,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,bold text is denoted by equal signs4 ,footnote anchors are denoted by number1 and the footnotes have been placed at the end of the paragraph4 ,some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,,indigo ,,dyed ,,batik ,,from ,,madras ,,dyes and ,,dyeing ,,by ,,charles ,e4 ,,pellew ,formerly ,adjunct ,professor of ,chemistry at ,columbia ,university ,illustration3 7colophon7 ,,new ,,york ,,robert ,m4 ,mc,b,r,i,d,e ,,company #aiah ,,copyright1 #aiac1 ,,by ,mc,b,r,i,d,e1 ,,nast ,,company ,,copyright1 #aiah1 ,,by ,,robert ,m4 ,mc,b,r,i,d,e ,,company ,new and enlarged edition ,published1 ,january1 #aiah ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i--,,introduction #e ,dyes of the ,ancients--,dyes of ,our ,ancestors--,animal1 ,vegetable and ,mineral ,dyes--,outfit for ,practical ,dyeing4 ,,chapter ,,ii--,,modern ,,dyestuffs #dj ,discovery of the ,aniline or ,coal-,tar ,colors--,their ,properties and ,uses--,how ,obtained--,how ,named--,classification of ,coal-,tar ,colors for ,craftsmen4 ,,chapter ,,iii--,,the ,,direct ,,cotton ,,or ,,salt ,,colors #ec ,discovery1 ,properties and ,uses of the ,salt ,colors2 with ,lists of ,selected ,dyestuffs1 and ,dying ,directions for ,cotton and ,linen-- ,fastness to ,light and ,washing--,after-treatment4 ,,chapter ,,iv--,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,color ,,dyeing #ga ,even and ,shaded ,dyeing with the ,primary ,colors--,experiments with ,secondary ,colors--,matching ,shades4 ,,chapter ,v--,,the ,,sulphur ,,colors #he ,discovery--,properties and ,uses of the ,sulphur ,colors--,list of ,selected ,dyestuffs1 and ,dyeing ,directions for ,cotton and ,linen4 ,,chapter ,,vi--,,the ,,indigo ,,or ,,vat ,,colors #ia ,natural and ,synthetic ,indigo--,properties and ,application--,vat ,dyeing1 ,old and ,modern--,dyeing ,directions--,the ,modern ,vat ,colors--,their ,properties and ,uses--,selected ,dyestuffs--,fastness to ,light and ,washing--,dyeing ,directions for ,cotton1 ,linen and ,silk4 ,,chapter ,,vii--,,the ,,basic ,,colors #ajh ,history1 ,properties1 and ,application to ,cotton1 ,wool1 ,silk1 etc4--,disadvantages--,not ,fast to ,light--,dyeing ,directions for ,straw1 ,raffia1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,viii--,,the ,,acid ,,colors #abc ,history1 ,properties1 ,uses1 and ,list of ,selected ,dyestuffs--,dyeing ,directions for ,wool4 ,,chapter ,,ix--,,dyeing ,,feathers #aca ,the ,dye-bath--,the ,dyeing ,method--,the ,finishing ,process--,dry and ,wet ,starching--,dyeing in the ,starch--,black ,dyeing of ,feathers-- ,painting ,feathers4 ,,chapter ,x--,,leather ,,and ,,leather ,,dyeing #ada ,history--,preparation of ,leather--,oil1 ,mineral and ,bark ,tanning-- ,dyeing1 ,staining and ,finishing ,leather4 ,,chapter ,,xi--,,silk ,i #aef ,history1 ,origin and ,varieties of ,silk--,preparing ,silk for ,dyeing-- ,piece ,dyeing--,skein ,dyeing--,dyeing ,wild ,silks4 ,,chapter ,,xii--,,silk ,,ii #afh ,black ,dyeing of ,silk--,coal-,tar ,colors--,logwood--,weighting of ,silk-- ,properties and ,tests for ,weighted ,silk--,dyeing ,silk with ,colors ,fast to ,washing4 ,,chapter ,,xiii--,,imitation ,,and ,,artificial ,,silk #aha ,history1 ,preparation and ,properties of ,mercerized ,cotton--,history1 ,preparation and ,properties of ,artificial ,silk--,precautions to be ,taken in ,dyeing and ,finishing4 ,,chapter ,,xiv--,,tied ,,and ,,dyed ,,work #aib ,as ,used in ,south ,america1 ,india1 ,philippines and ,u4,s4--,variations in ,tying ,process--,how ,dyed--,tied and ,discharged ,work4 ,,chapter ,,xv--,,stencils ,,and ,,stencilling #baa ,japanese ,practice--,u4,s4 ,practice--,knives1 ,brushes1 ,paper1 etc4-- ,colors for ,leather1 ,silk1 and ,cotton--,stencilling with ,aniline ,black ,paste4 ,,chapter ,,xvi--,,resist ,,and ,,discharge ,,stencilling #bbh ,japanese ,practice--,resist ,paste and the ,sulphur ,colors--,discharge ,stencilling with ,bleaching ,powder and ,hydrosulphite4 ,,chapter ,,xvii--,,batik ,,or ,,wax ,,resist #bda ,javanese ,practice--,modern ,practice and ,apparatus--,dyeing of ,batiked ,goods--,use of ,batik ,process on ,cotton1 ,linen1 ,silk1 ,leather1 ,wood1 ,bone1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,xviii--,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,war ,,upon ,,the ,,dyestuff ,,industry #bfj ,rise of the ,german ,dyestuff ,monopoly--,ruin of the ,english ,dyestuff ,industry--,dyestuff ,industry in the ,united ,states--,changed ,conditions ,due to the ,war--,lists of ,best ,dyestuffs4 ,,the ,,illustrations ,,plates ,,in ,,color ,,plate ,i ,indigo dyed batik from ,madras ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,,ii ,japanese towelling1 showing impression of fresh damp leaves #bf ,,iii ,same towelling after immersion in iron spring #cj ,,iv 7a7 ,example of tied and dyed work #baj 7b7 ,example of tied and discharged work ,v ,japanese towelling stencilled in resist and dyed by immersion in iron spring #bcj ,,illustrations ,,in ,,half-,,tone ,,fig4 #a ,shellfish used by the ancients for ,tyrian purple #ab ,sir ,w4 ,h4 ,perkin #db #b ,tied and dyed headdress from an ,inca tomb in ,peru #aib #c ,shikar chundri1 from ,rajputana1 with knots still untied #aif #d ,same chundri untied and shaken out #aih #e ,bagobo headdress from the ,island of ,mindanao #bjj #f ,sample of tied and dyed work1 8tied on itself0 #bjb #g ,sample of tied and dyed work1 8tied in bands0 #bjd #h ,tied and dyed work--,folding the cloth #bjf #i ,starting to tie #bjf #aj ,centre portion tied #bjf #aa ,centre and corners tied #bjh #ab ,dyed1 untied and shaken out #bjh #ac ,japanese stencil knife #bab #ad ,japanese stencil brushes #bab #ae ,japanese stencil1 showing holes punched by hand tool #baf #af ,japanese stencil1 showing use of stops #baf #ag ,japanese stencil1 showing use of sewing instead of stops #baf #ah ,japanese stencils1 showing use of both stops and net #bah #ai ,large and handsome ,japanese stencil1 showing use of net #bbd #bj 8,teapot0 model of tjanting #bdh #ba ,walther glass tjanting #bdh #bb 8,wax pencil0 model of tjanting #bdh #bc ,javanese tjantings #bej #bd ,american modification of ,javanese tjanting #bej ,,diagrams ,,in ,,the ,,letterpress ,primary ,colors #gc ,mixed ,colors #gi ,,preface ,when a new text-book is offered to an innocent and long-suffering public about such an ancient subject as ,dyes and ,dyeing1 it is1 perhaps1 the very least that the author can do1 to explain briefly his reasons for hoping that his particular book may prove of some special usefulness4 ,as a matter of fact this book is intended for the use of craftsmen and others who are trying to dye and stain textiles by hand and on a small scale1 rather than for professional dyers or dyeing chemists who are interested in factory dyeing1 conducted on a large scale4 ,for the latter there is little or no difficulty in getting any information that they desire1 either from the large and carefully written text-books or1 still better1 from the many excellent dyeing manuals and books of directions issued at frequent intervals by the great color houses4 ,but for craftsmen and their like1 the amateur dyers as opposed to the regular professionals1 the required information is not easy to obtain4 ,their leaders and teachers1 as a rule1 profess a scorn of the wonderful discoveries which1 in the last half century1 have revolutionized the art of dyeing more1 perhaps1 than any other branch of handicraft4 ,and the dyeing chemists and writers have devoted themselves almost exclusively to the far larger and more important and more profitable field of commercial or professional dyeing1 and only here and there is one found who has given any special attention to the dyes and processes needed by those working only on a small scale4 ,for my own part1 after teaching the principles and practice of modern dyeing to class after class of chemical students at ,columbia1 my attention was called to this particular branch of the subject by finding1 one spring1 that some friends had started a hand-weaving industry at a settlement house in which ,i was interested1 but had not made any arrangement for a dyehouse at the same time4 ,this was a serious omission because it is almost impossible to buy in the market raw materials for hand-woven rugs1 table-covers1 and the like1 that are dyed just the right shade and1 at the same time1 are fast to both light and washing2 and1 unless this last is guaranteed1 there is little or no excuse for charging the large prices necessary to pay for the extra expense of the hand labor4 ,wishing1 therefore1 to help out my friends1 ,i offered to assist as far as possible in this part of the work4 ,that summer was spent on the ,st4 ,lawrence1 where it was possible to study some of the textile work of the ,french habitants whose dyeing processes1 designs1 and looms had descended from mother to daughter since the old ,colonial days2 and in the autumn ,i fitted up a little dyehouse and started with a small but intelligent class of neighbors who were working at the looms4 ,of course1 it was foolish to attempt to teach them the scientific chemical formul used by my students uptown4 ,the processes must be short and simple--must give the desired shades on cotton1 linen1 wool1 and silk in the course of an hour or an hour and a half at the outside1 counting from the time when the class was called to order4 ,and the colors must be absolutely fast to light1 and1 wherever possible1 to washing also4 ,the work was very interesting and proved successful enough1 at least as far as the dyeing went4 ,after a few months some visiting reporter1 in an article on ,greenwich ,house and its industries1 mentioned the dyeing1 in a magazine1 and stated that the colors resulting were not only beautiful but fast4 ,immediately ,i was bombarded with letters from all over the country1 begging for information about permanent dyestuffs to be used for hand-woven textiles4 ,requests came from friends and acquaintances to help them in various side branches of the subject1 such as feather dyeing1 leather dyeing and staining1 stencilling1 tied and dyed work1 and1 above all1 ,batik4 ,and it soon became a source of much interest to look up some old process of dyeing1 originating perhaps in the ,east1 perhaps among the ancient ,egyptians1 and to work it out with the best modern dyestuffs4 ,finally1 my correspondence grew so burdensome that ,i arranged with the well-known ,new ,york magazine1 ,the ,craftsman1 for a series of articles upon 8,modern ,dyestuffs and ,dyeing ,processes for the ,use of ,craftsmen02 and from these articles the present book is a natural result4 ,it is hoped that it will prove useful1 not only for individuals who are trying1 under considerable difficulties1 to get satisfactory results1 by means of long-abandoned processes1 upon textile materials of many sorts and kinds1 but also for teachers of art in our public as well as private schools4 ,much attention is being given now to training the hands of children in various drawing and decorating and weaving processes4 ,but the modern dyestuffs give a much greater opportunity to train their eyes to a sense of color and to its beauties1 as well as giving them an introduction into an art which can be used at home for most useful as well as beautiful purposes4 ,my hearty thanks are due to many friends1 notably1 to ,mr4 ,philip ,clarkson1 head chemist of ,h4 ,a4 ,metz ,co41 to ,dr4 ,ludwig1 of the ,cassella ,color ,co41 and to many other expert dyeing chemists1 who have most kindly helped me with advice and information about many widely varying branches of the subject4 ,also to many of my craftsman friends1 notably ,mrs4 ,c4 ,l4 ,banks1 of ,bridgeport1 ,conn41 and ,mrs4 ,charlotte ,busck1 of this city1 who have been of the greatest assistance in working out many of the problems involved in stencilling and ,batik2 and to ,miss ,mary ,grey1 of ,hackettstown1 ,n4 ,j41 who has kindly allowed me to insert an illustration of some of her interesting and well-designed tied work 7,fig4 #g74 ,it is my earnest hope that the information contained in this book may encourage and assist other craftsmen throughout the country to come up to the high standard of these skilled textile workers4 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,there has been so much said and written about the beauty and value of the old-fashioned dyestuffs and dyeing processes and their superiority to the modern coloring matters1 that many well-meaning people of artistic tastes have never ceased to deplore the discovery and introduction of the so-called aniline or coal-tar dyes1 and to regard them as a serious detriment to the art of dyeing4 ,some1 indeed1 have gone so far as to decry the discoveries not only of the last fifty years1 but also of the last nineteen or twenty centuries4 ,these quote with approval the great ,john ,ruskin1 founder and original leader of the whole ,arts and ,crafts movement in ,england1 if not in the world1 as having said1 8,there has been nothing discovered of the slightest interest in the tinctorial art0 7the art of dyeing7 8since the days of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans40 ,to suppose for an instant that this important and highly specialized art has not advanced during nearly two thousand years is1 on the face of it1 absurd4 ,a very little knowledge of dyestuffs forces recognition of the fact that many of the very best1 fastest1 and most beautiful of the dyes of our ancestors--such as cochineal1 with which they dyed practically all of their fast pinks and scarlets2 logwood1 with which silk as well as wool was1 and is still dyed black2 fustic1 which was used for fast yellows on wool and cotton1 and several others--were natives of ,america1 and therefore only known to the world at large since the seventeenth century4 ,indeed1 as we shall see1 the art of dyeing1 based as it is on chemical processes1 discovered one by one1 but never properly explained or understood until the last sixty or seventy years1 is1 perhaps1 the one art above all others in which not only the ancient world1 but the world of comparatively a few years ago1 was very distinctly inferior to that of the present day4 ,in drawing1 sculpture1 painting1 architecture1 ceramics1 wood-carving1 lacemaking1 metal working1 and almost every other art that can be mentioned1 the craftsman of the ,middle ,ages1 if not indeed of ancient ,rome or ,greece1 could still hold his place against modern competitors4 ,even in such a modern art as book printing1 the lover of books will claim1 with considerable reason1 that no more beautiful or more nearly perfect specimen of the printer's art has ever been produced than the ,gutenberg ,bible1 the first product of the ,european printing press4 ,the art of dyeing1 however1 has been changing and developing so much from century to century1 that1 even before the wonderful discoveries of the last fifty years1 the effects produced by any one generation of dyers would have been totally impossible for their ancestors of a few generations before them4 ,it would seem hardly worth while to dwell further upon this subject1 were not the idea so fixed in the minds of craftsmen in general that to get permanent and artistic effects in dyeing we must go back to the colors of our ancestors1 if not to those of the ancient world4 ,to this day we hear of new industries being started in the lines of hand-made tapestries1 hand-woven linens1 homespun cloths1 and the like1 where1 as a great inducement to prospective purchasers1 the goods are loudly proclaimed as dyed with 8pure vegetable colors02 and the first question commonly asked about a pretty piece of dyed work is1 8,are you sure that it is fast8 ,did you use the vegetable dyes80 ,as a result of this ignoring and scorning of the wonderful results of modern science in its application to this most important industry1 the work of textile craftsmen all over the world is far behind the times1 and comparatively far behind other lines of craftwork4 ,nobody expects a modern sculptor to do his carving with the bronze tools used by the old ,athenians2 nor do we consider that the present day worker in metals should refrain from using the modern gas furnace1 or limit his products to the few metals and alloys known in the ,middle ,ages1 ignoring those which modern chemistry has developed4 ,and yet1 all over the world1 craftsmen are still pottering with long since obsolete dyestuffs and obscure and antiquated formul1 instead of spending their energies in getting1 with the minimum expenditure of time and trouble1 results of a quality never dreamed of by the most skilful dyers of half a century ago4 ,as a matter of fact1 so far from ,mr4 ,ruskin's estimate of the value of ancient dyes being correct1 it is actually no more than fair to say that hardly a single dyeing process1 known and used more than fifty years ago1 is of the slightest practical importance now to any one4 ,,dyes ,,of ,,the ,,ancients ,so far as we can tell1 the art of dyeing is an extremely ancient one4 ,it seems to have developed in every country and to have been practised by every race of mankind1 as soon as that race ceased to rely exclusively upon the skins of fur-bearing animals for clothing and coverings4 ,wherever we find people using woven goods1 whether vegetable1 like cotton or linen1 or animal1 like wool or silk--or wherever1 as in the case of the ,north ,american ,indians1 they have learned the art of dressing skins so as to make them soft1 pliable1 and with a comparatively smooth surface1 we find at least the rudiments of the process of dyeing1 in the staining of these materials to add to their beauty and interest4 ,vegetable ,dyes4--,the earliest dyes were probably of vegetable origin1 discovered by accidentally staining garments with juices of fruits or plants4 ,thus1 for instance1 in the ,bible we read of 8garments dyed in the blood of grapes02 and we can all call to mind fruits in common use--blackberries1 huckleberries1 peaches1 and the like1 whose juice could be used1 if nothing better presented itself1 to dye or stain light-colored fabrics4 ,in most cases1 as in those just mentioned1 the colors would be fugitive1 and after a short time become dull and uninteresting4 ,but in the process of time vegetable dyes were discovered1 in one part and another of the world1 which1 in the hands of those who knew how to work with them1 gave colors both fast and beautiful4 ,and thus grew and developed the art of the professional dyer4 ,for instance1 in many widely separated countries1 such as ,india1 ,java1 ,south and ,central ,america1 plants are found1 known as indigoferae1 whose juices1 yellow when fresh1 rapidly turn blue when exposed to the air4 ,these juices impart a rich and permanent blue stain to objects moistened with them while they are still yellow2 and this blue is the coloring matter known as indigo4 ,the plants bearing it have been cultivated for hundreds1 if not1 indeed1 thousands of years1 and used for dyeing4 ,garments and blankets found in the so-called ,inca graves in ,peru and ,chili1 dating from long before the ,spanish conquest1 as well as the oldest specimens of ,hindoo workmanship1 and even some of the textiles found in the tombs of ,egypt1 all show examples of this same dyestuff4 ,it was so valuable that1 in small quantities and at vast expense1 it was imported by the ,romans from ,india1 as is shown by its ,latin name1 ,indicum 7,indian71 from which its present name1 indigo1 is directly derived4 ,but1 curiously enough1 exactly the same dyestuff1 but in a very impure form1 and derived from an entirely different plant1 the isatis tinctoria1 commonly known as woad1 has been discovered and used in ,western ,europe from time immemorial4 ,and when ,julius ,csar1 nearly two thousand years ago1 led a ,roman army for the first time across the channel into ,england1 he found the native ,britons adorning themselves by smearing their bodies with a dirty blue dyestuff obtained from this source4 ,so1 little by little1 the knowledge of these natural dyestuffs and their application grew and expanded4 ,but as a matter of fact1 so far at least as can be gathered from the old writers1 those known and used by the ancient ,greeks and ,romans were few in number and of comparatively little interest4 ,for blues they were obliged to use the inferior color derived1 as above mentioned1 from the native woad1 excepting when1 for some special purposes1 a little indigo was imported from the ,east at enormous expense4 ,their principal yellow dyestuff was saffron1 which is derived from the flowers of the common yellow crocus4 ,this gives pleasant1 warm shades of golden yellow1 not fast1 however1 to either light or washing4 ,this same saffron1 though long since entirely abandoned as a dyestuff1 is still used in small quantities for staining candy and foodstuffs1 and occasionally for medicinal purposes4 ,the ancients are believed to have discovered the dyeing properties of the roots of madder--rubia tinctorum--7the dyer's root71 and to have used it in small quantities for producing purple and brown and1 possibly1 even red shades1 on cotton and wool4 ,whether1 however1 the art of dyeing the brilliant crimson and scarlet shades known as ,turkey red was ever worked out before the ,middle ,ages1 is extremely doubtful4 ,animal ,dyes4--,unquestionably the best red dyes known to the people of those early times were of animal origin1 and were used for various shades of red and of purple4 ,kermes4--,one of these1 called kermes1 is very closely related to the more important and1 up to a few years ago1 the very generally used1 cochineal1 and to the lac dye4 ,these three dyestuffs--kermes1 cochineal1 and lac--come to the market in the form of little dark colored grains1 which1 when ground up with hot water1 give a bright red solution called carmine1 which contains a considerable amount of a coloring known as carminic acid4 ,when wool or silk that has been previously mordanted--that is1 impregnated with chemical agents2 in this case salts of tin1 aluminium1 iron1 or copper--is boiled in one of these solutions1 it becomes scarlet1 crimson1 purple1 or claret color1 according to the mordant employed4 ,from the appearance and form1 as they come to market1 of these dyestuffs1 the shades thus derived are commonly known as the 8grain colors40 ,when these granules are soaked for some time in warm water they swell1 and their true character becomes apparent4 ,they consist of the dried bodies of small insects1 known as 8cocci0 7berries71 which are carefully cultivated on particular kinds of trees or shrubs and when full grown are brushed off and dried for market4 ,they are very small--the cochineal grains1 which are the most important1 running about #gj1jjj to the pound4 ,kermes1 which was the only one of the three known to the old ,greeks and ,romans1 consists of the dried bodies of the 8coccus ilicis10 a variety of the insect which lives on a species of oak1 and which1 it is said1 is still occasionally used in ,southern ,europe1 and in ,morocco1 for dyeing leather and wool4 ,tyrian ,purple4--,the most highly prized ancient dyestuff1 and one concerning which much interest has always been felt1 was the so-called 8,tyrian purple40 ,this was obtained from the juices of certain species of snails found in the waters of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and1 indeed1 in the ocean waters of many other warm climates4 ,two species of this class--the murex ,brandaris and the murex trunculus--were used extensively by the ancients1 and great mounds of their shells1 such for instance as the so-called ,monte ,testaccio at ,tarentum1 are still found along the shores at places famous1 in old days1 for their dyeing establishments4 ,other shellfish of the same general type1 known as purpura lapillus1 are found quite abundantly1 not only in the ,mediterranean1 but also on our own coast and along the shores of ,central and ,south ,america4 ,they have been used by the natives in ,nicaragua and elsewhere1 from time immemorial1 for obtaining a similar color4 ,illustration3 ,purpura lapillus ,murex trunculus ,murex ,brandaris ,,fig4 #a--,,shellfish ,,used ,,by ,,the ,,ancients ,,for ,,tyrian ,,purple ,these shellfish were so much sought after in the old days that1 by the time of the early ,middle ,ages1 they were almost exterminated1 and the dye disappeared from commerce entirely4 ,but1 long before that1 in the early days of the ,roman ,empire1 the coloring matter was so expensive that fabulous sums were paid for cloth or yarns dyed with it1 and its use was practically confined to the imperial family4 ,in fact one of the imperial titles in the ,eastern empire--purpureogenitus1 8born to the purple0--was due to this fact4 ,some interesting information upon the value set on this dyestuff by the ancients is afforded by the so-called ,edict of ,diocletian1 fragments of which1 engraved on stone tablets1 have been found in different parts of the old ,roman ,empire1 ranging from ,egypt to ,asia ,minor4 ,by this edict1 issued in ,a4,d4 #cja1 the emperor ,diocletian attempted to fix the market price of the principal articles of commerce1 for the ,eastern empire4 ,according to this1 the price of wool1 heavily dyed with this color1 was worth about #cej a pound1 in gold4 ,the dyestuff1 as we learn from the description of the process by ancient writers1 was obtained from a whitish or yellowish liquid found1 two or three drops at a time1 in a particular vein in the body of these animals4 ,this juice1 when exposed to air and especially to sunshine1 forms the purple or violet color1 much in the some manner that the blue color of indigo is formed from the yellow juice of the indigo plant4 ,the shellfish in question1 having for many centuries been left undisturbed1 are now quite common in the waters of the ,mediterranean1 and are occasionally to be found in the poorer quarters of ,venice and other ,italian seaports1 exposed for sale as food4 ,a year or two ago a ,german color chemist1 famous for his discovery of the brilliant and extremely permanent reddish violet dyestuff1 known as ,thio ,indigo red ,b41 made a careful investigation to see whether1 by any chance1 this color of his might happen to be the same as the famous old ,tyrian purple4 ,he managed to secure some twelve thousand specimens of murex ,brandaris1 and1 with an immense amount of labor1 obtained from these twelve thousand specimens about twenty-one grains of pure dyestuff4 ,this he carefully analyzed and experimented with1 until finally he was able to prove that1 while it was not identical with his own ,thio ,indigo red dyestuff--which1 as the name shows1 is a compound of indigo and sulphur--the ,tyrian purple was a similar compound of the same indigo dyestuff1 with the comparatively rare acid element1 bromine4 ,in fact it is what the chemists would call a brom-indigo2 and this same famous chemist1 ,dr4 ,friedlaender1 of ,biebrich on the ,rhine1 after discovering its composition1 amused himself by manufacturing some of it artificially2 and1 with the artificial reproduction of the ancient ,tyrian purple1 he dyed some skeins of silk1 as an illustration to his article detailing his discovery4 ,now1 if there were any truth in the theory of the superlative value and beauty of these ancient dyestuffs1 it is evident that this rediscovery of the true and genuine ,tyrian purple would have been a matter of great practical importance4 ,on the assumption that one pound of dyestuff would color at least twenty pounds of wool1 this would put the price of the dye itself1 in ,diocletian's day1 at a pretty high figure4 ,it can now be manufactured1 at a profit1 for not over one one-thousandth of what it cost in those days1 not allowing1 either1 for the difference in value of money between then and now4 ,and yet this famous dye1 which was so highly esteemed and of which so much has been written1 is so inferior in color and tone to several of the modern dyestuffs that it probably would not pay to put it on the market4 ,dr4 ,friedlaender's samples were1 indeed1 fast to both light and washing1 but their color showed dull and1 to modern eyes1 distinctly uninteresting shades of violet4 ,and there are already on the market several violet1 red and blue dyes of the same general class--the indigo or vat dyes--which are quite as fast to light and washing1 and far superior in beauty and brilliancy of shade4 ,it is only proper1 however1 to state that ,dr4 ,friedlaender's investigation did not completely clear up the subject1 though there is no question but that he really discovered the true ,tyrian purple2 and the color of the specimens dyed and exhibited by him corresponded very closely to some still surviving from antiquity4 ,among the fine collections of textiles from the ,egyptian tombs that are in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art in ,new ,york ,city1 are some excellent examples of ,tyrian purple4 ,these are what the ,greeks used to call 8di-bapha10 or double dyed--i4e41 dyed very deep1 full shades of dark purple4 ,while a wonderful example of the lighter1 violet1 shades of the same dye can be seen in a famous manuscript1 known as 8,the ,golden ,gospels10 now in ,mr4 ,j4 ,pierpont ,morgan's collection in the same city1 but which was given about #aebj1 by ,pope ,leo ,x to ,king ,henry ,,viii4 ,this was written1 in golden characters1 upon vellum dyed with ,tyrian purple1 and the shades of the latter correspond quite closely with the violet of the artificial brom-indigo compound4 ,on the other hand there is evidence to show that the ancients were also able to obtain1 with the same ,tyrian purple dye1 perhaps from the shellfish purpura lapillus1 fast and brilliant shades of scarlet1 as well as these rather dull tones of violet and purple4 ,in the days of the ,roman ,empire1 as above mentioned1 the use of 8purple0 garments was denied to all but the imperial family2 but later1 after the rise of the ,christian ,church1 the ecclesiastics gained sufficient power to obtain this privilege for themselves4 ,and to this day the cardinals of the ,roman ,catholic ,church are called 8porporati0 on account of the 8purple0 or1 as we would say1 scarlet1 color of their characteristic robes4 ,so1 whenever we see the red robes of a high dignitary of the church we are probably looking at one of the tints of the real old ,tyrian purple1 although the art of actually producing it has long since been lost2 and1 if rediscovered1 would probably be of as little practical value as ,dr4 ,friedlaender's remarkable investigation4 ,,the ,,dyes ,,of ,,our ,,ancestors ,between the days of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 and the discovery of the first aniline dye in #ahef1 many and important additions were made to the list of available dyestuffs1 some of which have continued in use1 for special purposes1 up to the present day4 ,indian ,dyes4--,the opening of trade to the ,far ,east1 due to the discovery of the sea route round the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 brought to ,europe the free use of some of the ,indian dyestuffs4 ,indigo1 for instance1 was introduced for the first time in considerable quantities1 and1 after much opposition1 completely took the place of the much inferior native dyestuff1 woad4 ,for yellow1 the old saffron dye was superseded by the more powerful1 but still rather fugitive1 turmeric1 or ,indian saffron4 ,this came from the root of the curcuma tinctoria1 a plant freely grown to this day in both ,india and ,china4 ,the safflower was also imported from ,india2 this is a kind of thistle1 carthamus tinctorum1 the dried heads of flowers of which were largely used for dyeing pretty shades of pink upon cotton1 directly--that is1 without any mordanting process4 ,this color1 too1 is comparatively fugitive to light1 and has almost disappeared from sight4 ,of more importance were the so-called red woods1 which came partly from ,india and partly from the east and west coasts of ,africa2 and of which the most important are the sandal wood1 bar wood1 and cam wood4 ,the wood of each of these trees probably contains the same coloring matter4 ,the color is not very easy to extract1 but when used with mordants of chromium1 aluminium1 or tin salts1 it dyes wool various shades of red and reddish-brown4 ,these colors are very fast to milling--in other words to the action of alkalies when the wool is finished in the manufacture of broadcloth2 but they are not particularly fast to light1 and for this reason1 as well as because of their greater expense1 they have been for the most part abandoned4 ,from ,india1 too1 were introduced the well-known brown dyes known as cutch 7catechu7 and gambier4 ,these come to the market in the form of dark colored pastes1 formed by evaporating infusions of leaves1 seed pods1 nuts1 and sometimes the wood of various species of acacia and areca trees4 ,they contain large amounts of a peculiar variety of the substance known as tannin or tannic acid1 which is widely distributed among many plants1 and which is very useful in dyeing1 as will be described later4 ,the brown coloring matter has been isolated1 and is called catechin4 ,both cutch and gambier will dye cotton and wool rich shades of brown1 which are quite fast to light when after-treated with copper or chromium salts4 ,dyes from the ,new ,world4--,the discovery of ,america1 and the colonizing and opening to trade of ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies1 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 still further enlarged the field for dyers4 ,cochineal4--,one of the first dyes introduced from there was cochineal1 a 8grain color10 similar to kermes1 already described1 consisting of the dried bodies of an insect known as coccus cacti1 because it lives upon certain kind of cactus which are native to ,mexico and ,central ,america4 ,this dyestuff was largely used for dyeing wool and silk goods1 and produced fairly fast shades of crimson or of scarlet1 according to the mordant employed4 ,but it has been replaced almost entirely now by the various acid dyes1 to be described later1 which are cheaper1 are much easier to apply1 and are of equal and1 in many cases1 of much greater1 fastness to light4 ,one of the few cases where cochineal is still used on a large scale is in ,england1 where the scarlet coats of the ,british regulars are dyed with this color1 on a tin mordant4 ,it is believed1 however1 that this is not due to any real or fancied superiority of the old dye over many of the modern colors1 but simply to the terms of an old 8perpetual0 contract1 which1 a hundred and fifty years or more ago1 gave the privilege of dyeing the ,english 8redcoats0 to one particular firm and their successors1 on condition that they use this dye and none other4 ,although both dyers and government would profit by the use of modern dyes1 the terms of the old contract are still rigidly adhered to for fear of losing the monopoly4 ,lac ,dye4--,the similar dyestuff called lac dye1 which had been known and used in ,india for hundreds of years1 was introduced into ,europe towards the end of the eighteenth century4 ,it also is the body of a small insect1 the coccus laccae1 which lives on the twigs of the banyan tree1 and other varieties of fig trees4 ,when these twigs are broken off and dried to kill the insect1 there is found present on them1 along with the coloring matter1 a large amount of a peculiar resinous or gummy substance1 which1 when extracted and purified1 is known and widely used1 as 8shellac40 ,lac dye was used in practically the same way as cochineal1 and produced1 upon wool1 scarlet1 orange1 and crimson shades1 which were faster and more solid1 but not as brilliant1 as the cochineal4 ,it is now used but rarely1 even in the ,east1 having been largely superseded1 there1 by brilliant but1 unfortunately1 in many cases1 cheap and worthless modern dyestuffs4 ,fustic4--,from ,america1 also1 came the excellent yellow dyestuff1 8fustic10 yielded by the tree commonly called yellow wood1 ,cuba wood1 etc4 ,its true botanical name1 however1 is chlorophora tinctoria1 and it was largely used for dyeing1 either directly in the form of chips1 or as a solid or liquid extract made from the wood4 ,it was principally used with mordants of aluminium or tin salts1 for dyeing wool bright1 fast shades of yellow1 or1 with the aid of bichromate of potash as a mordant1 for obtaining mixed shades1 in conjunction with indigo1 cutch1 madder1 and logwood4 ,it has been almost entirely replaced now by fast modern dyestuffs4 ,logwood4--,the most important of all these dyestuffs1 and the only one still used on a large scale1 is logwood1 a dye extracted from the wood of quite a large tree1 the haematoxylon ,campechianum 7the 8blood-red wood from ,campeachy071 which grows freely in the ,west ,indies and ,central ,american states4 ,it was discovered and used by the ,spaniards early in the sixteenth century1 and in ,queen ,elizabeth's reign was introduced into ,england1 much against the wishes of the older school of dyers who furiously denounced it as producing fugitive colors1 and had its use prohibited by ,act of ,parliament4 ,it was over a hundred years before the real value of the dyestuff was appreciated1 and this law was repealed4 ,the operation of extracting the coloring matter from the wood itself1 of which it forms only some three per cent4 by weight1 is a troublesome and delicate one4 ,the logs are chipped or rasped into fine pieces1 then moistened and piled in heaps and the color developed by a process of fermentation4 ,accordingly1 extracts of logwood have been put on the market by various large firms1 especially of late years1 and1 while the use of the wood itself by dyers has for the most part been abandoned1 these extracts are widely used for dyeing blacks upon silk1 in spite of there now being many excellent acid blacks4 ,the dyeing process1 too1 is rather complicated1 for the goods must be carefully mordanted before dyeing1 with salts of iron1 chromium1 or tin4 ,for this reason wool is rarely dyed with logwood4 ,it is1 however1 still used for silk dyeing1 partly because it gives very full1 deep1 permanent shades of black1 but principally because1 by using one mordant after another before dyeing1 it is possible to increase enormously the weight of the dyed silk1 at very moderate expense4 ,turkey ,red4--,the use of madder which1 as before mentioned1 was probably known to the ancients1 was greatly developed during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 owing to the introduction from the near ,east of the so-called ,turkey red process for obtaining1 upon cotton and wool1 very fast and very brilliant shades of scarlet4 ,the process took some three months1 and consisted of an elaborate series of mordanting operations1 before the dyeing proper began4 ,the goods were first soaked in a bath of some fatty material1 such as milk or1 later1 rancid olive oil1 and then dried carefully4 ,after this they were soaked in a bath of alum and then in limewater1 or a chalk bath--and these operations were repeated over and over1 with various manipulations in between4 ,finally1 the mordanted material was dyed by boiling it in a bath containing the finely-ground madder root1 and then 8brightened0 by washing out1 in a boiling soap bath1 all the loose color and the unfixed mordant4 ,this process was repeated until the proper shade was reached4 ,during the early part of the nineteenth century1 various extracts of madder were made1 by treating the ground root with strong sulphuric acid and other agents1 which destroyed the woody tissues and other inert matter1 without injuring the coloring matter4 ,the dyeing process also was greatly simplified and shortened4 ,later the real active principles of the madder root were investigated1 and found to be two crystalline bodies named alizarine and purpurine1 respectively4 ,and finally1 several years after aniline dyestuffs had been discovered and manufactured1 two ,german chemists1 ,graebe and ,liebermann1 discovered a method for making these very identical substances out of coal tar4 ,since that time the cultivation and use of madder has disappeared almost entirely4 ,but real ,turkey red is manufactured to-day1 and in very large quantities--and1 though freely imitated by inferior products1 the modern ,turkey red is just as fast to light and to washing as it ever was in the past1 and possesses a brilliance and a lustre which never could have been obtained formerly4 ,the process1 however1 is completed now in hours1 not days1 and instead of yielding a few shades of red and purple1 the alizarine colors have been added to until they cover a large range of blues1 purples1 reds1 oranges1 yellows1 and browns1 all of them as fast as the original ,eastern products1 and all of them made from coal tar4 ,the dyes already mentioned were the ones which1 after hundreds of years of experiment1 proved to be of distinct value4 ,many of them were expensive in themselves and1 in almost every case1 the process of dyeing with them was a quite complicated one1 worked out by generations of practical dyers1 and passed down from father to son as a precious trade secret4 ,besides these there were1 in almost every community1 certain special formul and recipes for obtaining1 by comparatively simple methods1 dyes of varying degrees of value from more or less common vegetable materials4 ,some of these are occasionally met with to this day4 ,thus1 in the province of ,quebec1 well down on the ,st4 ,lawrence1 the ,french ,canadian women still dye their homespun worsteds an orange shade of yellow1 of very moderate fastness to light1 by boiling them with the skins of the yellow or brown onions4 ,and they get a pretty1 but fugitive1 shade of golden yellow by using the dried flowers of the goldenrod4 ,some recipes from the mountain districts of ,north ,carolina1 where the sheep are raised and sheared1 and the wool carded1 spun1 dyed1 and woven into homespun1 are unique1 and wool dyed with them shows extremely good color4 ,thus1 for green1 we are told to 8,git blackjack or black oak bark1 and bile it right good1 and put in a li'l piece of alum4 ,this makes the pur'tiest green1 mighty nigh1 that ever was40 ,and for purple and black the instructions are to 8git maple bark and bile it4 ,throw in a grain of copperas and put in your wool4 ,bile it just so long if you want purple1 and longer if you want black4 ,the longer you bile it the darker it gits40 ,recipes like these can be picked up in country districts all over the land to this day1 and where no other coloring agents can be obtained1 they may still be of some use4 ,they are to be compared1 however1 to the somewhat similar recipes of the herb or 8yarb0 doctor1 now almost extinct1 who concocted various brews and teas and messes from roots and leaves1 and administered them as valuable remedies4 ,useful these brews undoubtedly were in their day1 when it was impossible to get better medicines at any price1 and the available drugs1 even in large cities1 were few and costly and but little understood4 ,but who of us would now prefer to treat a serious illness with herb tea when within reach of even a third-class drug store8 ,and so to-day1 when modern dyestuffs1 even if not of the very best varieties1 can be bought in packages at the nearest grocery or druggist1 who has time to waste upon the laborious processes and messy1 uncertain formul of former and unscientific ages8 ,,mineral ,,dyes ,tribes and nations in different parts of the world seem1 at a comparatively early date1 to have found out the art of coloring and staining textiles with mineral compounds4 ,iron springs1 containing iron salts in solution1 are found in many countries2 and such springs are always noteworthy from the taste of the waters1 and the color of the sediments left when the water stands exposed to the air4 ,therefore discovery of the fact that those waters would impart a permanent and quite pleasing orange or reddish-brown color to textiles was perfectly natural4 ,iron ,buff4--,accordingly1 in different parts of the world1 people learned to dip cloths in these springs and then expose them to the air1 thus dyeing them this iron rust color1 commonly called by dyers 8iron buff40 ,when iron became a common metal1 it was found that any soluble salt of iron would act as a dyeing solution1 just as well as a natural iron spring2 and hence we find use made1 in widely separated countries1 of iron salts for dyeing4 ,this iron buff is used to this day1 though of course it has lost the importance it had in the past4 ,the red sails of the fishermen in the ,mediterranean show this color2 and it is a useful and interesting dye for weavers of hand-made rugs1 curtains1 and the like1 because of its pleasing tone and great permanence4 ,on the other hand1 it is very likely to rub2 and it fills the fibre of the cloth with mineral matter1 thereby making the material stiff and hard to sew or cut4 ,preparation4--,our colonial ancestors made this color cheaply enough4 ,they carefully saved all the scraps of iron and steel that they could find--old horseshoes1 broken knife blades1 etc41 etc4--and placed them in a barrel half filled with vinegar and water4 ,little by little the iron dissolved in the acid and1 when it was strong enough1 the housewife would soak her homespun cloth1 or other material1 in the solution1 warming and stirring it1 and making it absorb as much of the liquor as possible4 ,then she would take it out1 wring it thoroughly1 rinse it slightly1 and dip it for a minute or two in another barrel half filled with a water extract of wood ashes4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,japanese ,,towelling1 ,,showing ,,impression ,,of ,,fresh ,,damp ,,leaves ,after removing from the solution and wringing again1 the goods were shaken out and exposed to the air for some minutes1 during which time the color would develop--in other words1 would make its final change to yellow or orange1 or even to brownish-red1 according to the amount of iron absorbed by the fibre4 ,the process1 nowadays1 is much the same1 excepting that1 for the first or iron bath1 it is cheaper and easier to use a solution of the green crystalline iron salt1 known as copperas1 or as ferrous 7iron7 sulphate4 ,this can be obtained at1 or through1 any drug store at a very low price1 as it is not necessary to buy a chemically pure product4 ,the ordinary commercial salt is as pure as the work requires2 this dissolves quite readily in warm water4 ,the amount of copperas to be used1 to dye a particular lot of material a particular shade1 can only be determined by experience and experiment4 ,it is always easy to build up a color1 i4e41 to deepen its shade if it is too light1 by dipping the fabric over again in the same dye-bath4 ,indeed there is a general rule to be observed in dyeing all colors like this iron buff or the manganese brown--as well as the sulphur and indigo colors1 which will be described later--that are developed1 or fixed1 by exposure to the air4 ,whenever dark shades of these colors are desired1 they should be produced by successive dippings in weak baths1 rather than by one or two dippings in strong baths4 ,this avoids rubbing1 as far as possible1 and lessens the injury to the cloth fibre4 ,in general1 it is best to start with a dye-bath containing some three or four tablespoonfuls of copperas to one gallon of hot water4 ,for the second1 or fixing1 bath--that is1 the alkali bath--it is now customary to use a solution of soda instead of the extract made from wood ashes4 ,either cooking soda 7bicarbonate of soda7 or the stronger washing soda or soda crystals1 known to the chemist as carbonate of soda1 will be satisfactory1 and instead of soda the corresponding potash salts may be used1 though these are usually more expensive4 ,it is possible1 too1 to use a bath of the so-called caustic soda1 or caustic potash1 known to the chemist as hydroxide of soda and hydroxide of potash4 ,but these1 as the name implies1 must be handled with care because1 when strong1 they are likely to burn the hands and clothes4 ,careful analyses of dyed mummy cloths show that the ancient ,egyptians were accustomed to use for their second or fixing bath1 a solution of slaked lime1 or lime water4 ,khaki4--,by mixing in the first bath of copperas or other iron salt an equal quantity of chrome alum1 and then fixing and developing as above1 a certain amount of greenish chromium oxide is deposited in the fibre along with the oxide of iron4 ,this gives rise to the shade known as 8khaki40 ,sometimes shaded a little with manganese brown1 this was the regular dye for the army uniforms1 until the recent introduction of the extremely fast and very satisfactory vat dyes4 ,uses4--,iron buff is chiefly used for cotton1 linen1 and other vegetable fabrics2 on them it gives pleasant1 warm shades of orange and reddish-brown4 ,but on wool1 and especially on silk1 it is not so satisfactory1 owing to its tendency to roughen and injure the fibre4 ,indeed1 in the case of silk1 it is likely to greatly diminish1 or even to destroy1 the lustre4 ,on cotton and linen1 however1 it has great fastness to light and to washing4 ,indeed1 every one who has tried to get rust stains out of a garment or a piece of table linen knows how hard a matter it is to get rid of the color4 ,another important reason for using this dye is that the coloring agents are very cheap1 and are easily obtained in any quantities4 ,it has1 however1 some serious disadvantages1 one of which is that the color1 especially in dark shades1 is very liable to rub4 ,this can best be obviated by building up the shades with successive dippings2 and by thoroughly washing the finished goods in a hot soap bath4 ,the dyed goods are pretty certain to be a little stiff1 and therefore hard to sew or cut1 owing to the fact that the final color is composed of iron rust4 ,when vegetable fibres are filled with a mineral matter they are naturally stiffer and harder than they were originally4 ,then there is the final objection on the part of professional dyers to this color1 as well as to all the other developed colors1 i4e41 those colors fixed by exposure to the air4 ,it is not easy to get a smooth1 even color with them1 and it is very difficult to dye to shade4 ,for handicraft work1 where these two points are of minor importance as compared with the beauty of the color1 this objection is not so serious1 but where it is necessary to dye large amounts of yarn or cloth to a definite shade with this1 or similar1 dyes1 it is1 as a rule1 far easier to use a dyestuff which does not materially change its shade after the goods leave the dye-bath4 ,iron ,grey4--,soon after the discovery1 in different localities1 of the iron buff color1 it was discovered that by the action of various vegetable extracts upon the iron salts1 dark grey stains could be produced which1 under certain conditions1 would be fairly fast to light and washing4 ,this color was1 later1 found to be due to the combination with iron of the peculiar vegetable acid called tannic acid or tannin4 ,this is found in small quantities in the juices of twigs and leaves of many varieties of plants1 and1 until the introduction of the modern dyestuffs1 this process offered the chief method of obtaining grey or black shades upon cotton4 ,at present it is rarely1 if ever1 used for that purpose1 but the compound is still the basis of most of the writing inks on the