an  effort was made to solve the       
eternal and disquieting problem of death
 by  proving the immortality of the     
soul4    ,the philosophers of the early 
renaissance of human thought accepted   
the  chief religious dogmas as          
established truth4 ,plotin regarded the 
immortality of the soul as a            
self-evident truth that required no     
proof4  ,he argued against a            
resurrection of the body1 but accepted  
the  transmigration of souls4           
,although ,spinoza had given up the     
conception of the immortality of the    
soul in the ordinary sense1 he accepted 
the ,aristotelian idea that 8the  human 

spirit could not be destroyed absolutely
 with the body1 but left  some eternal  
remnant40 ,death1 in his view1 was a    
kind of eternal life1 a  merging with   
the absolute1 a return to the immortal  
and universal  substance4               
,philosophers have exhausted themselves 
in the study of the foundations  of     
human knowledge with the sole object of 
demonstrating the truth of  religious   
dogmas4 ,in spite of his scepticism1    
,kant tried to prove the  genuineness of
 human knowledge1 and to found on that a
 conviction of the  future life and of  
the existence of ,god4 ,fichte set      
himself the same  task1 but he was      
forced to recognise that 8immortality   
cannot be deduced  from natural         
phenomena10 and that it 8is             
supernatural40 8,although we  cannot    
understand the possibility of eternal   
life1 it still may be  possible1 for it 
transcends human knowledge40 ,hegel     
reached a  pantheistic conclusion and   
believed in the human soul being        

re-absorbed  by the absolute4    ,these 
idealistic systems1 when they reached   
their final point1 provoked  a reaction 
consisting in the rejection of all      
formulas based on  speculation4 ,they   
were succeeded by a dogmatic            
materialism1 which in its  turn gave    
place to a sceptical positivism1 or     
rather to a form of  agnosticism4       
,granted the impossibility of belief in 
the immortality of  the soul or in      
eternal life in any shape1 the          
philosophy regarding death  was reduced 
to the stoical idea that our end is in  
harmony with the laws  of nature1 and   
that it must therefore be accepted      
without protest4  ,resignation1         
therefore1 in the fullest sense of the  
word1 became the  watchword of human    
wisdom4    ,it was only to be expected  
that certain courageous and independent 
thinkers should not agree with this     
conclusion1 and attempt to discover     
some other solution of the great problem
 absorbing mankind4 ,thence arose       

pessimism1 the philosophic theory which 
became so prevalent during the  last    
century1 and which claims so many       
adherents in the present day4           
,pessimism1 like belief in the          
immortality of the soul and the advocacy
  of resignation to the evils which     
beset humanity1 is the product of the   
,east1 and ,india was probably its      
nursery4 ,a pessimistic view of life is 
a salient feature of ,brahminism1 but   
,buddhism develops even more fully  the 
doctrine that everything of this world  
is evil4 ,that 8life is made  up of     
suffering0 is the inexhaustible theme   
which1 whether in the shape  of         
philosophical argument1 or in the more  
attractive form of poetry1 the          
,buddhist ,scriptures din ceaselessly in
 our ears4#bab    ,in ,europe1 the      
lyrical poets introduced the pessimistic
 conception of  the world1 attracted by 
its emotional appeal4 ,at the beginning 
of the  nineteenth century1 ,byron      
struck this sad note1 and expressed the 

view  in the clearest fashion1 that if  
we weighed our hours of joy against our 
days of pain1 we should perceive clearly
 that whatever our life had been  it    
were better not have been4 ,in the      
following lines his conception of  life 
is apparent3--           8,our life is a
 false nature1--'tis not in         ,the
 harmony of things1 this hard decree1   
,this uneradicable taint of sin1        
,this boundless ,upas1 this all-blasting
 tree1           ,whose root is earth1  
whose leaves and branches be            
,the skies1 which rain their plagues on 
men like dew--         ,disease1 death1 
bondage--all the woes we see--          
,and1 worse1 the woes we see not--which 
throbs through         ,the immedicable 
soul1 with heart-aches ever new40       
8,,euthanasia40    ,in chap4 vi4 ,i     
showed that ,byron was haunted by a fear
 of death which  ultimately led him to a
 recognition of the instinctive         
character of the  feeling4 ,he1 however1
 like the other pessimistic poets       

7,leopardi71 did  not regard the world  
as being merely part of a universal     
system1 and it  was left to philosophy  
to come to this conclusion4    ,during  
the first half of the nineteenth        
century1 ,schopenhauer  endeavoured to  
give a presentation of a pessimistic    
theory1 borrowed  from ,hindoo religions
 and from the views of contemporary     
poets1 in the  form of a rational       
philosophy4 ,he developed a conception  
of life  according to which 8existence  
is to be regarded as something one is   
better without1 as a kind of mistake    
which should be remedied when           
recognised40#bac ,according to          
,schopenhauer existence is wrong1 and   
results from the gratification of       
unrestrained desire4 8,if an attempt be 
made to realise the amount of misery1   
pain1 and evil of all kinds1 that  the  
sun shines upon in its daily course1 it 
will be seen how much better  it would  
be were the earth to exhibit as few     
phenomena of life as the  moon1 and if  

the surface of the earth were in a      
similarly crystallised  condition4      
,human life might equally be interpreted
 as a useless  disturbance of the       
exquisite tranquillity of nothingness10 
the meaning  of the disturbance being   
wrapped in impenetrable mystery4#bad    
,this melancholy state of life was the  
result of the cosmic process1  which has
 created so much evil1 and which finally
 evolved the human  species1 capable of 
feeling and appreciating to the full the
 pain of the  world4 ,the lower animals 
he regards as happier than man1 their   
senses  being less fully developed1 and 
being unconscious of the worst aspects  
of their existence4 ,in man1 pleasure is
 purely a negation1 whereas the         
sensation of pain is passive1           
contemplation1 a human monopoly1        
rendering  suffering still more         
unbearable4 8,man's capacity for pain   
increases far  more with the passage of 
time than does his capacity for         
enjoyment1 and  is especially increased 

by his foreknowledge of death4 ,animals 
only fear  death from instinct1 without 
having any real knowledge of it1 and    
without having the prospect of it always
 before their eyes1 as is the  case with
 human beings40#bae ,schopenhauer was   
convinced that happiness  should not be 
regarded as the aim of life4 8,the      
greatest mistake we can  make10 he said 
in his principal work1#baf 8is to       
imagine that we are  placed here to be  
happy40 8,so long as we continue in this
 erroneous view  which optimistic       
doctrines serve to foster1 the world    
will continue to  seem a mass of        
contradictions to us40 8,it would be    
nearer the truth to  regard pain as the 
aim of life rather than pleasure40 8,the
 destiny of  all human existence seems  
to be suffering4 ,life is wrapped about 
with  evil1 and cannot be protected from
 it4 ,life1 at its very beginning1 is   
signalised by tears1 its course is      
fundamentally tragic1 and still more    
tragic is its end4 ,it is impossible to 

ignore that all this is meant to  be40  
8,death is the real goal of life4 ,its  
attainment brings a solution  of all    
that has gone before40    ,the prospect 
and expectation of death1 being products
 of reason1 are  experienced by men and 
not by animals4 8,only in the case of   
humanity is  the will capable of        
renouncing and withdrawing from life40  
,what is the answer to all these        
contradictions and the explanation of a 
cosmic process which on the one hand    
leads but to death1 and on the  other   
hand develops the intelligence so as to 
enable it to fear and  dread the        
inevitable end8 ,is the solution to be  
found in belief in the  immortality of  
the soul1 supported as it is not only by
 nearly every  form of religion1 but by 
numerous systems of philosophy8         
,schopenhauer  devotes many pages to the
 discussion of this question4 ,he       
neither  supports the doctrine of the   
resurrection of the body1 nor the       
immortality of the conscious soul4      

8,just as the individual has no memory  
of prenatal existence1 so after death he
 will remember nothing of his  present  
life40#bag 8,those who regard birth as  
the actual beginning of  man's life must
 necessarily face death as final1 the   
two being parallel4  ,no man can        
therefore regard himself as immortal    
without forfeiting his  belief in his   
own birth4 ,birth and death have the    
same origin and the  same significance4 
,they represent but one line1 extending 
in opposite  directions4 ,if birth      
implies an origin from nothingness1 then
 death must  be complete                
annihilation40#bah    ,there is no such 
thing as individual immortality4 ,but1  
according to  ,schopenhauer1 to desire  
such immortality would merely be to     
advocate  8the eternal perpetuation of a
 great mistake4 ,each individual        
existence  is a definite mistake1 a     
blunder1 something that would better not
 have  been1 and the object of existence
 should be to end it40#bai    ,but if   

man1 as an individual1 is mortal1 8death
 only takes away what was  given by     
birth1 that is to say1 the principle by 
which death itself  became              
possible40#bbj 8,consciousness ceases at
 death1 but the cause  which produced   
that consciousness persists2 life comes 
to an end1 but  not the principle which 
became manifest by life40#bba    ,what  
then is this immortal principle8 ,it is 
the idea of the species or  genus4 ,men 
or dogs1 as individuals1 perish in due  
course1 but the human  species or the   
canine species1 the man 8idea0 or the   
dog 8idea10  endures4 ,here             
,schopenhauer reverted to the conception
 of ,spinoza1 who1  indeed1 denied the  
immortality of the soul1 but none the   
less believed  in the immortality of the
 principle of life4 ,this everlasting   
principle1  according to ,schopenhauer1 
is the will in its widest and most      
metaphysical sense1 while1 on the other 
hand1 the mortal soul is the  reason1 a 
product of the functions of the brain4  

,the eternal principle of life cannot be
 defined1 because 8we cannot pass       
outside the limits of our consciousness4
 ,and thus the problem of what it  is in
 itself cannot be resolved40#bbb        
,schopenhauer himself recognises that   
this solution of the problem is not     
satisfactory from the point of view of  
those who desire reassurance of  their  
immortality4 8,but10 he continues1 8it  
is better than nothing1 for  those who  
dread death from the point of view of   
absolute annihilation  should not       
despise the certainty of the persistence
 of the most vital  principle of        
life40#bbc ,he further remarks that it  
must be remembered  that nature is      
interested only in the preservation of  
the species1 being  indifferent to the  
individual4 ,we ourselves being only a  
part of nature  ought to further its    
plans4 8,if we wish to attain to a wider
 knowledge  of nature1 we must place    
ourselves more in sympathy with it1 and 
regard  life and death                  

indifferently40#bbd ,schopenhauer       
himself feels that his  theories and    
arguments are unsatisfactory4 ,when he  
had reached the full  development of his
 doctrine1 he admitted that it was      
negative in  character1 and that it     
ended in negation4 ,it spoke only of    
what it had  to deny and of what ought  
to be abandoned4 ,it was obliged to     
regard as  nothingness all that could be
 acquired in the future4 ,as a          
consolation1  he added that he meant    
relative nothingness1 and not absolute  
nothingness4    ,as an ultimate aim1    
there remained nothing but abrogation of
 the will to  live1 and thus misery and 
wretchedness1 which are the inseparable 
accompaniments of human life1 led to    
resignation4    ,as our life is no more 
than a succession of misfortunes1 and   
as1  according to ,schopenhauer1 death  
is the plain conclusion of philosophy1  
the end of the individual life must be  
pleasant4 ,as a general rule1 he  said1 
the death of a well-regulated life is   

calm and peaceful4 ,but the  privilege  
of dying willingly1 with joy and        
delight1 is reserved for him  who has   
learned resignation1 and has abolished  
and abandoned his will to  live4 ,for   
such an one would be willing to die in  
reality1 not merely in  appearance1 and 
would neither desire nor claim a        
personal immortality4  ,he would give up
 readily the existence that we know4    
,whatever may  replace that existence is
 nothing from the point of view of      
individuality4 ,the ,buddhistic faith   
called the position attained by him  who
 had given up the will to live1         
8,nirvna1 or nothingness40#bbe    ,the  
natural deduction from this pessimistic 
doctrine of ,schopenhauer  would be to  
abolish the will to live by abolishing  
our individual life  by suicide4 ,but   
such is not the advice of the           
philosopher4 ,he is far1  however1 from 
agreeing with those who regard suicide  
as criminal4#bbf  ,he merely does not   
admit that it solves the question4 8,he 

who commits  suicide destroys the       
individual only1 and not the species40  
8,suicide is  the voluntary destruction 
of a solitary phenomenon1 without in the
  smallest degree affecting the system  
as a whole40#bbg    ,the will to live   
manifesting itself1 according to        
,schopenhauer1 by the  creation of new  
individuals1 the philosopher would      
naturally1 in  accordance with his views
 of life1 abstain from bringing others  
into the  world4 ,schopenhauer lived and
 died a bachelor1 and1 so far as ,i am  
aware1 had no children4 ,on the other   
hand1 convinced that the solution  of   
life's problem did not lie in suicide1  
he clung tenaciously to life4  ,having  
relinquished a belief in the immortality
 of the soul1 he fell  back upon a      
belief in the persistence of some       
ultimate principle1 apart  from         
conscious life1 and held that in        
resignation and desire for  annihilation
 7,nirvna1 according to his             
interpretation of the ,buddhist         

doctrines7 lay the true consolation for 
all the evils of human  existence4      
,for a long time ,schopenhauer's views  
found no echo in the opinions of  other 
thinkers4 ,later1 however1 they became  
more and more widely  diffused1 and     
philosophic pessimism became quite      
fashionable4 ,those who  did not adopt  
the metaphysical principles of          
,schopenhauer's philosophy  agreed with 
his views on life and on the            
impossibility of happiness4    ,exactly 
half a century after the publication of 
,schopenhauer's principal  work1#bbh    
another ,german philosopher1 ,e4        
,hartmann1#bbi went a step  further in  
the same direction4 ,without agreeing   
wholly with his  metaphysics1 he shared 
,schopenhauer's views on the            
impossibility of  regarding happiness as
 the true aim of existence4 ,in order to
  demonstrate this theory1 he examined  
the three phases of illusion  through   
which mankind passes4 ,he held that1 in 
the first phase1 people  imagined       

happiness to be attainable during the   
present life4 ,however1  all that have  
been regarded as the sources of         
joy--youth1 health1 desire1  conjugal   
love1 family love1 glory1 etc4--end in  
disillusion4 ,love itself  is especially
 submitted to ,hartmann's implacable    
criticism4 ,according to  him1 there can
 be no question but that 8love causes   
far more suffering  than pleasure to    
those concerned40#bcj 8,it cannot be    
doubted10 he says1  8that reason would  
prompt a total abstention from love10   
and1 as a means  to this end1 he        
recommends 8the extinction of sexual    
desire by  castration1 if that could be 
relied upon to destroy desire40#bca     
,that1  according to ,hartmann1 8is the 
only possible means of securing the     
happiness of the individual40 ,it is at 
the sacrifice of his personal  happiness
 that man permits himself to love1 and  
so abets the evolution  of the cosmic   
process4    8,when they have become     
convinced of the impossibility of       

obtaining  happiness in this world1     
people persuade themselves that it may  
be  obtained after death in a           
transcendental life in another world4   
,this1  however1 is only a second phase 
of illusion1 and is based upon faith in 
life after death and eternity4 ,it is   
certain1 however1 that the              
individuality of the organic body as    
well as that of the mind is only a      
delusion which ceases with death40#bcb  
,hartmann says in conclusion that  8it  
is therefore plain that the hope of the 
immortality of the  individual soul is  
also a mere illusion4 ,and thus the     
chief support of  the ,christian        
promises is cut away2 for men are       
devoted to their dear  selves1 and take 
little interest in a future happiness in
 which they  themselves are to have no  
share40#bcc    ,being disillusioned     
regarding the possibility of obtaining  
happiness in  this world1 or in a future
 state1 humanity falls back upon a third
  illusion4 ,firmly convinced that the  

aim of life is true happiness1 man      
concluded that it was only attainable in
 some future state of the cosmic        
process4 ,this hypothesis is based upon 
belief in a system of progressive       
development4 8,this10 declares          
,hartmann1 8is yet another mistake4     
,humanity may progress as much as it    
likes10 he says1 8but it will never     
succeed in suppressing or even          
diminishing the greatest evils which    
beset it3 disease1 old age1 dependence  
on the wishes or the power of  others1  
misery and discontent4 ,notwithstanding 
the new remedies which  are discovered1 
the number of diseases1 especially those
 of a chronic  nature which are so      
trying1 continues to increase at a rate 
that  medicine cannot keep pace with4   
,joyous youth will always constitute a  
small portion of humanity1 while the    
greater part will consist of  melancholy
 old age40#bcd    ,against this idea    
that the happiness of the race will be  
the eventual  result of progress1       

,hartmann employs the following         
arguments3 8,the  happiest people are   
those who are the rudest and most       
primitive1 and1  among civilised races1 
the uneducated classes4 ,it is well     
known that the  progress of education   
increases discontent4 ,the progress of  
science  contributes little or nothing  
to the absolute happiness of the world4 
,practically speaking1 this progress is 
of advantage to politics1 social  life1 
morality1 and the arts2 but factories1  
steam-boats1 railways1 and  telegraphs1 
have so far done no positive good to    
humanity40#bce  ,hartmann frequently    
recurs to the conclusion that the       
primitive are  happier than the         
civilised1 and that 8the lower classes1 
inferior and  rude1 are happier than the
 rich who are well educated and great2  
that  idiots are happier than the       
intelligent1 and that1 as a general     
rule1  the less sensitive a man's       
nervous system may be1 the happier he   
is1 as  his capacity for feeling pain is

 not so much in excess of his capacity  
for enjoyment1 and his illusion is      
therefore greater4 ,with the            
progressive development of humanity1    
however1 not only is there an  increase 
in the extent of human needs1 but in the
 sensitiveness of the  nervous system1  
and in the cultivation of the mind4 ,in 
consequence1 the  balance of pain over  
pleasure increases1 and the illusion is 
destroyed1  that is to say1 knowledge   
comes of the misery of life1 of the     
vanity of  most of the pleasures4       
,misery itself increases as much as     
knowledge of  misery1 as experience has 
shown2 and the apparent increase of     
happiness  in the world1 due to the     
progress of universe1 is merely         
superficial4    ,having reached this    
extremely pessimistic conclusion1 that  
it is  impossible for humanity to attain
 happiness1 ,hartmann proceeds to       
inquire into the real destiny of man4   
,he would be no true philosopher if  he 
did not hold that the world was created 

according to a general plan1  and that  
it follows a regular course tending     
towards a definite end4 8,we  have      
seen10 he says1 8how that in the present
 world all has been  arranged in the    
wisest1 and for the most part the best  
way1 and that it  should therefore be   
regarded as the best possible of worlds4
  ,notwithstanding this1 however1 it is 
supremely miserable1 and worse than  if 
it did not exist at all40    ,being     
convinced of the illusory nature of its 
hopes1 humanity 8must  definitely       
renounce all pretensions to positive    
happiness1 and aspire  only to a freedom
 from pain1 to annihilation or ,nirvna4 
,this1 however1  must not be merely the 
attitude of solitary individuals1 but   
humanity at  large must cry out for     
annihilation4 ,this is the only possible
 outcome  of the third and last phase of
 illusion40    ,by what means is this   
end to be attained8 ,hartmann is no     
advocate of  suicide as the best remedy 
of the evils of human existence4 ,upon  

this  point he agrees with              
,schopenhauer1 and thinks that such a   
course would  have no effect upon the   
general progress of the cosmic process4 
,a  renunciation of                     
pleasure--asceticism--would present no  
better solution of  the problem4 ,even  
abstinence from reproduction would not  
serve the  purpose4 8,what good would it
 do10 says ,hartmann1 8if humanity were 
to  cease to be by means of sexual      
abstinence8 ,this unfortunate universe  
would continue to exist1 and the        
,unconscious would immediately take     
advantage of the opportunity to create a
 new man or some other similar          
type40#bcf ,thus it is not the          
disappearance of mankind that should    
constitute our aim1 but 8the complete   
abandonment of the individual to  the   
cosmic process1 in order that the latter
 may accomplish its end and  bring about
 the universal deliverance of the       
world40#bcg ,this being so1  the        
instinctive love of life reasserts      

itself1 and it becomes necessary  to    
admit1 at least as provisional truth1   
8the validity of the will to  live2 for 
it is only by complete resignation to   
life and its troubles1  and not by      
cowardly renunciation and abandonment1  
that one may  contribute one's share in 
the development of the cosmic           
process40#bch    ,hartmann's proposed   
solution of the problem of human        
existence belongs  undoubtedly to the   
category of systems advocating          
resignation4 ,he is  unable to tell us  
what is the cosmic process to which he  
bids man lend  all his forces4 ,he      
advises humanity to continue to live and
 to multiply  in the full certainty that
 happiness cannot be attained4 ,hartmann
  obviously demands a true renunciation 
and an absolute submission4 ,his        
solution has the appearance of being    
more exact1 and of furnishing a  guide  
to human conduct more clear than that   
vague aspiration to ,nirvna  proposed by
 ,schopenhauer4 ,but on closer          

investigation it becomes at once  plain 
that the greater precision is illusory4 
,it is easy to see1 under such          
circumstances1 that a school of         
criticism  or negation of the           
pessimistic doctrines should have gained
 many  adherents4 ,very few1 on the     
other hand1 have embraced pessimistic   
doctrines because of any power being    
inherent in them to resolve the         
difficulties of life4 ,a ,german        
pessimistic philosopher1                
,mailaender1#bci  shared fully          
,schopenhauer's opinions as to the      
misery of human life1 but  opposed the  
latter's doctrine of resignation and    
,nirvna as the solution  of the general 
problem of life4 ,mailaender accepted   
the three stages of  human illusion as  
expounded by ,hartmann1 but attacked    
vigorously the  view of facilitating the
 cosmic process by acquiescence in the  
will to  live4 8,indeed10 he cried1     
8your advice is that we should sacrifice
  ourselves to the cosmos1 we are to    

choose a career1 to learn a trade1      
acquire money1 property1 fame1 power1   
and so forth2 we are to marry and  to   
beget offspring2 by such advice you are 
merely undoing with your own  hands the 
sole merit of your work1 the analysis of
 illusion4 ,you  suddenly advise the    
very man who has got behind all these   
illusions to  succumb to them again1 as 
if an illusion1 although it has been    
recognised1 could still deceive and     
exercise its power40#bdj    ,mailaender 
takes an entirely different view of the 
problem4 ,like his  predecessors1 he is 
convinced of the futility of happiness1 
but he has  achieved an original view of
 the cosmic process4 ,he holds that an  
unaccountable and divine ,being existed 
before the creation of the world4       
,before disappearing 8this divinity gave
 birth to the universe40 ,by this       
means1 complete annihilation was made   
possible4 8,the world10 says            
,mailaender1 8is but the means for      
bringing about a condition of           

non-existence1 and is the only possible 
means by which that end could be        
attained4 ,god knew that only by        
creating a real world could we pass from
  existence into non-existence40        
,maileander regards as certain 8that the
  universe tends towards universal      
non-existence40#bda ,this tendency is   
characterised by the weakening of the   
total amount of energy1 so that  8every 
individual at the close of the weakening
 process to which his  energy is        
submitted1 is led in the course of his  
development to the  point at which his  
desire for annihilation may be          
fulfilled40#bdb ,life  on our planet1 he
 says1 ought to be regarded as a        
halting-place on the  road to death4 ,in
 order to appreciate fully the happiness
 brought by  death1 it is necessary     
first to taste of life1 and that is why 
the  instinct of self-preservation is so
 well developed in animals4 ,man  passes
 first through a phase of development in
 which he is like any  other animal4    

8,as with them1 the will to live is     
stronger than the will  to die4 ,life is
 clung to with extreme pertinacity1 and 
death is  proportionately execrated40   
8,at first1 not only the fear of death  
increases1 but equally the love of      
life40 ,terror of death becomes  acuter4
 ,animals1 knowing nothing of death1    
only fear it instinctively  through     
their perception of approaching danger4 
,man1 on the contrary1  knows of the    
existence of death and what it means4   
,he looks back on his  past life and    
wonders what the future may hold in     
store1 and realises1  infinitely more   
than animals realise it1 the dangers    
that threaten him4  ,during this phase1 
man does all in his power to keep death 
at bay1 and  to make his life as happy  
as possible4 ,this1 however1 is not the 
last  stage of his development4 ,the    
thinking man soon comes to the          
conclusion  that a craving for life is  
not the true aim of the universe2 it is 
only  the means for attaining to a      

knowledge of the definite aim of        
existence1  which is the cessation of   
life4 ,philosophy soon shows that       
perfect  happiness is not possible1 and 
that only death is really desirable4 ,in
  summing up the cosmic process1 the    
conclusion arrived at is 8that          
throughout the universe the desire of   
death exists in a form more or  less    
masked1 but that in the organic world   
this assumes the form of a  will to     
live40#bdc ,in the end1 however1 the    
desire of death becomes  more and more  
plain1 until the philosopher can see 8in
 the whole  universe nothing but a      
longing for absolute extinction1 and    
fancies that  he can hear the cry       
rolling from star to star1              
#8,deliverance1  deliverance1 death to  
our life6' and the echoing cry of       
consolation1  #8,extinction and         
deliverance await you all6'0#bdd    ,in 
order to explain in a clearer way the   
progress of this evolution1  ,mailaender
 describes the state of mind of a man   

who develops the will to  die1 and      
commits suicide4 8,at first he glances  
anxiously and from afar  at death1 and  
shrinks from it with horror4 ,later1 he 
draws nearer and  walks round it in wide
 circles4 ,day by day1 however1 these   
circles  become smaller1 until finally  
he embraces ,death with weary arms and  
looks it straight in the face4 ,then    
,peace comes2 gentle ,peace60#bde    ,it
 is absurd to expect anything to follow 
death but absolute  annihilation1 and   
the ordinary man faces this prospect    
with terror4 8,but  it is essential10   
says ,mailaender1 8that man should      
dominate the  universe by knowledge1 and
 wise men look forward to total         
annihilation  with joy40#bdf 8,in       
relinquishing ,schopenhauer's will to   
live10  concluded ,mailaender1 8,i have 
finally arrived at the will to die4 ,i  
have  raised myself upon the shoulders  
of ,schopenhauer1 until ,i have attained
  a point of view such as others have   
never accomplished4 ,at present ,i am   

alone1 but behind me all humanity is    
pressing on to freedom2 and before  me  
is the clear translucent vista of the   
future40#bdg    ,i have quoted these    
views1 not because of the solidity of   
,mailaender's  arguments1 but merely    
because this pessimistic philosopher    
proved  himself to be more consistent   
than his predecessors4 ,while           
,schopenhauer  and ,hartmann1 both so   
firmly convinced of the non-existence of
 happiness  and the vast preponderance  
of suffering in all imaginable          
conditions of  life1 lived out their    
lives1 ,mailaender1 true to his         
principles1  committed suicide when     
barely thirty-five years of age4        
,this is probably not a solitary        
instance4 ,under the influence of       
pessimism1 a certain number of young    
persons1 especially those whose  mental 
equilibrium is not very firmly          
established1 follow in the tragic       
footsteps of ,mailaender4 ,some commit  
suicide1 while others abstain from      

taking part in the perpetuation of the  
race4 ,others1 but these are not  many1 
curtail their existence by dissipation1 
thinking life not worth  the care of it4
    ,a modern writer of great talent1   
,maeterlinck1 echoes the pessimism of   
the present generation4 8,it is plain10 
he says1#bdh 8that from one  point of   
view humanity will always seem wretched1
 and as though being  dragged towards a 
fatal precipice1 since it will ever be  
doomed to  disease1 to the inconstancy  
of matter1 to old age and to death40    
8,yes1  human life as a whole is sad1   
and it is easier1 ,i may almost say     
pleasanter1 to discuss and expose its   
dark side1 than to enumerate its        
consolations and make the best of them4 
,the miseries of life are many1         
obvious1 and never failing2 whereas the 
consolations1 or rather the  reasons    
which cause us to fulfil with alacrity  
the duty of living1 are  rare1 hard to  
seek1 and precarious40    ,although     
pessimism has been greatly developed and

 widely spread during  the nineteenth   
century1 dissentient voices in          
opposition to this  negative attitude   
towards the things of this world have   
not been  wanting4 ,take the views of   
the ,german poet1 ,robert               
,hammerling1#bdi who  reproaches the    
pessimistic philosophers with ignoring  
the attitude of  mind of the majority of
 mankind who ask but one                
thing1--life--life at any  price and    
under any conditions4 ,against this     
sentiment all dogmatic  arguments are   
useless1 for1 according to ,hammerling1 
the question of  pleasure and pain is a 
matter of feeling and not of reason4    
,now1 with  regard to the general       
feeling of humanity1 there can be no    
doubt--it is  frankly optimistic4       
,max ,nordau1 the well-known writer1    
supports a similar theory4 ,according   
to him1 all living nature betrays its   
optimistic foundation4 8,the truth  is10
 he says1 8that optimism1 limitless and 
irradicable optimism1  constitutes the  

fundamental attitude of man1 and is the 
instinctive  feeling which governs him  
under all circumstances4 ,all other     
forms of  life confirm this truth44440  
8,all nature10 according to ,max        
,nordau1 8by  the bells of flowers and  
the throats of her birds1 rings and     
proclaims  the truth of optimism40 8,no 
animals feel the pain of the world2 and 
our  own ancestor1 the contemporary of  
the cave bear1 was certainly free from  
all anxiety relating to the destiny of  
the human race40    ,these arguments do 
not take into account that1 to be true1 
pessimism  need not necessarily be felt 
and agreed with by all living creatures4
  ,birds and other animals1 happy in    
their lives1 that is to say optimists1  
know nothing of the inevitability of    
death4 ,our cave ancestors knew  nothing
 of it either4 ,if the greater portion  
of modern humanity is  optimistic1 that 
might be accounted for by its being     
still under the  influence of one of the
 three phases of illusion alluded to by 

,hartmann4  ,it is only when the highest
 stage of development is reached that   
man1  being convinced of the futility of
 his hopes1 arrives at a pessimistic    
conception of the universe4    ,max     
,nordau disclaims discipleship of       
,doctor ,pangloss1 who held that the    
world is the best of all possible       
worlds4 ,but his arguments reveal a     
pronounced optimism4 ,he regards pain as
 an indispensable factor of the         
maintenance of life4 8,without pain10 he
 says1 8our lives would not  endure an  
hour1 for we should be unable to        
recognise dangerous symptoms  and guard 
against them40 ,insensibility to pain is
 often so grave a  symptom that sick    
people rejoice when they are again able 
to feel the  prick of a needle4    ,this
 is true enough1 but none the less the  
feeling of pain is very  erratic in both
 animals and human beings4 ,quite       
insignificant causes and  unimportant   
illnesses1 such as certain forms of     
neuralgia1 give rise to  unbearable     

agony4 ,a physiological phenomenon such 
as childbirth is often  attended by     
extremely violent pain which is         
absolutely useless as a  danger-signal4 
,on the other hand1 some of the most    
dangerous diseases1  such as cancer or  
kidney disease1 may exist for a long    
time without  causing any sensation of  
pain1 with the result that the sufferer 
knows  nothing of the presence of the   
disease until it is too late4 ,were pain
  to play the part assigned to it by    
,nordau1 it would appear in all cases   
of danger1 and yet would never become   
almost unbearably acute4    ,but when   
men have passed through the three stages
 of illusion it is not  physical pain   
which presses most heavily on them4 ,max
 ,nordau himself  admits that it is     
8appalling to think of the cessation of 
our  consciousness1 and the annihilation
 of our ego40 ,none the less1 he        
believes 8that we are so happily        
constituted as to be able to accept the 
really inevitable with a light heart1   

and that there is no ill feeling  about 
the matter40 ,this admission is not in  
accordance with the  well-established   
facts discussed in chap4 vi4 ,with very 
rare exceptions  man does not willingly 
accept the prospect of death1 especially
 if he be  still under the influence of 
illusion in any of its three stages4 ,as
 a  rule those who desire to live feel  
not only a repugnance to the            
contemplation of death1 but death seems 
to them something abnormal and          
irrational4 ,it is no answer to assert  
that all who feel this are  psychopaths1
 or that it is absurd to think that the 
happiness of mankind  counts for        
something in the cosmic process4 ,on the
 contrary1 it is quite  natural that man
 should seek after happiness1 and that  
he should try to  analyse the phenomena 
taking place within him and around him  
from the  point of view of that ideal4  
,for this reason it is quite unjust to  
say  that pessimism cannot be treated   
seriously4 ,it is pessimism which has   

been the first to draw up a true        
indictment of human nature1 and if pain 
is to be regarded as useful in its      
quality of danger-signal we should      
equally recognise that the pessimistic  
view of the universe is a step  onwards 
in the evolution of humanity4 ,without  
pessimism we might easily  sink into a  
kind of contented fatalism1 and end in  
quietism1 in the  manner of many        
religions4    ,it is only natural1      
however1 that the thinking world should 
not accept  pessimism as the last word  
of human wisdom1 and that more or less  
noted  philosophers should devote       
themselves to finding a possible        
solution of  the problem of life and    
death4 ,these systems of philosophy1 one
 and all1  have abandoned readily all   
belief in future life and personal      
immortality4 ,but they have adopted     
pantheistic conceptions1 and have       
accepted the existence of some general  
principle into which the  individual    
consciousness will eventually be        

absorbed4 ,there is division  of opinion
 as to the properties of this principle4
 ,for some it is the  ,idea1 for others 
,will1 for others ,force1 or ,eternal   
,energy4#bej ,the  nomenclature is the  
less important as the views as to the   
nature of the  general principle are    
absolutely vague4 ,accordingly this part
 of the  philosophic doctrines appears  
in a lyrical form and has passed over   
into  the domain of poetry4    ,german  
poets have helped to spread pantheistic 
conceptions very widely4  ,i need hardly
 mention ,goethe1 whose ideas were      
purely those of ,spinoza1  but          
,schiller's well-known lines are        
precise3--       8,vor dem ,tode        
erschrickst ,du8 ,du wnschest1          
unsterblich zu leben8     ,leb' im      
,ganzen6 ,wenn du lange dahin bist1 es  
bleibt60       8,do you shrink from     
approaching ,death8 and crave           
immortality8     ,live on in the ,all6  
,long after you vanish the ,all will    
remain60    ,rckert1 in lines almost    

equally well known1 expresses the same  
idea3--                 8,vernichtung   
weht dich an1 so lang ,du ,einzles bist4
             ,o1 fhl' im ,ganzen dich1  
das unvernichtbar ist40                 
8,annihilation fills you with terror1   
because you are self-centred4 ,you      
must feel your unity with the ,all1     
which is indestructible40      ,a volume
 might be filled with the attempts of   
thinkers of different  countries to     
present these poetical ideas in a form  
less vague and more  philosophical4 ,i  
shall select only a few of the more     
modern instances4    ,renan's#bea ideas 
may be taken as typical of the          
compromise between  poetry and          
philosophy4 ,speaking of immortality1 he
 said 8that we shall  each live again by
 the traces we leave on the bosom of the
  ,infinite40#beb    ,the views         
elaborated by ,guyau#bec are equally    
poetic4 ,like so many  others he is     
unable to accept without protest the    
prospect of the  inevitability of death4

