,transcriber's ,note3 ,italics are      
enclosed in paired underscores2         
subscripts are indicated by a single    
underscore3 ,h#b,o4 ,superscripts are   
indicated by a caret symbol3 #aji4 ,when
 a superscript is longer than  one      
character1 it is enclosed in curly      
braces3 #aj-aa4 ,additional  notes will 
be found near the end of this ebook4    
,,little ,,blue ,,book ,,no4 #ajjj      
,edited by ,e4 ,haldeman-,julius        
,the ,wonders                           
of ,radium                              
,maynard ,shipley                       
,,haldeman-,,julius ,,company           
,,girard1 ,,kansas                      
,copyright1 #aibf1                      
,haldeman-,julius ,company              
,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states  
,,of ,,america          ,,the ,,wonders 
,,of ,,radium          ,,contents       
,page      ,i4 ,introductory            
#e         ,all ,matter ,radioactive    
#i       ,,ii4 ,everyday ,uses of       
,radium                                 

#af         ,radium ,makes ,gems ,blush 
#ah         ,a ,radium ,clock           
#ai      ,,iii4 ,radium and the ,age of 
the ,earth                              
#ba       ,,iv4 ,an ,epoch-,making      
,discovery                              
#cj         ,how ,radium is ,converted  
to ,lead                                
#cd        ,v4 ,radium in the ,treatment
 of ,cancer                             
#de       ,,vi4 ,efficiency of ,radium  
in ,treatment of ,various ,diseases     
#ea      ,,vii4 ,where ,we ,get ,radium 
#ee         ,new ,sources of ,radium    
#eh         ,the ,radioactive           
,disintegration ,series                 
#fj         ,uranium ,i ,series         
#fc         ,uranium ,y ,series         
#fc         ,thorium ,series            
#fd          ,,the ,,wonders ,,of       
,,radium          ,,chapter ,i          
,,introductory      ,it has been well   
said that a general idea of what        
radioactivity  signifies is a necessary 
part of the education of every          

intelligent  person1 since 8it is the   
one thing of paramount importance in the
  chemical and physical science of the  
day40 ,but its importance extends  much 
farther1 since radioactivity is now     
employed in many departments  of        
industry1 as well as in biology and     
medicine4    ,it is known that the rays 
from radium have the power to stimulate 
all forms of life1 even to the extent of
 speeding up the growth of  plants and  
of making dormant plants burst into bud4
 ,some authorities1  as we shall see    
later1 are fully convinced that the     
radiations can  be employed successfully
 in the prolongation of human life4 ,it 
is  well known that radiotherapy has1   
for some years now1 been employed       
advantageously in the treatment of many 
forms of illness1 and is1 in  some      
institutions1 the sole medium for the   
cure or alleviation of  cancer and other
 malignant growths4    ,not long ago the
 discovery was made that the curative   
agent in certain  famous baths in       

,europe is the radium which the waters  
of their springs  contain4    ,if one   
could really buy bottled water which has
 been properly treated  with radium rays
 or the 8emanation10 beneficial results 
would no doubt  be obtained4 ,the       
trouble is that such waters are         
difficult to secure4    8,none of the   
foreign or domestic commercial bottled  
water sold  to consumers on the claim of
 radioactive content really contains    
sufficient radioactivity to warrant its 
purchase10 according to the  report of  
investigation completed by the water and
 beverage laboratory  of the ,united    
,states ,department of ,agriculture1    
,washington1 ,d4 ,c4    8,in the        
examination of #df samples from #ae     
states and eight foreign  countries1 the
 bureau found the highest quantity of   
radioactivity of a  temporary nature in 
a bottled water from ,massachusetts4    
8,the largest amount of permanent       
radioactivity was in a sample from a    
deep well in ,ohio4 ,it was found1      

however1 that it would be necessary to  
consume #b1haj gallons of the           
,massachusetts water1 or #a1ieg gallons 
of  the ,ohio water daily to obtain an  
efficient dose of radioactive salts4    
8,during the tests radioactivity of     
samples was determined by means of      
electroscopes40    ,when radium is taken
 in soluble form1 #be or #ej percent of 
it remains  in the body for four or five
 days4 ,the rate of excretion after that
 is  only about one percent a day4      
8,wherever it is located1 it carries on 
a  constant bombardment in releasing its
 energy1 giving strength to the         
tissues1 cells and protoplasm of the    
body4 ,and when once these begin  to    
function actively1 they begin to rebuild
 themselves40    ,radium does not       
combine chemically with any known       
substance in the  body4 ,the therapeutic
 effects are indirect4 ,when the        
electrons are  ejected with great speed 
from the atoms of the radioactive salts1
 they  pass through millions of other   

atoms1 knocking out new electrons as    
they go1 leaving the atoms with a       
positive charge1 in which condition     
they are called 8ions40 ,these          
positively charged particles at once    
enter into new combinations1 new        
chemical unions1 which produce new      
substances4 ,but these may be injurious 
to the normal tissues as well  as to the
 cells of the disease which it is       
desired to destroy4 ,in some  cases1 the
 diseased cells are more susceptible to 
the rays than are the  normal cells1 in 
which instances the growth of the       
abnormal or diseased  cells may be      
retarded1 or they may even be totally   
destroyed4 ,it is  thus seen that       
application of the rays may result in   
alleviation of the  disease1 or1        
possibly1 effect a complete cure1 as the
 case may be4    ,the action of radium  
on various 7colloidal7 substances is now
 well  understood from the point of view
 of the biophysicist2 but this phase  of
 the subject is too highly technical for

 exposition in a book  intended for     
popular circulation4    ,while it is    
fully recognized that there are quite   
definite limitations  to the efficacy of
 radioactivity in its application to    
disease1 as a  matter of fact the use of
 radium as a therapeutic agent would be 
much  more extensive were it not for its
 high cost and scarcity4 ,no one        
questions its exceptional value in the  
treatment of certain diseases1  and a   
method will probably be discovered1 in  
the near future1 by which  it may       
veritably be used to postpone the age of
 senility4    ,a young man who had read 
somewhere that radium is a sure cure for
 any  and all of the ills to which flesh
 is heir1 entered a drug store and      
asked3 8,how much is radium an ounce80  
,the druggist smiled1 and named  a      
figure which made the young man blink4  
8,not really80 observed the  prospective
 customer4 8,then you may give me an    
ounce of cough lozenges40    ,until     
quite recently1 an ounce of radium cost 

almost as much as #c tons  of gold6     
,that is to say1 an ounce of radium1 if 
this much could be  purchased 8off      
hand0--which it couldn't--would cost    
about #b1ejj1jjj4  ,the price was at one
 time #c1jjj1jjj an ounce4    ,when we  
speak of 8radium10 we really mean--or   
ought to mean--radium  salts4 ,pure     
radium soon abandons its metallic form  
by entering into  chemical combinations4
 ,it is the purified radium salts that  
cost1 as  late as #aibc1 #b1ejj1jjj an  
ounce--the price of  of a ton of        
platinum1  the most 8precious0 of all   
the metals excepting radium4 ,in #aibj1 
radium  was #bjj times more valuable    
than an equal weight of pure blue       
diamonds1  and #ahj1fjj times as        
valuable as gold4 ,a cubic foot of the  
salts--had  this amount been            
obtainable--would have been worth       
#g1jjj1jjj1jjj4    ,the reason for the  
high cost of radium is not far to seek4 
,first1 the  demand for the pure salts  
far exceeded the supply--and this is    

still  the case1 though relief is now in
 sight4 ,secondly1 the scarcity of      
radium was due to the enormous amount of
 time and labor involved in its         
production4    ,although radium was     
discovered and isolated by ,mme4 ,curie 
in #ahih1  #bb years later--at the close
 of #aibj--scarcely #adj grams 7or about
  five ounces7 of pure radium salts had 
been extracted and put on the  world    
market4 ,of this amount1 about #gj grams
 had been produced in the  ,united      
,states 7during the preceding seven     
years74 ,the market value of  the       
standard salts was at this time about   
#ajj1jjj a gram 7about #a_/bh  ounce74  
,eighteen grams were produced in this   
country in #aibj1 and the  value of the 
purified salts was quoted in some       
journals as #b1afj1jjj4  ,at this price1
 about #ajj1jjj worth of radium could be
 put into a glass  tube about the       
diameter of a very coarse pencil lead   
and not more than  an inch in length4   
,to produce the gram of radium salts    

presented to ,mme4 ,curie by the  women 
of ,america 7in ,may1 #aiba71 #ejj tons 
of carnotite ore--containing  two       
percent or less of uranium oxide--were  
treated1 consuming in the  process      
#a1ejj tons of coal1 more than a ton of 
chemicals1 and over #cj  tons of water4 
,,all ,,matter ,,radioactive    ,while  
certain substances have been designated 
as 8radioactive10 it is  not to be      
understood that these bodies alone emit 
charged particles1 or  radiant energy4  
8,all bodies whatever are a constant    
source of visible or invisible          
radiations1 which1 whether of one kind  
or the other1 are always  radiations of 
light0 7,le ,bon1 8,the ,evolution of   
,forces10 p4 #cah1 #aijh74    ,compounds
 of potassium1 and also of rubidium1    
caesium and lanthanum1 as  shown by     
,campbell1 ,wood1 ,mc,lennan1 ,kennedy1 
and other investigators1  possess very  
high radioactive properties4 ,while the 
atomic weight of  potassium is only     
about #ci1 and of rubidium about #hd1   

the typical  radioactive elements have  
atomic weights ranging from #bjj to     
#bch4 ,of  the #ab to #ae elements      
essential to life1 potassium is the only
 one  possessing distinct if minute     
radioactivity4 8,the activity of        
potassium  may readily be demonstrated  
by means of the goldleaf electroscope4  
,it  is shown that ,beta rays are       
emitted0 7,burns74 ,but potassium is    
#ajjj  times weaker than uranium1 and   
#a1jjj1jjj1jjj times weaker than radium1
  in the emission of ,beta 7negative7   
rays4 ,caesium and lanthanum emit       
,alpha 7positive7 rays4    ,professor   
,dufour1 the distinguished ,french      
scientist1 has shown that  even air that
 has been breathed emits radioactive    
particles4 ,the  presence of radioactive
 matter in the atmosphere has been shown
 to  account for its electric           
conductivity4 ,thomson found 7#aijf7    
that many  specimens of water from deep 
wells contain a radioactive gas1 and    
,elster and ,gertel have found that a   

similar gas is contained in the  soil4  
,it is probably safe to assert1 with ,le
 ,bon1 that all matter1 8down to  the   
absolute zero of temperature10 radiates 
electrified and more or  less luminous  
particles1 albeit they are invisible to 
the human eye4    ,it is because of its 
property of emitting negative electrons 
7,beta  rays7 that potassium is a       
necessary constituent of all living     
matter4  ,it may1 however1 be replaced1 
under certain conditions1 by other      
radioactive substances4    ,prof4       
,barton ,scammel1 of the ,british       
,radium ,society1 gave it as his        
opinion 7in #aibb7 that further         
experience in the proper uses of        
potassium salts and radium in solution  
would lead to the realization of  a new 
golden age4 ,he predicted1 among other  
8good tidings10 life for  #abj years in 
the bloom of youth1 the 8pep0 of #be    
years at #ge1 a third  set of teeth1 new
 hirsute coverings for erstwhile bald   
heads1 muscles  like ,jack ,dempsey's4  