market4 ,to make this color1 the cloth is soaked for some time in a solution of an iron salt--nitrate of iron1 formed by boiling a solution of copperas for a minute or two with a few drops of nitric acid1 is preferable to the untreated copperas--and then1 after being wrung and slightly rinsed1 it is plunged into a bath containing tannic acid4 ,this can be made by dissolving a few tablespoonfuls of the dry tannic acid in some water1 or by making a hot infusion of the leaves1 twigs1 or bark of any plant or tree containing it4 ,tea leaves contain much tannin1 and so do unripe ,english walnuts and butternuts4 ,acorns1 oak leaves with nut galls on them1 the green twigs of alders1 and hazelnut bushes1 have all been used to form this color4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,same ,,towelling ,,as ,,in ,,plate ,,ii1 ,,after ,,immersion ,,in ,,iron ,,spring4 ,,the ,,round ,,white ,,patterns ,,are ,,made ,,by ,,tieing ,the grey color quickly develops and1 after rinsing1 the material can be dried and pressed1 or dipped again to obtain a deeper shade1 first into the iron and then into the tannin bath4 ,the color is a pleasant1 soft shade of grey or1 if dyed deeply1 a black4 ,it is fast to washing1 and fairly so to light1 though it may become rusty on standing2 like the iron buff1 it is not fast to acids4 ,some interesting examples of the dyeing of cotton cloth with iron buff and iron grey are shown in ,plate ,i4 ,they came from the mineral springs at ,arima1 near ,kobe in ,japan1 where the waters are so saturated with iron salts1 that comparatively short immersion1 and exposure to air1 will bring out a deep orange shade4 ,the ,japanese1 not content with dyeing their goods plain colors1 have for many generations utilized these springs in the production of figures and designs on the cloth4 ,plate ,v is an example of stencil work1 where the white patterns are made by covering parts of the cloth with a 8resist paste0 which protects whatever it is in contact with from the action of the coloring agent4 ,plate ,,ii shows a piece of soft calico on which impressions of leaves have been made by placing fresh juicy leaves between two pieces of cloth1 and beating them with wooden mallets4 ,plate ,,iii shows the same piece of cloth as in ,plate ,,ii1 after immersion in the iron spring1 and exposure to air4 ,the tannin from the leaf juice converts some of the iron oxide into iron grey2 while the white figures are made by tying the cloth with string or tape 7,tied and ,dyed work7 before dyeing it4 ,so far as we can tell1 these two were the only mineral colors known to the ancients4 ,several other mineral colors1 however1 were in common use by the cotton dyers in the days preceding the introduction of modern dyestuffs1 but it is hardly worth while to dwell here on many of them4 ,yellow and orange shades were obtained by impregnating cloth with lead salts1 and then developing with a bath of chromate or bichromate of potash1 with more or less caustic alkali added for the darker shades4 ,prussian blue1 too1 was used as a substitute for the more expensive indigo4 ,this was formed by using the nitrate of iron for the first bath1 and then developing the color with a bath of yellow prussiate 7ferrocyanide7 of potash4 ,these colors1 however1 are so far inferior in their application1 and in fastness to light and to rubbing1 to the colors now at our command1 that they have disappeared entirely for textile work1 though they are still widely used for pigments4 ,manganese ,bronze 7,manganese ,brown1 ,bistre74--,there is one good mineral color1 however1 which came into use early in the last century and which1 while hardly ever used by professional dyers1 is of interest to craftsmen4 ,this color1 in its chemical composition1 greatly resembles the iron buff4 ,it is quite cheaply produced by first impregnating the cloth to be dyed with a solution of a manganese salt 7manganese chloride is the cheapest71 and then1 by means of a second bath of alkali1 forming a deposit on the fibre of pink manganese hydroxide--corresponding to the greenish ferrous hydroxide--which1 on exposure to the air1 absorbs oxygen and forms the final brown color4 ,unfortunately the alkali used in this case must be caustic alkali--potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide--and not one of the mild alkalies like the carbonates or bicarbonates1 which will do for the iron color4 ,and1 therefore1 although it is rather more expensive1 and is somewhat liable to weaken the fabric1 it is generally more convenient to obtain this color by a one-bath process4 ,a purple solution of the salt known as permanganate of potash1 is prepared and the cloth dipped4 ,after being immersed it is wrung carefully and shaken out1 and the red or purplish color gradually changes into the final brown4 ,as soon as this change has taken place the goods should be plunged into a hot soap bath and thoroughly scoured1 both to remove any loosely adhering particles of color which cause rubbing1 and to prevent tendering of the cloth4 ,the latter danger1 however1 is always present with this process and1 therefore1 full shades should not be dyed excepting on heavy1 strong goods like rugs or very coarse yarns or cloth4 ,even then it should be done carefully and by successive dippings1 with a careful washing1 after the color has been developed in the air1 between each bath4 ,this injury to the cloth which1 hitherto1 has been the great drawback to the permanganate process1 can be avoided by dipping the goods1 as soon as possible after leaving the dye-baths1 into a solution containing glucose1 as1 for instance1 two or three spoonfuls of ,karo 7corn syrup7 or molasses in each gallon of hot water4 ,directly the purple-stained cloth touches this solution the color changes to brown1 without affecting the strength of the materials4 ,this color1 like the other mineral colors1 is rarely1 if ever1 to be used on silk1 being altogether too likely to injure the texture and the lustre of the material4 ,in at least one instance1 however1 it has been used on animal fibres with considerable success4 ,during the critical part of the ,boer war1 it was at one time necessary for ,england to put as many of her troops as possible--especially her mounted troops--into the field4 ,among others the ,scots ,greys1 distinguished at ,waterloo and made famous in many other bloody campaigns as a fine old fighting regiment1 were ordered to the front4 ,there is a tradition1 dating back over two hundred years1 that the horses of this regiment must all be either white or grey in color4 ,some heaven-sent genius at the ,horse ,guards--the ,english ,war ,department--hinted quite forcibly to the authorities that to send out a cavalry regiment on white horses to face the ,boer sharpshooters1 was rather a dangerous experiment4 ,the authorities1 therefore1 consulted a well-known dyeing chemist4 ,he advised them to send down1 on the troopship1 some kegs of permanganate2 and to instruct the officers and men to sponge each horse with a weak solution of the salt1 every day at 8,stables40 ,this was done1 and1 in consequence1 long before reaching ,cape ,town1 the skin and hair of every horse was thoroughly colored a soft1 quiet shade of brown4 ,the color produced by permanganate varies1 according to the strength of the solution1 or rather with the number of dips in comparatively weak solutions1 from a light brownish tan to a full1 rich1 soft1 seal brown4 ,pleasant shades1 too1 can be obtained by dyeing first with the iron rust dye and then covering with the permanganate4 ,this color is discharged1 not only from textiles but from the hands1 by soaking in a solution of sodium hydrosulphite 7commonly used in dyeing indigo7 and then washing4 ,,practical ,,dyeing ,before proceeding to the practical dyeing instruction it is well to say a few words about the equipment needed for the work4 ,fortunately no elaborate or expensive outfit is necessary1 even for the beginner4 ,and after one has had a little experience1 it is astonishing what an amount of interesting1 and even important work can be turned out with a few of the very simplest utensils4 ,the essentials may be set down as follows3 ,dye-pots4 ,heating devices4 ,stirring rods1 or dye-sticks4 ,wringers4 ,drying arrangements4 ,dye-pots4--,for this purpose1 common agateware vessels are best and most convenient4 ,there should be varying sizes to accommodate different amounts of material to be dyed4 ,the so-called 8miner's cups10 which are agateware cups holding a pint or more1 are large enough for practical work1 when single skeins are being dyed4 ,for large pieces use the wash boilers which vary in capacity from one to five gallons4 ,it is always best1 especially for amateurs1 to dye in one batch enough material to complete the work on hand1 whether rug1 portire1 or piece of tapestry4 ,this avoids the necessity of exactly matching the shade afterward4 ,for three and a half to four pounds of cotton rags1 such as are used in making rag carpets1 three and one-half gallon pots are about the right size4 ,this amount of material will be about enough for the filling for one rug about #fd feet1 woven on a hand loom4 ,heating ,devices4--,work may be done over any flat-topped stove that burns wood or coal2 gas is1 of course1 an advantage and so is an oil stove1 as with these the heat may be regulated very exactly and much time saved4 ,for actual work1 a stove with space for four or five pots is the most convenient type to use4 ,there should always be one large pot set aside for heating water1 another for boiling out the raw goods1 and still a third for boiling out and brightening the finished materials with soap1 when very fast colors are used on cotton or linen2 and each of these pots should be reserved for its special purpose and not used for dyeing4 ,this will avoid the danger of staining the goods4 ,the top of a kitchen range will do for heating1 but whenever possible1 it is best to have a separate stove1 so placed that the top of it will not be more than about twenty-four inches from the ground or floor4 ,this enables the operator to look down into the dye-pot and so avoid strain1 and the consequent excessive fatigue while stirring the goods4 ,stirring ,rods4--,while the material is being dyed1 it should be kept in constant motion4 ,when working with small amounts of material1 or with goods such as straw1 raffia1 muslin1 or silk in skeins1 which are delicate and easily spoiled1 it is far more satisfactory in every way to use heavy glass rods for stirring4 ,these are rather expensive4 ,they are about fifteen inches in length and well rounded at the ends4 ,if carefully handled and thoroughly washed1 they are always clean and smooth4 ,care must1 of course1 be exercised in their use1 as sudden variations of heat and cold may cause them to crack or chip1 and lifting or stirring large quantities of heavy materials--anything above five pounds--is liable to break them4 ,in these cases1 it is best to use wooden dye-sticks4 ,broomsticks or dowel sticks1 cut into two-foot lengths1 with the ends rounded carefully by whittling with a sharp penknife1 are excellent substitutes4 ,for careful work it is necessary to have several sets of wooden dye-sticks--two for each main color at least--and these must be carefully washed each time after using1 or they will stain cloth that is being dyed light shades4 ,they are bound to get soft and rotten before very long1 from the action of the alkali in the dye-baths1 but they are easily replaced4 ,good rubber gloves are extremely useful while dyeing1 to protect the hands not only from being stained and discolored by the dyes1 but also from the action of the chemicals--especially while dyeing with indigo and other dyes wherein the caustic alkalies are employed4 ,after some experience in the use of dye-sticks1 however1 it will be found comparatively easy to handle the materials1 in and out of the dye-baths1 with the sticks1 without at any time taking hold of them with the hand4 ,nothing demonstrates more clearly the skill of the dyer than the ability to carry1 immerse in the dye-bath1 stir1 take out1 wring1 and rinse the materials without getting stains on either clothes or fingers4 ,on the other hand1 the amount of slopping that can be accomplished by a careless1 but enthusiastic1 amateur must be lived with to be thoroughly appreciated4 ,wringers4--,both before and after dyeing it is very important to have at hand a good clothes wringer1 preferably with metal frame4 ,in fact1 for very careful work there should be two wringers2 one to wring out the raw materials after boiling them in soap and water1 or1 if clean1 in plain water1 to insure that they are thoroughly and evenly wet2 and the other to wring out the excess of dye-liquor from the goods before rinsing1 or1 as in some cases1 before hanging up to oxidize4 ,the rubber rolls of these wringers should be kept clean by scouring with soap and sapolio immediately after finishing the day's work1 and by carefully rinsing free from dye-liquor4 ,it is always well to keep on hand near the wringer a supply of clean blotting paper1 or cheap filter paper1 or even soft1 dry cheesecloth or muslin4 ,for by wrapping the materials that have just been dyed1 in any of these1 and then running them backwards and forwards through the wringer1 it is possible to dry them with a minimum of time and exposure4 ,this is particularly important in the case of natural and artificial silks1 either in skeins or scarfs1 of ostrich feathers1 and of other light and fragile materials4 ,drying ,arrangements4--,sufficient room should be provided for hanging up the cloth to dry4 ,an ordinary clothes-line1 conveniently fastened1 is the best means of support4 ,for special purposes1 where the material handled is very delicate or where the work is done in a classroom1 a simple clothes-horse made of thick glass tubing1 one inch or so in diameter and supported on a wooden frame1 will occupy the least possible space and give the best support4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,modern ,,dyestuffs ,the whole art and practice of dyeing was completely revolutionized once and forever1 by the discovery in #ahef of the artificial dyestuff named mauveine1 or1 more commonly1 mauve1 a name1 by the way1 derived from the ,french name of the violet-colored mallow flower4 ,the discovery was made accidentally1 by a young chemical student1 ,william ,henry ,perkin1 while experimenting in a very crude and simple way1 with a view to forming artificial quinine from a curious oily body known as aniline4 ,this aniline was originally prepared by distilling indigo in a dry retort1 and it had received its name from the native ,javanese word 8anil10 meaning indigo4 ,while thus prepared it was1 of course1 very expensive4 ,but about this time methods were invented for obtaining this same compound in practically unlimited quantities from coal tar--that heavy1 foul-smelling refuse of gas works--which1 up to that time1 had been not only useless but actually a source of annoyance and expense to the gas companies4 ,perkin conceived the idea that1 by partially burning or oxidizing it1 this aniline might be changed into quinine4 ,he made the experiment and there resulted a black molasses-like mass1 very far removed from the white crystals he was hoping for4 ,but by testing this with various chemicals1 he found that hot alcohol dissolved part of it1 and turned it into a violet liquid which had the power to dye silk and wool the same bright color4 ,finding that the color was fairly fast to light1 and that it could be produced without too much expense1 he took out a patent and1 with the aid of his father and brother1 set up near ,manchester1 ,england1 the first factory for artificial dyestuffs4 ,his discoveries were at once published1 and chemists all over the world began to manufacture and experiment with the new dyestuffs4 ,great factories were started all over ,europe4 ,from this beginning the manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs1 and more recently all their allied compounds1 has become one of the most important and most profitable of all chemical industries4 ,the dyes first discovered1 the so-called 8,basic dyes10 were of great brilliancy and strength2 but they were not of any particular beauty when used individually4 ,compared with the vegetable colors which preceded them1 and especially the same shades we are accustomed to see in nature1 these dyes were hard1 coarse1 crude1 and very inartistic4 ,this could be remedied1 however1 by mixing two or three of them together1 such mixture tending to soften the different colors and blend all into pleasant and delicate shades4 ,a more serious difficulty was the fact that those early dyestuffs were usually quite fugitive to light or1 at any rate1 far less fast than the best of the vegetable dyes that preceded them4 ,besides1 they did not fade true4 ,in other words1 a piece of cloth might to-day be a bright red1 and after a few days of exposure to the sunlight1 the exposed portions might turn a yellow1 a white1 or even some dark color2 and1 in any case1 the change would entirely spoil the original color scheme4 ,by #ahfh1 however1 the artificial manufacture of alizarine1 first by two ,german chemists1 and then by ,perkin himself1 served to open up another whole class of new dyestuffs1 which1 when submitted to the proper tests1 proved to be exceedingly fast both to light and to washing4 ,in consequence1 within a few years after this discovery1 the commercial use of madder was everywhere abandoned4 ,chemists could now produce on cotton1 linen1 wool1 and silk1 practically the whole range of colors1 brilliant and dull1 hard and soft1 light and dark1 not only of a beauty1 but of a fastness to light and to washing1 never before surpassed1 if indeed equalled4 ,illustration3 ,,at ,,the ,,age ,,of #ad ,illustration3 ,,at ,,the ,,age ,,of #bb ,illustration3 ,,at ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,coal-,,tar ,,color ,,jubilee--#ej ,,years ,,after ,,his ,,discovery ,,of ,,mauveine ,,sir ,w4 ,h4 ,,perkin ,since that time1 not a year has gone by without scores of new dyestuffs being put on the market by some of the great color houses4 ,of late years special efforts have been made to simplify dyeing processes1 and at the same time to insure the fastness as well as the beauty of the colors4 ,at the present time it is possible for the veriest amateur1 with practically no previous knowledge of chemistry or of dyeing1 and with only intelligence enough to follow some simple directions1 to get1 in one bath1 with very little expenditure of time1 an immense variety of shades that are exceedingly fast to light and to washing4 ,a very few years ago this result could not possibly have been obtained1 except by some expert dyer1 and then only after long and tedious1 as well as difficult1 processes4 ,we are all familiar with the constant complaint that it is now impossible to get goods dyed or printed in good1 fast colors4 ,for instance1 take the brilliant scarlet calico commonly known as ,turkey red4 ,in the days of our grandfathers a piece of cloth dyed ,turkey red would stand rain and sun1 washing and scouring1 and the fibre would wear out before the color would fade4 ,but nowadays1 if you buy ,turkey red cloth for the purpose of covering cushions for a piazza-lounge1 you will be fortunate if the color does not begin to change after three or four days in the open air4 ,the reason is simple4 ,in the old days the only way to get that particular shade was by dyeing the cloth with ground-up madder root1 through a series of operations lasting the best part of two months4 ,now any capable dyer would be able to dye cotton that exact shade with any of1 say1 twenty different colors1 most of which would not require more than one or two hours to dye4 ,out of these twenty dyestuffs1 four or five1 rather more expensive than the rest1 would give just as fast1 just as brilliant1 and just as strong color as the good old madder color4 ,but the rest1 which are distinctly cheaper and easier to apply1 would furnish goods which would look exactly the same to the average purchaser1 but which might not last any time at all4 ,naturally1 the average manufacturer carefully instructs his dyer to furnish him with the 8cheap and nasty0 goods1 not only because it costs less money1 but also1 unfortunately1 because he reasons that 8it will be good for business40 ,the manufacturer has the greatest sympathy with the inclination of the fastidious housewife to throw away anything that looks faded1 and to buy in its place something new and fresh4 ,curtains or portires that hold their original shade indefinitely1 he has little or no patience with4 ,a calico dress that keeps its color so that it can be worn for a second summer1 is an abomination not to be endured4 ,and in every case1 when complaint is made1 it is always said to be the fault of the chemist who produced and put on the market such 8horrid1 fugitive dyes40 ,as a matter of fact1 it is simply a case of picking and choosing4 ,there have been discovered1 so far1 several thousand different coal-tar dyestuffs of all sorts and kinds4 ,out of these1 probably one hundred1 or less1 can be considered really fast to both light and washing4 ,the remaining ones1 most of which never were considered valuable enough to put on the market1 vary in degrees of fastness1 the poorest being simply stains which will 8bleed0 indefinitely with moderate washing1 and which will turn almost any color after exposure for a few hours to sun and weather4 ,in the following pages1 considerable pains will be taken to emphasize the names and properties of the very best and fastest dyestuffs in the different classes1#a so that the results of work done with them can be depended upon4 #a ,in some classes there are no absolutely fast dyestuffs4 ,perhaps the most interesting thing1 in connection with the whole subject of the artificial dyestuffs1 is the enormous influence that they have had upon the life of the whole human race4 ,this influence was but slightly appreciated1 even by the chemists themselves1 until a few years ago4 ,the awakening dates from the time of the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of mauveine1 when from one end of the world to the other1 honors were showered upon ,sir ,william ,henry ,perkin1 then grown old and nearing the end of his useful and prosperous life4 ,it was then announced1 and was for the first time generally recognized as true1 that no one of the great discoveries of the nineteenth century--the steam locomotive1 the steamship1 the telephone1 the telegraph1 the gas light1 the electric light1 and the rest--had been more important to the world at large than the discovery of the first coal-tar dye4 ,and probably never in the history of the world have such enormous results been produced from a single discovery1 during the lifetime of the discoverer himself4 ,,the ,,artificial ,,dyestuffs ,the artificial dyestuffs form such a large body of complicated chemical compounds1 that at first glance it would seem hopeless for any one who is not a trained chemist1 to attempt to get any clear or definite ideas about them4 ,this1 indeed1 would be the case if any attempt were made to study them chemically1 i4e41 with reference to their composition1 or their method of manufacture2 but when it comes to the application of them to the various textile fabrics and other materials1 for which dyes are valuable1 we soon find that the problem is not so very difficult after all4 ,to be sure there are many hundreds of different dyes on the market now1 great numbers of which are known under three or four different trade names1 according to the trade-mark of each particular manufacturer4 ,but besides the great manufacturers1 and their accredited agents1 there are numerous retail agencies all over the country1 large and small1 which make a business of distributing dyes made by the great concerns4 ,some of these are very energetic1 and have pushed the sale of artificial dyestuffs in ten- and fifteen-cent packages1 until in almost every village1 large enough to boast of a decent country store1 these dyes can be obtained4 ,it is common to hear these dyes sneered at and abused4 ,they are frequently referred to1 especially by those of 8artistic tastes10 as harsh and crude in color1 fugitive to light and washing1 and1 in short1 generally inferior and worthless products4 ,this is not the case4 ,they are1 in some cases1 individual dyestuffs1 and in other cases1 mixtures1 generally belonging to the class of colors next to be described1 the ,salt dyes2 and very good1 if not indeed the very best specimens of that class4 ,these ,salt dyes1 until the last few years1 were far from fast1 either to light or washing2 but the more recent members of the class are much more satisfactory1 and these colors1 too1 are found in the fifteen-cent packages4 ,nor1 too1 can objection be fairly taken to the shades as being crude and harsh4 ,that is all a matter of taste and skill on the part of the dyer4 ,there is no better practice in dyeing than to take the very hardest1 clearest1 most brilliant red1 blue1 and yellow colors that can be found at the corner grocery and1 following the directions on the packages1 proceed to dye yarn or cheesecloth with them1 at first using the individual dyes1 and afterwards modifying the shade of one dye with traces of each of the other two4 ,the softness and richness of the tones that can be thus obtained will satisfy the most critical4 ,the real objection to these widely distributed popular dyes is a very different one4 ,they are not sold under their own names1 and therefore it is almost impossible to identify them4 ,to be sure1 from the accompanying directions it is possible for a trained dyer to recognize at once the class to which the dyestuff belongs4 ,but it is impossible for him1 excepting after a long1 tedious and often very troublesome analysis1 to tell just what member or members of that particular class is contained in any given package4 ,for this reason the dyer who has to depend on them for an important piece of work is in much the same position as a doctor would be who had to treat a difficult case with patent medicines compounded after secret formul4 ,in the following chapters1 a discussion of each class of dyestuffs1 and an explanation of their application and general properties will be followed by lists of three or four of the very best colors1 sold by the ,new ,york agents of six of the largest and most reliable color manufacturers4 ,workers wishing to obtain these dyes in comparatively large quantities1 say one pound and upwards1 can get them by writing directly to the addresses in the following table3 ,badische-- ,the ,badische ,anilin ,soda ,fabrik1 #abh ,duane ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,cassella-- ,the ,cassella ,co41 #ahd ,front ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,elberfeld--,the ,farbenfabriken of ,elberfeld ,co41 #aag ,hudson ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,kalle-- ,kalle ,co41 #ecj ,canal ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,klipstein--,a4 ,klipstein ,co41 ,agent for ,society of ,chemical ,industry of ,basle1 #fed ,greenwich ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,metz-- ,farbwerke-,hoechst ,co41 formerly ,h4 ,a4 ,metz ,co41 ,agent for the ,meister ,lucius ,bruning ,co41 #abb ,hudson ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,n4 ,b4 ,further information concerning dyestuffs1 apparatus1 textiles1 chemicals1 etc41 connected with this work may be obtained on writing to the author at #g ,west #dcrd ,st41 ,new ,york4 ,,the ,,naming ,,of ,,modern ,,dyestuffs ,it is important to remember that1 in order to identify a color by name1 it is necessary to know three things3 first1 the trade name2 second1 the shade1 or distinguishing1 letter2 and third1 the manufacturer or agent4 ,the trade name sometimes bears a reference to the class1 properties1 or color of the dye1 as 8fast acid blue02 or to its chemical composition1 as 8methylene blue10 or 8diamine red02 but in most cases it is simply an arbitrary name1 given by the original discoverer when the patents were issued1 or assigned later by the manufacturer or his local agents4 ,the letter or letters1 following the name1 refer generally to the shade1 as for instance1 ,b for blue1 ,r for red1 ,y or ,g for yellow 7,german gelb71 and so on4 ,thus 8methyl violet0 is sold in brands running all the way from #f ,b to #f ,r--that is1 from full purple shades that are very close to blue1 to bright violet shades1 very close to red4 ,sometimes1 however1 the letter refers to the composition of the dye or its class1 as 8fuchsine ,s0 7,german sauer7 often called acid fuchsine or acid magenta2 or 8alizarine blue1 ,d10 when the ,d indicates a 8direct0 cotton color4 ,and sometimes the letter ,f is used to indicate fastness to light1 in which case 8,f ,f0 would signify a brand of very unusual fastness1 for that particular class of colors at any rate4 ,but not infrequently the letter is merely a mark applied for purposes of identification1 whose significance cannot easily be learned by those not in the business of color selling1 even when it is not a secret closely guarded by the particular firm supplying the dyestuff4 ,for this reason1 the name of the manufacturer or agent should always be added to the color name and letter1 if it is important to get a particular color in any case4 ,the best of the older dyes are manufactured by all of the larger firms1 of substantially the same strength and shades1 although often not under the same names4 ,the later colors1 whose patents have not expired1 are of course the individual property of the different manufacturers1 and can be1 and are1 marketed by them under any name they like to give them4 ,accordingly it frequently happens that two different firms may sell1 under the same name1 two entirely different colors2 it would be impossible to tell which dyestuff was intended unless the firm name were attached4 ,but with these three essentials correctly given--name1 brand1 and maker--a color can be identified and obtained true in composition and shade1 even after the lapse of many years4 ,,classification ,,of ,,the ,,coal-,,tar ,,colors ,,available ,,for ,,craftsmen4 ,class ,name4 ,materials on which to be used4 ,how applied4 ,how developed4 ,how finished4 ,i4 ,direct ,cotton or ,salt ,colors3 ,cotton1 linen1 and artificial silk4 ,rarely wool and silk4 ,in boiling water1 with addition of salt4 ,by rinsing in water4 ,,ii4 ,sulphur ,colors3 ,cotton and linen4 ,rarely silk4 ,in hot or lukewarm water1 with addition of soda1 sodium sulphide1 salt1 and ,turkey red oil4 ,by exposure to air after wringing4 ,by washing in a hot soap bath1 and rinsing4 ,,iii4 ,indigo or ,vat ,colors3 ,cotton and linen4 ,rarely silk4 ,also as stencil pastes on cotton and linen4 ,in hot or warm water1 with addition of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite4 ,by exposure to air after wringing4 ,some colors must be developed by boiling in a soap bath4 ,by washing in a hot soap bath1 and rinsing4 ,stencilled work1 by steaming and washing in hot soap bath4 ,,iv4 ,basic ,colors3 ,raffia1 straw1 rattan1 and basketry in general4 ,artificial silk4 ,leather4 ,rarely wool and silk4 ,also as stencil pastes on cotton1 linen1 and silk4 ,in hot or warm water1 with addition of a little acetic acid 7vinegar74 ,raffia1 etc41 finished by rinsing in water4 ,leather by rubbing with wax when dry4 ,stencilled work1 by steaming and passing through a weak bath of ,tartar ,emetic4 ,v4 ,acid ,colors3 ,wool1 silk1 and feathers4 ,sometimes leather4 ,rarely rattan and basketry4 ,in hot or cold water with addition 7for wool7 of sulphuric acid and ,glauber's salt4 ,for silk add soap and acid4 ,for leather add a little acetic acid4 ,for feathers add oxalic acid or formic acid4 ,wool needs very careful rinsing in water1 to remove every trace of acid4 ,silk finished by a cold soap bath1 followed by a weak bath of acetic acid4 ,leather finished with wax4 ,feathers finished with starch4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,direct ,,cotton ,,or ,,salt ,,colors ,among the many changes made in the art of dyeing since the introduction of the coal-tar dyestuffs1 perhaps the most important has been the gradual overcoming of the necessity for mordanting the textiles before coloring them in the dye-bath4 ,almost all of the old vegetable dyes were mordant dyes2 that is1 the color could not be fastened to the fibre1 whether wool1 cotton1 linen1 or even silk1 unless the latter had been impregnated with some chemical which would act as a mordant to--7i4e41 would combine with and hold7 the color4 ,these mordants were1 in general1 the salts of some metal1 aluminium1 tin1 chromium1 and iron salts being the ones in common use2 and the processes involved in properly mordanting the goods were in many cases--notably in the case of madder and the ,turkey red process--far more difficult and tedious and expensive than the actual dyeing4 ,the first dyestuffs discovered1 the true aniline dyes1 which were manufactured directly from aniline and from substances strongly resembling aniline in chemical composition1 were at once found to act in a different manner on textile fibres4 ,animal fibres like wool and silk1 fur and leather1 were dyed by them directly1 without the use of any mordant at all4 ,if the dyestuff were dissolved in water 7the addition of a little acid makes the color dissolve more readily1 but is without other effect7 and a wet skein of wool or silk were immersed in it1 and a little heat applied1 the color would leave the liquid1 and fasten itself firmly on to the goods4 ,but with cotton and linen and other vegetable fibres1 these dyes would not work so well4 ,when these materials are warmed in such a dye-bath1 the color does not adhere to the fibres1 but washes off directly in a hot soap bath1 if not1 indeed1 under a stream of clear hot water4 ,this was noticed by ,perkin very soon after his famous discovery1 and1 wishing to use his new color for dyeing cotton and linen as well as silk and wool1 he set to work to discover how to prepare these materials2 in short1 how to mordant them so that they too would take firm hold of the color4 ,as will be described later in the chapter on ,basic colors1 his experiments soon led to the introduction and the use of tannic acid and tartar emetic combined1 in a process widely used to this day4 ,the next class of dyestuffs discovered were the so-called acid colors1 thus named because they all exhibited distinctly acid properties--that is1 they would form salts with the substances known as bases 7of which last1 by the way1 aniline is an important member74 ,these colors1 like the earlier ones1 would dye the animal fibres directly1 but would not color the vegetable fibres1 unless the latter were carefully mordanted with alumina1 or iron oxide1 or some similar metallic base4 ,and even this treatment does not give colors that are fast to washing1 so these acid colors are never used on cotton or linen4 ,after this came the discovery of alizarine1 and an important series of very fast and very valuable dyes1 all of which were characteristic mordant colors4 ,even wool and silk1 as well as every other textile1 must be carefully mordanted with aluminium1 chromium1 or iron salts1 in order to have any coloring effect produced by these dyestuffs4 ,this is the chief reason why1 in spite of their beauty and great permanence1 the alizarine and other mordant colors are being less used every year4 ,at the end of some twelve or thirteen years after the discovery of the aniline colors1 therefore1 it was still impossible to dye cotton with them without a more or less elaborate mordanting process4 ,and yet the problem did not seem to be an impossible one4 ,one of the natural dyes1 the safflower1 already mentioned1 has the property of dyeing cotton pretty1 and not very fugitive1 shades of pink and rose colors1 directly1 without the necessity for any mordant2 and if a natural dyestuff could do that why could not some artificial ones8 ,some thirty years ago1 a chemist 7one story says that it was a laboratory boy7 while experimenting with a dyestuff which was then a recent discovery--,congo red1 a very brilliant but fugitive and unstable scarlet color--noticed that while filtering a hot solution of it through filter paper1 the paper was stained deeply1 and1 which was more important1 the color was not easily washed out with hot water4 ,this excited his curiosity1 and after following the matter up a little1 he found that not only this ,congo red1 but a whole series of dyestuffs formed in the same general way1 had the power of dyeing cotton directly4 ,this discovery has practically revolutionized the whole art of cotton dyeing4 ,from these few bright and pretty1 but distinctly untrustworthy dyes1 which were at once named and advertised as 8direct cotton colors10 have sprung great numbers of dyestuffs--several hundreds at least--of every conceivable shade1 and of late years of every conceivable degree of fastness to light4 ,all resemble the original ,congo red in that they will dye cotton and linen1 if not absolutely fast1 at any rate very fairly fast to washing1 in one bath1 without the need of any mordants4 ,this1 of course1 means that the cost of dyeing cloth with these dyes is very much less than with the other classes mentioned4 ,and1 by the way1 it also explains why1 under the name of ,turkey red1 so many extremely bad colors have been sold4 ,to dye ,turkey red on cotton1 using alizarine1 and with the most improved and simplified methods1 necessitates at least six or seven different steps1 each of which requires not only time and expense1 but great skill and care2 and any one of them1 if carelessly performed1 may spoil the goods4 ,on the other hand1 a mere beginner1 by using one of the early1 bright1 direct colors 7quite cheap in itself1 because the patents have expired7 can1 by boiling the goods for half an hour in a dye-bath with a little soap and salt in it1 produce a piece of cloth dyed almost the exact shade of the old ,turkey red1 for probably one-third1 or one-quarter of the price4 ,it will look the same on the shop counter2 will probably sell just as well to the average1 or even to the painstaking customer2 but when exposed to air and light for a few weeks1 perhaps even for a few days1 will lose its brilliancy1 and turn some queer1 dull shade1 probably of purple4 ,indeed this particular substitution has been going on for some years on a large scale2 and at one time promised to be of some international importance4 ,the ,turkey red dyers in ,manchester1 a few years ago1 complained bitterly to the ,english ,government that their market in ,india was falling off very seriously2 and they demanded an investigation1 to know what was the matter4 ,after careful inquiry by the local officials1 word came back that there was no difference in the taste of the people for bright scarlet clothes and headgear4 ,just as much red was worn as ever before4 ,but active agents of the large ,german color houses had been going through the country1 introducing some of these cheap direct cotton scarlets and showing the natives how to use them4 ,and in consequence1 up and down ,india in all the little towns1 even in the villages1 local dyers were at work who1 for a few cents1 would dye up an old piece of calico bright red4 ,when it became faded again in a few weeks1 they would dye it over again for a very small sum1 thus renewing the same piece whenever it was desirable to appear in bright1 new clothes4 ,names4--,these dyes have long been made by all of the great firms1 although two or three have made more of a specialty of them than the rest4 ,it was soon found that the presence of common 7table7 salt in the dyestuffs was valuable1 as lessening the waste of dyestuff in the dye-liquor1 and also increasing the fastness to washing of the dyed goods4 ,for this reason the common name given to this class is that of 8,salt ,colors40 ,owing1 however1 to the fact that ,congo red1 the first discovered of the whole class1 was derived from the chemical known as benzidine1 these salt colors are sometimes referred to1 in general1 as the 8,congo10 or as the 8benzidine0 dyes4 ,besides this they are frequently known as 8cotton colors10 or 8direct cotton colors40 ,the different manufacturers1 however1 have assigned certain class names to their own dyestuffs1 as follows3 ,benzo 7,elberfeld72 ,diamine 7,cassella72 ,dianil 7,metz72 ,mikado 7,elberfeld72 ,naphthamine 7,kalle72 ,oxamine 7,badische72 ,phenamine 7,badische74 ,uses4--,these colors are chiefly used for dyeing cotton1 linen1 and paper4 ,they take particularly well on mercerized cotton1 and on some varieties of artificial silk4 ,they can also be used to dye wool and silk1 and1 indeed1 in many cases give colors faster1 both to light and to washing1 on these fibres than on cotton4 ,as a rule they will not dye animal fibres excepting at a high temperature--near the boiling point--and in an acid bath4 ,whereas cotton and linen are preferably dyed in an alkaline or at least a neutral bath1 and1 while they must be boiled in the dye-bath for at all permanent results1 will take the color as a stain at quite low temperatures4 ,for this reason these dyes are often used for dyeing even shades in one bath1 upon mixed goods--that is1 wool and cotton1 cotton and silk1 etc4 ,the goods are first dyed in a lukewarm bath till the cotton is nearly the proper shade1 and then1 on heating1 the wool or silk will take up the color and1 before long1 catch up with the cotton4 ,it must1 however1 be remembered that on cotton and linen these dyes are not1 as a rule1 at all fast to washing1 unless they have been well boiled with the goods4 ,when dyed on silk at a boil1 they are fast to hot soap and water1 a fact which1 sometimes1 is of much importance4 ,,dyeing ,,directions ,dye-bath4--,the color must first be dissolved in water1 care being taken not to leave any undissolved lumps or specks of color floating around in1 or settled at the bottom of1 the dye-bath4 ,for this reason it is generally best1 in all dyeing operations1 first of all to make a decidedly strong solution of the color1 by dissolving a considerable quantity of it 7depending of course on the amount of goods to be dyed7 in hot water1 in a pitcher or saucepan4 ,in the dyehouse this would be called a 8stock solution10 and would always be made of a definite strength1--say five parts of color to one hundred of water--and kept well covered up4 ,sometimes in hot weather it would be treated with a little preservative like benzoate of soda1 so that it could be used at any time it was needed4 ,when this color solution is added to the dye-bath1 it should always be carefully strained through a piece of cheesecloth or any other fine medium that will catch the specks and undissolved lumps4 ,otherwise spots are liable to appear1 on the finished goods1 which it is almost impossible to eradicate without stripping off every trace of color from the dyed material4 ,water4--,the dye-bath is prepared with plain water4 ,the amount necessary for each lot of goods can only be told by experience4 ,for some classes of dyes1 like the ,acid colors and the ,basic colors1 to be described later1 the quantity of water makes but little difference4 ,but for dark shades with these ,salt colors it is best not to have more than enough water to thoroughly soak1 and comfortably cover1 the wetted goods1 with enough room to stir and turn them easily4 ,the dye-bath is now set on the stove to warm up and1 when dyeing light or medium shades1 some soap is usually dissolved in it4 ,this is not absolutely necessary but helps to make the color go on more evenly1 and penetrate the fibres better4 ,soap4--,for dyeing purposes in general1 any pure1 carefully made soap acts satisfactorily4 ,for silk dyeing1 and especially for silk finishing1 it is said that greater lustre can be gained with olive oil 7,castile7 soap4 ,but when this cannot be obtained1 ,ivory soap or ,pears' soap or1 in fact1 any good brand of bath or toilet soap will do almost as well4 ,for the washing and finishing of wool and silk the use of strong laundry soaps should be avoided if possible1 because they usually contain alkali1 in the form of borax or of carbonate of soda1 which is liable to 8tender the goods40 ,for cotton and linen dyeing and finishing1 this does not make any difference4 ,the easiest way to add the soap to the dye-bath is to use it in one of the wire soap-shakers1 which has a convenient handle1 and holds half a cake or even a whole cake of soap at one time4 ,even ,dyeing4--,the goods should be well washed1 rinsed1 and wrung out1 so as to be sure that they are free from dirt and grease1 and have been thoroughly and evenly wet4 ,they are then placed in the dye-bath1 completely under the liquid1 and stirred round and round and turned over and over with the dye-sticks4 ,the chief objects in stirring are1 first1 to prevent part of the goods from resting on the bottom and then getting more heat than the rest of the material1 in which case1 naturally1 it will become darker when finished2 and second1 to prevent the outside portion of the goods from getting more color than the inner portions4 ,accordingly the goods1 when placed in the dye-bath1 must be well opened up and1 excepting when deliberately making patterns by the method described later under the name of 8,tied and ,dyed ,work10 they should not be tied or entangled in knots or bunches4 ,every part must be equally exposed1 by the turning and lifting and stirring1 to the action of the color solution4 ,if only light shades are desired1 the goods are heated and turned until the proper shade has been reached--remembering always that1 unless the color has been boiled on1 it is likely to be only a stain which will wash off easily4 ,salt4--,for full and indeed for medium shades1 it is customary to add to the dye-bath some agent--usually table salt or1 when the shade is not very dark1 phosphate of soda--which will make the color less soluble in the dye-liquor and will tend to throw it on the fibre4 ,for1 after all1 there is comparatively little affinity between the cotton fibre and the dyestuff 7far less than between silk or wool and the ,acid or ,basic colors71 and when a skein is warmed or even boiled in the dye-bath a large proportion of the color remains in the liquid4 ,the bath is not 8exhausted0 as the dyers say4 ,hence1 if we try to dye full shades with these colors dissolved in water only1 or in soap and water1 it can only be done by using large quantities of the dyestuff1 most of which will be wasted in the spent dye-liquor4 ,for dark shades1 then1 where there is little danger of uneven dyeing1 the goods are usually dyed for a short time with the color dissolved in hot water4 ,and then1 to deepen the shade1 the goods are lifted1 and common salt added in considerable quantities1 three or four tablespoonfuls to the gallon1 and stirred round till it is dissolved4 ,then the goods are put back and well boiled for half an hour or so1 before the dyeing is considered complete4 ,the presence of salt1 by increasing the temperature of the boiling bath1 also helps to make the dyed goods fast to washing4 ,soap cannot be used in the presence of so much salt for fear of its depositing on the fibre in spots and so causing trouble4 ,for medium shades1 however1 where it is well to use soap in the dye-bath so as to have the color go on the fibre evenly1 a little phosphate of soda is often employed instead of salt1 one or two tablespoonfuls to the gallon1 to diminish the waste of color1 without making the soap insoluble4 ,for the darker shades it is particularly important to thoroughly boil the goods for half an hour or more1 before taking them out of the dye-bath4 ,otherwise the dyestuff will not penetrate the fibre1 but will simply stain the surface1 and will not only be easily washed off1 with very mild soaping1 but1 when dry1 will be apt to crack and rub4 ,finishing4--,after the materials have been dyed as just described1 they should be taken out of the dye-bath1 rinsed with water to wash off the excess of dye-liquor1 and then shaken out and dried4 ,when used in this way the best dyes of this class1 such as those listed a little further on1 will give1 on cotton and linen1 shades that are very fast to light1 and fairly fast to washing4 ,on wool and silk the shades are fast to both light and washing4 ,for purposes of comparison it may be stated here what is generally meant by these terms4 ,fastness to ,light4--,the test for light-fastness is usually made by partially covering a dyed skein with a piece of wood1 or heavy piece of blotting paper1 and exposing it to direct sunlight1 back of a window with southern exposure4 ,at intervals the skein is taken out and the color studied1 and it is then easy to see whether any change has taken place in the portion of the goods exposed to the light4 ,if the goods have faded appreciably in the space of one week1 the dyestuff is considered not fast4 ,if the color changes after two weeks' exposure1 but not after one week1 it is to be considered fairly fast4 ,if it stands for two weeks but fades in four weeks it is to be called fast4 ,and if it resists1 without appreciable change1 the action of the summer sunlight for full four weeks1 it is called very fast4 ,it should be remembered1 in this connection1 that the comparative fastness to light depends largely 7a7 upon the materials to be dyed1 and 7b7 upon the depth and shade of color used in the test4 ,for instance1 if a skein of heavy cotton yarn1 and one of very fine1 brilliant1 artificial silk are dyed the same color1 and exposed to light under the same conditions1 the cotton skein will hold its color longer than the silk4 ,the latter1 being semi-transparent1 allows the sunlight to pierce it through and through1 while the more opaque cotton gives some distinct protection to the color that has penetrated beneath the surface4 ,so1 too1 a dark shade of any given color will stand the light much better than a very light or delicate shade1 for the same general reason4 ,the color beneath the surface is protected from the direct action of the sun's rays by the surface color4 ,fastness to ,washing4--,the test for washing-fastness is made somewhat differently4 ,a skein dyed a full shade with the color is twisted up with two white skeins1 one of wool and the other of cotton1 and the three are thoroughly scoured for ten minutes in a strong bath of good quality laundry soap1 heated to #adj;,f4 ,this temperature is uncomfortably hot for the hands and yet is well below the boiling point4 ,a fast color is one where1 with this treatment1 neither the soap liquor nor either one of the skeins becomes colored4 ,if the soap liquor is colored but neither one of the skeins1 the dye is called fairly fast4 ,if the soap bath is tinged1 and one or the other of the skeins becomes colored at the same time1 the dye is considered not fast4 ,it must1 however1 be borne in mind that before making this washing-test1 all excess of dye-liquor must first be removed by thorough rinsing4 ,and it should be remembered that even the fastest of the ,salt colors1 as well as of the ,acid and ,basic colors described later1 when applied directly to the fibre1 without mordanting or after-treating1 are never as fast to washing