 ,brought face to face with this end1 he
 declares  that he feels 8not sorrow but
 indignation1 as against an injustice of
  nature40 8,it is with justice10 he    
cries1 8that we look on nature as a     
murderess if she kills what is morally  
best in ourselves and in  others40#bed  
,it is chiefly in the name of love that 
,guyau protests against death3  8,the   
death of others1 the annihilation of    
those we love1 is  insupportable to men1
 who are essentially thinking and loving
  creatures40#bee    ,this problem1 so  
vast and so difficult to solve1 is      
presented by him as  follows3 8,as      
regards the question of individual      
immortality1 human  thought is dragged  
in opposite directions by two great     
forces--science1  in the name of        
evolution1 prepared to sacrifice the    
individual  completely2 love1 in the    
name of an evolution1 morally and       
socially  higher1 which would preserve  
the individual at all hazards4 ,there is
 no  more disturbing dilemma proposed to

 the philosopher40#bef    ,guyau hopes  
that in the course of evolution there   
will come about a  merging of individual
 consciousness in the consciousness of  
the whole4  8,one may ask10 he says1 8if
 it may not be that these conscious     
entities  mingling and interpenetrating1
 may come to live on from one to the    
other1 and so to acquire a new          
duration80 ,on such a hypothesis he can 
foresee 8an epoch not1 indeed1 certain  
to come1 but far from  inconceivable1 in
 which individual consciousnesses will  
have achieved a  corporate integrity and
 a complex intercommunion1 without      
themselves  being lost by the           
union40#beg    ,on this hypothesis1 8the
 problem is to be at the same time      
loving enough  and loved enough to live 
and endure in another4#beh444 ,those who
 vanish  and those who remain must love 
one another so greatly that the shadows 
cast by them on the universal           
consciousness are identical40 8,we      
should  then feel ourselves passing and 

ascending from this life to an          
immortality of love10 and 8the point of 
contact between life and  immortality   
would be discovered40#bei    ,a solution
 recently offered by ,finot#bfj is much 
less poetical4  ,according to him1 it is
 only 8when death is conceived of as    
annihilation  that it is repugnant4 ,on 
the other hand1 if we regard it merely  
as a  change of life1 we shall cease to 
fear it1 and even come to love  it40#bfa
    ,but what is this 8change of life0  
that is to prove so consoling8 ,it is   
the 8immortality of the body10 that is  
to say1 the life of the creatures       
developed at the expense of the human   
body4 8,flies begin the work of the     
labourers on the dead10 giving birth to 
worm-like larv that writhe in  the      
decomposing flesh4 ,the same vermin that
 horrified ,tolstoi when he  thought of 
his own death 7see chap4 vi4 p4 #abc7   
became ,finot's symbol of  consolation4 
,he describes the whole succession of   
the fauna of corpses1  and concludes by 

saying1 8and so goes on the routine of  
life1 from birth  to the tomb1 of noisy1
 clamorous life1 ceaselessly renewed4   
,ever loving1  giving birth1 living and 
dying4 ,the peace of the tomb is as     
filled with  life as the dust into which
 we think our bodies will fall40#bfb    
,i have given the above quotation as an 
instance showing to what lengths  men   
have gone in their search for a solution
 of the problem of death and  in their  
desire for a gleam of hope that the end 
may not be final4 ,i  need not say that 
this idea of the fauna of the corpse has
 no place in  the philosophy of death4  
,thinkers1 no doubt1 would prefer the   
most vague  ambiguities to certainties  
of such a nature4 ,most contemporary    
philosophers regard the problem in a    
very different fashion4    ,in my       
opinion1 ,meyer-,benfey1 a scholar at   
,gttingen1 has summed up the  present   
condition of the problem very clearly   
and exactly1 in essays on  ,modern      
,religion4#bfc ,he realises that it is  

impossible to accept the  immortality of
 the soul4 ,personality must utterly and
 inevitably perish4  ,but1 just as no   
single atom of our bodies can be        
annihilated1 so 8no  parts of our souls 
can be lost40 ,our actions during life  
leave traces so  much the deeper as the 
life has been fuller4 ,it is this       
reuniting 8of  the actions of           
individuals with the life of the whole  
of humanity1 that  constitutes the true 
immortality or ,nirvna40 ,he says1 too1 
8,in  accustoming our minds to this     
thought1 and in educating ourselves with
 a  view to the accomplishment of this  
end1 lies the only possible means of    
overcoming the fear of death and the    
terror of annihilation40                
,meyer-,benfey is of the pessimistic    
opinion that happiness cannot  possibly 
be regarded as the supreme end of       
humanity1 for he thinks1 if  that were  
so1 the whole course of evolution would 
have been a mistake4  ,it would have    
been much better had evolution been     

arrested before the  creation of the    
human race1 since animals1 being unaware
 of the  inevitability of death1 are    
undoubtedly happier than man4 ,as1      
however1  we have passed through the    
animal stage and reached the human      
stage1 and  achieved some measure of    
civilisation1 and this not by our own   
desire1  or as the result of mere       
chance1 but guided by the inner workings
 of our  nature1 it is plain that the   
ultimate goal towards which we are      
advancing1 must be some other than mere 
happiness4 ,there can be no  question   
but that the goal is the triumph of pure
 and perfect culture4    ,this idea1    
that the goal of humanity is progress in
 all its  manifestations1 is no recent  
theory1 and many definitions of this    
progress have been advanced1 but so far 
none have been generally  accepted as   
satisfactory4 ,the term 8culture10      
though vague1 will have to  continue in 
use until some better word conveying a  
more precise meaning  is found to       

replace it4    ,on reviewing all the    
systems of philosophy which have        
attempted so  strenuously to solve the  
problem of individual death1 it becomes 
plain  that all1 or nearly all1 of them 
deny the existence of a future life and 
the immortality of the soul4 ,the       
greater part of them1 however1 admit    
some general principle incomprehensible 
but eternal1 which will  eventually     
incorporate within itself all individual
 souls4 ,feeling that  these vague ideas
 are incapable of conveying consolation 
to poor  humanity in its fear of        
annihilation through death1 philosophers
 have  persistently taught the          
advantages of resignation4 ,even ,guyau1
 realising  that his philosophy         
regarding the immortality of love fails 
to reassure  those who look to          
philosophy for some word of consolation1
 ends by  admitting that 8as there is no
 help to be expected from the           
inexorable1  nor mercy from that which  
is in conformity with the universe and  

even  with our own judgment1 resignation
 is best40#bfd ,as it is the general    
opinion that to be philosophical is to  
take things as they are1 without  undue 
protest1 the watchword of all systems of
 philosophy is to bow to  the           
inevitable1 that is to say1 to be       
resigned to the prospect of             
annihilation4                           
,,part ,,iii   ,,what ,,science ,,is    
,,able ,,to ,,do ,,to ,,alleviate ,,the 
,,disharmonies ,,of ,,the ,,human       
,,constitution                          
,,chapter ,,ix                    ,,what
 ,,science ,,can ,,do ,,against         
,,disease        ,formation of the      
experimental method--,the intervention  
of    religion in disease--,disease as a
 basis of pessimistic systems of        
philosophy--,advance of medical science 
in the war against    disease--,the     
revolution in medicine and surgery due  
to the    discoveries of ,pasteur--,the 
beneficial results of ,serum ,therapy   
in the war against infectious           

diseases--,failure of science to    cure
 tuberculosis and malignant             
tumours--,protests against the          
advance of science--,opposition of      
,rousseau1 ,tolstoi1 and                
,brunetire--,proclamation of the        
fallibility of science--,return to      
religion and mysticism      ,science1   
the youngest daughter of knowledge1 has 
begun to investigate  the great problems
 affecting humanity4 ,the chief         
religions and many  systems of          
philosophy had been long established    
before the spirit of  scepticism dared  
to inquire whether or no these products 
of the human  mind were really in       
harmony with fact4 ,scepticism gained   
ground little  by little1 and open war  
was declared between religious dogma and
  authority on the one side1 and        
scientific reason on the other4    ,the 
great religions and the philosophy of   
,aristotle had ruled a majority  of     
mankind for some twenty centuries before
 doubt was cast on the real  value of   

these doctrines4    ,francis ,bacon1    
,lord ,verulam1 asked why it was that   
all the systems of  his time were so    
vague and so powerless to explain the   
phenomena of the  world4 ,the cause     
could not lie in nature herself1 for    
without doubt she  followed laws that   
were immutable and that could be        
subjected to exact  observation2 nor    
could it lie in any want of intelligence
 in those men  who devoted themselves to
 solve the problems4 ,the true cause of 
the  failure lay in the falsity or      
insufficiency of the methods employed4  
,bacon1 trying to provide a remedy for  
this condition of affairs1 advised  that
 makers of generalisations should       
proceed very slowly1 passing only  by   
the smallest stages from particular     
facts to conclusions only more  general 
in the slightest degree1 and so on1     
until the ultimate formula  might be    
reached4 ,by such a path it was possible
 to attain principles  neither vague nor
 ambiguous1 but clear and exact and that

 would not be  denied by nature herself4
    ,the first steps taken by science   
according to this method1 which indeed  
had been suggested long ago1 but which  
was first clearly laid down by  ,bacon1 
were slow and halting4 ,religious and   
philosophical doctrines  still weighed  
heavily on inquiring minds1 so that the 
new method was not  followed with any   
great courage4 ,none the less progress  
was achieved1  until at length the great
 problems of humanity opened out4 ,more 
than two  thousand years before the     
birth of exact science1 ,buddha had     
given voice  to the chief grievances of 
the human race4 8,behold1 ,o monks1 the 
holy  truth as to suffering10 he had    
proclaimed in the ,sermon at ,benares1  
8birth is suffering1 old age is         
suffering1 disease is suffering1 and    
death is suffering40 ,science1 in its   
slow progress1 passing from  particular 
to general1 reached first one of these  
four sorrows1 the  suffering due to     
disease4    ,in the ,buddhist legend    

that ,i quoted in chap4 vi41 the sight  
of a sick  man 8whose senses were       
weakened1 who drew his breath with      
difficulty1  whose limbs were           
shrivelled1 whose bowels were wrung with
 pain1 and his  body pitifully soiled   
with excrement10 suggested to ,buddha   
the  reflection that 8health is no more 
than the idle vision of a dream while   
fear and disease are horrible realities4
 ,what wise man1 having seen the  thing 
that life is1 can still think of joy or 
of pleasure8 ,woe upon  health which is 
assailed by so many maladies40 ,when    
,buddha1 who was a  young prince1 asked 
of his father the gift 8that he might   
always remain  full of health1 and that 
he should be smitten by no disease10 his
  father1 who was the king1 replied3    
8,you ask me what is impossible2 in     
that my son1 ,i can do nothing40        
,from that day1 every religion has      
busied itself with the cure and         
prevention of disease4 ,they believed   
that the causes of these were the       

influence of evil spirits or the        
visitations of ,god2 and as remedies    
they prescribed sacrifice and prayer and
 anything that might avert the  anger of
 ,god4 ,even at the present day1 similar
 medicine is used by  primitive races4  
,in ,sumatra for instance1 when it is   
impossible to  arrest the flow of blood 
from a wound1 the disaster is ascribed  
to an  evil spirit 7,polasiq7 who is    
sucking the wound and making it         
incurable4  ,in ,nias1 when bleeding    
from the nose occurs in children1 it is 
supposed  to be due to the father having
 killed a cock during the pregnancy of  
the  mother4 ,the indispensable remedy  
is to make sacrifice to the outraged    
deity4    ,no doubt there co-exist with 
such practices of primitive races1      
certain  useful rules1 based on correct 
observation or on experience4 ,it is a  
common practice to try all manner of    
remedies on the sick2 although most  do 
harm1 now and again something useful may
 be discovered4 ,such vulgar  medicine  

has undoubted merit1 but it cannot be   
compared with the results  of scientific
 medicine1 which are drawn from rigorous
 experiment4    ,medical science has    
been slow in developing1 but it has now 
reached a  condition of which humanity  
may be proud4 ,it is outside my purpose 
to  give a long exposition of this      
subject2 but it is necessary to my      
argument to set out a few facts from    
which the reader may judge of the       
present condition of medical science4   
,without doubt the fear of disease has  
played a large part in the  pessimistic 
conceptions of the universe4 ,not only  
the words of ,buddha  that ,i have      
quoted1 but many of the systems of      
pessimistic philosophy  attest this4 ,i 
have already stated in chap4 vi4 that   
,schopenhauer in  #ahca was driven from 
,berlin to ,frankfurt by fear of        
cholera4    ,in his statement of the    
case against this universe1 and as a    
chief  argument for his proposition that
 8this is the worst of possible worlds0 

,schopenhauer adduced the spreading of  
epidemics4 8,an alteration of the       
atmosphere so slight that it cannot be  
detected by chemistry brings  about     
cholera1 or yellow fever1 or the black  
death1 diseases which  number their     
victims by millions2 an alteration      
slightly greater might  destroy all     
life40#bfe    ,hartmann1 who has been   
one of the chief advocates of           
,schopenhauer's  pessimism1 also had    
gloomy views on diseases and medicine4  
,he was  convinced that howsoever great 
the progress of humanity might come to  
be1 there never would be an end or even 
a diminution of diseases4 8,it is  no   
matter10 he said1 8how many remedies may
 be discovered for diseases2  new       
diseases1 and particularly chronic      
affections which1 although not  serious 
are extremely painful1 will continue to 
appear more rapidly than  the           
discoveries of medicine40#bff           
,humanity will be fortunate if the      
pessimistic philosophers prove as  wrong

 about their other grievances as they   
have proved about disease and  medicine4
 ,to understand the vast progress made  
by medicine1 it is  necessary only to   
compare the complaint of ,schopenhauer  
with the actual  state of affairs4 ,when
 he spoke of epidemics being due to     
slight changes  of the atmosphere1      
,schopenhauer obviously was repeating   
the medical  opinion current in his     
times4 ,experimental science has proved 
that he  was quite wrong4 ,it has been  
shown conclusively that two of the great
  affections of which he spoke1 cholera 
and plague1 are due not to  chemical    
changes in the air1 but to definite     
microbes1 the natural  history of which 
is known as well as that of any other   
plant4 ,cholera is  produced by the     
vibrio1 discovered by ,koch1 a minute   
organism that lives  in water and that  
enters the human alimentary canal with  
food or drink4  ,we do not yet know a   
definite cure for cholera1 but we do    
know how to  prevent infection4 ,the    

most simple mode of guarding against    
infection is  to swallow only material  
that has been boiled1 and to prevent    
contamination of water or of vessels    
with fcal matter containing the  ,koch's
 vibrio4 ,moreover1 in individual cases 
use may be made of  anti-cholera serums4
 ,in #ahca1 if these discoveries had    
been made1  philosophy would have taken 
a different course4 ,instead of         
trembling at  the epidemic1 and flying  
to ,frankfurt1 ,schopenhauer would have 
remained  quietly at ,berlin1 and ,hegel
 would not have ceased to develop his   
idealism in the university of that town4
    ,schopenhauer enforced his argument 
by reference to the black death         
8capable of destroying millions of      
victims40 ,it is certain that the  black
 death was no other than human plague1  
which made enormous ravages1  in the    
fourteenth century1 for instance1       
destroying nearly a third of  the       
population of ,europe4 ,in those days1  
no one doubted but that it was  a       

visitation of the ,divine wrath1 and    
people gathered in churches to  make    
common supplication4 ,sacrifices were   
offered and flagellations took  place in
 the hope of averting the terrible      
malady4 ,travellers who have  been in   
the capital of ,austria must have seen  
in one of the chief  streets 7,graben7 a
 large and unlovely monument1 erected in
 the  seventeenth century to commemorate
 the interposition of ,providence in    
staying one of the great epidemics of   
plague4 ,now that science has made      
known the true cause of plague1 our     
ideas as to the causes of the           
appearance and disappearance of         
epidemics are very different4 ,plague is
  not the manifestation of the anger of 
,god1 but is a scourge due to  invasion 
by a minute organism1 discovered        
simultaneously by ,kitasato and  ,yersin
 in #ahid4 ,the natural history of the  
microbe has been studied1 and  we know  
that it may live not only in human      
bodies but in the bodies of  small      

rodents1 such as rats and mice1 which   
live in association with  man4 ,these   
animals are the source of human         
infection1 and it is  necessary to      
destroy them as completely as possible4 
,there is no doubt  but that the arrest 
of the plague in the seventeenth century
 was due to  the fact that rats and mice
 had themselves been exterminated by the
  plague4    ,plague1 which formerly was
 the most terrible of epidemic diseases1
 has  now become a misfortune against   
which it is simple to guard ourselves4  
,to secure that end1 however1 we have   
not to pray or to scourge  ourselves1   
but to take measures to destroy rats and
 mice4 ,moreover  serums may be         
employed2 and the use of these is not   
only prophylactic1  but if the disease  
be not too advanced1 is actually        
curative4 ,the danger  of which         
,schopenhauer spoke may be regarded as  
definitely averted1 and  this is due to 
the advance of medical knowledge4 ,in   
such countries as  ,british ,india in   

which plague still causes great losses1 
we have to  blame the ignorance of the  
population4 ,instead of following the   
course  prescribed by science1 these    
people still prefer the rules laid down 
by  the ,brahmanistic religion4 ,their  
idea of cleanliness and purity is a     
religious idea1 and not that of medicine
 and bacteriology4 ,it is not           
surprising that plague still exists in  
,india1 but none the less no case  is a 
better instance of the progress of      
knowledge4    ,hartmann's idea as to a  
progressive increase in the number of   
diseases  rests on no exact grounds1 and
 is in opposition to much that we know4 
,as  a matter of fact1 as knowledge of  
hygiene advances and becomes spread     
among the peoples1 diseases become less 
frequent and less fatal4    ,a great    
stimulus was given to medicine and      
surgery when there was  applied to these
 the knowledge gained by ,pasteur in his
 study of  fermentation4 ,pasteur showed
 that fermentations were chemical       

alterations in organic matter1 excited  
by the presence of minute  organisms    
very common in the neighbourhood of man4
    ,this discovery was applied in the  
first place to surgery4 ,lord ,lister1  
then a surgeon in ,scotland1 showed that
 the festering of wounds was due  to the
 entrance of minute organisms4          
,following this clue1 he succeeded1  by 
the use of dressings1 in preventing the 
contamination of wounds and  at once saw
 a vast reduction in deaths following   
surgical operations4  ,since the        
discovery of ansthetics1 such as ether1 
chloroform1 and  cocaine1 and the use of
 germ-free dressings1 surgery has been  
developed  in a marvellous fashion4 ,the
 varied and delicate feats of abdominal 
operation are known to all1 and recently
 surgery of the heart has become        
possible4    ,a comparison of the       
mortality of the wounded in the         
different wars of  the nineteenth       
century affords an excellent means of   
gauging the  progress of surgical       

treatment of gunshot wounds4 ,the       
mortality of the  wounded among the     
,english troops in the ,crimean war     
reached #ae4ba per  cent42 in the       
,french troops in ,italy in #ahei-ahfj1 
it was #ag4cf per  cent42 in the ,german
 army in #ahgj-ahga1 the years in which 
antiseptic  surgery came into use1 it   
fell to #aa4jg per cent42 while in the  
,spanish-,american war in #ahih1 in the 
most brilliant period of modern         
surgery1 the percentage mortality of    
wounded had fallen to #f4fd4bfg ,in  the
 recent ,transvaal war1 the mortality   
was half what it had been in the        
,franco-,german war4#bfh    ,new medical
 knowledge1 founded on the discovery of 
the nature of  ferments and of the virus
 of infection1 has reformed the practice
 of  midwifery to such an extent that   
puerperal fever1 formerly one of the    
great scourges of humanity1 is now      
extremely rare4    ,blindness acquired  
at birth1 which formerly rendered many  
lives  extremely miserable1 is now      

practically completely prevented1 by    
means  of the precautions taken to      
hinder the child from being contaminated
 by  the mother in the process of birth4
 ,the most successful method is that    
which was suggested by ,cred1#bfi a     
,german physician1 and consists in      
placing in the pupils of the infant a   
minute drop of nitrate of silver1  which
 is an antiseptic1 and prevents the     
occurrence of ocular  blennorrhagia4    
,appendicitis1 a disease so common that 
,i referred to it in chap4 iv4 as  one  
of the most salient examples of         
disharmony in the human  constitution1  
has been resolutely attacked by medical 
science4 ,in some  cases1 surgical      
interference makes a definite end of the
 disease2 in  other cases medical       
treatment has been enough to subdue the 
symptoms  without recourse to operation4
    ,for a considerable period1 those of
 a sceptical disposition asserted  that 
the advance of bacteriological knowledge
 was of service only in  surgical cases4

 ,but ,pasteur showed that this was an  
erroneous view4  ,working with          
,chamberland and ,roux1 ,pasteur        
demonstrated that many  infectious      
diseases could be prevented by the use  
of attenuated virus2  he succeeded in   
saving the lives of many animals and of 
men1 bitten by  rabid dogs and affected 
by hydrophobia1 a disease formerly      
almost  invariably fatal and among the  
most horrible to which man is liable4   
,in the latter direction1 medical       
science is developing at an             
extraordinary rate1 and is achieving    
results of a remarkable nature4  ,among 
recent discoveries1 ,i may mention that 
of the curative properties  of the blood
 serum of animals which have been       
subjected to the action  either of      
microbes or of the soluble products of  
microbes4 ,von ,behring1  working with  
the ,kitasato1 a ,japanese investigator1
 has shown that a  serum of this nature1
 prepared with the poison produced by   
the microbe  of diphtheria 7the poison  

was discovered by ,roux in collaboration
 with  ,yersin71 is capable not only of 
protecting those in good health from    
diphtheria1 but of curing those who have
 been attacked by the disease4  ,the    
serum fails to act only when it is      
employed in advanced cases of           
diphtheria4    ,anti-diphtheritic serum1
 introduced into medical practice about 
eight  years ago1 has been tried in     
every way and has been proved to possess
  both preventive and curative          
properties4 ,if patients still die from 
diphtheria1 it is only because the      
treatment has been applied too late  or 
insufficiently4    ,the use of the      
anti-diphtheritic serum has reduced the 
mortality in  cases of diphtheria from  
#ej or even #fj per cent4 to #ab or #ad 
per cent4  ,the number of infant lives  
that have been saved by this method must
 be  enormous4    ,the beneficent       
discovery of the curative value of      
serums has been  applied to other       
diseases and is giving very encouraging 

results4 ,i  cannot go into details     
here1 but it is enough to say that in   
the last  quarter of a century medicine 
has entered a new epoch1 and has taken  
its  place among other exact sciences   
based on the experimental method4       
,although it is not surprising that in  
so short a space of time science  has   
not yet conquered all the ills affecting
 humanity1 this failure has  provoked   
the most severe criticism4    8,indeed10
 one of the critics has said1 8you vaunt
 the progress of  medical science at a  
time when you have to confess that it   
has failed to  cure tuberculosis1 one of
 the gravest of the infectious diseases1
 which  alone causes the death of a     
sixth part of the human race40 ,it is   
true  that the infectious nature of this
 scourge was announced by ,villemin     
more than forty years ago4 ,twenty years
 have passed since ,koch1 the  ,german  
bacteriologist1 discovered the microbe  
that produces not only the  ordinary    
form of pulmonary consumption but all   

other varieties of  tuberculosis4 ,and  
we are still ignorant of any remedy for 
the disease4  ,in all the               
bacteriological institutes and          
laboratories search is being  made for  
some vaccine or serum or medicament     
which will arrest a disease  that in    
many cases nature herself cures4 ,but   
the results amount  practically to      
nothing4    ,this is certainly a good   
example of the failure of science4 ,none
 the  less a closer examination shows   
that even with the knowledge already    
gained we could deal with tuberculosis  
in a manner more efficacious than  is   
the existing practice4 ,when the        
infectious nature of the disease had    
been made known1 before waiting for the 
discovery by ,koch of the actual        
bacillus1 we should have employed all   
the known modes of destroying           
infectious matter4 ,in spite of all that
 has been said and written on the       
subject1 people still spit on the floors
 of omnibuses and cars and on  street   

pavements4 ,tuberculosis is propagated  
not because of the failure  of science1 
but because of the ignorance and        
stupidity of the  population4 ,to       
diminish the spread of tuberculosis1 of 
typhoid fever1 of  dysentery1 and of    
many other diseases1 it is necessary    
only to follow  the rules of scientific 
hygiene1 without waiting for specific   
remedies4    ,although the science of   
to-day is sufficiently armed against the
  diseases commonly known as infectious1
 the case is very different with  some  
other affections1 among which the chief 
place is taken by malignant  tumours1 or
 cancers1 in the most general sense of  
the word4    ,there are few maladies    
more terrible1 for they practically     
never  disappear spontaneously1 and     
surgery can remove them successfully    
only  if they have been recognised at an
 early stage4 ,every year a number of   
persons1 old and young1 die victims of  
malignant tumours1 and it is even       
possible that cancer is more prevalent  

now than in former times4 ,it has  been 
suggested that the increase of cancer is
 due to the greater  longevity among    
modern races1 and as malignant tumours  
are most common  in old persons1 it may 
well be that the prolongation of life   
has given  this disease a larger field4 
,however1 even allowing for this1 it is 
probable that there is a real increase  
of cancer4    ,unquestionably the       
malignant tumours are the diseases most 
disappointing  to medicine and surgery1 
and these sciences are as much at a loss
 with  regard to them as in the case of 
infectious diseases before the          
discovery of pathogenic organisms4      
,science is perhaps even in worse case  
with regard to cancer than it formerly  
was with regard to infectious  diseases1
 for1 before the discovery of microbes1 
something was known of  the virus which 
produces infection4 ,thus the virus of  
smallpox was  known1 and was used1 by   
the method of inoculation1 to prevent   
more  serious attacks of the disease4   

,nearly a century before the discoveries
  of ,pasteur1 ,jenner had been able to 
be of the greatest service to  mankind  
by his discovery that the virus of      
cow-pox could be used as a  preventive  
of infection by smallpox4    ,in the    
case of malignant tumours1 we do not    
even know their real nature2  we are    
ignorant as to whether or no they are   
infectious1 and whether  they are caused
 by a microbe coming from without or are
 due to internal  changes of the        
tissues4 ,our ignorance1 however1       
affords no ground for  despair4 ,it is  
probable that the malignant tumours will
 soon come to be  ranged with infectious
 diseases due to invasions by specific  
microbes4  ,experiments on the cancers  
in rats and mice have shown that these  
can be  inoculated in the same manner as
 in the case of the recognised          
infectious diseases4 ,hanau has shown   
that this occurs in the case of         
epithelioma of old rats2 ,morau#bgj has 
succeeded in transferring the  cancers  

of white mice1 and his results have been
 confirmed by  ,jensen#bga and          
,borr#bgb1 in the ,institut ,pasteur4   
,these  investigations mark the         
beginning of a new stage in the         
knowledge of  tumours4 ,i am unable to  
see1 therefore that the malignant       
tumours  provide a satisfactory argument
 in favour of a pessimistic conception  
of  the universe4    ,dr4 ,boas1 of     
,berlin1#bgc in a recent publication1   
has laid stress on  the fact that most  
patients affected with cancer do not    
seek medical aid  until the disease is  
far advanced4 ,for instance1 in #hj per 
cent4 of the  cases of cancer of the    
rectum that he had attended1 the        
patients  presented themselves too late 
for operation4 ,boas advised that the   
attention of the public should be drawn1
 by means of widespread  publication1 to
 the earliest symptoms of cancerous     
disease4 ,he thought  that such a course
 might save many lives by making        
possible operation in  early stages4    

,the prevention and treatment of        
disease1 which for long was in the hands
  of religious authorities1 is now      
passing into the care of those who      
employ the methods of scientific        
medicine4 ,it is now only in the case of
  certain nervous maladies1 which can be
 treated by suggestion1 that  religion  
has any important part to play4 ,i have 
not thought it necessary  to expound at 
length the work of science in the       
struggle against  disease1 because the  
evidence on this point is extremely     
clear and  precise4 ,every one must     
accept it1 and even the passionate      
enemies of  science have to bow before  
the fact4    ,however1 the problem has  
been changed4 ,science they now admit1  
is  capable1 no doubt1 of assuaging     
humanity in its sufferings from this or 
the other disease4 ,but there is another
 question4 ,disease is only an  episode 
in human life1 and the great problems   
remain unsolved by  science4 ,it is not 
enough to cure a man of diphtheria or   

intermittent  fever2 it is necessary to 
explain what the destiny of man is1 and 
why he  must grow old and die at a time 
when his desire to live is strongest4   
,here1 plainly1 all science must fail1  
and here must begin the beneficent  work
 of religion and philosophy4 ,but as    
science is constantly casting  doubt on 
the dogmas of religion1 and criticising 
adversely the systems  of philosophy1 it
 is plain1 that so far from being of    
service1 science  is actually harmful to
 mankind4    ,the campaign against      
science was opened long ago4 ,in the    
eighteenth  century ,rousseau#bgd opened
 it with brilliancy and zest worthy of  
his  reputation4 ,he defended his theme 
with vigour and eloquence and the       
following quotations may serve as an    
example1 8,know ,o people10 he wrote1   
8that nature has desired to preserve you
 from science as a mother tries  to     
snatch a dangerous weapon from the hands
 of her child2 that the  secrets which  
she has hidden from you are evils from  

which she would  preserve you1 and that 
one of her greatest gifts is the        
difficulty with  which knowledge is     
acquired4 ,human beings are perverse1   
but they would  have been worse had they
 had the misfortune to be born learned  
men4#bge  ,our sciences are futile in so
 far as they fail to attain their       
objects1  but they are worse than futile
 in the results that they bring about4  
,born of idleness1 they cherish their   
mother--,tell me1 illustrious           
philosophers1 you from whom we know why 
matter attracts matter1 the  relations  
of the orbits traced by revolving       
planets1 the mathematical  properties of
 curves1 what stars may be inhabited1   
what insects exhibit  curious modes of  
reproduction2 tell me1 ,i say1 you from 
whom we have  gained such marvellous    
information1 if you had never learned of
 these  things1 should we have been less
 numerous1 less well governed1 less     
flourishing1 or worse disposed80#bgf    
,such words were capable of impressing  

men because of their eloquence and      
sincerity1 but they could not arrest the
 continued and triumphant  advance of   
science1 which indeed1 precisely at the 
end of the eighteenth  century1 began   
its modern and lasting progress4 ,for it
 was then that  ,laplace described the  
system of the heavens and that          
,lavoisier laid the  foundation of      
modern chemistry and of our knowledge of
 the  indestructibility of matter4      
,in the nineteenth century1 science has 
made a revolution in life by its        
application of steam and by its other   
triumphs4 ,none the less it has not     
satisfied many distinguished persons4   
,and to-day we find a writer of  genius1
 in the manner of ,rousseau1 raising his
 voice against the science  of the      
nineteenth century4    ,tolstoi1 in an  
essay of which the title is1 8,on the   
,aim of ,science and  ,art10 has        
attempted to show the incompetence of   
science with regard to  the great       
problems that occupy humanity4 ,the task

 set himself by the  ,russian writer was
 much harder than that of ,rousseau1 for
 with the  passing of a century science 
has become much more powerful4          
,tolstoi is convinced that theoretical  
investigations into the origin of  life1
 the intimate structure of living matter
 and so forth1 are of no  importance to 
human beings1 and serve no other purpose
 than to flatter  the pretensions of the
 learned4 8,all that we call culture10  
he affirmed1  8our sciences1 our arts1  
improvements in the amenity of life1 are
 no  other than attempts to deceive the 
moral cravings of mankind2 all that  we 
call hygiene and medicine are no other  
than attempts to deceive the  physical  
and natural cravings of mankind40#bgg   
,the whole progress of science 8up to   
the present time1 has not only not      
improved the lot of the majority of     
mankind1 that is to say of the          
labourers1 but has made it worse40#bgh  
,tolstoi thinks that the epithet 8true  
science0 could be given only to         