,dr4 ,c4 ,everett ,field1 of the ,new   
,york ,radium ,institute1 stated        
publicly1 in backing up ,scammel's hopes
 and theories1 that he thinks  another  
ten years will see human life vastly    
prolonged as a matter of  course by the 
use of radium4 ,he said3    8,we have   
ascertained beyond question that        
potassium salts are necessary  to heart 
action1 that they are slightly          
radioactive1 and that radium  can be    
substituted for them with a degree of   
success4    8,it was ,dr4 ,zwaardemaker1
 physiologist of the ,university of     
,utrecht1  who first discovered1 a      
number of years ago1 that radium could  
do in  the blood stream what potassium  
salts do in the normal person4 ,he took 
an animal's heart1 which was kept       
beating outside the animal1 and  removed
 the potassium element4 ,it was not     
longer possible then to keep  it in     
action4 ,then he substituted a radium   
solution and it was possible  to restore
 action40    ,dr4 ,field stated that it 

had been discovered that the systems of 
victims of cancer and other wasting     
diseases were deficient in  potassium   
salts1 and that as their systems were   
made to assimilate  potassium a tonic   
effect was noticeable at once4 ,the     
greatest trouble  was to make the body  
assimilate the potassium4    8,the fact 
is10 said ,dr4 ,field1 one of the more  
conservative radium  therapists1 8that  
radium does not do the healing4 ,but1   
for that matter1  neither does any other
 form of healing4 ,the healing exists   
within  the organism4 ,and radium1 ,i am
 convinced1 in some cases1 is the most  
efficient medicine to give needed       
stimulus to the healing apparatus of    
diseased organisms40    ,even now1 he   
believes1 radioactive treatment may     
prolong life at least  #ae years4 ,for  
internal treatment1 either doses of     
radioactive water1  or extremely minute 
quantities of radium itself1 are        
administered4  ,radioactive water is    
taken from springs found to contain     

traces of  radium1 or radium is used to 
make ordinary water radioactive4 ,the   
difficulty with spring waters is that   
they lose their radioactive power  when 
bottled and transported1 and must be    
consumed at their source4    8,because  
of this fact10 says a writer for ,the   
,popular ,science ,monthly  7,june1     
#aibc71 8a group of physicians          
interested in the use of radium as  a   
curative stimulant have invented an     
ingenious device for imparting          
radioactive properties to ordinary      
water4 ,as designed for use in the      
home1 this instrument consists of a case
 containing an arrangement  of glass    
tubes and vessels in which emanations   
from radium salts in  solution are      
imparted to air1 which is then mixed    
with the water4    8,a much simpler     
apparatus1 available for office use1    
somewhat resembles  a hypodermic        
syringe1 containing special capsules of 
radium salts4  ,pushing a plunger forces
 air through the radium capsules and    

into a  glass of water and is said to   
make the water radioactive4 ,the doses  
of  radium in each case are constant1   
because radium emanates at a constant   
rate1 and only a certain amount can be  
dissolved in water1 no matter  how many 
times a day the apparatus is brought    
into use4    8,whether radium treatment 
will prove able to restore youth to old 
age1  grow new sets of teeth and perform
 other marvels that its more ardent     
supporters predict for it1 only time    
will tell4    8,if radium treatment     
proves to facilitate the process of cell
  elimination1 it will have gone a long 
way toward delivering the world  from   
its enemies of disease40    ,the        
philosopher-scientist1 ,le ,bon1 makes  
bold to suggest that  light-waves which 
are invisible to human eyes may be      
perceptible to  nocturnal animals1 which
 would include most of the lemurs and   
the  felines1 and some other beasts     
which seem to be capable of finding     
their way and carrying on their         

predatory or other activities in the    
dark4 8,to them10 says ,le ,bon1 8the   
body of a living being1 whose           
temperature is about #cg ,c41 or about  
#ih ,f41 ought to be surrounded  by a   
luminous halo1 which the want of        
sensitiveness of our eyes alone         
prevents our discovering4 ,there do not 
exist in nature1 in reality1 any  dark  
bodies1 but only imperfect eyes40    ,le
 ,bon has also said that the human body 
is sufficiently radioactive  to         
photograph itself by its own rays1 if we
 could find a substance  sensitive to   
these radiations1 as the photographic   
plate is to the  actinic rays4 ,nothing 
would then be easier1 he declares1 than 
to  photograph a living body in the dark
 without any other source of light  than
 the invisible light which it is        
continually emitting4    ,some recent   
7#aibd7 experiments of the ,french      
scientist1 ,dr4 ,albert  ,nodon1 seem to
 afford the actual proof of ,le ,bon's a
 priori  conclusions4 ,in the presence  

of a number of noted scientists1 ,dr4   
,nodon  exhibited three photographic    
plates on which were unmistakable light 
impressions1 which1 he claimed1 were    
caused by the rays emitted by a         
radioactive mineral1 an insect1 and a   
green leaf1 which had been placed  on   
the emulsion side of the plates in a    
dark-room4    ,a similar experiment1 in 
which a dead insect and a dead leaf were
 used1  resulted in no ray impressions  
on the plates4 ,dr4 ,nodon offered as   
his  conclusion that radioactivity is an
 inevitable accompaniment of living     
processes1 and stated that the strength 
of photographic impressions  produced in
 experiments such as his are an accurate
 measure of vitality  7see ,popular     
,science ,monthly1 ,october1 #aibd74    
,radium is probably present in all the  
planets and stars4 ,some time ago  the  
,astronomer ,royal of ,england1 ,dr4 ,f4
 ,w4 ,dyson1 demonstrated the  existence
 of radium and of radium emanation in   
the sun's chromosphere  7the ocean of   

incandescent hydrogen gas surrounding   
the photosphere1 or  actual surface of  
the sun74          ,,chapter ,,ii       
,,everyday ,,uses ,,of ,,radium         
,during the ,world ,war large quantities
 of radium were employed by the  ,allies
 for night compasses1 luminous dials on 
airplanes1 gun-sights1  etc4 ,in times  
of peace it is used on pendants for     
locating electric  lights and switches  
in the dark1 key-holes1                 
fire-extinguishers1 poison  bottles1    
emergency call-bells1 and in many other 
ways4 ,for example1  some mining        
corporations use signs in their mines   
made luminous in the  dark by           
phosphorescent paint made from          
radioactive substances4 ,these  luminous
 signs are not affected by atmospheric  
conditions4    ,yet for all these uses1 
including 8radium watches0 and clocks1  
not more  than half an ounce of radium  
has been used since its discovery in    
#ahih4  ,a few millionth parts of a gram
 of radium1 in the form of radioactive  

barium sulphate1 a large portion of     
phosphorescent zinc sulphide            
7crystallized zinc71 mixed with varnish 
and some adhesive substance1  give      
enough material to illuminate #dj or #ej
 watches4 ,one gram of  radium 7 #af    
grains7 combined with #bj1jjj grams of  
secret process  phosphorescent zinc     
sulphide is sufficient to make #ffg1jjj 
watches  luminous for many years4 ,the  
factories of this country are now       
turning  out about four million radium  
watches annually4    ,unless a special  
preparation--known only to the          
manufacturer--is  used1 the luminosity  
of the material gradually disappears1   
owing to  the destruction of the zinc   
sulphide crystals by the powerful rays  
constantly bombarding them1 producing   
flashes at the rate of #bjj1jjj  a      
second4 ,the radium itself does not     
glow1 nor does it deteriorate in  power4
    ,if we examine a luminous dial      
through a magnifying glass1 after the   
eyes have been in total darkness for a  

few minutes1 tiny flashes of  light may 
be seen4 ,these are caused by the       
explosion of hundreds of  millions of   
radium atoms4 ,the more radium there is 
in the paint1 the  greater the number of
 flashes per second1 and the more       
durable the  luminosity4 ,since every   
flash means a blow upon a crystal of    
zinc  sulphide1 the crystals gradually  
break under the strain4 ,in this        
process helium is released from the     
disintegrating radium atoms4    ,mr4 ,m4
 ,a4 ,henry 7,scientific ,american1     
,april #b1 #aiba7 points out that  the  
problem of the chemist 8is to produce a 
phophorescent substance  which will     
stand up longest under the terrific     
bombardment of the  radium rays and     
which1 at the same time1 will give off  
the most light4  ,such progress is being
 made in this direction that today #aiba
 only  about one-twentieth the amount of
 radium used four years ago #aiag is    
needed in the making of luminous        
material4 ,and the chemist insists that 

he has only scratched the surface of    
possibilities in this direction  and    
that even better results can be         
attained4 ,at present the life of  the  
zinc crystals is from #ae to #bj years1 
although the radium lasts for           
centuries4    8,this life will be much  
longer if the instrument to which it is 
applied  is kept away from the light    
most of the time4 ,the crystals1 already
  stressed by the radium rays1 have an  
additional strain imposed by the  light 
and this hastens the process of         
disintegration4 ,strong sunlight1       
especially at the seashore where the    
presence of much ozone in the air       
intensifies the ultra-violet rays1 has a
 very destructive effect on  luminous   
material4 ,for this reason the          
manufacturers of this delicate          
substance usually guarantee it for about
 half its normal life1 or ten  years40  
,a radium-lighted fish-bait is now on   
the market1 and fishermen say that  this
 bait is very successful in attracting  

fish which haunt deep water4            
,,radium ,,makes ,,gems ,,blush    ,d4  
,berthelot1 ,f4 ,bordes1 ,c4 ,doelter1  
and others observed that the rays  from 
radium induced important changes in the 
colors of minerals4    ,dr4 ,t4         
,squance1 of ,sunderland1 ,england1     
succeeded in transforming a  sapphire of
 faint pink hue into a gorgeous ruby    
color1 and a faint  green sapphire into 
an oriental emerald hue4 ,it was already
 known that  a diamond exposed to the   
rays of radium glows with a beautiful   
green  light4    ,in experiments carried
 out at the ,united ,states ,bureau of  
,mines 7#aiba71  in ,reno1 ,nevada1 a   
colorless ,colorado topaz was tinted    
yellow by  exposure to penetrating      
radiation4 ,if a method can be devised  
to make  the color permanent1 the       
discovery will greatly increase the     
value of  the gem-stone material found  
in the west4    ,if we submit yellow    
phosphorous to the action of radioactive
  substances1 it becomes changed into   