as those where the dyestuff is fixed or developed in an insoluble form in the fibre1 by the action of the air1 as are the ,sulphur and ,vat colors--or by the action of mordants1 as with the ,alizarine colors--or by after-treatment with certain special chemicals1 as with the ,salt colors in the process described below4 ,all dyes can1 sooner or later1 be dissociated from the fibres to which they are attached4 ,but if they are in an insoluble condition they drop off in the form of a powder1 and are washed clean off1 and leave sharp1 clear outlines on the dyed goods4 ,if1 however1 they have gone on in solution they will go off in solution1 and are liable to bleed1 and stain light-colored fibres near them4 ,the earlier dyestuffs of this class were deservedly criticised as being1 even when carefully applied1 much given to bleeding1 and also distinctly fugitive to the action of sunlight4 ,of late years the quality of these dyestuffs has greatly improved1 and the best of them1 like those mentioned below1 when carefully dyed on cotton1 are fast1 if not very fast to light1 although for washing the very best can hardly be classed even as fairly fast1 without after-treatment4 ,list of ,selected ,dyestuffs4-- ,badische-- ,oxamine ,fast ,red1 ,f ,cotton1 ,yellow1 ,g ,i ,stilbene ,yellow1 ,g ,k ,oxamine ,blue1 ,b ,cotton ,black1 ,e1 extra ,cassella-- ,diamine ,fast ,red1 ,f ,diamine ,fast ,yellow1 ,g ,g ,diamine ,fast ,blue1 ,f ,f ,g ,diamine ,fast ,black1 ,f ,elberfeld-- ,benzo ,fast ,red1 #h ,b ,l ,benzo ,fast ,yellow1 #d ,b ,brilliant ,fast ,black1 #d ,b ,pluto ,black1 ,f1 extra ,kalle-- ,naphthamine ,fast ,red1 ,h ,naphthamine ,fast ,yellow1 #b ,g ,l ,naphthamine ,fast ,blue1 #d ,b ,l ,naphthamine ,fast ,violet1 ,r ,l ,naphthamine ,direct ,black ,metz-- ,dianil ,fast ,scarlet1 #d ,b ,s ,dianil ,orange1 ,g ,dianil ,yellow1 ,o ,o ,dianil ,fast ,blue1 #c ,b ,dianil ,fast ,black1 conc4 ,as above mentioned1 even the very best dyes belonging to this class of ,salt colors1 give on cotton and linen results only 8fairly fast0 to washing4 ,as the modern laundress is not averse to using stronger agents than good laundry soap in her washtub1 and not infrequently indulges in considerable amounts of washing soda 7sodium carbonate7 and even of bleaching powder1 to clean quickly a dirty piece of goods1 dyes that are 8fairly fast0 according to the regular standard1 will1 in practice1 need some care spent on them if they are to hold their color for long periods4 ,against light the best ones are almost as fast as any dyes known1 but none of them are a match for the ,sulphur colors1 or especially the ,vat colors1 when exposed to severe washing4 ,after-treatment4--,the professional dyer1 who is occasionally called upon to produce fast colors with these dyes1 and even with the inferior members of this class1 has found various methods of after-treatment1 by which the colors are rendered more permanent4 ,a favorite process1 where the dyer is enough of a chemist to carry it out1 consists of making an entirely new dyestuff in the fibre1 generally of an entirely different shade1 and with much greater power of resistance to washing and to light1 by treating the dyed goods first with a mixture of sodium nitrite and of sulphuric acid1 and1 after this1 passing them through a solution of some organic chemical such as carbolic acid1 alpha- or beta-naphthol1 or others known as developers4 ,this process1 known as 8diazotizing and developing10 is considerably used in the trade1 especially for various shades of black1 but is too complicated and delicate for craftsmen in general4 ,a simpler process is to warm the dyed goods for five or ten minutes in a weak solution of the orange-colored salt1 bichromate of potash1 acidified with a little acetic acid--or of the not uncommon chemical1 sulphate of copper1 long known to chemists as blue vitriol4 ,when the best dyes are used1 like those in the preceding list1 it is not often necessary to use either of these reagents4 ,but when1 as sometimes happens1 one is obliged to use dyes of this general class1 bought at the country store without a chance of knowing how fast they are1 it is well to know about it4 ,for a piece of goods the size of an ordinary linen skirt1 the after-treating bath would be made as follows3 ,in two and a half gallons of hot water1 dissolve two tablespoonfuls of sulphate of copper1 one tablespoonful of bichromate of potash1 and two teaspoonfuls of ordinary acetic acid 7equivalent1 say1 to three or four teaspoonfuls of strong vinegar74 ,the goods1 after dyeing and rinsing1 but before drying1 should be soaked in this bath and heated for ten minutes until not far from the boiling point4 ,they should then be taken out1 rinsed carefully1 and dried4 ,this after-treatment does not benefit every single color of this class1 but it helps greatly the fastness to light and to washing of almost all of them4 ,the chief objection to it1 besides the time and expense1 is that the shade of the finished goods is often considerably changed by the process4 ,properties and ,uses of the ,salt ,colors4--,generally speaking1 the shades produced by the individual members of this group cover all the colors of the rainbow and include several good greys4 ,it is hard1 however1 to get a full deep black on cotton or linen with these dyes1 without using the 8diazotizing and developing0 process of after-treatment4 ,the dyes go on the fibre in a soluble form1 and unless a developing process like this is used they combine directly with the fibre1 and do not form a coating or layer upon it1 as do some of the 8developed0 dyestuffs4 ,accordingly1 no matter how fully or how deeply we dye a piece of yarn or cloth with a black dye of this class1 the finished goods will show grey1 a very dark grey1 to be sure1 but still grey1 and not a flat1 heavy1 true black4 ,the color of most of the salt blacks is greatly improved1 however--as well as their fastness to light and washing--by soaking the dyed goods1 after rinsing1 in a solution containing four or five spoonfuls of formaldehyde to the gallon4 ,this same property1 however1 of combining directly with the fibre1 makes the colors brighter and more brilliant than many of the other classes1 especially in the lighter shades4 ,accordingly for bright1 pretty shades of pinks1 blues1 yellows1 and of mixed shades1 fast to light1 but not very fast to washing1 very easily and simply applied1 these colors are extremely valuable4 ,for instance1 in dyeing large quantities of bright colors on calico or cheesecloth1 for some special occasion1 as a pageant or spectacle1 these are the colors to use4 ,another great advantage they possess is that they dye true2 that is1 they do not alter their color when exposed to the air1 and the color of the finished goods can be fairly estimated from the color of the dye-bath4 ,accordingly1 the student is strongly urged to practise the art of dyeing with these colors4 ,they are cheap and can be readily obtained1 although not always of the very best quality1 under the name of ,diamond ,dyes for cotton1 ezy dyes1 etc41 from druggists and grocerymen all over the country4 ,they can be easily applied to cheesecloth1 muslin1 and other inexpensive materials1 and if care is taken to soak and boil the goods thoroughly1 to linens and heavy cottons4 ,in case of necessity they can be used on wool and silk1 but1 as a rule1 their use is limited to vegetable fibres4 ,they are particularly valuable to amateur dyers and to beginners in the art1 because they have great 8levelling0 power2 that is1 it is easy to dye evenly with them4 ,on the other hand1 it is a nuisance1 oftentimes1 to have to boil the goods1 and even then the colors are not really fast to washing4 ,at any rate1 before proceeding to the study of the more permanent but more complicated ,sulphur and ,vat colors1 the art of dyeing even and rainbow shades and at least the beginnings of the art of combining and matching shades should be carefully and conscientiously worked out with these often despised1 but really very useful and valuable1 ,salt colors4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,color ,,dyeing ,directly the student has mastered the instruction contained in the three previous chapters1 and can use the dyeing apparatus and the unmixed dyestuffs so as to get reasonably fast colors on cotton and linen goods1 it is time to attack the more difficult subject of dyeing to shade4 ,this art is not an easy one1 by any means1 and only a few fundamental principles can be learned from a book4 ,to make any real progress in it1 constant and continuous practice is necessary2 even then1 unless the student is naturally gifted with an eye capable of readily detecting any changes of color1 and has trained it to distinguish and identify the causes of such changes1 little success in the matching of colors can be hoped for4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that unless a dyer can match shades perfectly1 he cannot turn out very interesting and1 indeed1 beautiful results4 ,but it does mean that he will find it difficult1 if not impossible1 to reproduce such results1 and will be frequently handicapped in trying to utilize his dyeing skill and knowledge commercially4 ,the beginner thinks--not unnaturally perhaps--that in order to get any considerable variety of shades it is necessary to have on hand a large and varied assortment of dyestuffs2 and it is consequently a surprise to find that skilled workers keep in stock chiefly a good supply of blue1 yellow1 and red only4 ,black is convenient and useful1 but not essential1 excepting for special purposes4 ,by mixing these three 8primary0 colors it is possible to get every conceivable shade needed4 ,and another point1 which will be emphasized below and which is also likely to be a surprise1 is that practically every pretty and agreeable shade1 no matter how delicate1 is composed of all three of these primary colors4 ,blue and yellow produce green1 blue and red produce violet1 and yellow and red produce orange1 while the addition of the third or 8complementary0 color to any of these combinations of two makes grey1 when all three colors are perfectly balanced1 and when one color or another predominates1 it is greyed and softened by the presence of small quantities of the other two4 ,experiments with ,single ,colors ,the way to study color dyeing is1 first of all1 to get a clear idea of the effect of different strengths of each of these three primary colors in producing both light and dark shades of a single color4 ,this can be easily accomplished with the red1 blue1 and yellow of the ,salt dyes described in the last chapter4 ,dissolve each color separately and keep them in separate dye-pots so that you can readily dye pieces of cheesecloth or other cheap1 easy-dyeing materials any light1 medium1 or dark shade1 to serve as a basis for future comparisons4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,primary ,,colors ,two color shades--,red ,blue ,violet ,red ,yellow ,orange ,yellow ,blue ,green ,complementary colors--,red ,blue ,yellow ,grey ,red ,green ,blue ,orange ,grey ,yellow ,violet ,even ,dyeing4--,first wet the cloth or yarn thoroughly by soaking in hot water1 then rinse well and wring it dry--if necessary1 using a wringer4 ,the dyestuff should already be carefully dissolved in a little boiling water4 ,pour some of this solution 7not too much1 for the shades should all be pretty light7 into the dye-pot half full of lukewarm water4 ,then quickly and wholly immerse the wet material1 stirring and working about with the dye-sticks1 and let the whole heat steadily until it boils4 ,after a few minutes' boiling take out the material and rinse in cold water until it stops bleeding4 ,when this is carefully done1 good1 even1 and smooth shades will result4 ,shaded ,effects4--,of more real interest1 although an abomination to most professional dyers1 are the shaded effects4 ,instead of trying to get even1 smooth colors1 the cloth is intentionally dyed unevenly to get effects of light and shade in the color1 otherwise impossible4 ,this does not mean that a skein or piece of cloth badly dyed or discolored by some accident or carelessness should be proudly exhibited as a piece of really artistic dyeing1 as is done occasionally1 by some workers1 with painful results4 ,it is only when the work is done carefully and thoughtfully that shaded or so-called 8rainbow0 effects may be obtained upon skeins1 basket materials1 and cloth1 which are distinctly interesting and beautiful1 though very different from the regular work of the professional dyers4 ,many methods of obtaining unique results in this work will occur to the student1 after some practical experience4 ,perhaps the best way to begin is to take a piece of cheesecloth1 cut in the form of a scarf--say two yards or so in length--and hemmed on both ends1 if it is to be kept for exhibition or future use4 ,before it is wet1 tie it in a rather tight knot in the middle1 or1 if the scarf is long enough1 two knots about six or eight inches from each end4 ,for this first piece tie a very simple knot by merely folding the scarf over on itself and pulling the goods tight4 ,then wet the cloth thoroughly and dye quickly in the boiling dye-liquor2 rinse off1 and untie the knots4 ,the open part of the cloth will be found dyed the full strength1 and where there were knots there will be shaded places varying from the full color down to white4 ,another method is to take the wetted scarf in the middle and gradually lower the ends into the hot dye-liquor1 stopping just before the middle reaches the dye4 ,if carefully done this will give regularly shaded effects running from white or very light at the centre1 to heavy1 full shades at the ends4 ,of course1 if preferred1 the ends can be kept out of the dye-liquor and the middle portions immersed4 ,this will give a scarf that is dark in the centre and light at each end--which is not so good a color arrangement1 ordinarily1 as the light centre and dark ends4 ,the same can be done with a square piece of cloth1 well wetted3 this will shade in an interesting manner1 if held in the middle and dipped slowly and gradually4 ,further developments of this work1 known as 8,tied and ,dyed ,work10 are described in a following chapter4 ,experiments with the ,secondary ,colors ,after the above methods have been fairly mastered1 the student should make some experiments in which two of the primary colors are mixed together1 or better1 superimposed one on the other to show the 8secondary0 shades produced by these combinations4 ,this can be done by mixing the colors two by two1 until three baths of green1 violet1 and orange respectively are formed as before4 ,then try dyeing first for even colors and later for the shaded effects4 ,the most interesting experiments in this line are made by the so-called 8double shading0 method4 ,here the same baths of straight primary colors--red and blue and yellow--should be used as in the earlier experiments2 but the goods are first dyed in one bath1 and then after-dyed or 8topped0 in a second color4 ,a scarf of cheesecloth is good for a first attempt4 ,this1 well wet1 is held at one end and very slowly lowered into the hot bath1 until all but about six inches of the entire length is immersed in the dye4 ,this much is left free from color4 ,try a blue dye color for this series of shades1 fading evenly and smoothly from the deepest full blue at one end to a pure white at the other4 ,after rinsing with water till the bleeding is over1 reverse the scarf1 holding it by the opposite end1 and lower it slowly and gradually into a bath of1 let us say1 yellow1 keeping about six inches out of the dye as before4 ,this will produce a scarf shaded from clear blue at one end to clear yellow at the other end and showing the whole range of green shades produced by mixing these two colors1 along its length4 ,similar tests made with red and blue1 and then with red and yellow1 will emphasize to the student's mind the fact that green is formed from blue and yellow2 violet from red and blue2 and orange from red and yellow2 and that each combination gives an infinite variety of intermediate shades1 according to the comparative strength of the individual dyes4 ,matching ,colors ,the next step is to dye some pieces evenly with green1 violet1 and orange1 made by two of the primary colors1 and then to try matching these with fresh1 newly-mixed baths of the same dyes4 ,it will be found here that success depends upon going slowly2 and upon beginning with light shades and building the color up to the desired strength carefully1 by means of successive dippings4 ,note that the color of cloth when wet is much darker than when dry4 ,some dyers hold the wet cloth to the bright sky and look through it1 to get an idea of what the finished color will be like2 but positively certain and satisfactory results are arrived at only by wetting the sample to be matched or drying the piece that is being dyed1 so that both sample and piece are equally wet or dry1 while their color is being compared4 ,the real difficulty of color dyeing is not met with until the student tries to obtain shades embodying all three of the primary colors4 ,a very few experiments will quickly show that with most modern dyestuffs it is hard to get soft1 pleasant tones with the use of only two colors4 ,natural colors1 as we find them in the sky1 water1 meadow1 and woodlands1 are never pure2 they are invariably mixed4 ,and our eyes are so accustomed to them that shades dyed with simple or pure colors look hard1 cold1 and inharmonious4 ,mixtures of two colors are better and softer than single colors1 but still rather hard4 ,but when the secondary shade resulting from the combination of two primary colors is mixed with even a small quantity of the third primary color1 the result is invariably a soft and pleasing tone4 ,the above statements presuppose that it is possible1 in practice1 to obtain good dyestuffs in each class1 which are absolutely pure1 clean shades of blue1 yellow1 and red without any admixture whatever4 ,as a matter of fact1 while the artificial dyestuffs are much more pure1 and hence much more hard and brilliant than the best natural colors1 they still in many1 if not indeed1 in most cases1 when carefully studied1 show shades that are mixed and not pure4 ,it is very rare to find a blue that does not incline a little to the yellow 7a ,blue ,g as it would probably be labelled7 or else contain a trace of violet or red 7,blue ,r1 or ,,rr74 ,the reds are almost invariably either scarlets1 containing a trace of yellow1 or crimsons containing blue4 ,and the yellows1 also1 are very apt to tend towards orange or occasionally show a trace of green4 ,this1 of course1 complicates the problem for the practical dyer greatly1 and means that instead of being able to cover the whole range of shades with a red1 blue1 and yellow1 it is frequently1 if not always1 necessary to have some mixed colors1 giving sharp1 clear shades of violet1 green1 and orange respectively1 to obtain certain effects4 ,the following diagram will perhaps make this more clear4 ,in this the three primary colors have been divided1 each into two shades as indicated by the shade letters1 ,r meaning red1 ,b blue1 and ,g yellow 7,german gelb7 shades of the colors4 ,by combining these colors as shown in the table1 clean1 clear shades will be given1 whereas other combinations would be likely to spoil the shades4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,mixed ,,colors ,red ,b ,blue ,r ,violet ,blue ,r ,red ,b ,violet ,yellow ,r ,red ,g ,orange ,red ,b ,orange ,red ,g ,blue ,r ,green ,blue ,g ,yellow ,r ,green ,yellow ,g ,red ,g ,yellow ,r ,orange ,blue ,g ,violet ,blue ,r ,yellow ,b ,orange ,yellow ,r ,red ,g ,violet ,red ,b ,blue ,g ,yellow ,b ,green ,yellow ,b ,blue ,g ,green ,take1 for example1 a special case1 namely to turn a piece of crimson calico into a full rich scarlet4 ,the crimson color contains a great deal of red1 mixed with a little blue4 ,if the piece were after-dyed1 or 8topped10 with yellow1 even in small quantities1 the result would probably be 8muddy10 the yellow and blue together being in such strength as to seriously diminish the strength of the red1 and make it more or less brown in shade4 ,if1 however1 a reddish shade of orange were used for shading1 instead of yellow1 the red of the mixture would be constantly increased1 while the yellow was 8killing0 the blue1 i4e41 turning it1 with a little red1 into grey2 and before long the crimson1 or bluish shade of red1 would turn first into a true but softened red1 with neither blue nor yellow predominating1 and finally into a scarlet1 with distinct traces of yellow4 ,in making these ,three-color ,shades1 therefore1 the component parts of each dyestuff used must be studied2 and in every case care must be taken to have the third color1 whatever it is1 added in such minute quantities as only to soften and not to spoil the first shade4 ,a teaspoonful1 sometimes even a few drops of a solution of one strong color1 will generally be enough to soften1 and take the edge off1 some gallons of dye-liquor containing a hard1 clear mixture of the other two4 ,a cupful1 on the other hand1 or even two or three tablespoonfuls might utterly spoil the bath and turn it into 8mud10 as a dyer would say4 ,it is worth mentioning here that1 as a general thing1 it is distinctly more interesting to build up shades by dipping first in one bath1 and then topping with the second and the third color than it is to mix the different colors to the desired shade first and then dye the material in the single bath4 ,on a small scale there is the same difference1 although not so marked and less easily noticed1 as that between even dyeing and rainbow dyeing4 ,there is often a loss in regularity and evenness1 but the gain in life and light when one color shines through another which covers it more than compensates4 ,this overlaying is not so perceptible in the even dyeing of fine1 thin materials1 whether yarn or cloth2 but with coarse1 heavy yarns and thick textiles1 effects can be obtained by after-dyeing which cannot be approached when the goods are dyed in one bath4 ,matching ,shades4--,some people1 ,i believe1 go so far as to say that1 in order to be really expert at true shade matching when using the three colors in dyeing1 a dyer must have begun to learn the art in the person of his grandfather1 ninety or a hundred years ago1 and kept in practise ever since4 ,it certainly is true that heredity and early training both have a great deal to do with skill in this art1 and a good color dyer will show an almost uncanny instinct1 as he instantly picks out differences in shade which an untrained eye would never notice1 and without any hesitation prescribes the exact remedy for the defect4 ,still there are plenty of good1 even first-class dyers1 nowadays1 who have learned their art quite late in life1 with the aid of a good eye and intelligent perseverance4 ,the chief rule to remember is this3 ,red1 blue1 and yellow1 when mixed in equal strength1 make a neutral grey or black4 ,accordingly any one color will form grey or1 as we may say1 will neutralize1 or be complementary to a mixture of the other two4 ,thus red will form grey with green2 blue with orange1 and yellow with violet4 ,accordingly if there is too much red in the dye-bath1 it can be killed by the addition of a little green2 and vice versa4 ,the same is true with the other complementary colors4 ,if this simple rule be kept clearly in mind1 most of the problems of matching colors and of getting pleasant and harmonious shades can be worked out easily4 ,it is chiefly a matter of practice1 and perseverance4 ,the student is strongly advised to attack this study in three ways3 ,first1 mix the three primary colors together in one bath1 to form definite shades--grey1 brown1 olive green1 steel blue1 etc42 then dye the cloth in the bath to see how the colors look when on the materials and dried4 ,second1 to dye a piece of cloth one mixed shade and by topping with other colors1 to alter that shade to match some shade previously selected4 ,for instance1 dye a piece a good shade of reddish or copper brown1 and then try to 8kill0 the red in it without materially deepening the shade1 i4e41 change it from a copper brown to a greyish or dirt brown of about the same depth of color4 ,very pretty and instructive experiments can be made along this line of building up soft grey shades1 by dyeing the cloth successively in weak baths of the three primary colors4 ,as fast as one color predominates1 it can be killed by dipping into successive baths of the other two4 ,attractive scarfs and table covers can be made with a little care1 by knotting the material and dyeing light rainbow shades of the three colors1 one after the other1 changing the knots or tied portions after each bath4 ,properly done1 this will produce remarkably interesting1 opalescent effects1 each color being toned and softened by the other two1 although predominating in different parts of the material4 ,when1 in the operation of rainbow dyeing1 strongly contrasting colors have been used with unhappy results 7such as the red1 yellow1 and blue tri-color effects that some students will produce7 try the effects of toning1 or 8covering10 as it is often called1 with some soft1 neutral color which combines in itself all the contrasting tones1 or else with a color that is complementary to the most obnoxious one1 softening that one and strengthening the weaker shades4 ,grey1 of course1 can be used for this2 but in general1 a soft shade of brown will be found very valuable for taking the edge off of too violent contrasts4 ,the permanganate brown 7,manganese bronze71 described in the first chapter1 can be used with advantage for this purpose4 ,it is not difficult for a skilful dyer to match any desired shade by using three complementary colors1 red1 blue1 and yellow1 provided1 of course1 that these are pure and unmixed4 ,it often happens1 however1 that after matching carefully a soft mixed shade by daylight1 the colors appear entirely different when viewed by artificial light1 and especially by ordinary gaslight4 ,daylight1 as we are accustomed to it1 is comparatively evenly balanced in color1 is in fact a white light4 ,but artificial light as a rule is distinctly colored1 and it is difficult1 though now not impossible1 to find a light that so closely resembles daylight that colors can be matched at night4 ,if the light1 for instance1 has a bluish tinge1 like some kinds of electric light1 it will kill the corresponding orange in a shade1 while yellow light1 such as commonly results from the use of oil1 candles1 or gas 7less marked when incandescent mantles are used71 dulls and even blackens lavender1 violet1 and purple shades1 while having little or no effect upon yellow1 orange1 and green4 ,it is therefore advisable when matching shades that are to be used at night not to use three-color shades wherever that is possible1 but to get the desired soft effects by covering directly with grey 7i4e41 light shades of black7 on top of a single or two-color shade4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,sulphur ,,colors ,nearly thirty years ago one of the ,french color houses put on the market a new dyestuff which it named 8,cachou de ,laval02 ,cachou being the same as catechu or 8cutch10 the natural brown dyestuff long known and used in the ,east1 and ,laval being the name of the town in ,france where one of its discoverers was born4 ,this dyestuff was made by heating sawdust1 bran1 turf1 leaves1 or other vegetable substances with the strongly reducing alkaline salt1 sodium sulphide1 in the absence of air4 ,the product1 dissolved in water1 makes a dark green solution which1 after standing in the air a short time1 turns brown and deposits a fine brownish powder4 ,cotton or linen1 heated in a fresh solution of this dyestuff1 is colored green1 but1 when wrung out and exposed to air1 the green color1 which easily washes out1 changes into a very permanent1 though dull and uninteresting1 shade of greyish brown4 ,this ,cachou de ,laval was not a success1 commercially1 because of its poor color4 ,it existed1 however1 as a chemical curiosity for some twelve or fourteen years2 then suddenly1 within a few months or even weeks of one another1 all the great color houses put out a whole series of colors--chiefly browns1 blues1 yellows1 and blacks--all formed1 like this old 8,cachou de ,laval10 by the action of sodium sulphide or1 which amounts to the same thing1 of sulphur and caustic alkali1 upon organic material1 and all capable of dyeing cotton and linen1 in one bath1 colors extremely fast to washing and generally quite fast to light1 after they have been 8set0 by exposure to the air4 ,while in general these are known and identified as the ,sulphur colors1 the different manufacturers have given special class names to their own series thus3 ,immedial 7,cassella71 ,katigene 7,elberfeld71 ,kyrogene 7,badische71 ,pyrogene 7,klipstein71 ,thiogene 7,metz71 ,thion 7,kalle74 ,these colors are used almost exclusively for dyeing cotton and linen1 when shades fast to washing are required1 without first putting them through a mordanting process4 ,the dyeing is done in one bath1 with little more difficulty than in the case of the ,salt colors described in the last chapter2 and1 while not faster to light than the best of that class1 they are not nearly so liable to bleed4 ,on wool they are rarely1 if ever1 used4 ,wool is almost always dyed with the acid colors in an acid bath2 and nowadays the range of these colors is so great and the best of them are so very satisfactory1 that there is hardly ever a necessity for using colors of another class4 ,neither are these ,sulphur colors often used on silk1 although methods have been devised for employing them in special cases4 ,all the animal fibres1 however1 and silk especially1 are very easily 8tendered10 and indeed destroyed1 by heating in an alkaline solution4 ,and so it is very easy to spoil a skein or piece of silk by dyeing it1 in the usual manner1 with these dyes1 dissolved as they must be in the strongly alkaline sodium sulphide4 ,the presence in the bath of glucose 7corn syrup1 molasses1 etc471 or of glue or gelatine1 helps greatly to protect these fibres from the action of the chemicals4 ,but even when dyed with great care1 using glucose1 and dyeing the goods for but a short time in a bath strong in color but weak in alkali1 the results are not very satisfactory1 so far as shade and lustre are concerned4 ,they have the advantage1 however1 of being extremely fast to washing1 more so1 even1 than the ,salt colors4 ,in general1 however1 silk should be dyed with the ,acid colors for ordinary work1 and with the ,salt colors when fastness to washing is required4 ,the ,sulphur colors should be reserved for cotton and linen4 ,on mercerized cotton and artificial silk these dyestuffs take easily and well1 when dyed in cold or lukewarm baths4 ,the lustre1 however1 of the finished goods is apt to be less than when ,salt colors or ,basic colors are used4 ,,dyeing ,,directions ,for cotton and linen1 measure out the color and dissolve it in hot water to which has been added twice its amount of sodium sulphide 7crystals7 and a quarter or third the amount of soda ash4 7,in all these formul washing soda may be used in place of soda ash--only in quantities almost twice as large47 ,it is advisable1 though not absolutely necessary1 to add also to the dye-bath one or two tablespoonfuls of ,turkey red oil--a kind of liquid soap made by treating castor oil first with sulphuric acid and then with soda4 ,this prevents the formation of a dark scum on the surface of the dye-liquor1 which is likely to cause streaks in the finished goods1 hard to wash out4 ,into the dye-liquor immerse the well-wetted goods1 and heat them1 turning them constantly1 and keeping them as far as possible away from the air and under the level of the liquid4 ,just before the boiling point is reached take out the goods1 and add salt in the proportion of1 say1 two spoonfuls of salt for every teaspoonful of dyestuff used4 ,stir till the salt is all dissolved1 put the goods back1 and continue to turn them as before1 keeping the goods down under the liquor and not allowing it to boil4 ,after dyeing just below the boiling point for fifteen minutes1 remove the heat1 take out the goods1 and--as quickly as possible--run them carefully backward and forward through the wringer 7changing the folds of the goods each time7 until the excess of dye liquor is entirely squeezed out4 ,then shake them out1 hang them up for fifteen or twenty minutes in the air to oxidize and 8set10 and after this wash them thoroughly in a bath of boiling soapsuds until all the loose color has been removed4 ,finally1 rinse them free from soap1 and hang up to dry4 ,when light shades are desired1 or when the goods are tender1 the dyeing can be done at lukewarm temperature1 and without the addition of salt1 with no detriment to the fastness of the color4 ,in this case1 however1 much of the dyestuff will be wasted in the unexhausted dye-liquor4 ,list of ,selected ,dyestuffs4-- ,badische-- ,kyrogene ,brown1 ,r ,r ,o ,kyrogene ,yellow1 ,g ,g1 extra ,kyrogene ,direct ,blue1 #c ,b1 extra ,kyrogene ,black1 ,t ,g ,o ,cassella-- ,immedial ,bordeaux1 ,g ,immedial ,yellow ,olive1 #e ,g ,immedial ,direct ,blue1 ,b ,elberfeld--,katigen ,yellow1 ,g ,f1 extra ,katigen ,indigo1 ,c ,l ,g1 extra ,katigen ,deep ,black1 ,b ,kalle-- ,thio ,indigo ,red1 ,b ,thion ,yellow1 #c ,g1 extra ,thion ,blue1 ,b1 conc4 ,thion ,black1 ,g1 conc4 ,metz-- ,thiogene ,brown1 ,g ,r ,thiogene ,gold ,yellow1 ,a ,thiogene ,green1 ,g ,thiogene ,cyanine1 ,g ,thiogene ,black1 ,m ,a1 extra strong ,these ,sulphur colors are particularly strong in various shades of black1 blue1 and brown4 ,some of the yellow shades1 also1 are very fast and good4 ,the class is deficient1 however1 in reds--the only one so far discovered being ,thio ,indigo ,red ,b 7,kalle71 which really belongs to the ,indigo or ,vat colors1 described in the next chapter1 and which does not give very powerful shades when used as a ,sulphur color4 ,as a rule1 these dyes produce shades that are softer1 deeper1 and much less brilliant than those of the ,direct ,cotton or ,salt colors4 ,being usually mixed1 and not simple primary1 colors1 they are not very easy to dye to shade1 especially as the color of the freshly dyed goods changes considerably while it is being oxidized4 ,on the other hand1 they give1 without mixing1 extremely pleasant tones1 and are all very fast to washing and1 at any rate as regards the selected colors1 are fast to light4 ,when exposed to strong direct sunlight some even of the best of them are liable to change their shade somewhat2 but even then they will be found to fade to nice1 soft shades not out of harmony with the original4 ,when very great fastness to light is necessary1 it may be worth while to after-treat them as described in ,chapter ,,iii1 by keeping the dyed goods for twenty or thirty minutes in a hot bath 7not boiling7 containing small amounts of copper sulphate1 bichromate of potash1 and acetic acid4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,indigo ,,or ,,vat ,,colors ,history4--,most of the colors of this group have been discovered and put on the market within the last two years4 ,thus they form the most recent as well as1 in many respects1 the most interesting and1 perhaps1 the most important class of modern dyestuffs4 ,on the other hand1 to this same group belong not only indigo itself1 which has been known and valued in the ,east from the earliest ages1 but also that most famous of all the ancient dyestuffs1 ,tyrian ,purple4 ,indigo itself does not exist as such in nature2 but it is easily formed by oxidation1 or the exposure to air1 of a substance--,indican--which occurs as such1 or can be produced by a simple process of fermentation1 in the juices of many widely distributed plants4 ,accordingly1 even quite barbarous races in different parts of the world noticed the deep permanent blue stains formed on their bodies and clothing when they crushed1 accidentally or on purpose1 the leaves and stems of the various ,indigofer4 ,gradually they learned to extract the color in a solid and permanent form so that they could dye with it1 instead of using the juice of the fresh plant itself--and then they took to cultivating the plants4 ,these plants--,indigofera ,anil1 ,i4 tinctoria1 and others originally found wild have been1 up to the last four or five years1 extensively cultivated in many tropical countries1 notably in ,india 7some of the best qualities came from the province of ,bengal1 and hence the common name for the natural dyestuff--,bengal ,indigo71 ,japan1 ,china1 ,java1 ,south and ,central ,america1 and ,africa4 ,from these plants the indigo of commerce1 in the form of dark blue granular lumps with a characteristic coppery lustre1 was prepared by a comparatively simple process of fermentation1 extraction1 and oxidation4 ,indigo may also be obtained1 although in small quantities only1 and in an impure condition1 from other plants4 ,notably among these is ,isatis tinctoria1 or woad1 which in early days was extensively cultivated in ,england and the ,continent1 and which1 even now1 is used in small quantities in some processes of indigo dyeing4 ,artificial ,indigo4--,the exact composition of indigo was first determined some sixty years ago1 and from that time on some of the greatest chemists of the world have been attempting to prepare it1 artificially1 from some comparatively inexpensive source1 obtained from coal tar or elsewhere4 ,as early as #ahge the problem was solved1 at least from a scientific standpoint1 but the process proved too expensive for commercial purposes4 ,during the last five years1 however1 at least two of the great ,german firms have discovered methods for making1 in any desired quantities and at very reasonable expense1 absolutely pure indigo from some of the important coal-tar derivatives4 ,and since that time the cultivation of the indigo plant has proved so unprofitable that it has been almost entirely abandoned1 and the land formerly used for this crop is being turned over to other and1 at present1 more useful purposes4 ,this synthesis--i4e41 chemical formation--of indigo from coal-tar products has been justly regarded as one of the great triumphs of modern science4 ,right here let me impress upon my readers this fact3 the real dyestuff1 indigo1 is absolutely the same material1 whether it comes mixed with a great mass of impurities1 as in the woad2 or whether it contains from #e to #be per cent4 of foreign matter of little or no value1 as in the ,bengal or natural indigo2 or whether we get it from ,metz or the ,badische ,company1 chemically pure1 either in the dry state or1 thinned with water1 in the form of a #bj per cent4 paste4 ,it is positively the same dye2 and being absolutely without contamination of any kind1 the artificial or synthetic dyestuff presents advantages in the matter of purity of shade1 ease and surety of manipulation1 and permanence of the color produced1 which could never be obtained before its introduction4 ,application of ,indigo4--,the principles of indigo dyeing are the same now as with the ,egyptians1 the only difference being in the means used to bring about the chemical changes involved4 ,indigo itself is a blue solid1 insoluble in water1 acids1 and alkalies1 and practically unaffected by sunlight4 ,if1 however1 the element hydrogen be added to it1 or1 as the chemist would say1 if it is 8reduced0 by the action of any one of numerous deoxidizing or reducing agents1 the indigo blue is changed to a new substance1 indigo white1 which is almost colorless1 and which dissolves1 in the presence of alkalies1 to a bright yellow liquid4 ,if cotton1 wool1 paper1 wood1 or indeed almost any solid materials 7noticeably the fingers and nails1 as some of my readers may find out71 are immersed in the solution1 they will absorb some of this indigo white1 and then1 on exposure to the air1 the white indigo will rapidly take up oxygen1 and become converted into the insoluble blue coloring matter4 ,fermentation ,method4--,until recently the methods used for reducing the indigo--i4e41 changing the solid blue into the soluble white--were just about the same as those used by the ancients1 and were based upon some kind of fermentation1 usually alcoholic4 ,it was found out at a very early date that if indigo1 ground up with water to a paste and rendered alkaline by the addition of wood ashes1 lime1 or other simple alkali1 were mixed with grape juice or any other sugary liquid1 and then kept warm and allowed to ferment1 the resulting fluid would contain the dyestuff dissolved in a form suitable for dyeing4 ,the vessel in which this process was conducted was known as a vat1 and the process of indigo dyeing is still called 8,vat ,dyeing40 ,disadvantages4--,at the very best this method is slow1 uncertain1 and difficult to manage1 especially on a small scale4 ,in wool dyeing1 to this day1 a few vats are still to be found where syrup1 ground madder root or1 in some instances1 woad1 wheat bran1 and other materials which ferment readily in the presence of alkali1 are stirred up with warm water and soda1 and then allowed to stand4 ,in two or three days they are in active fermentation1 and the indigo1 in the form of paste1 is added and well stirred in4 ,after much further delay1 if all goes well1 the indigo is finally 8reduced10 and1 if the amount of alkali1 the temperature1 the concentration of the vat1 and various other factors are carefully attended to1 the bath can be used for several days1 or even weeks1 without being made over again2 fresh indigo and other ingredients being added1 from time to time1 as needed4 ,cotton1 linen1 wool1 and even silk can be dipped in this bath1 which should be light greenish yellow in color1 with a blue or bluish-green scum or coating1 where the indigo is oxidized on the surface4 ,goods immersed in this bath turn yellow1 and then1 when taken out1 wrung free from loose liquor1 and exposed to the air1 the yellow color quickly changes to a permanent blue4 ,a serious drawback to all these various fermentation vats is that a good deal of the dyestuff is always spoilt--i4e41 decomposed into colorless compounds which can never be regenerated or made useful4 ,indeed1 the loss from this cause frequently amounts to #bj or #be of all the dye used1 and occasionally1 especially in hot weather1 and on a small scale1 to far more4 ,but1 apart from the actual loss in valuable dyestuff1 there is a much more serious drawback to this method of indigo dyeing1 namely1 the waste of time and energy involved4 ,there is always a considerable delay in getting a fermentation vat fairly started1 even where all the conditions are favorable2 and when it is running smoothly1 the reducing process is a very slow one4 ,furthermore1 the indigo1 not being dissolved in the liquid but only suspended in it1 has a constant tendency to sink to the bottom in the form of a blue mud1 and thus escape the chemical action of the fermentation gases entirely4 ,a short time ago a teacher of handicraft dyeing was expatiating1 in my presence1 upon the impropriety of using any of the new chemical processes for dyeing1 and insisted that the only way to dye indigo was to set up a vat1 and feed it1 and work with it as our ancestors used to4 ,it was suggested to her that it would be at least two or three days before cloth could be dyed in such a vat4 8,eight or ten days at the earliest10 was the reply4 ,and when it was hinted that the vat would have to be frequently stirred during all that time1 she proudly answered1 8,stirred regularly and thoroughly every single half-hour1 night and day1 during the whole period40 8,h--m10 remarked a bystander1 8that's a little worse than sitting up with a baby sick of the croup40 ,somehow the great advantage of this particular process over the modern ones1 by which a proper bath can be prepared in perhaps five minutes1 failed to impress itself on some of her listeners4 ,modern ,chemical ,vats4--,as soon as it was understood just what chemical action was going on in the vats1 and the object of it1 chemists began to find out methods for reducing the indigo without the necessity of a long1 tedious1 and even nasty fermentation process4 ,they first introduced the 8copperas-lime0 vat1 where the reduction was done by the use of ferrous sulphate 7green vitriol or copperas71 and slaked lime was the alkali used to keep the indigo white dissolved4 ,later they introduced zinc dust1 a very powerful reducing agent1 in place of the copperas1 avoiding in this way the large amount of precipitated iron oxide which always forms in the copperas vat1 and leads to the loss of dye1 and muddiness and dulness of color1 necessitating a special clearing bath of dilute mineral acid4 ,at present the most satisfactory method is to use the chemical known as sodium hydrosulphite1 as a reducing agent1 in a bath made strongly alkaline with caustic soda4 ,hydrosulphite is not expensive2 it acts very rapidly1 leaving no sediment2 it causes no loss or waste of the indigo2 and it does its work perfectly4 ,hence1 with its introduction1 the dyeing of indigo has become extremely simple4 ,to still further shorten and simplify the process1 the large manufacturers not only furnish indigo already ground up to a fine paste with water1 but also supply it already reduced by hydrosulphite or some other reducing agent1 so that it is almost ready to dye with as it is1 and will dissolve almost instantaneously in an alkaline bath with the addition of just a little more reducing agent4 ,such products are the ,indigo ,vat ,,iii 7,metz71 and the ,indigo ,solution #bj 7,badische74 ,by using either of these1 the preparation of a vat large enough to dye #c or #c pounds of cotton is the task of but a few moments4 ,these special preparations1 however1 are more expensive than the regular #bj pastes1 and the hydrosulphite vat is so easy to prepare that the saving of time is hardly worth the extra cost4 ,,dyeing ,,directions ,for dyeing by the ,vat method the dye-pot is two-thirds filled with warm water1 at about #abj ,f4 7when the finger can hardly bear the heat71 and one or two tablespoonfuls of caustic soda are added--enough to make the bath decidedly alkaline4 ,the dyestuff1 preferably first mixed up with some hot water1 to thin the paste1 is stirred into the liquid1 and then to this is added sodium hydrosulphite1 in powder1 or preferably dissolved in water1 until the color of the bath changes from blue1 first to green1 and then to greenish yellow1 with a bluish-green coppery scum4 ,if the bath is bright yellow1 too much hydrosulphite has been used1 and some more indigo should be added2 or1 if this is not desirable for fear of getting too dark shades1 the bath should be exposed to the air and stirred frequently until the color is right4 ,if the bath1 on scraping aside the scum1 looks blue1 or even markedly green1 it needs a little more hydrosulphite4 ,if1 after reduction1 the bath looks yellow but turbid1 it probably needs more alkali4 ,into this bath the material is placed1 and stirred around until thoroughly saturated--the temperature being kept about #abj ,f4 for heavy goods1 to assist penetration4 ,light goods can be dyed equally well in a lukewarm1 or even a cold bath4 ,the goods are then taken out1 wrung lightly by hand1 and are carefully passed two or three times through the wringer1 to get the color evenly distributed4 ,they are then shaken out and hung up in the air to oxidize4 ,in fifteen or twenty minutes1 after the color has changed1 they should be rinsed well in two or three waters1 to get rid of all traces of the caustic alkali1 and then boiled for several minutes in a soap bath1 to wash off the loose dyestuff and prevent rubbing4 ,this after-treatment with boiling soapsuds is of even more importance in the case of the other ,vat dyes than it is with indigo1 for with most of them the oxidation is not completed in the air--and so the color is developed as well as brightened by the soap bath4 ,it is very important1 when working with these ,vat colors1 to remember that hot solutions of caustic alkali are very hard on the hands and that1 therefore1 rubber gloves are extremely useful1 if not essential4 ,stains left on hands1 clothes1 and utensils1 although difficult to remove by washing1 are almost instantly dissolved by warm solutions of hydrosulphite with a little soda or other alkali in them4 ,results4--,colors produced by synthetic indigo are clear and clean1 but not brilliant4 ,if the slightly purplish shades of natural indigo are desired1 they can be obtained with special brands--,indigo ,r1 or ,indigo ,,rr1 ,metz--or by mixing small quantities of ,algol ,red ,b1 ,elberfeld1 or ,thio ,indigo ,red ,b1 ,kalle1 with the indigo before reducing it4 ,it is generally supposed that the characteristic shade1 the so-called 8bloom0 of natural indigo1 was due to the presence of small quantities of a reddish dyestuff1 known as indigo red4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the method of dyeing has more to do with this than the composition of the dyestuff4 ,for instance1 if the indigo is very thoroughly reduced in the vat before the goods are immersed1 as is generally the case in the modern hydrosulphite method1 and the bath is made up with fresh reducing agent for each dyeing1 the resultant color will be a very clear1 rather greyish1 shade of blue without any purple lustre4 ,if1 however1 the dyestuff is not very perfectly reduced1 as was generally the case with the old fermentation vats1 and the bath1 from standing in the air1 has a heavy scum on the top1 and is greenish rather than clear yellow in color below the surface1 then the dyed fabrics will be apt to show the marked purplish tone which is so characteristic of the older indigo dyeings4 ,uses4--,while of less importance than it used to be before the discoveries of the last few years1 the use of indigo for dyeing cotton1 especially for the craftsman1 is not to be neglected4 ,it furnishes1 easily and rapidly1 in one bath1 without either boiling1 mordanting1 or after-treatment1 exceedingly pleasant1 soft shades which are fast to both light and washing4 ,for resist dyeing1 such as ,tied and ,dyed work1 ,resist ,stencil work1 and ,batik1 it will be found particularly useful1 because the fabric can be dyed in the cold4 ,indigo possesses1 however1 certain disadvantages1 especially for the professional dyer1 which it shares with the other ,vat dyes described below1 and which prevent it1 and the other ,vat dyes1 from being used as widely as the ,salt colors or even the ,sulphur colors4 ,in the first place these dyes are all of them expensive4 ,they cost more than most others1 pound for pound of the dry color1 and full shades need much larger proportions of them in the bath4 ,then it is difficult to dye to shade with them1 because the color1 as a rule1 alters so much when exposed to the air4 ,in practice1 when dyeing large quantities of goods to the same shade1 it is customary to divide the materials into several lots of the same weight2 and to make a strong 8stock solution0 of the dyestuff1 properly reduced with alkali and hydrosulphite4 ,by making up a fresh vat for each lot of goods1 using exactly the same volume of water and of 