8knowledge of the right aim and true    
happiness of each individual and of     
mankind as a whole4 ,such a science     
would serve as a guiding thread in      
determining the proper sphere of all    
knowledge02 8without knowledge of  the  
proper aim of life and of the real good 
of humanity1 all other  knowledge and   
every art become merely amusements idle 
or even  harmful40#bgi    ,the chief    
grievance of the great ,russian writer  
against knowledge1  culture1 and        
progress can be resolved into the       
powerlessness of these to  explain the  
most difficult problems of humanity1    
that is to say the real  aim of human   
life1 and what really constitutes true  
happiness4    ,in this connection1      
,tolstoi gives expression to a view     
which is shared  by many thinkers4 ,some
 years later1 ,brunetire1#bhj a         
well-known ,french  writer and public   
man1 under the influence of a recent    
journey to ,rome  and visit to the      
,pope1 made public a similar opinion1   

and proclaimed  aloud the fallibility of
 science4    ,brunetire made his        
criticism as follows3 8,for the last two
 or three  centuries1 science has       
promised to change the face of the      
earth1 to  dispel every mystery2 she has
 not done so4 ,she is powerless to      
resolve  the sole problems that are     
essential1 that concern the origin of   
man1  the rules for his conduct1 and his
 future destiny4 ,we know now that      
natural science can teach us none of    
these matters4 ,thus1 in the battle     
between science and religion1 science   
has been defeated1 because she has  had 
to admit her powerlessness precisely    
where religion is most strong4  ,for    
religion gives the solutions that       
science has failed to supply4  ,religion
 teaches us what we can learn neither   
from anatomy nor from  physiology1 that 
is to say1 what we are1 whither we are  
going1 and how  we ought to act4        
,religion and science supplement each   
other2 and1 as  science can do nothing  

for morality1 it becomes the duty of    
religion to  take her place40    ,it has
 been replied to ,brunetire1 that his   
recriminations are  unfounded1 first1   
because science has never undertaken to 
solve the  great problems of the aim of 
life and the proper basis of morality2  
next1 because it is probable that these 
problems will never be solved by  the   
human understanding4 ,charles ,richet1 a
 well-known ,french  physiologist1 made 
a vain effort to find any written       
evidence that  science had promised to  
solve the great problems which have     
absorbed the  attention of ,tolstoi and 
,brunetire as well as of quite a large  
section  of humanity4 8,in what standard
 works has science made the astonishing 
promises that ,m4 ,brunetire recalls    
with so much bitterness80 asked         
,richet4#bha 8,i have now before me10 he
 proceeded1 8the ,manuel du  baccalaurat
 s sciences 7,guide to a ,degree in     
,science74 ,it is a summary  of         
contemporary scientific ideas4 ,i have  

looked through it in vain for           
promises--it contains no promises40#bhb 
,the promises referred to must be looked
 for in scientific treatises that  deal 
in generalisations4 ,it is not to be    
disputed that1 since the  renaissance in
 ,europe of the rational and sceptical  
spirit1 that is to  say1 in the last two
 or three centuries1 the view has been  
proclaimed  that all human life may be  
regulated by natural laws without the   
interposition of dogmas1 either         
metaphysical or religious4 ,attempts of 
this kind have been numerous4 ,bchner1  
in his treatise on 8,force and          
,matter10 in which he tried to give a   
general conception of the universe      
based on the scientific knowledge of the
 nineteenth century1 made very  plain   
statements on this point4 8,we must seek
 the foundation of  morality10 said the 
,german populariser1 8elsewhere than in 
the timeworn  and fantastic belief in   
the supernatural4 ,science must replace 
religion2  belief in the real existence 

of a natural and immutable order in     
things  must displace belief in spirits 
and ghosts2 natural moral law must take 
the place of artificial or dogmatic     
morality40#bhc ,bchner even tried  to   
indicate what natural morality is4      
,according to him it is 8the law of     
mutual consideration of the equal rights
 of each person1 both from the  general 
and the individual point of view1 so as 
to assure the greatest  happiness of the
 greatest number4 ,everything that      
damages or destroys  the common good is 
#8evil2' everything that favours it is  
#8good4'0    ,the other question1 as to 
whither we are going1 finds an answer in
 the  materialistic and scientific      
breviary of ,bchner4 ,he disputes the   
idea  of immortality1 which has been    
supported by nearly all the religions1  
and comes to the conclusion that there  
is nothing appalling to a man1  8imbued 
with the principles of philosophy1 in   
the conception of the  annihilation of  
the individual life40 8,annihilation is 

perfect rest2 it  is freedom from all   
pain and escape from the sensations that
 torture the  body and the mind--as was 
explained so clearly in the great       
religion of  ,buddha2 it is not to be   
feared1 but rather to be coveted when   
life has  reached its normal term and   
when old age has come with its          
inevitable  assemblage of infirmities40 
,i do not wish to suggest that the views
 ,i have just quoted are peculiar  to   
,bchner4 ,that writer has served to a   
large extent as the mouthpiece  of ideas
 current among the materialistic and    
positivist men of science  of his time4 
,in ,haeckel's book1 8,the ,riddle of   
the ,universe10 which  appeared nearly  
half a century after the first edition  
of 8,force and  ,matter10 the same ideas
 are to be found4 ,he also has found    
answers to  the questions that absorb   
mankind4 ,in his opinion also1 as ,i    
have shown  in chap4 v4 the problem of  
natural morality resolves itself into   
the  social instincts of man1 and has   

nothing to do with religious dogma4 ,as 
for the destiny of man1 he concludes as 
follows3 8,the best end we can  desire  
after a courageous life1 spent in doing 
good according to our  light1 is the    
eternal peace of the grave40#bhd        
,there is a very close resemblance      
between the views of the two great      
popularisers of the nineteenth century4 
,just as ,bchner1 to show the  stupidity
 of the idea of eternal life1 repeated  
the legend of the  8,wandering ,jew10 so
 ,haeckel1 with the same object1 related
 the legend of  the unhappy 8,ahasuerus0
 who sought death vainly1 finding his   
eternal  life intolerable4 8,however    
gloriously we may depict this eternal   
life in  paradise1 in the end it would  
be a fearful burden to the best of men40
    ,while there is no doubt but that   
such ideas are shared by many men who   
rely on scientific arguments1 there are 
others to whom the problem  presents    
itself differently4 ,the ,german        
physiologist1 ,du ,bois ,reymond1  after

 reflecting on the general problems of  
knowledge and the universe1  proclaimed 
an 8,ignorabimus0 as a warning that a   
whole series of problems  of the highest
 importance to humanity were outside the
 range of human  knowledge and incapable
 of solution4 ,these problems were      
precisely the  seven 8riddles of the    
universe0 that ,haeckel claimed to have 
solved in  his book4    ,many learned   
men think that the great problems1      
those1 according to  ,tolstoi1 that     
constitute the only true science1 can   
never be solved4  8,every day there     
comes a new conquest10 said ,richet1#bhe
 8but we are no  nearer solution of the 
ultimate enigma1 the destiny of human   
life1 an  enigma probably never to be   
solved40 ,philosophers have taken the   
same  view4 8,it cannot be from         
science10 said ,guyau1 8that personality
 is to  require the proofs of its own   
durability40#bhf    ,the answers given  
by science as it exists to-day1 have    
failed to console  the spirits that have

 applied to her4 ,when ,richet1 in the  
discussion on  the 8bankruptcy of       
science0 recalled the discovery of      
treatment of  diphtheria by specific    
serums as an instance of the value of   
scientific  research1 ,brunetire        
replied1 8,serum therapy cannot prevent 
us from  dying1 nor tell us why we must 
die40 ,the problem of death always      
recurs4  ,what is the use of saving the 
life of a child smitten by diphtheria   
only  that it may grow up1 and by       
learning the inevitability of death     
become  filled with terror8    ,if      
science be really powerless before the  
gravest problems that torture  mankind1 
if she has to excuse herself by         
admitting her incompetence1 if  she can 
do no better than to extol the silent   
annihilation of the grave1  it is not   
surprising that many minds and these not
 the least capable1  turn from her4 ,the
 desire to find some consolation in the 
miseries of a  purposeless existence    
throws them into the arms of religion or

  metaphysics4 ,here lies the           
explanation of the actual return in     
these  days to faith4 ,people plunge    
into mysticism hoping to find there     
something more comforting than the      
annihilation offered by science4    ,in 
all ranks of modern society there are   
signs of this craving for the           
supernatural4 ,it is therefore extremely
 interesting to follow the  intimate    
steps of such an abandonment of science 
and return to faith4  ,the              
8,confessions0 of ,tolstoi gave one of  
the best examples of the  metamorphosis4
    ,having reached the conclusion that 
life is meaningless because it cannot   
be harmonised with the fear of death and
 the prospect of absolute  annihilation1
 ,tolstoi 7see chap4 vi47 asked if it   
were not possible to  solve the great   
problem of human existence by means of  
the facts of  science4 8,i searched in  
all the sciences10 he said1 8and not    
only found  nothing myself1 but became  
convinced that all who sought would find

  nothing4 ,not only would they find    
nothing1 but they would see clearly     
precisely what had driven me to despair1
 the fact that the absurdity of  life is
 the sole indisputable bit of knowledge 
open to man40 8,for a long  time1       
observing the grave and solemn tones of 
the exact sciences1 which  indeed1      
hardly touched the problem of life1 it  
seemed to me that they  must be         
concealing something that ,i did not    
understand40    ,all the while1 the     
question that ,tolstoi put to himself   
seemed simple  enough3 8,why am ,i to   
keep alive8 ,why am ,i to do anything80 
or1 in  another way3 8,has life any     
object that is not destroyed by the     
inevitable death that awaits me8 ,to the
 one question1 put in many ways1  ,i    
sought an answer in human knowledge40   
8,from my earliest youth the            
speculative sciences interested me      
deeply4 ,later on1 the mathematical  and
 physical sciences attracted me1 and    
until my question rose up  clearly      

before me1 day by day growing larger1   
and imperatively demanding  an answer1  
until then ,i was satisfied with the    
semblance of an answer  given by        
science40 8,i said to myself2 everything
 is evolving1  differentiating1 moving  
towards complexity and amelioration1 and
 the  progress is under the guidance of 
law4 ,you1 you yourself are part of     
this whole40 8,although ,i am deeply    
ashamed to confess it1 there was a  time
 when ,i thought myself content with    
these things4 ,my muscles grew  and     
became stronger4 ,my memory added to its
 stores4 ,my ability for  thinking and  
understanding increased4 ,i grew and    
developed1 and feeling  the growth      
within me1 it seemed natural to believe 
that the solution of  my own life was   
given by the law of the whole universe4 
,but the time  came when ,i stopped     
growing4 ,i felt that ,i was no longer  
developing and  even that ,i was        
slipping back4 ,my muscles weakened2 my 
teeth dropped  out2 and ,i felt that    

this law not only explained nothing1 not
 only had  never explained anything1 but
 had not been a law at all2 that in fact
 ,i  had taken for a law what ,i found  
in myself at a particular stage of my   
life40    8,as ,i found no explanation  
in science10 ,tolstoi went on1 in his   
poignant  narrative1 8,i began to look  
for the answer in life1 hoping to find  
it in  the men around me40 8,my         
intellect was at work1 but also         
something else1  something that ,i can  
call only the consciousness of life1    
like some  strong force that compelled  
my intellect to turn in another         
direction  and to rescue me from my     
desperate condition40    ,the new       
direction was the feeling of faith4     
8,however ,i might put to  myself the   
question3 how must ,i live8 the answer  
was--by the law of ,god4  ,whither tends
 my present life8 ,to eternal pain or to
 blessedness  everlasting4 ,how is my   
life not destroyed by death8 ,by eternal
 union  with ,god1 by heaven4 ,and thus 

,i was led inevitably to see that quite 
independently of human knowledge1 which 
formerly seemed to me the only  guide1  
mankind had another guide1 a guide that 
is irrational2 faith  which makes life  
possible4 ,faith seemed to be as        
irrational as ever1 but  ,i could not   
but recognise that faith alone gave     
mankind an answer to the  problem of    
life1 and in consequence made life      
possible4 ,reason had led  me to the    
conviction that life was absurd1 and so1
 there being no longer  a reason to     
live1 ,i had wished to kill myself4     
,looking at mankind as a  whole1 ,i saw 
that men kept alive by assuring         
themselves that they saw a  meaning in  
life4 ,i myself came back to that point 
of view4 ,i had reached  a time when    
there seemed to me to be no meaning in  
life4 ,but as to other  men1 so to me1  
life and the possibility of living were 
offered by  faith40    ,driven in the   
direction of faith1 ,tolstoi reached the
 following  conclusion3 8,the object of 

a man's life is the salvation of his    
soul2  for that1 we must live in ,god1  
and to live in ,god it is necessary to  
give up the pleasures of life1 to work1 
to submit1 to suffer and to be          
charitable40 ,and this conclusion led to
 the other that 8a faith has  value in  
so far as it gives a meaning to life    
which is not destroyed by  death40      
,it is plain then that all this         
evolution1 the beginning of which was   
the  fear of death1 ended in belief in  
something beyond death4 ,and it is also 
plain why ,tolstoi should have been as  
bitter against science as ,i have  shown
 him to be4 ,tolstoi does not afford the
 only example of a case  where the      
failure of science to solve the problem 
of death has led to  the abandonment of 
science in favour of religion4          
,brunetire1 if it is  possible to judge 
from his published writings1 traversed  
similar paths  in his journey to the    
,catholic religion4    ,however1 even an
 intellect so positive and so sceptical 

as that of ,zola  has been unable to    
resist the lures of faith4 ,there is a  
very  interesting note on this subject  
in the ,journal of de ,goncourt1 dated  
,february #bj1 #ahhc4 8,to-night1 after 
dinner1 at the foot of the bedstead  of 
carved wood1 where coffee was served1   
,zola began to talk of death1 on  which 
his thoughts have been fixed more than  
ever since the death of his  mother4    
,after a short silence1 he said that    
death had made an in-road on  the       
nihilism of his religious convictions1  
as he could not face the  possibility of
 an eternal separation40    ,in strata  
of society less impregnated with        
rational and scientific  thought1 it is 
plain that the return to religion must  
be more common4 ,i  recall the case of a
 woman of the people1 a workwoman1 who  
declared that  she formerly had had no  
belief1 but that1 since the birth of her
 son1  she had begun to believe in the  
good ,god1 as she was convinced that it 
was only by such a belief that she could

 guard the life of her child  from the  
evils of the world4    ,as things are1  
it is not wonderful that many people    
decline to educate  their children in an
 exclusively scientific spirit1 which is
 destructive  to faith1 as they cannot  
substitute for faith something equally  
consoling4 ,perhaps ideas of this kind  
lie behind the story of the apple  of   
the ,garden of ,eden and the invention  
of the words of ,jahveh3 8,but of  the  
tree of the knowledge of good and evil1 
thou shalt not eat of it3  for in the   
day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt 
surely die0 7,genesis  ii4 #ag74 ,the   
legend of ,prometheus1 who stole fire   
from heaven1 and was  chained to a rock1
 is in the same category4    ,solomon   
gave voice to the same idea1 in the     
clearest way1 in his words3  8,i        
communed with mine own heart1 saying1   
,lo1 ,i am come to great estate1  and   
have gotten more wisdom than all they   
that have been before me in  ,jerusalem2
 yea1 my heart had great experience of  

wisdom and knowledge4    8,and ,i gave  
my heart to know wisdom1 and to know    
madness and folly3 ,i  perceived that   
this also is vexation of spirit4        
8,for in much wisdom is much grief3 and 
he that increaseth knowledge1           
increaseth sorrow0 7,ecclesiastes1 i4   
#af74    ,much later1 ,shakespeare      
offered to us in ,hamlet1 the type of a 
man  very highly cultivated1 in whom    
reason and reflection had arrested      
action4 ,as he could not solve by reason
 the problems that haunted him1  he     
asked if it were worth while to remain  
alive4 ,then followed the  famous lines3
                8,thus conscience does  
make cowards of us all1                 
,and thus the native hue of resolution  
,is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of 
thought40    ,as so many men of genius  
have taken the same point of view1 it   
becomes  necessary to inquire carefully 
as to whether or no too much knowledge  
be  harmful to human happiness4 ,if     
science do no more than to destroy faith

  and to teach us that the whole living 
world is moving towards a  knowledge of 
inevitable old age and death1 it becomes
 necessary to ask  if the perilous march
 of science should not be stayed4 ,is it
 that the  attraction of mankind to     
knowledge is as dangerous to the race1  
as the  attraction of moths to the light
 is fatal to these wretched insects8    
,the  question demands an exact answer4 
,but before giving the verdict1 the     
facts of the case must be examined4 ,i  
shall proceed to this in the  chapters  
to follow4                              
,,chapter ,x              ,,introduction
 ,,to ,,the ,,scientific ,,study ,,of   
,,old ,,age        ,general account of  
old age--,theory of senile degeneration 
amongst    unicellular                  
organisms--,conjugation amongst         
infusoria--,old age in    birds and     
anthropoid apes--,general characters of 
senile    degeneration--,sclerosis of   
the organs--,phagocyte theory of senile 
degeneration--,destruction of higher    

elements by macrophags--,mechanism of   
whitening of the hair--,serums acting on
 cells 7cytotoxins7--,sclerosis of      
the arteries and its causation--,harm   
done by the microbes of the             
alimentary canal--,intestinal           
putrefaction and the modes of preventing
    it--,attempts to prolong human      
life--,longevity in biblical times      
,while ,i cannot share the views of     
those who turn from science to seek     
truth and consolation in religion1 it   
would be wrong to ignore or to be       
indifferent to the existence of that    
attitude4 ,there are men who are        
tormented by the contradiction between  
the desire of life and the              
inevitability of death1 and when these  
demand some solution of the  problem1 it
 is unreasonable merely to say that they
 are too exacting and  should learn     
contentment4    ,if a man complains to  
his physician of uncontrollable hunger  
and thirst1  he is not told that it is  
wrong to be so greedy1 and that that    

fault  could be mastered by strength of 
mind4 ,the doctor carefully examines the
  patient and does what he can for the  
distressing symptoms1 which1  indeed1 in
 this case are generally due to         
diabetes4 ,those who hunger and  thirst 
after eternal life1 ought to be         
similarly treated by men of  science    
whose duty it is to ameliorate their    
sufferings as much as  possible4        
,science has undoubtedly gone far in the
 successful treatment of disease1  both 
as regards prevention and cure1 but it  
is powerless before those  other evils  
from which ,buddha implored his father  
to grant him  exemption--old age and    
death4 ,science has attained to heights 
of  knowledge undreamed of by ,buddha's 
father1 ,king ,couddhdana1 and yet it   
knows no more than he did with regard to
 the problem of old age and  death4     
,like the king1 science can but reply to
 its questioners3 8,you ask  the        
impossible4 ,i cannot help you60    ,not
 only is no remedy for old age known to 

science1 but little or  nothing is known
 with regard to that period in the lives
 of men and  animals4 ,it was no easy   
task to compress an account of the      
present  position of medicine within a  
few pages1 the subject matter being     
overwhelming in quantity4 ,with regard  
to old age it is quite the  contrary1   
our knowledge being so limited that the 
subject may be dealt  with in a few     
lines4 ,with the advance of years1 man  
and the higher  animals undergo         
important modifications4 ,they become   
weaker1 the body  shrinks1 the hair     
whitens1 and the teeth decay2 in fact1  
all the  phenomena connected with senile
 decay manifest themselves4    ,at this 
period of life which overtakes various  
species of animals at  different ages1  
the body becomes an easy prey to        
pernicious influences  and diseases4    
,the direct cause of death cannot always
 be determined1 and  is attributed to   
the general breaking up of the system   
which we call  natural death4 ,the first

 question which presents itself to the  
scientific mind is whether this         
degeneration or senile decay is proper  
only to man and the higher animals1 or  
is common to all forms of life4  ,we    
have all seen very old trees1 the       
appearance of which proclaims their     
age4 ,the trunk is decayed1 the bark    
gnarled1 the branches shrivelled1  and  
the leaves scanty4 ,some kinds of trees 
live for hundreds--possibly             
thousands--of years1 while others age   
with comparative rapidity4 ,senile      
decay is not unknown in the vegetable   
kingdom1 and its presence is  suspected 
even among creatures of very simple     
organisation belonging to  the group of 
infusoria4 ,these creatures may be      
reared with ease in  vessels containing 
macerations of chopped hay or leaves4   
,they multiply  by means of division    
7,fig4 #ab71 an operation which takes   
place at very  short intervals1 some of 
them dividing nearly every hour4 ,owing 
to this  rapid multiplication the       

vessels soon become full of a mass of   
infusoria4 ,m4 ,maupas1#bhg a very      
distinguished zoologist1 observed that  
the infusoria became smaller and smaller
 after a number of generations1         
exhausting themselves1 as it were1 and  
perishing unless two individuals        
succeed in uniting4 ,this process of    
8conjugation0 7,fig4 #ac71 involves an  
exchange of portions of the bodies of   
the two creatures and brings about  a   
complete rejuvenescence of the two      
individuals4 ,after conjugation1 a      
process essentially similar to the      
details of sexual fertilisation1 the    
infusoria resume the normal appearance  
and again become capable of             
reproduction by simple division for many
 generations4    ,illustration3         
,,fig4 #ab4 ,paramecium about to divide 
in two4      ,the periodical debility1  
which precedes conjugation is1 according
 to  ,maupas1 an instance of senile     
degeneration among infusoria4 ,he has   
recognised its existence in the case of 

many species of the higher  infusoria   
7,ciliata71 but while this phenomenon   
has been observed in  the case of many  
other simple organisms1 it cannot be set
 down as  universal among microscopic   
beings4 ,among bacteria1 a group that   
includes the greater number of          
pathogenic organisms1 conjugation has   
been very rarely observed4 ,even the    
largest kinds1 such as1 for  instance1  
the anthrax bacillus1 may be propagated 
for a long series of  generations       
without the occurrence of conjugation4  
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #ac4         
,conjugation of two ,paramecia 7after   
,btschli74      ,even in the case of the
 infusoria which by means of the process
 of  conjugation can reproduce          
indefinitely1 the preconjugal debility  
cannot  be identified with the senile   
degeneration of human beings1 the higher
  animals and trees4 ,in all these      
debility is the antecedent1 not of      
conjugation and rejuvenescence1 but of  
the end of life4    ,another important  

difference is that in the case of       
infusoria the  preconjugal debility does
 not occur in every individual1 as is   
the case  with the animals and plants   
which display real old age4 ,in the     
infusoria  an indefinite number of      
generations occur between the           
individuals that  display debility and  
those that are ready for conjugation4   
,if1 in spite of these differences1 we  
were to insist on the existence of  an  
essential resemblance between senile    
degeneration in man and  preconjugal    
debility in infusoria1 it would be      
enough to reflect on the  result of     
applying to the case of man what is an  
infallible remedy in  the case of the   
infusoria4 ,for conjugation brings about
 a real  rejuvenescence of the infusoria
 and a similar event in the case of man 
would only increase the debility4       
,moreover1 according to recent          
investigations of ,calkins1#bhh         
infusoria1 weakened by degeneration1 may
  become young again not only by        

conjugating with their kind1 but by the 
addition of bouillon or extract of brain
 to the medium in which they  live4     
,real old age is a phase of existence in
 which the natural forces abate  never  
to be renewed4 ,in animals1 the life    
cycle of which is very  definite1 the   
signs of senile degeneration are not    
visible4 ,insects1 in  the adult        
condition1 very often live only a short 
time1 and die without  displaying the   
slightest mark of age4 ,in the case of  
lower vertebrates1  old age is little   
known1 and has few signs4 ,on the other 
hand1 mammals  and birds display senile 
atrophy in a marked fashion4    ,some   
species of birds live to a great age1   
longevity being more common  than among 
mammals4 ,cases in which birds such as  
geese1 swans1 ravens1  and some birds of
 prey1 have been known to reach the age 
of fifty  years1#bhi are not uncommon1  
whereas such an event is very rare in   
the  case of a mammal4 ,even small      
birds1 such as canaries1 may live as    

long  as twenty years4 ,parrots are     
especially long-lived birds4 ,cockatoos 
have  been known to reach the age of    
eighty years and more4 ,i myself have   
had  opportunities of observing a ,south
 ,american parakeet 7,chrysotis         
amazonica7 which lived more than        
eighty-two years1 longer than is usual  
even with parrakeets4 ,several years    
before it died the bird showed          
unmistakable signs of old age4 ,it      
became less lively1 its plumage1        
although it did not whiten1 lost much of
 its brightness1 and the joints  of the 
claws showed evidence of the presence of
 disease4 ,in short1 the  parrakeet was 
obviously worn out and debilitated4     
,mammals show the signs of age even more
 plainly than do birds4 ,a dog  reveals 
old age by its slow movements1 its white
 hairs1 and worn teeth4  ,the appearance
 of such an animal is never agreeable1  
while it is often  dirty and            
ill-tempered4 ,brehm describes the old  
age of a dog as follows3  8,at twelve   

years of age a dog has grown old1 and   
his gait and whole  organisation show   
signs of age4 ,the coat is no longer    
glossy2 the  forehead and muzzle are    
grey1 the teeth are blunted or have     
fallen out4  ,the animal is lazy and    
apathetic4 ,many such dogs are dumb and 
blind4  ,dogs may live for twenty1 six  
and twenty1 or even thirty years1 but   
such  cases are most unusual40    ,as   
the dog is a domesticated animal1 it    
might be argued that its old  age1 with 
its manifest signs of decrepitude1 is   
the result of the  artificial conditions
 of its life4 ,to decide on this point  
it is  necessary to examine an instance 
of old age in a wild animal4 ,this      
presents certain difficulties since wild
 animals when old and feeble  become an 
easy prey to carnivorous enemies4 ,it   
will best serve our  present purpose to 
consider such information as has been   
collected  regarding the period of old  
age in anthropoid apes4    ,the natives 
of ,borneo have observed 8old orangs1   

which have not only  lost their teeth1  
but being too feeble to climb1 live on  
the fallen  fruits and herbs40#bij      
,gorillas1 according to ,savage1 turn   
grey in  their old age1 from which has  
arisen the erroneous view that there are
  two species of the gorilla4    ,in    
their wild state1 monkeys1 like         
ourselves1 are subject in their old  age
 to various distressing ailments4       
,senile degeneration1 then1 which is    
universally looked upon as one of the   
greatest evils of life1 is by no  means 
restricted to the human race4 ,old age1 
as portrayed in the  ,buddhist legend1  
referred to in chap4 vi41 is perhaps    
somewhat  exaggerated1 but this period  
of life is undoubtedly characterised by 
changes of such a nature as considerably
 to affect the happiness of the  old4   
,buddha1 being a pessimist1 took too    
dark a view of this1 but let us  hear   
what optimists have to say on the       
subject4 ,max ,nordau1 a doctor1 a      
writer of books and a journalist1 says3 

8,physically speaking1 an old man       
presents an unpleasant picture of       
decrepitude to the casual observer4     
,morally speaking1 he is a blind and    
pitiless egotist1 having lost all       
interest in anything outside himself4   
,intellectually he becomes              
feeble-minded and narrow in his views1  
being governed by antiquated  notions   
and prejudices1 and incapable of        
grasping new ideas40#bia    ,it may be  
objected that ,i am here supporting my  
argument by quoting from  a writer who1 
in his capacity of clever journalist1   
rather forces the  note4 ,let me        
therefore refer to what a learned       
physiologist said when  addressing a    
serious audience assembled for the      
purpose of obtaining  truth and         
information from his lips4 ,after       
dealing in broad outline with  the      
physical degeneracy caused by old age1  
,longet#bib draws the  following mental 
picture3 8,the old feel that their task 
in life is  accomplished1 and believe   

themselves to be universally grudged the
 space  they occupy in the world4 ,this 
renders them suspicious of all around   
them1 and jealous of the young4 ,their  
craving for solitude and the            
uncertainty of their tempers are due to 
the same cause4 ,all old people  are not
 like this1 of course4 ,the hearts of   
some remain youthful and  beat strongly 
within their feeble frames1 but1 as a   
general rule1 they  are morose and a    
nuisance to themselves and others1      
excepting when they  are surrounded by  
their children or grandchildren1 who    
like to listen to  them about the past1 
and who make excuses for the present4   
,thus the  years speed onward1 every    
round of the clock bringing the end     
nearer1  and every hour adding a new    
wrinkle to their faces1 some fresh      
weakness  and some new regret4 ,their   
bodies 444 become decrepit2 their       
backbones1  too weak to hold them       
upright1 curve over and bend them       
downwards  towards the earth40    ,there

 can be no doubt but that the period of 
old age is sad1 and a  thorough         
knowledge of it is necessary before it  
can be understood4  ,disease can only be
 successfully dealt with when the cause 
of its  presence is known1 and so it is 
with old age4    ,is it possible1 one   
might ask1 at the present stage of the  
world's  knowledge1 to define1 with even
 approximate accuracy1 the              
characteristic  features of senile      
decay8 ,the task is difficult1 for      
although the  subject is very important1
 few facts have been collected4    ,it  
is common knowledge that the flesh of   
old animals1 used as food1 is  tough4   
,an old fowl cannot be compared with a  
tender and juicy chicken4  ,organs such 
as the liver and kidneys are much harder
 in the case of old  animals4 ,the horny
 flesh of old animals is often compared 
with  boot-leather4 ,although the       
comparison does not pretend to be       
scientific1  it is far from being       
incorrect4 ,boot-leather is made from   

the hides of  animals2 that is to say1  
of a very resistant material that is    
called  8connective tissue10 and which  
consists of a dense mass of fibres1     
mingled with the living elements or     
8connective tissue0 cells4 ,this  tissue
 is very durable and so is employed for 
boots and shoes4    ,the infiltration of
 any organ with connective tissue makes 
it tough and  unpalatable4 ,this        
hardening is called a sclerosis 7of the 
liver1  kidneys1 c474 ,in old age many  
organs exhibit this tendency to         
hardening  or sclerotic degeneration4   
,the fact has been known for long1 but  
its  significance has been perceived    
more recently4 ,demange1#bic in his     
monograph on the organic changes        
associated with old age1 states as      
follows3 8,besides atrophy and          
degeneration of the parenchymatous      
elements1#bid there is to be observed a 
profound change in the  framework of    
connective tissue1 which serves to      
support the organs4 ,in  some cases the 

skeletal framework of an organ becomes  
more conspicuous1  simply on account of 
the degeneration of the cells2 this is  
the  condition usually present in the   
liver of aged persons4 ,more often1     
however1 the connective tissue receives 
some kind of stimulation1 which1        
although it does not amount to          
inflammation1 brings about an active    
growth and resulting sclerosis4         
,according to the particular case1 the  
hardening occurs in the form of isolated
 patches or strands1 or affects  the    
whole periphery or even the depths of   
the organ1 and smothers the  higher     
elements in its meshes1 so producing a  
further degeneration4 ,the  cellular    
elements disappear gradually1 connective
 tissue taking their  place1 and the    
change may be so profound1 that as in   
the case of the  prostate gland1 the    
altered organ may actually transcend the
 normal  size1 partial or general       
atrophy1 however1 being more often the  
result40    ,sclerosis in old people    

sometimes takes the form of a hardening 
of the  liver 7cirrhosis of the liver7  
or of the kidneys 7renal cirrhosis71 but
  it is the arteries which are most     
commonly affected by it1 producing a    
symptom of degeneration which is called 
arterial sclerosis4    ,cazalis long ago
 originated the oft-repeated aphorism3  
8,a man is as old  as his arteries10    
these vessels1 by means of which the    
blood is  distributed throughout the    
whole system1 being of immense          
importance in  the economy of the       
organism4 ,when the connective tissue is
 so freely  developed as to cause a     
hardening of the arteries1 these are    
hampered in  the exercise of their      
function and become very brittle4       
,according to  ,demange1 all the special
 modifications undergone by the body    
during the  period of old age may be    
attributed to this atrophy of the       
arteries1 but  this theory is proved to 
be an exaggeration by the fact that post
  mortems on the aged frequently reveal 

the presence of little or no  arterial  
sclerosis4    ,it might fairly be       
supposed that the hardening seen in many
 organs of  the body during the period  
of old age is universal1 and lends      
greater  strength to the frame4 ,the    
bones1 which are separated from one     
another  in youth1 become welded        
together in old age owing to the        
calcareous  deposits in the joints1 and 
the ossification of the joints between  
the  vertebra frequently causes the     
backbone to assume the appearance of a  
continuous bone1 the greater part of the
 cartilage having become  ossified4 ,in 
spite of this1 and as though for the    
purpose of proving how  physically full 
of contradictions is the period of old  
age1 the human  frame actually becomes  
lighter and the quantity of component   
mineral  substances becomes less4 ,this 
brings about a liability to fracture of 
the bones in old people4 ,the fracture  
of the neck of the femur is a  constant 
cause of death in the aged1 as occurred 

for instance in the  case of ,virchow1  
one of the most distinguished medical   
scientists of the  nineteenth century4  
,is science1 it may be asked1 in a      
position to state precisely what are    
the principal modifications which occur 
in the tissues of old people8 ,at  the  
,international ,congress of ,medicine   
held at ,berlin in #ahij1 a  well-known 
,german anatomist1 ,merkel1#bie         
attempted to reply to this  question4   
,speaking of the tissues of old people1 
he tried to show that  certain of these1
 such as the skin and the mucous        
membrane 7the  epithelial tissues71     
preserve their youthful characters to   
the end1  whereas others1 such as the   
connective tissues1 display profound    
changes4 ,this essay was the first      
attempt to form a picture of the        
details of senile degeneration1 but it  
did not reach any simple1 general       
conclusion4    ,later on1 ,i myself#bif 
tried to complete the work1 and for the 
purpose  made use of the published      

results of all the investigators who had
  studied senile degeneration4 ,i gave a
 summary of my conclusions in the       
following words3 8,in senile atrophy the
 same condition is always  present3 the 
atrophy of the higher and specific cells
 of a tissue and  their replacement by  
hypertrophied connective tissue40 ,in   
the brain1  the nerve cells disappear2  
that is to say1 the cells which subserve
 the  higher functions such as          
intellectuality1 sensation1 control of  
movement1 and these are replaced by     
elements of a lower kind1 in  especial  
by neurogla1 a kind of connective tissue
 of the brain4 ,in the  liver1 the      
hepatic cells1 of great importance to   
the nutrition of the  organism1 yield to
 connective tissue4 ,in the kidneys1    
that tissue  invades and blocks the     
tubes by which the necessary process of 
eliminating soluble waste matter is     
accomplished4 ,in the ovaries1 the  ova1
 the specific elements which serve to   
propagate the race1 are  similarly      

eliminated and replaced by granular     
cells1 a variety of  connective tissue4 
,in other words1 a conflict takes place 
in old age  between the higher elements 
and the simpler or primitive elements of
 the  organism1 and the conflict ends in
 the victory of the latter4 ,this       
victory is signalised by a weakening of 
the intellect1 by digestive  troubles1  
and by lack of sufficient oxygen in the 
blood4 ,the word  conflict is not used  
metaphorically in this case4 ,it is a   
veritable  battle that rages in the     
innermost recesses of our beings4       
,distributed  throughout every part of  
our bodies are certain cells which      
fulfil  special functions of their own4 
,they are capable of independent        
movement1 and also of devouring all     
sorts of solid matter1 a capacity  which
 has gained them their name of          
phagocytes or voracious cells4 ,the     
function these phagocytes fulfil is a   
very important one1 for it is they  that
 congregate in vast numbers around      

microbes or other harmful  intruders1 in
 order to devour them4 ,effusions of    
blood and other  elements1 on           
penetrating to parts of the body where  
their presence is  disadvantageous1 are 
absorbed by these phagocytes4 ,in cases 
of apoplexy1  where blood is shed into a
 part of the brain1 setting up          
paralysis1 the  phagocytes cluster round
 the clot and devour the blood          
corpuscles it has  encased4 ,this       
absorption is a lengthy process1 but by 
degrees1 as the  pressure of the        
effusion of blood is removed from the   
brain1 and  paralysis disappears1 the   
health of the organism may become       
completely  restored1 recovery in such a
 case being due to the work of the      
phagocytes4 ,after childbirth1 when the 
uterus presents the appearance of  a    
great open wound clotted with blood1 it 
is again the phagocytes that  clean it  
and re-establish the normal condition4  
,it is plain1 therefore1  that the part 
played by these cells is beneficent4    