the red 8alotropic0 variety4  ,certain  
of the rays decompose ammonia1 and water
 under their influence  is subjected to 
electrolysis1 yielding oxygen and       
hydrogen4      ,a ,,radium ,,clock    ,a
 very interesting instrument was devised
 by ,sir ,william ,strutt 7now  ,lord   
,rayleigh7 which has been called a      
8radium clock40 ,it consists of  a glass
 vessel containing a tube of radium     
salts in the center1 from  which two    
gold leaves are hung4 ,the inner surface
 of the containing  vessel is coated    
with tinfoil1 and this foil is grounded4
 ,the radium  salts cause the leaves to 
become electrically charged4 ,they then 
diverge1 and1 coming in contact with the
 grounded tinfoil coating1 they  are    
discharged1 only to fall back again and 
repeat the process4 ,this  clock will   
operate as long as the supply of        
radioactive material will  act1 which in
 the case of pure radium would be nearly
 #bjjj years4    ,g4 ,lentner has       
recently succeeded in utilizing         

atmospheric potential by  the aid of    
radioactive substances1 which1 in some  
way not yet clearly  understood1 exert  
an influence upon the transformer4 ,the 
method is  as follows3 ,a post about #ab
 m4 in height1 forming a sort of        
antenna1  is erected2 the post ends in a
 collector consisting of an aluminum    
sphere provided with points covered with
 radioactive substances4  ,this         
collector communicates by a conducting  
wire with a special  transformer4 ,under
 these conditions the earth and         
atmospheric currents  attract each other
 through reciprocal induction4    ,dr4  
,s4 ,a4 ,sochocky1 the well known radium
 expert1 has made radium  oil paints1   
and made paintings with them4 8,pictures
 painted with  radium look like any     
other pictures in the daytime1 but at   
night they  illuminate themselves and   
create an interesting and weirdly       
artistic  effect4 ,this paint would be  
particularly adaptable for pictures of  
moonlight or winter scenes1 and ,i have 

no doubt that some day a fine  artist   
will make a name for himself and greatly
 interest us by painting  pictures which
 will be unique1 and particularly       
beautiful at night in a  dark or        
semi-darkened room40    ,dr4 ,sochocky  
also predicts that 8the time will       
doubtless come when  you will have in   
your own home 7or someone you know will 
have7 a room  lighted entirely by       
radium4 ,it would be possible today to  
illuminate  a room1 so that at night1   
without the aid of electricity or other 
artificial illumination1 you could read 
fine newspaper print without            
difficulty4 ,the light in such a room1  
thrown off by radium paint on  walls and
 ceiling1 would in color and tone be    
like soft moonlight1  blue with a tint  
of yellow4 ,today1 a room ten by nine   
feet could be  illuminated in this way  
at a cost of #djj1 and the illumination 
would  last ten years4    8,however1    
such illumination will soon be much     
cheaper1 because of new  discoveries as 

to the best materials to combine with   
radium to produce  light40              
,,chapter ,,iii    ,,radium ,,and ,,the 
,,age ,,of ,,the ,,earth      ,one of   
the important consequences of the       
discovery of radioactivity was  to      
afford the scientist a means for solving
 the problem of the earth's  age4 ,by   
8age of the earth0 we mean here the time
 which has elapsed  since the earth's   
surface became fitted for the habitation
 of living  beings4 ,by means of        
radioactivity we can form an approximate
 estimate  of the time which has passed 
since the formation of any given series 
of  geological strata4 ,radium is our   
geological time clock4    ,it is now    
known that all the common rocks and     
soils of which the  earth's crust is    
built up contain measurable amounts of  
radium4  ,according to the computation  
made by ,prof4 ,john ,joly1 the total   
quantity of radioactive matter may be as
 much as one #ejj billionth part  of the
 whole volume of the globe1 or something

 over half a cubic mile4    ,all of the 
#cf known radio-elements are            
disintegration products of the  primary 
radio-elements uranium and              
thorium--i4e41 they are produced  from  
one or the other of these in their long 
sequence of changes4 ,and  the rate at  
which the radioactive products          
change--their average life              
period1--from the first transmutation to
 the final product1 radium  lead1 an    
isotrope of common lead1 is accurately  
known4 7,helium atoms  are 8the debris  
shed at the various stages of the       
transformation407    ,it is now well    
established that a gram of uranium as   
found along with  its products in rocks 
and minerals is changing at a rate      
represented by  the production of #a4hh 
x #aj-aa grams of helium and #a4bb x    
#aj-aj  grams of lead 7isotrope7 per    
annum4 ,we do not know for a certainty1 
of course1 that this rate of production 
has been maintained throughout          
geological time4 ,in the opinion of     

,lord ,rayleigh1 we may safely assume   
that the rate of transformation has not 
changed1 so that 8it would seem  that in
 the disintegration of a gram of uranium
 we have a process the  rate of which   
can be relied upon to have been the same
 in the past as  we now observe it to   
be0 7,nature1 ,october #bg1 #aiba74     
,acting on ,rutherford's suggestion1 the
 ,hon4 ,r4 ,j4 ,strutt 7later  ,lord    
,rayleigh7 made a determination of the  
amount of radium in the  superficial    
parts of the earth--which are alone     
accessible2 and he  also determined the 
ratio of the lead 7isotope7 to the      
uranium1 which  was found to be #a4c    
7specifically1 in the broggerite found  
in the  ,pre-,cambrian rocks at ,moss1  
,norway74 ,now1 if we assume--as the    
evidence  seems to warrant--that the    
lead of this atomic weight 7#bjf4jf7 was
  all produced by uranium at the rate   
given above1 we get an age of #ibe      
million years for these rocks4 ,some    
minerals from other ,archaean rocks  in 

,norway give a rather larger figure4    
8,in other cases10 says ,lord ,rayleigh1
 8there is some complication1  owing to 
the fact that thorium is associated with
 uranium in the  mineral and that it1   
too1 produces helium and an isotrope of 
lead of  atomic weight probably #bjh    
exactly1 about one unit higher than     
common  lead40    ,sir ,ernest          
,rutherford estimated the time required 
for the accumulation  of the radium     
content of a uranium mineral in the     
,glastonbury granitic  gneiss of the    
early ,cambrian as no less than         
#ejj1jjj1jjj years4 ,later              
investigations give some of the         
,pre-,cambrian rocks an antiquity of    
#a1fdj millions of years6 ,the zoologist
 may now have all the time he  wants for
 the slowly evolving organisms revealed 
by the sedimentary  strata4    ,prof4   
,john ,w4 ,gruner1 of the geology       
department of the ,university  of       
,minnesota1 discovered 7in #aibe7       
microscopic forms of plant life  7algae7

 embedded in iron formations of the     
,vermillion ,range near ,lake           
,armstrong1 ,minnesota4 ,most of        
,minnesota's iron deposits are due to   
the  algae1 ,dr4 ,gruner thinks4 ,the   
growth has the property of extracting   
iron from sea water and making of it a  
solid shell with which to  surround     
itself4 ,accumulations of these iron    
shells through millions of  years have  
been embedded in rock formations forming
 the iron ore4    ,slices of rock a     
thousandth of an inch thick were        
examined under  microscopes in the      
search for the algae4 ,algae began to   
flourish  immediately after the earth1  
in cooling 7according to one            
cosmological  theory71 got below the    
boiling point4 ,their form is much like 
seaweed1  and they thrive at a          
temperature of #ie ,c4 ,dr4 ,gruner     
estimates the  age of these             
algae-bearing deposits at #bjj1jjj1jjj  
years1 ten million  years earlier than  
previous evidence showed4    ,if we     

employ the radioactivity test as a      
measure of geological  time1 the age of 
these fossil algae would have to be     
placed much  higher--older by hundreds  
of millions of years4 ,and the same must
 be  said of the amphibian footprints   
recently 7#aibe7 discovered in the      
sandstone slabs of the ,grand ,canyon1  
by the caretaker on ,hermit's  ,trail1 a
 thousand feet below the rim of the     
canyon4 ,on the older  geological time  
scale1 these deposits date back some    
#ej1jjj1jjj years  7lower ,carboniferous
 period--the so-called 8,mississippian0 
system74 ,on  the radium time schedule1 
these figures would need to be          
multiplied  considerably 7according to  
,boltwood and ,holmes1 by a multiple of 
six or  more74 ,it should be said1      
however1 that on the time deposits of   
,walcott  and ,schuchert1 based on the  
rate of deposition of sediments1 the    
lower ,carboniferous 7,mississippian7   
deposits are not older than some        
#ah1jjj1jjj years4    ,but amphibian    

footprints are known from the far older 
,devonian period1  whose strata are1 on 
the radium basis1 some #cgj million     
years old4    ,prof4 ,charles           
,schuchert1 of ,yale1 regards the       
estimates of geological  time based upon
 the rate of disintegration of          
radioactive minerals as1  on the whole1 
far more reliable than estimates based  
upon the rate of  deposition of         
sediments4 ,no scientist pretends to be 
able to state  exactly the age of strata
 by the amount of radium lead contained 
in  them4    8,in a third class of      
cases10 ,lord ,rayleigh points out1 8the
 uranium  mineral1 pitchblende1 occurs  
in a metalliferous vein1 and the lead   
isotope produced in the mineral is      
diluted with common lead which  entered 
into its original composition1 444 but  
the complications  cannot1 ,i think1 be 
considered to modify the broad result4  
8,a determination of the amount of      
helium in minerals gives an  alternative
 method of estimating geological age2   

but helium1 unlike  lead1 is liable to  
leak away1 hence the estimate gives a   
minimum only4  ,i have found in this way
 ages which1 speaking generally1 are    
about  one-third of the values which    
estimates of lead have given1 and are1  
therefore1 generally confirmatory1      
having regard to leakage of helium40    
,dr4 ,homer ,p4 ,little1 of the         
,national ,research ,council1           
,washington1  ,d4 ,c41 tells us         
7,scientific ,american ,monthly1        
,august1 #aiba1 p4 #agc7  that 8from    
both calculation and experiment it is   
found that one gram  of uranium will    
produce helium at the rate of one cubic 
centimeter in  #i1fjj1jjj years4 ,the   
ratio between the amount of radium in a 
mineral  and the amount of helium       
present therefore allows us to calculate
 the  age of the mineral4 ,the amount of
 uranium originally present compared  to
 that left does not enter into the      
problem unless extreme lengths of  time 
are under consideration1 because of the 

fact that it is calculated  to take     
#e1jjj million years for one-half a     
given volume of uranium to              
disintegrate4    8,it is perfectly true 
that much of the helium generated may   
escape4 ,the  assumption is1 however1   
that in some minerals comparatively     
little  escapes3 zircon1 particularly1  
seems to be an effective retainer4      
,this mineral shows very effectively the
 increasing ratio of helium  to uranium 
as consecutively older rocks are        
examined4 ,recent or  ,pleistocene      
specimens from ,vesuvius show an        
apparent age of #a million  years2      
,miocene specimens from the ,auvergne1  
,france1 of #f4c million4 ,the          
,devonian of ,norway furnishes specimens
 #ed million years in age1 and the      
,upper ,cambrian of ,colorado specimens 
of #ada million years2 the ,archaean  of
 ,ceylon1 of the diamond-bearing rocks  
of ,south ,africa1 and of certain  rocks
 of ,ontario furnish specimens aged     
#bhf1 #cba and #gae million years1      