8stock solution10 and working each lot for the same length of time and at the same temperature1 even results can be produced with much less trouble than by dyeing to shade by the eye4 ,another drawback is that indigo-dyed goods1 especially of the heavy full shades1 are apt to 8rub40 ,this can best be avoided by always using a well-reduced bath2 by washing with boiling soap after each dip2 and by building up the deep shades by successive dippings in moderately weak vats1 rather than by obtaining the shade1 once for all1 by using a very strong1 concentrated dye-liquor4 ,for many hundreds1 and even thousands1 of years1 indigo has been universally recognized as the most permanent and most valuable blue dyestuff for cotton and indeed for woolen goods4 ,for the latter purpose it is now but little used1 thanks to the introduction of the exceedingly fast dyestuffs of the ,acid and ,mordant classes4 ,but for cotton it is still considerably used1 for fast shades4 ,,the ,,modern ,,vat ,,colors ,up to a very recent date indigo was the only dyestuff1 of any importance at any rate1 that was used in the manner just described1 and produced colors fast to light and to washing4 ,during the past three or four years1 however1 the attention of the dyeing chemists has been directed to this question1 and at least five of the great dye houses have introduced dyestuffs covering a great range of colors which1 when dyed in the same way as indigo1 not only rival but distinctly surpass that color in permanence as well as beauty4 ,names4--,these dyestuffs1 while known generally as the ,vat colors1 have been given special class names by their manufacturers1 as follows3 ,algol 7,elberfeld72 ,ciba 7,klipstein72 ,helindone 7,metz72 ,indanthrene 7,badische71 and ,thio ,indigo 7,kalle74 ,the ,cassella ,company are just introducing the first members of their series1 to be known as ,hydrons4 ,list of ,selected ,dyestuffs3-- ,badische-- ,indanthrene ,claret1 ,b1 ,extra ,indanthrene ,yellow1 ,g ,indanthrene ,blue1 ,g ,c ,d 99,indigo pure ,cassella-- 99,hydrone ,blue1 ,r 99,hydrone ,blue1 ,g ,elberfeld-- ,algol ,red1 #e ,g ,algol ,yellow1 #c ,g ,algol ,blue1 #c ,g ,kalle-- 99,thio ,indigo ,red1 ,b ,g 99,thio ,indigo ,scarlet1 ,s ,thio ,indigo ,brown1 ,g 99,indigo1 ,k ,g ,klipstein-- ,ciba ,red1 ,g ,cibanone ,yellow1 ,r ,ciba ,green1 ,g ,ciba ,blue1 #b ,b ,ciba ,violet1 ,r ,metz-- ,helindone ,red1 #c ,b ,helindone ,fast ,scarlet1 ,r 99,helindone ,yellow1 #c ,g ,n 99,indigo ,m ,l ,b1 #f ,b ,n4,b4--,the dyestuffs marked 99 will dye in a lukewarm or even cold bath4 ,properties and ,uses4--,these ,vat dyes are not all of equal value1 but as a class they are1 distinctly1 the fastest of any as yet introduced2 and the best of them may properly be considered as the most permanent coloring agents of any sort or kind that have ever yet appeared on the earth4 ,they not only far surpass in this respect the best of the vegetable dyestuffs1 with the possible exception of the very best qualities of ,turkey red1 but in resistance to chemicals and outside agencies of various sorts1 are much better than the best mineral colors4 ,this is so much the case that the modern specifications for dyed cloth for ,government purposes1 as for instance the khaki uniforms for soldiers in active service1 which up to a year or two ago were dyed with iron buff modified with oxide of chromium1 have been raised1 in one country after another1 until they exclude every class of dyestuffs except these new ,vat colors4 ,during the last year or two these dyes have been introduced1 though with some difficulty1 into commerce1 and it is possible to obtain shirtings and other printed goods1 dyed in permanent colors1 so permanent indeed that the cloth will wear completely out before the color changes in the slightest4 ,the extra cost of the dyestuffs1 and the comparative difficulty of dyeing to shade1 furnish an excuse for increasing the price of the goods4 ,and the perhaps not unnatural disinclination of the shopkeepers to push the sale of materials which1 in their opinion1 are quite unnecessarily fast1 has combined with the cost to delay the general adoption of these remarkably valuable coloring agents4 ,for craftsmen1 however1 where the price of the dyestuffs constitutes such a small percentage of the cost of the finished article1 and where the absolute permanence of the color is of the utmost importance1 these colors are most useful4 ,they are not to be used1 excepting under special circumstances1 for animal fibres--wool1 silk1 leather1 feathers1 etc4--for fear of injuring the materials by the action of the caustic alkali4 ,but on cotton and linen1 both in direct or resist dyeing1 and for stencil work1 there are no colors to compare with them in fastness1 not excepting even the very best of the ,sulphur colors4 ,,dyeing ,,directions ,these dyes are all applied1 just like indigo1 in an alkaline hydrosulphite vat4 ,the colors are applied in paste form1 usually #bj strong1 or at any rate equivalent in strength to a #bj paste of pure indigo4 ,care must be taken to thoroughly mix and stir up this paste with a glass rod1 in the original package1 each time it is used1 so as to keep its composition uniform4 ,the proper amount1 to be determined only by experience1 is first thinned with a little hot water1 and then stirred into the dye-pot1 two-thirds full of hot water1 about #adj ,f4 7,this is well below a boil1 and yet hot enough to slightly scald the tips of the fingers47 ,to this is added caustic soda1 in the proportion of two to three spoonfuls to each one of the color1 the amount of soda being proportionately greater for light shades than where large amounts of color are used4 ,after this has been dissolved the dyestuff is reduced by adding slowly1 with constant stirring1 spoonful after spoonful of the powdered sodium hydrosulphite until the bath clears and generally the color changes4 ,in most cases1 as with indigo1 the completion of the reducing change can be told by a marked alteration in the shade of the bath4 ,thus1 in general1 the blue dyes1 like indigo1 turn yellow or orange when the proper amount of hydrosulphite is added4 ,for the other colors there is no general rule4 ,thus ,indanthrene ,yellow 7,badische71 when reduced1 is blue--while the ,helindone ,yellow 7,metz7 is blood red4 ,helindone ,scarlets 7,metz71 when reduced1 appear green1 while the ,thio ,indigo ,red and ,scarlet have about the same color1 when reduced1 that they have when oxidized4 ,the best way to tell whether the bath is in proper condition is to dip a piece of white blotting paper into it1 and notice1 on taking it out1 whether the color is in specks or is dissolved4 ,on standing in the air for a few minutes the color should become oxidized1 and firmly fixed to the paper4 ,as a rule these ,vat colors should be reduced warm1 because1 in many cases at least1 the reduced color does not dissolve in a bath of cold alkali4 ,in most cases1 however1 after having been reduced at a temperature of about #adj ,f1 the bath may be allowed to cool considerably1 before it loses its dyeing value4 ,this enables these colors to be used for ,batik1 or other processes where the temperature must be kept below #hj or #ij ,f4 ,the dyestuffs which can be thus used will be found marked with an asterisk in the list of selected dyestuffs above4 ,the well-wetted materials are placed in the reduced dye-bath1 and stirred and worked for five or ten minutes1 or longer1 according to the depth of shade experienced4 ,for full shades1 however1 as in the case of indigo1 it is much better to build up the color by successive dippings than to try to put it all on in one bath4 ,for heavy goods the addition of a little ,turkey red oil1 about half a tablespoonful to the gallon1 is an advantage1 though not absolutely necessary4 ,when thoroughly impregnated with the dye-liquor1 the goods are taken out1 wrung carefully1 two or three times1 to remove the waste liquor as evenly as possible1 and then shaken out and exposed to the air for fifteen or twenty minutes4 ,they are then boiled in a soap bath for about twenty minutes1 and then well rinsed1 and dried4 ,this hot soap bath1 as before mentioned1 is of great importance in most of these colors1 not only for getting rid of loosely fixed dyestuff1 but for oxidizing and fixing the color itself4 ,for dark shades it is well1 as in the case of the ,sulphur colors1 to add salt--three or four tablespoonfuls per gallon of dye-liquor--to the bath1 taking care to have it well dissolved before the goods are entered4 ,this is always done when dyeing with ,helindone ,yellow #c;,,gn1 ,metz4 ,the shades of these new ,vat colors are extremely bright and clear1 and1 by combining these properly1 any desired effects may be produced4 ,the splendid series of reds and scarlets for the first time allow the characteristic shades of ,turkey red to be obtained1 in one bath1 and of at least equal1 if not of superior fastness to the original4 ,one peculiarity of these colors is their extreme fastness1 not only to light and washing1 acids and alkalies1 but also to various oxidizing agents1 such as chloride of lime or bleaching powder4 ,accordingly goods properly dyed and finished with these dyestuffs can be entrusted with safety1 so far as the color goes1 to agencies which would speedily ruin fabrics dyed in any other manner4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,basic ,,colors ,in an earlier chapter it was mentioned that the modern dyestuffs originated with the discovery by ,perkin1 in #ahef1 of the violet coloring matter known as ,mauveine4 ,this dye was made by the oxidation of the then rare chemical1 aniline4 ,following this discovery1 other chemists1 especially in ,france and ,germany1 soon obtained from the same chemical or from substances very closely resembling it1 a considerable quantity of powerful and brilliant dyestuffs of the same general character4 ,the original ,mauveine was before long superseded1 first by ,hofmann's ,violet1 and then by a very important series of violet and purple dyes known as ,methyl ,violet1 with shades ranging from #f or #g;,b for the deep1 full purples1 to the #f or #g,r for the very red shades4 ,these violet colors have never been surpassed1 or even equalled by any other dyes for brilliancy and richness1 although1 in common with almost all the other dyes of this class1 they are not fast to sunlight4 ,another extremely powerful and brilliant color of this class1 used considerably to this day although discovered nearly fifty years ago1 is the dye often called1 from its origin1 ,aniline ,red4 ,it was1 however1 named by the ,german manufacturers1 ,fuchsine1 from its rich1 full1 crimson shades1 resembling the deep tints of the flower1 fuchsia1 while the ,french1 who discovered and manufactured it soon after the close of ,louis ,napoleon's ,italian campaign1 called it ,magenta1 after the famous victory of that name4 ,about this time some ,german chemists discovered and introduced a full1 rich1 brown dye1 still largely used for dyeing leather 7kid gloves and the like71 and1 naturally enough1 gave it the name of ,bismarck ,brown4 ,and at approximately the same date was discovered the very valuable blue dyestuff1 perhaps the best of the whole class1 with quite a range of full1 deep shades1 and with considerable fastness to light1 called ,methylene ,blue4 ,general ,properties4--,the early colors of this group are the dyestuffs properly known as the 8,aniline ,colors0 because of their origin2 although this name has been applied1 loosely1 to all of the thousands of artificial dyestuffs without regard to their source of composition4 ,to the chemist1 their chemical structure and their behavior toward reagents1 such as acids and alkalies1 naturally suggested the name 8,basic ,colors40 ,this means that they are substances with strong affinity for all sorts of acids1 with which they form more or less stable salts1 while they can be liberated from these salts by the action of stronger bases1 such as ammonia1 or the fixed alkalies1 soda and potash4 ,application4--,these facts were discovered by ,perkin while trying to introduce his ,mauveine into the dyeing industry1 and he discovered the methods1 used to this day1 for applying these dyes to the different textile materials4 ,he found that the dyes of this class have a strong affinity for the different animal fibres1 such as wool1 silk1 leather1 etc41 all of which seem to possess some acid properties of their own2 but pure vegetable materials1 like cotton1 linen1 and paper1 from which all impurities such as vegetable acids1 gums1 etc41 have been removed1 have no affinity at all for even the most powerful of the ,basic dyes4 ,a cotton handkerchief1 boiled for hours in a strong solution of ,methyl ,violet1 can be washed in a few minutes clear of every particle of color1 while a piece of silk or wool1 soaked for an instant in the same dye-bath1 will be permanently stained1 deep and full4 ,cotton1 ,linen1 etc4--,in order to fasten these dyes to vegetable fibre it is necessary to give the latter a distinctly acid character1 and this was done by ,perkin in a manner still used4 ,he steeped the material for several hours in a hot bath of the acid vegetable compound1 tannic acid or tannin1 found so largely in hemlock and chestnut bark1 sumac leaves1 nut-galls1 and the like2 and then loosely fixed the tannin1 thus absorbed1 by a weak bath of tartar emetic4 ,cotton or linen fabrics1 thus 8mordanted10 will combine with the ,basic dyes as readily and as firmly as any animal fibre1 and the resulting colors1 while not1 as a rule1 fast to light1 are extremely fast to washing4 ,since the introduction of the direct cotton dyes1 both ,salt colors and ,sulphur colors1 this method of dyeing1 for skeins or piece goods1 has been largely discontinued2 but1 by using a modification of this process1 enormous quantities of ,basic colors are still employed1 on cotton and linen1 in the manufacture of calicoes1 organdies1 and other printed fabrics4 ,curiously enough the ,salt and the ,sulphur colors1 in almost every instance1 possess sufficient acid properties of their own to act as very fair mordants for the ,basic colors4 ,accordingly1 it is not uncommon for dyers to 8top10 with ,basic colors1 cotton or linen goods dyed directly4 ,in the case of the ,salt colors1 this increases their fastness to washing1 and with ,sulphur colors it makes the shades more brilliant4 ,most vegetable materials that are used in a more or less natural condition1 like straw1 raffia1 grass1 wood-shavings1 jute1 and the like1 contain enough of this natural tannic acid to act as a mordant for the ,basic colors1 which may in this direction be used as direct dyes4 ,wool1 ,silk1 etc4--,for animal fibres1 such as wool1 silk1 furs1 feathers1 etc41 the ,basic colors have been almost entirely superseded1 in commerce1 by the class of dyestuffs known as the ,acid colors4 ,these occur in much greater abundance and variety1 and can be applied with less danger of spoiling the goods by uneven results4 ,for leather1 on the other hand1 the ,basic colors are still largely used1 especially for dark shades1 or when fastness to light is not particularly desired4 ,on bark-tanned leather1 which is full of tannic acid1 they take hold particularly well1 and are often more convenient to work with than the ,acid colors1 although they do not1 as a rule1 give such even results4 ,uses4--,on a small scale it is hardly worth while for the amateur to try to use these ,basic colors for dyeing either cotton or linen4 ,the difficulty of correctly and evenly mordanting the goods is quite as great as that of applying the dyes afterward4 ,and the ,sulphur colors and ,vat colors will be found quite as fast to washing as the best mordanted ,basic colors1 with the additional advantage of being very much faster to light1 as well as easier of application4 ,by using some of the methods of the calico printer1 it is possible to employ these dyes1 with some success1 for stencilling4 ,but even for this purpose1 excepting1 perhaps1 on silk1 the modern ,vat colors are more convenient1 as well as being infinitely more permanent to light4 ,disadvantages4--,the chief drawback to the use of these dyes is that they are not fast to light4 ,several of them--,methylene ,blue1 for instance1 and ,methylene ,heliotrope ,o 7,metz7--are fairly fast1 but the rest1 especially in light shades1 and on transparent or translucent fabrics1 are liable1 when exposed to sunlight for any length of time1 to alter their shade to a very marked degree4 ,for dark shades this is not so noticeable1 for1 when goods are strongly colored1 the effect of the sunlight on at least the deeper portions of the fibre is largely counteracted by the color of the goods themselves4 ,so1 too1 an opaque material1 like leather1 will hold the same shade of color distinctly longer than silk or1 especially1 artificial silk1 where the sunlight strikes through and through the fibre1 without any protection at all4 ,but1 generally speaking1 these dyes will not stand strong sunlight4 ,nor are the shades of these ,basic dyes1 as a rule1 as attractive as those of other classes4 ,the strong and brilliant1 not to say coarse1 shades of ,methyl ,violet1 ,malachite ,green1 ,aniline ,red1 and the rest1 which created such a sensation when they first appeared in the early sixties1 were the particular colors which provoked ,john ,ruskin to vehement1 if not unparliamentary remarks4 ,when unmixed they certainly do harrow the feelings of those artistically inclined1 as much now as then4 ,they are rarely seen now1 for the taste of the public has been sufficiently educated to make a demand for softer shades4 ,as before explained1 nothing is easier than to soften these fierce1 harsh colors to most beautiful and harmonious tints by mixing into them a mere trace of their complementaries4 ,advantages4--,in spite of all that can be said against them1 these cheap1 brilliant1 and very powerful dyes are not to be despised1 and should still be found in the outfit of a well-equipped dyer4 ,for straw1 raffia1 chips1 willow1 and other materials used so largely for hats and for basket-work1 these dyes are distinctly valuable1 and1 if supplemented by fast ,acid colors for light shades1 or for particularly fast effects1 will be found satisfactory enough4 ,so1 too1 for leather they will be found extremely useful1 excepting where delicate shades1 fast to light1 are required4 ,some kinds of artificial silk1 also1 especially those made from nitro-cellulose and hence possessed of acid properties1 dye far better with these than with any other dyes1 although1 as explained above1 the colors will be far from permanent4 ,for the craftsman1 the fastness to washing of these dyes is a matter of very little importance1 because they are used by him so exclusively upon materials such as basketry1 leather1 and artificial silk1 which are never exposed to rough handling in boiling soap and water4 ,as regards their fastness to light1 the greater number of these must be classed as belonging to the fourth class1 i4e41 distinctly fugitive in character4 ,on the other hand1 some special ones can be selected from the group which are not only distinctly faster than the rest1 but are fast enough to be well up in the third class1 or can at a stretch1 be placed in the second class1 i4e41 can be considered as satisfactory1 at any rate1 against any but very severe exposure4 ,the ,fastest ,basic ,colors4--,among these may be placed the well-known dyestuff1 ,methylene ,blue1 perhaps the most satisfactory of the whole class4 ,a very good color also is ,methylene ,heliotrope ,o 7,metz71 which1 while less brilliant1 is far faster than the many brands of ,methyl ,violet1 ,hofmann's ,violet1 and the rest1 which to most dyers are the characteristic basic violets4 ,for blacks1 many composite dyes are on the market1 made by the different color houses1 known as ,leather ,blacks4 ,these are fast enough1 for deep shades1 but not to be trusted when thinned down to form greys4 ,the fastest individual basic black is ,diazine ,black1 7,kalle71 and this should be used for the lighter shades4 ,the ,red and ,yellow colors are distinctly less satisfactory4 ,none of them can really be considered better much than third class4 ,of the ,reds the best is probably the color known as ,safranine1 different brands of which1 giving as a rule the yellow shades1 are manufactured by the various color houses2 one brand being about as fast as another4 ,for the bluish shades of red1 probably the fastest is ,diazine ,red1 7,kalle74 ,as regards ,yellow1 the list is even more unsatisfactory4 ,there is a very beautiful golden yellow1 known as ,auramine ,o1 manufactured by most of the color houses1 which1 however1 is hardly fast enough to be in the third class4 ,this dyestuff1 by the way1 is injured by boiling1 and therefore should never be used in a dye-bath heated to over #acj or #adj ,fahrenheit4 ,less pleasing in shade1 but somewhat faster to sunlight1 are the rather orange or brownish yellows known as ,new ,phosphine ,g 7,cassella71 and ,methylene ,yellow 7,metz74 ,somewhat brighter colors1 though less fast to light1 are produced by ,thio flavine ,t4 ,none of these1 however1 compares in fastness to the selected colors of any other class in this book4 ,the various brands of the common dyestuff1 ,bismarck ,brown1 are largely used for leather1 and while probably inferior in fastness to any of the colors mentioned above1 are not found in commercial practice too fugitive to be pretty satisfactory4 ,when1 however1 materials are liable to be exposed for any length of time1 two or three weeks in succession1 to direct powerful sunlight1 it will generally be advisable to use mixed browns made from fast ,acid colors4 ,upon the whole1 although we are still frequently called upon to employ them1 they must1 from the craftsman's standpoint1 always be considered as untrustworthy4 ,they should1 therefore1 never be used where dyestuffs of any other class can be made to take their place4 ,,dyeing ,,directions ,the application of ,basic colors to leather dyeing will be discussed later4 ,we shall now discuss their application to basketry materials1 such as straw1 raffia1 willow1 and the like1 where they will be found useful4 ,it will at once be noticed that these dyestuffs are far more powerful than any thus far met with in these lessons4 ,indeed1 while there will be needed1 for full shades of the ,vat colors1 pastes from about #ae to #bj of the total weight of the dry materials1 of the ,sulphur colors from #g to #aj1 of the ,salt colors from #d to #f1 and of the ,acid colors from #a to about #c1 most of these ,basic colors will give very full shades with from to #a of the total weight of dry material4 ,these ,basic colors do not dissolve readily in water1 but are easily soluble in alcohol1 and also in even very dilute acids4 ,acids form salts with the dyestuffs and these salts dissolve when the free coloring matters do not4 ,accordingly the ,basic colors should always be dissolved carefully in a separate cup or vessel1 using hot water1 and adding1 for each spoonful of dyestuff1 two or three spoonfuls of acetic acid or1 if more convenient1 of strong vinegar4 ,the color1 thus dissolved1 should be added to warm water in the dye-pot1 preferably through a fine strainer or piece of cheesecloth1 to avoid any undissolved particles which would cause spots4 ,the well-wetted goods are immersed in this dye-bath1 and turned1 either in the cold or with gentle heat1 until the desired shade is reached1 or the bath is exhausted4 ,the material is then taken out1 rinsed once or twice in water1 cold or warm1 carefully dried1 and1 if necessary1 straightened and pressed or ironed out4 ,straw4--,care must be taken when dyeing these materials to have them quite free from grease and dirt1 before dyeing them4 ,if they do not wet readily and evenly1 after being soaked in warm water for a couple of hours1 they should be carefully washed in warm soapsuds1 and thoroughly rinsed4 ,the soap1 however1 should be of good quality and1 especially with straw1 either in the form of straw braid or made up into hats1 no soda or other free alkali should be allowed in the bath1 for fear of injuring the surface and destroying the gloss4 ,this last is sometimes improved by dipping the straw1 after dyeing and rinsing1 into a weak bath of ,castile 7olive oil7 soap1 or of ,turkey red oil 7about one tablespoonful to the gallon71 before it is dried4 ,in dyeing straw1 the greatest pains must be taken to dye it evenly4 ,braid should be tied up in loose hanks or bundles1 so that the dyestuff can penetrate readily into every part2 and with a loop of tape or string1 by which it can be raised or lowered in the dye-bath4 ,it should be kept in motion sufficiently to cause uniform circulation of the liquid4 ,the dye-bath should not be too strong1 especially at the beginning1 and should be heated slowly to the boiling point1 where it should be kept for half an hour or so1 to insure penetration4 ,it is best to add the dyestuff in small portions1 from time to time1 as the bath becomes exhausted1 lifting the goods out of the bath each time1 and stirring in the new color before putting the goods back again4 ,if the goods once become uneven it is very hard1 if not impossible1 to get them level again1 or to strip them fully1 without spoiling the materials4 ,the best thing to do1 if this misfortune overtakes them1 is to dye them some dark color1 where minor irregularities will be covered up and pass unnoticed4 ,in other words1 8,dump it in the black10 as the dyers say4 ,ladies' straw hats are dyed in just the same way as the loose braid1 the same care being taken to clean and wet the goods thoroughly1 and to dye evenly4 ,it is often of interest to experiment with old hats of good material1 but faded1 and to dye them up some pleasant new shade1 and the ribbons and trimmings to match4 ,sometimes the remains of the old coloring will strip well by washing in hot soapsuds1 and sometimes by soaking in warm water containing about one tablespoonful to the gallon of sodium hydrosulphite--the same salt that was used as a reducing agent for the ,vat colors in the last chapter4 ,if the color comes out well1 it is then easy enough1 after thoroughly rinsing1 to dye them any desired shade4 ,otherwise they can be dyed ,navy ,blue1 with a good shade of ,methylene ,blue and a trace of red1 or ,seal ,brown1 using a large amount of red and a little yellow and blue2 or they can be dyed black with a black dye1 such as one of the so-called ,leather ,blacks1 usually made by mixing a deep purple with a yellow1 or one of the strong1 powerful ,basic greens with red4 ,in general1 a well dyed piece of braid is supposed to show smooth1 even coloring1 good gloss1 and good penetration of the dyestuff into the folds of the straw4 ,there are1 however1 decided possibilities for the intelligent worker to obtain more interesting effects with but little trouble4 ,it is very easy to use the principles1 already explained1 of rainbow dyeing1 for straw braid1 and beautiful effects can be obtained in this way1 though it would need an artistic as well as an experienced milliner to fully utilize the same in making hats4 ,but it frequently happens1 when dyeing coarse braid without boiling1 that the dye penetrates unevenly1 from the edge towards the centre4 ,very pretty shaded effects can be produced in this way1 the general color being uniform1 and yet the straw1 when looked at closely1 showing tints instead of one flat1 uniform shade4 ,by dyeing the straw a solid color first1 and then shading it in this manner with a different color1 very interesting effects can be produced4 ,it may be worth while to mention here that1 when bought at wholesale places1 it is astonishing how cheap the raw materials are4 ,bodies of straw1 chip1 etc41 framing wire1 white satin ribbon1 artificial flowers1 wing feathers1 etc41 from which not only pretty but even handsome and elegant head coverings can be created1 and cost next to nothing at wholesale4 ,the mechanical part of dyeing all these things can be learned in a very short time2 after that the possibilities for a skilled worker1 who has a good eye for color and can dye to the desired shades herself without having to hunt them far and near1 are very large4 ,raffia4--,this is a material so widely used in the public schools1 as well as by craftsmen1 for weaving baskets1 that it is well worth while to pay more attention to the dyeing of it4 ,it is quite cheap1 and very bulky1 and takes these colors extremely well4 ,so that it is one of the most satisfactory of all raw materials to experiment with1 especially if there is a school or workshop at hand1 where the dyed goods can be utilized4 ,the raffia should be shaken out thoroughly1 and soaked in soft water over night1 or at least for several hours1 to thoroughly wet and soften it4 ,if even shades are desired it can then be dyed1 just like straw braid1 in a warm dye-bath containing the dyestuff1 previously dissolved in diluted acetic acid or vinegar4 ,it is much more interesting1 however1 to dye it rainbow shades from the start4 ,if red1 blue1 and yellow dyestuffs are dissolved separately1 in different cups or pitchers1 these solutions can be used to replenish the large dye-pots of the same colors4 ,to keep the colors reasonably clear1 and prevent them from speedily degenerating into 8mud10 it is well to keep on hand one or two rinsing-pots1 full of warm water1 or to have a sink near at hand1 where each hank or bundle of raffia should be rinsed after being taken out of one dye-pot and before going into the next4 ,the raffia1 when thoroughly wetted out1 should1 for convenience' sake1 be made up into separate loosely-tied bundles1 with a loop on each by which to handle it in the dye-bath without staining the hands4 ,it is well1 too1 to have some oil-cloth around1 for these bundles drip a good deal1 and the dye-liquor will stain anything of an animal or vegetable nature with which it comes in contact4 ,after a little experimenting with dipping these bundles first into the first dye-pot and then--rinsing each time--into the other two1 it will be easy to get the general effect of any particular shade1 although1 when examined closely1 the fibre will show the presence of all three colors4 ,it is interesting to notice1 here1 as previously with the ,salt colors1 how easy it is to modify and soften the harsh shades of the individual unmixed dyestuffs4 ,and1 as before1 it is very interesting as well as very useful to dye some bundles even shades of some important compound color1 such as brown1 for instance1 or olive green1 or steel grey1 and to notice how the color is changed on the fibre by adding a little more red1 or yellow1 or blue to the bath4 ,the 8eye for color0 obtained in this way is of the greatest possible advantage to a dyer1 whether amateur or professional2 and where1 as in this case1 the materials are cheap1 easy to dye1 and possible to utilize1 every advantage should be taken of the opportunity4 ,permanent ,colors on ,basketry4--,while for most purposes the straw1 raffia chips1 willows1 etc41 dyed with ,basic colors will be found satisfactory enough1 it is best for craftsmen who are making a specialty of very high-grade baskets1 to use some of the fast ,acid colors1 described and listed in the next chapter1 for their reds and yellows1 and for all mixed shades in which these two colors play an important part4 ,the ,acid dyes are applied in a boiling bath1 with the addition of a little acetic acid1 and1 while not fast to washing1 and not imparting their colors as readily as the ,basic dyes1 can be thoroughly depended upon1 even in light and delicate shades1 against the action of sunlight4 ,salt dyes can also be used1 in a boiling bath with the addition of some salt1 but1 excepting in some special cases1 are not superior to the ,acid dyes1 although somewhat faster to washing4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,acid ,,colors ,the discovery and introduction into commerce of ,mauveine and the other ,basic dyes1 focussed the attention of chemists1 all over the world1 upon this new and important application of their science4 ,and it was soon noticed that certain organic bodies1 of a decidedly acid character1 had the power of dyeing wool and silk4 ,these early dyes were so-called 8nitro0 compounds1 formed by the action of strong nitric acid upon derivatives of coal tar1 and in most cases they gave strong and brilliant1 but rather fugitive1 shades of yellow4 ,the most interesting of these1 perhaps1 was the compound known as 8picric acid10 which at one time was considerably used for dyeing silk yellow4 ,now it has been abandoned for that purpose but is manufactured on an enormous scale for use as an explosive4 ,these original acid dyes were of little importance4 ,but in the early seventies chemists began to make use of a reaction--known as 8diazotizing0--for making new organic compounds by the coupling of aniline or bodies similar to aniline1 with all sorts and kinds of other compounds derived from coal tar4 ,the number of derivatives of this sort proved enormous1 and many of them had more or less valuable dyeing properties4 ,and in a very short time new dyestuffs had been discovered1 good1 bad1 and indifferent1 numbering not hundreds1 but thousands4 ,a very few of these so-called 8,azo0 dyes were of the ,basic class1 like ,bismarck ,brown1 mentioned in the last chapter4 ,others1 discovered ten or fifteen years later1 constituted the class of ,direct ,cotton colors or ,salt colors4 ,but the great bulk of these colors belonged to the so-called 8,acid0 class1 forming salts with bases and alkalies1 and being liberated from the salts by strong acids4 ,the number of ,acid ,azo colors is very large4 ,in the catalogues of commercial coal-tar colors there are some two hundred and fifty of these dyes which have been picked out of the rest as having sufficient value to be carefully described1 and to have been placed on the market by the great dye houses4 ,most of these are red and orange colors1 with a few yellows4 ,as a rule they are brilliant and clear1 but1 with a few exceptions1 not particularly fast to light4 ,when these were introduced it was soon recognized that they were of practically no value for cotton and linen4 ,they are as a rule much more soluble than the ,basic dyes of the foregoing chapter1 and hence are occasionally used as stains for wood1 rattan1 and other vegetable materials where considerable penetration is needed1 without fastness to washing4 ,but such use is of little importance4 ,properties4--,acid dyes are almost exclusively employed for dyeing wool1 silk1 feathers1 and other animal fibres1 and for this they are extremely valuable4 ,the introduction of the ,acid ,azo colors so simplified and improved the dyeing of wool and silk1 that every effort was made to increase the range of colors4 ,and when it was found that the ,azo colors were weak on the line of blue1 purple1 and green1 efforts were made1 which after several years proved successful1 to change the various powerful ,basic dyes1 the ,methyl ,violets1 ,fuchsin or ,aniline ,red1 ,aniline ,blue1 ,malachite ,green1 and the rest1 into ,acid dyes1 so that they could all be used in the same dye-baths4 ,this has resulted in a very wide range of colors indeed1 for the ,acid ,azo colors cover fully all the shades of yellow1 orange1 and especially of red1 from scarlets of all sorts and kinds to deep full crimsons4 ,and then the remaining shades are covered by the acidified or sulphonated ,basic colors4 ,these latter1 by the way1 though very brilliant and strong and rich1 are no faster to light than the original ,basic colors from which they are derived4 ,of late years the ,acid colors have held their own1 and still monopolize the commercial1 as well as the special1 dyeing of wool and silk excepting under unusual circumstances1 when considerable fastness to washing is required4 ,with these dyes1 as in the case of the ,basic dyes1 the fastness to washing is of little or no consequence to the craftsman4 ,nobody expects to scrub hand-dyed leather2 and woollen and silk goods1 unless specially prepared1 are not supposed to be turned over to the tender mercies of the family laundress4 ,however1 it may be well to emphasize here the fact that these dyes are as a rule 8stripped0 quite readily by boiling in a neutral soap bath4 ,and when the craftsman wishes to dye wool or silk fast to washing1 he must either use the ,salt dyes1 in a boiling bath1 or must dye1 with special precautions against tendering1 with either the ,sulphur or the ,vat ,dyes4 ,with regard to light-fastness1 however1 the case is different4 ,a great many hundreds1 possibly even thousands1 of ,acid dyes have been discovered1 and scores of them1 covering every shade1 can be obtained in the open market4 ,most of these are of but little permanence1 but a few products1 from each of the great color houses1 can be selected1 whose fastness to light is extremely satisfactory4 ,the dyes in the following list can hardly be considered as fast as the ,vat dyes1 previously described1 but are probably faster1 as a class1 than any other class mentioned in this book4 ,they would rank at the very top of the second class1 and some at least would fairly enter the first class1 being absolutely satisfactory against even the strongest sunlight4 ,a series of skeins1 dyed all colors of the rainbow1 including many delicate light shades1 with a red1 yellow1 and blue dye of those mentioned below1 withstood an exposure test which quite ruined a similar set of skeins dyed with the very best natural dyestuffs4 ,and a large hand-woven rug1 made of wool dyed light shades with the same dyes1 was placed for two weeks on a roof in ,new ,york1 half of it being covered with boards and the rest exposed to the direct action of the ,july sunlight1 and at the end of this time it was impossible to notice any difference in shade4 ,the colors in the following list are to be used1 principally1 for wool4 ,they will all dye silk1 leather1 and feathers1 but in the chapters dealing with those materials some additional dyes may be mentioned1 which are specially suited for them4 ,list of ,selected ,dyes4-- ,badische-- ,palatine ,scarlet ,a1 #c ,r ,palatine ,light ,yellow1 ,r ,tartrazine 7yellow7 ,wool ,fast ,blue1 ,b ,l ,cassella-- ,brilliant ,cochineal1 ,r ,r ,acid ,yellow1 ,a ,t1 conc4 ,tetracyanol1 ,s ,f ,elberfeld--,azo ,crimson1 ,s ,fast ,red1 ,a ,fast ,yellow1 #c ,g ,alizarine ,blue1 ,s ,a ,p ,cashmere ,black1 #c ,b ,n ,kalle-- ,biebrich ,acid ,red1 #b ,b ,wool ,yellow1 ,t ,a ,nero cyanine ,blue1 ,b ,nero cyanine ,black1 ,d ,metz-- ,fast ,acid ,red1 ,m ,fast ,acid ,orange1 ,g ,fast ,acid ,yellow1 #c ,g ,fast ,acid ,blue1 ,b ,b ,,dyeing ,,directions ,the ,acid dyes1 like the ,basic1 are used in an acid bath1 but for a different reason4 ,with the ,basic dyes acetic acid or some other weak acid is added1 for the purpose of readily dissolving the color4 ,in the case of the ,acid dyes1 however1 the dyestuffs are almost always put on the market in the form of the potassium or ammonium salts of the color acid4 ,and the presence of some acid is always necessary1 to liberate the color acid1 and allow it to combine with the basic principles existing in the animal fibres4 ,for ,wool4--,the goods1 well washed and soaked1 are warmed gently in a bath containing1 besides the dyestuff dissolved in plenty of water1 a little sulphuric acid and a good deal of ,glauber's salt4 ,both acid and salt should be free from iron1 or the shade will be dulled4 ,the amount of acid to be used may vary between considerable limits without affecting the results4 ,if too much is present1 there is danger of injuring the feel and the lustre of the fibre4 ,if there is not enough acid in the bath1 the color will wash right out of the wool1 as soon as it is rinsed4 ,in general it is well to start with about one tablespoonful of dilute 7#cj7 sulphuric acid for each gallon of dye-liquor and about twice that amount of ,glauber's salt4 ,it is hard to tell just what is the function of the ,glauber's salt4 ,it seems1 however1 to open up the pores of the wool in some way1 and to make it dye more evenly and deeply4 ,the bath is gently heated1 with constant stirring of the goods1 until the right shade is produced1 or1 if it is desired to exhaust the bath and so waste no color1 until near the boiling point4 ,the goods when taken out of the dye-bath must be washed very thoroughly1 to remove the last trace of acid1 which otherwise on drying would ruin the wool4 ,it must be remembered that these ,acid dyes hardly affect cotton in the least1 and so the goods dyed in this way must be free from vegetable fibres1 if level dyeings are to be obtained4 ,in dyeing wool skeins commercially it is1 of course1 of the utmost importance to have the colors perfectly level and uniform4 ,this uniformity is obtained easily enough1 when using these ,acid dyes1 by having the wool thoroughly wet before placing it in the dye-bath2 by having it well loosened out and well stirred so that the color will penetrate evenly every part of the material2 and1 finally1 by starting the bath at a moderate temperature1 and heating it gradually1 until the proper shade is obtained4 ,for handicraft dyeing the student is strongly advised to practise shaded and irregular effects1 the so-called ,rainbow dyeing1 with wool in skeins1 just as1 in previous lessons1 with raffia and with cotton4 ,by using coarse heavy yarns1 very beautiful two and three color effects can be produced1 which1 when used for embroidery or weaving1 will prove most interesting4 ,great care must always be taken1 in wool dyeing1 to preserve the lustre and the soft effect of the wool1 and to avoid felting4 ,this can best be done by using moderate amounts of acid1 by dyeing at moderate temperature and never raising the dye-bath quite to the boil2 and finally1 by handling the goods as little as possible in the acid dye-bath1 consistent of course with exposing every portion equally to the action of the dyestuff4 ,cotton skeins can be worked and rubbed1 and pulled1 and thrown up and down in the hot dye-bath1 without fear of injuring them4 ,but wool should be handled carefully1 and worked in the dye-pot quietly and gently1 just sufficiently to accomplish two results4 ,first1 the wool at the bottom of the pot should be raised by a lifting and turning motion and replaced by fresh material2 and second1 when the wool is lowered back into the liquor it should be loosened1 so as to allow the dye-liquor to penetrate the mass4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,dyeing ,,feathers ,the use of feathers and1 especially1 of ostrich feathers for millinery has1 during the past few years1 increased to enormous proportions4 ,besides the home product1 from ,california and the ,western ,states1 which1 however1 is but small1 the importation of raw feathers from abroad has averaged1 during the past two or three years1 nearly eight millions of dollars4 ,as yet1 the dyeing of these feathers is almost entirely confined to professionals--their processes1 although simple1 not being generally known or published4 ,as before mentioned1 feathers1 like other animal products1 can be colored with ease by either the ,basic or the ,acid dyestuffs4 ,in practice1 as with wool and silk1 the ,acid dyes are universally used1 because of their greater variety1 their greater fastness to light1 and their better levelling properties4 ,to use the ,acid colors with success the following points must be carefully considered4 ,first1 the baths must be such as not to ruin or 8burn0 the feathers1 i4e41 they must leave intact the tiny barbules upon the barbs or 8flues10 as the dyers call them1 which make the feather look soft and full and not stringy4 ,second1 the quill must be fully dyed1 and the shaft1 or stem of the feather1 must also be colored just as well as the flues4 ,this is a very common defect in feather dyeing4 ,the quill1 being hard and stiff and horny1 is much more difficult to penetrate with the dyestuff than the soft1 delicate fibres4 ,if the feather1 therefore1 is dyed hurriedly or carelessly1 the latter may be colored dark and full1 long before the quill or the lower part of the stem has been dyed at all4 ,this necessitates painting the stem after the finishing process1 with oil colors1 to match the rest of the feather4 ,finally1 after dyeing1 the feather must be properly finished so that the flues will not look woolly on the one hand1 nor stringy on the other hand1 but soft and full4 ,the whole secret of feather dyeing lies in the proper attainment of these three requirements1 success in which depends respectively upon 7a7 the composition of the dye-bath1 7b7 the method of dyeing1 and 7c7 the finishing process4 7a7 ,the ,dye-bath4--,as is universally the case when using ,acid dyes on animal fibres1 the bath must be distinctly acid1 in order to release the free color acid from the dyestuff1 which1 in its commercial form1 is a salt4 ,a very little experimenting with ostrich feathers will show that the presence1 not only of mineral acids like sulphuric or hydrochloric1 but even of the much milder organic acids1 like acetic or citric1 is liable to 8burn0 the feather badly and convert a well barbuled flue into a bare fibre which1 under no conditions1 can look other than stringy4 ,the acid commonly used by the professionals is oxalic acid1 but1 of late years1 dyeing chemists have been introducing into the dyeing industry the use of the volatile and pungent formic acid1 and in the dyeing of ostrich feathers this acid has been found particularly advantageous4 ,excepting when a large number of feathers1 strung together on a line1 are to be dyed the same color1 it is customary to dye feathers in an agateware pan or flat dish1 and about two-thirds of a teaspoonful of formic or oxalic acid in a pint of water1 is about the right proportion for one or two feathers at a time4 7b7 ,method of ,dyeing4-- ,softening the ,feathers4--,before immersing the feathers in the dye-bath the greatest pains should be taken1 first1 to thoroughly cleanse them1 and1 second1 to thoroughly soften them4 ,as a rule1 the feathers are bleached before dyeing and in this process they generally lose all of their original grease4 ,but if they show signs of wetting unevenly when plunged into hot water1 they should be carefully scrubbed with ,castile soap and hot water1 and well rinsed till the last trace of soap has been removed4 ,the clean feathers should then be thoroughly softened by immersing them in hot water4 ,this is especially important as regards the quills and the stems1 which may have to soak for half an hour or more before they are soft enough to take the dyestuff4 ,dyeing the ,feathers4--,after softening1 each feather is held by the tip1 and laid1 butt first1 in the dye-bath4 ,for light shades the dye-liquor may remain cold1 but for darker shades it is best to enter the feathers at a low temperature1 and raise the latter very gently till the right shade is reached1 or the bath is decidedly hot1 although still far below the boiling point4 ,above all1 care must be taken to dye the quill and butt first1 and to keep them in the bath very much longer than the flues and tip4 ,the latter will dye in a minute or two1 but to thoroughly stain the former may take twenty minutes or half an hour4 7c7 ,finishing4--,when the desired shade has been reached1 the feather is taken from the bath and rinsed thoroughly in warm water1 to get rid of the loose color4 ,then it must be 8starched40 ,this is the technical name for the drying process1 and is very different from the laundryman's idea of 8starching10 although the two processes have occasionally been confused1 with most disastrous results1 as far as the feathers were concerned4 ,dry-starching4--,after the dyed feathers have been thoroughly rinsed1 they should be partially dried1 by wiping with a soft piece of cloth1 like a handkerchief or piece of cheesecloth1 and then laid flat on a piece of stiff paper and covered with a heaping tablespoonful or so of dry1 finely powdered starch 7on a small scale the quality known as 8,electric ,starch0 is eminently satisfactory74 ,the starch is thoroughly rubbed into the feather with the fingers1 and then the feather1 full of starch1 is beaten and dusted against the edge of the table or the back of the hand until the starch has all been shaken out4 ,after one or two repetitions of this process1 the feather will be found not only dry but with the barbules properly filled out4 ,sometimes the feather1 thus treated1 has a woolly look1 the starching process having gone too far4 ,in this case it should be dampened in cold water1 and restarched4 ,under no circumstances should any starch paste be allowed to touch or form on the flues4 ,the starching must be done in the cold and with the unbroken starch grains4 ,wet-starching4--,some dyers prefer wet-starching to the dry process just described4 ,in this process1 the feathers1 after dyeing and rinsing1 are worked for a minute or two in a thick milk 7not paste7 made by stirring one or two large tablespoonfuls of dry starch in half a pint or so of cold water1 till all the lumps have been broken up4 ,after this milk has been thoroughly rubbed into every part of the feather1 the latter is taken out1 dried roughly by wiping with cheesecloth1 and then by wrapping between blotting paper or folded cheesecloth and running carefully through a not too tight wringer4 ,the feather is then taken out and thoroughly dried1 either by laying it on the table in the sunlight or in a warm room for some time1 or1 if very great care is taken1 by holding and moving it over a hot-air register1 or high over the stove or gas flame4 ,of course1 if this is done carelessly and too great heat is applied1 some of the starch grains will be converted into paste1 and the feather probably ruined4 ,when thoroughly dry1 8bone dry10 as the dyers call it1 the feather is beaten against the back of the hand1 or edge of the table until all the starch is shaken out4 ,dyeing in the ,starch4--,when dyeing light shades time may be saved by dyeing and wet-starching at the same time1 in the same bath4 ,the feather1 thoroughly soaked in hot water1 is placed in the starch milk1 to which a quarter teaspoonful or so of formic acid and a little dyestuff have been added1 and then worked1 in the cold1 until the proper shade has been reached1 the starch being taken up at the same time4 ,then on drying and beating1 the feather will come out both dyed and finished4 ,this has the disadvantage of leaving a little acid in the finished feather1 but when using small quantities of oxalic acid1 this is of little1 if any importance4 ,suggestions as to ,feather ,dyeing4--,these processes should enable any intelligent craftsman to dye even the most costly and most delicate feathers without danger of spoiling them4 ,shade effects in one1 two1 or more colors can be easily obtained by the use of a little ingenuity1 remembering always that the quill and the stem are very much more difficult to dye than the flues or tip4 ,it will be remembered that comparatively few ostrich feathers are now used1 singly2 the plumes so abundantly in use1 nowadays1 being almost invariably built up by sewing two or usually three feathers together1 one underneath the other1 the stem being carefully shaved down so as not to make them too clumsy4 ,very