,the phagocytes may be divided into     
small active phagocytes1 generally      
known as the microphags1 and larger     
phagocytes called macrophags1 which  are
 sometimes active and sometimes still4  
,the former1 which are produced  in the 
marrow of the bones1 circulate freely in
 the blood1 and occur as  some of the   
white blood corpuscles1 or leucocytes4  
,they are  distinguishable by their oval
 shape which facilitates their easy     
passage  through the smaller            
blood-vessels1 and allows of their      
accumulating in  great numbers in the   
exudations that form around microbes4   
,these  exudations may be formed        
extremely rapidly1 and so may arrest    
infection  in the case of many diseases4
    ,the absorption of extravasations of
 blood and the healing of wounds are    
the work of the macrophags4 ,in a       
general way1 the microphags may be said 
to rid us of microbes1 and the          
macrophags to heal mechanical injuries1 
such as hmorrhages1 wounds1 and so      

forth4 ,macrophags possess a single     
unlobulated nucleus1 and occur as white 
corpuscles in the blood1 lymph1  and    
exudations1 or as the fixed cells in    
connective tissues1 the spleen1  and the
 lymphatic glands1 c4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ad4 ,section of a ,renal        
,tubule1 invaded by ,macrophags1 from   
the      body of an old man of #ij      
years4 m  macrophag4 7,from a           
preparation      made by ,dr4           
,weinberg47      ,illustration3         
,,fig4 #ae4 ,cell from the brain of a   
woman #ajj years old being devoured     
by macrophags4 7,from a preparation made
 by ,dr4 ,philippe47      ,the          
phagocytes are endowed with a           
sensitiveness of their own1 and by      
means of a sense of smell or taste are  
able to recognise the nature of  their  
surroundings4 ,according to the         
impression made upon this sense1  they  
approach the object which arouses it1   
exhibit indifference to it1  or withdraw
 from its vicinity4 ,when1 however1 an  

infectious microbe  finds its way into  
the body1 the microphags are attracted  
by its  excretions and swarm into the   
exudations surrounding it4 ,the         
macrophags  play a very important part  
in bringing about senile decay4 ,the    
atrophy  of the kidneys in old persons  
is attributable to their agency 7,fig4  
#ad74  ,they accumulate in large        
quantities in these organs1 clustering  
round  about the renal tubes which they 
ultimately cause to disappear4 ,having  
appropriated the place of the renal     
tubes1 the macrophags proceed to  form  
connective tissue1 which thus takes the 
place of the normal renal  tissue4 ,a   
similar process occurs in the other     
organs that degenerate in  old age4 ,in 
the brains of old persons and animals1  
for instance1 it is  known that a number
 of nervous cells are surrounded and    
devoured by  macrophags 7,fig4 #ae74    
,judging from the investigations        
mentioned above1 ,i  think ,i am        
justified in asserting that senile decay

 is mainly due to the  destruction of   
the higher elements of the organism by  
macrophags4 ,this  conclusion has been  
confirmed by means of direct            
observation1 which was  the more        
necessary as it is contrary to the      
opinions of some biologists4            
,marinesco1#big an authority upon       
everything connected with the nervous   
system1 has disputed my theory1         
asserting that the destruction of the   
specific elements in the nervous centres
 of old persons is not brought  about   
through the agency of macrophags4 ,in   
support of his theory1 ,m4  ,marinesco  
was good enough to send me a series of  
preparations from the  spinal marrow of 
persons of very advanced years from     
which evidence of  destruction by means 
of phagocytes or phagocytosis1 was      
completely  absent4 ,i freely admit the 
absence of phagocytosis in ,m4          
,marinesco's  preparations1 but these   
were derived from the cells of spinal   
marrow1  which is much less subject to  

the ravages of senile decay than is the 
brain4 ,even in the lower portions of   
the encephalon1 senility and its        
parallel1 phagocytosis1 are uncommon1   
whereas in the brains of old  persons1  
which are more generally affected by    
senile decay1 the higher  elements are  
clearly shown to undergo destruction by 
macrophags 7,fig4  #ae74 ,the same      
phenomenon may be observed in the case  
of parrots and dogs  of advanced age1   
and in other animals4    ,so universal a
 symptom of old age is the invasion of  
the tissues by  macrophags1 that it must
 be regarded as of immense importance4  
,in order1  however1 to determine more  
precisely the nature of the function    
fulfilled by these phagocytes1 it was   
necessary to select a specially         
favourable subject of investigation4 ,my
 choice fell upon an examination  into  
the causes of the hair turning          
white1#bih that being as a rule the     
first visible sign of approaching old   
age4    ,hair1 before it has lost its   

colour1 is full of pigment scattered    
throughout the two layers of which each 
hair is composed4 ,at a given  moment1  
the cells of the central cylinder of a  
hair become active1 and  proceed to     
devour all the pigment within their     
reach4 ,once they are  filled with      
coloured particles1 these cells1 which  
are a variety of  macrophag 7generally  
called pigmentophags or more properly   
speaking  chromophags71 become          
migratory1 and1 quitting the hair1      
either find  their way under the skin or
 leave the body 7,fig4 #af74 ,the       
colouring-matter of the hair is removed 
in this way by chromophags1  leaving the
 hair colourless4    ,the process by    
which hair becomes white is of          
importance1 because it  shows that the  
activity of macrophags is a dominant    
factor in bringing  about senile decay4 
,the brittleness of old people's bones  
is probably  due to a similar cause1    
i4e41 to the absorption and destruction 
of the  framework brought about by      

macrophags invading the layers of bone4 
,there  is still much that remains      
unknown in this subject1 which is well  
worthy  of special research4            
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #af4 ,hair   
about to become grey4 ,chromophags      
transporting the      pigment granules4 
,the activity acquired by macrophags    
during old age is closely connected     
with the phenomena that are             
characteristic of certain chronic       
complaints4 ,sclerosis in old persons   
belongs to the same category as  organic
 sclerosis1 which may be set up by      
various morbid influences4 ,the  analogy
 between senile decay of the kidneys and
 chronic nephritis1  commonly called    
interstitial nephritis1 is              
incontestable4 ,the  destruction of     
nervous cells through the agency of     
macrophags1 which we  have already      
mentioned as occurring in old age1 is   
equally a symptom of  several diseases  
of the nervous centres1 such as general 
paralysis of  the insane4 ,arterial     

sclerosis in old persons is actually an 
inflammatory disease1 similar to the    
inflammation of the arteries set up  by 
other maladies4    ,the similarity      
between senility and disease has long   
been recognised1  and partly accounts   
for the repugnance we all experience at 
the approach  of old age4 ,in childhood 
and early youth people regard themselves
 as  older than they really are1 and    
long to be 8grown-up10 but having once  
arrived at man's estate1 they do not    
wish to grow old4 ,an instinctive       
feeling tells us that there is something
 abnormal in old age4 ,it cannot  be    
regarded as a part of healthy           
physiological function4 ,no doubt1      
because old age is the inevitable lot of
 mankind1 it may be termed  normal1 in  
the same fashion as we call the pains of
 childbirth normal1  since few women    
escape them4 ,in both cases1 however1 we
 have to deal  with pathological rather 
than physiological conditions4 ,just as 
every  effort is made to relieve the    

sufferings of a woman in labour1 so it  
is  natural to try to suppress the evils
 accompanying old age1 but whereas  in  
childbirth an ansthetic affords relief1 
old age is a chronic malady1  a remedy  
for which is much harder to find4 ,we   
have seen that in old age  a struggle   
takes place between the higher elements 
and the phagocytes1  the end being      
usually a weakening in vitality of the  
former1 while the  activity of the      
latter is enormously increased4 ,it     
would appear1 arguing  from this1 that  
one means of fighting against old age1  
pathologically  speaking1 would be to   
strengthen the higher elements of the   
organism1  and to weaken the aggressive 
capacities of the phagocytes4 ,let me at
  once warn the reader that this is not 
presented as a definite1 but as a       
possible solution of the problem1 and is
 offered for consideration like  many   
other hypotheses on scientific          
questions4 ,the properties of  cellular 
elements are easily changed when        

subjected to various  influences1 and it
 is therefore not irrational to seek    
some means of  strengthening the blood  
corpuscles1 nerve cells1 liver cells1   
muscular  fibres of the heart1 and so   
forth4 ,the task has become easier since
 the  discovery of serums that have     
specific actions on the tissues4    ,in 
the third chapter ,i stated that serums 
were known which give  precipitates only
 with the blood of man and of his near  
relatives the  anthropoid apes4 ,serum  
of this kind has a definite specific    
action4  ,serums may be prepared that   
dissolve only the red corpuscles of     
particular species of animals1 and that 
are without action on the other  organic
 elements4 ,it has been found possible1 
even1 to prepare a serum  that arrests  
instantaneously the movements of human  
spermatozoa1 and  that is neutral to the
 similar cells of other animals4        
,these serums are all prepared in the   
same way4 ,the cellular elements in     
question1 spermatozoa or red corpuscles1

 cells of the liver or of the  kidney1  
taken from one animal1 are injected into
 an animal of another  species4 ,after  
several injections have been made1 the  
serum of the  animal operated on becomes
 active with respect to the cells       
introduced  into its body4 ,these serums
 were discovered by ,j4 ,bordet of the  
,pasteur  ,institute1 but the results   
have been confirmed by investigators in 
other  countries4 ,the serums are       
specifically cytotoxic1 that is to say1 
they  poison particular kinds of cells4 
,now it has been shown that such serums1
 employed in small doses1 do not  kill  
or dissolve the specific tissue         
elements1 but actually strengthen       
them4#bii ,here the case is analogous   
with the action of poisons1 such  as    
digitalis1 which kill in strong doses1  
but which in weak doses  improve or     
strengthen the action of certain        
tissues4 ,in accordance with  this      
indication1 experiment has shown that   
small doses of a serum which  is capable

 of dissolving the red corpuscles of    
human blood1 actually  increase the     
number of those in the body of a patient
 treated by  injections4 ,in the same   
way1 in the case of a serum large doses 
of which  destroy the red corpuscles of 
a rabbit1 small doses increase the      
number  of these elements in the blood4 
,here there seems to be a rational      
method by which we may strive to        
strengthen the higher elements of the   
human body1 and so prevent them  from   
growing old4 ,the task1 at first sight  
indeed1 seems an easy one1  only        
necessitating the injection of a horse  
7or other animal7 with  finely minced   
atoms of human organs1 such as brain1   
heart1 liver1  kidney1 c41 when serums  
could be drawn off in the course of a   
few  weeks1 capable of acting upon those
 organs4 ,in reality the process would  
be a very difficult one to carry out1 as
 human organs are rarely  obtainable in 
a condition suitable for injecting into 
animals4 ,post  mortems can only be     

legally made twenty-four hours after    
death1 and  there are many other        
obstacles in the way of removing organs 
from dead  bodies4 ,even if all these   
difficulties were overcome1 another     
difficulty  that would present itself   
would be the experimenting with various 
doses  of cytotoxic serums of various   
strength4 ,it is not therefore to be    
wondered at that the attempt to         
reinforce the higher elements of the    
human organism will require much time4  
,if it be necessary to strengthen  the  
higher elements 7nervous1 hepatic1      
renal1 and cardiac cells71 it is  plain 
that they undergo a progressively       
weakening process4 ,it would be  of the 
highest importance to ascertain the     
cause of this1 for the  knowledge would 
be a guide to future action4    ,the    
similarity between senile decay and the 
diseases entailing atrophy  in the more 
important human organs suggests a       
similitude in cause4  ,scleroses of the 
brain1 kidneys1 and liver frequently    

originate in  intoxication by poisons   
such as alcohol1 lead1 mercury1 and so  
forth1 or  the disease may be induced by
 some virus1 the virus of syphilis being
 a  common cause4    ,the immense       
importance of venereal disease as a     
malevolent factor in the  phenomena of  
old age1 is especially manifested in    
arterial sclerosis4  ,according to the  
careful investigations of a ,swedish    
doctor1  ,edgren1#cjj published in his  
8,monograph on ,arterial ,sclerosis10   
one  case in every five of this disease 
is caused by syphilis1 and he shows     
that chronic alcoholism is an even more 
frequent cause 7#be per cent474  ,these 
two factors when united are responsible 
for nearly half 7#de per  cent47 the    
cases of arterial sclerosis that occur4 
,syphilitic virus and  alcohol act as   
poisons which bring about first         
degeneration and  brittleness of the    
arterial walls1 and eventually a        
weakening of the  higher elements of the
 organism4 ,the phagocytes1 being cells 

of an  inferior order1 are less         
sensitive to these poisons1 which       
accounts for  their victory over the    
poisoned elements4    ,rheumatism1 gout1
 and infectious diseases only play a    
secondary part in  setting up arterial  
sclerosis4 ,edgren asserts1 as the      
result of very  careful calculation1    
that in nearly every fifth case he found
 it was  impossible to account for the  
origin of arterial sclerosis4 ,in the   
majority of cases the sufferers were    
elderly persons who1 according to       
,edgren1 8were afflicted with           
physiological sclerosis40#cja    ,i take
 it that this sclerosis of unknown      
origin was by no means  physiological   
but was pathological like that set up by
 syphilis or  alcoholism4 ,the question 
then arises whence comes the poison in  
such  cases8 ,in syphilis there is a    
virus of a definite nature to deal with1
  which causes infection or poisoning1  
and brings about arterial  sclerosis1   
general paralysis1 and other serious    

ailments4 ,alcoholism is  a poison      
arising from fermentation1 excited by   
microscopical fungi  related to true    
microbes4 ,instances of arterial        
sclerosis which are due  neither to     
syphilis nor to alcohol poisoning nor to
 any other known  cause1 can only be    
accounted for as probably arising from  
poisoning set  up by the mass of        
microbes congregated in the human       
intestines4 ,among  these microbes there
 may be some that are harmless1 and     
possibly even  beneficial1 but there are
 undoubtedly a great number the presence
 of  which is extremely prejudicial to  
health and life4 ,it is impossible to   
enter into the details of such an       
important question1 and a brief  mention
 must suffice4    ,the human intestine  
contains an enormous quantity of        
bacteria1 which1  according to the      
recent investigations of                
,strassburger1#cjb increase at  the rate
 of #abh1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj each day4      
,these microbes1 of which there  are few

 in the digestive portion of the        
alimentary canal1 are very  numerous in 
the large intestines1 i4e41 in the lower
 part containing  the waste material4   
,the remains of undigested foods and the
 mucous  secretions form a medium very  
favourable to the growth of microbes4   
,this  bacterial flora constitutes a    
third part of the human excreta4 ,it is 
very varied1 and contains an immense    
number of different species1 among      
which are bacilli1 cocci1 and many kinds
 of other bacteria1 about which  little 
is known4 ,the distribution of this     
bacterial flora shows that it           
contributes nothing to the well-being of
 man1 being scanty in the  digestive    
portions of the body1 and abundant in   
other parts of the gut4  ,this fact     
alone suffices to refute the theory of  
those who attribute  great functional   
importance to the intestinal flora4     
,this theory  originated principally    
from the fact that certain animals      
perish when  brought up under special   

conditions protecting them from the     
presence of  microbes4 ,schottelius#cjc 
was the first to try the experiment of  
rearing chickens in a cage specially    
constructed for this purpose4 ,the      
chickens hatched out1 and lived for a   
few weeks3 then1 there being no         
microbes within them and only sterilised
 food being given1 instead of           
increasing in weight1 they became thin  
and showed signs of starvation4         
,schottelius supplied them with food    
from which bacteria were no longer      
excluded1 upon which the chickens       
rallied1 and soon became completely     
restored to health4 ,madame             
,metchnikoff#cjd tried a similar        
experiment  with tadpoles1 which1 when  
kept in vessels and fed upon bread      
containing  the usual microbes1         
developed normally1 but which1 when     
reared under  conditions entirely free  
from the presence of microbes1 lived on 
for  some months1 but in a degenerate   
condition1 their development being      

arrested4    ,on the other hand1        
,nuttall and ,thierfelder#cje succeeded 
in keeping  alive for several days      
new-born guinea-pigs1 the alimentary    
canals of  which were free from         
microbes1 and which were fed only on    
absolutely  sterilised milk and         
vegetable matter4 ,notwithstanding this 
complete  absence of microbes the       
guinea-pigs developed well4    ,as the  
two sets of experiments were conducted  
under conditions arranged  so carefully 
that the chance of error was excluded1  
it is important to  try to reconcile the
 apparently contradictory results4      
,there is one  point common to these    
three experiments1 i4e41 that they were 
all  executed upon newly born creatures4
 ,now it is well known that at birth    
the digestive juices are often very     
imperfectly secreted4 ,in the case of   
the guinea-pigs1 these juices sufficed  
in quantity for the digestion of  the   
diet provided1 whereas in the cases of  
the chickens and the  tadpoles1 the     

digestive juices were incapable of      
fulfilling their  function              
satisfactorily1 and the introduction of 
microbes endowed with  considerable     
digestive capacity into the intestines  
compensated for the  functional         
inefficiency of the gastric juices4 ,in 
addition to the  guinea-pigs            
experimented upon by ,nuttall and       
,thierfelder1 there may be  mentioned a 
whole series of lower creatures such as 
the larv of mites  and other insects    
which are able to digest such           
indigestible material as  wax and wool  
in spite of the total absence of        
microbes within their  intestinal tubes4
 ,these experiments are corroborated by 
the established  physiological fact that
 the gastric and pancreatic juices of   
mammals  easily digest the most varied  
kinds of foods1 even if treated so      
antiseptically as to ensure the total   
exclusion of microbes from the          
intestines4    ,i need not go further   
into this subject as the facts which ,i 

have cited  suffice for my present      
purpose4 ,the complete atrophy of the   
large  intestines in the case of the    
woman referred to in chap4 iv4 proves   
not  only that this portion of the      
alimentary canal is not indispensable to
  healthy life1 but that life may be    
maintained in the absence of the  flora 
of the large intestines4 ,and this      
really is the centre of the  problem4   
,the useless bacterial flora may give   
rise to serious or fatal  maladies4     
,wounds of the abdomen are really       
serious only when they  penetrate the   
large intestines and so allow the       
entrance of bacteria  from that region  
to the peritoneal cavity4 ,in such an   
event1 the  microbes rapidly multiply in
 the organism and produce a grave and   
frequently mortal illness4 ,so long as  
the microbes remain within the          
intestines very few of them get into the
 circulation1 and with these few  the   
organism is able to cope4 ,while most of
 the microbes are confined  within the  

walls of the alimentary canal1 the      
soluble excretions  produced by them    
pass through into the lymph and blood4  
,quite a number  of different facts     
establish this4 ,thus1 for instance1 it 
has been known  for long that the urine 
of human beings and of animals contains 
a series  of substances such as         
derivatives of phenol1 indol1 creosol1  
skatol1 and  so forth4 ,in certain      
diseases the amount of these substances 
greatly  increases4 ,the stagnation of  
the contents of the intestines increases
  the amount of phenol and indol4 ,such 
facts and many others make it  probable 
that these substances are the products  
of the bacterial flora  of the          
intestines4 ,they are absorbed by the   
intestinal wall1 pass into  the general 
circulation1 and may give rise to       
various symptoms of a more  or less     
serious nature4    ,baumann1 who has    
done much work on the subject1 has      
brought together a  series of arguments 
supporting the bacterial origin of the  

presence in  the urine of the substances
 in question4 ,ewald1 working from      
another  point of view has obtained     
strong confirmation of ,baumann's       
suggestions4  ,he had the opportunity of
 making observations on a female        
patient1 in  whom1 on account of a      
strangulated hernia1 an intestinal      
fistula was  established4 ,throughout   
the time during which the large         
intestines were  inactive1 the urine    
contained neither phenol nor indol4 ,but
 as soon as  the fistula was closed and 
communication with the large intestine  
had  been re-established1 phenol and    
indol reappeared in the excreta4 ,ewald 
formed the opinion1 therefore1 that     
these substances were products of  the  
large intestine4    ,i need not weary   
the reader with more of the facts       
serving to show that  the bacterial     
flora of the large intestines is the    
source of many  poisons harmful to the  
body4 ,it is among such substances that 
we must  look for the slow poisons      

which1 in the absence of syphilis or    
alcoholism1 produce the arterial        
sclerosis of old age4    ,in the fourth 
chapter ,i gave reasons to support my   
view that the large  intestine in       
mammals had been developed because1 by  
storing the products  of digestion1 it  
allowed them to run long distances      
without stopping1  and so was an        
advantage in the struggle for existence4
 ,moreover1 the  microbes which abound  
in the contents of the gut make it      
possible to use  certain substances such
 as cellulose1 that are difficult to    
digest4 ,but  these two advantages do   
not count in the case of the human race4
 ,man  does not secure his prey or      
escape from his enemies by the rapidity 
of  his locomotion4 ,the great          
development of his intellectual powers  
has  given him advantages of another    
kind4 ,moreover1 by the use of cooking  
and the cultivation of plants of high   
nutritive value1 he is able to  dispense
 with the digestion of cellulose4       

,there is another side to the picture4  
,ignorant of death and of old age1      
mammals have acquired the advantages of 
a large intestine at the expense  of    
longevity4 ,i have already stated that  
birds live longer than mammals4  ,birds 
are practically devoid of a large       
intestine1 and maintain a  bacterial    
flora very much poorer than that found  
in mammals4 ,there is  one exception to 
this rule1 an exception of great        
importance4 ,ostriches  and their       
allies1 the largest known birds1 are    
characterised by absence  of the power  
of flight and by rapidity of terrestrial
 locomotion by  which they escape their 
enemies4 ,these are the only birds in   
which the  large intestine is           
well-developed4 ,the duration of life is
 much less in  their case than in that  
of smaller birds1 such as parrots1      
ravens1 and  swans4 ,according to ,m4   
,rivire1 who has been engaged in ostrich
 farming  in ,algeria1 these large birds
 do not live more than thirty-five      

years4  ,the mode of life1 and the      
shorter duration of life1 the huge      
development  of the large intestines and
 the rich bacterial flora found therein 
make  the ostriches much more like      
mammals than birds4    ,it is to be     
noticed that many birds in which the    
duration of life is  long do not possess
 a ccum1 the portion of the alimentary  
canal that  contains most bacteria4     
,examination of the intestinal contents 
of  parrots shows that there exist in   
these birds very few microbes4 ,a       
comparative study shows plainly that the
 existence of an abundant  intestinal   
flora1 useless for digestion1 helps to  
shorten life by  producing bacterial    
poisons which weaken the higher elements
 and  strengthen the phagocytes4    ,the
 human race has inherited from its      
ancestors an enormous large  intestine  
and conditions favourable to the life of
 bacteria4 ,it has to  endure the       
disadvantages of this heritage4 ,on the 
other hand1 the brain  of man is very   

highly developed1 and with the increase 
of intellectual  power has come a       
consciousness of old age and death4 ,our
 strong will to  live is opposed to the 
infirmities of age and the shortness of 
life4  ,here lies the greatest          
disharmony of the constitution of man4  
,if we desired to make the phenomena of 
old age physiological rather than       
pathological1 it would be necessary to  
reduce the evils arising from the       
presence of a large intestine4 ,it is   
impossible1 ,i may at once say1 to  wait
 for the operation of forces independent
 of the human will and that  might lead 
to the suppression of an organ which has
 become useless4 ,man1  guided by exact 
science1 must strive to accelerate or   
anticipate such a  result4 ,in spite of 
the progress of surgery1 ,i do not      
expect to find in  our time that the    
large intestine will be removed by      
operation4 ,perhaps  in the distant     
future such a proceeding will become    
normal4 ,for the  present it is more    

reasonable to attack the harmful        
microbes of the  large intestine4 ,in   
the varied flora of that region there   
exist microbes  termed anrobic1 because 
they are able to live in the absence of 
free  oxygen1 obtaining what they       
require by the decomposition of organic 
matter4 ,such decomposition is attended 
by fermentations and  putrefactions1 and
 the production of poisons1 such as the 
alkaloids  7ptomaines71 fatty acids1 and
 even true toxins4    ,in the human     
intestines under normal conditions1     
putrefaction occurs  only very slightly1
 or does not occur at all4 ,but in      
intestinal diseases  of children and of 
adults1 the microbes of putrefaction    
multiply  abundantly and produce copious
 secretions which inflame the intestinal
  walls4 ,to avoid these diseases of    
putrefaction in the case of infants1  it
 has been suggested to use as food only 
sterilised milk or other foods  quite   
free from microbes4 ,this regimen has   
proved extremely successful4    ,in the 

investigation of the factors that hinder
 putrefaction1 it has  been noticed that
 milk putrefies with considerable       
difficulty1 whereas  meat1 preserved    
under the same conditions1 decomposes   
very readily4  ,investigators have      
attributed the stability of milk to the 
presence of  casein or of milk-sugar4   
,however1 investigations recently made  
by  ,bienstock#cjf and confirmed by     
,tissier and ,martel#cjg have proved    
the existence of certain microbes that  
hinder the putrefaction of milk4  ,these
 are in particular the microbes that    
sour milk1 i4e41 cause the  formation of
 lactic acid1 and which are antagonistic
 to the microbes of  putrefaction4 ,the 
latter multiply only in an alkaline     
medium4 ,the lactic  acid microbes      
produce large quantities of acid and so 
hinder the  multiplication of the       
organisms of putrefaction4 ,putrefaction
 takes  place rapidly1 in spite of the  
presence of the lactic acid microbes1 if
  there be added soda to macerations of 

meat or milk4 ,such facts explain  how  
it is that lactic acid frequently stops 
some cases of diarrha1 and  why         
treatment with lactic acid is so useful 
in maladies associated with             
putrefaction of the intestinal contents4
 ,it makes intelligible1  moreover1 the 
medicinal value of fermented milk4      
,rovighi1#cjh an ,italian physician1    
drank daily a litre and a half of       
kephir1 a preparation made by subjecting
 milk to lactic acid and  alcoholic     
fermentations4 ,he found that in a few  
days the products of  intestinal        
putrefaction in his urine either        
disappeared or were greatly  reduced4   
,it is plain1 then1 that the slow       
intoxications that weaken the           
resistance of the higher elements of the
 body and that strengthen the           
phagocytes may be arrested by the use of
 kephir1 or still better of  soured     
milk4 ,the latter differs from kephir in
 that it contains no  alcohol1 and      
alcohol in course of time diminishes the

 vitality of some  important cells in   
the body4 ,the presence of a number of  
the lactic acid  bacteria is inimical to
 the growth of the bacteria of          
putrefaction1 and  so is of great       
service to the organism4    ,but it is  
not enough merely to introduce useful   
microbes into the body4  ,we must also  
prevent the entrance of 8wild0 microbes1
 many of which are  harmful4 ,soil1     
especially when it has been manured1    
contains large  numbers of microbes1    
some of which are harmful4 ,bienstock   
found that the  soil of the             
strawberry-beds in his garden contained 
the bacilli of  tetanus4 ,for three     
weeks he swallowed some of this soil1   
but found that  the bacteria were       
destroyed in his intestines1 which he   
attributed to  the action of the normal 
bacterial inhabitants of the alimentary 
canal4  ,it is probable that if this    
arresting action were weakened the body 
would be infected by tetanus from spores
 of the tetanus microbe  swallowed with 

earth or strawberries or green          
vegetables4 ,moreover1  besides the     
organisms of tetanus1 there are many    
other dangerous  anrobic bacteria in    
manured garden soil4    ,obviously we   
should eat no raw food1 but confine our 
diet rigidly to  food that has been     
thoroughly cooked or sterilised4 ,the   
exclusion of  8wild0 microbes and the   
introduction of beneficial microbes1    
such as  those of lactic acid           
fermentation1 must be of great service  
to health4 ,i  know of individuals who  
have derived great benefit from such a  
regimen4    ,science1 even in its       
present imperfect condition1 has many   
weapons by  which to prevent or at least
 diminish the slow and chronic poisoning
 of  the organism that leads eventually 
to the degeneration of the higher       
elements4 ,when these elements are being
 destroyed by syphilis or  alcoholism   
the struggle must be directed against   
these evils4 ,it is long  since we have 
known how to do this2 that success has  

not been greater is  due to the         
carelessness of the people who are      
concerned4    ,to strengthen the        
resistance of the higher elements and to
 transform the  8wild0 population of the
 intestine into a cultured population1  
these are  the means by which the       
pathological symptoms may be removed    
from old  age1 and by which1 in all     
probability1 the duration of the life of
 man  may be considerably increased4    
,if it be found impossible to eliminate 
all the harmful microbes from the  flora
 of the intestines1 those that are      
refractory may be rendered  harmless by 
appropriate serums4 ,we know already a  
serum that is specific  against the     
microbe of botulism1 an organism capable
 of exciting serious  disturbance if it 
gain entrance to the alimentary canal4  
,our inmost convictions assure us that  
life is too short1 and since the        
remotest ages attempts have been made to
 prolong it4 ,i need hardly  mention the
 quest of the ,middle ,ages for an      

elixir of life1 but many  thoughtful men
 have occupied themselves with the      
problem4    ,descartes1 who was deeply  
interested in the subject1 believed     
himself to  have found a mode of        
lengthening human life4 ,bacon published
 a tract on  life and death1 and in it  
gave advice as to how old age might be  
reached2 blood-letting and the use of   
saltpetre were parts of his  specific4  
,one of the oldest methods in the world 
consisted in bringing old men in        
contact with the bodies of young girls4 
,david1 ,king of ,israel1 employed  this
 method1 which at a much later period   
came into fashion4                      
,eighteenth-century quacks proclaimed a 
number of specifics1 among which  was   
the 8holy water0 of ,saint ,germain1 an 
infusion of senna1 merely  purgative in 
its effects4 ,it is certain that some of
 the medicines used  for the purpose1 by
 emptying the large intestine1 decreased
 the  bacterial flora1 and so checked   
the formation of the poisons that are   

harmful to the higher elements4         
,hufeland1#cji a well-known ,german     
professor1 published towards the end  of
 the eighteenth century1 a work called  
8,la ,macrobiotique02 or1 8the  ,art of 
,prolonging ,human ,life40 ,this        
treatise had a great vogue in its  day1 
and contained many interesting and just 
observations4 ,besides  advocating      
cleanliness and moderation1 ,hufeland   
advised that 8we should  use vegetable  
rather than animal food1 as animal food 
was more liable to  putrefaction1 whilst
 vegetable substances contained an acid 
principle  that retarded our mortal     
enemy1 putrefaction40#caj ,here the     
physician  of a day long past           
anticipated one of the discoveries of   
modern science4    ,in our time         
scientific men have not ceased to       
concern themselves with  the            
prolongation of human life4 ,professor  
,pflger1 of ,bonn1 one of the  most     
distinguished of living physiologists1  
has published an essay#caa  in which he 

gave the results of his inquiries into  
this subject4 ,he  first stated that    
investigations into the habits of those 
who had  attained a great age did not   
give information sufficiently exact4    
,pflger laid stress on the means of     
avoiding infectious maladies1 and       
summed up as follows3 8,finally1 ,i can 
do no better than to associate  myself  
with the advice given in all the        
treatises on the prolonging of  life3   
avoid the things that are harmful and be
 moderate in all things40    ,a year    
later1 a well-known ,german physician1  
,dr4 ,ebstein#cab published  a very     
careful treatise on the same subject4   
,he had been struck by the  fact that   
among those who have reached a great    
age1 there have been  several who had   
led an exuberant life1 full of excesses1
 notably in the  consumption of alcohol4
 ,none the less1 ,ebstein advised either
 a complete  avoidance of alcoholic     
liquor1 or at the most an extreme       
temperance in  the use of it4 ,he       

prescribed in addition the              
simplification of the  conduct of life  
and the avoiding of anything that is    
unwholesome4    ,study of such works1   
which are written in a scientific       
spirit1 convinces  me that a science of 
the prolongation of life could be built 
up4 ,an  exact investigation of the     
phenomena of old age would contribute to
 this  object4 ,at any rate1 we cannot  
set aside as chimerical plans to make   
old  age a natural process1 and one easy
 to bear4 ,i believe1 moreover1 that    
attempts to prolong life deserve to be  
encouraged1 the more so as  instances of
 longevity are already numerous4        
,quite a number of cases of centenarians
 who have preserved intellect and       
vigour until death have been recorded4  
,it is unnecessary to relate the        
histories of these persons1 of whom some
 attained such ages as #abj1 #adj1  and 
even #ahe years 7,saint ,mungo of       
,glasgow74 ,my friend1 ,professor ,ray  
,lankester1#cac thinks that such        

unusually old persons are monstrosities 
comparable with those who have attained 
a gigantic stature4 ,but  centenarians  
are more numerous than giants1 and while
 the latter exhibit  marked signs of    
pathological weakness the former        
surprise us by their  health and vigour4
    ,the longevity of the ,israelites   
recorded in the ,old ,testament is well 
known4 ,no doubt there is much          
exaggeration in these nave records4 ,was
  it an error of exaggeration to impute 
an age of #ifi years to ,methusaleh1  or
 of #eie to ,noah1 or were these ages   
reckoned on a different basis8          
,henseler#cad suggested that in these   
cases each season was counted as a      
year1 so that the age of ,methusaleh was
 really only #bdb years1 a length  of   
life not so vastly greater than ages    
recorded in modern times4    ,there is  
evidence to show that in somewhat later 
,biblical times ages  were reckoned in  
our years4 ,thus in the ,book of        
,numbers 7i4 #c1 #bj1 #bb7  reference is

 made to those 8,from twenty years old  
and upward1 all that  are able to go    
forth to war in ,israel40 ,the limit of 
age given shows  clearly that the years 
counted were our years4 ,this           
interpretation is  supported by many    
other passages in the ,pentateuch1      
notably where annual  harvest feasts are
 spoken of4 ,we may therefore accept as 
probable the  assignment of such ages as
 #ajj or #abj years to several ,biblical
  personages1 such as ,aaron1 ,moses1   
and ,joshua4 ,and the words put in the  
mouth of ,jahveh may be accepted as     
important evidence3 8,and the ,lord     
said1 ,my spirit shall not always strive
 with man1 for that he also is  flesh3  
yet his days shall be an hundred and    
twenty years40#cae    ,the longevity of 
that remote period must have surpassed  
the age of the  present time4 ,from the 
circumstance that the greatest number of
 deaths  occurs at the age of seventy   
years1 ,ebstein#caf has inferred that   
seventy years is the normal duration of 

life4 ,although there is no doubt  but  
that the duration of human life has     
become longer in the nineteenth         
century1 we must believe that it was    
still longer in ,biblical times1 a  fact
 that is not particularly surprising4   
,i have called attention to the         
important influence of syphilis in      
inducing premature and pathological old 
age1 as that disease is a chief  cause  
of arterial sclerosis and degeneration  
of the higher elements of  the body4    
,syphilis has an influence still more   
serious because its  effects are        
inherited4 ,now although the ,bible     
refers to diseases of the  genital      
organs and lays stress on circumcision1 
there is no direct  evidence in it as to
 the existence of syphilis4 ,ebstein1 in
 a treatise  on the medicine of the     
,bible1#cag is confident that there is  
no  reference to syphilis in that ,book4
 ,moreover1 in the ancient world        
generally1 syphilis was either unknown  
or existed only in an attenuated  form4 

,haeser1#cah the author of the best     
modern treatise on the history  of      
medicine1 thinks that if syphilis did   
exist in the ancient world1 it  occurred
 in a localised form and did not become 
a general disease of the  system as is  
the case among the moderns4    ,humanity
 would make a great stride towards      
longevity could it put an end  to       
syphilis1 which is the cause of one     
fifth of the cases of arterial          
sclerosis4 ,the suppression of          
alcoholism1 the second great factor in  
the  production of senile degeneration  
of the arteries1 will produce a still   
more marked extension of the term of    
life4 ,scientific study of old age  and 
of the means of modifying its           
pathological character will make life   
longer and happier4 ,although modern    
knowledge is still imperfect1 there  is 
no reason to be pessimistic on the      
subject of old age4                     
,,chapter ,,xi                          
,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,scientific  