respectively40    ,the following table  
gives the mean of the results of        
,professors  ,boltwood and ,holmes'     
careful studies1 based upon the         
accumulation of  lead as a final product
 of the uranium series3                 
,,millions ,,of                         
,,years    ,carboniferous               
#cdj    ,devonian                       
#cgj    ,pre-,carboniferous             
#daj    ,silurian or ,ordovician        
#dcj    ,pre-,cambrian3      ,sweden    
#a1jbe      ,united ,states of ,america 
#a1caj-a1dce      ,ceylon               
#a1fdj    ,these results1 a total of    
#a1djj1jjj1jjj years1 greatly transcend 
,lord  ,rayleigh's 7,strutt's7 earlier  
calculations regarding the antiquity    
they  assign to ,paleozoic and          
,pre-,cambrian times4    ,in #aiah1     
,prof4 ,joseph ,barrell reviewed the    
various methods employed  and the       
results obtained in the attempt to      
determine from geological1  chemical and
 physical evidences the time that has   

elapsed since the  beginning of the     
,cambrian ,period 7when abundant fossil 
invertebrates  are first met with71 and 
reached the following time estimates for
  the principal divisions of the        
geologic record 7exclusive of the       
,pre-,cambrian rocks73      ,cenozoic   
time1   #ee1jjj1jjj to  #fe1jjj1jjj     
years long    ,mesozoic time1           
#ace1jjj1jjj to #ahj1jjj1jjj years long 
,paleozoic time1 #cfj1jjj1jjj to        
#edj1jjj1jjj years long    ,the time    
thus established covers a period of from
 #eej1jjj1jjj to  #gjj1jjj1jjj years1 or
 from ten to #ae times longer than has  
usually been  accepted by geologists4   
,pre-,cambrian time was found to have a 
similar  order of magnitude2 but here   
the evidence rests largely upon the     
radioactivity of the crystalline rocks  
formed during this vast period4    ,it  
is now universally accepted that the    
time required for the formation  of the 
,pre-,cambrian rocks was fully as long  
as1 if not longer than1  that for the   

succeeding geological divisions4 ,the   
,archaean deposits  have a vertical     
thickness1 in the regions north of the  
,great ,lakes1  estimated at about      
#fe1jjj feet1 or #ab miles4 ,their base1
 as a matter  of fact1 has never been   
reached4 ,it is interesting to note that
 the  granites of ,norway1 ,canada1     
,texas and ,east ,africa have an        
indicated age  of #a1abj1jjj1jjj years1 
measured in terms of radium products4   
,prof4  ,henry ,norris ,russell1 of     
,princeton ,university1 concludes1 from 
his  careful investigations in          
radioactivity1 that the age of the earth
 is  8a moderate multiple of #ajjj      
million years40    ,professor ,joly has 
computed that if there are two parts of 
radioactive  material for every million 
million parts of other matter throughout
 the  whole volume of the earth1 and    
this is considerably less than he has   
found on the average in the earth's     
crust1 then this earth1 instead of      
cooling off1 is actually now heating up1

 so that in a hundred million  years the
 temperature of the core will have risen
 through #a1hjj degrees  centigrade4    
,dr4 ,millikan observes 7,science1 ,july
 #i1 #aiba7 that this is a  temperature 
8which will melt almost all of our      
ordinary substances4444  ,it means that 
a planet that seems to be dead1 as this 
our earth seems  to be1 may1 a few eons 
hence1 be a luminous body1 and that it  
may go  through periods of expansion    
when it radiates enormously1 and then of
  contraction when it becomes like our  
present earth1 a body which is  a heat  
insulator and holds in its interior the 
energy given off by  radioactive        
processes1 until another period of      
luminosity ensues40    ,lord ,rayleigh's
 series of researches for the purpose of
 determining  the quantity of radium    
present in a number of representative   
rocks1  both igneous and sedimentary1   
seems to prove that the average amount  
of  radium in the earth's crust is about
 #bj times larger than the amount       

calculated by ,rutherford to be         
necessary to retain its temperature     
unaltered4 ,joly's investigations       
revealed values in general agreement    
with these1 but in many cases he        
obtained a value several times greater  
than the amount found by ,lord          
,rayleigh4 ,further investigations      
showed  that thorium is as widely       
distributed as radium in the earth's    
crust1  which is true also of uranium4  
8,incredible as it may appear10 remarks 
,rutherford1 8the radioactive  bodies   
must have been steadily radiating energy
 since the time of their  formation in  
the earth's crust4 ,while the activity  
of uranium itself  must decrease with   
the lapse of time1 the variation is so  
slow that an  interval measured by      
millions of years would be required to  
show any  detectible change40    ,in his
 #aiba address to the ,british          
,association for the ,advancement of    
,science1 ,lord ,rayleigh said3 8,it    
appears certain that the radioactive    

materials present in the earth are      
generating at least as much heat as  is 
now leaking out from the earth into     
space4 ,if they are generating  more    
than this 7and there is evidence to     
suggest that they are71 the  temperature
 must1 according to all received views1 
be rising40          ,,chapter ,,iv     
,,an ,,epoch-,,making ,,discovery       
,when radium was discovered by ,mme4    
,curie in #ahih1 the effect upon  the   
scientific world was startling1 not to  
say 8catastrophic0--as  one author wrote
 at the time--since its activities ran  
counter to  every known principle of    
physical science4 8,some of the most    
solid  foundations of science were      
destroyed1 some of its noblest edifices 
wrecked1 and scientists had to nerve    
themselves to face and investigate  a   
new form of energy40    ,so soon as     
radium compounds 7salts7 became         
available1 however1 the  amount of      
energy given out in radioactive         
processes--the emission of  powerful    

radiations which can be transformed into
 light and heat--was  measured2 and it  
was found that radium1 weight for       
weight1 gives out  as much heat as any  
known fuel every three days1 and in the 
course of  fifteen years releases a     
quantity of energy nearly #b1jjj times  
as much  as is obtained from the best   
fuel1 with no signs of exhaustion       
7,soddy74  ,in the combustion of coal1  
the heat evolved is sufficient to raise 
a  weight of water some #hj to #ajj     
times the weight of the fuel from the   
freezing-point to the boiling-point4    
,the spontaneous heat from radium  is   
sufficient to heat a quantity of water  
equal to the weight of radium  from the 
freezing-point to the boiling-point     
every three-quarters of an  hour4 ,in   
other words1 a pound of radium contains 
and evolves in its  changes the same    
amount of energy as #ajj tons or more of
 coal evolve in  their combustion4      
,in ordinary chemical changes it is the 
molecules 7groups of  atoms7 which are  

altered or rearranged2 in radioactive   
change  the atoms themselves suffer     
disintegration and rearrangements4  ,the
 energy of radioactivity1 then1         
is--according to the accepted           
view--intra-atomic--stored-up energy    
within the atom itself4 ,it was         
calculated by ,prof4 ,curie that the    
energy of one gram of radium would      
suffice to lift a weight of #ejj tons to
 a height of one mile4 ,if it  were     
possible to obtain one cubic centimeter 
7a thimbleful7 of the  8emanation0 from 
radium in the form of a gas1 we should  
find that it  possessed the power1      
altogether1 of emitting more than seven 
million  calories of heat6 ,a thimbleful
 of this invisible gas would be more    
than sufficient to raise #ae1jjj pounds 
of water #a4 ,but in every mass  of     
radium1 small or large1 not more than   
#ac trillionths of it is  undergoing    
change per second4    8,the processes   
occurring in the radio-elements10 says  
,rutherford again1  8are of a character 

quite distinct from any previously      
observed in  chemistry4 ,although it has
 been shown that the radioactivity is   
due  to the spontaneous and continuous  
production of new types of active       
matter1 the laws which control this     
production are different from the  laws 
of ordinary chemical reactions4 ,it has 
not been found possible in  any way to  
alter either the rate at which the      
matter is produced or its  rate of      
change when produced4 ,temperature1     
which is such an important  factor in   
altering the rate of chemical reactions1
 is1 in these cases1  entirely without  
influence4 ,in addition1 no ordinary    
chemical change is  known which is      
accompanied by the expulsion of charged 
atoms with great  velocity4444 ,besides 
their high atomic weights1 they do not  
possess  in common any special chemical 
characteristics which differentiate them
  from the other elements40    ,it was  
early observed by ,curie and ,laborde   
that the temperature of a  radium salt  

is always a degree or two above that of 
the atmosphere1  and they estimated that
 a gram of pure radium would emit about 
#ajj  gram-calories per hour4 ,giesel   
later showed that radium was always at a
  temperature #e higher than the        
surrounding air1 regardless of what the 
temperature of the air might be4 ,this  
continues unchanged whether the         
temperature of the surroundings be #bej 
below zero ,centigrade1 or in  the      
intense heat of an electric furnace4    
8,perhaps10 remarks a writer in ,the    
,scientific ,american 7,february1       
#aibb71 8there will come a time when we 
shall use the energy in the  atoms to   
drive our machines1 cook our food and   
heat our rooms4 ,besides1  already today
 we are actually using--even if only a  
very tiny part--the  atomic energy4     
,thus1 for instance1 the rays emanating 
from radium  are used for therapeutic   
purposes and the electrons emanating    
from a  glowing filament can be directed
 so easily that they can be used in a   

large number of apparatus for wireless  
telegraphy and telephony4 ,most         
probably plants also make use of this   
energy in their growth because  it has  
been demonstrated that the rays of the  
sun liberate electrons  from the green  
leaves1 and lastly it may also be       
mentioned that we  humans use a little  
of this intra-atomic energy when seeing 
with  our eyes1 which we are enabled to 
do by the photoelectric action of       
light40,a    ,during the course of the  
process of disintegration1 atoms of     
uranium  and thorium and their products 
give rise to no fewer than #cf different
  substances 7,a4 ,s4 ,russell71 and of 
these at least a dozen are 8new         
elements40    ,all of the #cf           
radioactive elements are disintegration 
products of one  or the other of the two
 parent elements1 uranium and thorium4  
,they are  arranged by the chemist in   
three series3 namely1 ,uranium #a1      
,uranium #b  7the ,actinium ,series71   
and ,thorium4 ,in the first series there

 are known  to be #ae transmutations of 
matter2 in the second1 #aa2 and in the  
third1  #aj4 ,the periods of 8half      
change0--the period required for        
one-half of a  given quantity of a      
radioactive element to decompose--of the
 different  radioactive elements vary   
all the way from thousands of millions  
of  years for the longest lived primary 
elements--#b4fx#ajaj years for  thorium1
 #hx#aji for uranium #a--to 4#jjb second
 for actinium ,a4 ,in the  case of      
radium itself1 #a1fgj years are demanded
 for the disintegration  of half of any 
portion1 according to the exact         
measurements of ,profs4  ,b4 ,o4        
,boltwood and ,ellen ,gleditsch4 ,the   
stable end product appears to  be in    
each case an isotope of lead--leads     
having similar chemical  properties but 
of different atomic weights 7i4e41      
different atomic  composition74         
,a ,see ,shipley1 ,maynard1             
8,electricity and ,life10 ch4 vi41      
,little ,blue ,book ,no4 #gbb4          