charming effects can be obtained by dyeing the individual feathers different but harmonious colors1 and then combining them into one plume later4 ,but1 usually1 the plume is made first1 and then dyed afterwards4 ,it may be suggested1 here1 that very beautiful effects can be produced by taking large1 handsome1 single feathers1 before they are bleached1 and dyeing them a pleasant shade of red or blue or of some mixed color4 ,the natural black of the feather1 with its irregular markings1 often gives very interesting results1 and the expense is much less than that of a built-up feather4 ,after the starching process1 the dried feather is usually finished by 8curling10 a process simple enough in itself1 but which had best be left to the professional1 for fear of injury4 ,the bleaching of feathers1 also1 is a process which is hardly to be attempted by the amateur1 unless he is prepared to spend a good deal of his time and money in experimenting4 ,the process1 however1 is well understood by dyeing chemists and can be learned without much difficulty1 by a careful student with some knowledge of chemistry4 ,stripping ,feathers4--,by soaking in warm water1 containing a teaspoonful or so of ammonia water to the pint1 and then carefully washing with soap and hot water1 these ,acid colors can be1 as a rule1 stripped from feathers almost entirely4 ,this does not1 to be sure1 improve the original quality of the goods1 but1 carefully done1 its bad effects are hardly1 if at all1 perceptible1 and it enables the dyer to remedy a bad piece of dyeing1 or to dye an old feather that has become faded or discolored by exposure4 ,this1 of course1 does not apply to black dyed feathers4 ,after white feathers have been worn for some time they generally become soiled and yellow4 ,if the stock was good to start with they can be immensely improved in appearance1 if not made quite equal to new1 by simply scrubbing them with a piece of ,castile soap1 in hot water1 and then1 after thorough rinsing1 by dyeing them1 in the starch-bath1 with a very faint trace of blue or bluish violet4 ,black ,dyeing of ,feathers4--,this is the most difficult process in feather dyeing1 and1 as a rule1 should be avoided by the amateur4 ,it is impossible1 so far1 to get a thoroughly good black by the use of any artificial dyestuff1 or any simple process4 ,the best ,acid blacks on the market1 dyed with the greatest care1 give a color to feathers that by themselves may look pretty well1 but1 when compared with first-class products1 show dull and grey4 ,the only satisfactory blacks1 so far1 are produced by a long and tedious series of operations1 depending on mordanting for1 and dyeing with1 logwood4 ,as a rule1 the professional black dyer--and really good ones are few and far between--allows at least five or six days for the process1 the different steps of which he usually guards as a valuable secret1 which indeed it is4 ,the writer possesses one or two of these formulas1 obtained1 as special marks of favor1 from first-class dyers1 but has never had occasion to test them thoroughly1 and therefore is unwilling to publish them here4 ,good dyeing chemists have tried again and again to shorten and simplify the process1 and have had some success4 ,but to this day no color has been found to replace logwood1 and this black dyeing of feathers is perhaps the only dyeing problem that has not as yet been satisfactorily solved with the aid of modern dyestuffs4 ,painting ,feathers4--,some dyers1 instead of dyeing feathers1 paint them4 ,they dip the cleansed and carefully dried feather1 for a moment1 into a bath of oil paint1 thinned greatly with gasolene4 ,the feather is then taken from the bath1 dried by waving in the air1 and1 when thoroughly dry1 finished by beating and1 if necessary1 with a light dry-starching4 ,the results1 for colors1 are fairly satisfactory but are not so permanent as the dyeing process4 ,in an oil paint the solid coloring matter1 or pigment1 is ground up finely in boiled linseed oil1 an oil which has the property of drying to a firm varnish when exposed to the air4 ,this mixture is thinned with turpentine or gasolene to the desired consistency before using4 ,it is evident that1 in coloring feathers1 if enough oil is applied to fasten the pigment very firmly to the flues1 there is danger at the same time of plastering the fine barbules so that they will never get back to their proper places1 and the product will be hopelessly stringy4 ,on the other hand1 if the amount of oil is so small1 thanks to the abundant thinning with gasolene1 that there is no fear of its sticking the barbules together1 there will hardly be enough oil left to firmly fasten the pigment to the flues1 on drying1 and the color is apt to rub1 and to wear off quickly4 ,paint1 thinned with gasolene1 has been applied to feathers occasionally by means of stencils1 some of the so-called 8barred0 effects1 looking like the feathers from a barred ,plymouth ,rock hen1 being made in this way--the color1 black paint or varnish1 greatly thinned1 being applied by means of an 8air brush0 or atomizer4 ,occasionally very large1 wide1 and handsome feathers have appeared decorated with flowers and other figures1 in bright colors1 applied in the same way with an air brush1 sometimes with the help of stencils1 but generally free-hand4 ,these effects are often rather crude and inartistic1 but there is no reason why1 skilfully used1 this method of decorating the backs of feathers might not produce interesting effects4 ,,chapter ,x ,,leather ,,and ,,leather ,,dyeing ,so far as can be learned1 in every part of the world1 the first materials used by man for clothing and coverings were the skins of animals4 ,in its natural condition1 however1 the hide stripped from a dead animal has certain properties which greatly interfere with such use4 ,when dry it is stiff and hard2 when moist it rapidly decomposes1 and when exposed to hot water it swells and in time dissolves4 ,these difficulties had to be overcome before skins and furs could be properly utilized4 ,and1 accordingly1 in the history of every nation and race1 one of the very earliest of all developing industries was the art of leather making2 that is1 of converting the hard and easily decomposed rawhide into a soft1 pliable1 and comparatively permanent substance1 well suited for the use of man4 ,in most uncivilized nations this conversion was accomplished by rubbing and working some oily or greasy substance into the hide1 until it was thoroughly soft and flexible4 ,thus1 in our ,indian tribes1 the old squaws would turn the deer skins and the pelts of various fur-bearing animals into beautifully soft and strong leather1 by rubbing and working into them the brains of the animals4 ,the ,esquimaux and other ,northern tribes from time immemorial1 too1 have worked out this method with great perfection4 ,indeed without it they would have been unable to survive at all4 ,in other parts of the world it was discovered that rawhide could be made more durable by treatment with metallic salts1 especially with alum1 and then1 by softening this product by rubbing in some oily material1 a very fair leather could be produced4 ,on the other hand1 in warmer climates1 as for instance among the ,egyptians1 the very earliest records show the use of vegetable extracts1 containing the substances now known as tannins1 for softening and preserving skins2 and these races understood the art of dyeing1 painting1 gilding1 and embossing the leather thus made1 and used it for shoes1 straps1 aprons1 and harness4 ,the ,romans and ,babylonians were famous for their leather industry1 and the ancient ,romans not only imported but manufactured it themselves1 and used it freely4 ,in the ,middle ,ages the greatest developments in the art were made by the ,moors in ,spain1 whose leather1 commonly called ,cordovan leather1 from the city which was the centre of the industry1 has probably never been equalled for beauty and importance4 ,this ,cordovan leather1 of which fine specimens are still to be found in museums and private collections1 was made of sheepskin1 tanned with bark4 ,it was ornamented with silver foil1 laid on a backing of size1 and covered with a yellow varnish or lacquer1 sometimes tinted with bitumen4 ,this protected both the leather and design very perfectly from injury by air or moderate moisture1 and1 being done on a large scale with splendid designs1 was used largely for handsome wall coverings1 competing favorably with tapestries manufactured in ,france and elsewhere for the same purposes4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,leather4 ,in general1 we may say that at the present day there are the same three classes of leather as in the days of the ancients1 according to whether the hide is treated with oil or fatty materials1 with alum or other metallic salts1 or with the bark of trees or other vegetable substances containing the compound known as tannin4 #a4 ,oil ,tanning4--,this1 while of less importance than the other two methods1 is still used in considerable quantities for lighter and cheaper qualities of leather4 ,the process most commonly used is often called chamoising1 or 8shamoying10 because it is used principally for the production of 8chamois leather0 or wash leather4 ,the hides used for this form are usually thin and light1 the flesh sides of split sheepskins being the commonest1 and the resultant leather is not only soft and flexible and strong1 but is also unaffected by water4 ,for this reason it is more difficult to dye than other varieties4 #b4 ,mineral ,tanning or ,tawing4 ,alum4--,for thousands of years it has been known that if a solution of alum is rubbed or soaked into a raw hide the fibres of the leather become changed to an insoluble and permanent condition1 and by afterwards rubbing and rolling1 and working in some greasy material1 like the yolk of eggs1 a useful variety of leather can be produced4 ,the alum in this case does not form a permanent compound with the animal fibres1 but can be washed out by working in warm water4 ,chemists have agreed1 therefore1 to call this temporary reaction by the name 8tawing0 as opposed to 8tanning0 where the chemical action is a permanent one4 ,the 8kid0 leathers used for gloves are commonly made by this process4 ,chrome4--,during the last few years a new process has been introduced1 based upon the use of chromium salts1 which are absorbed by the hide in the form of the yellow or orange-colored salts1 chromate and bichromate of sodium1 and then are reduced in the fibres to a green compound by the use of hydrosulphite of sodium1 or some other strong but harmless reducing agent4 ,this chrome leather is extremely valuable1 and is freely used1 especially for the 8uppers0 of good quality in the boot and shoe trade4 ,this leather is very strong1 and is water-proof1 but possesses a serious disadvantage for the dyer1 in that when it is once dry it can never be again wetted1 and therefore it must be dyed fresh from the tannery wash tanks1 or not at all4 #c4 ,vegetable1 or ,bark ,tanning4--,at some very early period in the world's history it was discovered that certain vegetable extracts1 possessing in general a peculiar 8puckery0 taste1 also possessed valuable properties in the treatment of raw hide4 ,this process was certainly well known to the ,romans1 for ,pliny mentions1 as tanning materials1 the three great sources of tannin to-day1 namely1 gall nuts1 the bark of trees1 and sumach4 ,these and many other vegetable materials1 used for tanning1 all contain a peculiar substance1 known as 8tannin0 or tannic acid1 which gives them their useful properties4 ,the tannins from different plants are not identical1 although closely related to each other4 ,they all have a strong astringent taste1 and dissolve readily in water1 forming weak acid solutions4 ,they make dark-colored compounds with iron salts1 and convert the hide tissue of animals into a tough1 insoluble1 and comparatively indestructible material which1 when loosened and softened by some mechanical action1 is known as leather4 ,tannin4--,pure tannin can best be obtained from gall nuts--small excrescences on the leaves and twigs of certain plants caused by the puncture of some insect preparing to deposit its eggs there4 ,the best varieties1 called ,aleppo galls1 come from ,turkey and ,austria1 where they are found on oak trees1 and contain from #fj to #gj per cent4 of tannic acid4 ,from these it can be extracted in a very pure form1 and it comes to market as an extremely light1 fine1 grey or light tan-colored powder1 which dissolves in very little water to an almost colorless solution4 ,tannin in this form is largely used for dyeing1 especially in the dyeing of cotton or linen goods with the ,basic colors4 ,for tanning purposes it is customary to use the bark of various trees1 oak bark being the most esteemed in ,europe and1 in this country1 hemlock bark being the most used4 ,these contain from #ab to #ae per cent4 of tannin1 as a rule1 with a moderate amount of brown coloring matter4 ,pine bark is also frequently used1 and the bark of fir1 spruce1 and larch1 while1 in ,russia especially1 much willow bark and birch bark is used for light grades1 the so-called ,russia leather4 ,the next most valuable source of tannin is known as sumach1 consisting of the finely-ground twigs and leaves of several species of that plant4 ,the ,american sumach contains more tannin--#ah to #be per cent--than other varieties1 but it is less valuable than the ,sicilian sumach1 which contains less coloring matter1 and therefore can be used for tanning light shades of leather4 ,all the materials can be used in the tannery either directly1 or in the form of previously prepared extracts4 ,from the ,far ,east come some very important sources of tannin1 used for dyeing as well as for leathermaking1 in the form of dried extracts of various plants4 ,one of these is ,catechu or ,cutch1 now of value only for its tannin contents1 but in former years used as a brown dyestuff as well4 ,a similar product1 known as ,gambier1 is still imported on a large scale from ,singapore and other ,eastern ports4 ,it contains less tannin than ,cutch1 but less coloring matter as well4 ,it is used not only for leather but for black silk dyeing with logwood4 ,the ,tanning ,process4--,without going too much into detail1 the conversion of raw hide into leather by means of tannin is a very lengthy and mechanical process4 ,the hides are first softened by soaking in water1 and then are dehaired1 usually by steeping in a bath of slaked lime until the hair is loosened and can be scraped off with a blunt knife4 ,this lime must then be extracted by steeping in an acid bath1 preferably containing some organic acid like lactic or acetic acid2 some manufacturers1 for the sake of cheapness1 use dilute sulphuric acid for this purpose1 with the invariable result of making the leather brittle and rotten when it is fully dried4 ,after the acid has been rinsed off1 the hides are placed in the tan liquor1 made either by dissolving one of the extracts in water1 or by mixing the finely-ground bark or sumach with water and placing the hides in the mixture4 ,the tanning process is a very slow one1 especially for heavy hides1 and it may take several months before the tannin penetrates to the center of the goods4 ,when that time has come1 the hides are taken out1 brushed off1 rinsed with cold water1 drained off on horses1 and then hung up in a drying shed to slowly dry4 ,when in the proper condition they are thoroughly rolled by hand or machinery1 to break up any adhesions1 and to make the leather soft and flexible4 ,then they are ready to be finished1 are dyed to the required shade1 rubbed down and polished with wax or varnish1 grained by being run through rollers with engraved patterns1 and otherwise prepared for the trade4 ,,dyeing ,,and ,,staining ,,of ,,leather4 ,general4--,it has been mentioned1 in previous chapters1 that animal fibres of all sorts1 such as wool1 silk1 feathers1 etc41 seem to possess at the same time both acid and basic properties1 and therefore they combine readily with dyestuffs belonging to the ,basic and also to the ,acid class4 ,this at once distinguishes animal fibres from vegetable fibres such as cotton1 linen1 and paper1 which1 being practically neutral in composition1 will not combine with either ,basic or ,acid dyestuffs without the assistance of mordants4 ,this same rule applies to leather1 and we are therefore able to dye leather successfully with either ,acid or ,basic dyestuffs1 using a dye-liquor made acid with1 preferably1 a volatile organic acid such as acetic or formic acid4 ,acids4--,for ,basic colors acetic acid is generally used1 as being cheaper than the other1 and quite as good for dissolving the dyes for the dye-bath4 ,for ,acid colors it is generally best to use formic acid1 for acetic acid in many cases fails to liberate the color-acids from the dyes1 and then the colors fail to 8bite40 ,professional leather dyers1 for the sake of economy1 often use a little sulphuric acid in the dye-bath1 a practice which is one of the chief causes of the short life of modern leathers4 ,with other animal fibres1 such as wool and silk1 the ,acid colors take quite as readily as the ,basic2 but with leather1 there is some little difference1 according to the way in which the leather has been prepared4 ,for our purposes it is hardly worth while to discuss the dyeing of chrome leather or of chamois leather4 ,the leather almost universally employed for hand work has been bark tanned1 excepting where very white goods are used1 of rather light quality4 ,these are generally tawed with alum1 and for this reason have a greater affinity for the ,acid colors than when the fibres have already been fully charged with tannic acid1 which at the same time1 it will be remembered1 acts as an excellent mordant for the ,basic colors4 ,dyestuffs4--,accordingly1 while ,acid colors may be used1 they do not act nearly so readily as the ,basic colors4 ,for this reason1 except for special shades such as a clear sky-blue or a pure scarlet1 which can hardly be obtained excepting by the use of ,acid dyes1 or where special fastness to sunlight is required1 the best ,basic colors1 such as ,methylene ,blue1 ,methylene ,heliotrope1 ,thioflavine ,t 7for yellow7 and ,safranine 7for red7 are usually employed4 ,for black1 it is well to use one of the many ,leather blacks1 made by mixing together powerful ,basic dyes4 ,for brown1 the standard leather color1 used in enormous quantities for gloves and the like1 is the well-known ,bismarck ,brown1 or for more orange shades1 the closely related dyestuff1 ,chrysoidine4 ,and1 although neither of these colors is as fast to light as the ,basic dyes mentioned above1 they give very satisfactory results4 ,these colors should be dissolved in water acidified with a little acetic acid4 ,the greatest pains must be taken in each case to see that the color is all in solution1 and that no specks of undissolved color are allowed to come in contact with the leather4 ,the leather must be very carefully and thoroughly moistened by soaking1 if necessary over night1 in lukewarm water softened1 if the surface of the leather seems to demand it1 with a few drops of ammonia water4 ,dyeing ,leather and ,staining ,leather4--,as regards the application of the color2 dyers generally make a distinction between leather that is dyed and leather that is stained4 ,in dyeing leather the moistened goods are placed in a tray or pan 7agateware is most convenient for small pieces7 and floated backwards and forwards in the dye-liquor1 which should be deep enough to fully cover them4 ,the liquor is usually about lukewarm on starting1 and may be heated very gradually and gently to about #abj or #acj1 if desired4 ,for light shades1 however1 this is not at all necessary1 and indeed the color1 as a rule1 penetrates deeper and is laid on more evenly when the bath is kept cold4 ,the leather is kept in the dye-bath until the desired shade is reached1 which should be at the end of half an hour or so4 ,when dyed in this manner1 the dyestuff has a chance to soak into the leather1 and so1 when finished1 the color is not so liable to be affected by rubbing or by wear4 ,the leather should come out evenly coated on both sides1 shaded effects if desired being produced later1 by the staining process4 ,stained ,leather4--,in staining leather1 on the other hand1 the color solution is applied directly to the surface of the damp--not wet--goods by means of a brush or soft sponge1 or a little pad of cloth4 ,accordingly1 no matter how carefully the leather has been softened and moistened beforehand1 the color does not penetrate far1 and is found only on the particular surface where it has been applied4 ,for flat1 even shades1 the dyeing process is usually preferable1 but by staining1 it is possible for the craftsman to work on the surface of the leather1 as an artist does on paper with water colors1 and beautiful effects can be produced4 ,oil paint is often used for decorating leather1 and when applied skilfully in thin layers1 the effects are good4 ,but staining with dyestuffs is usually preferable1 as showing more of the grain of the leather1 and being more transparent4 ,the staining of leather may either be done free-hand1 or else by the filling in of set designs1 marked out previously by tooling or some other method2 or1 as will be discussed later1 by the use of stencils4 ,in any case success chiefly depends upon the condition of the surface that is to receive the dye4 ,the surface of the leather should be dampened1 thoroughly and evenly1 so that the dye will adhere1 and even penetrate a little2 but it must not be so wet that the colors will run4 ,to get this exactly right requires considerable practice4 ,as a rule1 the leather is1 first1 carefully and evenly soaked in water or1 if it is at all greasy1 in water with a little ammonia in it4 ,when this has been thoroughly done1 the leather is taken out and dried off1 first on one side and then on the other1 with pieces of cloth and then later with blotting paper4 ,after this it is exposed to the air for a little time until the exact point of dryness has been reached4 ,the color solution should be applied with a camel's hair brush or a small1 soft pad of cotton1 and any excess of liquid wiped off1 or soaked up with blotting paper1 and the color rubbed in with the fingers or pad1 as soon as possible4 ,acid ,dyes for ,leather4--,as above mentioned1 certain shades are hard to obtain without the use of ,acid colors4 ,this is particularly true in the case of blue4 ,for the lighter and brighter shades it is necessary to use one of the ,acid blues such as ,cyanole ,,ff4 7,cassella71 or ,patent ,blue 7,metz74 ,these are applied in exactly the same way as the ,basic colors4 ,some of the ,acid reds1 too1 will be found valuable for certain shades of scarlet1 etc41 that can hardly be reached with ,safranine4 ,among the best of the fast ,acid colors for leather may be mentioned3 ,red4--,fast ,scarlet1 ,,bxg1 ,badische2 ,biebrich ,acid ,red1 #b;,b1 ,kalle1 and ,fast ,acid ,red1 ,m1 ,metz4 ,yellow4--,tartrazine1 ,badische2 ,wool ,yellow1 #a;,a1 ,kalle1 and ,fast ,acid ,yellow1 #c;,g1 ,metz4 ,blue4--,wool ,fast ,blue1 ,,bl1 ,badische2 ,nerocyannic ,blue1 ,b1 ,kalle1 and ,fast ,acid ,blue1 ,,bb1 ,metz4 ,when using these ,acid dyes side by side with the ,basic colors1 it will be noticed that the latter1 as a rule1 are far more powerful1 and color the leather much more rapidly than the ,acid dyes4 ,accordingly for staining leather the ,basic dyes are the most satisfactory4 ,on the other hand in dyeing leather1 where the dye-liquor is allowed to act longer on the goods1 the ,acid colors are more valuable1 not only because they are fast to light1 but also because they will penetrate more deeply and more evenly4 ,finishing ,leather4--,after coloring the leather it is necessary to finish it carefully1 to get a smooth surface and to protect it from injury by rubbing or moisture4 ,some workers simply let the leather dry and then rub down the surface 7without using any wax or oil7 with the finger or the palm of the hands4 ,usually the grain or hair side of the leather is rubbed down with a little wax1 the white or yellow wax1 used largely as a finishing polish for tan shoes1 being frequently employed for this purpose4 ,it can be readily obtained from almost any good shoe store or1 if desired1 can be made by mixing together equal quantities of beeswax and carnauba wax in a molten condition1 and thinning the mixture with a little turpentine4 ,a recipe used with success by many leather workers calls for a mixture of beeswax1 turpentine1 and neatsfoot oil4 ,the wax is carefully melted1 mixed with a small amount of turpentine1 and then enough oil is stirred in to make it soft4 ,when used upon embossed or figured leather this wax is never applied directly1 but is placed inside a little bag of soft muslin1 and rubbed on and into the leather with a circular motion--the palm of the hand being often used to finish the waxed surface4 ,bronze ,effects4--,an interesting point in connection with the use of the ,basic dyes1 and some of the ,acid dyes1 too1 for staining leather is that1 when applied in a strong solution1 as is very likely to be the case when one is trying to get dark shades with an application of the brush or pad1 they quite frequently1 on drying1 show a very marked metallic lustre4 ,this is due to the formation of minute1 bright-colored crystals1 which reflect the light1 thus imparting to the fabric colors which have nothing to do with the shade produced by the dyestuff itself4 ,thus1 ,cyanole ,,ff1 ,cassella1 when dissolved1 or when dyed on leather or any other material1 gives a rather greenish shade of blue4 ,but it gives a very brilliant old gold effect1 almost as bright as gold leaf1 when applied in a strong solution and allowed to dry quickly4 ,when this effect is not desired it can be avoided by building up the dark shades by successive applications of weak solution1 and by rubbing down the little crystals with1 if necessary1 a little moisture1 whenever they appear to be forming4 ,in some cases1 however1 this bronzing property is of some value1 and enables the skilful craftsman to obtain interesting and effective results with a minimum of trouble and expense4 ,by painting on a strong solution of dyestuff1 and letting it dry quickly1 the bronze effect will be produced1 and then by rubbing in portions1 the true coloring of the dyestuff will be brought out in strong contrast to the crystal-covered surface4 ,unfortunately1 these bronze effects are not fast to either rubbing or moisture1 and even dry rubbing will break down the crystals1 while rubbing with a damp cloth or a moist finger will dissolve the color off in blotches4 ,to render this bronze effect more durable1 it is possible to make a regular bronze lacquer1 by adding varnish or gum like orange shellac or gum benzoin to a strong alcoholic solution of a ,basic dye4 ,the bronze varnish thus produced will1 when dry1 stand light finishing with wax in the usual way4 ,the addition of a little benzoic acid to the solution increases the lustre of the crystals4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,silk--,i ,so far as we can tell1 silk was first discovered and manufactured in ,china about #agjj ,b4,c41 a date corresponding in ,biblical history to the time of the patriarch ,joseph4 ,from ,china it was exported to the great and wealthy empire of ,persia1 and from there was first brought into ,europe by ,alexander the ,great after his defeat of the ,persian king4 ,its origin1 although known and described by ,aristotle1 was for several hundred years a mystery4 ,during the ,roman ,empire1 silken garments1 woven in ,europe1 from ,chinese silk imported by way of ,persia1 were important and very highly prized articles of luxury4 ,about #eee ,a4,d41 while commerce with ,persia was interrupted by warfare1 two monks in the pay of the ,emperor ,justinian smuggled eggs of the silkworm and seeds of mulberry trees from ,china to ,constantinople4 ,this was the origin of the ,european silk industry4 ,it spread rapidly to the various countries bordering on the ,mediterranean1 and by the seventeenth century was firmly established not only in ,spain and ,italy1 but also in ,france4 ,efforts were made to introduce it1 at this time1 into ,england1 but without success4 ,in #afbb ,king ,james ,i started the industry1 for the first time1 in the colony of ,virginia in this country4 ,since that time numerous attempts have been made to develop the ,american silkworm industry1 but with very little success1 owing to the large amount of hand labor necessary to produce the material4 ,at the present time the very finest raw silk in the world is produced in the south of ,france1 and next to that come certain brands of ,italian silk4 ,the ,japanese silk is more variable in quality1 although steadily improving1 while the ,chinese silk1 as a rule1 is less satisfactory and more apt to be light and fluffy4 ,with regard to the consumption1 it was estimated that in #aijg ,europe used some twenty-five million pounds1 and the ,united ,states fifteen million pounds of raw silk1 which1 at an average price of nearly #e4ej per pound1 amounted to over two hundred and eighteen million dollars4 ,origin and ,varieties of ,silk4--,silk has been defined as a 8smooth1 lustrous1 elastic fibre of small diameter and of animal origin40 ,as is well known1 ordinary commercial silk is secreted or 8spun0 by the silkworm1 the caterpillar form of a moth known as ,bombyx ,mori1 the moth of the mulberry tree4 ,these silkworms have been cultivated for thousands of years1 but there exist in different parts of the world1 notably in ,india and ,japan1 wild or uncultivated silkworms1 derived from nearly related1 but not identical1 families of moths1 and whose silk is collected in the forests by the natives1 forming what is known in commerce as wild or tussah silk4 ,of course1 the silk from silkworms1 cultivated and wild1 is the only one yet produced on a commercial scale4 ,but silk can also be obtained from other animals1 notably from spiders and from a peculiar shellfish1 the pinna1 found in the waters of the ,mediterranean4 ,silk from the silkworm can be divided into two classes1 according to whether the silkworms are the cultivated or the wild varieties4 ,in each case the silk is produced by the caterpillar spinning a covering or shroud1 the so-called cocoon1 around itself to protect it when in the form of the chrysalis or pupa1 awaiting its transformation into the moth4 ,the ordinary or cultivated silk of commerce comes from worms fed almost exclusively upon the leaves of the white mulberry tree1 and cannot be produced successfully without that particular plant4 ,the somewhat similar worms that produce the wild or tussah silks live upon the leaves of the oak1 elm1 ailanthus1 castor oil plant1 and others4 ,while the two varieties resemble each other greatly in their chemical properties1 they can always be distinguished1 because cultivated silk is much more lustrous than the other1 but is decidedly less strong4 ,tussah ,silk1 ,pongee1 ,shantung4--,the tussah silks1 when woven1 are commonly known under the general name of pongee4 ,of late years this name has been applied to imitation goods possessing the characteristic dull color1 and even the feel of the real article1 but far less strong4 ,these are generally made out of spun silk1 derived from 8,shappe10 i4e41 the by-products of the silk industry1 spoilt cocoons1 waste from the spinning machines and the dyehouses1 and the like--silk1 to be sure1 but silk of very inferior quality4 ,accordingly1 it is now customary to call real pongee by the name ,shantung1 after the ,chinese province from which much of the wild silk is brought4 ,shantung1 or true pongee1 can be readily distinguished from the imitation by examination of the threads1 both warp and filling4 ,these should be very long1 and loosely spun or rather 8thrown10 whereas the imitation threads are spun together tightly1 from fibres of many different lengths1 generally quite short4 ,preparing ,silk for ,dyeing4 ,reeling4--,all silk1 whether cultivated or wild1 comes originally from the cocoons1 which are1 as a rule1 each formed out of a continuous strand or thread woven by the silkworm round and round its own body before it passes into the chrysalis state4 ,these cocoons are collected1 carefully dried to kill the quiescent animal inside1 and then1 in due course of time1 they are placed in basins of warm water which softens the gum which binds the cocoon threads together1 and the separate fine threads from several cocoons are picked up by brushing1 and are combined into one which is reeled off on machines4 ,the silk thus obtained is made up into hanks and bundles1 and constitutes the raw silk of commerce4 ,raw ,silk4--,the raw silk is very different in appearance and texture to the finished silk that we are accustomed to4 ,it is without lustre1 white1 yellow1 or even1 in the case of some ,italian silks1 orange in color1 and quite stiff when handled4 ,these qualities are due to the presence of from #be to #ce per cent4 of gum1 which is insoluble in cold water1 but is softened by hot water and dissolves readily in a hot soap bath4 ,throwing4--,the threads of this raw silk are far too fine and delicate to be fit for the weaving processes or even for dyeing4 ,so they are combined into coarser and stronger threads by being 8thrown10 a process equivalent to the spinning process of cotton1 linen or wool4 ,in throwing1 the raw silk fibres are again softened in hot water1 and are loosely spun or twisted together while still sticky4 ,three1 four1 or five threads of raw silk are usually combined to form one strand of thrown silk1 varying1 of course1 with the quality of the original silk and the objects for which the thrown silk is to be used1 when woven4 ,for instance1 silk used for filling--8tram10 as it is called in the trade--is usually thicker and softer1 and less strong than the warp1 or 8organzine10 and therefore is usually built up1 by the 8throwster10 from many threads of less valuable raw silk1 loosely twisted1 while the organzine1 used for warp1 is generally of the best and strongest available material1 thrown in finer strands out of fewer threads of raw silk1 twisted more tightly4 ,it must always be remembered that the skein silk is thrown from very long continuous threads of raw silk1 full of gum1 whereas spun silk1 which is being used more and more every year1 is made from short lengths of waste and scrap silk1 held together not by gum1 but by tight twisting and spinning1 just like cotton or linen4 ,stripping or ,degumming4--,this thrown silk must then be prepared for the dyeing by getting rid of the gum1 which not only makes the silk stiff and destroys its lustre1 but which also would interfere with the smooth1 even dyeing of the fibres themselves4 ,for this purpose the silk1 in skeins1 is thoroughly washed1 or 8stripped10 by soaking in two or three successive baths of hot1 strong1 neutral soap solutions4 ,in the dyehouses ,castile 7olive oil7 soap is invariably used for this purpose1 and1 while made of cheap grades of olive oil1 it is always1 in good dyehouses1 of excellent quality1 for the presence of even minute amounts of free alkali in these baths is liable to greatly injure and 8tender0 the silk4 ,boiled-off ,liquor4--,the soap solution from these stripping baths is not thrown away in the dyehouses1 but is carefully stored as a valuable reagent4 ,under the name of 8boiled-off liquor0 it is almost exclusively used1 by the dyers1 for color dyeing4 ,it is not often used in black dyeing1 and therefore1 in a dyehouse1 the presence of a large and well-patronized black department is considered of great importance as providing the color dyer with an abundant supply of boiled-off liquor4 ,the stripped or degummed silk is now ready for weaving directly1 the resulting white cloth being sometimes finished and sold as such1 and sometimes 8dyed in the piece40 ,in most cases1 however1 the stripped silk is weighted1 dyed1 and finished 8in the skeins10 before weaving4 ,piece ,dyeing4--,in dyeing by the piece1 the stripped silk is passed through a weak acid bath1 usually acetic1 and then woven into goods of the desired quality4 ,these goods are then dyed in the piece by being run through the dye-bath until they are of the proper shade4 ,the dye-bath 7for colors7 is made by stirring the proper quantity of ,acid dyestuffs into a hot bath of boiled-off liquor 7the bath in which the silk has been stripped71 which is faintly acidified1 or 8broken10 as the technical phrase goes1 by the addition of some sulphuric acid4 ,this boiled-off liquor has the property of laying the dyes on the silk evenly and thoroughly1 and is better for that purpose than any other medium4 ,for amateur work1 or where boiled-off liquor cannot be obtained1 very fair results can be obtained with a strong bath of olive oil soap 7,castile or ,marseilles71 8broken0 with weak acid1 generally dilute sulphuric acid4 ,the term 8breaking0 the soap bath is very significant4 ,the acid should be added drop by drop to the frothing soap bath until the bubbles disappear and a thin iridescent film of fatty acid rises to the top of the liquid4 ,after the piece goods are brought to the proper shade1 they are finished1 usually by carefully rinsing in water to take away all traces of free acid1 then by passing through a cold soap bath1 often with a little olive oil emulsified in it1 to increase the lustre2 finally1 through a bath of weak organic acid1 like acetic acid1 to develop the so-called 8scroop0 or 8feel0 of the silk4 ,when silk is washed in soap1 or is dipped in even a weak bath of alkali1 it becomes soft and clammy to the touch1 and has no 8life0 or 8snap0 to it when dry4 ,the passage through a bath of weak acid develops the characteristic stiffness of the silk fibre1 and causes it to give its peculiar rustling sound when pressed4 ,skein ,dyeing4--,when weighting or adulteration is not employed1 i4e41 in the so-called 8pure dye0 process1 the dyeing of skein silk resembles the piece dyeing described4 ,the degummed silk is immersed in a dye-bath containing the dyestuffs 7,acid colors7 dissolved in boiled-off liquor1 broken with dilute sulphuric acid4 ,the bath is heated nearly to the boiling point1 and the silk turned in it until the desired shade is produced4 ,it is then taken out1 washed thoroughly in water to remove the last traces of acid1 and then brightened by passing through a soap bath with some oil1 and later through a bath of acetic acid to develop the 8scroop40 ,drying4--,an important part of the process is the final drying and finishing4 ,the drying should be done slowly and carefully1 and not proceed too far1 or the silk will be brittle4 ,as is well known to dyers1 silk has the power of absorbing #be or #cj of its weight of water without becoming perceptibly damp to the hand1 and this moisture1 when not carried too far1 is of actual benefit to the material1 making it stronger and more elastic4 ,this property is often made use of by the honest 787 dyer when1 in case some of the silk in a lot has been spoiled by accident or carelessness1 he makes up the difference in weight by the liberal use of the watering pot4 ,finishing4--,this process is perhaps the most difficult and technical of all1 for the value of the finished product depends very largely on it1 and it is almost impossible for an amateur to accomplish it4 ,the skeins1 after drying1 are hung on a heavy polished wooden bar and1 with a smooth wooden stick1 are shaken out1 straightened1 pulled1 twisted1 and worked until the fibres are all parallel1 the kinks taken out1 any weak or injured portion cut out1 and the whole skein has acquired the proper amount of lustre4 ,sometimes1 for specially brilliant fabrics1 the skeins are 8lustred0 by machinery2 this is the so-called 8metallic lustring0 when the silk1 generally enveloped in steam so as to be both hot and damp1 is pulled out between two steel arms until it has been stretched a considerable percentage of its original length4 ,this undoubtedly lessens the strength of the fibre considerably and diminishes its elasticity1 but under this strain each fibre is stretched out perfectly smooth and thus becomes much more brilliant and lustrous4 ,dyeing ,wild ,silks4--,it has been found difficult to handle satisfactorily the different sorts of wild silks in the factory4 ,the bleaching of them has been very troublesome1 although of late years the problem has been solved pretty well4 ,and the ordinary process for dyeing silk with ,acid dyes in a broken soap1 or boiled-off liquor1 bath is1 for full deep shades at any rate1 not always satisfactory4 ,in consequence most of the genuine pongee or ,shantung cloth is sold in the natural unbleached color1 a pleasant shade of tan1 or else in light shades4 ,perhaps the best results in dyeing pongee silk full1 deep1 even shades are obtained by mordanting the material with tannin and tartar emetic1 just as cotton is mordanted before dyeing it with ,basic colors1 and then using in the dye-bath one or the other of the so-called 8,janus0 colors1--a group of colors on the border line between ,basic and ,acid1 of which the best are ,janus ,yellow ,g1 ,janus ,yellow ,r1 ,janus ,red ,b1 and ,janus ,black #a 7,metz74 ,this process1 however1 is too complicated for the unprofessional dyer to use with much success4 ,for all but the very full shades the craftsman is advised to use the ,acid colors1 as1 for instance1 some of the selected colors of the different houses1 listed in ,chapter ,,vii1 in a bath acidified with acetic acid1 and without the use of soap4 ,for dark dull shades the ,sulphur colors can be used1 especially if some care is taken to reduce the alkalinity of the bath by neutralizing or nearly neutralizing the sodium sulphide with a little acid sodium sulphite4 ,if the desired shade is so dark as to necessitate heating and dye-bath1 it is also advisable to add a little gelatin4 ,for full shades of rather brighter quality the ,vat dyes may be employed1 also with precautions against the tendering action of the caustic alkali upon the fibre4 ,before1 however1 starting in to dye a piece of pongee on the assumption that it is made from tussah silk1 it is very advisable to examine it carefully1 picking out the individual threads and untwisting them1 and to make a few dyeing tests upon small samples4 ,for a large proportion of so-called pongee1 which in color1 lustre1 feel1 and general appearance resembles the genuine ,shantung very closely1 is simply made from spun or waste silk1 and can be dyed like ordinary silk4 ,acid ,dyes1 to be used on ,silk4--,any of the dyestuffs mentioned in the lists on page #abg1 as suitable for wool1 can be used successfully for silk dyeing4 ,these colors have all been selected as unusually fast to light and1 in this respect1 are to be classified as 8practically all of the first class10 i4e41 as absolutely satisfactory against the action of sunlight4 ,but1 for a valuable and comparatively fragile material like silk1 it is quite allowable to use colors for special shades which are less fast to sunlight1 if they possess other valuable qualities4 ,such1 for instance1 are the two red dyestuffs1 ,fast ,acid ,eosine ,g 7,metz7 and ,fast ,acid ,phloxine 7,metz71 which belong to the group of so-called ,eosine or ,fluorescen dyestuffs most of which1 while very beautiful1 are extremely fugitive4 ,these two dyes1 which give shades of pink and red with yellow and blue fluorescence1 respectively1 are considerably more fast than the rest of their group1 and will rank in the third class1 if not at the foot of the second class1 as regards light-fastness4 ,with regard to fastness to washing1 it must be remembered that these ,acid dyes are not fast at all1 when dyed on silk in a broken soap bath4 ,they may stand very light washing in a cold soap bath1 but in boiling soapsuds will strip completely4 ,this is important for the amateur1 and indeed1 for the professional dyer1 for whom a dyed silk1 either skein or in the piece1 has come out unsatisfactorily--uneven or spotted1 or too dark in shade--for it is possible1 if the silk is of good quality1 to clean off the color completely by boiling soapsuds1 without injuring the goods4 ,if the trouble is unevenness1 while the shade is satisfactory1 the color can be dissolved off in the boiling soap bath and then1 on breaking the bath with a little acid1 the same dye can be laid right on again1 it is to be hoped this time in a satisfactory manner4 ,the question of dyeing silk fast to washing1 and also of dyeing silk black1 will be dealt with in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,silk--,,ii ,,black ,,dyeing ,,of ,,silk4 ,,weighting ,,and ,,adulteration ,,of ,,silk4 ,,dyeing ,,silk ,,with ,,colors ,,fast ,,to ,,washing ,the dyeing process described in the last chapter1 while well suited for dyeing silk bright and lustrous colors1 is not so well adapted to dyeing it black4 ,to be sure1 there are several good fast acid blacks1 such as ,silk ,patent ,black1 #b,r1 ,kalle1 or ,neutral ,wool ,black1 ,b1 ,cassella1 or ,cashmere ,black1 #c;,,bn1 ,elberfeld1 or ,amido ,black1 #djbd1 ,metz1 which1 dyed in full shades in a broken bath of soap or boiled-off liquor1 will give fairly good results4 ,but the best of these are not always quite satisfactory1 the resulting color generally showing a tendency to be a deep full grey rather than a perfectly true lustrous black4 ,salt ,colors4--,silk may also be dyed black with some of the good ,salt colors--but unless the dyer takes the trouble to after-treat the goods by the troublesome process of diazotizing and developing1 the results are no better1 if indeed as good as those resulting from the ,acid blacks mentioned above4 ,sulphur ,colors4--,these have very often been tried on silk without much success1 because for dark colors like blacks1 it is necessary to boil the goods in the dye-liquor for some time and to have the latter very concentrated4 ,unfortunately the sodium sulphide1 necessary for dissolving the sulphur dyes1 is a powerful alkali1 and hence readily attacks an animal fibre1 like silk4 ,it is possible1 however1 by the abundant use of glucose 7,karo syrup1 etc47 to greatly protect the silk from this tendering action4 ,it is also possible for a dyer fairly well trained in chemistry1 to very carefully neutralize the dye-bath by the cautious addition of acid sodium sulphite1 until the dye-liquor is no longer alkaline and yet the dyestuff is not precipitated4 ,this process1 however1 is hardly fitted for an amateur1 and has not proved very successful even among the professionals4 ,logwood ,blacks4--,nearly all professional dyers continue to use the old vegetable dyestuff1 logwood1 about which some information was given in the first chapter4 ,to dye with this it is customary to use one of the many good logwood extracts on the market4 ,great care must be taken in the proper mordanting of the silk before it goes into the bath4 ,for this purpose the silk is impregnated first with iron salts1 and later with tannin1 and in some processes1 with salts of chromium or of tin1 before entering the logwood bath4 ,in all cases1 therefore1 silk dyed black with logwood contains a certain amount1 say #ae to #bj of its weight1 or #b-c ounces to the pound1 of foreign ingredients4 ,when carefully done this does not injure the material at all1 and the 8pure dyed0 logwood blacks are perfectly satisfactory both for shade1 lustre1 and durability4 ,,weighting ,,of ,,silk ,this moderate increase of weight1 however1 which is hardly enough to replace the weight of the gum lost in the stripping process1 was far from satisfying the demands of the manufacturer for a cheaper raw material4 ,and accordingly both dyer and dyeing chemist have exhausted all their energies and skill in trying to increase this percentage of cheap foreign matter in the finished silk1 to the utmost limit of what the market will stand4 ,the first efforts in this direction were based upon the saving of some or1 indeed1 nearly all1 of the gum which is wasted in the stripping or degumming process previously described4 ,this gum1 which amounts to from #bj to #ce per cent4 of the raw silk1 makes the silk stiff in texture and dull in color and more difficult to dye4 ,accordingly1 in former years1 it was invariably washed out of the silk with the greatest care before any attempt was made to dye it4 ,but by modifying the dyeing1 and especially the finishing process1 it was found possible to produce the so-called 8souples0--i4e41 silks with little or no lustre1 but with the characteristic 8scroop0 or 8feel0--capable of replacing bright silk as a filling in many fabrics and yet containing almost all the natural gum left in the fibre4 ,the black silks were then attacked and an elaborate system of mordanting was introduced before the dyeing proper began4 ,for instance1 the silk can be steeped alternately in one solution after another1 first of iron salts and then of ferrocyanide of potash1 thus forming ,prussian blue in the fibre4 ,then the excess of iron can be converted by immersion in tannin solutions1 such as ,gambier or ,cutch1 into black tannate of iron1 or ink1 and finally1 after perhaps a light bath in chromium salts1 the real black color is brought out by boiling in logwood extract4 ,the silk is then brightened by boiling with good neutral ,castile soap1 is shaded1 if necessary1 by dyeing with either an ,acid or ,basic dye in a weak bath1 and1 after drying and finishing1 the finished product may easily weigh two or even three times as much as the original raw silk1 and still retain its strength1 lustre1 and elasticity4 ,tin ,weighting4--,the weighting of colored and bright silks did not proceed so rapidly1 and it was not much more than ten years ago that1 by accident1 some ,french dyers discovered that by immersion in a strong bath of tin chloride 7stannic chloride acidified with some hydrochloric acid7 the silk fibre would absorb a large percentage of tin salts without necessarily losing lustre1 dyeing capacity1 or even strength4 ,this at first was kept a secret1 but its use gradually spread1 until now it is a very poor silk dyer who cannot weight his silk #ajj or #aej per cent4 without spoiling its immediate commercial value4 ,without going into unnecessary details1 the process is somewhat as follows3 ,the silk1 after being degummed and thoroughly washed free of soap1 is plunged into a bath of tin chloride and kept there for some hours4 ,it is then taken out and the loose tin salts are washed off in a tank of water 7technically called a box71 or in a washing machine4 ,to further 8set0 the tin1 the silk is then placed for a short time in a solution of phosphate of soda and again washed thoroughly4 ,it has now gained from #ae to #be per cent of its original weight 7#b to #d ounces to the pound of raw silk74 ,if further weighting is desired1 this treatment1 first in tin chloride and then in phosphate of soda1 can be repeated three or four up to five or even six times1 increasing the weight with each immersion4 ,then a bath is usually given of silicate of soda1 which adds a little weight1 to of an ounce1 and1 it is claimed1 benefits the lustre and strength of the goods4 ,then1 after a final washing1 the silk is ready