,,study ,,of ,,death        ,theory of  
the immortality of lower                
organisms--,immortality of the sexual   
cells in higher organisms--,immortality 
of the cellular soul--,occurrence    of 
natural death in the case of certain    
animals--,natural death in the          
,ephemerid--,loss of the instinct of    
preservation in adult                   
ephemerids--,instinct of life in the    
aged--,instinct of natural death in     
man--,death of old men in ,biblical     
times--,changes in the instincts of man 
and lower animals      ,from what ,i    
have said in the last chapter1 it is    
plain that1 perhaps  before very long1  
it will be possible to modify old age4  
,instead of  retaining its existing     
melancholy and repulsive character1 it  
may become  a healthy and endurable     
process2 it may also be that the        
duration of  life will be prolonged4    
,however1 it may be asked1 what shall we
 gain by  attaining the age of #ajj or  
#abj years instead of #gj or #hj1 if    

there  still remain for us the appalling
 fate of the inevitable annihilation of 
death4 ,marcus ,aurelius said that he   
who makes a long journey and he who     
makes it short1 alike meet death at the 
end2 and that once they are  over1 three
 years or a century are much alike4     
,such assertions1 however1  do not take 
into account the difference in the      
values we set on a thing  at different  
ages4 ,a man of the age of twenty-five  
years and one fifty  years old reason   
differently1 and are affected           
differently by the same  surroundings4  
,the outlook on life changes in the same
 individual as he  gets on in years4    
,young people judge of their impressions
 by comparison  with their ideals1 and  
as the latter are very high1 they are   
dissatisfied with things as they really 
are4 ,they are exacting1 and            
discontented with what they can get out 
of the real world2 grown up  people and 
those of advanced years are more easily 
satisfied because  they have a clearer  

knowledge of the true value of things4  
,as ,i have  already had occasion to    
point out in a previous chapter1 the    
young are  more inclined to pessimism   
than the old4 ,we see1 then1 that       
appreciation  of life changes with age4 
,it is the same with regard to death4   
,it has  often been said that life is   
only a preparation for death4 ,cicero   
said1  8,from our youth upwards we must 
accustom ourselves to face our last     
moments without fear4 ,if not1 there is 
an end to peace1 since it is  quite     
certain that we must die40 ,philosophy  
has been called the art of  preparing   
for death4    ,before considering in    
what direction science may direct our   
steps  towards solving the problem of   
death1 which in the words of ,st4 ,paul 
is  the 8last enemy to be destroyed10   
let us see how much is known about it4  
,we are so accustomed to look upon death
 as something natural and  inevitable1  
that it has long since come to be       
regarded as inherent in  organisms4     

,however1 when biologists investigated  
the matter more  carefully1 they failed 
to discover any proof of the accepted   
doctrine4  ,observation of members of   
the lowest grade of animal life1 such as
  infusorians and other protozoa1 has   
shown that these reproduce by simple    
division1 and in a very short time      
multiply to an astonishing extent4      
,generation succeeds generation1 with   
the utmost rapidity and without the     
intervention of death2 no single corpse 
appears in the swarming masses  of      
animalcul4 ,from such facts1 which are  
extremely easy to confirm1  several     
biologists1 and in specially ,btschli   
and ,weismann1#cai have  deduced an     
immortality of the unicellular          
organisms4 ,when an infusorian  has     
divided1 each daughter organism rapidly 
completes itself and sets  about again  
dividing in the fashion of its parent4  
,the process may be  more complicated1  
as in the cases where a single organism 
breaks up into  several portions each of

 which contains an essential part of the
 parent  organism4 ,many unicellular    
organisms reproduce in such a fashion1  
and as  each animal divides             
simultaneously into a number of         
individuals of the  new generation1 the 
individuality is destroyed4 ,it is      
possible to admit  with ,gtte#cbj that  
such a process is natural death1        
although there is  no actual destruction
 and no corpse4    ,in any event it     
cannot be disputed that lower organisms 
are not subject  to the natural death   
that comes inevitably to man and the    
higher  animals4 ,it has been suggested 
that the debility of infusorians after a
  rapid series of divisions1 and before 
conjugation1 is to be interpreted  as   
natural death4 ,but the rejuvenescence  
that follows conjugation is             
incompatible with such an               
interpretation4 ,moreover1 when         
conjugation  does not occur1 and the    
debility leads to death1 the deaths must
 be  regarded as accidental4    ,the    

theory of the immortality of unicellular
 organisms is now generally  accepted4  
,however1 there are animals1 higher in  
the scale of life1 to  which natural    
death does not come4 ,among these occur 
certain forms of  considerable          
complexity1 composed of many organs and 
very many cells1  such as many polyps1  
and some worms1 especially annelid      
worms4 ,some  annelids 7,fig4 #ag7      
reproduce by transverse divisions very  
actively4  8,throughout the summer10    
said ,e4 ,perrier1#cba 8the ,nadimorpha 
are  devoid of genital organs1 and      
apparently 7according to unpublished    
observations of ,maupas71 they may be   
kept alive for several years1 and       
perhaps indefinitely1 in this sexless   
condition40 ,this certainly may be      
regarded as a case of immortality due to
 the indefinite power of  regeneration  
possessed by a complex animal4    ,the  
facts that ,i have cited show that death
 is not necessarily inherent  in living 
organisms4 ,naegeli1#cbb a well-known   

,german botanist1 has  asserted even    
that natural death does not exist in    
nature4 ,he points out  that trees1 more
 than a thousand years old1 perish not  
by natural death1  that is to say1 by   
the gradual decay of their vitality1 but
 by some  catastrophe4    ,illustration3
      ,,fig4 #ag4--;,chtogaster about to
 divide into four 7from a drawing by ,m4
      ,mesnil74      ,the age of the    
famous dragontree of the ,villa ,oratava
 at ,teneriffe1  admired by ,von        
,humboldt1 was estimated at several     
thousand years4 ,its  trunk was hollow1 
but the huge monster continued to       
flourish until it  was overthrown by a  
storm4 ,it was only by a catastrophe    
that the  long-lived giant perished4    
,the ,baobab is reputed to live for five
 or six  thousand years4    ,in a       
recently published essay1 ,jacques      
,loeb1#cbc a distinguished  biologist in
 ,chicago1 has made a study of natural  
death1 and has come to  the conclusion  
that there is no good evidence for its  

existence4 ,he has  observed that ripe1 
but unfertilised eggs of sea hedgehogs  
7,echini7 die  a few hours after they   
have been discharged4 ,loeb thinks that 
this may  be a case of natural death1   
but ,i cannot agree with this opinion1  
as an  egg that has not been fertilised 
by a spermatozoon may be compared with  
an organism deprived of its nutrition   
and so dying of starvation4 ,in  both   
cases death is purely accidental and    
could have been avoided4    ,if natural 
death does exist1 it must have appeared 
on the face of the  earth long after the
 appearance of life4 ,weismann has      
suggested that  death arose as an       
adaptation for the advantage of the     
species1 that is  to say1 in relation to
 the surrounding conditions of          
existence1 and not  as an absolute      
necessity inherent in the nature of the 
living substance4  ,he thought that as  
worn organisms are no longer suited for 
reproduction  or for the struggle for   
life1 natural death was due to natural  

selection1 it being necessary to        
maintain the species in a vigorous      
state by weeding out the debased        
individuals4 ,but the introduction of   
death for that purpose was superfluous1 
since the debility caused by old  age in
 itself would eliminate the aged in the 
course of the struggle for  existence4  
,violent death must have appeared almost
 as soon as living  things came into    
being4 ,the infusorians and other low   
organisms1 despite  their potential     
immortality1 must have been subjected   
perpetually to  violent death1 falling  
victims to larger and stronger          
organisms4 ,it is  impossible to regard 
natural death1 if indeed it actually    
exists1 as the  product of natural      
selection for the benefit of the        
species4 ,in the  press of the world    
natural death rarely could come into    
operation1  because maladies or the     
voracity of enemies so frequently cause 
violent  death4    ,no doubt a certain  
number of deaths are recorded in        

statistics as being  due to old age1    
without visible malady4 ,sometimes      
decrepit old men feel  no pain and seem 
to fall quietly into their eternal      
sleep2 but autopsy  reveals serious     
lesions of the internal organs4 ,there  
is reason to  believe that even such    
deaths are in reality violent and are   
usually  caused by infectious microbes4 
,the general effect on the mind produced
  by examination of the collected facts 
is not an acceptance of the view  that  
natural death is essentially inherent in
 living organisms1 but the  production  
of a wish to discover if there be any   
real proof of its  existence4    ,for   
some time natural death has been        
ascribed only to the parts of the  body 
that are of use in the individual life4 
,those cells1 the function  of which is 
to secure reproduction of the species1  
are1 like unicellular  organisms1       
potentially immortal4 ,the egg-cell of  
the female is  transformed into a ftus1 
and so is the starting-point of the new 

generation1 while the sexual cells of   
the new generation give rise to  the    
third generation1 and so on1 in an      
endless chain of life4 ,the  greater    
number1 by far1 of the eggs and         
spermatozoa perish2 but their  death is 
not natural but violent1 being due to   
harmful external  agencies4 ,an         
infinitesimal minority of the sexual    
cells survive  indefinitely in the      
successions of generations4             
,scientific proof exists1 therefore1    
that our bodies contain immortal        
elements1 eggs or spermatozoa4 ,as these
 cells not only are truly alive  but    
exhibit properties that are within the  
category of psychical  phenomena1 it    
would be possible to build up a serious 
thesis on the  immortality of the soul4 
,observations on protozoa1 and          
especially on the infusorian group of   
protozoa1 show that these simple beings1
 each of which is composed of no  more  
than a single cell1 possess a high      
degree of sensibility4 ,they  select    

their food1 distinguish living from dead
 animalcul1#cbd seek  out their mates   
for conjugation1 avoid danger1 and hunt 
their prey2 in  fact1 they are in       
possession of a set of qualities that   
must be included  in psychical          
phenomena4 ,although such phenomena are 
very much lower in  the case of the     
infusorians than in the case of higher  
animals1 it is  possible to speak of the
 soul of protozoa4 ,moreover1 as the    
body is  immortal by reason of its      
indefinite power of reproduction by     
division1  the soul also of these       
creatures is immortal4 ,however1 the    
soul is so  primitive that it is        
impossible to speak in definite terms   
about it4    ,as the sexual cells of the
 human body are immortal1 like the      
protozoa1  the problem arises if these  
too be endowed with an immortal soul4   
,our  existing knowledge makes it       
impossible to doubt that ova and        
spermatozoa  have sensibility in a      
degree as high as that of the protozoa4 

,the ova  shed secretions that arouse   
the sensibility of the spermatozoa1 and 
the  latter1 directed by this specific  
8odour0 7the occurrence being known     
technically as chemotaxis71 make their  
way to the ovum and penetrate it4  ,some
 substances1 arousing the spermatozoa   
into activity and movement1  attract    
them1 others repel them4 ,the phenomena 
of chemotaxis were shown  for the first 
time in the case of cryptogams by       
,pfeffer1 the  distinguished botanist1  
and since then the male cells of many   
plants and  different kinds of animals  
have been proved to possess sensibility4
    ,when ova and spermatozoa succeed in
 conjugating1 they produce an           
individual of the next generation1 to   
which they transmit what ,haeckel  has  
called the 8cellular soul40#cbe ,this   
soul1 then1 is really  immortal1        
inasmuch as the bodies of the           
reproductive cells are immortal4        
,although it is true that our bodies    
contain elements endowed with  immortal 

souls1 it by no means follows that our  
conscious souls are  immortal4 ,in an   
earlier chapter1 ,i have already pointed
 out that the  psychical phenomena of   
many of the cells of our body and the   
cellular  souls of these are outside our
 consciousness4 ,we have no             
consciousness  of the perpetual battle  
waged by the phagocytes against the     
microbes  that endeavour to obtain a    
foothold in our tissues4 ,none the less 
the  phagocytes are elements endowed    
with mobility and sensibility and       
possessing a cellular soul like that of 
the protozoa4    ,a woman has no        
consciousness of the numerous           
spermatozoa1 with their  cellular souls1
 that enter her body1 nor of those that 
fertilise her  egg-cells2 she is even   
without consciousness of the much more  
highly  developed soul of the ftus4 ,a  
child before birth possesses psychical  
qualities much more numerous and more   
perfect than those of the  reproductive 
cells4 ,it is capable of responding to  

certain sensations  and of performing   
movements4 ,a child1 in the later months
 of its  prenatal existence1 possesses  
the senses of touch and taste and1      
within  limits1 the sense of sight4#cbf 
,this soul is outside the consciousness 
of the mother4 ,the mother cannot even  
tell by her consciousness if she  bears 
under her girdle one or two embryonic   
souls4 ,and so the  immortality of the  
cellular soul has no relation to the    
problem of  death4    ,it is a common   
opinion that only the reproductive cells
 of man and  animals are immortal1 and  
that the other elements of the body are 
mortal1 the latter1 if they escape      
violence1 dying a natural death4 ,a     
contrast has been drawn between the     
mortal cells in which is resident  the  
life of the body and the immortal cells 
on which the species  depends4 ,however1
 when non-reproductive cells possess the
 power of  regeneration1 it is          
impossible to deny their immortality4   
,when a polyp  or a worm reproduces by  

division1 a large number of cells go to 
form the  new individual1 and these     
cells are immortal in the fashion of the
  infusoria4    ,immortal animals occur 
only among the lower invertebrates4 ,the
 power of  regeneration fades away in   
the higher ranks of the scale of life4  
,whilst  worms may be divided in several
 pieces1 each piece being capable of    
regeneration so as to form a new worm1  
when molluscs are cut they  display only
 a limited capacity for regeneration4   
,if the antenn of a  snail be amputated 
they will be renewed1 but if the whole  
creature be  cut in pieces death        
follows4 ,some of the lower vertebrates1
 such as  newts and salamanders1 can    
renew the tail and the limbs1 but they  
cannot  reproduce by division4 ,birds   
and mammals1 the higher vertebrates1    
have  very little power of regeneration1
 and tail and limbs are never reformed  
in their cases4    ,it seems to be the  
case that the advance in the general    
organisation of  animals has involved a 

loss in the reproductive capacity of the
 cells  and tissues4 ,even in the       
highest animals1 some organs1 such as   
the  liver1 still possess regenerative  
capacity2 but1 on the other hand1 many  
cells have lost the power of            
regeneration completely4 ,the nervous   
cells1  in particular1 which are the    
highest and most perfectly organised    
elements of the body1 cannot reproduce  
themselves4 ,after their initial        
appearance in the course of embryonic   
development1 they pass their lives      
without regenerating or reproducing4 ,in
 acquiring the highest qualities1  that 
is to say1 their psychical activity1    
they have lost completely the  power of 
reproduction1 the distinctive feature of
 immortal cells4 ,if  cells doomed to   
natural death really exist1 it is in the
 nervous tissues  that we must look for 
them4    ,illustration3      ,,fig4     
#ah4--;,ephemerids4      ,the existence 
of natural death in the animal world    
cannot be denied1 but  it is very rare4 

,the best example is that of the curious
 insects known  universally as          
ephemerids 7,fig4 #ah74 ,swarms of these
 delicate and  graceful insects are to  
be seen in the summer months round      
lights4 ,the  perfect insects emerge    
from water1 in which the six-legged larv
 feed on  the organic dbris contained in
 fresh water4 ,the larv are not         
predaceous1 and escape from their       
numerous and hungry foes by agility4    
,they are long-lived1 some of them      
passing two or three years in the mud   
of streams1 and in the end become winged
 insects after a rapid  metamorphosis4  
,near ,paris1 anglers have a popular    
name 7manne1 manna7  for one species    
7,palingenia virgo7 which emerges in    
swarms after  sundown from the waters of
 the ,seine and ,marne4 ,the swarms fly 
in huge  numbers1 like heavy            
snow-flakes1 for a very short time1 and 
then fall  into the water 7,fig4 #ai74  
,the flight of these insects lasts only 
an hour  or two1 and then1 in an        

enfeebled condition1 they fall down in  
vast  numbers4 ,they are attracted by   
the lanterns lighted by fishermen1 and  
are collected to be used as bait4 ,the  
life in the winged condition is  truly  
ephemeral and lasts no more than a few  
hours4 ,the structure of the  insect is 
adapted to this short life4 ,the larv   
have powerful jaws1 used  in the        
mastication of food2 the winged insects 
possess only vestiges of  jaws4 ,they   
are unable to feed1 and so are adapted  
only for the briefest  existence4 ,their
 hour of aerial life is devoted to love4
 ,as soon as they  emerge the males and 
females unite1 and the packets of eggs1 
which are  deposited at once1 fall into 
the water1 and in a few weeks the young 
larv hatch out4    ,the mode of life and
 the organisation of the adult          
ephemerids show  plainly that they are  
adapted to natural death4 ,death comes  
to them not  because they are without   
food1 or because the environment fails  
to  provide something necessary to life1

 but merely because they emerge from    
the larval state in a non-viable        
condition1 without the organs necessary 
to the maintenance of life4             
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #ai4--,swarms
 of ,palingenia virgo4      ,once it is 
granted that natural death actually     
exists1 it is necessary  to study its   
mechanism as closely as the existing    
state of knowledge  permits4 ,to exclude
 the possibility of the death having to 
be  interpreted as violent1 it would be 
necessary to know that some very  rapid 
infectious disease does not attack these
 insects as soon as they  emerge from   
the water4 ,this possibility1 although  
remote1 must be  examined4 ,instances   
are known of large numbers of insects   
dying very  rapidly as the result of    
attack by a species of mould which      
causes an  epidemic4 ,every one has     
seen1 especially in autumn1 dead flies  
anchored  to the window pane by a little
 tuft of white fluff4 ,as so many       
individuals die about the same time1 we 

might be disposed to assign the  fact to
 natural death4 ,the actual cause1      
however1 is an infectious and  fatal    
disease caused by a parasitic mould4    
,the occurrence of some terrible        
epidemic may be excluded from           
consideration in the case of ephemerids4
 ,i have made investigations  which show
 that such an epidemic does not occur4  
,the bodies of the dying  ephemerids    
contain no microbe which could be the   
cause of death4 ,their  death must be   
regarded as natural1 as the result of   
their organisation1  as essentially a   
part of the nature of the insects4      
,among the cells of  their body there   
are many active phagocytes4 ,is it      
possible to attribute  death to ravages 
that these cells may cause among the    
higher cells and  tissues8 ,microscopic 
examination1 so far from supporting such
 a  possibility1 shows that the organs  
are quite normal in their intimate      
structure4 ,the brain and central       
nervous system1 the muscles and other   

organs1 show no signs of that invasion  
by phagocytes found in cases of  senile 
degeneration4 ,in this example of       
natural death there is certainly  no    
possibility of phagocytic intervention4 
,some biologists have suggested that the
 rapid death of ephemerids and of  some 
other insects is due to debility caused 
by the great effort of  depositing the  
male and female sexual cells4 ,on this  
supposition1 the  case would be         
analogous to the shock which is         
sometimes the consequence  of a surgical
 operation4 ,this hypothesis1 however1  
may be excluded1 for  among the dead    
ephemerids there are many males that    
have not united with  females4 ,among   
ephemerids males are much more numerous 
than females2  many males have no       
opportunity of undergoing the sexual    
shock and of  emptying the reproductive 
organs1 and these1 none the less1 die as
  rapidly as the others4    ,as yet we  
do not know if all the tissues of the   
ephemerids die  simultaneously in       

natural death4 ,most probably the cells 
of the nervous  centres perish first1   
and so bring death on the others4 ,the  
investigation ought to be made4         
,death comes to the ephemerids in the   
midst of love1 at the moment when  their
 sexual instincts are satisfied4 ,it    
would be very interesting to  know the  
sensations of these creatures as they   
feel death come on them  in the act of  
reproduction4 ,naturally it would be    
impossible to obtain a  full answer to  
the question1 but many interesting facts
 regarding it may  be ascertained4 ,all 
the ephemerids1 not only those the life 
of which is  so brief1 but those that   
live for several days 7,chlo1 for       
instance71  are extremely easy to       
capture4 ,it is unnecessary to take them
 unawares  or to use a net as in the    
case of flies1 wasps1 and many other    
insects4  ,ephemerids may be taken with 
the fingers in the simplest way1 because
  they offer no resistance and show no  
desire to escape1 although they  have   

six legs and two or four wings4 ,this is
 not an isolated case1 for  some other  
insects 7as1 for example1 winged ants   
and aphides7 allow  themselves to be    
captured with the same carelessness4    
,although the adult ephemerids are      
careless1 the wingless larv are  timid4 
,when a tube is brought near them1 among
 the water plants1 with  the object of  
capturing them1 they rapidly move off4  
,it often requires  much patience and   
quickness to capture these larv 7,fig4  
#bj74 ,the  instinct of preservation of 
life displays itself by rapid flight4   
,illustration3      ,,fig4 #bj4--,larva 
of an ephemerid 7,chlorufulum74      ,it
 is remarkable that the adult insect has
 lost the instinct of                   
self-preservation4 ,if it be touched it 
may move a short distance off1  but it  
does not take to flight although its    
wings are very large1 and  its body1    
which of itself weighs little1 is still 
lighter because the  digestive tube is  
filled with air and not with food4 ,as a

 rule1 an  ephemerid that has been      
touched does not even move off1 but     
allows  itself to be captured without   
any resistance4 ,it would not be        
accurate  to say that the larva's       
instinct of self-preservation has been  
replaced  in the adult by an instinct   
for death2 but it must be admitted that 
the  instinct of preservation has been  
totally lost4 ,the lack of resistance   
cannot be explained by any defect in the
 organs of sense4 ,not only are  the    
eyes of the larval stage fully preserved
 in the adult1 but the adult  males have
 enormous eyes to enable them to        
recognise the female in the  turbulent  
flight which takes place at the close of
 the day4 ,ephemerids  of all ages      
possess well developed tactile organs1  
and it is thus in  spite of a highly    
organised sensory system that the adults
 offer no  resistance to enemies4    ,it
 is no mere accident that the most      
striking examples of natural death      
occur among insects1 for these creatures

 display an unusual stability in  their 
cellular structure with a corresponding 
lack of the power of  regeneration1 in  
these particulars resembling man and the
 higher  animals4 ,the cells of the     
nervous system are very complex1 and are
 well  adapted for the highest function1
 that is to say1 the psychical          
function4 ,these highly endowed cells1  
however1 are devoid of the power  of    
reproduction4 ,many experiments have    
been made in relation to this1  and it  
has been proved clearly that in         
cold-blooded vertebrates the  brain and 
spinal cord with the nerve cells        
contained in them are capable  of       
regeneration1 whilst among mammals only 
extremely rare cases are  known in which
 there has been any regeneration of the 
nervous elements4  ,it is to be         
expected1 then1 that cases of natural   
death occur in the  higher animals and  
especially in man4 ,however1 no case is 
known so plain  as that presented by the
 ephemerids4 ,i have already stated that

 of  deaths apparently due to senile    
debility in man1 a large proportion are 
certainly due to various infectious     
diseases that affect the old1 such  as  
pneumonia and nephritis4 ,close         
examination of the tissues confirms     
this conclusion1 for the destruction of 
the higher elements by  phagocytes      
produces what is really violent death   
and not a natural death  like that of   
the ephemerids4    ,natural death in man
 is probably a possibility rather than  
an actual  occurrence4 ,old age is not a
 true physiological process but exhibits
  many morbid characters4 ,that being   
the case1 it is not surprising that  it 
seldom ends in natural death4 ,it is    
probable1 however1 that natural  death  
occasionally occurs in very old men4    
,attempts have been made to estimate the
 natural limits of human life4          
,flourens#cbg based a calculation on the
 duration of the period of  growth4 ,if 
the latter be taken as one fifth the    
natural life1 then human  life ought to 

last a century4 ,as centenarians are    
rare1 the vast  majority of deaths1     
which happen before that age has been   
reached1 must  be regarded as violent or
 accidental4 ,the rule of ,flourens1    
however1 is  arbitrary1 and there is no 
evidence to show that it is exact4      
,probably  in the human race1 as in the 
case of ephemerids1 the natural duration
 of  life varies and cannot be expressed
 by a definite figure4 ,in most cases   
it ought to be more than a hundred      
years1 and only in rare cases ought  it 
to be much less than that term4         
,probably there is a variation in the   
duration of life just as there is a     
variation of the date of sexual         
maturity for which rules may be laid    
down but not without anticipating       
numerous exceptions4    ,the existing   
pathological character of old age       
vitiates all conclusions  as to natural 
death1 and it is still impossible to be 
exact in speaking  of that subject4 ,it 
is known that certain organs and tissues

 remain  alive for some time after      
death4 ,in the case of certain          
infectious  diseases1 the heart may be  
removed from a human body more than     
thirty  hours after death1 and if placed
 under proper conditions will renew its 
life1 and beat for several hours4 ,the  
white corpuscles1 the spermatozoa  and  
the cilia of a corpse1 may retain their 
power of movement4 ,does this  also     
happen in the rare cases of natural     
death8 ,that question must be  answered 
in the future4 ,the most important      
question relating to natural  death is  
the following3 ,is the appearance of    
natural death in man  accompanied by the
 disappearance of one instinct1 the     
instinct of self  preservation1 and by  
the appearance of another instinct1 the 
instinct of  death8 ,do the phenomena of
 the ephemerids give us any indication  
as to  this8 ,an exact answer is not to 
be expected4 ,as old age is generally   
what may be called an unnatural         
phenomenon1 it is extremely rare for    

persons to approach the age of natural  
death with their faculties  unclouded4  
,i have had under observation a         
centenarian old woman1 who  still       
remembered some incidents of her youth2 
in her the desire to live  was still    
strong1 but her intellectual faculties  
were partially dim4  ,moreover1 her     
brain1 of which ,i have already spoken  
7p4 #bda71 showed a  marked degeneration
 of the nerve cells due to the activity 
of  macrophages4    ,i have obtained    
much information about a centenarian who
 was alive in  ,rouen in #aijj1 but a   
single glance at her photograph was     
enough to show  that she no longer was  
in full possession of intelligence4#cbh 
,she was  infirm in many ways4 ,so also1
 ,chevreul1 the celebrated chemist1 who 
died  at the age of one hundred and     
three years1 showed not the faintest    
wish  for death2 he clung to life1 but  
his mental powers had grown weak4       
,the cases to which ,i have referred are
 typical1 but there are exceptions      

worthy of close attention4 ,tokarski1 in
 the essay on the fear of death1  to    
which ,i referred in the sixth chapter1 
quoted the case of a female  centenarian
 who stated as follows3 8,if you come to
 live as long as ,i  have lived1 you    
will understand not only that it is     
possible not to fear  death1 but to feel
 the same need for death as for sleep40 
,a new feeling  had come into existence 
in the very old person1 a feeling       
incomprehensible to those less old4     
,apparently this was a case in which    
the instinct of natural death had       
appeared in a centenarian whose mental  
faculties had been retained in a        
sufficiently perfect state4    ,i wish  
very much that ,i had myself been a     
witness of this old woman's  remarkable 
instinct in even one case of the many   
that ,i have observed4  ,but all that   
have been pointed out to me as subject  
to this new desire  have turned out to  
have been possessed of very different   
ideas4 ,some  were old invalids1 weary  

of pain and ready to exchange the       
sorrows of  life for death1 but who     
would have preferred to be healed and to
 live on  in comfort4 ,when the         
possibility of recovering health was    
suggested to  them1 they showed signs of
 pleasure and of the renewal of hope4   
,investigations that ,i have made in    
homes for the aged have led to  negative
 results on this subject4 ,no case      
showed the slightest sign of  the       
approach of the instinct of death4      
,however1 ,i have learned from ,dr4     
,fauvel of one case to add to the       
instance noticed by ,tokarski4 ,it was  
the case of an old lady whose health and
 circumstances were comfortable  and who
 before her death showed a real desire  
for it and stated it in  much the same  
language as that quoted by ,tokarski4   
,in ,fauvel's case1  however1 the old   
lady had reached the age of only        
eighty-five years4 ,it  seems probable  
that this was a second genuine case of  
the appearance of  the instinct of      

death1 and it is therefore interesting  
to notice that  that instinct1 like the 
sexual instinct1 is subject to variation
 in the  date of its appearance4    ,in 
my search for instances of the instinct 
of death1 ,i made use of the  large     
collection made by ,lejoncourt1#cbi but 
found that the information  given by    
this author was very incomplete as to   
the mode of life and the  last moments  
of his cases4    ,the ,bible testifies  
to the frequency of old age in ancient  
times and to  the complete preservation 
of the faculties in the aged4 ,it also  
contains  some references that may be   
interpreted as instances of the instinct
 of  death4 ,i may take its account of  
the death of some of the patriarchs4    
8,and these are the days of the years of
 ,abraham's life which he lived1  an    
hundred threescore and fifteen years4   
,then ,abraham gave up the ghost1  and  
died in a good old age1 an old man1 and 
full of years40#ccj 8,and  the days of  
,isaac were an hundred and fourscore    

years4 ,and ,isaac gave up  the ghost1  
and died1 and was gathered unto his     
people1 being old and  full of days3 and
 his sons ,esau and ,jacob buried       
him40#cca 8,after  this lived ,job an   
hundred and forty years1 and saw his    
sons1 and his  sons' sons1 even four    
generations4 ,so ,job died1 being old   
and full of  days40#ccb ,it is probable 
that the phrase 8old and full of days10 
which sounds strange in our ears1 simply
 refers to the instinct of  death1      
developed in well preserved old men who 
had attained ages of from  #adj to #ahj 
years4#ccc ,the ,biblical phrase is not 
merely a commonplace  phrase applied to 
the death of celebrities for the        
references to deaths  of other persons  
were put in different language4 8,and   
these are the  years of the life of     
,ishmael1 an hundred and thirty and     
seven years3 and  he gave up the ghost  
and died2 and was gathered unto his     
people40#ccd  8,and ,jacob lived in the 
land of ,egypt seventeen years3 so the  

whole age  of ,jacob was an hundred     
forty and seven years40#cce 8,and ,aaron
 was an  hundred and twenty and three   
years old when he died in ,mount        
,hor40#ccf  8,and ,moses was an hundred 
and twenty years old when he died2 his  
eye was  not dim1 nor his natural force 
abated40#ccg ,in only one of these later
  cases had the individual reached the  
age of one hundred and forty years1  at 
which age1 apparently1 the instinct of  
natural death appeared4    ,it may seem 
altogether surprising and improbable to 
us that an instinct  for death should   
arise in man1 since we are imbued with  
an instinct of  an opposite nature4     
,from the facts that ,i collected in my 
sixth chapter1  it was to be inferred   
plainly that the desire of life and the 
fear of  death are manifestations of an 
instinct deep-rooted in the constitution
  of man4 ,that instinct is of the same 
order as the instincts of hunger  and   
thirst1 of the need of sleep1 of        
movement and of sexual and maternal     

love4 ,the devotion and care bestowed on
 their young by female birds and        
mammals are known universally4 ,and yet 
these instincts can be reversed4  ,there
 is no sacrifice of which the mothers   
are not capable if it serve  to save the
 life or promote the well-being of their
 offspring4 ,such  devotion is a        
manifestation of the maternal instinct1 
which is one of  the strongest instincts
 known to us4 ,and yet that love1 so    
tender and so  absolute1 lasts only for 
the time during which the wants of the  
young  need to be satisfied4 ,as soon as
 the young begin to be independent1 the 
maternal love changes to indifference or
 to dislike4 ,at the next               
breeding-period1 maternal love reappears
 again1 so that there is a  periodic ebb
 and flow of the instinct4    ,the      
new-born babe takes an instinctive      
delight in the milk of his  mother1     
which seems to him the only good food in
 the world4 ,as soon as  he can show his
 feelings1 his intense satisfaction as  

he is suckled is  plain4 ,but this      
instinct lasts only during the period of
 lactation4 ,as  soon as the child      
begins to take different kinds of food1 
he ceases to  be pleased with his       
mother's milk1 and may dislike it for   
the remainder  of his life4 ,several    
adults to whom ,i have offered human    
milk would not  even taste it1 so       
disgusting did it seem to them4 ,and yet
 the taste had  nothing intrinsically   
disagreeable in it4 ,here again is an   
example of a  strong instinct that      
changes completely4    ,children often  
eat to repletion of some kind of        
substance1 and for long  afterwards that
 substance disgusts them instead of     
being coveted by  them4 ,it is said that
 apprentices to pastry-cooks and makers 
of  sweetmeats are allowed at first to  
eat as much as they please4 ,they soon  
come to have a profound dislike for the 
sweet things that children like  so     
much4    ,a mother who adores her child1
 or a child who is extremely fond of    

sweetmeats cannot understand how any    
mother could dislike her offspring  or  
any apprentice have a distaste for      
sweets4 ,in the same way1 human  beings 
full of the desire for life1 believe    
more easily in eternal life  than in the
 possibility of an instinct of death4   
,and yet the instinct of  death seems to
 lie1 in some potential form1 deep in   
the constitution of  man4 ,if the cycle 
of human life followed its ideal course 
according to  physiological function1   
then the instinct of death would appear 
in its  time1 after a normal life and an
 old age healthy and prolonged4    ,in  
reality1 human life is subject from its 
very beginning to the  pernicious       
disharmonies in the constitution of man4
 ,this evil influence  increases with   
the passing of the years and leads to an
 old age ruined  by abnormalities4 ,it  
is not surprising that under such       
circumstances men  wish neither to grow 
old nor to die4 ,old men1 in spite of   
their  attachment to life1 do not attain

 the capacity to know all that is good  
in it1 and die1 in the fear of death1   
without having known the instinct  of   
death4 ,they may be compared with       
unhappy women who have married  before  
their sexual instincts have awakened and
 who have died in  childbirth1 without  
ever having known the real joy of       
loving4 ,formerly1  the number of women 
in such a case was large4 ,in some parts
 of  ,abyssinia1 girls married when they
 were still very young and before  their
 physical development was mature4       
,according to ,hassenstein1#cch  nearly 
one third of these young women died in  
childbirth4 ,they quitted  life before  
they had known the true sexual instinct4
 ,the advancement of  civilisation and  
of medical knowledge has greatly reduced
 the number of  such unhappy women4 ,we 
must hope that the progress of knowledge
 will  bring about a similar advance in 
relation to the instinct of death4 ,with
  that progress1 the number of men who  
will live until the instinct has  been  

attained will become greater and        
greater4                                
,,chapter ,,xii                         
,,summary ,,and ,,conclusions           
,disharmonies in the human constitution 
as the chief source of our              
sorrows--,scientific data as to the     
origin and destiny of man--,the goal    
of human existence--,difficulties in the
 way of scientific investigation    of  
the problem--,what is                   
progress8--,difficulty of including the 
whole    human race in a scheme of      
progress and morality--,the instincts of
 life    and of natural                 
death--,application to real life of the 
doctrines set    forth in this book     
,man1 who is a descendant of some       
anthropoid ape1 has inherited a         
constitution adapted to an environment  
very different from that which  now     
surrounds him4 ,man is possessed of a   
brain very much more highly  developed  
than that of his ancestors1 and has     
entered on a new path in  the evolution 

of the higher organisms4 ,the sudden    
change in his natural  conditions has   
brought about a large series of organic 
disharmonies  which become more and more
 acutely felt as he becomes more        
intelligent  and more sensitive4 ,and   
thus there has arisen a number of       
sorrows which  poor humanity has tried  
to relieve by all the means in its      
power4 ,the  disharmonies in the sexual 
functions have brought into existence   
attempted remedies of the strangest     
kind4 ,the greatest disharmony of the   
constitution is that of the morbid      
nature of old age and the  impossibility
 of reaching the instinct of natural    
death2 this has  produced childish and  
erroneous conceptions of the immortality
 of the  soul and of the resurrection of
 the body1 and many other strange       
doctrines that have been imposed upon us
 as revealed truth4    ,human           
intelligence1 in the course of its      
progressive evolution1 has  rebelled    
against these nave palliatives4 ,finding

 the restoration of the  much-desired   
harmony beyond its power1 humanity      
became resigned to a  passive fatalism1 
and believed even that the existence of 
man was a kind  of bad joke1 a faux pas 
in the evolution of sentient organisms4 
,exact  science1 developing slowly1 but 
surely1 has at last tried to master the 
situation4 ,moving step by step1 passing
 from the simple to the complex  and    
from the particular to the general1     
science has established a set of  truths
 which all the world must accept4       
,humanity in its misery has put question
 after question to science1 and  has    
lost patience at the slowness of the    
advance of knowledge4 ,it has  declared 
that the answers already found by       
science are futile and of  little       
interest4 ,from time to time it has     
preferred to turn back1 and to  delude  
itself with the beautiful mirages       
offered by religions and  systems of    
philosophy4    ,but science1 confident  
of its methods1 has quietly continued to

 work4  ,little by little1 the answers  
to some of the questions that have been 
set have begun to appear4 ,whence do we 
come8 science has been asked            
unceasingly4 ,is not man a being unlike 
other beings1 made in the image  of     
,god1 animated with the divine breath1  
and immortal8 ,no1 science  answers4    
,man is a kind of miscarriage of an ape1
 endowed with profound  intelligence and
 capable of great progress4 ,his brain  
is the seat of  processes that are very 
complex1 and much higher than those of  
other  animals1 but these functions are 
incompatible with the existence of an   
immortal soul4    ,whither are we going8
 ,that question above all other things  
has absorbed  the attention of man1 and 
naturally so1 for it is less important  
to know  our origin than to know our    
destiny4 ,does death mean absolute      
extinction1 or is it a gateway leading  
to a new and everlasting life8  ,and if 
the latter alternative be untrue1 how   
are we to face inevitable  death8       