,isotopes are groups of elements which  
cannot be distinguished 7or  separated  
from7 one another by any known chemical 
methods1 and which  differ only in the  
atomic weights of the members of the    
group4 ,in the  radioactive groups1 the 
various elements differ also in degree  
of  stability of their atoms4           
,chemists cannot actually weigh the mass
 of an atom of an element on a  pair of 
scales1 or by any other method4 ,but if 
we put down #af as the  8atomic weight0 
of oxygen1 and ascertain the 8combining 
weight0 7ratio7  of hydrogen to oxygen1 
we can determine the 8atomic weight0 of 
hydrogen  7#a4jjh74 7,see ,shipley1     
8,the ,a ,b ,c of the ,electron ,theory 
of ,matter10  p4 #ad1 ,little ,blue     
,book1 ,no4 #fjc47 ,the ratio of the    
masses of any  two elements in a        
chemical compound can be very accurately
 determined4  ,without going into the   
details here1 it may be said that the   
relative  weights of the atoms of any   
element can be determined to #j4ja in   

many  cases 7by chemical analysis and   
synthesis72 while the actual weight  of 
any atom has not yet been determined to 
better than #j4a4      ,,how ,,radium   
,,is ,,converted ,,to ,,lead    ,lead is
 produced from uranium by a successive  
series of losses of ,alpha              
particles--or helium atoms4 ,omitting   
the less essential outcomes1 or         
transition stages1 we find that each    
atom of uranium spontaneously  ejects   
three atoms of another element1 helium1 
and thereby is  converted into still    
another element1 radium4 ,by losing one 
atom of  helium1 radium1 in turn1 is    
converted into the so-called emanation1 
or niton4 ,the latter quickly loses four
 more atoms of helium and  is converted 
into lead1 8uranium lead10 having an    
atomic weight of  #bjf4jh4 ,ordinary    
7common7 lead1 constituting the vast    
bulk of the lead  of the world1 has a   
much higher atomic weight1 namely1 #bjg 
7,prof4  ,theodore ,richards74 ,lead    
from thorium has an atomic weight of    

#bjh2 from  actinium1 #bjf4 ,so we have1
 in fact1 four kinds of lead4           
,omitting the less stable transition    
products1 we may say1 then1 that  an    
atom of uranium is converted into lead  
by the loss of eight atoms  of          
helium--losing three to become radium1  
then one to become the  emanation1 and  
finally four to become lead4 ,no known  
human agency can  either retard or      
hasten this breaking down of the uranium
 atom into  radium1 or of the radium    
into emanation1 with the final          
production of  lead4    ,this statement 
has been universally accepted as true4  
,nevertheless1  ,dr4 ,a4 ,glaschler     
stated 7,nature ,london1 ,september #ab1
 #aibe7 that  he had succeeded in       
accelerating the change of uranium to   
uranium ,x  7the first product of       
uranium #a7 by submitting uranium oxide 
to 8strong  rushes of momentary         
high-tension currents40 ,as early as    
#aibc1 ,a4 ,nodon  7,comp4 rend41 #agf1 
#agje #aibc7 brought forward strong     

evidence of  an increase of the activity
 of radioactive substances when outdoors
  and enclosed by envelopes of small    
absorbing power for ,gamma rays as      
contrasted to the smaller radioactivity 
of the same substances in  cellars and  
when heavily enveloped by lead4 ,for a  
tentative explanation  of this          
phenomenon1 see ,science1 ,january #h1  
#aibf 7,vol4 ,,lxiii1 ,no4  #afai71 pp4 
#dd-de4    ,both uranium and thorium1 as
 we have just stated1 break down and    
become  radium1 then change to helium   
and lead4    ,says ,rutherford3         
8,although thorium is nearly always     
present in old  uranium minerals and    
uranium in thorium minerals1 there does 
not appear  to be any radioactive       
connection between these two elements4  
,uranium  and thorium are to be regarded
 as two distinct radioactive elements4  
8,with regard to actinium1 there is     
still no definite information of its    
place in the scheme of transformations4 
,boltwood has shown that the  amount of 

actinium in uranium minerals is         
proportional to the amount  of uranium4 
,this indicates that actinium1 like     
radium1 is in genetic  connection with  
uranium44440    ,the recently discovered
 product1 protoactinium1--isolated by   
,hahn and  ,soddy1--is the hitherto     
missing link between uranium ,y and     
actinium4  8,this substance emits ,alpha
 rays and has an estimated period of    
#aj1jjj  years4 ,the actinium series is 
believed to have its origin in a dual   
transformation of uranium ,x4 ,the first
 branch product1 representing  about #d 
of the total1 is believed to be uranium 
,y1 a ,beta-ray product  of period one  
day4 ,this is directly transformed into 
protoactinium40  ,this element has not  
yet been obtained in a pure state4      
,many of the radioactive elements are   
isotropic with known chemical           
elements--i4e41 alike in their chemical 
properties1 but dissimilar  in          
radioactive properties4 ,since they     
cannot be distinguished--or             

separated--from the ordinary elements   
with which they are isotropic1 by  any  
chemical methods1 they must occupy the  
same place in the periodic              
classification of the elements4 ,radium 
and mesothorium1 for example  7as ,soddy
 was first to show7 do not have the same
 atomic weight1 but  they cannot be     
distinguished from each other by any    
chemical methods4  ,therefore they both 
have the atomic number #hh1 though the  
atomic  weight of radium is #bbf and of 
mesothorium #bbh4 7,see ,shipley1       
8,origin  and ,development of the       
,atomic ,theory10 p4 #fd1 ,little ,blue 
,book1 ,no4  #fjh47 ,radium ,d and lead1
 and thorium and ionium1 are examples of
  radioactive isotropes4    ,the nature 
of the end-product was first suggested  
by ,boltwood1 who  pointed out the      
invariable presence of lead in old      
radium minerals1  and in amount to be   
expected from their uranium content and 
geologic  age4 8,thus10 says ,prof4 ,t4 
,w4 ,richards1 of ,harvard ,university1 

8we  must adopt a kind of limited       
transmutation of the elements10 although
  not of the immediately profitable type
 gold sought by the ancient             
alchemists40    ,sir ,ernest            
,rutherford1 who succeeded ,sir ,j4 ,j4 
,thomson as ,cavendish  ,professor of   
,physics at ,cambridge ,university1 was 
first to recognize  that the rays from  
uranium and radium were not all alike1  
but consisted  of three distinct kinds4 
,in order to distinguish them clearly1  
without  committing himself in advance  
as to their exact nature1 he christened 
them ,alpha1 ,beta1 and ,gamma rays--the
 first three letters of the ,greek      
alphabet4 ,we know now that the ,alpha  
rays are positively charged helium      
atoms1 with two negative electrons      
missing2 that the ,beta rays are        
negatively charged electrons            
7disembodied 8particles0 of electricity1
  exactly like cathode rays72 and that  
the ,gamma rays are a type of  ,x-rays1 
not material particles but merely       

extremely short magnetic  waves or      
oscillations1 akin to ordinary light    
waves or rays4    ,dr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,millikan
 calls them 8the wireless waves of the  
denizens of  the sub-atomic world4 ,they
 are ether waves1 just like light or    
just  like wireless waves1 except that  
the vibration frequency 444 amounts to  
#cj billion billions per second4 ,these 
are the ,gamma rays40 ,this means  that 
this number of light waves would pass a 
given point in space each  second4      
,since these rays do not consist of     
charged particles they are  not         
deflected by electromagnetic or         
electrostatic fields1 as are the  ,alpha
 and ,beta rays4 ,it has been found that
 one gram of radium ejects              
#acf1jjj1jjj1jjj particles a second6    
,the ,gamma rays of radium have such    
penetrating power that a half-inch      
sheet of lead will reduce their original
 intensity by only one-half1  and they  
are not absolutely stopped by #bj       
inches4 ,these invisible  light waves1  

thousands of times shorter than those of
 visible light1  are produced whenever a
 cathode ray 7negative electron7 hits   
matter4  ,of the atoms forming the      
substance penetrated1 perhaps only one  
in a  billion is struck4 ,it has been   
said that the ,gamma rays 7and ,x-rays7 
are the result of the back-kick of      
ejected electrons4 ,prof4 ,comstock     
says that the connection between the    
,beta rays and the ,gamma rays 8is      
probably similar to that between the    
bullet and the sound in the case  of a  
gun40 ,however this may be1 we know that
 the ,gamma rays are1 after  all1 in    
essence only excessively minute light   
waves4 ,while the longest  visible light
 waves are #j4jjjjh centimeter1 the     
longest ,gamma rays are  #j4jjjjjjjac   
centimeter2 and whereas the shortest    
visible light waves  are #j4jjjjd       
centimeter1 the shortest ,gamma rays are
 but #j4jjjjjjjjjg  centimeter4    ,the 
,beta particles are ejected with a      
velocity of from #ij1jjj to  #afj1jjj   

miles a second4    ,prof4 ,gustave ,le  
,bon calculated that it would require   
#cdj1jjj barrels  of powder to discharge
 one bullet at this inconceivable speed6
 ,these  negatively charged electrons   
normally revolve around the positively  
charged nucleus4 ,under certain         
conditions1 an electron will make #bbjj 
billion revolutions within an atom in   
one second4    ,radium is not only      
continually losing matter and energy as 
electricity1  but it is also losing     
energy as heat4 ,professor and ,mme4    
,curie  discovered that any substance   
placed near radium becomes itself  a    
false radium4 ,this applies to all      
substances4 ,the acquired  radioactivity
 persists for many hours1 or even days1 
after the removal  of the radium4 ,in   
the case of zinc1 these secondary       
radiations were  found to be four times 
as intense as ordinary uranium4 ,it     
vanishes  sooner or later upon the      
removal from the neighborhood of the    
potent  radium4    ,the radioactive     

something which passes out of radium was
 not the  already known group of ,alpha1
 ,beta and ,gamma rays1 but an emanation
  akin to gas4 ,rutherford1 its original
 discoverer1 was not sure that  it was a
 gas1 so he cautiously gave it the name 
emanation4 ,when the  radium was heated1
 or dissolved in water1 the quantity of 
emanation  was greatly increased1 which 
seemed to show that it was a gas of     
some kind occluded 7bound up7 in the    
radium4 ,the quantity obtained  was     
insufficient to bring the emanation     
within the testing power of             
spectroscope or balance4                
,nevertheless1 the emanation has been   
detected1 and investigated by the       
electroscope1 which measures the radium 
rays by the power to discharge  its     
electrified gold leaves4 8,the          
electroscope is about a million  times  
more sensitive than the most sensitive  
spectroscope and yet the  spectroscope  
is capable of detecting easily the      
millionth part of a  milligram of       