for the dye-bath4 ,the weighted goods are dyed1 dried1 and finished about the same as with the 8pure dye0 process1 and the proud dyer can rejoice at returning to the honest manufacturer from #aej to #bej pounds of finished silk for every #ajj pounds of raw silk 7containing1 by the way1 #be to #cj pounds of gum7 which was sent in to the dyehouse6 ,this 8tin-weighing0 process is also applied to black dyeing1 and enables the black dyer to build up his weight with tin salts instead of limiting him to iron1 chromium1 ferrocyanide of potash1 tannin1 and logwood4 ,properties of ,weighted ,silk4--,it is scarcely necessary to point out that silk1 weighted to the extreme limit1 is hardly to be considered as the most durable and trustworthy of fabrics1 even when dyed by the most expert workmen4 ,and when carelessly prepared heavily weighted silk is an abomination1 liable to crack and wear away with the least provocation4 ,it may be worth reminding some of my fair readers that the old test of a silk taffeta1 8so thick and stiff that it will stand of itself10 is nowadays anything but a proof of good quality4 ,one or two manufacturers in this country a few years ago tried to revive the almost forgotten art of making and selling pure-dyed goods1 and one trouble they experienced in disposing of their products1 outside the high price1 was the criticism that their silk felt so light and thin4 ,prevalence of ,weighted ,silk4--,at present it is almost impossible1 at least in ,new ,york1 to buy pure-dyed heavy silks4 ,the writer1 at any rate1 has tried diligently1 during the last year or two1 to find for some special experiments a piece of white taffeta which was not markedly weighted4 ,after visiting department stores and the very best dry-goods stores in the city1 at all of which he was informed that no such material now existed1 the best that could be obtained was one make of silk where the organzine or warp was fairly pure1 the tram being well weighted4 ,light-weight ,japanese and ,chinese silks1 however1 undyed or dyed in the piece1 can still be procured with little or no weighting4 ,tests for ,weighted ,silk4--,this silk may be identified by a very simple test4 ,pure-dyed silk1 when dry1 is easily inflammable4 ,when touched with a lighted match it catches fire at once1 8carries the flame0 well1 especially if in the form of thread2 and1 if followed up with a flame1 it will before long burn away completely1 leaving little or no ash or residue4 ,on the other hand1 weighted silk1 especially when the added mineral matter amounts to #be or over1 is quite hard to burn4 ,if it catches fire at all1 it just flashes up for a moment and then the flame dies right out4 ,and when persistently heated1 until the organic matter is all burnt away1 it still leaves a very considerable residue of ash4 ,when this test is to be made on unwoven or skein silk1 it is enough to take two or three threads1 five or six inches long1 and to light them in the flame of a match4 ,for piece goods it is best to pick out the threads carefully1 with a pin or fine knife blade1 separating the tram from the organzine1 and then1 with a match1 to test each of these in turn4 ,a very little practice will enable the most inexperienced student to make this test satisfactorily4 ,of course1 for an accurate determination of the percentage of weighting contained in a given sample of silk1 it is necessary to resort to delicate chemical analyses4 ,but for all ordinary purposes this simple flame test is quite sufficient4 ,,dyeing ,,silk ,,with ,,colors ,,fast ,,to ,,washing ,as a rule the method previously described of dyeing silk with ,acid dyes in a broken bath of soap1 or better1 of boiled-off liquor1 will be found perfectly satisfactory4 ,the shades are easily obtained1 the colors are brilliant1 and1 if the right dyes are used1 exceedingly fast to light1 and the material1 if properly rinsed1 suffers no deterioration4 ,on the other hand these colors are not1 in the slightest degree1 fast to washing4 ,the dyed goods can be cleaned with gasoline and the like1 but when passed through a lukewarm bath of soap and water they bleed badly1 and in boiling soapsuds the color can be completely stripped from them4 ,in most cases this is not a serious objection1 for a person who will send a handsome hand-dyed silk scarf or piece of embroidery to the family washtub is entitled to scant sympathy if the results are disastrous4 ,but occasionally it is important to have colors on silk which can be guaranteed against moderate or even against1 severe1 washing4 ,fast ,colors on ,silk4--,there are two grades of fastness known to the dyers--8fast0 and 8embroidery fast40 8,fast0 means simply that the silk is to be dyed fast to ordinary1 careful handling so that the colors will not bleed or run in a warm or even hot soap bath1 but does not guarantee them against every possible maltreatment4 ,the best way of doing this is by the use of the ,direct ,cotton or ,salt dyes1 described in ,chapter ,,iii1 which1 it will be remembered1 only dye wool or silk at a high temperature1 at or near the boiling point and1 preferably1 in an acid bath1 but1 when once on1 are very hard to dislodge4 ,the selected ones are very fast to light and present a great range of bright1 attractive colors1 which are nearly1 if not quite1 as brilliant as those produced by the ,acid dyes4 ,they are applied in a boiling bath containing a little acetic acid1 and a good deal of salt1 especially for full shades4 ,for lighter shades1 the presence of salt is hardly necessary4 ,the goods are to be finished just as with the ,acid dyes1 with a soap bath followed1 if the scroop is desired1 by a weak bath of acetic acid4 ,the results1 when carefully done1 are very good4 ,they possess1 however1 one disadvantage for the amateur dyer4 ,these colors are quite hard to strip1 and so1 the desired effect must be produced the first time1 or not at all4 ,it is not possible to strip an unsatisfactory shade in a hot soap bath1 and dye it over and over again without injury1 as in the case with ,acid dyes4 ,they are best stripped by soaking in a bath of sodium hydrosulphite1 and then washing4 ,embroidery ,fast ,colors4--,while the above process gives shades fast enough against all ordinary washing1 it sometimes happens that silk must be dyed fast enough to withstand exactly the same treatment that coarse cotton or linen goods are subjected to1 without bleeding or staining4 ,the salt dyes are not quite fast enough for this1 particularly because1 not having been converted in the dyeing process into a special insoluble condition1 if they should be detached from the fibre by strong or hot soaping1 they would be liable to stain the neighboring tissues and not wash off quite clear4 ,one of the hardest tests that colored silk is called upon to stand is when1 in small quantities1 it is used with a large amount of white linen or cotton goods4 ,thus1 for instance1 when monograms are embroidered in red or blue silk upon white towels or napkins1 and the latter are scrubbed1 week after week1 in the regular wash1 the color must be fast1 indeed1 not to show some evidences of running4 ,hence the term 8embroidery fastness0 as applied to this class of dyes4 ,thanks1 also1 to the amiable practice of the modern laundress of lightening her labors by the addition of bleaching powder and other strong chemicals to the washtub1 it is very important that a silk dyed 8embroidery fast0 should be able to withstand the action of these agents as well as of soap4 ,up to the last few years these colors were only obtained by the use of the ,alizarine dyestuffs1 the full rich scarlet so often used for this purpose being the modern form of the old1 madder-dyed1 ,turkey red of our forefathers4 ,but1 during the last few years1 the troublesome and tedious mordanting processes necessary for the proper development of color by the ,alizarine dyes1 have been replaced1 for craftsmen1 and1 indeed1 by most professional dyers1 by the much simpler and shorter processes of vat dyeing4 ,as long as ,indigo was the sole representative of the class1 it was of very little use for silk dyeing4 ,but since the introduction of the splendid series of new vat dyes1 the ,algol1 ,ciba1 ,helindone1 ,indanthrene1 and ,thio ,indigo colors1 which1 dyed in a single bath1 give a whole range of brilliant shades1 wonderfully fast to light and to washing1 the necessity for mordant colors has very largely disappeared4 ,,dyeing ,,silk ,,with ,,vat ,,dyes ,it must always be remembered when working with silk1 wool1 leather1 or any other animal material1 that such materials are extremely sensitive to the action of alkalies1 especially when hot or caustic1 while they are but slightly injured1 if at all1 by the action of dilute acids4 ,for this reason it is always better1 whenever possible1 to dye silk with the ,acid dyes or the ,salt dyes1 in an acid or neutral bath1 rather than to use dyestuffs like the ,vat dyes or the ,sulphur colors1 which need an alkaline dye-liquor4 ,furthermore1 the silk is likely to have a more brilliant lustre when dyed with a color which fastens to it by chemical affinity1 from a solution1 rather than one where the color is fixed because the oxygen of the atmosphere changes it into an insoluble powder1 while in the pores of the silk4 ,it is1 however1 perfectly possible to dye silk full shades with the ,vat dyes and even--though this is not often advisable--with the ,sulphur dyes1 by using some simple precautions4 ,the best ,vat dyes for silk are ,indigo itself1 and its substitution products1 like ,brom-,indigo1 ,elberfeld1 or the ,thio ,indigo dyes1 ,kalle1 or else the rather closely related colors like the ,helindones1 ,metz1 and the ,ciba colors1 ,klipstein4 ,it is of importance to use only those which are shown in the table on page #ajb1 as dyeing in a cold1 or at most1 a lukewarm bath4 ,the dye-bath should be made with a considerable amount of dyestuff1 so as to avoid the necessity of keeping the goods in it long4 ,and the amount of caustic alkali should be kept as low as possible1 consistent of course with dissolving the reduced dyestuff4 ,it has been found in practice that the presence of glue or gelatine in the bath1 or even of glucose 7molasses1 corn syrup1 ,karo syrup1 etc471 protects the silk1 wool1 and other animal fibres greatly from the action of alkalies4 ,it should1 therefore1 be added in quantities of two or three large tablespoonfuls to the gallon of dye-liquor4 ,the wet goods should be immersed in the cold or lukewarm bath1 and turned constantly for a few minutes only1 before taking them out1 wringing them1 and hanging them up to oxidize4 ,as soon as the color sets1 which is shown generally1 by the change of shade and which never takes more than1 say1 twenty minutes if the materials are well opened up1 the goods should be brightened in a hot bath of good1 neutral1 olive oil soap1 and then finished as previously described4 ,it will be remembered that several1 indeed most of the best ,vat colors do not develop their final shade at all1 until after the soaping process4 ,when carefully done1 this process will give exceedingly fast and quite brilliant colors1 without injury to the strength of the goods4 ,comparative ,results of ,vat ,dyes and ,sulphur ,dyes on ,silk4--,it is hard to get full shades with ,sulphur colors because it is generally necessary to heat the dye-bath1 and this1 owing to the powerful alkaline properties of the sodium sulphide1 is very injurious to the silk4 ,besides this1 the sulphur dyes are much less brilliant than the ,vat dyes1 and have no good red or orange shades in the whole class4 ,they accordingly should not be used1 excepting where no other are available1 or1 as will be described in a later chapter1 when doing 8resist stencilling0 on silk4 ,on the other hand1 such very unusual advantages do some of these new ,vat dyes possess1 for the dyeing of silk for special purposes1 that large quantities of ,helindones1 ,thio ,indigoes1 and other good specimens of this class are being sold1 at comparatively very high prices1 to manufacturers of fine shirtings where the patterns are made by weaving fine lines or figures of brightly dyed silk into the linen or cotton fabric4 ,until the introduction of these dyes in the last two or three years these shades could not have been produced fast enough for this purpose4 ,sulphur dyes can also be used on silk without injuring the goods1 by taking the precautions described earlier in this chapter4 ,the shades1 however1 are quiet and dull1 as compared to those produced by other classes of dyestuffs2 and it is almost1 if not quite1 impossible to get a good full red and1 especially1 a good scarlet1 by using these colors4 ,silk properly dyed with ,sulphur colors is extremely fast to washing4 ,but these dyes1 unlike the best ,vat colors1 are as a rule quite sensitive to bleaching agents1 and therefore are not so well adapted for general use on 8embroidery fast0 silk4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,imitation ,,and ,,artificial ,,silk ,owing to the high price of pure silk and the bad wearing qualities of the highly adulterated silks1 described in the last chapter1 there has been for a long time a strong demand for a fabric which would combine as far as possible the strength and wearing power of the one1 with the cheap price of the other1 while still retaining the lustre and 8scroop0 and characteristic appearance of both4 ,the demand at present is met1 and not so unsuccessfully1 first by imitation silk1 of which mercerized cotton is the best example1 and second1 by the various forms of artificial silk which during the last few years have been introduced widely in both ,europe and our own country4 ,the competition of these two classes of products is not at all to be despised4 ,their quality is constantly improving1 their price diminishing1 and their production increasing rapidly from year to year4 ,and if the silk manufacturers continue to produce such poor material in the line of weighted silk fabrics as they have in the past1 it will be but a short time before they will find the market almost entirely divided between pure-dyed silks1 on the one hand1 for expensive goods1 and some of these new products for cheap materials4 ,,mercerized ,,cotton ,history and ,preparation4--,this material was first introduced as a substitute for silk some ten or twelve years ago1 although the process for making it was invented about #ahdj1 by a celebrated ,english dyer1 ,john ,mercer4 ,he discovered that when cotton1 either in cloth or yarn1 was subjected for a short time to the action of strong caustic alkali1 and then thoroughly washed1 the resulting material was much stronger than before1 had shrunk very considerably1 and had a much greater affinity for dyestuffs4 ,for instance1 dyes like the ,basic colors1 which give but a temporary stain on ordinary cotton1 will dye with some degree of fastness cotton thus treated with alkali1 without the use of mordants4 ,mercer patented his discovery and made some use of it in calico printing2 as1 for instance1 in the making of 8crinkled0 goods4 ,but the process was nearly forgotten until1 in #ahhi1 it was discovered that1 by proper treatment1 cotton could by this means be made so lustrous as to compare not unfavorably with silk4 ,to make the cotton lustrous1 the goods1 after dipping into the strong alkali1 are kept firmly stretched1 and their strong tendency to shrink resisted1 until the alkali has been thoroughly rinsed off and the last traces neutralized with a little acid4 ,if this is done carefully1 when finally dried the cotton fibres will be found drawn out smooth and lustrous1 while still retaining their new qualities of strength and increased dyeing power4 ,to get good results in this process the materials treated1 whether in yarn or cloth1 must be made of the very best and longest stapled cotton1 preferably ,egyptian1 and when well done the results are extremely satisfactory4 ,the lustre is not as good as the very best silk1 but it is quite well marked1 and for replacing the cheap grades of heavily weighted silks1 as1 for instance1 for underwear1 linings1 etc41 the mercerized goods are of very great value1 owing to their strength and durability1 as well as their cheapness4 ,dyeing of ,mercerized ,cotton4--,cotton1 thus treated1 is dyed in the same way that ordinary cotton is1 with the exception that it takes the dyes more rapidly1 and1 as a rule1 gives deeper and more brilliant shades with the same amount of coloring matter4 ,for special purposes it may be best to use the ,sulphur or the ,vat dyes1 but in general this material is best dyed with the ,salt dyes1 which are not only easy to apply1 but are fast to light1 very brilliant1 and on these goods1 at any rate1 very fairly fast to washing4 ,as before mentioned1 the fastness to both light and washing may be considerably improved by after treatment of the dyed goods1 i4e41 by passing them through a hot bath containing a tablespoonful each of copper sulphate1 potassium bichromate1 and acetic acid to the gallon of water4 ,this1 however1 will rarely be found necessary1 provided the selected colors are used1 and the color has been applied at the boil in a bath containing considerable salt4 ,,artificial ,,silk ,history4--,the famous old ,french chemist1 ,raumur1 in the year #agcd1 suggested1 after a study of the silk worm1 and of the method by which it 8spins0 the natural thread1 that it might be possible to make a jelly-like substance which could be drawn out into a fine thread and1 coagulating1 form an artificial silk4 ,this suggestion was first acted on1 in a practical way1 in the year #ahee1 when ,andermars obtained some curious results by dipping a needle or fine metal rod into a thin viscous solution known as collodion1 and then drawing it out rapidly1 made fine1 smooth threads as the material solidified4 ,this collodion1 which for many years has been in common use in minor surgery to paint on wounds and cuts1 because it leaves a film of artificial skin1 and in more recent times has been much used in photography1 is a solution of gun cotton or nitro-cellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether4 ,in #ahhe ,count ,hilary de ,chardonnet made improvements in this last process1 and produced successfully the first real artificial silk threads on a commercial scale4 ,chardonnet ,silk4--,he also used a thick collodion solution1 but instead of drawing it out he pressed it out through fine holes by using very great pressure4 ,as fast as the gummy thread exuded it was picked up1 carried along into a drying room1 where the alcohol and ether could escape 7to be condensed later and used over again71 and then the solid fibre was passed into a solution of some suitable reducing agent1 such as ammonium or sodium sulphydrate1 which converts the inflammable gun cotton into its original condition of cellulose4 ,these resulting threads1 being smooth and uniform when properly made1 have very great lustre4 ,indeed1 they are often far more brilliant than the very best and finest natural silk1 and can be dyed and woven into beautiful fabrics4 ,this discovery of ,chardonnet's was at once utilized1 and large and flourishing factories of ,chardonnet silk sprang up all over ,europe4 ,the first large factory1 which is still doing a very profitable business1 was at ,besanon1 in ,france1 and later a large factory was established at ,frankfort1 ,germany4 ,pauly ,silk4--,the success of this process aroused the interest of other chemists1 and before long several rival processes came into existence1 also based on the use of a viscous solution of a cellulose compound4 ,one company1 making the so-called ,pauly silk1 utilized the solvent action of an ammoniacal copper solution upon cellulose for their starting point4 ,elberfeld ,silk1 ,glanzstoff4--,the ,farbenfabriken von ,elberfeld1 famous manufacturers of dyestuffs1 took up the manufacture of silk from a solution of a compound of cellulose with acetic acid2 and the ,elberfeld silk1 or1 as it is widely known in ,germany1 ,glanzstoff1 is every year becoming a more and more important factor in the silk business4 ,viscose ,silk4--,a still different process1 which during the past two or three years has been successfully introduced into the ,united ,states1 depends upon the curious substance called ,viscose1 a thick1 sticky solution of cellulose made by first treating wood pulp1 cotton or other vegetable fibre with strong caustic soda and then dissolving the resulting product in carbon disulphide4 ,this ,viscose was first introduced for many different purposes4 ,the solvent1 carbon disulphide1 is very volatile1 and flies off readily1 leaving the cellulose behind in the form of a stiff jelly which1 on drying1 becomes solid and strong4 ,so ,viscose was used for water-proofing paper1 etc41 for making solid articles like piano keys and billiard balls1 and even for making opaque patterns in calico printing4 ,but its most valuable application is for artificial silk4 ,it is pressed out through fine holes1 and the thread resulting quickly solidifies as the solvent evaporates1 and can be dried carefully and worked up on reels or bobbins1 to be dyed later4 ,properties4--,artificial silk1 as a rule1 is a little stiffer than natural silk1 but has an exceedingly fine lustre4 ,it cannot be spun in as fine threads as fine1 natural silk1 but1 on the other hand1 can be produced in thick1 smooth threads which1 stained as a rule black or dark colors1 quite replace horsehair for furniture coverings1 etc4 ,similar products are made1 too1 by coating cotton with a layer of artificial silk4 ,another curious use of this artificial silk process is when it is formed into still larger threads1 very lustrous and quite stiff1 and used for plumes and aigrettes4 ,they can be dyed any color1 have excellent lustre1 and are extremely useful for millinery4 ,precautions ,necessary in ,dyeing4--,one great drawback is common to all these different varieties of artificial silk4 ,they are quite strong1 although not particularly elastic1 when dry1 but when wet lose their strength very markedly4 ,indeed1 at one time it was found extremely troublesome to dye them1 as the silk skein dyers1 accustomed to work and wring and stretch their silk1 with impunity1 in and out of the hot dye-baths1 would try the same treatment with this new product1 and in consequence ruin every skein4 ,when thoroughly wet through in a hot bath the thread will soften until a skein may hardly bear its own weight4 ,accordingly1 the dyeing is always done as quickly as possible1 and generally at a lukewarm or only moderately high temperature4 ,the skeins should be handled as little as possible in the dye-bath1 and1 when taken out to wring1 should be rinsed slightly to get rid of extra color1 acid1 etc41 and then carefully dried1 not by twisting on two sticks1 as is customary with other materials1 but by wrapping in cheese cloth or blotting paper and then running the skeins backward and forward through the clothes wringer4 ,tests for ,artificial ,silk4--,it has been ascertained that all varieties of artificial silk now on the market are made from some form of cellulose4 ,efforts have been made to take thick jellies made from gelatine or similar animal compounds1 and make threads from them1 coagulating them later by treatment with formaldehyde or similar chemicals4 ,these experiments have1 however1 not as yet proved successful4 ,accordingly1 any test that will distinguish between a vegetable and an animal fibre will show whether a brilliant thread or piece of textiles contains natural silk or not4 ,the simplest of tests is1 of course1 to burn a little with a match or at a flame and see if there results the characteristic 8burnt feather smell0 of charring animal tissues4 ,this odor accompanies the natural silk4 ,the chemist would probably make the same test more accurately by heating a wad of the material in the bottom of a small test tube and noticing whether ammonia was being evolved1 and whether the distillate was alkaline in reaction4 ,the ammonia and alkali resulting from the nitrogenous organic matter is a certain indication of animal matter4 ,to distinguish between mercerized cotton and artificial silk1 it is generally enough to soak the samples for a short time1 say a quarter of an hour1 in boiling water and test their strength4 ,mercerized cotton properly made would be just as strong afterward as before1 while the artificial silk would be soft and weak1 if it would not1 indeed1 break down completely4 ,besides this1 it must be remembered that the mercerized cotton1 in spite of its lustre1 is made up of threads tightly spun together from a large number of short fibres1 none of which are over two inches or so in length1 while the artificial silks are made up1 like the natural silk1 of long1 continuous fibres twisted together to form the yarn4 ,in general1 these artificial silks1 manufactured as they are from wood pulp and other vegetable materials1 are to be dyed with the ,salt1 ,sulphur1 or ,vat dyes1 care always being taken to expose them to the action of hot dye-liquors as short a time as possible4 ,the ,salt dyes are less apt to interfere with the brilliant lustre1 but the ,sulphur and ,vat dyes have the great advantage of dyeing in a cold or lukewarm bath1 without any loss in fastness4 ,the ,chardonnet silk has a special affinity for the ,basic dyes1 and in the trade is usually dyed both light and dark shades with these coloring matters1 without previous mordanting1 in a slightly acid bath4 ,this practice1 however1 while simple and easy1 is not to be recommended4 ,for the ,basic dyes1 with but few exceptions1 fugitive under all circumstances1 are particularly sensitive to light1 when dyed in light shades1 upon such a brilliant and almost transparent medium as this is4 ,on the other hand1 articles made of artificial silk1 being easily injured by rain1 are not so liable to be exposed to the open weather as some other less delicate materials4 ,the ,viscose and ,elberfeld silks 7,glanzstoff7 have less affinity for the ,basic dyes1 and dye more readily with the ,salt and ,sulphur colors than the ,chardonnet silk1 made from gun cotton4 ,but it is perfectly possible to dye the latter also with fast colors of the ,salt1 ,sulphur1 or ,vat classes1 providing large amounts of dyestuff are used to bring up the shade4 ,indeed it is poor economy to be sparing of the coloring matter1 when working with any kind of artificial silk4 ,for speed is essential1 and the dyer who lets his material remain long in the dye-bath is liable to get into difficulties4 ,the artificial silk1 after dyeing1 should be finished much like natural silk1 by rinsing and then passing through a bath containing some olive oil1 emulsified in a weak bath of soda ash4 ,this increases the lustre4 ,it should also be dried at a fairly low temperature and1 while drying1 kept stretched out by hanging a wooden or glass rod in the loop of the hanging skein1 or some similar device1 taking care to avoid strain great enough to pull apart the weakened fibre4 ,when dyeing this material great care should also be taken in tying up the individual skeins and in handling them4 ,turn them in the dye-bath as little as possible consistent with even dyeing4 ,the threads1 unless very tightly spun1 are constantly liable to come untwisted1 and the knots to untie1 causing much annoyance4 ,in conclusion1 when carefully made and dyed these artificial silks furnish beautiful1 brilliant1 lustrous fibres1 which can be used to great effect in many kinds of handicraft work4 ,they can easily be procured with more lustre than the very best natural silk1 but even when dry are deficient in elasticity1 and to some extent in strength1 and when wet are very fragile4 ,the price is kept at a rather high figure1 as a rule only from #be to #ej cents a pound less than that of good natural silk4 ,but every year the production is increasing1 new factories are springing up in every country1 and as there is no limit to the production excepting the demand1 it is probable that in a few years1 thanks to competition1 the price will be dropped very considerably and the whole silk business will be revolutionized4 ,at present it is estimated that the production of the artificial silk is not far from one-fifth that of natural silk1 and this fraction is getting larger every month4 ,indeed1 the rise of this particular industry may fairly be considered as one of the most interesting1 most useful1 and most valuable contributions of the manufacturing chemist during the last quarter century4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,tied ,,and ,,dyed ,,work ,hitherto1 in this book1 the student has been instructed in the general art of dyeing and coloring the various fabrics1 both in the yarn and in piece1 without any attention to the subject of coloring them in patterns or designs4 ,the remaining chapters will be devoted to various methods1 suitable for craftsmen1 by which the dyestuffs can be applied so as to give more or less definite patterns to the objects to be colored4 ,this art1 in its general principles1 was worked out in various parts of the world at very early periods in their civilization4 ,in a great many cases colored designs in textiles were formed1 in the process of weaving1 by incorporating yarns of different colors in certain portions of the fabric4 ,but along with this1 at a very early stage in the textile industry1 there was developed the art of making patterns1 regular or irregular1 by the action of dyestuffs upon previously woven goods4 ,in general there are three methods for doing this which1 it is claimed1 were known to the ancient ,egyptians just as well as they are to the modern calico printer4 ,these three methods are known as ,direct ,coloring1 ,discharge1 and ,resist dyeing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b--,,tied ,,and ,,dyed ,,headdress ,,from ,,an ,,inca ,,tomb ,,in ,,peru ,direct ,coloring4--,this means the application of the dyestuff or coloring matter to different special portions of the textile or fabric1 so as to give a colored design1 upon a lighter background4 ,the dye may be applied by dipping special portions of the fabric into it1 in which case the pattern is apt to be a very loose and irregular one4 ,or1 if the material will take the dye readily enough1 as for instance in the staining of leather1 it may be applied with a brush1 or a small pad4 ,more formal and intricate designs can be made by applying the color in the form of a paste1 through the help of stencils1 as worked out by the ,japanese so beautifully1 or by means of wooden or metallic blocks1 as in the block printing in the ,east1 which in ,europe and ,america has developed into the art of calico printing1 by rolls run by machinery4 ,discharge4--,this process is the exact reverse of the preceding one1 in that the cloth or other material is dyed first1 and later the color is either entirely removed or1 it may be1 very decidedly altered in shade1 in certain special parts1 by the application of some chemical4 ,the earliest examples of this are where cloths stained with ,iron buff1 have had patterns made in them by washing out certain portions with acid4 ,just as some of the earliest forms of 8direct coloring0 are shown in the dark patterns of leaves1 formed by the same ,iron buff dye1 upon cloth against which moist fresh leaves have been crushed4 ,the discharge process is not as commonly used by craftsmen as the other two methods1 because it has not always been easy to find or to use a chemical that will properly destroy or change any particular color1 without at the same time1 if fast dyes are used1 destroying or at least injuring the fabric4 ,the professional dyer1 working in conjunction with the chemist1 carefully weighing the reagents1 and using steam chests and drying chambers with definite and carefully regulated temperatures1 can fully discharge even the fastest dyes without danger4 ,but this is difficult1 if not impossible for the craftsman1 and while the process will be discussed and described under the subject of stencilling1 it will be found1 comparatively1 of but little practical importance4 ,resist4--,the third and last method for getting colored patterns is one which has been used in different ways1 by the most widely scattered nations1 and which1 to this day1 furnishes one of the most interesting and important processes at the disposal of the craftsman1 as opposed to the professional dyer4 ,it consists of applying to certain portions of the fabric1 before dyeing1 some agent which1 acting either chemically or mechanically1 will 8resist0 the action of the dyestuff at the places where it is applied4 ,these parts accordingly will remain in their original color1 or at any rate will be but slightly colored1 while other portions1 not so protected1 will be dyed full shades4 ,this1 in many respects1 is the most advantageous way of obtaining patterns for the craftsman1 because no action has taken place tending to injure the strength or durability of either material or dyestuff1 and as the color is applied in a regular dye-bath there is generally an opportunity to apply the dyestuffs in the most approved manner4 ,variations in ,resist ,work4--,the resist method has been discovered in many parts of the world1 and has been carried out in many ways4 ,in ,java1 for instance1 a beautiful art was developed known as ,batik1 to be described later1 in more detail4 ,these people used1 as a resisting medium1 molten beeswax1 which could be poured or painted on to the cloth wherever desired1 and1 according to whether it was applied hot or only just warm enough to be liquid1 would protect the material covered1 either wholly or partially1 against the action of dyestuffs in a cold bath4 ,less elaborate1 but still very interesting processes are reported from many other quarters4 ,as will be described in the next chapter the ,japanese have long used a resist paste1 to make white patterns against dark backgrounds with their stencils4 ,in some of the ,pacific ,islands natives have learnt to make patterns by pressing pieces of cloth tightly between shells1 as for instance the two halves of a clam shell1 and then dyeing or staining around them4 ,other tribes learnt the trick of tying or sewing flat thin pieces of wood together1 tightly compressing the cloth between them and thus preventing the dyestuff from reaching those parts of the goods when dyed later4 ,but the most common process1 and one which is not only the simplest and easiest to carry out1 but also offers to the skilful dyer an almost unlimited range of interesting and effective results1 in color and design1 is the so-called 8,tied and ,dyed ,work40 ,,tied ,,and ,,dyed ,,work ,in this process1 ,tied and ,dyed ,work1 the pattern is made by tying string or cord1 more or less tightly1 around certain selected portions of the material4 ,when the goods1 thus treated1 are subsequently dyed1 these tied portions will be kept from the action of the dyestuff1 and after the operation is finished and the strings cut or untied1 they will be lighter in color than the adjacent parts of the fabric4 ,this process has been known and widely used in many different parts of the world4 ,some interesting examples of it are found among the textiles from the so-called ,inca graves1 in ,peru and ,bolivia1 dating from before the ,spanish conquest in the sixteenth century 7see ,fig4 #b74 ,some extremely interesting specimens of tied work can be seen in the ,philippine collection in the ,new ,york ,museum of ,natural ,history1 brought from the ,bagobo tribe in ,mindanao 7see ,fig4 #e74 ,while perhaps the most extraordinary development of this process can be found in the so-called chundries or chunaries1 imported from ,central ,hindustan1 and sold by traders in ,eastern goods and textiles at very moderate prices4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c--,,shikar ,,chundri1 ,,from ,,rajputana1 ,,with ,,knots ,,still ,,untied ,chundries4--,these are chiefly manufactured in the native ,state of ,kotah1 in ,rajputana1 and have been produced there from time immemorial1 for use as clothing and hangings4 ,those that are imported to this country 7see ,figs4 #c and #d7 are generally made of extremely thin1 flimsy muslin1 most elaborately decorated in three or four colors1 with patterns made up of an infinite number of small round or rectangular rings of white or light colors1 against a darker background4 ,they can be obtained in the same condition that they left the dyer's hands1 folded tightly together1 colored red or brown or black from the final dye-bath1 and covered over with hundreds of little hard knots or lumps4 ,these1 on examination1 prove to be the tied places1 each tied by hand1 by winding round and round the base of the projecting loop of cloth1 a very fine thread1 closely laid and knotted extremely firm and tight4 ,when unwound1 which must be done with much care on account of the thin1 fragile nature of the cloth1 the knotted portions often show most beautiful and interesting designs--done in different colors1 put on before tying1 and protected from the final bath by the close tight layer of thread4 ,among the most interesting of them are the so-called 8,shikar0 chundries1 where the design1 repeated over and over again1 illustrates some hunting scene1 as1 for instance1 a tiger hunt1 with the animal springing at a man armed with a sword1 and a horse or elephant with howdah4 ,when fully opened one of these chundries makes a strip of cloth some five or six yards long1 and in ,rajputana is used as the full-dress costume of a young lady of fashion1 being folded round and round the body and over the head in most graceful and charming lines4 ,on studying one of these chundries one is struck by the immense amount of labor expended in the tying process4 ,the knots which form the pattern make1 frequently1 as many as twenty-five or thirty to the running inch1 and each one is tied so tightly around the cloth1 folded so as to form four thicknesses1 and drawn or pressed out into loops1 that it completely protects the part it covers from the dyestuff1 only the tip of the loop remaining exposed4 ,hence1 when it is untied1 there results a small circular or rectangular ring not over three-quarters of an inch in diameter4 ,to obtain a surface around which the string can be thus tightly tied1 the folded cloth is evidently pressed out from the back by a thin pin or spike 7the effect can be produced by tying a thin piece of cloth tightly around a wooden toothpick7 around which the thread can be tightly drawn and knotted1 and which usually is left in during the dyeing process and taken out afterwards4 ,the patterns are so elaborate1 and yet are repeated over and over again1 on the same chundries1 with such regularity1 that it is probable that some simple apparatus is used to press out the cloth in exactly the proper places4 ,this could be done by using a little frame with holes in it1 into which pins of wood or ivory could be set1 like the markers in a cribbage board1 for instance1 forming definite figures on which piece after piece of cloth could be placed and pressed out into shape4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d--,,same ,,chundri ,,as ,,in ,,fig4 #c1 ,,untied ,,and ,,shaken ,,out ,the most interesting thing1 after all1 about these extraordinarily elaborate pieces of handicraft work is the fact that this vast amount of time and labor is expended upon such poor materials4 ,the muslin of which they are made is so thin and poor that considerable pains must be taken in opening them1 to prevent their tearing from the strain of pulling off the knots of fine thread4 ,then1 too1 the colors as a rule not only are fugitive to sunlight1 but are easily affected by washing4 ,two minutes scrubbing in hot soapsuds will almost completely efface the pattern and color from some of the most elaborate and beautiful of them all4 ,and this is not1 as is claimed frequently by modern writers upon ,eastern handicrafts1 due to the introduction of cheap and fugitive 8aniline0 dyestuffs4 ,the dyes1 used for generations by the ,rajput craftsmen1 for their most elaborate chundries1 were principally tumeric1 safflower1 and other inferior vegetable colors1 applied so loosely as to be merely stains rather than dyes--and it would be hard to get modern dyestuffs which1 applied with any care1 would be as fugitive as those commonly used for the very best examples of these beautiful textiles4 ,tied ,work in the ,philippines4--,of different quality is the work of the ,bagobo tribe in ,mindanao1 interesting specimens of which are to be seen in the ,philippine collection of the ,new ,york ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,as shown in ,fig4 #e1 a headdress belonging to ,miss ,laura ,benedict1 the work is not unlike that done by the ancient ,peruvians1 and the patterns1 although often exceedingly complex1 are invariably geometrical1 and do not approach in variety or in interest those from ,india4 ,the coloring1 too1 is far simpler--practically all the examples showing light patterns on a dull purplish background4 ,but the dyeing is most carefully and thoroughly made--taking about thirty days to complete1 dyeing each night and washing thoroughly each morning during all that time1 until the final product is exceedingly permanent to both light and washing4 ,miss ,benedict1 who was the first white person to enter the ,bagobo country and study and report on their handicrafts1 states that the patterns are made in a curious manner4 ,the pattern is first outlined upon the cloth by a series of basting stitches1 the intersection of two stitches being the mark for the centre of one of the tied places4 ,then the operator1 seated1 puts over her big toe a ring attached to a line some three feet long1 on the end of which is a simple hook made from a bent and sharpened piece of copper or brass wire4 ,holding the cloth in one hand1 she then fastens the hook into one of the marked places1 pulls the part out with her foot1 and ties up the loop thus formed1 rapidly and tightly1 with waxed thread4 ,this she winds round and round the loop1 beginning with the bottom first1 and knots it tight1 using the free hand1 assisted1 except with very expert workers1 with the thumb and forefinger of the other4 ,specimens of textiles thus tied1 and not yet dyed or opened1 and also of the toe-ring1 line1 and hook used in the process1 can be seen at the ,museum1 along with a great variety of beautiful specimens of the finished work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e--;,,bagobo ,,headdress ,,from ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,mindanao ,it is rare that1 in our present surroundings1 any craftsman can spare the time and patience to copy the elaborate patterns made in these ways by the ,eastern dyers4 ,but equally beautiful and interesting results can be produced with very little expenditure of time and labor1 by the skilful dyer1 who knows something of the fundamental principles of design and can use his dyes so as to get soft and beautiful as well as permanent color effects4 ,it is impossible1 in a work like this1 to do more than suggest some of the many ways in which this process can be used4 ,the rest depends entirely upon practice--and more can be learned about its possibilities in a couple of hours' work with muslin or cheesecloth1 and a ball of twine or tape1 in connection with a dye-pot of a good ,sulphur dye1 than by weeks of listening or reading about it4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,tied ,,work ,tied on ,itself4--,interesting effects may often be produced on long pieces of cloth1 scarfs1 and the like1 by folding them over and tying them into knots at one or two selected places1 before dyeing4 ,fig4 #f shows an example of this1 7a7 ,tied and ready for dyeing2 7b7 ,dyed and opened out4 ,this when worked out in different colors1 dyeing first1 with some light color1 then tying and dyeing with another color1 or else coloring the tied and dyed piece with a second light bath of another color1 gives very pleasant results as applied to draperies--as1 for instance1 simple costumes for pageants and out-of-doors plays4 ,it is1 however1 almost1 if not quite1 impossible to obtain definite designs in this way1 and it is hardly possible to duplicate results4 ,but occasionally the process is useful4 ,tied with ,string or ,tape4--,far more important is the process generally meant by the term 8tied and dyed work10 where the pattern is made by tying either thread1 string1 cord1 or even tape1 more or less tightly around special portions of the cloth4 ,these portions are usually drawn out1 or pressed out1 or folded1 so as to form a sort of loop around which the string can be tied4 ,but occasionally the whole cloth1 laid flat and with but little folding1 is tied tightly across1 so that the reserved part forms1 when untied1 a more or less straight band4 ,tied in ,bands4--,it is often desirable to separate one part of a design from another by means of a broad line or band of white or light color4 ,this can be readily done by tying a piece of strong twine or tape1 tightly1 right across the goods at the desired place before dyeing it4 ,quite elaborate and interesting effects can be produced in this way by first folding the cloth lengthways1 and then tying a width of several inches with a broad piece of tape4 ,if it is not tied too tight some of the color will work up and down the folds1 under the tape1 and give1 when finished1 curious wavy effects4 7,see ,fig4 #g47 ,tied in ,small ,loops4--,this banding1 though interesting and useful1 differs from the sharp little round or diamond-shaped rings forming the patterns in the ,rajput or ,bagobo textiles4 ,these are produced by pressing or pulling out the cloth into loops or bunches which are then tied tightly round and round with string or thread1 the middle of the loop being usually left exposed to the dyestuff1 so as to form a colored centre4 ,illustration3 7a7--,tied and ,ready for ,dyeing 7b7--,dyed1 ,untied and ,shaken ,out ,,fig4 #f--,,sample ,,of ,,tied ,,and ,,dyed ,,work1 8,,tied ,,on ,,itself0 ,very small loops can be made1 as mentioned above1 by pressing out the cloth with a wooden pin 7or toothpick7 and tying tightly around this1 leaving in the pin until after the dyeing is completed4 ,skilful workers can tie quite small loops by placing a bead1 or dried pea1 or piece of gravel in the cloth and tying the cloth tightly around this4 ,it is best1 always1 to have something of the sort1 pin or bead1 to act as a centre1 or else the knot1 after tying1 is very apt to slip off1 and spoil the pattern4 ,the design for this sort of work should be carefully planned beforehand1 and marked out on the cloth with pencil or chalk4 ,for1 with small loops like this1 the interest is more in the pattern formed by them than in the changes and contrasts in color between the different tied parts and the rest of the cloth4 ,a very interesting specimen of work done in this way by ,miss ,mary ,grey is shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,tied in ,large ,knots and ,loops4--,it is hard for a ,western craftsman to obtain sharp1 well-defined knots by this method1 of a diameter of less than half an inch or so4 ,usually1 indeed1 it is too much of a bother and nuisance to try any knots covering less than an inch and a half4 ,from this size1 up to fifteen and twenty inches in diameter1 will be found the vast majority of all ,american work4 ,the reason is very simple4 ,the trouble of tying a knot covering five inches is very little more than that for a half-inch knot1 indeed far less for most people1 while the large knot produces an immediate effect not equalled by a dozen of the latter4 ,furthermore1 with large knots1 big bold designs can be produced1 which1 with pleasant and skilfully selected colors1 give results far more striking and effective than can be shown by the small knots1 no matter how carefully carried out4 ,on the other hand1 intricate and carefully planned designs can be worked out with small knots1 which cannot be attempted with the large ones4 ,for designs with large knots1 beside the cloth1 which should be soft and free from dressing1 and a ball of soft thick twine or better1 of cheap cotton binding tape1 half to three-quarters of an inch wide1 it is well to have a supply of large glass beads1 of marbles of different sizes1 and1 if these are not easy to get1 of pebbles1 beans1 hazelnuts1 and the like4 ,these are not always to be used1 but in most cases it makes a more interesting contrast to have the centre of the tied spot come out dark1 with the lighter parts1 more or less shaded1 around it4 ,that means that the centre must be exposed to the dyestuff by being stretched out over a marble or pebble1 while the parts around it are tied up4 ,and the tying1 too1 is greatly facilitated by having a hard centre to work against4 ,by tying around one marble first1 and then putting in another and tying round that1 a series of concentric rings will be formed1 the black rings showing where the cloth1 covering the marble1 has been exposed1 and the light-colored part showing where it has been covered by the tape or string4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g--,,sample ,,of ,,tied ,,and ,,dyed ,,work1 8,,tied ,,in ,,bands10 ,,with ,,incidental ,,knots4 ,,by ,,miss ,,mary ,,grey ,as before1 the design1 if at all elaborate1 should be marked out beforehand on the open cloth1 and the parts tied in accordingly4 ,much experience is required to know just how tight to tie the tape so as to get a desired effect with each particular kind of cloth1 and each class of dyestuffs4 ,in general1 with small knots the string should be tied very tight1 or otherwise no effect is produced at all4 ,the larger the tied parts1 however1 the more pains should be taken to have the cloth folded before tying1 so that some of the color may work down through the folds past the tape1 and thus produce shaded effects1 which may be of great beauty 7see ,plate ,,iv1 ,fig4 a74 ,of course1 in this1 much depends on the cloth2 a thick heavy calico tying with difficulty1 but not letting the dyestuff soak through2 while soft open materials like scrim or cheesecloth1 for instance1 must be tied much tighter1 or the color will work through so much as to spoil the design4 ,the student is advised to practise1 from the start1 tying his tape with a slip loop1 or at any rate a bow knot1 and not with a fast square knot each time1 so as to save trouble and bother when untying later4 ,a skilful craftsman will tie quite a large piece of cloth1 in an interesting and fairly complicated design1 in a few minutes4 ,but after dyeing1 while the cloth is still wet1 and the tape or string has shrunk1 and the knots have tightened1 it is often more trouble to untie1 or cut it open1 than it was to make it1 and there is always the danger of cutting holes in it4 ,a little pains in laying down one end of the tape1 before starting to tie1 so that1 when the whole loop is tied up1 the other end will come out alongside of the first so that it can be joined to it by a bow knot1 will save any amount of time and vexation4 ,sewed and ,dyed ,work4--,besides protecting the cloth from the action of the dyestuff by tying string or tape around it1 the same effect can be produced by sewing up certain parts of it1 before dyeing1 and then1 after the rest has been