,science cannot admit the immortality of
 the conscious soul1 for  consciousness 
is a function of special elements in the
 body that  certainly cannot live for   
ever4 ,immortality exists only for very 
low  organisms that renew their lives by
 repeated divisions with complete       
regeneration1 and that have no highly   
developed consciousness4    ,death      
brings absolute extinction1 and it seems
 unbearable because of the  condition in
 which it surprises us4 ,it comes before
 man has finished his  physiological    
development1 and when the instinct of   
life is still  strong4    ,ever since   
man has begun to look a little beyond   
his daily and immediate  wants1 he has  
asked if there be a goal for his life1  
and what that goal  may be4 ,as he has  
generally failed to find such a goal1 he
 has gone the  length of believing life 
to be a mere accident1 and of thinking  
it idle  to seek a goal4 ,he has formed 
depressing and pessimistic conclusions4 
,humanity may be compared to a boy that 

has not yet acquired the sexual         
instinct1 but has asked the meaning of  
the reproductive organs4 ,as these      
organs play no part in the functions of 
his life1 he might easily think  their  
existence not only absolutely useless   
but absurd4    ,man1 because of the     
fundamental disharmonies in his         
constitution1 does  not develop         
normally4 ,the earlier phases of his    
development are passed  through with    
little trouble2 but1 after maturity1    
greater or lesser  abnormality begins1  
and ends in old age and death that are  
premature and  pathological4 ,is not the
 goal of existence the accomplishment of
 a  complete and physiological cycle1 in
 which occurs a normal old age  ending  
in the loss of the instinct of life and 
the appearance of the  instinct of      
death4    ,the pessimistic school has   
often spoken of death as the true goal  
of  human life4 ,schopenhauer1#cci for  
instance1 said3 8,death must really be  
regarded as the true goal of life2 when 

it comes it at once adjusts all  that   
has been preparing in the course of     
life40 ,baudelaire#cdj has  exactly the 
same idea in his verse3                 
8,c'est la mort qui console1 hlas6 et   
qui fait vivre2           ,c'est le but 
de la vie1 et c'est le seul espoir      
,qui1 comme un lixir1 nous monte et nous
 enivre           ,et nous donne le cur 
de marcher jusqu'au soir40    8,alas6 it
 is death that comforts and gives us    
life2 it is the goal of  our days1 it is
 our only hope that like a wine goes to 
our head and  makes us drunk1 and puts  
heart into us to journey on till the    
night40    ,the normal end1 coming after
 the appearance of the instinct of      
death1  may truly be regarded as the    
ultimate goal of human existence4 ,but  
before attaining it1 a normal life must 
be lived3 a life filled all  through    
with the feeling that comes from the    
accomplishment of function4  ,knowledge 
of the true goal of life clears up the  
problem and shows us  the right conduct 

of life4 ,in my first chapter1 ,i tried 
to lay before  the reader a summary of  
the views that have been held as to     
right  conduct4 ,ever since the attempt 
has been made to discover a rational    
basis of morality1 human nature1        
regarded essentially as good1 has been  
taken as that basis4 ,religions and     
systems of philosophy1 on the other     
hand1 which have tried to find another  
foundation for morality1 have  regarded 
human nature as vicious at the roots4   
,science has been able to  tell us that 
man1 the descendant of animals1 has good
 and evil qualities  in his nature1 and 
that his life is made unhappy by the    
evil qualities4  ,but the constitution  
of man is not immutable1 and perhaps it 
may be  changed for the better4         
,morality should be based not on human  
nature in its existing vitiated         
condition1 but on human nature1 ideal1  
as it may be in the future4  ,before all
 things1 it is necessary to try to amend
 the evolution of the  human life1 that 

is to say1 to transform its disharmonies
 into harmonies  7,orthobiosis74 ,this  
task can be undertaken only by science1 
and to  science the opportunity of      
accomplishing it must be given4         
,however1 even  in the most civilised   
countries1 science is far from being in 
this ideal  condition4 ,obstacles lie in
 its way and retard its advance4    ,to 
make the human constitution better1 it  
would be necessary to know it           
thoroughly4 ,how can we try to transform
 to a normal and physiological          
condition old age1 at present utterly   
pathological1 unless we first           
understand the most intimate details of 
its mechanism8 ,deeply rooted           
prejudices make it very difficult to    
examine the organs of the aged  dead4   
,the difficulties surrounding           
post-mortem investigations are almost   
insurmountable4 ,according to the       
regulations enforced in ,france1        
autopsies cannot be made until          
twenty-four hours after death4 ,an      

autopsy  cannot be made except when the 
corpse has not been claimed by any      
relatives in the direct line1 husband or
 wife1 brothers1 sisters1  uncles1      
aunts1 nephews1 nieces4 ,if kinsmen put 
in no claim1 co-operative  societies may
 take possession of the corpse and      
oppose the holding of an  examination4  
,even when an examination has been      
permitted1 it must extend  only to 8the 
ascertaining of exact facts1 and this   
must be taken as  excluding the         
mutilation of the corpse by the removal 
of any organ or  portion of the anatomy1
 however interesting scientifically such
 material  might be40 7,circular of the 
,director of 8,assistance publique10    
,january  #bj1 #aijj4cda7 ,it is easy to
 see that such regulations make         
extremely  difficult the investigation  
of senile degeneration1 and the search  
for  means of preventing it1 especially 
by the use of serums obtained after     
injecting emulsions of human organs4    
,these difficulties in reality arise    

from the prejudice in favour of the     
existence of a life beyond the grave    
and a resurrection of the body4         
,almost similar difficulties stand in   
the way of obtaining the bodies of  old 
animals4 ,their owners prefer to keep   
animals1 after they are  useless1 until 
they die1 and to bury the bodies instead
 of devoting them  to the scientific    
investigation that is so important to   
humanity4    ,as soon as we come to     
believe that the solution of the        
problems of human  happiness will come  
not from religions nor from systems of  
metaphysical  philosophy1 but from exact
 science alone1 the obstacles to        
progress will  be removed4 ,that        
scientific methods will redress the     
disharmonies of the  human constitution 
is the more probable inasmuch as the old
 age of human  beings was more          
physiological1 and their death more     
natural1 in earlier  times than they are
 to-day4    ,the study of the human     
constitution not only denotes the real  

goal of  our existence1 but indicates to
 us what is meant by true culture and   
real progress4    ,in earlier chapters1 
,i have shown that philosophers have    
recognised the  existence in man of a   
tendency to culture and progress4 ,but  
what do they  mean by these two words8  
,attempts have been made to define them 
as  clearly as possible1 and ,herbert   
,spencer1 the greatest of living        
philosophers1 has devoted a special     
essay to the subject4 ,he examined      
those phenomena that he regarded as     
progressive1 first in the inorganic     
world1 next1 in the world of living     
things1 and1 finally1 in humanity4  ,he 
regards as progressive only the changes 
that tend to increase human  happiness1 
and it is precisely on account of that  
tendency that he  regards them as       
progressive4 ,in order to define        
progressive phenomena  ,spencer thinks  
it necessary to make parallel studies of
 them in man and  the animal world4 ,he 
finds that progress is marked always by 

a  transformation from the simple and   
uniform to the complex2 and that it     
produces constant differentiation1 in   
the evolution of the planetary  world1  
in the embryonic development of the     
individual1 and in the  societies of men
 and animals4 ,but differentiation is   
not a complete  account of progress1 for
 in the latter must be included the     
change of  the indefinite into the      
definite4 ,spencer identifies progress  
with  evolution1 and his well-known     
definition of evolution is1 that it is  
8an  integration of matter and          
concomitant dissipation of motion2      
during  which the matter passes from an 
indefinite1 incoherent homogeneity to a 
definite1 coherent heterogeneity2 and   
during which the retained motion        
undergoes a parallel transformation40   
,such a formula embraces too much1  so  
that he is rather vague1 especially when
 he applies it to human  affairs4       
,differentiation in itself is not the   
whole of progress4 ,it is  necessary in 

each concrete case to inquire into its  
limits and  modifications4    ,the      
application of his theory of progress   
and evolution led ,spencer1 in  his     
investigation of the basis of morality1 
to define human progress as  the        
tendency towards a life as full and as  
long as possible4 ,by fulness  he means 
complexity1 if ,i interpret his argument
 correctly4 ,civilised  life as compared
 with savage life1 is a realisation of  
progress4  ,civilised man1 according to 
,spencer1 uses food in a better         
regulated  fashion1 in accordance with  
the call and degree of his appetite2 the
  food is of better quality1 it is freed
 from contamination1 is much more       
varied and is better prepared4 ,the same
 differentiation distinguishes  the     
clothing1 the homes and so forth of     
civilised man4 ,according to  ,spencer1 
all such progress helps real happiness1 
that is to say the  fulness and the     
prolongation of life4    ,it is easy to 
see1 however1 that such an              

interpretation of progress is  inexact1 
like the conception of the goal of life 
associated with it4 ,if  the            
complication of the mode of life1 which 
is so marked in modern  civilisation1 is
 really the best way of reaching        
happiness1 there are no  reasons to     
arrest the tendency in that direction4  
,if1 on the other hand1  my view be     
correct1 that true progress consists in 
the elimination of  the disharmonies of 
human nature and in the cultivation of  
physiological  old age followed by      
natural death1 the conditions for       
realising progress  would be different  
and very clear4 ,the great complexity of
 life in  modern civilisation is a sign 
of progress according to ,spencer1 but  
,i do  not agree with him4 ,spencer     
speaks of the variety and preparation of
  food4 ,it is certain that this        
complexity militates against            
physiological  old age1 and that the    
simpler food of uncivilised races is    
better4 ,i do  not wish to write an     

essay on domestic hygiene1 and ,i shall 
be content  with saying that most of the
 delicate dishes provided in the homes1 
hotels1 and restaurants of the rich1    
stimulate the organs of digestion  and  
secretion in a harmful way4 ,it would be
 true progress to abandon  modern       
cuisine and to go back to the simple    
dishes of our ancestors4 ,one  of the   
conditions that enabled the ,jews of the
 earlier ,biblical times to  live longer
 than civilised people1 was1 beyond all 
doubt1 the greater  simplicity of their 
diet4 ,true hygiene1 which is in open   
disagreement  with the elaborated art of
 cookery1 is also opposed to the        
differentiation of modern dress and     
dwellings4 ,progress thus would  consist
 in simplifying many sides of the lives 
of civilised people4    ,the luxury     
which has done so much harm to mankind1 
and which would be  included in the     
formula1 8passage from indefinite       
homogeneity to  definite heterogeneity10
 is founded not on a general law of     

evolution of  the whole universe1 but on
 a particular conception of life1 quite 
different from mine according to which  
the rectifying of the abnormal  human   
cycle to a normal cycle is the true goal
 of life4    ,perhaps one of the oldest 
conceptions of life that has tended to  
luxury  is to be found in the book of   
,ecclesiastes4 ,having reached the      
conclusion3 8,for in much wisdom is much
 grief3 and he that increaseth          
knowledge increaseth sorrow0 7i4 #ah71  
and having said3 8,then ,i beheld  all  
the work of ,god1 that a man cannot find
 out the work that is done  under the   
sun3 because though a man labour to seek
 it out1 yet he shall  not find it1 yea 
farther2 though a wise man think to know
 it1 yet shall  he not be able to find  
it40#cdb ,solomon laid down the rules of
 life as  follows3 8,go thy way1 eat thy
 bread with joy1 and drink thy wine with
 a  merry heart3 for ,god now accepteth 
thy works40    8,let thy garments be    
always white2 and let thy head lack no  

ointment40    8,live joyfully with the  
wife whom thou lovest all the days of   
the life  of thy vanity1 which he hath  
given thee under the sun1 all the days  
of  thy vanity2 for that is thy portion 
in this life1 and in thy labour  which  
thou takest under the sun40             
8,whatsoever thy hand findest to do1 do 
it with thy might2 for there is  no     
work1 nor device1 nor knowledge1 nor    
wisdom1 in the grave1 whither  thou     
goest40#cdc    ,the wisdom of ,solomon  
was to enjoy this life as much as       
possible1 since  man is unable to solve 
the problem of the goal of life4 ,his   
precepts  have been taken as a guide1   
and have led to an organisation of life 
that  could only become more and more   
epicurean4    ,as soon as the goal of   
life has been seen clearly1 luxury      
ceases to be  true happiness as it      
hinders the making perfect of the normal
 cycle of  human life4 ,young people1   
instead of abandoning themselves to all 
the  pleasures because they have nothing

 before them but a sad prospect of      
morbid old age and death1 ought to make 
ready for physiological old age  and    
natural death4 ,the apprenticeship      
certainly will be long4 ,in our  time   
the years of study already last much    
longer than occurred even a  century    
ago4 ,as the body of knowledge grows    
greater1 the time to acquire  it will   
become prolonged1 but this period of    
preparation will serve as  the prelude  
to ripe maturity and ideal old age4     
,old age is repulsive at present1       
because it is an old age devoid of its  
true meaning1 full of egoism1 narrowness
 of view1 incapacity and  malignancy4   
,the physiological old age of the future
 assuredly will be  very different4 ,in 
the societies of animals1 especially as 
they occur  among insects1 the members  
show a high degree of differentiation4  
,some  individuals are adapted to the   
reproductive functions1 while others are
  sterile and are fitted for the care of
 the young and to supply the wants  of  

the community4 ,this differentiation1   
which is of social value1 has  arisen   
independently in different groups4      
,thus1 in the societies of bees  and    
ants the workers are sterile females1   
while in the case of termites1          
individuals of both sexes may be        
sterile4 ,in the human race1 evolution  
is following another path4 ,there is no 
sign of the appearance of a  sterile    
class2 but1 as the life of man is longer
 than that of insects1  it is divided   
into two periods1 a reproductive period 
and a sterile  period4 ,old age1 at     
present practically a useless burden on 
the  community1 will become a period of 
work valuable to the community4 ,as  the
 old man will no longer be subject to   
loss of memory or to  intellectual      
weakness1 he will be able to apply his  
great experience to  the most           
complicated and the most delicate parts 
of the social life4    ,young men are   
usually very bad politicians1 and in    
countries where they  take a large share

 in public affairs they do much harm    
because they are  without the necessary 
practical knowledge4 ,their incapacity  
is clearly  shown by the great changes  
in their political views as they advance
 in  years and gain experience4 ,in the 
future1 old men will have charge of  all
 complex and difficult social functions4
 ,thus1 vast improvements will  be made 
in politics and in justice1 which at    
present are defective  because of their 
insufficient foundations4    ,as soon as
 every one has recognised the true goal 
of human life1 and has  assumed1 as the 
ideal1 the realisation of the normal    
cycle of life1 a  real guide to life    
will have been found4 ,we shall know at 
least whither  we are going1 and as yet 
we are ignorant of that4 ,we have wished
 to make  life better1 but we have not  
known how or for whom to make the       
attempt4  ,formerly it was assumed that1
 in the future1 love would spread and   
become generalised4 ,family love had    
spread to the tribe and then had  been  

transformed to patriotism2 it was held  
that no obstacle stood in  the way of   
its embracing all humanity4 ,such an    
idea was prevalent in the  eighteenth   
century1 and became a common ground of  
all systems of  philosophy1 morality and
 politics4 ,but1 since means of         
communication  have been improved so    
vastly and since the most distant       
voyages are  within the power of almost 
every one1 the vague notion of          
8humanity0 has  been replaced by exact  
knowledge of the native savages in many 
parts of  the earth4 ,we have come to   
disbelieve in 8humanity0 in the old     
sense of  the word1 so great is the     
difference between savage and civilised 
peoples4 ,and many modern theories have 
rejected the inclusion of the  lower    
races in the sentiment of humanity4 ,in 
the fifth chapter1 ,i quoted  the view  
of the moralist1 ,sutherland1 on the    
advantages that have come  about from   
the ,english seizure of the forests that
 belonged to the  natives of ,australia4

 ,moreover1 it is well known that a     
profound hatred  exists between white   
men and black men in several parts of   
the earth1  notably in ,america and the 
,antilles4 ,such instances could be     
multiplied4    ,how then are we to      
emerge from this difficulty8 ,at what   
point is the  love of the future to be  
stayed1 if it cannot spread to all      
humanity8    ,in a recently published   
treatise on natural philosophy1         
,ostwald1#cdd a  very distinguished     
,german physical chemist1 has discussed 
this question4  ,he calls good 8the     
actions that made easier the existence  
of other men40  ,but to what other men  
are we to apply this rule8 8,what is the
 size of  the circle of altruistic      
love10 asked ,ostwald4 8,the general    
feeling10 he  said1 8is that it should  
cover the family and the nation4 ,the   
feeling  that it should cover all       
humanity appears to most of us as a     
theoretical  demand rather than         
something practical4 ,and thus have not 

most of us the  tendency to limit our   
altruistic actions much more in the case
 of men  beneath us than in the case of 
our social comrades 7,stadesgenossen780 
,according to this formula1 moral action
 would not stretch beyond our           
compatriots1 and humanity as a whole    
would be excluded from it4    ,here we  
have entered on a problem relating to   
the principles of normal  life4 ,in     
former times1 religion was the chief    
bond among men4 ,later on1  religion    
gave way to patriotism1 which in default
 of anything better  still holds its    
place4 ,community of language unites the
 individuals of a  nation1 but the      
advance of civilisation has undermined  
the foundation of  that source of       
differentiation4 ,naturally1 when a     
number of men spoke  only one and the   
same language1 great solidarity was the 
result1 as  ideas spread only by        
language4 ,but such a monoglottism is   
not the end of  human progress4 ,as     
means of communication have improved1   

the nations  have been brought in       
contact with each other4 ,the knowledge 
of foreign  languages is an elementary  
necessity of modern life4 ,and so the   
bonds of  nationality certainly will    
become looser1 in this respect following
 the  bonds of family4 ,the dislike that
 we have to people whose language we do 
not understand1 becomes changed into a  
feeling of unity with them as  soon as  
we can understand them4 ,in that respect
 an active development is  in progress1 
and we shall have to seek out some new  
principle on which  to base             
international solidarity4 ,a good deal  
has been made of the  possession by     
different nations of the same culture1  
but the vagueness  of the phrase has not
 been realised4 ,recognition of the true
 goal of  life and of science as the    
only means by which that goal may be    
attained  would form an ideal on which  
men might unite2 they would group       
themselves around that1 as in former    
days men were held together by          

religion4    ,i think it extremely      
probable that the scientific study of   
old age and  of death1 two branches of  
science that may be called gerontology  
and  thanatology1 will bring about great
 modifications in the course of the     
last period of life4 ,all that we know  
on these subjects confirms my  view4    
,but will it lead to the development of 
an instinct of death8 ,that  instinct   
lies deep in the roots of the human     
constitution8 ,will the  means be found 
to bring it to the surface8 ,has not the
 enormous period  during which it has   
remained latent led to its atrophy8 ,the
 science of  the future alone can answer
 that question4 ,but the persistence of 
organs  and structures that are         
extremely ancient1 as for instance1 the 
survival  of the mammary glands in males
 and of the vermiform appendage in      
anthropoid apes and man1 gives us the   
hope that the instinct of natural  death
 may emerge from its latent condition   
when old age has become a  normal       

process4    ,the mammary glands of males
 are functionless rudiments4 ,they must 
be  interpreted as vestiges of organs   
that were more highly developed in      
remote ancestors among which both sexes 
gave milk to nourish the young4  ,this  
function exists in a latent condition in
 the males of living  mammals4          
,extremely rare cases have existed in   
which males possessed  large glands     
secreting enough milk to feed the young4
 ,these males1 it is  true1 had the     
genital organs either very badly        
developed or in a  condition approaching
 hermaphroditism4#cde ,but in other     
authentic cases  7perfectly developed7  
he-goats and rams have been known to    
provide milk  in considerable           
quantities1 whilst married men have     
suckled children  with milk secreted by 
unusually developed glands4 ,it is      
stated that the  secretion of milk can  
be excited by stimulation of the        
nipples4#cdf  ,such examples of the     
reappearance of a latent property that  

has been  lost for untold ages are      
extremely important4    ,probably actual
 cases of the instinct of natural death 
in man are as  rare as instances of the 
secretion of milk by males4 ,but        
favouring  circumstances and some       
education of the instinct of death would
 probably  reawaken it and develop it   
fully4 ,there is much work to be done   
before  so great an object can be       
achieved4 ,but it is the peculiar       
feature of  science to be eager for much
 labour1 while religions and systems of 
metaphysical philosophy are content with
 passive fatalism and silent            
resignation4 ,the mere hope of being    
able to solve the great problems of     
humanity in the more or less distant    
future brings much satisfaction4  ,when 
,tolstoi1 agonised by the impossibility 
of solving the great  problems1 and     
haunted by the fear of death1 asked if  
the love of our  children is not able to
 sooth our souls1 he found that such a  
hope was  vain4 8,what is the good10 he 

said1 8of rearing children who will soon
  find themselves in the same difficult 
position as their parents80 8,why       
should they live8 why should ,i love    
them and protect them and foster  them8 
,is it that they may come to the same   
despair as ,i am in myself or  else grow
 imbecile8 ,as ,i love them1 ,i do not  
wish to hide the truth from  them1 for  
each step in knowledge will lead them   
nearer to it4 ,but the  truth           
is--death40 ,i can understand that many 
persons would abstain from  having      
children if they had come to these      
pessimistic conclusions4    ,the point  
of view that ,i have exposed in this    
book will make life more  possible4 ,our
 generation has no chance of attaining  
physiological old  age and normal death2
 but it may take real consolation from  
the thought  that those who are now     
young may advance several steps in that 
direction4 ,it may reflect that each    
succeeding generation will get  closer  
and closer to the solution and that true

 happiness one day will  be reached by  
mankind4    ,the slow advance to        
happiness will demand many sacrifices4  
,already1 men  of science sacrifice     
their health and sometimes their life to
 reach the  solution of some important  
problem1 as for instance1 to clear up a 
medical question1 and so be ready to    
heal or to save the lives of their      
fellows4    ,before it is possible to   
reach the goal1 mankind must be         
persuaded that  science is all-powerful 
and that the deeply rooted existing     
superstitions are pernicious4 ,it will  
be necessary to reform many  customs and
 many institutions that now seem to rest
 on enduring  foundations4 ,the         
abandonment of much that is habitual and
 a revolution  in the mode of education 
will require long and painful effort4   
,definition of the goal of human        
existence will bring great precision to 
the principles of morality4 ,true policy
 will have to be reared on new          
foundations4 ,the politics of to-day are

 in the condition in which  medicine    
still remained in days long past4 ,in   
the old days any one was  allowed to    
practise medicine1 because there was no 
medical science and  nothing was exact4 
,even at the present time1 among less   
civilised  people1 any old woman is     
allowed to be a midwife4 ,in some cases 
the  mother attends the labour of her   
daughter1 or 7as for instance in a      
caste of natives in ,malabar71 it may be
 the mother-in-law who does the  duty4  
,very often friends act as midwives4    
,among more civilised races1            
differentiation has taken place1 and    
childbirths are attended by women  of   
special training1 who are midwives by   
diploma4 ,in the case of nations  still 
more civilised1 the trained midwives are
 directed by obstetric  physicians who  
have specialised in the conducting of   
labour4 ,this high  degree of           
differentiation has arisen with1 and has
 itself aided1 the  progress of         
obstetric knowledge4    ,politics1 as   

they exist to-day1 correspond to the    
early stages of  obstetric practice4    
,every adult male is thought fit for    
exercising  functions so difficult as   
those of an elector or a juryman4 ,the  
only  excuse for this condition is that 
political science is in its infancy4    
,when sociology is more advanced1 there 
will come about a differentiation  like 
that in medicine4 ,when that has taken  
place1 old persons who have  acquired   
great experience1 and who because of    
their physiological  constitutions have 
preserved all their faculties1 will give
 most  valuable services to the society 
of the future4    ,in the progress      
towards the real goal of life1 men will 
lose much of  their liberty1 but will   
receive in exchange a new feeling of    
solidarity4  ,as knowledge becomes more 
and more extensive and exact1 freedom to
  neglect it will be more and more      
limited4 ,formerly any one was at       
liberty to teach that whales were fish2 
but now that it has been proved  that   

whales are mammals1 the mistake is not  
to be pardoned4 ,since  medicine has    
become more of an exact science1 the    
liberty of doctors has  been restrained4
 ,practitioners have already been       
sentenced for  neglecting antisepsis and
 asepsis4 ,other forms of freedom1 such 
as the  freedom to neglect vaccination  
against smallpox1 to spit on the floor1 
or to let dogs run loose without being  
muzzled1 are worthy of savage  days and 
will cease as civilisation advances4    
,on the other hand1 the knowledge that  
the goal of human life can be  attained 
only by the development of a high degree
 of solidarity amongst  men will        
restrain actual egotism4 ,the mere fact 
that the enjoyment of  life according to
 the precepts of ,solomon is opposed to 
the goal of  human life will lessen     
luxury and the evil that comes from     
luxury4  ,conviction that science alone 
is able to redress the disharmonies of  
the  human constitution will lead       
directly to the improvement of education

  and to the solidarity of mankind4     
,in progress towards the goal1 nature   
will have to be consulted  continuously4
 ,already1 in the case of the           
ephemerids1 nature has  produced a      
complete cycle of normal life ending in 
natural death4 ,in the  problem of his  
own fate1 man must not be content with  
the gifts of  nature2 he must direct    
them by his own efforts4 ,just as he has
 been able  to modify the nature of     
animals and plants1 man must attempt to 
modify  his own constitution1 so as to  
readjust its disharmonies4    ,breeders 
form a conception of the ideal result   
when they are about to  attempt the     
production of some new variety which    
shall be pleasing  esthetically and of  
service to man4 ,next1 they study the   
existing  individual variations in      
animals and plants on which they wish to
 work1  and from which they will select 
with the minutest care4 ,the ideal      
result  must have some relation to the  
constitution of the organisms selected4 

,to modify the human constitution1 it   
will be necessary first1 to frame  the  
ideal1 and thereafter to set to work    
with all the resources of  science4     
,if there can be formed an ideal able to
 unite men in a kind of religion  of the
 future1 this ideal must be founded on  
scientific principles4 ,and  if it be   
true1 as has been asserted so often1    
that man can live by faith  alone1 the  
faith must be in the power of science4  
,,index       ,abortion1 artificial1    
#ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje     as a         
religious ceremony1 #afd                
,abstinence1 ,hartmann on sexual1 #ahf  
,aged1 fear of death by1 #aca     murder
 of1 by low races1 #abi1 #acj           
treatment of1 by modern society1 #acj   
,albius1 and artificial fertilisation1  
#bj     ,alcohol1 and length of life1   
#bei     as producer of sclerosis1 #bdg 
,altruism1 limitations of1 #bif         
,ansthetics1 influence of1 compared with
 death1 #aei     ,ancestor-worship1 in  
,china1 #add     by ,confucius1 #ade1   

#adf     by ,kaffirs1 #aej              
quotations from ,tylor on1 #aej         
,animism1 ,tylor on1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj   
,anisoplia and light1 #cf     ,annelids1
 vegetative reproduction of1 #bfd       
,annihilation1 ,bchner on1 #bbj         
,mailaender on1 #ahh     ,anthropoid    
apes1 relationship to man1 #ee          
social instincts of1 #aje     ,ants1    
sexual disharmonies in1 #cd     ,apes1  
compared with man1 #db1 #dc             
,appendage1 vermiform1 of man and apes1 
#dd     ,appendicitis1 #ff1 #fg         
curable by modern science1 #baa         
frequency of1 #fh     ,apoplexy1        
phagocytes in1 #bci     ,aristotle1 on  
future life1 #afi     on pleasure1 #f   
,art1 as affected by ,christianity1 #ac 
of the ,greeks1 #e     ,arterial        
sclerosis1 #bdg     ,arteries1 in old   
age1 #bcg     ,asceticism1 #aa          
,atrophy1 in old age1 #bch              
,aurelius1 ,marcus1 on death1 #agb1agd1 
#bfb     on immortality1 #agb     ,renan
 on1 #agd       ,bacon1 on failure of   

philosophy1 #bjc     on lengthening     
life1 #beg     ,bacteria of the         
intestines1 #bdh1 #bdi     ,baobab-tree1
 age of1 #bff     ,baudelaire1 on death1
 #bhh     ,baumann1 on microbes in      
intestines1 #bea     ,beetles1 as food  
of wasp larv1 #bh1 #bi     ,behring1    
von1 on diphtheria1 #baa     ,benares1  
,buddha's sermon at1 #aed     ,bert1    
,paul1 on treatment of the aged1 #acj   
,bible1 old age in1 #bhj     ,bienstock1
 on harmful microbes1 #bef     on       
intestinal putrefaction1 #bee           
,birds1 absence of large intestine in1  
#beb     age of1 #bcb     ,bischoff1 on 
reproductive organs of apes1 #ha        
,blindness1 of infants1 how prevented1  
#baa     ,blood1 experiments on serum   
of1 #eb1 #ec     ,blood corpuscles1     
specific sensibility of1 #afj     ,boas1
 on cancer1 #bae     ,bones1 in old age1
 #bcg1 #bdc     ,bordet1 on cytotoxic   
serums1 #bde     ,botulism              
78sausage-disease071 microbe of1 #beg   
,brain1 invasion of macrophags 7figure71

 #bda     ,brunetire1 on failure of     
science1 #bah     ,buddha1 contempt of  
women1 #i     death of1 #aeh     on     
disease1 #aed     on fear of death1 #aec
     on immortality1 #adg     ,buddha1  
on ,nirvna1 #aeh     on old age1 #aed   
on renunciation1 #aed     sermon at     
,benares1 #aed     on sorrows of        
existence1 #bje     ,buddhism1 and      
celibacy1 #afc     and fear of death1   
#aai     and future life1 #add     and  
immortality1 #adg1 #adh     and         
pessimism1 #agf1 #agg     ,bchner1 on   
,buddhism1 #add     on morality1 #ajg   
on science1 #bai     ,burial1 of the    
old1 alive1 #aeb     ,btschli1 on       
immortality of protozoa1 #bfd           
,byron1 on fear of death1 #agg     on   
instinctive nature of fear of death1    
#abh     on pessimism1 #agg       ,ccum1
 absence of1 in birds1 #bec     of      
chimpanzee 7figure71 #de     and        
disease1 #fi     of man 7figure71 #dd   
of man and apes1 compared1 #dd     of   
monkeys1 #fg     akya-,mouni1 discovers 

death and disease1 #aai1 #abj           
,calkins1 on degeneration of infusoria1 
#bcb     ,cancer1 in alimentary canal1  
#gc1 #gd     modern science and1 #bac1  
#bad     ,casimir1 sacrifices at burial 
of1 #ada     ,castration1 ,hartmann on1 
#ahc     ,catasetum1 disharmony in1 #cj 
,catasetum saccatum 7figure71 #bd       
,caterpillars and cocoons1 #cc          
,celibacy1 #ab1 #ac1 #afc               
,cellulose1 digestion of1 #beb          
,centenarians1 ,lankester on1 #bei      
,lejoncourt on1 #bhj     ,cerceris1     
figure of1 #bh     ,chtogaster1         
vegetative reproduction of 7figure71    
#bfe     ,chemotaxis1 of sexual cells1  
#bfh     ,childbirth1 ages of women at1 
#ic     pains of1 #ib     ,chinese1     
ancestor-worship among1 #add     belief 
in immortality1 #ade     ,buddhists1    
views on future life1 #adi     laws     
against1 #aji     ,christianity1 and    
asceticism1 #aa     and continence1 #afc
     influence of1 on art1 #ac     and  
human nature1 #g1 #aj     ,chromophags1 

in blanching of hairs1 #bdc     ,cicero1
 on death1 #afi1 #bfc     on future     
life1 #afi     ,civilisation1 and       
progress1 #bib     ,cocoons1 formation  
of1 #cc     ,confucius1 on              
ancestor-worship1 #ade1 #adf            
,conjugation1 and immortality1 #bfd     
,connective tissue1 in old age1 #bcf1   
#bch     ,consciousness1 relation of to 
bodily functions1 #afj     ,cred1 on    
prevention of infantile blindness1 #baj 
,cruger1 on bees and orchids1 #bc       
,cuisine1 modern1 evils of1 #bib        
,cytotoxic serums1 #bde       ,dahlmann1
 on meaning of ,nirvna1 #aef            
,darwin1 on fertilisation of orchids1   
#ba1 #bb     on luminous insects1 #cg   
on natural morality1 #h     on origin of
 man1 #dj     ,davids1 ,rhys1 on meaning
 of ,nirvna1 #aef1 #aeg     ,death1     
,aurelius on1 #bfb     ,baudelaire on1  
#bhh     ,cicero on1 #afi1 #bfc         
,guyau on1 #aie     ,hartmann on1 #ahd  
,mailaender on1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij        
,nordau on1 #aic     ,plato on1 #aff1   