matter0 7,duncan74    ,calculations made
 by ,rutherford show that if a          
thimbleful of this  active gas could be 
collected1 the bombardment of its       
powerful rays  would heat to a red heat1
 or even might melt down1 the walls of  
the  glass containing it4 ,the emanation
 emits only ,alpha rays 7or particles7  
forming helium4    ,the radium from     
which the emanation has been abstracted1
 after the  lapse of an hour or so1     
loses #ge of its activity4 ,during the  
course  of a single month1 radium will  
be found to have restored all its lost  
emanation4 ,in thirty days it will have 
regained all its original  activity4 ,it
 was soon discovered that the emanation 
abstracted from the  radium loses its   
radioactivity at the same rate and      
according to the  same laws as the      
de-emanated radium regains it4 ,the     
radium is therefore  said to be 8in     
equilibrium with its products40         
,since these processes are wholly       
outside the sphere of known             

controllable forces1 and cannot be      
created1 altered or destroyed--8since   
the process is independent of the       
chemical form of the radium1 whether    
bromide1 chloride1 sulphate1 etc41 we   
are absolutely shut up to the           
conviction that it is a function of the 
atom4 ,we are in the presence of  an    
actual decay of the atom4 ,the atom of  
radium breaks down into atoms  of       
emanation and the atoms of emanation in 
their turn break down into  something   
else4 ,the activity of emanation decays 
and falls to half value  in about #c4g  
days40    ,although the amount of       
emanation produced from a gram of radium
  does not amount to more than a        
needle-point of the gas 7 #a4c cubic    
millimeter71 this is sufficient to raise
 the temperature of #ge grams  of water 
#a per hour1 which is enough heat to    
melt more than its own  weight of ice in
 an hour1 and to raise it to the        
boiling-point in the  next hour1 which  
is equivalent to #fj1jjj horse-power    

days6 ,in other  words1 the heat evolved
 by the radium emanation is more than   
#c1ejj1jjj  times greater than that     
produced in any known chemical reaction3
 such  as1 for example1 the union of    
oxygen and hydrogen to form water4      
,it was soon discovered that if the     
spectrum of this mysterious gas--or     
radium emanation--be examined again     
after an interval of about four  weeks1 
it has changed into a familiar spectrum 
easily recognized as  that of the       
gaseous element known as helium4 ,here  
the chemist comes  face to face with the
 astounding fact that the element radium
 is  decomposed and produces another    
element1 helium--a discovery made by    
,ramsay and ,soddy in the summer of     
#aijc4    ,in the successive radioactive
 changes1 one ,alpha particle 7sometimes
  called 8ray07 is ejected from each    
atom disintegrated by the change--in    
some cases1 at least1 accompanied by    
,beta particles 7negative  electrons74  
,the ,alpha particle1 as already stated1

 is really an atom of  helium carrying  
two atomic charges of positive          
electricity--twice that  of an atom of  
hydrogen4 ,strictly speaking1 the ,alpha
 particle is only  the nucleus of a     
helium atom1 since it has lost two of   
its negatively  charged electrons1 which
 are combined in the ordinary helium    
atom4 ,the  exact velocity of the       
expelled ,alpha particle 8varies in the 
different  radioactive elements0        
7,joly7--say from #aj1jjj to #ah1jjj    
miles each  second--a velocity          
sufficient to carry the particle around 
the earth in  less than two seconds1 if 
unchecked4    ,but these relatively     
heavy particles 7of atomic size7 are    
actually soon  checked1 even by seven   
centimeters 7about a third of a foot7 of
 air4  ,the ,beta particle 7#a1hde the  
mass of a hydrogen atom7 8shoots a      
hundred  times as far as the ,alpha     
particle and the ,gamma rays are a      
hundred  times more penetrating still0  
7,millikan74 ,but the ,alpha particle is

  sometimes ejected with a velocity     
nearly #dj1jjj times that of a rifle    
bullet1--the velocity of the latter     
being about half a mile a second4  ,even
 the super-guns which bombarded ,paris  
could not eject a projectile  with a    
speed of more than about a mile a       
second4 ,rutherford observes  that if it
 were possible to give an equal velocity
 to an iron cannon  ball1 the heat      
generated on a target would be many     
thousand times more  than sufficient to 
melt the cannon ball and dissipate it   
into vapor4    ,the flashes of light    
seen when the ,alpha rays bombard a     
screen of zinc  sulphide1 as in         
,crookes' spinthariscope1 are due to    
cleavages produced  in the zinc sulphide
 crystals by the impact of the ,alpha   
rays 7positive  ions74 ,each impact on a
 crystal produces a splash of light big 
enough  to be seen by a microscope4     
,in the phosphorescence caused by the   
approach of an emanation of radium  to  
zinc sulphate1 the atoms throw off the  

,alpha 7helium7 particles to  the number
 of five billion each second1 with      
velocities of #aj1jjj miles  or more a  
second4 ,if the helium projectile should
 chance to 8crash0  into an atom of     
nitrogen or of oxygen1 an atom of       
hydrogen can be  knocked out of it1 as  
was discovered by ,sir ,ernest          
,rutherford1 perhaps  the most          
distinguished of ,mme4 ,curie's pupils4 
7,strictly speaking1 the  disintegration
 particles are isotropes of helium1 of  
atomic weight  #c1 the atomic weight of 
helium being #d47 ,despite its large    
size as  compared with an electron 7or  
,beta particle71 the ,alpha particle    
passes  through a glass wall without    
leaving a hole behind1 and without in   
any  way interfering with the molecules 
of the glass4 ,it shoots through        
hundreds of thousands of atoms without  
ever going near enough to them  to be   
deflected from its course4              
,,chapter ,v    ,,radium ,,in ,,the     
,,treatment ,,of ,,cancer      ,the     

action of radium on human tissues was   
unknown until #ahif1 when  ,prof4 ,henri
 ,becquerel of ,paris1 having           
incautiously carried a lump of          
pitchblende in his pocket1 discovered on
 his skin1 within two weeks1 a  severe  
inflammation1 or ulcer1 which was known 
as the famous 8,becquerel  burn40 ,as   
physicians of the nineteenth century    
were accustomed to  burn out cancers    
with caustics1 the idea occurred to them
 that the  application of radium might  
prove to be an improvement on the older 
method4    ,it has proved to be so1     
affording in many cases not only relief1
  but in some instances1 even a cure1   
not only for cancer1 but for  many other
 ailments--as we shall see presently4   
,since that time  active investigation  
into the action of radium on diseased   
tissues  has been carried on1 resulting 
in the establishment in ,paris of  the  
8,laboratoire biologique du ,radium10   
and also of the ,radium  ,institute of  
,vienna1 followed by the establishment  

of somewhat similar  institutions in    
various other countries1 notably in     
,england and the  ,united ,states4      
,one of the most famous institutions for
 radiotherapy is the recently           
established ,radium ,institute of       
,paris1 under the management of ,mme4   
,curie and ,professor ,debierne4 ,this  
is composed of two distinct             
compartments4 ,in one the scientific    
properties of radium are studied1  while
 the other is devoted to its therapeutic
 applications4 ,dr4 ,regaud1  who is in 
charge of the latter department 7a      
branch of the widely known  ,pasteur    
,institute71 endeavors to cure cancer   
and tumors by application  of radium and
 ,x-rays4    ,new ,york ,city boasts a  
magnificently equipped ,radium          
,institute1 under  the directorship of  
,dr4 ,c4 ,everett ,field4 ,and an even  
more famous  institution is that founded
 by the ,mayo brothers1 in ,rochester1  
,minnesota1 where these eminent surgeons
 had accumulated an entire  gram of     

radium as early1 at least1 as #aibj--the
 largest amount owned  by private       
individuals4 ,this great                
institution--now known as the ,mayo     
,foundation--is no longer privately     
owned1 but it is still under the        
direction of the ,mayos4                
,radiotherapy 7or1 in ,france1          
curietherapy1 in honor of the discoverer
  of radium7 or the treatment of various
 diseases by radioactive  substances1   
has not been applied so extensively as  
has treatment by  ,x-rays 7,roentgen    
rays71 produced in vacuum tubes4 ,on the
 other hand1  the ,x-rays are not so    
effective 7as usually applied7 in the   
treatment  of certain morbid conditions 
as are the more penetrating ,gamma rays 
from radioactive substances2 though the 
latter are essentially  identical with  
,x-rays--swift ,beta particles1 or      
negative electrons--of  very short      
wave-length4 ,to produce ,x-rays as     
penetrating as the ,gamma  rays1 about  
two million volts would have to be 8cut0

 on the discharge  tube4    ,the ,alpha 
rays are not often used in medical      
practice1 and have little  penetrating  
power4 ,they are stopped by #c cm4 of   
air1 or by a thin  sheet of paper4 ,they
 are employed only in the way of radium 
8emanation0  7a gas7 dissolved in saline
 solution1 or by the use of needles upon
  which active deposit from radium      
emanation has been collected4 8,in      
either case the emanation water or the  
active deposit needles must be          
introduced into the system--whether     
intravenously or into the solid         
tissues1--otherwise the ,alpha rays     
would have no power to act4 ,in  either 
case1 too1 they act along with the ,beta
 and ,gamma rays produced  by the active
 deposit0 7,lozarus-,barlow74    ,beta  
radiation is used only for superficial  
conditions and always in  conjunction   
with ,gamma radiation4 8,instead of a   
radium salt1 one of  its products1 viz41
 radium emanation1 is often employed    
chemically4  ,no essential difference is

 introduced by the use of this emanation
  excepting that its intensity undergoes
 a progressive diminution with  time1   
since it falls to half value in #c4he   
days4 ,early rodent cancer1  certain    
conditions of the eyelids1 some         
cutaneous non-malignant tumors  and     
birth-marks1 are treated successfully in
 this way40    ,physicians of the       
,memorial ,hospital1 ,new ,york ,city1  
announced in  ,october1 #aibe1 that by  
filtering out #ij of the caustic ,beta  
rays  emanating from radium and the high
 voltage ,x-ray tube1 and using         
principally the healing and stimulating 
,gamma rays1 radiation treatment  of    
cancer of the tongue1 lips1 nose1 ears  
or other part of the head has  been     
greatly improved4    ,in the first six  
months after the new method was begun1  
more than #ajj  cases had been treated  
with what were considered very          
satisfactory  results4 ,owing to the    
elimination of the caustic rays1 much   
stronger  applications of the beneficial

 rays can be used1 and painful effects  
are largely obviated4    ,if experience 
and special research lead eventually to 
successful  treatment of cancer1 it will
 be a great boon to the human race4 ,the
  ,united ,states leads the world in    
deaths from this dread disease1 with    
its average of #ij per #ajj1jjj of the  
population4 ,the mean average of  cancer
 deaths in ,europe is #gf1 in ,asia #ed1
 in ,africa #cc1 in ,oceania  #gc4      
,several races1 including the ,american 
,indians1 are stated to  be entirely    
free from cancer1 and others are        
partially immune4 ,the  ,japanese1 for  
example1 are subject to all forms except
 cancer of the  breast4 ,eighty-five    
percent of ,americans afflicted with    
this malady are  persons over #dj years 
of age4    ,science ,service states that
 a careful analysis of cancer statistics
  gathered by the ,united ,states       
,census ,bureau over a period of about  
#bj  years in ten ,eastern states       
reveals definitely that cancer mortality