colored1 and the loose dye-liquor washed off1 the sewed-up parts can be opened and pressed into shape4 ,this modification of the process1 so far as ,i can learn1 is not practised by the ,rajputs with their chundries1 but in the ,benedict collection can be seen some most extraordinary and elaborate pieces of dyed work made just in this way4 ,the ,japanese1 also1 have been in the habit of using this method1 and sometimes they produce curious zigzag lines by taking coarse stitches across the cloth1 alternately1 first to one side and then to the other side of the centre line1 and then drawing the thread tight4 ,the needle is often used for borders--for straight lines can easily be made in soft materials 7and such only should be used for tied work7 by hemming the cloth with strong thread1 and then drawing it up close and tight before putting it in the dye-bath4 ,the development of this branch of the process1 however1 belongs properly to the fair sex4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h--;,,folding ,,the ,,cloth ,,fig4 #i--,,starting ,,to ,,tie ,,fig4 #aj--;,,centre ,,portion ,,tied ,,tied ,,and ,,dyed ,,work ,dyeing ,process4--,now for the dyeing process4 ,of course1 for practise1 the craftsman will use cotton as his raw material1 in the form of muslin1 cheesecloth1 scrim1 or best of all1 light grades of mercerized cotton1 and hence will use the various cotton dyestuffs4 ,the ,salt colors are hardly advisable1 because though fast to light they are not all fast to washing unless well boiled on1 and that means that1 unless tied extremely fast and tight1 the color would be bound to penetrate1 and wipe out the design4 ,the ,sulphur colors and the ,vat colors are the best for the purpose--for they can be dyed cold or lukewarm1 without injuring the fastness of the dye1 and give colors fast both to light and to washing4 ,in general1 it is easier to get even shades with the ,sulphur colors1 and their shades are soft and pleasing1 but while fast1 they are not as fast as the ,vat dyes1 and it is impossible to get a decent scarlet with them4 ,the skilful dyer will1 of course1 select his class to suit the shade he is trying to get and also to meet the requirements about fastness4 ,but1 in general1 he will use the ,salt colors for covering and shading the patterns produced with either the ,sulphur or the ,vat dyes4 ,when using the oxidation dyes1 like the ,sulphur or ,vat colors1 plenty of time must be given for the dyestuffs to oxidize and set before they are untied4 ,but1 on the other hand1 directly they are once untied it is important to wash off the loose dye-liquor from the cloth1 and especially from the tied-in portions1 as soon as possible after untying1 otherwise some dye-liquors that may have soaked in without having had a chance to oxidize1 will1 when exposed to air1 suddenly fix themselves and obscure or ruin the pattern4 ,after attaining some skill in this process the craftsman is urged to try it on more important materials like silk4 ,most beautiful effects can be1 and are being produced by this means1 on soft delicate scarfs made of ,chinese or ,indian silks4 ,the ,acid colors are1 of course1 used for this1 and as they take so readily on silk1 the possibilities of shading and over-shading different portions of the design1 or of adding a touch of color here and there where it seems desirable1 offer infinite possibilities to an artistic workman4 ,the combinations of color that can be produced are infinite1 and the curious blending of regularity and irregularity1 in the designs and figures1 renders it a most attractive process to practise with4 ,one great attraction about it is the sense of suspense1 and the impossibility of telling just what effect is being produced1 until the knots are all untied1 and the cloth washed off and opened out4 ,another attraction is the feeling of working all the time in an unexplored or very partially explored country4 ,there is the constant chance of obtaining at any moment effects never thought of before4 ,the experimenter is always trying some new little trick in tying1 or in folding1 or in dyeing1 the results of which can never be foreseen accurately1 and which are always interesting and often very beautiful4 ,tied and ,discharged ,work4--,one day1 in our laboratory1 some experiments were made which resulted in a modification of this process which1 so far as we know1 was entirely new1 and which presents very interesting possibilities1 to say the least4 ,we made the experiment of dyeing the cloth first1 and then tying it up1 and putting it in a bleaching solution1 so as to discharge the color everywhere excepting where it was protected by the tying4 ,the experiment was successful1 resulting 7see ,plate ,,iv1 ,fig4 b71 in a series of dark patterns on a light background4 ,all kinds of modifications of this can be made4 ,for instance1 the cloth can be dyed with a mixture of two or three dyes1 some of which are fast and the other or others can be discharged by the chemical used4 ,the pattern thus will be the full mixed color1 say brown1 against a background of red or yellow or blue as the case may be4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa--;,,centre ,,and ,,corners ,,tied ,,fig4 #ab--;,,dyed1 ,,untied ,,and ,,shaken ,,out ,,tied ,,and ,,dyed ,,work-,,continued ,the important thing about this modification is to select the proper bleaching agent to act on the particular colors1 and the particular kind of material1 used4 ,our first experiments were with bleaching powder 7chloride of lime71 dissolved in water1 say two tablespoonfuls to the gallon1 with1 if necessary1 a few drops of acetic acid or weak sulphuric acid stirred into it4 ,this powerful bleaching agent is very apt to attack the cloth1 and only heavy materials1 such as scrim or heavy calico should be used with it4 ,but although so strong1 it does not act at all readily on a large number of the dyestuffs1 including many of the ,vat colors4 ,some of these1 like the ,indanthrene colors1 are not affected at all1 ,indigo is changed from blue to a brilliant shade of yellow4 ,and ,thio ,indigo ,red ,b produces curious shades of purple1 settling1 where exposed to the full action of the bleaching agent1 to orange4 ,later we repeated the experiments1 using hydrosulphite of soda1 say two tablespoonfuls to the gallon of warm water1 as a discharge1 with much better success4 ,the cloth was not injured1 even when delicate materials like silk and light poplins were used4 ,and the great majority of colors1 including nearly all the best ,salt1 ,sulphur1 and ,acid dyes1 reduced rapidly and well4 ,the ,vat dyes will reduce1 and1 in the presence of caustic soda1 will dissolve out of the exposed cloth almost entirely1 but it is hard to reduce them to white in this way4 ,in every case the color1 after reduction1 must be washed at once in warm soap and water1 or else1 on exposure to the air1 the color may come back to some extent1 owing to oxidation4 ,a weak bath of hydrosulphite of soda1 also1 should always be on hand1 in the former bleaching process2 for1 when bleaching powder 7chloride of lime7 or other chlorine compounds1 such as ,javelle water or ,labarraque's solution1 are used for destroying the color1 their further action can be stopped1 and also the offensive smell removed1 by dipping the bleached material into a so-called antichlor1 like this hydrosulphite4 ,this subject of discharge is dealt with more at length in a future chapter4 ,illustration3 7a7 ,,example ,,of ,,tied ,,and ,,dyed ,,work 7b7 ,,example ,,of ,,tied ,,and ,,discharged ,,work ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,stencils ,,and ,,stencilling ,,direct ,,application ,,of ,,colors ,history4--,during the last few years a great deal of attention has been paid to the manufacture and use of stencils for decorating textiles1 not only by craft workers of different kinds1 but also by art teachers in private and public schools4 ,the art is not a modern one1 even in this country1 for ,i have seen and worked with a series of very interesting stencils cut in brass1 which were owned in ,philadelphia by the famous old physician1 ,dr4 ,benjamin ,rush1 over a hundred years ago1 and were used in his family for marking linen1 as well as for decorating homespuns and paper4 ,the real home of the art1 however1 is ,japan1 where1 for over three hundred years1 stencils have been in common use1 largely replacing the wood blocks used in other countries1 for decorating the common cotton goods1 towels1 head coverings1 and the like of the lower classes1 and also for ornamenting1 where embroidery was not desired1 the beautiful silks and satins of the wealthy4 ,ever since ,japan has been opened to the world travelers have been telling wonderful stories of the great skill of the natives in this beautiful art4 ,according to some writers1 as soon as a child is born it is given a nickname1 and with it1 as a sort of totem1 a design--a flower1 for instance1 for a girl--a tree or an animal for a boy--and the like4 ,this design1 worked out carefully1 after due criticism from all the family elders1 is drawn on brown paper and then carefully cut out with a sharp knife by some member or friend of the family4 ,and this stencil is then sent to the local dyer to be used in dyeing the infant's clothes4 ,this same design1 or a modification of it1 is attached to the person through life1 as his or her own private pattern1 and whenever new clothes are needed they are dyed after this same pattern4 ,japanese ,stencils4--,paper4--,it is a common fact that the very first thing noticeable about ,japanese stencils1 whether brought from some dyehouse in the interior1 or whether made more or less mechanically1 for the ,american market1 to be sold to students or craftsmen1 is the quality of the paper4 ,it is thin1 hardly heavier than ordinary writing paper1 but exceedingly tough and strong1 and cuts very easily1 without tearing4 ,it can occasionally be obtained from importers in sheets1 and even better qualities can be secured1 from among a mass of old stencils1 by finding some which have been only partially cut or used up1 and carefully cutting out from them the unused portions where these are large enough for the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac--;,,japanese ,,stencil ,,knife ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad--;,,japanese ,,stencil ,,brushes ,knives4--,in cutting stencil designs our ,american practice is to use a sharp penknife1 or a ,sloyd knife1 or1 as happens occasionally with some of my friends with amiable professional husbands1 a surgeon's scalpel4 ,none of these1 however1 compare for neatness1 accuracy1 and ease and comfort of manipulation1 with the very simple but extremely effective little ,japanese knives shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,the knife blade1 of very highly tempered steel1 is two or three inches long and fits between two flattened plates of wood1 tied together tightly at the bottom but springing apart a little toward the top1 as a handle4 ,this little spring of the handle is most satisfactory4 ,and as the blade1 which is triangular and sharply pointed1 is worn away gradually by the constant grinding and sharpening it must receive1 the steel can be pushed forward from between the two halves of the handle1 until the proper length is reached4 ,cutting4--,the ,japanese draw their designs on paper with ,india ink1 and then1 with incredible swiftness and accuracy1 the lines are cut1 by pushing the knife blade1 held with the back downwards1 away from the workman1 and through the paper which is placed flat on a piece of wood or small tray1 with depressions in it half an inch or so deep1 to avoid the danger and bother of running the knife point into the wood4 ,american ,practice4--,our way differs somewhat4 ,the design is usually drawn on a separate piece of white paper1 and filled in--in black--with ,india ink4 ,this is then placed underneath the stencil paper which1 especially if it has been oiled or paraffined1 is translucent enough to show the pattern through1 so that the outline can be drawn with a sharp pencil4 ,the outline can also be made by tracing the design down on the stencil paper with the help of a piece of carbon copying paper4 ,this is laid between the design and the stencil paper and then the outline of the design is carefully traced with a sharp-pointed pencil4 ,from these outlines it is easy1 with a sharp stencil knife1 to cut out the design1 although it is customary with us to cut toward the body with the point of the knife down1 upon a piece of blotting paper or soft wood so as not to dull it too rapidly4 ,ties and ,stops4--,when stencilling is taught in ,america great pains are taken to show how the pattern must be planned and cut out1 so as to have plenty of 8ties0 or 8stops0 in the right places1 so as to hold the stencil together4 ,for instance1 in making a stencil of a large capital ,o1 the student should be warned that1 if the paper was cut all the way around1 it would leave a big hole2 for the central piece1 which would form the centre of the finished letter1 would drop out1 and could not be kept in place4 ,accordingly1 the stencil would have to be cut carefully1 leaving at least two 8bridges0 or little 8tie pieces0 of paper1 one probably at the top1 and the other at the bottom of the ,o1 these being the narrowest points1 which would hold the centre in place1 and thus complete the figure4 ,indeed1 if these little 8steps0 or 8bridges0 of paper should be left out1 or become torn or broken1 the stencil would be useless4 ,but a situation like this has little or no terror for the ,japanese1 at any rate when working for their home trade4 ,their stencils cut for the ,american market while always interesting1 and often charming1 are cut1 as ours are1 from one piece of paper1 with stops in the exposed places4 ,but the stencils that have been used1 or cut for use1 over there1 show a very different state of affairs4 ,all of the large1 handsome ones1 and a large proportion of the smaller1 less artistic1 and less valuable ones are made1 with almost inconceivable skill and patience1 in duplicate4 ,and the two parts are afterwards pasted together with absolute accuracy1 but with a layer of fine hair1 supposedly human hair1 between them4 ,these hairs1 laid irregularly but evenly1 make a sort of network which ties together all portions of the stencil1 no matter how disconnected with the rest1 or1 as we would say1 8in the air10 it might be4 ,so1 too1 they are in the habit of sewing in1 with the finest of hair or of single threads of fine silk1 loose pieces or broken pieces1 and thus holding them in shape4 ,it is interesting to study some of them closely and see how neatly this tying is done and how little the time of these unknown workmen must be valued at4 ,for apart from the large picture stencils which1 of course1 would be worth taking a great deal of pains with1 some of the simplest and most ordinary of their native stencils are not only cut but tied in1 with extraordinary skill4 ,one of these1 valued here at but a few cents1 consisted of a background of small figures in shape and size very much like a capital ,o of the type of this page4 ,the stencil measures some eighteen by ten inches1 and there must be between fifteen hundred and two thousand of these ,o figures on it4 ,some few of these are now imperfect1 but with the exception of a dozen or two1 every single one of all these has had the centre cut out1 and then sewed into place again1 from the sides1 so as to be in the exact centre1 without a single 8stop0 or 8tie0 on the whole paper4 ,brushes4--,with stencils so very delicately made1 it is evident that our crude ,american style of rubbing in the color1 with heavy hands and stiff bristle brushes1 would not be much of a success6 ,about one good rub with a brush like that1 and every hair in sight would be torn and broken1 and what was a minute before a work of art would be a torn mass of brown paper4 ,whether any of our ,american craftsmen have light enough hands to use1 successfully1 a fine ,japanese stencil is doubtful4 ,personally1 ,i could no more stencil six inches with any of them without ruining it or making a mess of the cloth than ,i could in a year cut1 without tearing1 six square inches of any one of a score of cheap and ordinary ,japanese stencils which ,i own1 either presented to me or sold at a very low price1 as being really too insignificant in value to amount to anything4 ,but at any rate1 the ,japanese do not use a stiff bristle brush4 ,their brushes1 in general1 are of two sorts1 as shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,one is a sort of pad1 often quite large1 five or six inches in diameter1 made of rabbit's fur1 tightly bound together with cord or wire1 and with a bundle of small sticks spreading out to enclose the pad1 and drawn together and tied above1 at the upper end1 in a sort of pyramid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae--;,,japanese ,,stencil1 ,,showing ,,holes ,,punched ,,by ,,hand ,,tool ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af--;,,japanese ,,stencil1 ,,exact ,,size1 ,,showing ,,use ,,of ,,stops ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag--;,,japanese ,,stencil1 ,,exact ,,size1 ,,showing ,,use ,,of ,,sewing ,,instead ,,of ,,stops ,the other variety is a true brush1 of a more ordinary shape1 like a flat paint brush1 but also made of the very softest and finest1 most velvety hairs imaginable1 laid extremely close together1 and compressed tightly between the two halves of the handle4 ,these can be obtained occasionally from the dealers at reasonable prices1 and are delightful to work with4 ,only1 being meant for the soft1 light touches of their native workmen1 they do not last long when rubbed down on the cloth as is our practise4 ,their life is considerably increased by pouring some molten beeswax into the back of both goods and brushes with a batik pot1 or ,tjanting1 which prevents the fine hairs from pulling out until the brush is all worn to pieces4 ,the ,care of ,stencils4--,a word may here be said about taking care of stencils1 after they have been cut or purchased4 ,they should always be used on one side1 and carefully wiped off with a damp cloth1 directly after using4 ,they should always be kept flat1 never folded4 ,and1 when using them1 it must always be remembered that the ties or bridges are the weak spots1 and that breaking or tearing them1 as a rule1 will spoil the stencil4 ,it is1 of course1 possible to mend them by sewing1 or sometimes by patching with tape4 ,but this is always troublesome1 and with well paraffined stencils is rarely satisfactory4 ,the ,different ,methods of ,using ,stencils4--,in this country1 so far as can be ascertained1 the common way in which stencils have been used is by brushing through them1 on to the cloth1 oil paints thinned with turpentine or gasoline4 ,as previously explained1 in the chapter on feather dyeing1 this is not very satisfactory4 ,for when paint is sufficiently thick to adhere well to the cloth1 it is apt to look stiff and shiny4 ,and when it is applied so thin that the structure of the cloth shows through1 it is1 as a rule1 not fast to washing or even to rubbing4 ,various varnishes are on the market which help considerably to make the paint fast1 but even then the results are not nearly so durable as when the proper dyestuffs are used4 ,the ,japanese practice is exclusively with dyes1 and they have worked out processes which are perfectly satisfactory1 so that their simple1 cheap1 stencilled towels can stand washing indefinitely without loss of color4 ,and by the use of modern dyestuffs there is no insuperable obstacle to our doing just as well as they4 ,the use of stencils gives an excellent opportunity to illustrate the three general methods of coloring fabrics1 which1 as mentioned in the last chapter1 consist of3 ,direct application of color4 ,resist1 and ,discharge4 ,the last two of these will be reserved for the next chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah--;,,japanese ,,stencils1 ,,exact ,,size1 ,,showing ,,use ,,of ,,both ,,stops ,,and ,,net ,direct ,application of ,color4--,in this intricate work it will generally be found almost a necessity to apply colors through a stencil in the form of a paste1 for when the coloring liquid is thin it is very apt to run under the edges of the paper and spoil the design4 ,it is best to thicken it with a little 8gum dragon10 a carefully prepared paste of gum tragacanth1 to which the coloring matter1 and any reagents that are needed1 can be added4 ,the nature of the reagents and the class of dyestuffs used depends1 of course1 upon the kind of material to be stencilled4 7a7 ,leather4--,while not very often used1 students interested in leather work will find a carefully designed and neatly cut stencil a most useful medium for obtaining interesting and beautiful effects4 ,the leather1 whether bark- or alum-tanned1 should be carefully dampened1 and then stencilled with a paste containing ,basic colors dissolved with a drop of acetic acid4 ,on drying1 the leather should be finished as usual4 ,the ,acid colors are not nearly so satisfactory for stencilling1 although1 as already mentioned1 they are often advantageous for dyeing1 rather than staining1 leather fast colors4 7b7 ,silk4--,silk may easily be stencilled provided the pattern is not expected to be fast to washing4 #a4 ,acid ,colors4--,these dyes1 mixed with a few drops of formic or acetic acid1 will color it well1 but to make the dyestuff penetrate it is advisable to steam the goods4 ,this can be done with a teakettle provided with a wing tip for the spout1 made of tin1 or by heating a flatiron or iron plate very hot1 and pressing the stencilled goods back down against it1 with a damp cloth in between4 ,the hot steam thus produced1 passing through the goods1 melts the paste and drives the color down into the fibres and sets it there1 so that1 later1 the stencilled goods will stand light rinsing in lukewarm soap and water without running4 #b4 ,salt ,colors4--,faster results can be obtained1 on silk1 with a paste containing salt dyes1 with a drop or two of acetic acid1 provided the silk is thoroughly steamed afterwards4 #c4 ,basic ,colors4--,basic dyes may be used on silk as on wool1 leather1 or any other animal fibres for direct application1 the dyestuff dissolved with a drop of acetic acid1 being added to the paste1 and then brushed in and1 preferably1 lightly steamed to sink the paste down into the fibres4 ,these dyes1 however1 with but few exceptions1 are not fast to light1 and applied in this way are not fast1 either1 to washing4 ,by adding some reagents to the paste1 however1 a ,basic stencil paste can be formed which gives colors on silk which will stand active scrubbing excellently4 ,the ,basic ,stencil ,paste is prepared by mixing with the paste a solution containing the ,basic color1 dissolved in acetic acid1 and also containing a considerable quantity of tannic acid4 ,as long as there is free acetic acid present in this mixture the color remains in solution1 but directly the acid is driven off1 an insoluble compound remains1 formed by the combination of the tannic acid with the color base4 ,this happens on steaming1 and the insolubility of the product is still further increased by passing it through a weak bath or wetting it with a weak solution 7half a teaspoonful to the quart7 of tartar emetic4 ,accordingly1 to use this stencil paste on silk or1 indeed1 on cotton1 the slightly dampened goods are stencilled with the paste1 thinned if desired with water and a little acetic acid4 ,then directly they are dry enough so as not to run they are well steamed1 then the gum rinsed off with a little warm water1 and the goods moistened with the tartar emetic4 ,after this they can be washed with soap with little or no danger of running4 7c7 ,wool4--,wool is rarely stencilled1 although stencil patterns can be produced very well on it by using acid colors with a little oxalate of ammonia 7about the same amount as the dyestuff71 dissolved in a drop or two of water1 and thickened with a little gum tragacanth4 ,when this paste is applied with a brush1 and then dried1 the result is not fast at all1 merely a distinct stain2 but if steamed at once the oxalate of ammonia decomposes1 leaving oxalic acid1 which1 combining with the color and melting down with it in the fibres1 makes the dyestuff adhere quite firmly4 7d7 ,cotton and ,linen4--,it is much more difficult to stencil satisfactorily on vegetable goods1 such as cotton and linen1 than on the animal fibres above mentioned1 because they are expected to stand very much more severe treatment4 ,the fastness to washing needed for a handsome silk scarf is far less than for a cotton shirtwaist1 or linen table-cover1 and unless the results on the latter are at least as fast as the average calico print1 the result is considered a failure4 ,there are three classes of dyes which can be used in this connection1 the ,basic dyes1 the ,sulphur dyes1 and the ,indigo or ,vat dyes4 ,the ,basic stencil pastes have just been described1 in connection with silk stencilling1 and when carefully used they will give very fair results on cotton1 and even on linen1 provided it is free from dressing1 and is not too coarse and thick4 ,it is hardly worth while trying to fasten ,basic dyes1 by hand stencilling1 upon such materials as heavy1 coarse ,russian crash1 for instance1 such as friends and students have frequently brought in to experiment with4 ,but for light1 thin materials1 and especially for mercerized goods1 poplins and the like1 it is possible1 with a little practice1 to get effects that are fast to ordinary washing4 ,on the other hand1 this method of stencilling has certain disadvantages4 ,it is rather complicated1 needing the use of a fixing bath of tartar emetic1 a very active poison1 by the way1 although more uncomfortable than actually dangerous when taken by mistake in one dose1 because of the severe vomiting it produces almost immediately4 ,and then1 too1 the results at best are not really fast to light1 and in the case of light pinks and yellows are distinctly fugitive4 ,vat ,color ,stencil ,pastes4--,many experiments have been made in our laboratory to work out a satisfactory stencil paste1 so that ,indigo and other ,vat dyes could be applied1 simply and easily1 with no more difficulty than the usual one of brushing the paste in carefully1 and then steaming as soon as possible4 ,in these stencil pastes the ,indigo and the other ,vat dyes are reduced with the aid of caustic alkali and hydrosulphite before being mixed with the paste1 and some special precautions are taken to prevent1 as far as possible1 the oxidation of the dyestuff before it gets well into the fibre4 ,but1 as the ordinary hydrosulphite is apt to decompose on standing1 especially when it is wet1 it is always best1 just before using1 to mix well with the paste a little fresh reducing agent1 dissolved in a drop of hot water4 ,the reducing agent that should be used for this purpose is not the ordinary hydrosulphite of soda1 used for vat dyeing1 but a compound of sodium hydrosulphite1 8,stencil ,salt10 which has the property of keeping better than the other1 and also of not acting as a reducing agent until it is heated4 ,this1 then1 is stirred into the ,vat color stencil paste1 just before using1 and then1 when the goods are steamed1 the heat and moisture combined will enable it to reduce the color1 which will be carried into the fibres in a reduced and dissolved condition4 ,after steaming well for five minutes the color should be developed by a bath in hot soapsuds1 after which the goods should be rinsed and dried4 ,with care this process will give very satisfactory results1 perfectly fast to both light and washing1 after the first loose color has been washed off4 ,the indigo stencil paste1 as prepared1 will keep well reduced for quite a long time1 and it is frequently quite unnecessary to add any fresh reducing agent to it4 ,if1 when taken from the tube or bottle1 it looks yellow or yellowish green1 it can be applied at once to the cloth1 and1 if steamed just as soon as possible1 it will generally penetrate quite satisfactorily4 ,with the other colors of the series1 however1 it is hard to tell by the color whether they are reduced or not1 and hence the fresh reducing agent1 ,stencil ,salt1 should always be added to them4 ,the cloth for stencilling with these pastes1 as with the ,basic pastes1 should not be too thick or heavy1 and must be washed quite free from dressing1 or the result will not be satisfactory4 ,it should also be slightly dampened1 if only by holding over boiling water for a moment or two1 so as to help the color to penetrate4 ,sulphur ,stencil ,paste4--,we have also found very satisfactory results from pastes made with one of the ,sulphur colors1 dissolved in a little sodium sulphide and sodium carbonate1 and stiffened with a little gum4 ,the presence of a reducing agent helps to keep the color reduced2 and1 when quickly applied and rapidly steamed1 the colors will sink into the fibre and adhere firmly4 ,the chief drawback with these pastes is the lack of a good red4 ,black ,stencil ,paste4--,so far as can be learned1 the ,japanese use for their stencilling an ,indigo paste made on the same general principles as the one just described4 ,besides this1 which is a very favorite color of theirs1 they use a red and also a very full black dye1 both of which are fast to washing and to light4 ,what the composition of these last pastes may be it is hard to tell4 ,in our laboratory we have made careful experiments on the subject of stencilling black1 and have worked out a method that we consider satisfactory by the use of a modification of the well-known ,aniline ,black process4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai--,,large ,,and ,,handsome ,,japanese ,,stencil1 ,,showing ,,use ,,of ,,net ,aniline ,black4--,it was noticed1 early in the history of dyestuffs1 that if aniline was mixed with strong oxidizing agents1 and carefully heated1 it would undergo a series of color changes resulting1 finally1 in black4 ,this color1 so-called 8,aniline ,black10 was at one time manufactured and used for a black pigment2 but it was soon recognized that its real value would only be developed when it could be formed1 in the fibre itself1 by the oxidation of aniline or some compound of aniline upon the fibres4 ,after many years of experimenting this problem was solved1 and for fifteen or twenty years the blacks most used on cotton and linen by the calico printers1 as well as by the dyers1 have been one or another of the forms of ,aniline ,black4 ,the principle on which these processes are based is as follows3 ,the aniline1 usually in the form of aniline salt 7aniline hydrochloride71 is mixed with an oxidizing agent like chlorate of soda1 and also with a small amount of a third substance which1 on steaming1 acts as a carrier of oxygen between the aniline and the chlorate4 ,this substance1 often called a catalytic agent1 because at the end of the operation it remains unchanged1 although it has accomplished a large amount of work1 may be one of a number of compounds as1 for instance1 a salt of the metal vanadium1 prussiate of potash1 a salt of copper1 etc41 each one having special advantages and disadvantages of its own4 ,now1 almost any printing paste properly composed so as to give a good clear ,aniline ,black on steaming1 7the formul can be obtained from any good book on calico printing1 or from any competent dyeing chemist71 will generally work fairly well as a stencil paste--as long as it is fresh4 ,but even when kept from the air as far as possible1 in a tight tube1 it decomposes on standing and becomes very unsatisfactory4 ,besides this1 there is always a difficulty with these regular pastes on account of the irregular and uncertain steaming process that can be used by the average craftsman4 ,in a calico print works1 the temperature of the steam chest1 the proportion of steam in it1 and the length of passage of the cloth through it1 are all accurately determined1 and kept at the exact points necessary for the best results with any given formula4 ,but with irregular steaming1 unless very great care is taken with the formula1 there is always a danger of 8tendering0 and burning the fibre1 if too much oxidizing agent is present1 or of not developing a full black1 but a dark green color1 if the oxidizing agent is not active enough4 ,we have1 after a great deal of experimenting1 worked out a formula which1 with reasonable care in steaming1 will give a good full black1 absolutely fast to light and washing1 upon cotton1 linen1 and silk1 without any tendering of the cloth4 ,and1 by dividing up the component parts into two separate pastes1 which are kept in separate tubes or bottles1 and are mixed together only when about to be used1 we have gone far to solve the important problem of keeping4 ,the use of this ,black stencil paste is very simple4 ,it comes in two tubes or bottles marked ,a and ,b4 ,when the cloth1 free from dressing and slightly dampened1 is all ready1 equal amounts are taken from each of the two tubes1 and mixed together in a watch-glass or small glass or porcelain dish with1 if necessary1 a drop of water to soften them if they have dried up at all4 ,this mixed paste is then brushed on to1 and into1 the cloth1 and1 as soon as dry1 is steamed as before described4 ,the black color will develop almost immediately1 and1 after a few minutes' steaming1 will be found fast to hard washing as well as to light4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,resist ,,and ,,discharge ,,stencilling ,travelers in ,japan inform us that1 with their customary ingenuity1 the natives there have developed the use of stencils to a point which quite matches the best achievements of our modern calico printers1 even though backed by good dyeing chemists4 ,when a young lady there wishes a new dress1 she will draw1 perhaps with the help of her best young man1 and certainly with the advice and criticism of her family1 her favorite design on a piece of brown paper1 cut it out in stencil form1 and send it to the local dyer1 with the proper amount of calico or silk or what not1 to be properly applied4 ,now1 in most cases the dyer is instructed to put the pattern on the cloth in colors1 blue1 black1 red1 yellow1 or mixed shades1 and this he does1 much as my readers were taught to do in the last chapter1 by painting on a stencil paste1 to be fixed later by steaming4 ,the ,japanese dyer1 by the way1 has a great advantage over the ,american craftsman in his steaming apparatus4 ,no matter how small his place1 or how poor his equipment1 he always is provided with a neat and satisfactory steam chest1 consisting of a copper pot set in a brick or stone fireplace1 to hold the boiling water1 and above it1 a close-fitting box with sides made of lacquered paper1 double jacketed to avoid condensation in cold weather1 which can be kept full of dry steam for hours at a time1 and in which the stencilled goods can be steamed thoroughly and well without fear of spoiling them4 ,sometimes1 however1 the color is to be applied in another way2 the cloth itself is to be colored blue or red or black1 and the pattern is to be light1 either pure white or some light color on a dark background4 ,the ,japanese dyer1 from time immemorial1 has known how to do this properly1 by means of a 8,resist40 ,he prepares a resist paste which he carefully applies to the cloth through the stencil4 ,this is allowed to dry1 the cloth is then dyed1 and1 after the color is properly fixed1 it is all thoroughly scrubbed1 and the paste1 washing off1 leaves the cloth1 underneath1 in its original color4 ,resist ,stencil ,paste4--,this process of resist1 ancient as it is1 is used in ,japan to this day1 and many1 indeed most1 of the stencilled towels and piece goods that come from there are done in this way4 ,it has the advantages1 especially for the craftsman1 over the ,direct ,color process1 in that the color1 being applied in a dye-bath1 can be fixed readily and uniformly1 without the bother and uncertainty of a steaming process4 ,through a friend1 a well-known dyeing chemist1 who has travelled in ,japan1 ,i learned the composition of the ,japanese ,resist ,paste4 ,they mix rice flour1 wheat bran1 and a little quicklime 7the calcium oxide of the chemist7 with water and boil it to make a paste4 ,this they strain1 and then they stir in some powdered carbonate of lime 7powdered chalk71 which thickens and gives some body to the mixture4 ,the paste thus formed is applied1 as a rule1 not with a brush but with a flat wooden instrument or spatula1 with which the paste is laid on as with a trowel1 and further1 to get the dead white effects so commonly noticed1 the paste is put on the back of the cloth as well as on the front4 ,my friend also explained to me how the ,japanese were able to get irregular shaded effects with their stencil work1 and at the same time to furnish such beautiful and intricate hand-made work1 at such absurdly low prices4 ,these goods are made of very thin porous materials1 and the dyer applies with his trowel the thick resist paste1 through the stencil1 to one piece after another1 laying each one1 as fast as it is stencilled1 carefully on top of the previous one1 until a pile has been formed of ten or more separate pieces4 ,this pile is pressed very tightly together1 and then the dyestuff1 as1 for instance1 ,indigo in solution and thoroughly reduced1 is poured on to this mass of goods1 soaking through from one to the other1 but always kept out of the white parts by the double coating of thick paste4 ,after a few minutes these pieces are carefully taken off1 one by one1 exposed to the air until oxidized1 and then thoroughly washed until the paste and loose color have all disappeared4 ,for an example of ,japanese resist stencil work1 dyed in an iron spring1 see ,plate ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,,japanese ,,towelling ,,dyed ,,by ,,immersion ,,in ,,iron ,,spring4 ,,the ,,white ,,pattern ,,is ,,caused ,,by ,,resist ,,stencilling ,resist ,stencilling with ,sulphur ,dyes4--,without lavishly copying the ,japanese practice it is possible to get very interesting results by using suitable dyestuffs with a simpler paste4 ,the most useful dyes for this purpose are the ,sulphur dyes1 which1 as the student will remember1 can be applied in the cold1 with very short exposure to the dye-liquor1 and are fixed firmly by exposure to the air1 giving results fast to light and extremely fast to washing4 ,a paste made from wheat flour1 thickened a little with an inert powder1 like powdered chalk or zinc oxide1 will work fairly well1 acting as a purely mechanical protection to the fibre4 ,but much better results can be obtained by adding to the paste as much as it will absorb of the easily soluble chemical1 zinc sulphate1 which acts chemically in resisting the action of these particular dyestuffs4 ,the ,sulphur colors1 as before explained1 are kept in solution in the dye-bath1 by the presence of sodium sulphide1 and when this is absent or is destroyed by any cause1 the dyestuff is precipitated as an insoluble1 inert powder4 ,now1 when zinc sulphate comes in contact with sodium sulphide it at once decomposes the latter1 forming a white precipitate1 zinc sulphide1 which has no action at all on either dyestuff or cloth4 ,accordingly a paste containing zinc sulphate has far greater efficiency as a resist than any mixture that acts purely mechanically4 ,resist stencil pastes can be obtained1 in tubes1 at moderate prices1 but can also be readily prepared by making not too stiff a paste1 with wheat flour thoroughly boiled with a saturated solution of zinc sulphate instead of with water1 and then stirring into this paste some powdered chalk or zinc oxide1 until of the proper consistency for stencilling4 ,to use this paste1 the cloth1 as usual1 should be washed free from dressing1 and after being smoothed with a hot iron1 should be slightly dampened4 ,the paste is then brushed through the stencil on to1 and into1 the cloth1 which is then allowed to dry4 ,the dye-bath should then be prepared of ,sulphur dyes carefully dissolved1 in a separate cup or saucepan1 in a hot solution of sodium sulphide and sodium carbonate 7soda71 and added to cold water in the dye-bath4 ,a few drops of 8,turkey red oil0 added to the dye-bath helps to prevent a thick scum from forming on top of the liquor1 while the addition of a tablespoonful of salt dissolved in a little hot water helps the rapidity and depth of the dyeing4 ,plenty of color should be used excepting for very light shades1 for the dyeing should be done just as quickly as possible4 ,for silk some syrup should be added4 ,the stencilled cloth is then quickly moistened in cold water1 placed in the dye-bath1 kept there two or three minutes1 below the level of the liquid2 it is then taken out1 the liquor drained off1 and after a minute or two1 wrung off2 the cloth is then shaken out1 and exposed to the air1 for some ten minutes1 to set the color4 ,after this it is well washed in a boiling soap bath1 and1 as the paste washes out1 the stencilled pattern will show light against the dark background4 ,the whiteness of the pattern depends1 of course1 upon the skill with which the paste has been applied1 and the care taken to prevent it from washing off before or during the dyeing process4 ,it is difficult1 though not absolutely impossible1 to get as sharp and clear-cut results as those of the ,japanese1 for instance4 ,but1 on the other hand1 with a dark background it is often1 indeed generally1 more pleasing to have the white patterns softened and not standing out too vividly4 ,in our laboratory we have had considerable success with this process4 ,and some of our friends and students have used it with very good results upon articles of clothing1 which1 made of linen1 calico1 etc41 must be fast to severe washing as well as to light4 ,of course1 it is perfectly easy to alter the color of the background1 as in other classes of resist work1 such as ,tied and ,dyed work1 for instance1 or ,batik1 by either starting off with colored cloth which is protected all through by the resist paste1 or else by covering the stencilled and dyed goods1 afterwards1 with some shade which will soften and harmonize both pattern and background4 ,for this covering shade1 which need not be very fast to washing1 but must be distributed uniformly over the whole cloth1 the student will find the ,salt colors very useful4 ,discharge ,stencilling4--,though it is not certain whether this process is known to1 and used by1 the ,japanese1 it is not a difficult matter1 with modern dyes and modern chemicals1 to get interesting results with it4 ,there are two distinct and separate ways open to the dyer for discharging1 i4e41 destroying his dyestuffs1 whether they are dyed on cloth1 or whether1 as is not infrequently the case with amateurs1 they are present as a stain on his hands and fingers4 ,in each case1 however1 care must be taken1 as may easily be imagined1 to use such chemicals as will spare the materials1 whether cotton and linen1 or nails and skin1 while attacking the coloring matter4 7a7 ,discharge by ,oxidation4 ,chlorine ,compounds1 ,bleaching ,powder1 etc4--,in the first place1 chemists have long known that certain chemicals1 more particularly the powerful gaseous element known as chlorine and certain of its compounds1 have the power of permanently destroying coloring matters by oxidizing or burning them4 ,at first this was done by using chlorine itself1 or a water solution of chlorine4 ,later1 however1 it was found that on passing chlorine into some caustic alkali1 like quicklime1 or caustic soda1 or caustic potash1 these would absorb immense quantities of chlorine which would be again given out1 as desired1 on the addition of acid1 or even1 though very slowly and gradually1 by the action of the carbonic acid gas in the air4 ,the lime compound1 which contains more chlorine than the others1 and has the great advantage of being dry1 has long been known as chloride of lime or as bleaching powder1 and has been1 and is1 commonly used from one end of the world to the other as a quick1 ready1 cheap source of chlorine either for bleaching or for disinfection4 ,the potash and soda compounds1 known respectively as ,labarraque's solution and ,javelle water1 are less active and powerful than bleaching powder1 but have the same general properties4 ,over a hundred years ago1 very soon after the discovery of the bleaching properties of these compounds1 chemists began to use them1 not only for decolorizing and whitening raw cotton and linen cloth1 but also for discharging the color in patterns from dyed goods4 ,the process was not a difficult one1 and is used to this day to some extent in the calico printing mills4 ,the cloth is first dyed to shade1 fixed1 and dried4 ,the pattern is then printed on with a paste containing some solid organic acid1 like citric acid or tartaric acid1 dissolved in it4 ,after drying1 the printed cloth is passed through a bath of bleaching powder in water1 possibly with a little weak alkali added1 to be sure that no free chlorine is present2 and wherever the bleaching powder meets the acid the cloth is decolorized1 but the rest of the cloth comes out of the bath without being much1 if at all1 altered in color4 ,of course1 on coming out of this bath the cloth must be thoroughly washed to get rid of any traces of chloride of lime1 which otherwise1 on exposure to the air1 would play havoc with the rest of the colors4 ,this process worked very well with the old vegetable dyes1 and1 every now and then1 some craftsman1 of an experimental turn of mind1 revives it for stencil work4 ,the dyed cloth is stencilled with a paste made of wheat flour boiled with a saturated solution of citric acid1 it is dried1 and then passed through a bath of bleaching powder in water1 say two or three tablespoonfuls to the gallon4 ,it is generally best to stir in a few drops of a soda solution to the bath1 till all smell of chlorine has gone1 or else the background may be affected4 ,the stencilled cloth is dipped in this bath1 and kept there for a few minutes1 until the bleaching process is well under way1 and then taken out1 and washed in hot soap and water1 and rinsed well4 ,advantages and ,disadvantages of ,bleaching ,powder ,discharge4--,the chief advantage of this process is that it is very cheap and the materials can be bought at almost any grocery4 ,the disadvantages are1 however1 important4 ,as long as it is confined to easily discharged1 comparatively fugitive1 colors1 it will destroy the color all right in the stencilled parts1 although the bleaching powder bath is apt to attack the color in the body of the cloth1 and the outlines of the pattern are apt to be soft and irregular because of the escaping chlorine1 where the citric acid is acting4 ,when1 however1 very fast dyes are being used1 as for instance1 the ,vat colors or1 indeed1 a great many of the best dyes in all the classes1 the action of chlorine is very slow1 and slight1 and1 in order to really destroy the color both the acid and the bleaching powder will often have to be so strong that the chlorine set free will destroy the fibre as well4 ,for the term 8fastness to light0 implies1 as a rule1 fastness also to oxidation in general1 and dyes like the best modern ones which will let the cloth rot away from under them1 when long exposed to the weather without changing color1 are very apt also to keep their color1 even when the cloth is burnt away from under them by the action of chlorine4 ,accordingly1 this process is distinctly one that needs careful experimentation before it is tried on any important piece of work4 ,there are plenty of dyestuffs among the ,salt colors1 and also among the ,sulphur colors1 which discharge well with chlorine4 ,and the calico printer1 working1 as he generally does to this day1 with comparatively fugitive dyes1 and weighing accurately both acid and bleaching powder1 can generally get good results with it4 ,but there is always the disadvantage1 that the least excess of chlorine will attack and tender the cloth1 and the better the dyestuff1 as a rule1 the stronger the oxidizing agent must be to discharge it4 7b7 ,discharge by ,reduction1 ,hydrosulphite1 etc4--,the wary craftsman will find the process much less dangerous to the cloth1 and not much more difficult1 if instead of trying to oxidize the dyestuff1 he attempts to discharge it by reducing it2 or1 in other words1 if instead of trying to burn it out1 he tries to take the oxygen away from it4 ,it so happens that in a vast majority of cases a dyestuff becomes decolorized by reducing it1 just as well as by oxidizing it4 ,there is1 however1 a difference4 ,when the color is oxidized1 it is burnt up and destroyed forever4 ,when it is reduced1 however1 it is1 in many cases1 only decolorized and not destroyed2 and on standing in the air it is apt to take up oxygen again1 and to regain some1 at least1 of the original color4 ,on the other hand1 while any oxidation process is liable to attack the cloth as well as the color1 the reducing agents now in use have no effect upon the materials1 even when powerful enough to act on the very fastest dyestuffs4 ,as before mentioned1 the most satisfactory reducing agent at present known to dyers is hydrosulphite of soda1 and this can be incorporated in a paste1 and used for discharge stencilling4 ,it is1 however1 as a rule1 more satisfactory to use the more expensive1 but more permanent hydrosulphite compound1 described1 in the last chapter1 as acting only when heated4 ,the reducing stencil paste can be easily made by mixing with some 8gum dragon0 or flour paste1 as much as it will hold of a saturated solution of the 8,stencil ,salt40 ,the student should experiment with the different dyes and classes of dyes before attempting a serious piece of work2 but in general1 all the ,salt colors and the ,acid colors will discharge readily with this paste1 and remain colorless4 ,the ,vat colors and the ,sulphur colors can also be reduced to colorless compounds1 but it is not always easy to wash them out of the cloth after the reduction1 and1 if they remain in it1 they are apt to regain their color1 on standing in the air4 ,the dyed cloth1 carefully washed and pressed and dampened1 is stencilled with the above paste and allowed to dry4 ,when dry it is steamed1 as described in the last chapter1 and it will be noticed that when a certain temperature is reached the color will be discharged4 ,as soon as possible afterwards the cloth is to be washed in a hot soap bath to remove the reduced color compound 7which1 as a rule1 has little affinity for the cloth7 and to get rid of the paste4 ,then the cloth is dried and finished4 ,when trying this process with the ,vat dyes it is best to soak the cloth directly after steaming1 and before soaping1 in a warm bath containing a little free caustic soda 7remember this is apt to burn the fingers7 because the reduced colors of this class are not1 as a rule1 soluble in water1 and are apt to oxidize again in a soap bath4 ,results4--,in following up these various experiments in our laboratory we have not used this process in much as the ,resist stencilling1 but there is no reason why it should not give just as good