#afg     ,renan on1 #aie     ,rckert on1
 #aie     ,schiller on1 #aie            
,schopenhauer on1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha1 #bhh
     ,seneca on1 #aga     ,socrates on1 
#aff1 #afg     ,tokarsky on1 #abe       
,tolstoi on1 #abb1 #abc1 #bii           
,weismann on1 #bff     ,zola on1 #bbf   
,philosophers on1 #acc     as           
annihilation1 #afb     compared with    
ansthetics1 #aei     fear of1 #aae1     
#aaf1 #aec     feigning of1 #aad     in 
ephemerids1 #bge     instinct of1 #bha1 
#bih     of ,jewish patriarchs1 #bhj1   
#bha     natural1 #bff1 #bgb1 #bgg1     
#bgh1 #bgi1 #bhj1 #bii     in old age1  
#bfg     scientific study of1 #bfb      
,degeneration1 senile1 in infusoria1    
#bca     in insects1 #bcb     in        
vertebrates1 #bcb     ,de ,goncourt1    
quotations from1 #aba1 #bbe             
,deniker1 a ftus of man and ape1 #dg    
,descartes1 on lengthening life1 #beg   
,desire of life1 not to be ignored1 #bbh
     ,de ,vries1 on new species1 #eg    
,diet1 as regulated by religious1 #afb  

,digestive system of man1 #fj           
,disease1 religious measures against1   
#afd     ,dogs1 old age in1 #bcc        
,d',holbach1 on natural morality1 #g    
,dragon-tree1 of ,oratava1 #bfe         
,dubois1 on ,pithecanthropus1 #ej       
,du ,bois ,reymond1 on agnosticism1 #bba
     ,dufour1 on wasps1 #bg             
,duhring1 a blind optimist1 #aag        
,duncan1 ,matthews1 on childbirth1 #id  
,duration of life1 #bgg1 #bgh           
,ebstein1 on prolonging life1 #beh1 #bfj
     ,ecclesiastes1 on life1 #bic       
,edgren1 on arterial sclerosis1 #bdg    
,elixirs of life1 #beg                  
,emasculation1 by ,skoptsy1 #i          
,ephemerids 7figures71 #bga1 #bgc       
absence of instinct of preservation in1 
#bge     larv 7figure71 #bgb     sexual 
instincts of1 #cf     swarming of1 #bga 
,epicureans1 summum bonum of1 #f        
,ewald1 on microbes in intestines1 #bea1
 #beb     ,eye1 of man1 imperfections   
of1 #gh       ,fabre1 on caterpillars1  
#cc     on fossorial wasps1 #bg1 #bh1   

#cd     ,faith1 modern return to1 #bbb  
,tolstoi's return to1 #bbd     ,zola's  
attraction to1 #bbe     ,family         
instincts1 #ajh     love1 #bie          
,fauvel1 on natural death1 #bhj         
,fear1 of death1 ,rousseau on1 #aah     
,tokarsky on1 #abe     ,tolstoi on1     
#abb1 #abc     in the aged1 #aah1 #aca  
in ,buddhism1 #aai     by a ,christian  
minister1 #abd     by ,french writers1  
#aba1 #abb1 #acb     instinctive nature 
of1 #abg1 #abh1 #aec     occasional     
absence of1 #aeb     ,feet1 of man and  
apes1 #dc     ,fichte1 on future life1  
#agf     ,finot1 on continuity of life1 
#aig     on fear of death1 #abb1 #abf1  
#aig     ,flies1 cause of death of1 #bgd
     ,flora of the intestines1 #bdh1    
#bdi1 #bea     ,flourens1 on limits of  
life1 #bgg     ,ftus of gibbon1 figure  
of1 #df     of man1 figure of1 #dg      
,food1 of ancestral man1 #gd            
instinct of choice of1 #ge1 #gf         
,fossorial wasps1 #bg1 #cd     ,future  
life1 ,cicero on1 #afi     ,fichte on1  

#agf     ,kant on1 #agf     ,plato on1  
#afh     belief in1 #ada1 #adi1 #aea1   
#aei     opposed by reason1 #afa1 #afe  
see ,immortality       ,general         
paralysis1 symptoms of1 #aaa            
,gerontology1 science of old age1 #big  
,glow-worms1 #cg     ,goal of human     
life1 #cjj1 #cja     ,gods1 of the      
,greeks1 #d     of the ,orientals1 #d   
,goncourt1 ,e4 de1 quotations on fear of
 death1 #aba1 #acb     ,gorillas1 old   
age in1 #bcc     ,greek art1 #e         
philosophy1 #e     ,gruenbaum1 on       
injection of serums1 #ed                
,guinea-pigs1 reared without microbes1  
#bdi     ,guyau1 on death1 #aie1 #aif2  
on love1 #aif     on religion and death1
 #acc     on failure of science1 #bbb   
on resignation1 #aii       ,haeckel1 on 
the 8cellular soul10 #bfi     on future 
life1 #bba     on morality1 #ajg        
,hair1 blanching of1 #bdb 7figure71 #bdc
     and disease1 #fc     of embryo1 #fc
     ,hammerling1 on optimism1 #aia1    
#aib     8,hamlet10 quotation from1 #bbg

     ,hands1 of man and apes1 #dc       
,happiness1 ,hartmann on1 #ahf          
,mailaender on1 #ahi     ,meyer-,benfey 
on1 #aih     meaning of1 #aaa           
,hartmann1 on death1 #ahd     on        
immortality1 #ahd     pessimism of1 #ahc
     on progress1 #ahe     as a youthful
 pessimist1 #aag     ,hassenstein1 on   
childbirths in the young1 #bhc          
,heape1 on menstruation1 #hh     ,hegel1
 death from cholera1 #abj     ,heim1 on 
feelings at death1 #abf     ,hell of    
,chinese ,buddhists1 #adi     ,helmholz1
 on the eye1 #gh     ,henseler1 on ages 
of patriarchs1 #bei                     
,hermaphroditism1 #gi1 #hj              
,herminium monorchis1 figure of1 #bf    
,huber1 on ants1 #cd     ,hufeland1 on  
prolonging life1 #beh     ,humanity1    
vagueness of conception1 #bif           
,humboldt1 on natural morality1 #h      
,hunt1 on burial of the aged living1    
#aeb     ,hutcheson1 on naturalism1 #g  
,huxley1 on origin of man1 #da          
,hymen1 disharmonies of1 #he            

distinctive of human race1 #ha1 #hb     
primitive function of1 #he1 #hf         
ritual destruction of1 #hc1 #hd         
,illusion1 ,hartmann on1 #ahc           
,mailaender on1 #ahh     ,immortality1  
,aristotle on1 #afi     ,buddha on1 #adg
     ,hartmann on1 #ahd                 
,meyer-,benfey on1 #aih     ,plato on1  
#afh     ,schopenhauer on1 #agi1 #ahj1  
#aha     ,seneca on1 #agj     ,spinoza  
on1 #age     amongst animals1 #bgj      
of 8cellular soul10 #bfi     of         
protozoa1 #bfd     of reproductive      
cells1 #bfg     ,inaudi1 the calculator1
 #eh     ,infanticide1 #ajc1 #ajd       
,infusoria1 conjugation of1 #bca        
immortality of1 #bfc1 #bfd              
reproduction of1 #bcj     senile        
degeneration of1 #bca     ,insects1     
compared with vertebrates1 #bgf         
fertilisation of plants by1 #ba         
senile degeneration of1 #bca            
,instinct of death1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhc1   
#bih     of family1 #ajh     of life1   
#abi     sexual1 #bhc     of society1   

#aji     ,intestines1 bacterial flora   
of1 #bdh1 #bdi     large1 degeneration  
of1 #gj     large1 diseases of1 #gc1 #gd
     large1 excision of1 #gj     large1 
function of1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb       ,jewish
 belief in future life1 #adb            
,justice1 in relation to humanity1 #aab 
,kant1 on future life1 #agf     ,kephir1
 use of1 #bee     ,khm1 legend on       
immortality1 #adg     ,kidney ducts1 #hj
     ,koch1 on microbe of tuberculosis1 
#bab       ,lactic acid1 arrests        
putrefaction1 #bee     ,lady-birds and  
nectar1 #cb     ,language1 as a social  
band1 #big     ,lankester1 ,ray1 on     
centenarians1 #bei     ,lanugo1 of human
 embryo1 #fb     ,larv1 of ephemerids1  
#bgf     ,lecky1 on natural morality1 #h
     ,lejoncourt1 on centenarians1 #bhj 
,leucocytes and phagocytes1 #bdj        
,liberty1 future limitation of1 #cja    
,life1 duration of1 in ,biblical times1 
#bei1 #bfj     modes of lengthening1    
#beg1 #beh     ,light1 attractive to    
insects1 #ce     ,linnus1 on origin of  

man1 #da     ,lister1 and antisepsis1   
#bji     ,listera ovata1 figure of1 #cb 
,loeb1 on natural death1 #bff           
,longet1 on old age1 #bcd               
,longevity1 in birds1 #bcb     and large
 intestine1 #beb     in ,old ,testament1
 #bei1 #bfj     ,love1 ,guyau on1 #aif  
spreading of1 #bie     ,lubbock1 on     
ancestor-worship1 #aej     an optimist1 
#aag     ,luminous insects1 #cg         
,luther1 ,martin1 on supernatural origin
 of disease1 #afd     ,luxury1 evils of1
 #bic1 #bid1 #cja       ,macrophags1    
definition of1 #bdj     functions of1   
#bdj     in senile decay1 #bda          
,maeterlinck1 on pessimism1 #aia        
,mailaender1 on pessimism1 #ahg1 #ahh   
,malignant tumours1 science and1 #bad   
,mammary glands1 rudimentary1 #bih      
,man1 destiny of1 #bhf     disharmonies1
 and harmonies in1 #bhe     origin of1  
#dj1 #bhf     peculiar characters of1   
#ei     rudimentary organs of1 #ei1 #fj 
,marinesco1 on function of phagocytes1  
#bda     ,marriage1 age at first1 #ig   

,christian views on1 #afc     early1 in 
primitive races1 #hf1 #ij     ,martelly1
 on intestinal putrefaction1 #bee       
,materialism1 ,bchner on1 #bbj          
,haeckel on1 #bbj     ,matriopathy1 #f  
,may-flies and light1 #ce     ,medicine1
 advance of1 #baj     ,memory1 late     
development of1 #gh     ,mnire1 on bees 
and orchids1 #ba     ,menstruation1 in  
monkeys1 #hh1 #hi     origin and        
significance1 #hg1 #hh     origin of1   
#hi     regarded as impure1 #ib         
,merkel1 on tissue-changes in old age1  
#bch     ,metamorphoses1 of ephemerides1
 #bgb     ,metchnikoff1 on blanching of 
hair1 #bdb     on senile atrophy1 #bch  
,metchnikoff1 ,madame1 on tadpoles      
reared without microbes1 #bdi           
,meyer-,benfey1 on happiness1 #aih      
on immortality1 #aih     ,microbes1     
absence of1 in ephemerids1 #bgd         
harmful1 #bef     of the intestines1    
#bdh     producing poisons in           
intestines1 #bea     ,microphags1       
definition of1 #bdj     functions of1   

#bdj     ,milk1 fermented or soured1    
beneficent action of1 #bee     human1   
#bhb     secretion of1 by males1 #bih   
,monkeys1 and choice of food1 #ge       
,morality1 based on human nature1 #i    
true foundation of1 #bhi     ,mosaic    
regulations on diet1 #afb1 #afc         
,moths and light1 #ce     ,mller1       
,johannes1 on the eye1 #gh     ,hermann1
 on lady-birds1 #cb     ,max1 on meaning
 of ,nirvna1 #aee1 #aeh     ,mutilations
 of the body1 #i1 #ae       ,naegeli1 on
 natural death1 #bfe     ,natural death1
 #cjb     cases of1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #bhj    
in ephemerids1 #bg     ,nature1 ,marcus 
,aurelius on life according to1 #agc    
and morality1 early opinions on1 #c     
,negroes and whites1 #aji     ,nicene   
,creed1 compared with ancestor-worship1 
#aea     ,nirvna1 ,aurelius and1 #age   
,hartmann on1 #ahf     ,schopenhauer on1
 #ahb     meaning of1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg  
,nordau1 on old age1 #bcd     on        
optimism1 #aib2     on pain1 #aic       
,nuttall and ,thierfelder1 on germ-free 

guinea-pigs1 #bdi       ,obstetrics1 in 
ancient times1 #cjj     ,old age1       
,longet on1 #bcd     ,nordau on1 #bcd   
amelioration of1 #bed     in birds and  
mammals1 #bcb1 #bcc     characters of1  
#bbi1 #bcj1 #bgh1 #bid     morbidity of1
 #bdd     scientific study of1 #bbh     
serums in1 #bde1 #bdf     ,onanism1 #ce1
 #ie1 #if1 #ii     ,optimism1           
,hammerling on1 #aia1 #aib     ,nordau  
on1 #aib     ,optimists generally old   
men1 #aag     ,origin of man1 due to    
sudden appearance of new characters1    
#eg1 #ei     ,ourangs1 old age in1 #bcc 
,orchids1 and fertilisation1 #ai1 #bj   
,orthobiosis1 the taste of science1 #bhi
     ,ostwald1 on love of humanity1 #bif
     ,ova1 immortality of1 #bfg         
,pain1 ,nordau on1 #aic     ,palingenia1
 swarming of1 #bgb     ,pantheism1 of   
,german poets1 #aie     ,paradise1      
according to the ,talmud1 #adc     of   
,chinese ,buddhists1 #adi               
,paramecium1 conjugation of 7figure71   
#bca     division of 7figure71 #bcj     

,parasites1 late evolution of1 #ah      
,parovaria1 #hj     ,parrots1 paucity of
 bacterial flora in1 #bec     ,pasteur1 
as founder of modern scientific         
medicine1 #bji     ,pasnadi1 legend on  
immortality1 #adg     ,pathology1 of old
 age1 #bgh     ,patriotism1 #bie        
,pelopus1 figure of1 #cd     ,penis1 os1
 in man and apes1 #ha     ,personality1 
consciousness of1 #afj     ,pessimism1  
,byron on1 #agg     ,hartmann on1 #ahc  
,maeterlinck on1 #aia     ,mailaender   
on1 #ahg     ,schopenhauer on1 #agg1    
#agh1 #agi     and ,buddhism1 #agf1 #agg
     and disease1 #bjf     and          
disharmony1 #ch     origin of1 #agf     
value of1 #aid     and youth1 #aag      
,pettenkofer1 suicide of1 #aca          
,pfeffer1 on chemotaxis in cryptogams1  
#bfi     ,pflger1 on prolonging life1   
#beh     ,pfungst1 on meaning of        
,nirvna1 #aef     ,phagocytes1 functions
 of1 #bci     inhibited by lactic acid1 
#bee     and poisons1 #bdg              
sensibility of1 #bdj     ,phagocytosis1 

in old age1 #bdd     in senility1 #bdb  
,philosophy1 and death1 #aff            
relation of1 and religion1 #aff         
tendency of1 to become religious1 #age  
,phenol1 production of by microbes1 #bea
     ,pithecanthropus1 #ej              
,placenta1 of man and apes1 #df         
,plague1 cause of1 #bjh     ,plato1 and 
nobility of man1 #d     on pleasure1 #f 
views on death1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh        
,pleasure1 views of ,plato and          
,aristotle on1 #f     ,plotin1 on       
immortality1 #age     ,pollinia of      
orchids1 #ba     ,politicians1          
incapacity of young1 #bie     ,politics1
 compared with savage obstetrics1 #cjj  
,post-mortem examinations1 #bdf1 #bhi   
,pregnancy1 avoidance of1 #aja          
,progress1 ,hartmann on1 #ahe           
,spencer on1 #bia     not uniform1 #ah  
,protection1 means for1 amongst animals1
 #aad     ,protozoa1 absence of death1  
#bfc     sensibility of1 #bfh           
,purgatory1 in ,taoism1 #adf            
,putrefaction1 in large intestine1 #gc1 

#bed       ,rabbits1 and destruction of 
young1 #cd1 #cg     ,reformation1 #ad   
,regeneration1 in brain1 #bgg     in    
cells1 #bga     in vertebrates1 #bgj    
,religion1 and diet1 #afc     and       
disease1 #bje     and future life1 #aej 
and science1 #c     and sexuality1 #afc 
,tolstoi's return to1 #bbc     ,renal   
tubule1 invasion of macrophags 7figure71
 #bda     ,renan1 on death1 #aie     on 
,jewish belief in future life1 #adb1    
#adc     on ,marcus ,aurelius1 #agd     
,renaissance1 art of1 #ad               
,reproduction1 not cause of death in    
ephemerids1 #bge     ,reproductive      
organs1 #gi     ,resignation1 in        
,buddhism1 #aei     ,guyau on1 #aii     
,hartmann's system of1 #ahg     ,marcus 
,aurelius on1 #agd     ,resurrection1   
primitive belief in1 #adj     ,rville1  
on ,chinese belief in immortality1 #ade1
 #adf     ,rhizotrogus and light1 #cf   
,richet1 on failure of science1 #bbb    
,rousseau1 on age and love of life1 #aag
     on failure of science1 #baf     on 

fear of death1 #aah     ,rovighi1 on    
utility of milk diet1 #bee     ,rckert1 
on death1 #aie     ,rudimentary organs1 
in man1 #ei1 #fj       ,sacrifice1 at   
burials1 #adj1 #ada     ,saint-,foix1 on
 sacrifice of horses1 #ada     ,st4     
,matthew1 on celibacy1 #ab     ,savage1 
on old age in apes1 #bcc     on social  
instincts of apes1 #aje     ,schiller1  
on death1 #aie     ,schopenhauer1 and   
cholera1 #abj     on death1 #aba1 #agi1 
#bhh     on immortality1 #agi           
pessimism of1 #aag1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi1   
#bjg     ,schottelius1 on rearing of    
germ-free chicks1 #bdi     ,science1    
advance of1 #bhf     ,bacon on1 #bjd    
destroys faith1 #bbf     failure of1    
#bae1 #baf1 #bag1 #bah1 #bbb1 #bbc      
and immortality1 #bhg     and old age1  
#bbh     and pessimism1 #bjg1 #bhf      
,sclerosis of arteries1 #bdh     in old 
age1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bdc1 #bdd     due to  
poisons1 #bdg     ,scotch clergy on man1
 #ab     ,seidlitz1 on natural morality1
 #h     ,selenka1 on ftus of man and    

ape1 #dg     ,self-preservation1 #aac1  
#bge     ,seneca1 on death1 #aga     on 
human existence1 #aga     on            
immortality1 #agj     on nature as a    
guide1 #g1 #aj     ,senile decay action 
of macrophags1 #bda     characters of1  
#bce1 #bch1 #bci     importance of      
phagocytes in1 #bda     ,sensibility1   
specific1 of white blood corpuscles1    
#afj     ,serum1 alteration of          
properties1 #ea     anti-diphtheritic1  
#baa     properties of1 as guide to     
affinity1 #ea     ,serums1 use of1 in   
old age1 #bde1 #bdf     ,sexuality1     
early appearance of1 #id1 #ie     in the
 aged1 #ih     disharmonies of1 #ajj    
,sexual cells1 immortality of1 #bfh     
soul of1 #bfh     ,shakespeare1 sorrow  
and knowledge1 #bbg     ,shaving1       
regarded as degrading1 #e     ,skeleton1
 of man and apes1 #dc     ,skin1 of man1
 #fb     ,skoptsy1 and emasculation1 #i 
,social instincts1 #aje1 #aji1 #aac     
,societies1 of insects1 #bid            
,socrates1 and death1 #aff1 #afg        

,solidarity1 of men1 #big     ,solomon1 
sorrow and knowledge1 #bbf     ,soul of 
cells1 ,haeckel on1 #bfi     of         
protozoa1 #bfh     of sexual cells1 #bfh
     ,soured milk1 benefits of1 #bee    
,spencer1 ,h41 on belief in             
resurrection1 #adj     on natural       
morality1 #i     on progress1 #bia      
,spermatozoa1 immortality of1 #bfg      
in old men1 #ig     ,spinoza1 on        
immortality1 #age     ,sterility1 in    
human life1 #bie     in social insects1 
#bid     ,stoics1 summum bonum of1 #f   
on future life1 #afi     ,strassburger1 
on microbes of the intestines1 #bdh     
,suicide1 increase of1 #d     of the    
old1 #aca     ,schopenhauer1 ,hartmann1 
and ,mailaender on1 #aij                
,supernaturalism1 modern craving for1   
#bbb     ,survival after death1         
widespread belief in1 #adi              
,sutherland1 on morality of             
expropriation1 #aji1 #bif     ,syphilis1
 absence of reference to in ,bible1 #bfj
     resistance to effects of1 #bef     

and sclerosis1 #bdg       ,tadpoles1    
reared without microbes1 #bdi           
,taine1 on ,christian art1 #ad          
,tait1 ,lawson1 on cysts1 #hj           
,talmud1 on paradise1 #adc     ,taoism1 
and immortality1 #adf     ,teeth1       
disharmonies of1 #fc1 #fd     of man and
 apes1 #da     wisdom1 #fd              
,telepathy1 no argument for future life1
 #afa     ,tetanus1 microbes of1 #bef   
,thanatology1 science of death1 #big    
,thierfelder1 and ,nuttall1 on germ-free
 guinea-pigs1 #bdi     ,tissier1 on     
intestinal putrefaction1 #bee           
,tokarsky1 on fear of death1 #abe1 #bgi 
,tolstoi1 on fear of death1 #aae1 #abb1 
#bii     on failure of science1 #bag1   
#bbc     return to religion1 #bbc1 #bbd 
,tombs1 burial of weapons and           
implements1 #aci     ,transfusion of    
blood serum1 #ea     ,transmigration of 
souls1 in ,buddhism1 #aeg     of souls1 
,jewish belief in1 #add     ,trees1     
death of1 #bfe     ,tuberculosis1 modern
 science and1 #bab     ,tylor1 on       

ancestor-worship1 #aej     on animism1  
#ach       ,uhlenhuth1 on injection of  
serums1 #ec       ,vanilla1 cultivation 
of1 #ai     fertilisation of1 #bj       
,vaccination1 #cja     ,vermiform       
appendage and disease1 #ff1 #fh     of  
man and apes1 #dd     ,virginity1       
historical importance of1 #hc1 #hd      
,waitz-,gerland1 on primitive customs1  
#aci     ,weapons1 burial with dead1    
#aci     ,weismann1 on origin of death1 
#bff     on immortality of protozoa1    
#bfd     ,wiedersheim1 on human         
characters1 #ei     ,will to live1      
,mailaender on1 #ahi     ,schopenhauer  
on1 #ahb     ,wisdom teeth1 degeneration
 of1 #fd1 #fe     ,women1 views of      
,buddha on1 #i     ,wounds1 modern      
success in healing of1 #baj             
,xenocrates1 #e       ,youth1 absence of
 fear of death1 #aaf1 #aag     and      
excesses1 #aaf     ideals of1 #bfc      
and pessimism1 #aag       ,zola1 on     
death1 #bbe     on fear of death1 #aba  
,zulu1 ancestor-worship1 #aea    -----  

,footnote #a3      ,since ,a4 ,wagner's 
classical work1 8,ueber die             
,gesetzmssigkeit der    scheinbar       
wilkrlichen menschlichen ,handlungen10  
suicide has been    discussed by many   
authors4 ,the most recent contribution  
to the subject    is the important      
monograph by ,westergaard1 8,die ,lehre 
von der    ,mortalitt u4 ,morbiditt10   
,second ,edition1 ,jena1 #aija4         
,footnote #b3      ,shaving the beard   
began at the time of the ,macedonian    
rule1 and    philosophers refrained from
 the new custom1 which seemed to them   
unprincipled4 7,v4 ,hermann1 8,lehrbuch 
der griechischen    ,privatalterthmer10 
#ahgj1 vol4 ,i41 pp4 #age-agg47         
,footnote #c3      ,quetelet1           
8,anthropomtrie10 #ahgb1 p4 #hf4        
,footnote #d3      ,zeller1 8,die       
,philosophie der ,griechen10 ,third     
,edition1 vol4 ,,ii4 #a1 p4    #gda1    
#ahge4    ,footnote #e3      ,zeller1   
l4c4 p4 #hhj4    ,footnote #f3          
,zeller1 vol4 ,,ii41 #b1 p4 #ddg4       

,footnote #g3      ,zeller1 ,first      
,edition1 vol4 ,,iii41 #g1 p4 #aic4     
,footnote #h3      ,zeller1 l4c4 p4     
#dja4    ,footnote #i3      8,de ,vita  
,beata10 chap4 viii4    ,footnote #aj3  
8,moral ,philosophy10 ,london1 #agee4   
,footnote #aa3      ,buckle1 8,history  
of ,civilisation in ,england40          
,footnote #ab3      ,published at       
,amsterdam in #aggf4    ,footnote #ac3  
,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cb4    ,footnote #ad3    
8,history of ,european ,morals10 ,third 
,edition1 ,london1 #ahgg4    ,footnote  
#ae3      8,the ,descent of ,man and    
,selection in ,relation to ,sex10 ,first
 ,edition1    vol4 ,i41 p4 #ih4         
,footnote #af3      8,die ,darwin'sche  
,theorie40 ,second ,edition1 #ahge1 p4  
#bgb1 note #be4    ,footnote #ag3       
8,the ,data of ,ethics10 #ahgi4         
,footnote #ah3      ,the 8,lalita       
,vistara10 translated from ,sanscrit    
into ,french by ,foucaux2    8,annales  
du ,muse ,guimet10 vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #ahc4  
#ahhd4    ,footnote #ai3      ,zeller1  

loc4 cit4 p4 #fcc4    ,footnote #bj3    
,lecky1 8,history of ,european ,morals10
 chap4 iv4    ,footnote #ba3            
,lecky4    ,footnote #bb3      ,lecky4  
,footnote #bc3      ,buckle1 8,history  
of ,civilisation in ,england40          
,footnote #bd3      8,de ,secta         
,massonum10 ,parisiis1 #ahhd1 p4 #i4    
,the passage was quoted by    ,brunetire
 in the 8,revue des ,deux ,mondes10     
#ahie1 vol4 ,,cxxvii41 p4 #aaf4         
,footnote #be3      ,schnaase1          
8,geschichte der bildenden ,knste1 vol4 
,,iii41 pp4 #egg1 #ehd1    and vol4     
,,iv41 p4 #gah4    ,footnote #bf3       
8,philosophie de l',art10 ,fourth       
,edition1 #ahhe1 vol4 ,,lxxxviii41 p4   
#ceb4    ,footnote #bg3      ,reinhard1 
8,system der christlichen ,moral10 vol4 
,,iv41 #ahad1 p4 #hca1 and    vol4      
,,iii41 p4 #ad1 #ahac4    ,footnote #bh3
      ,gaudry1 8,mammifres tertiaires10 
p4 #bce1 #ahgh4    ,footnote #bi3       
,delteil1 8,la ,vanille10 ,paris1 #ahig4
    ,footnote #cj3      ,darwin1 8,the  

,fertilisation of ,orchids10 ,second    
edition1 ,london1 #ahgg4    ,see also   
,mller1 8,die ,befruchtung der ,pflanzen
 durch ,insecten10 pp4    #gd-he1       
,leipzig1 #ahgc4    ,footnote #ca3      
,bulletin de la ,socit botanique de     
,france1 vol4 ,i41 p4 #cgj1 #ahed4      
,footnote #cb3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #dd4  
,footnote #cc3      ,darwin1 loc4 cit4  
p4 #agi4    ,footnote #cd3      ,ibid4  
pp4 #bjg-bjh4    ,footnote #ce3         
,fabre1 8,souvenirs entomologiques10    
vol4 ,i41 pp4 #ga-gh1 ,paris1 #ahgi4    
,footnote #cf3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #bja4 
,footnote #cg3      ,loc4 cit4 pp4      
#abj-aba4    ,footnote #ch3      8,die  
,befruchtung der ,blumen durch          
,insekten10 p4 #afg1 #ahgc4    ,footnote
 #ci3      8,souvenirs entomologiques10 
,fourth series1 ,paris1 #ahdg4          
,footnote #dj3      8,recherches sur les
 ,murs des ,fourmis indignes10 ,paris1  
#ahaj4    ,footnote #da3      ,fr1      
8,l',instinct sexuel10 ,second ,edition1
 p4 #gf1 ,paris1 #aijb4    ,footnote    

#db3      ,moll1 8,untersuch4 b4 d4     
,libido sexualis10 vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cgb1 
#cgc4    ,footnote #dc3      ,kppen1    
8,insectes invisibles10 vol4 ,,ii4 p4   
#bcg1 #ahhc4 7,in ,russian47            
,footnote #dd3      ,swammerdam1        
8,biblia ,natur10 ,leydae1 #agcg4       
,footnote #de3      ,brehm1 8,les       
,insectes10 dit4 fran41 vol4 ,i41 p4    
#bjf4    ,footnote #df3      8,descent  
of ,man and ,selection in ,relation to  
,sex10 vol4 ,i41 chap4 #aj1    p4 #cde4 
,footnote #dg3      ,r4 ,dubois1 8,les  
,elatrides lumineux10 p4 #bji1 ,meulan1 
#ahhf4    ,footnote #dh3                
,republished1 with other essays1 as     
8,man's ,place in ,nature10 ,macmillan1 
,london1 #ahid4    ,footnote #di3       
,brunetire1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1   
,jan4 #a1 #ahie1 p4 #ii4    ,footnote   
#ej3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #aaf4           
,footnote #ea3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #aaa4 
,footnote #eb3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #abf4 
,footnote #ec3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #abf4 
,footnote #ed3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #abg4 

,footnote #ee3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #aci4 
,footnote #ef3      8,archives de       
,zoologie exprimentale10 #ahhe4         
,footnote #eg3      8,studien ber       
,entwickelungsgeschichte der ,thiere10  
#ahih-aijb4    ,footnote #eh3      ,a   
summary of this question is to be found 
in a new volume by ,m4    ,alsberg1     
8,die ,abstammung des ,menschen10 chap4 
iii41 #aijb4    ,footnote #ei3          
,uhlenhuth1 8,deutsche ,medicin4        
,wochenschrift10 p4 #hb1 #aija4         
,footnote #fj3      ,wassermann and     
,schuetze1 8,berliner klinische         
,wochenschrift10 p4 #g1    #aija4       
,footnote #fa3      ,the ,lancet1 ,jan1 
#ah1 #aijb4    ,footnote #fb3           
,selenka1 loc4 cit4 p4 #aeg4            
,footnote #fc3      ,deniker1 loc4 cit4 
p4 #ag4    ,footnote #fd3      8,die    
,mutationstheorie10 vol4 ,i41 ,leipzig1 
#aija4    ,footnote #fe3      8,comptes 
,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences10   
#ahib1 pp4 #bge1 #acbi2    8,revue      
scientifique10 #ahhj1 p4 #aabd4         

,footnote #ff3      8,der ,bau des      
,menschen10 ,third ,edition1 #aijb4     
,footnote #fg3      ,selenka1 8,studien 
ber ,entwicklungsgesch4 d4 ,thiere10 p4 
#hi4    ,footnote #fh3                  
8,dictionnaire encyclopdique des        
,sciences ,medicales10 article 8,dent10 
by ,magitot1 p4 #aid1 #ahhb4            
,footnote #fi3      ,schmid1            
8,vierteljahrschrift fr ,zahnheilkunde10
 p4 #ada1 #ahif4    ,footnote #gj3      
,schmid1 loc4 cit4 p4 #adg4    ,footnote
 #ga3      ,redier1 in 8,revue mensuelle
 de ,stomatologie10 p4 #afd1 #ahie4     
,footnote #gb3      8,comptes ,rendus de
 la ,socit de ,stomatologie de ,paris10 
vol4 ,i41 p4    #ih1 #ahij4    ,footnote
 #gc3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #bjd4          
,footnote #gd3      ,virchow's 8,archiv 
fr ,pathologische ,anatomie10 #ahic1    
vol4 ,,cxxxii41 p4    #gf4    ,footnote 
#ge3      ,lannelongue1 in the          
8,bulletin mdical10 p4 #fba1 #aijb4     
,footnote #gf3      ,treves1 8,the      
,surgical ,treatment of ,perityphlitis10

 ,london #ahie4    ,footnote #gg3       
,edinburgh ,medical ,journal1 ,august   
#ahic4    ,footnote #gh3      8,archiv  
fr klinische ,chirurgie10 vol4          
,,xlviii41 p4 #gae1 #ahid4    ,footnote 
#gi3      8,mnchener medicinische       
,wochenschrift10 #ahih4    ,footnote    
#hj3      8,archiv fr klinische         
,chirurgie10 vol4 ,,xlviii41 p4 #acf1   
#ahid4    ,footnote #ha3      ,this     
topic is discussed at length in my      
lecture1 published in the    ,memoirs   
and ,proceedings of the ,manchester     
,literary and ,philosophical            
,society1 #aija1 vol4 ,,xlv41 note #e4  
,footnote #hb3      8,archives de       
,mdicine navale10 #ahhg4    ,footnote   
#hc3      ,ewald1 8,klinik des          
,verdauungskrankheiten10 vol4 ,,iii41 p4
 #bfg1 #aijb4    ,footnote #hd3         
,stillmarck1 in 8,arbeiten des          
pharmacologischen ,institutes zu        
,dorpat10    vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #aaj1      
#ahhi4    ,footnote #he3      ,the case 
is quoted in ,pozzi's 8,trait de        

,gyncologie10 p4 #gad1 #ahij4           
,footnote #hf3      ,crisp1             
8,proceedings of the ,zoological        
,society of ,london10 p4 #dh1 #ahfe4    
,footnote #hg3      ,lenhossek1 in      
,virchow's 8,archiv4 fr pathologische   
,anatomie10 vol4    ,,xl41 p4 #a4       
,footnote #hh3      8,abhandlungen der  
mathem4-physikal4 ,classe d4 ,k4        
,bayerisch4 ,akad4 d4    ,wissensch4    
,mnchen10 vol4 ,,xiii41 ,part ,,ii41 p4 
#bfh1 #ahhj4    ,footnote #hi3          
,loc4 cit4 p4 #bde4    ,footnote #ij3   
,loc4 cit4 p4 #bej4    ,footnote #ia3   
,loc4 cit4 p4 #bec4    ,footnote #ib3   
,loc4 cit4 p4 #afc4    ,footnote #ic3   
,loc4 cit4 p4 #bjh4    ,footnote #id3   
,ploss-,bartels in 8,das ,weib10        
,seventh ,edition1 #aijb4 ,vol4 ,,ii41  
pp4    #bbh-bbi is the source of        
information on this matter4    ,footnote
 #ie3      ,ploss-,bartels1 loc4 cit4   
vol4 ,i41 p4 #dhi4    ,footnote #if3    
,pozzi1 8,trait de ,gyncologie10 p4     
#ajfg1 #ahij4    ,footnote #ig3         