  is from #be to #cj higher than it was 
about #bj years ago4 ,this is the  claim
 of ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,schereschewsky1 of the
 ,united ,states ,public ,health        
,service1 who made the statistical      
analysis and reported it to the         
,american ,medical ,association4 8,there
 has been a pronounced increase in  the 
observed death rate from cancer in      
persons #dj years old and over in  the  
ten states comprising the original death
 registration area10 ,dr4               
,schereschewsky said4 8,part of this    
increase is due to greater precision    
and accuracy in the filling out of death
 returns1 but the remainder is  an      
actual increase in the mortality of the 
disease40    ,the only way to stop the  
ravages of cancer1 says the ,paris      
,academy of  ,medicine1 is to diagnose  
it early--in time for operation4 ,for   
this  to be practicable1 physicians must
 be specially instructed4 ,family       
doctors are often ignorant of all but a 
few forms of cancer and do  not         

recognize it in its first               
manifestations4 ,women of #dj to #ej are
  apt to consider little irregularities 
of bleeding to be associated  with the  
menopause and therefore harmless4 ,often
 this is right1 but  unfortunately the  
bleeding from an early cancer may not   
differ in the  slightest degree from    
such harmless irregularities and by the 
time  other symptoms have developed1 the
 cancer has perhaps grown through  the  
wall of the uterus and has spread to    
regions where no treatment  can hope to 
reach it4 ,the only safe rule to go by  
is to seek expert  investigation for any
 unusual or irregular bleeding or       
discharge1  however slight1 especially  
if these occur at or near the 8change of
  life40    ,one phase of this subject  
of special interest is that of the use  
of  radium in the treatment of cancer1  
especially of the neck or lower  end of 
the uterus4 ,there is already sufficient
 evidence to warrant  the statement that
 some cancers of this region have been  

permanently  cured by radium alone4 ,and
 as a relief measure in the late and    
hopeless  stages of the disease1 radium 
prolongs life1 relieves pain and adds   
much to the comfort of the victim4      
,it has been amply demonstrated that    
radium treatment increases the          
permanency of the results obtained by   
surgery1 and often converts  inoperable 
into operable cases4          ,,chapter 
,,vi    ,,efficiency ,,of ,,radium ,,in 
,,treatment ,,of ,,various ,,diseases   
,in #aibc1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,e4 ,loucks1        
president of the ,american ,radium      
,society1  announced that toxic goiter  
had been cured by radium4 ,exophthalmic 
goiter has been1 in most cases1         
successfully treated by irradiation4    
,just how the cure is effected is still 
unknown2 for the thyroid body  from     
animals exposed for many hours to the   
,gamma irradiations of  radium bromide  
shows no perceptible histological       
changes4 ,yet far  less radiation       
produces marked changes in the tadpoles 

derived from  normal ova fertilized by  
spermatazoa which have been radiated in 
the  frog1 though no testicular changes 
can be detected with certainty          
7,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,vol4 #cb1 
p4 #bbd1 #abth ,ed474    ,among other   
diseases which have been more or less   
successfully  treated by radium may be  
mentioned lupus vulgarus1 epithelial    
tumors1  syphilitic ulcers1 chronic     
itching of the skin1 papillomata 7an    
epithelial tumor formed by hypertrophy  
of the papillae of the skin  or mucuous 
membrane1 as a corn or a wart71         
angiomata 7tumor composed  chiefly of   
dilated blood or lymph vessels71        
pigmentary naevi 7blemish  of the skin  
due to pigment1 as a birth-mark71 and   
pruritus 7itching74  ,radium has been   
particularly effective in treating      
serious affections  of the eyes1 as was 
first fully demonstrated by ,dr4 ,walter
 ,s4 ,franklin  and ,frederick ,c4      
,cordes1 of ,san ,francisco4    ,the    
most brilliant successes of radium have 

been in those cases 8where  some serious
 complicating ailment1 such as heart    
disease1 tuberculosis1  ,bright's       
disease1 or an extreme anemia1          
contra-indicates anesthesia  or any     
procedure which will tax the patient's  
vital resources2 radium  steps in and   
does its work quietly1 imperceptibly    
and1 indeed1 without  the slightest risk
 to life40    ,dr4 ,howard ,a4 ,kelly1  
of ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 has been
 very  successful in curing swollen     
masses of glands on the sides of the    
neck1  cancer of the thyroid and of the 
cervix1 and sarcoma of the chest4  ,dr4 
,e4 ,s4 ,molyneaux of ,london1 has cured
 obdurate cases of tubercular  glands in
 the neck1 a disease rather frequent    
among children4 ,thanks  to the patient 
researches of ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,marshall1 
associate professor  of biochemistry and
 dental pathology at the ,university of 
,california1  it is now known that a    
radioactive liquid may be used for      
sterilizing  infected tissue4           

,experiments employing the radioactive  
liquid in the  treatment of root canals 
have been conducted at the ,george      
,williams  ,hooper ,foundation for      
,medical ,research and at the ,college  
of ,dentistry  of the ,university of    
,california4    ,within the time that   
the new antiseptic has been in use at   
these  colleges1 #he of all the cases   
treated have been successful2 and1  with
 one exception1 no soreness or pain has 
followed its use4 ,this  radioactive    
preparation is a solution of radium     
salts1 8,radium ,d plus  ,e10 which     
results from the decomposition of radium
 emanation1 which1  readily soluble in  
water1 possesses definite radioactive   
properties4 ,in  making the solution the
 tiny capillary tubes containing the    
decomposed  radium are crushed under    
water in a mortar and the liquid is then
 ready  for use in the treatment of an  
ulcerated root of a tooth4    ,dr4      
,marshall had been working with radium  
for months before  admitting the success

 of his investigations1 which were      
conducted  in a long series of          
experiments on the lower animals4       
8,microscopic  examinations of abscessed
 tissue10 he said1 8which have been     
treated  with radioactive solutions1    
indicate that the bacteria producing the
  affection were killed4 ,and in no     
cases observed has the treatment        
produced radium burns2 the amounts used 
have been too small and the  effects of 
too transitory a nature4 ,that          
sterilization of tissue can be          
produced1 however1 seems apparent4      
8,the discovery is purely of academic   
interest because of the fact  that      
radium is too expensive1 and it is      
possible to obtain it only in  limited  
quantities2 so that the chief value of  
the discovery will rest  in the fact    
that it will stimulate further work for 
the identification  of more accessible  
material40    ,in external treatment by 
radium itself1 emanations from a certain
  quantity of radium are allowed to     

focus on parts of the body over the     
diseased organs4 ,thus the curative     
functions of the diseased portion  are  
stimulated to activity4 ,the atrophying 
of diseased tonsils has  been the most  
successful use of this form of          
treatment4    ,in the destruction of    
disease germs the radium emanation has  
been  found more useful than the direct 
rays4 ,the emanations kill or check  the
 growth of anthrax1 typhoid1 and        
diphtheric germs4 ,the direct  rays are 
efficient in the relief of severe cases 
of enurites and  facial neuralgia1      
cancer1 tumors1 affections of the skin  
and abnormal  growths4 ,dr4 ,guyenot has
 proved that radium effects a complete  
cure for  rheumatism1 which he accounts 
for in these words3 8,uric acid         
circulates  in the blood in the form of 
urate of soda1 of which there are two   
isomeric forms differing from each other
 by their respective solubility  in the 
blood plasms4 ,the soluble salt is      
converted into an insoluble  form40     

,radium breaks up this compound4 ,the   
8rheumatism0 disappears4                
,,chapter ,,vii    ,,where ,,we ,,get   
,,radium      ,the extraction process   
consists in eliminating the various     
substances  in the ore until only the   
radium salts are left4 ,but1 in the case
 of  carnotite1 more than #ijj different
 operations1 requiring six months of    
labor1 are required between the digging 
of the ore and the production  of a gram
 of pure radium salt4 ,a solution       
containing barium and radium  salts in  
the ratio of ten parts of radium to a   
billion is treated with  sulphate to    
precipitate an insoluble 8raw sulphate  
of barium40    ,radium ores are         
generally found in connection with      
granitic  masses--i4e41 in places where 
granite forms at least part of the  rock
 of the country4 ,the carnotite ore     
usually consists of a thin  layer of    
sandstone which crops out on the side of
 a canyon wall and is  recognized by the
 characteristic sulphur-yellow color4   

,the narrow seams  are usually in the   
form of pockets1 so that the value of a 
claim is  dubious until it has been     
thoroughly explored and worked4    ,most
 of the original radium minerals1 such  
as uraninite1 samarskite1  and          
brannerite1 are black and have a shiny  
fracture and a high specific  gravity4  
,these minerals are1 however1 rarely    
found in commercially  valuable         
quantities4    ,pitchblende1 the richest
 source of radium1 has the same         
composition  as uraninite and the same  
general appearance1 except that it shows
  no crystal form4 ,it occurs in veins4 
,there are extensive deposits of        
pitchblende or uraninite at             
,joachimstahl1 ,bohemia                 
7,czecho-,slovakia71  containing from   
#cj to #gj per cent uranium oxide1 from 
which the radium  is extracted4 ,but    
here the uranium ore occurs in small    
pockets in  widely separated localities1
 so that it is merely a by-product of   
other  mining operations4 ,however1     

after separation of the uranium from the
  ore1 the residues are three to five   
times as radioactive1 weight for        
weight1 as the uranium4 ,the amount of  
radium in old unaltered mineral  is     
always proportional to its content of   
uranium in the ratio of #c4c  parts of  
radium by weight to ten million parts of
 uranium4    ,new radium ore fields were
 discovered in ,czecho-,slovakia in     
#aibb4 ,the  production of radium in    
that country increased from 4#ggdf gram 
in #aiaa1  to #a4gaah grams in #aiae1   
and #b4bcaj grams in #aibj4 ,in #aibb1  
steps were  taken to modernize the      
plants in the ,jachcymov district       
7,bohemia71  where the known supply will
 last #bj years at the present rate of  
production--a little more than two grams
 a year4    ,the famous ,joachimstahl   
pitchblende deposits were a monopoly of 
the  ,austrian ,government before the   
,world ,war1 but they are now being     
worked by the ,imperial and ,foreign    
,corporation of ,london1 under an       

agreement with the ,czecho-,slovak      
,government4 ,in #aibb a loan of two    
grams of radium 7valued at more than    
#cjj1jjj7 was made to ,oxford           
,university1 for a period of fifteen    
years4 ,this material is being used  for
 experimental purposes by ,prof4        
,frederick ,soddy1 of ,oxford1 and his  
associates4 ,it has been stated that one
 of the chief objectives is  the        
discovery of a method for the release   
and control of intra-atomic  energy4    
,pitchblende has been found in only a   
few places--in ,bohemia                 
7,czecho-,slovakia71 southern ,saxony1  
,cornwall1 and ,gilpin ,county1         
,colorado4 ,so far1 this ore has not    
been the source of any radium  produced 
in this country4    ,when the original  
radium minerals 7uraninite1 samarskite1 
brannerite1  etc47 break down through   
weathering1 other radium minerals are   
formed  from them1 such as autunite1    
trobernite1 carnotite1 and tyuyamunite4 
,the two latter ores are the most       

