,,outlines ,,of ,,mahayana ,,buddhism ,,by ,,daisetz ,,teitaro ,,suzuki ,,chicago ,,the ,,open ,,court ,,publishing ,,company #aijh ,,preface4 v ,the object of this book is twofold3 7#a7 ,to refute the many wrong opinions which are entertained by ,western critics concerning the fundamental teachings of ,mahyna ,buddhism2 7#b7 ,to awake interest among scholars of comparative religion in the development of the religious sentiment and faith as exemplified by the growth of one of the most powerful spiritual forces in the world4 ,the book is therefore at once popular and scholarly4 ,it is popular in the sense that it tries to expose the fallacy of the general attitude assumed by other religionists towards ,mahynism4 ,it aims to be scholarly1 on the other hand1 when it endeavors to expound some of the most salient features of the doctrine1 historically and systematically4 ,in attempting the accomplishment of this latter object1 however1 the author makes no great claim1 because it is impossible to present within this prescribed space all the data that are available for a comprehensive and systematic elucidation of the ,mahyna ,buddhism1 whose history began in the sixth century before the ,christian era and ran through a period of more than two thousand years before it assumed the form in which it is at present taught in the ,orient4 ,during this long period1 the ,mahyna vi doctrine was elaborated by the best minds that ,india1 ,tibet1 ,china1 and ,japan ever produced4 ,it is no wonder then that so many diverse and apparently contradictory teachings are all comprised under the general name of ,mahyna ,buddhism4 ,to expound all these theories even tentatively would be altogether outside the scope of such a work as this4 ,all that ,i could or hoped to do was to discuss a few of the most general and most essential topics of ,mahynism1 making this a sort of introduction to a more detailed exposition of the system as a whole as well as in particular4 ,to attain the first object1 ,i have gone occasionally outside the sphere within which ,i had properly to confine the work4 ,but this deviation seemed imperative for the reason that some critics are so prejudiced that even seemingly self-evident truths are not comprehended by them4 ,i may be prejudiced in my own way1 but very frequently ,i have wondered how completely and how wretchedly some people can be made the prey of self-delusion4 ,the doctrinal history of ,mahyna ,buddhism is very little known to ,occidental scholars4 ,this is mainly due to the inaccessibility of material which is largely written in the ,chinese tongue1 one of the most difficult of languages for foreigners to master4 ,in this age of liberal culture1 it is a great pity that so few of the precious stones contained in the religion of ,buddha are obtainable by ,western people4 ,human nature is essentially the same the world over1 and vii whenever and wherever conditions mature we see the same spiritual phenomena2 and this fact ever strengthens our faith in the universality of truth and in the ultimate reign of lovingkindness4 ,it is my sincere desire that in so far as my intellectual attainment permits ,i shall be allowed to pursue my study and to share my findings with my fellow-beings4 ,in concluding this prelude1 the author wishes to say that this little book is presented to the public with a full knowledge of its many defects1 to revise which he will not fail to make use of every opportunity offered him4 _/,daisetz ,t4 ,suzuki_/4 viii ,,contents4 ix ,preface ,introduction 7#a7 ,the ,mahyna and ,hnayna ,buddhism4 ,why the ,two ,doctrines8--,the ,original ,meaning of ,mahyna4--,an ,older ,classification of ,buddhists4--,mahyna ,buddhism defined4 7#b7 ,is the ,mahyna ,buddhism the genuine teaching of ,buddha8 ,no ,life ,without ,growth4--,mahynism a ,living ,religion4 7#c7 ,some ,misstatements about the ,mahynism4 ,why ,injustice ,done to ,buddhism4--,examples of ,injustice4--,monier ,monier-,williams4--,beal4--,waddell4 7#d7 ,the ,significance of ,religion4 ,no ,revealed ,religion4--,the ,mystery4--,intellect and ,imagination4--,the ,contents of ,faith vary4 ,chapter ,i4 ,a ,general ,characterisation of ,buddhism4 ,no ,god and ,no ,soul4--,karma4--,avidy4--,non-tman4--,t he ,non-tmanness of ,things4--,dharmakya4--,nirvna4--,intell ectual ,tendency of ,buddhism4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,historical ,characterisation of ,mahynism4 ,sthiramati's ,conception of ,mahynism4--,seven ,principal ,features of ,mahynism4--,ten ,essential ,features of ,mahynism4 x ,speculative ,mahynism4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,practice and ,speculation4 ,relation of ,feeling and ,intellect4--,buddhism and ,speculation4--,religion and ,metaphysics4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,classification of ,knowledge4 ,three ,forms of ,knowledge4--,illusion4--,relative ,knowledge4--,absolute ,knowledge4--,world-,views founded on the three ,forms of ,knowledge4--,two ,forms of ,knowledge4--,transcendental ,truth and ,relative ,understanding4 ,chapter ,v4 ,bhtatatht 7,suchness74 ,indefinability4--,the 8,thundrous ,silence40--,suchness ,conditioned4--,questions ,defying ,solution4--,the ,theory of ,ignorance4--,dualism and ,moral ,evil4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,tathgata-,garbha and the laya-vijnna4 ,the ,garbha and ,ignorance4--,the laya-vijna and its ,evolution4--,the ,manas4--,the ,smkhya ,philosophy and ,mahynism4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,theory of ,non-tman or ,non-ego4 tman4--,buddha's ,first ,line of ,inquiry4--,the ,skandha4--,king ,milinda and ,ngasena4--,ananda's ,attempts to ,locate the ,soul4--tman and the 8,old ,man40--,the ,vedntic ,conception4--,ngrjuna on the ,soul4--,non-tman-ness of ,things4--,svabhva4--,the ,real ,significance of ,emptiness4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,karma4 ,definition4--,the ,working of ,karma4--,karma and ,social injustice4--,an ,individualistic ,view of ,karma4--,karma and ,determinism4--,the ,maturing of ,good ,stock and the ,accumulation of ,good ,merits4--,immortality4 xi ,practical ,mahynism4 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,dharmakya4 ,god4--,dharmakya4--,dharmakya as ,religious ,object4--,more ,detailed ,characterisation4--,the ,dharmakya and ,individual ,beings4--,the ,dharmakya as ,love4--,later ,mahynists' ,view of the ,dharmakya4--,the ,freedom of the ,dharmakya4--,the ,will of the ,dharmakya4 ,chapter ,x4 ,the ,doctrine of ,trikya4 ,the ,human and the ,super-human ,buddha4--,an ,historical ,view4--,who was ,buddha8--,the ,trikya as ,explained in the ,suvarna-,prabh4--,revelation in ,all ,stages of ,culture4--,the ,sambhogakya4--,a ,mere ,subjective ,existence4--,attitude of ,modern ,mahynists4--,recapitulation4 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,bodhisattva4 ,the ,three ,ynas4--,strict ,individualism4--,the ,doctrine of ,parivarta4--,bodhisattva in 8,primitive0 ,buddhism4--,we are all ,bodhisattvas4--,the ,buddha's ,life4--,the ,bodhisattva and ,love4--,the ,meaning of ,bodhi and ,bodhicitta4--,love and ,karun4--,ngrjuna and ,sthiramati on ,bodhicitta4--,the ,awakening of the ,bodhicitta4--,the ,bodhisattva's ,pranidhna4 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,ten ,stages of ,bodhisattvahood4 ,gradation in our ,spiritual ,life4--,pramudit4--,vimal4--,prabhkar4 --,arcismat4--,sudurjan4--,abhimukh4--,d rangam4--,acal4--,sdhumat4 --,dharmamegh4 xii ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,nirvna4 ,nihilistic ,nirvna not the ,first ,object4--,nirvna is ,positive4--,the ,mahynistic ,conception of ,nirvna4--,nirvna as the ,dharmakya4--,nirvna in its ,fourth ,sense4--,nirvna and ,samsra are ,one4--,the ,middle ,course4--,how to ,realise ,nirvna4--,love ,awakens ,intelligence4--,conclusion4 ,appendix1 ,hymns of ,mahyna ,faith4 ,index4 ,endnotes4 ,,introduction4 #a #a4 ,,the ,,mah,y,,na ,,and ,,the ,h,,nay,,na ,,buddhism4 _/,the_/ terms 8,mahyna0 and 8,hnayna0 may sound unfamiliar to most of our readers1 perhaps even to those who have devoted some time to the study of ,buddhism4 ,they have hitherto been induced to believe that there is but one form of ,buddhism1 and that there exists no such distinction as ,mahynism and ,hnaynism4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 there are diverse schools in ,buddhism just as in other religious systems4 ,it is said that1 within a few hundred years after the demise of ,buddha1 there were more than twenty different schools1#a all claiming #b to be the orthodox teaching of their master4 ,these1 however1 seem to have vanished into insignificance one after another1 when there arose a new school quite different in its general constitution from its predecessors1 but far more important in its significance as a religious movement4 ,this new school or rather system made itself so prominent in the meantime as to stand distinctly alone from all the other schools1 which later became a class by itself4 ,essentially1 it taught everything that was considered to be ,buddhistic1 but it was very comprehensive in its principle and method and scope4 ,and1 by reason of this1 ,buddhism was now split into two great systems1 ,mahynism and ,hnaynism1 the latter indiscriminately including all the minor schools which preceded ,mahynism in their formal establishment4 ,broadly speaking1 the difference between ,mahynism and ,hnaynism is this3 ,mahynism is more liberal and progressive1 but in many respects too metaphysical and full of speculative thoughts that frequently reach a dazzling eminence3 ,hnaynism1 on the other hand1 is somewhat conservative and may be considered in many points to be a rationalistic ethical system simply4 ,mahyna literally means 8great vehicle0 and ,hnayna 8small or inferior vehicle10 that is1 of salvation4 ,this distinction is recognised only by the followers of ,mahynism1 because it was by them that the unwelcome title of ,hnaynism was given to their rival brethren1--thinking that