8,real-encyclopdie d4 ,gesammten        
,heilkunde10 ,second ,edition1 vol4 ,x41
    p4 #cd1 #ahhe4    ,footnote #ih3    
,it would be interesting to find out    
whether or no ,hindoo or ,chinese       
virgins suffer from chloranmia2 at      
present we have no information    on    
this matter4    ,footnote #ii3          
,ploss-,bartels1 loc4 cit4 p4 #fbb4     
,footnote #ajj3      ,saint ,cyr1       
8,trait d'obsttrique vtrinaire10 p4 #eb1
 ,second ,edition1    #ahhh4            
,footnote #aja3      ,philosophical     
,transactions of the ,royal ,society of 
,london1 #ahig1 pp4    #ace-aff4        
,footnote #ajb3      8,verhandlungen der
 ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr             
,anthropologie10 p4 #hh1    #ahgf4      
,footnote #ajc3      ,ploss-,bartels1   
loc4 cit4 p4 #fbe4    ,footnote #ajd3   
,vratch1 in ,russian1 p4 #adef1 #aija4  
,footnote #aje3      ,ploss-,bartels1   
loc4 cit4 p4 #ddc4    ,footnote #ajf3   
,rakhmanoff4    ,footnote #ajg3         
,ploss-,bartels1 loc4 cit4 p4 #fbf4     

,footnote #ajh3      ,ibid4 p4 #fbf4    
,footnote #aji3      8,venus ,urania10  
,leipzig1 #agih4    ,footnote #aaj3     
,moll1 8,untersuch4 ber die ,libido     
,sexualis10 vol4 ,i41 p4 #dd4           
,footnote #aaa3      8,real-encyclopdie 
der gesammt4 ,heilkunde10 vol4 ,,xiv41  
p4 #eic4 ,second    ,edition1 #ahhh4    
,footnote #aab3      ,frbringer1 loc4   
cit4    ,footnote #aac3                 
8,dictionnaire encyclopdique des        
,sciences mdicales10 vol4 ,,xv41 p4     
#cgh1 #ahha4    ,footnote #aad3         
,fritsch1 8,die ,eingeborenen           
,sd-,afrikas40 ,breslau1 #ahgc4         
,footnote #aae3      ,information that  
,i have obtained from the ,zoological   
,gardens at ,anvers    would seem to    
show the existence of similar           
differences between the    sexes in the 
case of monkeys4    ,footnote #aaf3     
,wappaeus1 8,allgemeine                 
,bevlkerungsstatistik10 vol4 ,,ii41 p4  
#bhe1 #ahfa4    ,footnote #aag3         
8,sur les ,altrations                   

pathologo-anatomiques des ,testicules   
pendant la    ,vieillesse10 ,st4        
,petrsbourg1 #ahid 7in ,russian74 ,a few
 years ago1 in    course of the         
examination of the body of a man who had
 died at the age    of #ajc at ,lyons1  
the seminal vesicles were found to be   
full of ripe    and active spermatozoa4 
8,annales d',hygine publique10 p4 #cgj1 
#aijj4    ,footnote #aah3      ,loc4    
cit4 p4 #cgg4    ,footnote #aai3        
8,die ,welt als ,wille und              
,vorstellung10 vol4 ,,ii41 ,supplement  
to chap4    xliv4    ,footnote #abj3    
,loc4 cit4 p4 #cfd4    ,footnote #aba3  
,see chap4 i4    ,footnote #abb3        
,vol4 ,i4 chap4 xxxv4    ,footnote #abc3
      8,l',anthropologie10 vol4 ,,iv41  
p4 #abi1 #ahic4    ,footnote #abd3      
,waitz-,gerland1 8,anthropologie der    
,naturvlker10 vol4 ,,vi41 p4 #aci1      
#ahgb4    ,footnote #abe3               
8,vlkerkunde10 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bgd1 #ahhe4 
,footnote #abf3      ,huxley1 8,man's   
,place in ,nature10 p4 #fj4    ,footnote

 #abg3      ,sutherland1 8,origin and   
,development of the ,moral ,instinct40  
,footnote #abh3      ,bchner1 8,force   
and ,matter40    ,footnote #abi3        
,haeckel1 8,the ,riddle of the          
,universe10 pp4 #ceg-ceh1 ,second       
,edition1    #aija4    ,footnote #acj3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #gif4    ,footnote #aca3  
,ballet and ,blocq1 8,paralysie gnrale  
progressive10 in 8,trait de             
,mdecine10 published under the direction
 of ,charcot1 ,bouchard1 and            
,brissaud1 vol4 ,,vi41 p4 #ajcb1 #ahid4 
,footnote #acb3      ,emile1 8uvres     
compltes de ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau10 vol4    
,,ii41 p4 #dcb1 #ahgf4    ,footnote     
#acc3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #gf4           
,footnote #acd3      ,the 8,lalita      
,vistara10 pp4 #aff-agj4    ,footnote   
#ace3      ,edouard ,rod1 8,les ides    
morales du temps prsent10 p4 #dh1       
,paris1 #ahib4    ,footnote #acf3       
8,die ,welt als ,wille und              
,vorstellung10 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #ebi4     
,footnote #acg3      8,journal de       

,goncourt10 vol4 ,,vi41 p4 #ahf1        
#ahgh-ahhd1 #ahib4    ,footnote #ach3   
8,la ,philosophie de la ,longvit10 p4   
#bji1 ,paris1 #aijj4    ,footnote #aci3 
8,les ,confessions10 ,paris1 #ahia4     
,footnote #adj3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #da4 
,footnote #ada3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #di4 
,footnote #adb3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #ea4 
,footnote #adc3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #fj4 
,footnote #add3      ,union pour        
l'action morale1 ,no4 #f1 p4 #beh1 ,jan4
 #ae1 #aijb4    ,footnote #ade3         
,complete ,works of ,tolstoi 7in        
,russian71 vol4 ,,xii41 p4 #eab1 #ahig4 
,footnote #adf3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #eag4
    ,footnote #adg3      ,loc4 cit4 p4  
#ebf4    ,footnote #adh3      ,loc4 cit4
 p4 #ecf4    ,footnote #adi3            
8,questions de ,philosophie et de       
,psychologie10 #ahig1 ,no4 #dj1 p4 #ica4
    7,in ,russian47    ,footnote #aej3  
8,la ,philosophie de la ,longvit10      
,paris1 #aijj4    ,footnote #aea3       
,loc4 cit4 p4 #baa4    ,footnote #aeb3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #bac4    ,footnote #aec3  

,loc4 cit4 p4 #baa4    ,footnote #aed3  
8,die ,welt als ,wille und              
,vorstellung10 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #ecc4     
,footnote #aee3      ,waitz-,gerland1   
8,anthropologie der ,naturvlker10 vol4  
,,vi4    ,footnote #aef3      ,these    
words are quoted by ,ebstein in his     
8,die ,kunst das menschliche    ,leben  
zu verlngern10 p4 #ea1 #ahia4 ,i have   
been unable to find ,paul    ,bert's own
 words1 as the reference given by       
,ebstein is    bibliographically        
incorrect4    ,footnote #aeg3           
8,mnchener ,medicinische                
,wochenschrift10 p4 #cbe1 #aija4        
,footnote #aeh3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #ahf4
    ,footnote #aei3      8,l',irrligion 
de l',avenir10 ,sixth ,edition1 p4 #ddi1
 ,paris1 #ahie4    ,footnote #afj3      
8,tusculanes10 vol4 ,i41 chap4 #cj4     
,footnote #afa3      8,die ,welt als    
,wille und ,vorstellung10 vol4 ,,ii41 p4
 #ebg4    ,footnote #afb3      ,tylor1  
8,primitive ,culture10 vol4 ,i41 p4     
#dhe4 ,third ,edition1 #ahia4           

,footnote #afc3      ,waitz-,gerland1   
8,anthropologie der ,naturvlker10 #f    
vols41 #ahff-ahgb4    ,footnote #afd3   
8,essais ,historiques sur ,paris10 in   
uvres ,compltes1 vol4 ,,iv41 p4 #aej4   
,maastricht1 #aggh4    ,footnote #afe3  
,quoted by ,tylor in 8,primitive        
,culture10 chap4 ,,xi4    ,footnote     
#aff3      8,histoire du ,peuple        
d',isral10 vol4 ,i41 pp4 #abh-abi4      
#ahhg4    ,footnote #afg3               
8,lehrbuch der ,religionsgeschichte10   
vol4 ,i41 p4 #bec4 ,freiburg1           
,leipzig4 ,second ,edition1 #ahig4      
,footnote #afh3      8,histoire du      
,peuple d',isral10 vol4 ,,iv41 p4 #cbg4 
#ahic4    ,footnote #afi3      ,talmud4 
8,trait ,brakhote10 sheet #ag4          
,footnote #agj3      8,force et         
,matire40 ,sixth ,french edition1 p4    
#dci4 #ahhd4    ,footnote #aga3         
,loc4 cit41 p4 #aih4    ,footnote #agb3 
8,histoire des ,religions10 vol4 ,,iii41
 8,la religion chinoise10 ,paris1       
#ahhi2 see also 8,chantepie de la       

,saussaye10 loc4 cit4 vol4 ,i41 p4 #eh4 
,footnote #agc3      ,rville1 loc4 cit4 
p4 #aia4    ,footnote #agd3      ,ibid4 
p4 #aie4    ,footnote #age3      ,loc4  
cit4 p4 #ahe4    ,footnote #agf3        
8,histoire des ,religions10 vol4 ,,iii41
 8,la religion chinoise10 ,paris        
#ahhi1 p4 #ahg4    ,footnote #agg3      
,loc4 cit4 p4 #dej4    ,footnote #agh3  
,ibid4 p4 #ddd4    ,footnote #agi3      
8,histoire des ,religions10 vol4 ,,iii41
 8,la religion chinoise10 ,paris1       
#ahhi1 p4 #dfi4    ,footnote #ahj3      
,ibid4 p4 #dgj4    ,footnote #aha3      
,oldenburg1 8,le ,bouddha10 ,french     
translation1 p4 #bha1 ,paris1 #ahid4    
,footnote #ahb3      ,oldenburg1 loc4   
cit4 p4 #bhb4    ,footnote #ahc3        
8,lalita ,vistara10 loc4 cit4 p4 #cjc4  
,footnote #ahd3      ,rville1 loc4 cit4 
p4 #dge4    ,footnote #ahe3             
,rville1 loc4 cit4 p4 #eef4    ,footnote
 #ahf3      ,ibid4 p4 #ebe4    ,footnote
 #ahg3      ,tylor1 8,primitive         
,culture10 vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #aac-aad1    

,third ,edition1    #ahia4    ,footnote 
#ahh3      ,ibid4 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #aad4  
,footnote #ahi3      ,ibid4 p4 #aae4    
,footnote #aij3      ,ibid4 p4 #aaf4    
,footnote #aia3      ,see p4 #abd4      
,footnote #aib3      ,the 8,lalita      
,vistara10 p4 #bhi4    ,footnote #aic3  
,the 8,lalita ,vistara10 p4 #agf4       
,footnote #aid3      ,ibid4 p4 #agj4    
,footnote #aie3      ,oldenburg1 p4     
#bad4    ,footnote #aif3                
8,buddhagosas ,parables40    ,footnote  
#aig3      8,das ,freie ,wort10 pp4     
#fjc-fjg1 ,jan4 #e1 #aijb4    ,footnote 
#aih3      8,nirvna10 ,berlin1 #ahif4   
,footnote #aii3      8,lalita ,vistara10
 p4 #agf4    ,footnote #bjj3            
,spence ,hardy1 8,a ,manual of          
,buddhism10 p4 #ajj1 ,london1 #ahec4    
,footnote #bja3      ,oldenburg1 loc4   
cit4 pp4 #bjj-bjf4    ,footnote #bjb3   
,deuteronomy xii4 #ae1 #af4    ,footnote
 #bjc3      ,ibid4 #bc4    ,footnote    
#bjd3      ,ibid4 #be4    ,footnote     
#bje3      ,exodus xii4 #i4    ,footnote

 #bjf3      ,rhys ,davids4    ,footnote 
#bjg3      ,corinthians vii4 #g-i4      
,footnote #bjh3      ,ploss-,bartels1   
8,das ,weib10 vol4 ,i41 p4 #hei4        
,footnote #bji3      8,die ,medecin der 
,naturvlker10 p4 #bbe1 ,leipzig1 #ahic4 
,footnote #baj3      ,zeller1 8,die     
,philosophie der ,griechen10 vol4 ,,ii41
 ,part #b1 pp4 #dfb1    #dfe4 ,tbingen1 
#ahfb4    ,footnote #baa3               
8,origines du ,christianisme10 vol4     
,,vii41 ,sixth ,edition1 p4 #dhc4       
,paris1    #ahai4    ,footnote #bab3    
,oldenburg1 loc4 cit4 p4 #bae4          
,footnote #bac3      8,parerga und      
,paralipomena10 ,edition ,reclam41 vol4 
,,ii41 p4 #bfg4    ,footnote #bad3      
,ibid4 p4 #bec4    ,footnote #bae3      
,ibid4 p4 #bea4    ,footnote #baf3      
8,die ,welt als ,wille und              
,vorstellung10 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #gbf1     
,leipzig4    ,footnote #bag3      ,loc4 
cit4 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #gcj4    ,footnote  
#bah3      8,die ,welt als ,wille und   
,vorstellung10 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #eee1     

,leipzig4    ,footnote #bai3      ,loc4 
cit4 p4 #efa4    ,footnote #bbj3        
,loc4 cit4 p4 #efd4    ,footnote #bba3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #eff4    ,footnote #bbb3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #eff4    ,footnote #bbc3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #ecg4    ,footnote #bbd3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #edj4    ,footnote #bbe3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #eha4    ,footnote #bbf3  
8,parerga10 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #beh4        
,footnote #bbg3      8,die ,welt als    
,wille10 vol4 ,i41 p4 #dgb4    ,footnote
 #bbh3      8,die ,welt als ,wille und  
,vorstellung40    ,footnote #bbi3       
8,philosophie des ,unbewussten10        
,berlin1 #ahfi4    ,footnote #bcj3      
,loc4 cit4 p4 #efj4    ,footnote #bca3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #efe4    ,footnote #bcb3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #fjc4    ,footnote #bcc3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #fjf4    ,footnote #bcd3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #fae4    ,footnote #bce3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #fba4    ,footnote #bcf3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #fcf4    ,footnote #bcg3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #fch4    ,footnote #bch3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #fch4    ,footnote #bci3  
8,die ,philosophie der ,erlsung10 #b    

vols4 ,third ,edition1 ,frankfort1      
#ahid4    ,footnote #bdj3      ,loc4    
cit4 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #fcg4    ,footnote  
#bda3      ,loc4 cit4 vol4 ,i41 p4 #cbe4
    ,footnote #bdb3      ,loc4 cit4 p4  
#cbg4    ,footnote #bdc3      ,loc4 cit4
 p4 #ccd4    ,footnote #bdd3      ,loc4 
cit4 p4 #cce4    ,footnote #bde3        
,loc4 cit4 p4 #cdi4    ,footnote #bdf3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #ceh4    ,footnote #bdg3  
,loc4 cit4 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bdb4         
,footnote #bdh3      8,le ,temple       
,enseveli10 #aijb4    ,footnote #bdi3   
,quoted by ,steiner1 8,welt und         
,lebensanschauungen im ,,xix4           
,jahrhundert10    #aija4 ,vol4 ,,ii41   
pp4 #agj-agc4    ,footnote #bej3        
,herbert ,spencer4    ,footnote #bea3   
8,dialogues et ,fragments               
philosophiques10 ,paris1 #ahgf4         
,footnote #beb3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #aci4
    ,footnote #bec3      8,l',irrligion 
de l',avenir40 ,sixth ,edition1 ,paris1 
#ahie4    ,footnote #bed3      ,loc4    
cit4 p4 #dfb4    ,footnote #bee3        

,loc4 cit4 p4 #dfb4    ,footnote #bef3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #dfd4    ,footnote #beg3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #dgj4    ,footnote #beh3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #dga4    ,footnote #bei3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #dgb4    ,footnote #bfj3  
8,la ,philosophie de la ,longvit10      
,paris1 #aijj4    ,footnote #bfa3       
,loc4 cit4 p4 #cjg4    ,footnote #bfb3  
,loc4 cit4 p4 #aje4    ,footnote #bfc3  
8,die moderne ,religion40 ,leipzig1     
#aijb4 ,see also ,frankfurter ,zeitung1 
,feb4 #ai and #bj1 #aijb4    ,footnote  
#bfd3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #dgf4          
,footnote #bfe3      8,die ,welt als    
,wille und ,vorstellung10 vol4 ,,ii41 p4
 #fhg4    ,footnote #bff3               
8,philosophie des ,unbewussten10 p4     
#fae4    ,footnote #bfg3      ,borden1  
8,the ,use of the ,rntgen ,ray10 p4 #bj4
 ,washington4 #ahih4    ,footnote #bfh3 
,bulletin du ,service de ,sant          
,militaire1 ,no4 #dii1 p4 #gc4 #aija4   
,footnote #bfi3      ,the efficacy of   
,cred's treatment may be inferred from  
the figures    recorded at ,stockholm1  

in which city the adoption of the       
treatment    caused the percentage of   
cases of this nature to fall from #j4ef 
in    #ahia to #j4jde in #ahii4 ,see    
,widmark1 8,mittheilungen a d4          
,augenklinik d4    ,carol4 ,med4 ,chir4 
,instit4 zu ,stockholm10 p4 #abf4 #aijb4
    ,footnote #bgj3      8,archives de  
mdecine exprimentale10 vol4 ,,vi41 p4   
#fgg4 #ahid4    ,footnote #bga3         
8,hospitalstidende10 ,may #g1 #aijb1 p4 
#dhi4    ,footnote #bgb3      8,annales 
de l',institut ,pasteur10 ,february     
#aijc4    ,footnote #bgc3               
8,deutsche medecin4 ,wochenschrift10    
,october #cj1 #aijb1 p4 #gih4           
,footnote #bgd3      8,si le            
rtablissement des sciences et des arts a
 contribu  purer    les murs40--8uvres  
compltes10 vol4 ,i41 p4 #dfc1 #ahge4    
,footnote #bge3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #dfi4
    ,footnote #bgf3      ,loc4 cit4 p4  
#dgj4    ,footnote #bgg3      ,loc4 cit4
 p4 #dcg4    ,footnote #bgh3      ,loc4 
cit4 p4 #cig4    ,footnote #bgi3        

,loc4 cit4 p4 #daa4    ,footnote #bhj3  
,revue des ,deux-,mondes #ahie1 ,no4 #a4
 p4 #ig4 8,la ,science et la            
,religion40 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,le ,figaro1 
,january #d1 #ahii4    ,footnote #bha3  
,revue ,scientifique1 vol4 ,i41 p4 #cc4 
#ahii4    ,footnote #bhb3      ,ibid4 p4
 #cd4    ,footnote #bhc3      ,loc4 cit4
 p4 #eaa4    ,footnote #bhd3      ,loc4 
cit4 p4 #bab4    ,footnote #bhe3        
,loc4 cit4 p4 #ce4    ,footnote #bhf3   
8,irreligion10 p4 #dfj4    ,footnote    
#bhg3      8,le ,rajeunissement         
,kariogamique chez les ,cills10         
8,archives de    ,zoologie              
,exprimentale10 #ahii4    ,footnote     
#bhh3      ,biological ,bulletin1 vol4  
,,iii41 ,october #aijb1 p4 #aib2        
8,archiv4 fr    ,entwickelungsmechanik10
 vol4 ,,xv4 p4 #aci4    ,footnote #bhi3 
,gurney1 8,on the ,comparative ,ages to 
which ,birds ,live10 ,the ,ibis1        
,january #ahii1 p4 #ai4    ,footnote    
#bij3      ,huxley1 8,man's ,place in   
,nature40    ,footnote #bia3            

8,psychological ,paradoxes40            
,footnote #bib3      8,trait de         
,physiologie10 ,second ,edition1 vol4   
,,ii4 p4 #ice4    ,footnote #bic3       
8,etude ,clinique et                    
anatomo-pathologique sur la             
,vieillesse40 ,paris1    #ahhf4         
,footnote #bid3      ,the parenchymatous
 elements are the most important cells  
of the    organs1 i4e41 of the liver1   
muscles1 brain1 c4    ,footnote #bie3   
8,bemerkungen b4 d4 ,gewebe beim        
,altern10 8,verhandl4 d4 ,x ,internat1  
,medic4 ,congresses40 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4   
#abd4 ,berlin1 #ahia4    ,footnote #bif3
      8,anne ,biologique0 de ,yves      
,delage1 vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #bdi4 #ahii4   
,footnote #big3      ,comptes ,rendus de
 l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,april #bc1  
#aijj4    ,footnote #bih3      8,annales
 de l',institut ,pasteur10 p4 #hfe4     
#aija4    ,footnote #bii3      ,see the 
8,annales de l',institut ,pasteur10 vol4
 ,,xiv41 pp4 #cfi1 #cgh1    #cij1 #djb4 
#aijj4 ,the results described therein   

have been confirmed by    ,blonovsky    
78,sur l',influence de l',injection de  
,diverses ,doses de ,srum    ,hmolytique
 sur le nombre des ,elments du ,sang40  
,saint ,petrsbourg1    #aijb71 who has  
found that there is an increase in the  
amount of    hmoglobin and of red-blood 
corpuscles in the blood of anmic        
patients    that have been treated with 
minute doses of hmolitic serum4         
,footnote #cjj3      8,die              
,arteriosclerosis40 ,leipzig1 #ahih4    
,footnote #cja3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #aah4
    ,footnote #cjb3      8,zeitschrift  
fr ,klinische ,medicin10 vol4 ,,xlvi4 p4
 #dcd4 #aijb4    ,footnote #cjc3        
8,archiv4 fr ,hygiene10 vol4 ,,xxxiv41  
p4 #baj1 #ahih2 ibid4 vol4 ,,lxii41     
p4 #dh4 #aijb4    ,footnote #cjd3       
8,annales de l',institut ,pasteur10 p4  
#fcj4 #aija4    ,footnote #cje3         
8,zeitschrift fr ,physiologische        
,chemie10 p4 #aji4 #ahie4    ,footnote  
#cjf3      8,archiv4 fr ,hygiene10 vol4 
,,xxxix41 p4 #cij4 #aijb4    ,footnote  

#cjg3      8,annales de l',institut     
,pasteur10 p4 #hfe4 #aijb4    ,footnote 
#cjh3      8,zeitschrift fr             
,physiologische ,chemie10 vol4 ,,xvi41  
p4 #dc4 #ahib4    ,footnote #cji3       
8,l',art de ,prolonger la ,vie          
,humaine40 ,french translation of       
,german    ,second ,edition4 ,lausanne1 
#ahji4    ,footnote #caj3      ,loc4    
cit4 p4 #bif4    ,footnote #caa3        
8,ueber die ,kunst der ,verlngerung des 
,menschlichen ,lebens40 ,bonn1    #ahij4
    ,footnote #cab3      8,die ,kunst   
das ,menschliche ,leben zu ,verlngern40 
,wiesbaden1 #ahia4    ,footnote #cac3   
8,the ,advancement of ,science10 p4     
#bcg4 ,london1 #ahij4    ,footnote #cad3
      ,quoted by ,pflger in 8,ueber die 
,kunst der ,verlng410 p4 #ad4           
,footnote #cae3      ,genesis vi4 #c4   
,footnote #caf3      ,loc4 cit4 p4 #ab4 
,footnote #cag3      8,die ,medizin im  
alten ,testament40 ,stuttgart1 #aija4   
,footnote #cah3      8,lehrbuch d4      
,geschichte der ,medecin10 vol4 ,,iii41 

p4 #bbc4 ,jena #ahgh4    ,footnote #cai3
      8,essays on ,heredity and ,kindred
 ,biological ,problems40 ,authorised    
,translation1 ,oxford1 #b vols41        
#ahhi-ib4    ,footnote #cbj3            
8,ueber den ,ursprung des ,todes40      
#ahic4    ,footnote #cba3      8,trait  
de ,zoologie10 p4 #agac4    ,footnote   
#cbb3      8,abhandlungen der k4        
,bayerischen ,akademie d4               
,wissenschaften40 #ahfe4    ,footnote   
#cbc3      8,archiv fr die gesammte     
,physiologie40 ,vol4 ,,xciii41 p4 #ei1  
#aijb4    ,footnote #cbd3               
,salomonsen1 in 8,festskrift ved        
indvielsen af ,statens ,serum           
,institut10    vol4 ,,xii4 ,copenhagen1 
#aijb4    ,footnote #cbe3               
8,gesammelte ,populre ,vortrge40 ,bonn1 
#ahgh4    ,footnote #cbf3      ,preyer1 
8,die ,seele des ,kindes10 #ahhd1 and   
8,specielle ,physiologie des            
,embryo10 p4 #edg4 #ahhe4    ,footnote  
#cbg3      8,de la longvit humaine10    
,second ,edition4 ,paris #ahhe4         

,footnote #cbh3      ,journal de ,rouen1
 ,september #bc1 #aijj4 ,article by     
,georges ,dubose4    ,footnote #cbi3    
8,galerie des ,centenaires anciens et   
modernes40 ,paris1 #ahdb4    ,footnote  
#ccj3      ,genesis ,,xxv4 #g1 #h4      
,footnote #cca3      ,genesis ,,xxxv4   
#bh1 #bi4    ,footnote #ccb3      ,job  
xlii4 #af1 #ag4    ,footnote #ccc3      
,it may be that the great longevity of  
many of the patriarchs1 ending    in the
 appearance of the instinct of death1 is
 the cause of the small    extent to    
which the idea of a future life had been
 developed amongst    the ancient       
,hebrews4 7,see chap1 vii47    ,footnote
 #ccd3      ,genesis xxv4 #ag4          
,footnote #cce3      ,genesis xlvii4    
#bh4    ,footnote #ccf3      ,numbers   
xxxiii4 #ci4    ,footnote #ccg3         
,deuteronomy xxxiv4 #g4    ,footnote    
#cch3      ,ploss-,bartels1 8,das       
,weib10 vol4 ,i4 p4 #fbf4    ,footnote  
#cci3      8,die ,welt als ,wille u4    
,vorstellung10 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #gcj4      

,footnote #cdj3      8,fleurs du ,mal4  
,la ,mort des ,pauvres10 p4 #cdj4 #ahhc4
    ,footnote #cda3      ,the           
prohibitions in ,england are almost     
equally sweeping4--,editor4    ,footnote
 #cdb3      ,ecclesiastes1 viii4 #ag4   
,footnote #cdc3      ,ecclesiastes ix4  
#g-aj4    ,footnote #cdd3               
8,vorlesungen ber ,naturphilosophie40   
,leipzig1 #aijb4    ,footnote #cde3     
,wiedersheim1 8,bau des ,menschen10     
,third ,edition1 pp4 #ba1 #bb4 ,alsberg1
    8,abstam4 d4 ,mensch410 p4 #fa4     
,footnote #cdf3      ,ploss-,bartels1   
8,das ,weib10 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #dfd4      
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,putnam's                               
,science ,series         #a4 ,the ,study
 of ,man4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,haddon4         
#b4 ,the ,groundwork of ,science4 ,by   
,,st4 ,,george ,,mivart4       #c4      
,rivers of ,north ,america4 ,by ,,israel
 ,c4 ,,russell4       #d4 ,earth        
,sculpture2 or1 ,the ,origin of ,land   

,forms4 ,by ,,james ,,geikie4       #e4 
,volcanoes2 ,their ,structure and       
,significance4 ,revised ,ed4 ,by ,t4    
,g4 ,,bonney4       #f4 ,bacteria4 ,by  
,,george ,,newman4       #g4 ,a ,book of
 ,whales4 ,by ,f4 ,e4 ,,beddard4        
#h4 ,comparative ,physiology of the     
,brain1 etc4 ,by ,,jacques ,,loeb4      
#i4 ,the ,stars4 ,by ,,simon ,,newcomb4 
#aj4 ,the ,basis of ,social ,relations4 
,by ,,daniel ,g4 ,,brinton4      #aa4   
,experiments on ,animals4 ,by ,,stephen 
,,paget4      #ab4 ,infection and       
,immunity4 ,by ,,george ,m4 ,,sternberg4
      #ac4 ,fatigue4 ,by ,a4 ,,mosso4   
#ad4 ,earthquakes4 ,by ,,clarence ,e4   
,,dutton4      #ae4 ,the ,nature of     
,man4 ,by ,,lie ,,metchnikoff4      #af4
 ,nervous and ,mental ,hygiene in       
,health and ,disease4 ,by ,,august      
,,forel4      #ag4 ,the ,prolongation of
 ,life4 ,by ,,lie ,,metchnikoff4        
#ah4 ,the ,solar ,system4 ,by ,,charles 
,,lane ,,poor4      #ai4 ,heredity4 ,by 
,j4 ,,arthur ,,thompson1 ,m4,a4         

#bj4 ,climate4 ,by ,,robert ,,decourcy  
,,ward4      #ba4 ,age1 ,growth1 and    
,death4 ,by ,,charles ,s4 ,,minot4      
#bb4 ,the ,interpretation of ,nature4   
,by ,c4 ,,lloyd ,,morgan4      #bc4     
,mosquito ,life4 ,by ,,evelyn           
,,groesbeeck ,,mitchell4      #bd4      
,thinking1 ,feeling1 ,doing4 ,by ,e4 ,w4
 ,,scripture4      #be4 ,the ,world's   
,gold4 ,by ,l4 ,,de ,,launay4      #bf4 
,the ,interpretation of ,radium4        
,revised ,ed4 ,by ,f4 ,,soddy4      #bg4
 ,criminal ,man4 ,by ,,cesare           
,,lombroso4      #bh4 ,social ,evil4 ,by
 ,e4 ,r4 ,a4 ,,seligman4      #bi4      
,microbes and ,toxins in ,nature4 ,by   
,e4 ,,burnet4      #cj4 ,problems of    
,life and ,reproduction4 ,by ,m4        
,,hartog4      #ca4 ,problem of the     
,sexes4 ,by ,j4 ,,finot4      #cb4 ,the 
,positive ,evolution of ,religion4 ,by  
,f4 ,,harrison4      #cc4 ,the ,science 
of ,happiness4 ,by ,j4 ,,finot4         
#cd4 ,life and ,death of the ,globe4 ,by
 ,a4 ,,berget4      #ce4 ,genetic       

,interpretation4 ,by ,,james ,,mark     
,,baldwin4                              
,,personality      ,by ,f4 ,b4 ,,jevons1
 ,litt4,d4    ,author of    8,the ,idea 
of ,god10 8,comparative ,religions10    
etc4    #ab4 #a4jj net    ,this work    
deals with the problem of personality1  
especially as raised by  ,william ,james
 and ,m4 ,bergson4 ,if a man imagines   
himself bound1 in  deference to science 
or psychology1 to deny the existence of 
personality1 he commits himself to      
saying 8,i do not exist40 ,if he        
shrinks from that absurdity1 he must    
accept personality as a reality3 a      
person is both a subject who knows      
others and an object of others'         
knowledge4 ,the bond1 however1 which    
holds persons1 human and divine1        
together1 cannot be merely intellectual3
 it must be emotional as well as        
intellectual--the bond of love4         
,genetic ,interpretation      ,the      
,outcome of ,genetic ,logic    ,by      
,james ,mark ,baldwin    ,ph4,d41       

,d4,sc41 ,,ll4,d4    ,foreign           
,correspondent of the ,institute of     
,france    ,author of 8,history of      
,psychology10 etc4    ,the author here  
states the general results of the       
extended studies in  genetic and social 
science and anthropology made by him and
 others1 and  gives a critical account  
of the history of the interpretation of 
nature  and man1 both racial and        
philosophical4    ,the book offers an   
,introduction to ,philosophy from a new 
point of  view4 ,it contains1 also1 a   
valuable glossary of the terms employed 
in  these and similar discussions4      
,history of ,geography      ,by    ,j4  
,scott ,keltie1 ,,ll4,d4    ,secretary  
of the ,royal ,geographical ,society    
and    ,o4 ,j4 ,r4 ,howarth1 ,m4,a4     
,assistant ,secretary of the ,british   
,association for the ,advancement of    
,science    ,no4 #aa in 8,history of the
 ,sciences0    #af4 ,illustrated4 #ge   
cents net    ,this is not a history of  
geographical exploration1 though the    

leading  episodes in the advance of our 
knowledge of the face of the ,earth are 
necessarily referred to in tracing the  
evolution of geography as a  department 
of science4 ,the author hopes that in   
the attempt to tell the  story of the   
evolution of geography up to the present
 day1 it will be  evident that it is as 
amenable to scientific methods as any   
other  department of human knowledge1   
and that it performs important functions
  which are untouched by any other line 
of research4                            
,the                            ,science
 of ,happiness      ,by ,jean ,finot    
,author of 8,problem of the ,sexes10    
etc4    ,translated from the ,french by 
,mary ,j4 ,safford    #h4 #a4ge net     
,the author considers a subject1 the    
solution of which offers more           
enticement to the well-wisher of the    
race than the gold of the ,incas did  to
 the treasure-seekers of ,spain1 who    
themselves doubtless looked upon  the   
coveted yellow metal1 however           

mistakenly1 as a key to the happiness   
which all are trying to find4 8,amid the
 noisy tumult of life1 amid the         
dissonance that divides man from man10  
remarks ,m4 ,finot1 8the ,science of    
,happiness tries to discover the divine 
link which binds humanity to  happiness 
through the soul and through the union  
of souls40 ,the author  considers the   
nature of happiness and the means of its
 attainment1 as  well as many allied    
questions4                              
,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons                 
,new ,york      ,london                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,transcriber',s ,,notes       ,page    
,changed from                           
,changed to      #ajj ,die ,welt als    
,wille und           ,die ,welt als     
,wille und        ,vorsteilung          
,vorstellung      #aaa ,trait de        
,mdicine               ,trait de        
,mdecine      #aag ,der ,werk des       
,lebens              ,der ,wert des     

,lebens      #abf ,la ,philosophie de la
 ,longevit   ,la ,philosophie de la     
,longvit      #acc ,l',irreligion de    
l',avenir         ,l',irrligion de      
l',avenir      #aie ,einzler bist4 ,o1  
fhl' im ganzen ,einzles bist4 ,o1 fhl'  
im ,ganzen        ,dich                 
dich      #aie wnschest unsterblich zu  
leben8  wnschest1 unsterblich zu leben8 
,leb im gazen                     ,leb' 
im ,ganzen      #bfe ,abhandlungen der  
k4 bayrischen   ,abhandlungen der k4    
,bayerischen        ,akademie d4        
,wissenschaften       ,akademie d4      
,wissenschaften      #bhe doctrines set 
forth in hits book doctrines set forth  
in this book      ,typos fixed2         
non-standard spelling and dialect       
retained4    ,used numbers for          
footnotes1 placing them all at the end  
of the last       chapter4    ,enclosed 
italics font in underscores4            
,enclosed bold or blackletter font in   
equals4