widespread and abundant4 ,autunite1 a   
phosphate of calcium and uranium1 is as 
active as uranium4 ,carnotite  and      
tyuyamunite cannot be distinguished     
visually from each other4  ,both are a  
bright canary-yellow in color1 and are  
powdery1 finely  crystalline1 or1       
rarely1 clay-like in texture4 ,both     
these minerals are  found in the same   
section of ,utah and of ,colorado1      
usually associated  with fossil wood and
 other vegetation1 in friable1 porous1  
fine-grained  sandstone4    ,the only   
other deposits that yield tyuyamunite in
 marked quantity are  those of          
,tyua-,muyun1 in the ,andiyan district1 
,ferghana ,government1  central ,asiatic
 ,russia 7,russian ,turkestan71 where it
 occurs with rich  copper ores in a pipe
 in limestone4    ,the radium           
salts--hydrous sulphate1 chloride1 or   
bromide--are all white  or nearly white 
substances1 no more remarkable in       
appearance than  common salt4 ,neither  
radium nor the radium minerals are in   

themselves  luminescent4 ,tubes         
containing radium salts glow because    
they include  impurities which the      
invisible radiations from the radium    
cause to give  light4 ,the pure radium  
metal has been isolated only two or     
three times1  and few persons have seen 
it4      ,,new ,,sources ,,of ,,radium  
,in #aiba1 a rich deposit of pitchblende
 was discovered in the province  of     
,ontario1 ,canada4 ,since #aiba there   
has been a rather considerable          
exportation of radioactive minerals from
 ,madagascar2 and in #aibb  deposits of 
uranium oxide 7,u#c,o#h7 were discovered
 in ,switzerland4  ,during the same year
 an unknown ,belgian traveler sold to a 
curio dealer  a strange stone picked up 
in the ,congo4 ,the dealer sold it to   
the  ,british ,museum4 ,upon examination
 the stone was found to be radioactive4 
,belgian geologists were immediately    
informed1 and a ,belgian mission  was   
sent to the ,katanga district1 where the
 stone was found4 ,two veins  of        

chalcolite 7torbernite7 containing      
substances rich in radium were  soon    
located by the geologists1 one near the 
,portuguese frontier4  ,chalcolite1 the 
crystallized phosphate of copper and    
uranium1 is twice  as active as uranium4
    ,the newly discovered mineral has   
been given the name 8curite10  in honor 
of ,mme4 ,curie1 the discoverer of      
radium4 ,these deposits  are now known  
to be the richest in the world4 ,and1   
what is hardly  less important1 the     
radium may be isolated by simple        
dissolution in  nitric acid1 even in the
 cold4 ,it is also readily dissolved in 
warm  hydrochloric acid4 ,only #ae tons 
of the ore need to be treated to        
produce a gram of radium4    ,curite is 
found in three forms1 as translucent    
reddish brown  needle-like crystals2 as 
compact saccharoid crystalline          
aggregates1  orange in color2 and as    
orange-colored earthy masses surrounding
 the  preceding variety4 ,the chemical  
composition is expressed by the formula 

#b7,pb,o7#e7,,uo#c7d7;,h#b,o74    ,in   
#aibd a pitchblende deposit1 very rich  
in radium1 was discovered in  ,ferghana1
 in ,russian ,turkestan4 ,soviet ,russia
 is now mining the ore and  extracting  
the radium1 which is kept at the ,radium
 ,institute of the  ,academy of         
,science4    ,curiously enough1 more    
than #ejj1jjj worth of radium has been  
added to  the world's store of this     
valuable element by 8boiling down0      
,british  cannons used in the ,world    
,war4 ,no fewer than five grams--less   
than a  tablespoonful--have been secured
 by ,british scientists by this process4
  ,the radium is stored in a lead safe  
weighing almost two tons--a  container  
which was invented by a ,dr4 ,kuss1 and 
the composition of  which is known only 
to himself4 ,one of the greatest        
difficulties of  scientists has been to 
find some material which would prevent  
the  constant bombardment of the radium 
rays4    ,one important result of these 
recent discoveries--especially that of  

the ,congo deposits--is that the price  
of radium dropped #cj1jjj a gram1  and  
sells now at the rate of #gj1jjj a gram 
instead of some #ajj1jjj4  ,the         
,standard ,chemical ,company of ,denver1
 ,colorado1 has been obliged to  close  
down its three-story laboratory1 which  
until the close of the  year #aibb had1 
for several years previously1 been      
producing a million  dollars' worth of  
radium annually4 ,the ,paradox ,valley  
carnotite ore  cannot be worked in      
competition with the rich deposits of   
the ,belgian  ,congo4 ,it has been      
stated that five pounds annually could  
be produced  from these ,congo deposits4
 ,the ,colorado company had been selling
 at the  rate of #eh1ejj1jjj a pound4   
,the ,congo company can profitably sell 
the  precious element at #bi1bej1jjj    
less a pound4    ,so1 unless war breaks 
out again to prevent shipments from     
abroad1 the  ,united ,states of ,america
 will produce no more radium for a long 
while  to come4      ,,the ,,radioactive

 ,,disintegration ,,series    ,in order 
to show the decomposition products of   
the two parent  radioactive             
elements--,uranium and ,thorium--and    
their chief  characteristics1 together  
with their relations to one another1 and
 the  time required for the product     
7element7 to be half transformed1 it is 
customary to arrange them in a          
disintegration series4 ,there are  three
 series1 ,uranium ,i1 ,uranium ,y1 and  
,thorium4    ,in the first table given  
below is shown how the series known as  
,uranium ,i is transformed into the     
end-product1 uranium lead4 ,this is     
followed by the ,uranium ,y 7or         
,actinium7 series1 and by the ,thorium  
series2 the end-product of all three    
being a characteristic type of  lead4   
,in the tables ,t is the 8time-period0  
of a product1 or the time  required for 
the product to be half transformed4 ,in 
the column  8,rays0 is shown what type  
of ray1 or rays1 is1 or are1 emitted    
during  the disintegration              

process--,a,alpha rays 7or particles71  
,b,beta  rays 7negative electrons71 and 
,g,gamma rays 7or ,x-rays of very high  
8frequency074    8,in the great majority
 of cases10 says ,sir ,ernest           
,rutherford1 8each  of the radioactive  
elements breaks up in a definite way1   
giving rise  to one ,alpha or ,beta     
particle and to one atom of the new     
product4  ,undoubted evidence1 however1 
has been obtained that in a few cases   
the  atoms break up in two or more      
distinct ways1 giving rise to two or    
more  products characterized by         
different radioactive properties4 ,a    
branching  of the uranium series was    
early demanded in order to account for  
the  origin of ,actinium40    ,in the   
first column is given the 8atomic       
weight0 of each radioactive  element1   
the weight decreasing with 7almost7     
every 8disintegration  period40 ,the    
figures followed by an interrogation    
point are  ,rutherford's1 and indicate  
that slightly different figures are     

given by  other authorities4            
,,uranium ,i ,,series                   
,t 7average       ,rays 7given out in   
,element        ,atomic                 
time-period--half          each         
,weight    transformed7                 
decomposition7                          
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,uranium ,i               #bch    #d4e  
#aji yrs4        ,alpha    ,uranium ,x#a
              #bcd    #bc4h days        
,beta1 ,gamma    ,uranium ,x#b          
#bcd    #a4ae min4              ,beta1  
,gamma    ,uranium ,,ii                 
#bcd    ,about #b  #ajf yrs4    ,alpha  
,ionium                  #bcj    ,about 
#i  #ajd yrs4    ,alpha    ,radium      
#bbf    77 #agjj yrs4          ,alpha   
,niton 7,emanation7       #bbb    #c4he 
days              ,alpha    ,radium ,a  
#bah    #c4je min4 787          ,alpha  
,radium ,b                #bad    #bf4h 
min4 787          ,beta1 ,gamma         
,radium ,c                #bad    #ai4e 

min4 787          ,alpha1 ,beta1 ,gamma 
,radium ,c               #bad    #aj-f  
sec4 787       ,alpha    ,radium ,d     
#baj    77 #af yrs4            ,beta1   
,gamma    ,radium ,e                #baj
    77 #d4he days          ,beta1 ,gamma
    ,radium ,f 7,polonium7     #baj     
77 #acf4e days         ,alpha    ,radium
 ,g 7,end-product   #bjf                
444444444444444        444444444444444  
uranium-lead7                           
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,,uranium ,y 7,,actinium7 ,,series      
,t 7average       ,rays 7given out in   
,element        ,atomic                 
time-period--half          each         
,weight    transformed7                 
decomposition7                          
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,uranium ,y 7branching    #bcd    77    
#bd4f hrs4          ,beta      from     
,uranium ,,ii7             7#b4b days87 
,protoactinium           #bcj    ,about 

#ajd yrs4 787    ,alpha    ,actinium    
#bbf    #bj yrs4                ,beta   
,radio-actinium          #bbf    #ai    
days                ,alpha    ,actinium 
,x              #bbb    77 #aa4b days   
,alpha    ,actinium 7,emanation7    #bah
    #c4ib sec4              ,alpha      
,actinium ,a              #bad    4#jjb 
sec4              ,alpha    ,actinium ,b
              #baj    #cf min4 787      
,beta1 ,gamma    ,actinium ,c           
#baj    #b4af min4 787          ,alpha  
,actinium ,d              #bjf    #d4gf 
min4              ,beta1 ,gamma         
,actinium ,e 7,end-product #bjf         
444444444444444        444444444444444  
actinium-lead7                          
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,,thorium ,,series                      
,t 7average       ,rays 7given out in   
,element        ,atomic                 
time-period--half          each         
,weight    transformed7                 
decomposition7                          

----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,thorium                 #bcb4a  #b4b   
#ajaj yrs4     ,alpha    ,mesothorium ,i
           #bbh    #f4g yrs4            
,beta1 ,gamma    ,mesothorium ,,ii      
#bbh    #f4b hrs4 787           ,beta1  
,gamma    ,radio-thorium           #bbh 
#a4ij yrs4 787          ,alpha          
,thorium ,x               #bbd    #c4fd 
days              ,alpha    ,thorium    
7,emanation7     #bbj    #ed sec4 787   
,alpha    ,thorium ,a               #baf
    4#ad sec4 787           ,alpha      
,thorium ,b               #baf    #aj4f 
hrs4 787          ,beta1 ,gamma         
,thorium ,c               #bab    #fj   
min4 787            ,alpha    ,thorium  
,d               #bjh    #c4b min4 787  
,beta1 ,gamma    ,thorium ,e            
7,end-product  #bjh    444444444444444  
444444444444444      thorium-lead7      
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,transcriber's ,notes      ,punctuation1

 hyphenation1 and spelling were made    
consistent when a  predominant          
preference was found in the original    
book2 otherwise they  were not changed4 
,simple typographical errors were       
corrected2 unbalanced quotation  marks  
were remedied when the change was       
obvious1 and otherwise left  unbalanced4
    ,this book uses terminology that was
 current at the time of publication1    
and reflects the state of science as it 
was understood by the author at  that   
time4