results4 ,indeed1 the craftsman will probably find1 after a little practice1 that it is easier to get clear white patterns with this than with the other4 ,it has the disadvantage of requiring the rather bothersome steaming process1 which reduces its value for many purposes4 ,still it will often be found that simply ironing the dried stencilled cloth with a hot flatiron1 with a damp cloth between1 will cause the reduction to take place quite satisfactorily4 ,the chief advantage of this process over the other is that1 as the dyeing is done before and not after the stencilling1 it is possible to get the exact shade of background required4 ,while1 in the resist stencilling every minute1 almost indeed every second that the stencilled goods are left in the dye-bath1 is liable to obscure the pattern4 ,and it is hard to get first-class results1 as regards fastness to rubbing and washing1 and it is impossible to match shades1 when working so hurriedly4 ,then1 too1 this discharge process permits the use of almost every color on the list1 while the resist process practically confines the craftsman to the use of the ,sulphur dyes only4 ,those who are interested in this line of work are advised to try these two processes upon silk1 where very beautiful and interesting effects can be produced with but little difficulty4 ,the resist process1 using ,sulphur colors1 gives quiet soft tones on silk1 fast to the hardest kind of washing4 ,but brighter shades1 equally fast to light1 and fairly fast to washing1 can be made with the discharge process by using ,salt colors4 ,for ordinary work the ,acid dyes1 of course1 would be used1 and these1 too1 as a rule1 discharge readily4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,batik ,the last and perhaps the most interesting and most important process to which we shall call our reader's attention is one which1 after being practised in the ,east for many centuries1 has been brought quite recently to the attention of ,european and ,american craftsmen4 ,the term 8,batik0 is a ,javanese word1 signifying painting in wax1 and the process1 somewhat modified1 is known to professional dyers and calico-printers by the name of 8wax resist40 ,when in the hands of a trained draughtsman the process has a charm and character of its own1 which will warrant the interest now manifested in it1 wherever it has been introduced4 ,history4--,batik was first introduced by the ,dutch discoverers of ,java1 who1 in #afdh1 sent home descriptions1 with drawings1 of the wonderfully beautiful textiles worn by the people1 especially by the chiefs of that country4 ,the art was known and practised in the ,east long before that time1 for in ,madras goods were made1 by a combination of block printing and ,batik1 at least as early as the fifteenth century4 ,and in the interior of ,java there are some famous old ruins in which are found stone statues of ,buddha1 supposed to be at least #a1bjj or #a1cjj years old1 clothed in garments the same as those used at the present day2 and showing1 from their decorations1 that they were ornamented by ,batik in the same general style of patterns that are still popular there4 ,during the last few years very careful studies have been made1 especially by the ,dutch ,government1 upon this ,javanese process1 and they have endeavored to introduce it into ,europe4 ,it was amusing to notice that in one of the reports issued by the ,dutch ,government on this subject it was stated that none of the modern dyestuffs could be utilized for this purpose1 and that the only colors that could be recommended as fast to light were the old vegetable dyestuffs1 applied in the complicated and troublesome methods of past ages4 ,this curiously unscientific attitude has seriously interfered with the success of the process in ,western lands1 and is only now being abandoned4 ,javanese ,practice4--,detailed information about the history1 technique1 and designs of the ,javanese process has been set down in a monumental work3 8,die ,batikkunst in ,niederlandisch ,indien10 published in ,harlem under the auspices of the ,dutch ,government in #ahii4 ,perhaps of more interest to the non-scientific reader is a short but well-written account of 8,battack ,printing in ,java10 read before the ,manchester ,literary and ,philosophical ,society in #aijf by an ,english chemist1 ,john ,allan1 who spent several months among the natives1 studying the process at first-hand4 ,according to these authorities the ,javanese and1 indeed1 most of the natives of ,malaysia1 wear garments simple enough in style and cut1 but elaborately decorated with great variety of both color and design4 ,the principal garment1 common to both men and women1 is the sarong1 in shape not unlike a large and elongated bath towel1 which1 according to the desire and sex of the owner1 may be made to serve as trousers or skirt1 overcoat or blanket1 and is the universal bathing costume4 ,it is made of calico1 rarely homespun1 almost always imported from ,lancashire or ,holland1 and as the natives1 both men and women1 are exceedingly fond of bathing1 the colors must be fast enough to stand constant exposure to water as well as to the fierce tropical sun4 ,they also wear head-dresses made from squares of calico1 dyed with square centres of plain color and elaborately decorated at the sides2 and slendangs1 a kind of girdle or shawl1 usually made of silk and less elaborately decorated4 ,the costume is completed1 for full-dress occasions1 by a thin shirt or chemise and a light jacket4 ,for producing the designs on the sarongs1 the process of wax resist is almost always employed by the natives4 ,unfortunately of late years the ,javanese market has been flooded with an immense quantity of cheap and1 generally1 neatly printed goods made in ,manchester and in ,holland in rough imitation of the native styles4 ,so it is not an easy matter1 nowadays1 even in ,java1 to get genuine specimens of ,batik work4 ,these can always be recognized1 however1 on careful examination by the peculiar and characteristic odor and 8feel0 of the wax left behind in the cloth1 and1 better1 by the fine irregular 8crackle0 formed in the dye-pot4 ,variations in the ,process4--,although there are different methods1 the ,batik process1 as usually meant1 is a means of dyeing in which1 before immersing the goods in the dye-pot1 the patterns are carefully drawn in molten beeswax1 applied from a little copper cup with a fine spout called a tjanting4 ,frequently1 however1 to save time1 the ,javanese apply the wax by means of a metal die or block1 made by inserting thin strips of sheet brass in a wooden frame1 so that the edges of the brass form the desired pattern4 ,these blocks1 provided with a handle covered with cloth1 are first dipped into the molten wax1 and then the excess is removed by pressing against a pad1 which is kept warm by being near the fire of the melting pot4 ,the pattern is thus stamped onto the cloth instead of being poured onto it1 through a small spout1 out of a cup4 ,this ,batik process is sometimes used by native craftsmen in other parts of the ,far ,east4 ,plate ,i1 for instance1 shows a specimen of ,east ,indian work1 part of a long piece of stout cotton bought1 years ago1 at ,liberty's in ,london1 with an elaborate design made with molten wax1 applied by brush or tjanting4 ,even in the plate the characteristic #8crackle' shows plainly4 ,wax4--,in ,java1 the wax used for pouring is a mixture of paraffin and beeswax1 or an impure wax imported from ,japan for this purpose4 ,for stamping the patterns it is necessary to use a stiffer wax made from rosin and paraffin1 sometimes mixed with varnish gums4 ,dyes4--,the principal colors used are indigo and a beautiful golden-brown dye made from the bark of the mango tree4 ,the combination of these gives a black1 so that the fine old sarongs usually contain white1 blue1 brown1 and black4 ,indigo is dyed first1 and1 before dyeing1 all the cloth1 excepting that which is to come out blue or black1 is carefully covered with the wax4 ,after the indigo bath 7the ,javanese use a fermentation vat7 the color is set by oxidation4 ,the old wax is then all washed off with boiling soap and water1 and after drying1 the wax is again applied to all parts1 whether white or blue1 which are not to receive the brown dye4 ,the latter is made from a strong1 syrupy extract of bark1 and is used without mordanting1 the color being set by exposure to air4 ,as the dyes must be used cold1 to avoid melting and obliterating the pattern1 the goods are usually dipped in each dye-bath and exposed1 several times1 before reaching the desired shade4 ,after the final dyeing1 the wax is removed by a hot bath of wood ashes or soap1 and the garment is pressed out ready to wear4 ,when a red color is desired1 the natives use a variation of the old ,turkey red process1 dyeing with madder or munjeet upon cloth mordanted with alum and oil4 ,the wax in this case acts as a resist against the alum mordant1 which is applied cold1 and thus prevents the dyestuff1 which is applied at the boil1 from coloring the cloth in the protected portions4 ,cloth4--,the cloth used for this ,batik process is strong common calico1 but1 before beginning to wax it1 they give it a careful treatment1 to improve both its texture and its ground color4 ,for a period of several days they alternately soak it in castor oil1 wring it out1 boil out the oil with soda lye1 and expose it to the blazing sun2 until finally it becomes soft and smooth1 and has a pleasant tan color which goes excellently with the brown1 blue1 and black dyes4 ,the peculiarity of all these ,batik goods1 whether from the ,east or made at home or in ,europe1 is the characteristic 8crackle0 effect1 due to the breaking of the wax upon the cloth in the process of dyeing1 thereby admitting the color to the protected cloth in fine lines and streaks4 ,this distinguishes the wax resist work from the previously described paste resist1 which if desired will leave a smooth1 clean1 white background1 or if applied more lightly will give backgrounds shaded more uniformly and without so many irregular lines of color4 ,this crackle effect1 so generally admired in the ,west1 is often by the ,javanese considered a defect1 and a sign of poor workmanship4 ,it can be largely1 if not wholly1 avoided by adding a large proportion of rosin to the wax1 by batiking the cloth on both sides1 and by dyeing the goods with as little crumpling as possible4 ,,modern ,,batik ,the application of the artificial dyestuffs to this ancient process has simplified it greatly1 and has brought it within the scope of craftsmen in general4 ,apparatus--,brushes4--,you will soon find that for a good deal of the work1 such as covering large surfaces with wax1 or filling in large and bold designs1 a small-sized paint brush is all that is necessary4 ,the wax is melted in a cup or casserole1 and painted on the cloth wherever the design calls for it4 ,it will be found1 however1 no easy matter to get sharp and clear outlines in this way1 and intricate or delicate patterns cannot be worked out by the brush only4 ,when the wax is hot1 it is hard to prevent it from spreading and running too far over the cloth1 and1 on the other hand1 it cools so rapidly on the brush that1 unless applied at once1 it is hard to spread it at all1 and the wax is liable not to stick to the cloth4 ,much is saved both in time and in accuracy and clearness of outline1 by using the brush in combination with the tjanting1 drawing the outlines with the latter1 and filling in with the brush4 ,when large surfaces have been covered with the wax1 and the characteristic 8crackle0 effect is desired1 it is often well to cool the goods1 by placing them in the ice box or out of doors for a few minutes1 and then to crumple them in the hands1 before dyeing them4 ,the composition of the wax1 also1 has much to do with this part of the work1 as will be explained later4 ,the brush can also be employed for painting molten wax on to the goods through a stencil1 in resist stencil work4 ,this1 however1 is not satisfactory1 even with metallic stencils1 and fails completely with paper stencils1 because the wax1 on cooling1 fastens stencil and cloth together so that they cannot be separated without injury4 ,it is much better practice1 where a stencil design is to be worked with wax resist1 to make an outline of the design on the goods with a sharp pencil1 and then1 removing the stencil1 to fill in the pattern with tjanting and brush4 ,this same practice of drawing the outline on the goods with pencil1 or tracing paper1 or by transferring from a charcoal drawing1 by rubbing1 is always to be recommended3 except for those craftsmen who are such thoroughly trained draughtsmen that they can draw their designs free-hand1 with the tjanting1 without danger of slip or mistake4 ,a pencil or crayon line1 if not quite true1 can be erased without spoiling the whole design1 but it is quite a troublesome matter to correct a mistake made in molten wax4 ,tjantings4--,the real interest in this ,batik process lies in the use of some form of pouring instrument by which the molten wax can be applied to the material in a fine stream1 with much the same freedom that a drawing can be made with soft pencil or crayon4 ,this practice has been developed in ,java to its fullest extent1 and a fine sarong1 containing two or three yards of calico1 will be completely covered1 from one end to the other1 with wonderfully intricate and elaborate designs in two or three colors1 all produced1 perfectly free-hand1 by curious little tjantings1 in the light fingers of the little ,javanese women4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj--8,,teapot0 ,,model ,,of ,,tjanting ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba--,,walther ,,glass ,,tjanting ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb--8,,wax ,,pencil0 ,,model ,,of ,,tjanting ,teapots4--,when we began experimenting with ,batik1 in our laboratory1 we had no model of the ,javanese tools to work with1 and1 from the drawings1 we could not see how they could be used without constant dripping4 ,so we designed a little brass apparatus1 which we and our friends nicknamed a 8teapot10 which1 with some modification1 is shown in ,fig4 #bj1 in which the molten wax remains in the cup until it is poured out4 ,this1 with practice1 works fairly well1 and some very interesting work has been done with it4 ,it is hard1 however1 to draw with it on a horizontal surface1 such as we are accustomed to work on4 ,and to follow ,javanese practice1 and have the cloth hanging over a frame1 and to press it out with the left hand while the wax is applied with the instrument in the right1 is oftentimes a nuisance4 ,the ,walther ,glass ,tjanting4--,it is evident that we were not alone in our fear of the ,javanese models with spouts at the bottom1 because1 in ,germany1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,walther of ,crefeld has designed and introduced a glass tjanting1 shown in ,fig4 #ba1 which also delivers only on tipping the instrument forward4 ,this we have experimented with but without much success4 ,for we have found it difficult and awkward to draw with it on a horizontal surface1 and also1 being made of glass1 while it is cheaper than the metal models1 it is at the same time more fragile4 ,wax ,pencil4--,an entirely new idea has recently been applied to the art of ,batik by the introduction of a 7patented7 8wax pencil0 7see ,fig4 #bb71 made on the principle of the early stylographic pens4 ,this tool is made of heavy brass1 with a removable wooden holder1 and the wax1 in cylinders1 is shoved into it from the top after removing a cap4 ,to melt the wax the wooden holder is slipped off1 and the pencil is heated over a flame or on a hot electric plate1 while the liquid wax is prevented from flowing out by a 8needle valve0 held in place by a small spiral spring4 ,to use the tool1 the holder is slipped over the pencil1 taking care not to burn the fingers in so doing1 and the pattern is traced in just the same way that it would be in ink1 pressure on the projecting needle1 by raising the valve1 permitting a greater or lesser flow of wax4 ,these instruments are certainly more convenient to draw with than any of the forms previously mentioned1 and1 on hard smooth surfaces1 such as leather1 wood1 bone1 metal1 etc41 are satisfactory enough4 ,but it is no easy matter to make them so that they will work well4 ,for the valve which regulates the flow of wax works with a spiral spring4 ,now1 if this spring is1 or becomes1 lax1 the wax drips incessantly4 ,if on the other hand it is too stiff1 it is quite troublesome to press down the pin1 at the tip1 just hard enough to deliver a fine stream1 without opening it too wide4 ,in our experience these instruments1 which are quite expensive1 do not work well with cloth and1 especially1 with rough weaves of cloth1 like crash1 scrim1 pongee1 coarse calico1 and the like4 ,for the pin is liable to catch and jump on the threads1 and then it delivers the wax very unevenly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc--;,,javanese ,,tjantings ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd--;,,american ,,modification ,,of ,,javanese ,,tjanting ,the ,javanese ,tjanting4--,after much experimenting one of our friends finally brought us1 from ,holland1 a real tjanting copied directly from the ,javanese1 and five minutes' practice with it satisfied us that it was superior to any of the 8improved0 models that we had been working with4 ,since then we have seen1 and studied1 several different styles of ,javanese tjantings1 and have learned how they must be used to get the best results4 ,the secret of these instruments is two-fold4 ,first1 the size of the delivery tube1 and second1 the temperature of the wax4 ,the genuine ,javanese tjanting 7see ,fig4 #bc7 is a little bit of a tool1 holding only about #ae or #bj cubic centimeters of wax1 made of very thin hammered copper1 and fastened into a little bamboo handle1 some four or five inches long4 ,at the lowest part of the cup1 which is drawn out at that point into a spout1 is fastened the delivery tube1 which is of exceedingly small calibre1 what chemists would call1 in fact1 a 8capillary0 tube4 ,it will be noticed that the wooden handle extends forward1 under the bowl1 making it impossible to heat the bowl itself1 or melt the wax in it1 by a direct flame4 ,the wax is melted in a separate pot or large cup1 and kept at a high temperature throughout2 and the operator scoops out the wax from this pot with the bowl of the tjanting1 wipes off the drip with a rag1 and then proceeds to draw on the cloth4 ,in ,java1 or wherever the cloth is kept upright1 by hanging from a frame1 the drip from the outside of the cup and the end of the handle is not so important1 for it will fall in front of the cloth4 ,when1 however1 the cloth is laid flat1 for drawing1 it is of the utmost importance to avoid all unnecessary dripping1 and so it is probably advisable to ladle the wax from the pot into the tjanting1 with a small casserole or ladle1 rather than to dip it out directly4 ,now1 if the size of the delivery hole is right1 and the wax is neither too hot nor too cold1 it will form a little globule on the end of the tube1 and stay there2 and when this drop is wiped off and the tube at once applied to the cloth or other material1 the wax will flow out in a fine thin stream1 as long as it is drawn along in contact with the cloth1 and when lifted up it will stop flowing until again applied to it4 ,if the wax is too hot1 so that it runs too freely1 it is easy to cool it to the proper temperature by blowing on it4 ,if it is too cool1 so that it begins to chill in the tube1 and to flow slowly and unevenly1 it must be warmed by being again dipped into the hot wax for a new supply4 ,great pains must be taken to have the wax free from dust or grit1 or else the delivery tube will be constantly stopping up4 ,a fine but stiff bristle or a very thin whisk of broom corn should be always on hand for cleaning the tube4 ,and after using the tjanting pains must be taken to clean out all the wax thoroughly before laying it aside1 so that the tube will be clear for the melted wax1 when it is next filled4 ,the whole tjanting1 tube and cup1 should be gently warmed before filling1 for fear of the wax chilling in the capillary tube before it can be applied4 ,but the arrangement of the handle is such as to call for the use of an outside melting pot for the wax1 while the small size of the cup is evidently so that the melted wax can be all poured out before it has time to chill4 ,modification of the ,javanese ,tjanting4--,we have with much trouble had some tjantings made here 7see ,fig4 #bd71 following closely the ,javanese principles1 which have proved extremely satisfactory4 ,the delivery tube is equally fine1 and the general action is the same4 ,but the cup has been made somewhat larger1 and very considerably heavier1 so that it will hold more wax1 and will hold the heat better4 ,while1 for economy's sake1 instead of hammered copper1 the cup is made of spun brass1 and the wooden handle is attached to its side1 and not to the bottom of it4 ,this enables the worker to heat the cup directly over the alcohol lamp1 without danger of scorching the handle4 ,of course1 when this is done carelessly1 it is liable to char some of the wax in and near the tube1 and so to cause stoppages4 ,and also1 it is hard to draw a series of fine lines of exactly the same thickness1 unless the wax in the tjanting is always of practically the same temperature4 ,but there is no difficulty in filling these modified tjantings1 just as the ,javanese do1 by scooping up the melted wax from a pot1 or by pouring the melted wax into them from a casserole or ladle4 ,while1 in case the wax gets chilled in the tjanting1 it is very convenient to be able to warm the cup quickly over a low clean flame1 or by setting it upon the corner of a hot plate4 ,composition of the ,wax4--,as a general rule we have found that ordinary unrefined beeswax1 carefully melted and strained1 or poured off1 free from dust and sediment1 is fairly satisfactory4 ,it is1 however1 pretty expensive1 and so can be replaced1 without disadvantage1 by the cheaper mineral wax1 known in a crude state as ,ozocerite1 and in its refined form1 which alone should be employed1 as ,ceresine4 ,to make the wax more brittle1 and thus to improve the 8crackle10 it is well to add more or less paraffin4 ,and it is well1 too1 to add considerable rosin1 to make the wax adhere better to the goods1 and not be so liable to rub or peel off4 ,on the ,continent1 it is customary to use ,japanese vegetable wax instead of beeswax1 but we have not found this to be advantageous4 ,where economy is desirable1 or where it is hard to replace supplies1 it is well to save the once used wax and use it over again1 by extracting the wax from the goods1 after dyeing1 with boiling water1 and then1 when this cools1 collecting the wax as a cake floating on the top4 ,dyeing ,batiked ,goods4--,in ,holland and1 to some extent1 elsewhere on the ,continent1 where this process has been introduced1 great stress has been laid upon the importance of using the old vegetable colors of the ,javanese1 along with their tjantings4 ,it is hardly necessary to tell my readers that this practice is both unscientific and1 in a true sense1 uncraftsmanlike4 ,the object of any intelligent craftsworker should be to produce beautiful and interesting and characteristic results in the most durable and effective manner possible1 with the minimum expenditure of energy upon the mechanical1 as opposed to the artistic1 details4 ,why1 after carefully batiking a good design on a piece of silk or calico1 must the craftsman spend hour after hour of valuable time in some tedious1 complicated1 and expensive dyeing process1 simply because 8,that is the way they do things in ,java10 especially when1 by using modern dyestuffs1 he can get results quite as beautiful and far more permanent1 in a few minutes' time1 and with far less danger of spoiling his work4 ,even the clever and skilful little ,javanese could learn something from modern dyeing chemists4 ,the class of dyestuffs to use depends1 of course1 on the kind of materials that are being worked on4 ,one of the great charms of this process is that it can be applied to all sorts and kinds of textiles and1 indeed1 of a host of things never included under that name4 ,batik can be applied to cotton1 linen1 wool1 silk1 and other woven goods4 ,it can also1 if desired1 be used upon basketry4 ,and charming effects can be produced1 by its aid1 upon leather1 pasteboard1 parchment1 vellum1 and other bookbinding materials1 as well as upon wood1 bone1 or indeed anything that possesses a smooth surface1 and will hold a dyestuff4 ,on copper1 brass1 and other metals it can also be used1 not1 indeed1 for dyeing1 but for etching1 with acids and other chemicals1 with great success4 7a7 ,calico and ,linen4--,there is no doubt that for vegetable fabrics in general ,batik is very well fitted1 especially since the introduction of modern dyes1 which are applied in a cold bath and are set by oxidation4 ,the ,sulphur dyes work extremely well1 in cold or lukewarm baths1 especially if used in a strong dye-bath4 ,but they1 it will be remembered1 are not very bright colors1 and are very short on the red side4 ,for soft1 quiet colorings1 however1 extremely fast to washing1 and quite fast to light1 which can be applied easily and readily1 they will be found very useful4 ,but the fastest colors known1 both for light and for washing1 are the modern ,vat colors1 many of which1 once reduced1 will dye in a lukewarm or even a cold dye-bath4 ,while indigo1 the type of these colors1 and still most useful1 gives a soft rather greyish shade of blue1 more effective by itself than when mixed1 there can be found among the ,helindones1 ,thio indigoes1 and the rest1 a full palette of dyes which1 properly mixed1 will furnish any shade that may be desired4 ,the dyeing directions for batiked goods are the same as for ordinary calico4 ,the materials1 well wetted1 are immersed1 drained1 wrung1 and oxidized as usual4 ,the wax is usually removed in one or more boiling soap baths1 which help as well to set the color and to remove unattached dyestuff4 7b7 ,silk4--,silk1 as in other processes1 can be dyed in several different ways1 according to the fastness to light and washing desired4 ,the easiest way1 especially when trying to match shades1 is to dye1 with the ,acid dyes1 in a soap bath acidified with a little sulphuric1 or1 preferably1 with acetic acid4 ,these shades1 however1 while brilliant and fast to light1 are not at all fast to washing1 and so the wax must be removed later1 with benzine or gasoline1 and not with a hot soap bath4 ,the sulphur dyes1 with a little glucose in the bath1 and plenty of dyestuff1 will give extremely fast colors on silk1 but in most cases these shades will be too dull for proper effect4 ,they can be greatly improved in color1 though with some sacrifice of fastness1 by topping them1 without removing the wax1 in a cold bath of ,basic dyes1 dissolved with a little acetic acid4 ,for extremely fast colors the ,vat dyes can be used4 ,easier to apply1 especially for rather light shades1 are some of the ,salt colors which1 though they do not take as well on silk1 in the cold1 as they do on cotton will1 nevertheless1 color it well1 with prolonged immersion1 in a strong bath1 in the presence of formic acid1 and once on1 will stand a very considerable amount of washing4 7c7 ,wool4--,in case it is necessary to apply this process to wool1 the latter will probably be dyed in the cold with ,acid dyes1 in the presence of some sodium sulphate 7,glauber's salt7 and dilute sulphuric acid4 ,to make this color faster to washing1 steaming1 and the like1 it is best1 after dyeing1 drying1 and removing the wax with benzine1 to boil the dyed goods for half an hour or more in a bath containing a little ,glauber's salt and dilute sulphuric acid1 but no dyestuff4 7d7 ,leather4--,as a rule1 the ,batiked leather should be dyed with ,acid colors1 acidified with acetic or formic acid1 though they can be shaded afterwards1 if desired1 by staining with ,basic colors4 ,after dyeing1 the wax can be removed by benzine or1 softened carefully by the cautious approach of a hot iron1 can be incorporated with the polishing wax1 used for rubbing down and finishing the surface4 7e7 ,wood4--,batiked wood can be stained by soaking it in1 or by brushing it with1 a solution of an acid color1 acidified with a little acetic acid4 ,these dyes are more soluble than most of the other classes1 and hence soak into and penetrate the fibres better4 ,they may bleed1 however1 if exposed to warm water4 ,the ,basic colors or even the ,salt colors can be used1 but1 while they are apt to adhere more firmly1 they do not soak in as well4 ,the wax is either used for polishing1 or is removed by benzine4 7f7 ,baskets4--,basketry can be decorated by ,batik1 although it is but rarely done4 ,the baskets would be dyed with ,basic colors and acetic acid1 excepting where yellows and reds were needed1 fast to light1 in which case the ,acid colors would be used4 7g7 ,bone4--,very pretty effects can be produced with ,batik upon polished surface of bone or ivory4 ,these are dyed carefully with ,acid colors in a bath containing acetic acid4 ,this process is a combination of dyeing and etching1 for the acid attacks the exposed surfaces1 removing the polish and opening the way for the action of the dyestuff later4 ,batik ,used for ,etching4--,the talents of ,batik are numerous1 for the usefulness of the ,batik tjanting and brush are not confined to the dyer1 but can be readily availed of by any metal or wood worker who happens to be a skilled draughtsman as well4 ,wax is a good resist1 not only against dyes and the weak chemicals used in connection with them1 but also against many of the most powerful reagents known to the chemist1 such as sulphuric acid1 for instance1 or strong caustic alkali4 ,accordingly1 if a piece of smooth wood is carefully batiked and then1 instead of being painted with dyestuff in solution1 it has some strong sulphuric acid1 or a concentrated solution of caustic potash poured and spread upon it1 in a few minutes1 after the reagent is washed off and the wax removed with gasoline or otherwise1 the exposed surfaces of the wood will be found softened and corroded1 so that on scrubbing with a stiff brush1 they can be readily rubbed away1 and the waxed portions will stand out in relief4 ,metal work1 like copper or brass plates and dishes1 can be etched readily in the same way1 the pattern of the relief being drawn in wax1 and the metal exposed for a greater or less time to the action of dilute nitric acid4 ,without going further into details it is hoped that enough has been stated here to impress on the student the possibilities of this beautiful process in a large number of different directions4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,war ,,upon ,,the ,,dyestuff ,,industry ,in ,chapter ,,ii of this book it has been explained how the dyeing industry of the whole world was changed by the discovery and commercial preparation of the first aniline dyestuff1 mauveine1 in #ahef1 by the ,english chemist ,perkin4 ,under his leadership the supremacy in this new industry was kept in ,england2 but when he retired from the field the manufacture of dyestuffs was soon concentrated in ,germany4 ,for over forty years before the beginning of the ,great ,war1 the ,germans had almost complete and absolute control over the whole color business1 including many allied industries like the manufacture of organic chemicals1 drugs1 perfumes1 flavoring matters and the like1 derived originally from coal tar4 ,in ,germany were four or five great and splendidly equipped factories1 and some ten or fifteen others of less importance1 all thoroughly organized and working together most harmoniously under what would1 in the ,united ,states1 be called a most perfect specimen of a ,trust4 ,opposed to them all over the world there could be found but a handful of comparatively small and unimportant firms in ,switzerland1 ,france1 ,england and the ,united ,states--producing altogether not over about ten per cent of the output of their ,german competitors4 ,compared to other industries the output of dyestuffs needed for the whole world's consumption is not a very large one--some sixty or seventy million dollars a year all told2 and it was freely boasted1 and more or less accepted by the rest of the world1 that 8the dyestuff industry is a one-nation industry1 and that nation is ,germany60 ,rise of the ,german ,dyestuff ,monopoly4--,the story of how this came about was once told the writer by ,sir ,william ,perkin1 when he was in ,new ,york1 in #ahif1 at the time of the 8,coal ,tar ,color ,jubilee10 the fiftieth anniversary of his famous discovery4 ,he said that in the early days1 when he was running his plant near ,manchester1 the most dangerous competitors he had to face were the ,french4 ,he described them as excellent chemists and keen1 but fair-fighting business men2 and the ,germans1 in those days1 were far inferior to them in every way--in ability1 in originality1 and1 above all1 in honesty4 ,he went so far as to say that1 for years before he left the business1 he and other ,english chemists had entirely abandoned attempts to patent their discoveries in ,berlin4 ,he had found1 by sad experience1 that whenever he sent over an application for a patent on a new dyestuff1 or new chemical compound of importance1 the ,german ,patent ,office would at once call in1 for consultation1 the leading ,german chemists who were interested in that line of work4 ,he would get request after request for more and more detailed information about every part of the process2 and then1 when they had got from him every bit of information that they could1 they would grant the patent to some one of his ,german competitors1 who1 in many cases at least1 had never even dreamed of the thing1 until ,perkin had sent his application to ,berlin4 ,in fact1 he said the ,english and ,french chemists considered them as rank1 bare-faced pirates1 and none too successful pirates at that4 ,two ,germans however1 in #ahfi1 did work out the composition of alizarine1 the dyestuff of madder1 and published their discovery in the chemical journals4 ,but while they discovered and patented one method for preparing this ,alizarine from coal tar on a commercial scale1 ,perkin in ,england1 and some dyestuff chemists in ,france discovered other methods equally good or perhaps better for producing the same identical color at less expense4 ,so they still kept well ahead of the ,germans even in that4 ,soon after this1 in #ahgj1 the ,franco-,prussian war broke out4 ,at once the ,french and ,german factories closed1 at any rate for any foreign trade1 and as the cultivation of madder had by that time been abandoned1 ,perkin found that all the ,turkey red for the whole ,eastern market must be dyed with his ,manchester alizarine4 ,orders came pouring in1 and in order to keep up with the demand1 it would be necessary for him to greatly increase the size of his plant1 and to put back into it all his savings of the past fourteen or fifteen very profitable years4 ,this1 he told me1 he was unwilling to do4 ,but1 just at that moment1 he was approached by a firm of ,manchester business men1 who had been supplying his works with some of the raw materials from coal tar 7crudes and intermediates as they call them now71 with an offer to buy his works and his interest in the business4 ,he was perfectly frank and open with them1 showed them his books1 his profits for the past few years1 his present orders and the rest1 and after a little bargaining he sold out to them for a very fair price1 which he immediately invested in the best of securities and on which he lived in comfort for the rest of his long and extremely happy life4 ,ruin of the ,english ,dyestuff ,industry4--,as soon as they had gained possession of his factory1 the ,manchester people began to pass word around among their friends1 that they were going to show the whole world how to run a chemical industry4 ,perkin1 they agreed1 was indeed a clever fellow in his way1 and undoubtedly a good chemist1 but he was no business man4 ,they were going to run those works on good1 practical1 common-sense business lines1 and they and their few friends whom they allowed to join them1 boasted loudly and deeply of their expected profits4 ,their motto was the well-established one 8,manufacture cheap and sell dear0--and they proceeded to follow it implicitly4 ,they went over all the details of the business with the greatest care1 and soon found what seemed to them a willful piece of extravagance4 ,perkin himself1 and three or four other chemists1 were drawing salaries1 not for the actual making of the dyestuffs but for experimental purposes1 and they had quite an expensive laboratory used for that purpose alone6 ,of course this was at once eliminated--and great was their satisfaction when they found that they had thereby cut down the price of making their dyes two or three cents a pound4 ,then it came to the 8selling dear0 part of it4 ,perkin told me that the last few years that he ran his factory1 he kept the price of his dyestuffs at a reasonable figure1 so that1 indeed1 he would get a good profit from them1 but that1 on the other hand1 it would be no easy matter for competitors to break into his field with success4 ,his alizarine1 in particular1 he had kept at a price just below what it would pay to grow madder in opposition to it1 and he had not raised the price to any great extent since the war had given him a monopoly4 ,these ,manchester people1 however1 fully recognized that they were the only manufacturers of alizarine1 anywhere1 and were over-flooded with orders--so they instantly jumped up the price of their alizarine to four or five times its former figures4 ,barely had they completed their 8business0 reorganization of the plant when the war came to an end1 and the ,germans marched back to their own country1 with 8five milliards0 of ,french money1 full of self-confidence 7to use a very mild term7 and looking around for new fields to conquer in peace1 now that they had won all that they could at that time by war4 ,instantly every ,german with any knowledge of the textile or dyestuff industries turned his eyes at once in that direction4 8,what6 ,alizarine at five dollars a pound instead of a dollar2 why1 any fool can make a profit on colors at that price60 ,and immediately1 in different parts of the country1 factory after factory was started1 each one centered around some first-class chemist1 of national if not international reputation1 with instructions to gather around himself a staff of the most brilliant and best trained organic chemists he could find1 to be used first of all in experimental and investigating work as well as for the mere preparation of dyestuffs4 ,as a result1 in a very short time1 these new ,german firms were supplying alizarine and other dyestuffs to the ,manchester ,turkey red manufacturers at lower prices than they could be made for in ,perkin's old factory in the immediate neighborhood2 and1 before the end of the year1 those clever business men were complaining bitterly to ,perkin that he had cheated them in the sale of his works1 and were wanting him to give them their money back1 which1 as the old gentleman told me with a chuckle1 he very positively and decidedly refused to do4 ,from that time until the beginning of the ,great ,war the great ,english textile industry1 with its enormous trade all over the world1 was obliged to buy practically all its dyestuffs from ,germany4 ,dyestuff ,industry in the ,united ,states4--,the manufacture of dyestuffs in this country was a little better than in ,england1 because of the tariff protection granted it by the ,government for many years4 ,four or five factories of very moderate size kept up a rather precarious existence1 because their chief raw materials1 the so-called 8intermediates10 organic chemicals made from coal tar and from which the principal products1 dyes1 drugs1 perfumes and the like are made in turn1 all had to be imported from ,europe1 and1 in most cases1 from their ,german rivals who naturally kept a tight rein upon the quantity and quality of their output4 ,in #aiac even this industry was destroyed by the abolition of the duties on dyestuffs in the new tariff1 thanks to the pressure for free raw materials brought by the great textile industries1 probably at the instigation of the foreign color houses4 ,changed ,conditions ,due to the ,war4--,since #aiad this whole situation has been radically and completely changed all over the world4 ,appreciating the great danger to their textile trades from the lack of dyestuffs1 and also the vast military importance of a large and highly developed coal tar products industry1 for the manufacture of high explosives1 smokeless powder and the like1 nation after nation has given government assistance not only in the line of money1 but also with patent legislation and new tariff4 ,england with its ,british ,dye ,works1 ,ltd41 ,france with the ,st4 ,denis ,works1 now greatly enlarged and strengthened1 ,italy1 ,japan1 all have made arrangements for supplying their trade with home-made dyestuffs1 of excellent quality1 not only during but after the temporary disturbance due to the actual fighting4 ,in the ,united ,states there soon were made many more or less independent and spasmodic efforts to supply at least the principal and most generally used colors1 notably the ,basic dyes1 ,methylene ,blue1 ,methyl ,violet and the like1 so much used in calico printing1 silk and wool dyeing1 leather and other lines1 and the simpler ,sulphur colors1 like ,sulphur ,black1 ,blues1 and ,browns4 ,these were selling1 before the end of #aiad1 at comparatively huge prices1 and until the peace will probably still command from five to ten times their usual values4 ,but out of these scores of generally quite small and isolated factories1 there have sprung1 by the fourth year of hostilities1 a few large1 well equipped and fully financed organizations which will be able1 within a very short time1 indeed probably before these lines appear in print1 to fully provide this country with the main standard dyes1 quite as good in every respect as the same dyes made by the best ,german color houses4 ,and1 unless very adverse tariff legislation should be introduced1 they should be in a position1 after the close of the war1 to hold their trade against any foreign competition4 ,it will1 of course1 take several years before they can supply in this country the very finest special dyestuffs1 of which but small quantities are ever needed or used1 and which in most cases are fully protected by patents1 as well as by secret methods of manufacture4 ,but1 with the exception of the vat colors1 of which artificial ,indigo and the closely allied ,brom-indigo are at present the only ones made in this country1 the dyeing trade will be1 in a short time1 well supplied with excellent standard colors 8made in ,america40 ,the three important ,american dyestuff houses already started with the addresses of their ,new ,york offices are as follows3-- ,american--,american ,aniline ,products4 ,inc41 #hj ,fifth ,avenue4 ,marden--,marden1 ,orth and ,hastings1 #fa ,broadway4 ,national--,national ,aniline and ,chemical ,co41 #bdd ,madison ,avenue4 ,and also1 soon to engage in the manufacture of dyestuffs on a large scale3-- ,the ,dupont de ,nemours ,chemical ,co41 of ,wilmington1 ,del4 ,lists of the ,best ,dyestuffs1 in the ,different ,classes1 ,made ,thus ,far by the ,american ,manufacturers ,at the present moment1 ,november1 #aiag1 but few of the home-made colors are as fast to light as the specially selected dyes of the great ,german houses1 listed on pages #ff1 #hi1 #ajc and #abg4 ,those in the following lists are the best made at present1 in the ,united ,states1 and will be steadily improved upon as time goes on4 ,direct ,cotton or ,salt ,dyes4-- ,american--,benzo ,fast ,yellow1 ,a ,direct ,sky ,blue ,marden-- ,stilbene ,yellow ,direct ,blue ,direct ,brown ,national--,delta ,red1 #b ,b ,niagara ,fast ,yellow1 ,f ,niagara ,blue1 #b ,b ,erie ,black1 ,g ,x ,,oo ,sulphur ,colors4-- ,marden-- ,sulphur ,black ,sulphur ,brown ,national--,sulphur ,brown1 ,w ,f ,sulphur ,yellow1 ,b ,w ,sulphur ,direct ,navy ,blue ,sulphur ,black1 ,f conc4 ,vat ,colors4-- ,dibrom ,indigo1 powder and paste ,synthetic ,indigo1 #bj paste ,made by the ,dow ,chemical ,company of ,midland1 ,michigan4 ,new ,york ,agents1 ,geisenheimer ,co41 #acd ,cedar ,street4 ,synthetic ,indigo and ,sodium hydrosulphite can also be obtained from ,klipstein1 #fcd ,greenwich ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,basic ,colors4-- ,many of these such as ,methylene ,blue1 ,methyl ,violet1 ,phosphine1 ,bismarck ,brown and others1 including leather ,black1 are being made by ,american1 ,marden and ,national1 as well as by many firms that so far have not gone into the general color business4 ,one of the most important of these last1 who1 besides the above1 make a brilliant basic ,green1 called by them ,methylene ,green1 is the ,meth-,o-,lene ,co41 ,inc41 #ha-hc ,fulton ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,auramine1 at present1 can best be obtained from ,klipstein4 ,nigrosine soluble in water1 in jet black and bluish shades1 is made by ,marden1 ,meth-,o-,lene and other firms1 and is largely used for dyeing leather fast brilliant shades of black4 ,acid ,colors4-- ,american--,fast ,yellow1 ,h ,ex4 ,brilliant ,blue1 conc4 ,cloth ,red1 ,h ,acid ,black1 ,l conc4 ,marden-- ,metanril ,yellow ,orange1 ,no4 #b ,fast ,acid ,red ,croceine ,scarlet ,national--,azo ,yellow1 ,a ,s ,w ,scarlet1 ,b ,r ,acid ,black1 #d ,a ,b ,also ,tartrazine1 a fast acid yellow much used for wool1 not for silk4 ,,special ,,note ,further information concerning dyestuffs1 apparatus1 textiles1 chemicals1 etc41 connected with this work1 may be obtained on writing to the author at #g ,west #dcrd ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,,index ,there is no mention either of the ,plate illustrations or of the ,figure illustrations in the index2 these may be found in a list of the illustrations in the front of the book4 ,acid ,azo ,colors1 #abc1 #abd ,acid ,colors1 #eb1 #ed1 #abc-aca1 #aca-acf1 #adh-aej1 #aeb1 #afe-afh1 #bai1 #beh ,after-treatment1 #ah1 #fg1 #fh1 #hi ,alizarine and ,alizarine ,dyestuffs1 #bb1 #bc1 #db ,alizarine ,assistant or ,turkey ,red ,oil1 #hh1 #ajf1 #bcb ,aniline1 #dj1 #da ,aniline ,black--for ,stencilling1 #bbd-bbh ,aniline ,colors1 #aji4 ,also see ,basic ,colors ,aniline ,red or ,fuchsine1 ,magenta1 #dj1 #aji ,animal ,dyes1 #aa-ad4 ,also see ,cochineal1 ,kermes1 ,lac1 ,tyrian purple ,artificial ,silk1 #ci1 #hg1 #aab1 #aha1 #ahd-aib ,artificial or ,synthetic ,indigo1 #ib1 #ic ,bagobo ,tied ,work1 #aif1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bjf ,basic ,colors1 #eb1 #ed1 #ajh-abc1 #adh-aec1 #bbj-bbc1 #beh ,basketry1 ,dyeing of1 #aac1 #aad1 #aaf-abc1 #beh ,batik or ,wax ,resist1 #bda-bfj ,benedict1 ,miss ,laura 7,tied ,work from ,philippines71 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjf ,bismarck ,brown1 #aji1 #aae1 #abd ,bistre or ,permanganate ,bronze1 #cb-ce ,black ,dyeing--with ,coal-,tar ,colors1 #fi1 #hf1 #hi1 #aad1 #afh1 #afi ,black ,dyeing--with ,logwood1 #ba1 #ach1 #afi-agb ,black ,stencilling1 #bbd-bbh ,bleaching ,powder1 #bjh-baa1 #bcd-bcf ,boiled-off ,liquor1 #afa1 #afb1 #afd1 #afh1 #agd ,bone-colored by ,batik ,process1 #beh ,british uniforms1 dyed with cochineal1 #ai ,bronze on ,leather1 #aec-aee ,bronze 7,permanganate7 or ,bistre1 #cb-ce ,brown 7,bismarck71 #aji1 #aae1 #abd ,brown1 dyed with ,permanganate of ,potash1 #cb-ce ,cachou de ,laval1 #he ,catechu4 ,see ,cutch ,chardonnet ,silk1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahi ,chloride of ,lime4 ,see ,bleaching ,powder ,chrome ,orange1 #cb ,chrome ,yellow1 #cb ,chrome ,tanning1 #add ,chundries or ,chunaries 7,indian ,tied ,work71 #aif-aii ,classification of ,coal-,tar ,colors1 for ,craftsmen1 #ea1 #eb ,cochineal1 #aa1 #ah1 #ai ,congo ,red1 #ee1 #ef1 #eg ,cordovan ,leather1 #adb ,cotton ,colors4 ,see ,salt ,colors ,cotton ,dyeing1 #ei-fd1 #hf1 #hh-ij1 #ih1 #ii 8,covering10 #hc ,crackle ,effect--in ,batik1 #bdd1 #bdf1 #bdg ,cutch1 #ah1 #he1 #adf1 #aga ,direct ,coloring1 #aic ,direct ,cotton ,dyeing4 ,see ,salt ,colors and ,sulphur ,colors4 ,also #ag1 #ec1 #ee1 #he ,discharge ,stencilling1 #bcc-bda ,discharge work1 #aic1 #bjh-baa ,discovery of ,acid ,colors1 #abc1 #abd2 ,aniline or ,coal-,tar ,colors1 #dj1 #da1 #df2 ,basic ,colors1 #ajh1 #aji2 ,indigo1 #i1 #aj1 #ia1 #ib2 ,salt ,colors1 #ee1 #ef2 ,sulphur ,colors1 #he1 #hf2 ,vat ,colors1 modern1 #ajc ,discovery 7,perkin's71 #dj1 #da1 #df1 #ed1 #ajh1 #aji ,dyeing ,directions--for ,acid ,colors1 #abg-aca1 #acb-acg1 #adh-aec1 #afb1 #afc2 ,artificial ,silk1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aij2 ,basic ,colors1 #aag-abc1 #adh-aej2 ,basketry1 #aag-abc2 ,batik1 #bed-beh2 ,cotton and ,linen1 #bg1 #cj1 #cc1 #ei-fd1 #hg-hi1 #ih1 #ii1 #aje-ajh2 ,feathers1 #acb-acg2 ,imitation ,silk1 #ahc2 ,indigo1 #ih1 #ii2 ,iron ,buff 7,iron ,rust71 #bg-bi2 ,iron ,grey1 #cj2 ,leather1 #adh-aej2 ,permanganate ,bronze1 #cc2 ,raffia1 #abj-abc2 ,resist ,stencilling1 #bcb2 ,salt ,colors1 #ei-fd1 #age1 #agf1 #bcc2 ,silk1 #afb-afe1 #agd-aha1 #bjg2 ,straw1 #aag-abj2 ,sulphur ,colors1 #hg-hi1 #ahj1 #bjg1 #bcb2 ,tied and ,dyed ,work1 #bjf1 #bjg2 ,vat ,colors1 #aje-ajh1 #agg-aha2 ,wild ,silk1 #afd1 #afe2 ,wool1 #bd1 #abg-aca ,eastern ,dyes1 #aj1 #ac1 #ag-ba1 #bb1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bde ,elberfeld ,silk1 #ahe1 #ahi ,embroidery-fast ,silk1 #age-aha ,equipment needed for ,dyeing1 #ce-ci ,fastness to ,light1 #db1 #di1 #fc-ff1 #hi1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aab1 #aad1 #abf1 #aec ,fastness to ,washing1 #fd-fg1 #hi1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #abd1 #acg1 #agd-aha ,feathers and ,feather-dyeing1 #ci1 #aca-ada ,fermentation ,method of ,vat dyeing1 #id ,finishing--,artificial ,silk1 #ci1 #ahi1 #aij2 ,feathers1 #ci1 #acd1 #ace2 ,leather1 #aec2 ,silk1 #ci1 #afc1 #afd ,fustic1 #bj ,gambier1 #adf1 #aga ,gelatin or ,glue1 used as ,reagent1 #hg ,glanzstoff 7,elberfeld ,silk71 #ahe1 #ahi ,glucose1 #cc1 #hg1 #agi ,grain ,colors 7,cochineal1 ,kermes1 ,lac71 #aa1 #ab1 #ai ,grey1 ,miss ,mary--,tied ,work1 #bjc ,grey1 from mixture of colors1 #gb1 #gc1 #hb1 #hc ,grey1 from ,iron ,salts and ,tannin1 #bi1 #ca ,heating devices1 used in ,dyeing1 #cf ,history4 ,see ,discovery4 ,also ,ancient ,dyestuffs1 #h-af2 ,artificial ,silk1 #ahd-ahg2 ,batik1 #bda-bde2 ,dyes of our ,ancestors1 #ag-bd2 ,imitation ,silk1 #ahb1 #ahc2 ,leather1 #ada-add2 ,silk1 #aef1 #aeg2 ,stencils and ,stencilling1 #baa1 #bab2 ,tied and ,dyed ,work1 #aib-bjj ,horses1 dyed ,brown with ,permanganate1 #cd 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punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,some hyphens in words have been silently removed1 some added1 when a predominant preference was found in the original book4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,pg #aja3 removed duplicate #8to' in #8are apt to to 8rub40'4