they were more progressive #c and had a more assimilating energy than the latter4 ,the adherents of ,hnaynism1 as a matter of course1 refused to sanction the ,mahynist doctrine as the genuine teaching of ,buddha1 and insisted that there could not be any other ,buddhism than their own1 to them naturally the ,mahyna system was a sort of heresy4 ,geographically1 the progressive school of ,buddhism found its supporters in ,nepal1 ,tibet1 ,china1 ,corea1 and ,japan1 while the conservative school established itself in ,ceylon1#b ,siam1 and ,burma4 ,hence the ,mahyna and the ,hnayna are also known respectively ,northern and ,southern ,buddhism4 ,en passant1 let me remark that this distinction1 however1 is not quite correct1 for we have some #d schools in ,china and ,japan1 whose equivalent or counterpart cannot be found in the so-called ,northern ,buddhism1 that is1 ,buddhism flourishing in ,northern ,india4 ,for instance1 we do not have in ,nepal or in ,tibet anything like the ,sukhvat sects of ,japan or ,china4 ,of course1 the general essential ideas of the ,sukhvat philosophy are found in the stra literature as well as in the writings of such authors as ,avaghoa1 ,asanga1 and ,ngrjuna4 ,but those ideas were not developed and made into a new sect as they were in the ,east4 ,therefore1 it may be more proper to divide ,buddhism into three1 instead of two1 geographical sections3 ,southern1 ,northern1 and ,eastern4 ,why the two ,doctrines8 ,in spite of this distinction1 the two schools1 ,hnaynism and ,mahynism1 are no more than two main issues of one original source1 which was first discovered by kyamuni2 and1 as a matter of course1 we find many common traits which are essential to both of them4 ,the spirit that animated the innermost heart of ,buddha is perceptible in ,southern as well as in ,northern ,buddhism4 ,the difference between them is not radical or qualitative as imagined by some4 ,it is due1 on the one hand1 to a general unfolding of the religious consciousness and a constant broadening of the intellectual horizon1 and1 on the other hand1 to the conservative efforts to literally preserve the monastic rules and traditions4 ,both schools started with the same spirit1 pursuing the #e same course4 ,but after a while one did not feel any necessity for broadening the spirit of the master and adhered to his words as literally as possible2 whilst the other1 actuated by a liberal and comprehensive spirit1 has drawn nourishments from all available sources1 in order to unfold the germs in the original system that were vigorous and generative4 ,these diverse inclinations among primitive ,buddhists naturally led to the dissension of ,mahynism and ,hnaynism4 ,we cannot here enter into any detailed accounts as to what external and internal forces were acting in the body of ,buddhism to produce the ,mahyna system1 or as to how gradually it unfolded itself so as to absorb and assimilate all the discordant thoughts that came in contact with it4 ,suffice it to state and answer in general terms the question which is frequently asked by the uninitiated3 8,why did one ,buddhism ever allow itself to be differentiated into two systems1 which are apparently in contradiction in more than one point with each other80 ,in other words1 8,how can there be two ,buddhisms equally representing the true doctrine of the founder80 ,the reason is plain enough4 ,the teachings of a great religious founder are as a rule very general1 comprehensive1 and many-sided3 and1 therefore1 there are great possibilities in them to allow various liberal interpretations by his disciples4 ,and it is on this very account of comprehensiveness that enables followers of diverse needs1 characters1 and trainings to #f satisfy their spiritual appetite universally and severally with the teachings of their master4 ,this comprehensiveness1 however1 is not due to the intentional use by the leader of ambiguous terms1 nor is it due to the obscurity and confusion of his own conceptions4 ,the initiator of a movement1 spiritual as well as intellectual1 has no time to think out all its possible details and consequences4 ,when the principle of the movement is understood by the contemporaries and the foundation of it is solidly laid down1 his own part as initiator is accomplished2 and the remainder can safely be left over to his successors4 ,the latter will take up the work and carry it out in all its particulars1 while making all necessary alterations and ameliorations according to circumstances4 ,therefore1 the rle to be played by the originator is necessarily indefinite and comprehensive4 ,kant1 for instance1 as promoter of ,german philosophy1 has become the father of such diverse philosophical systems as ,jacobi's1 ,fichte's1 ,hegel's1 ,schopenhauer's1 etc41 while each of them endeavored to develop some points indefinitely or covertly or indirectly stated by ,kant himself4 ,jesus of ,nazareth1 as instigator of a revolutionary movement against ,judaism1 did not have any stereotyped theological doctrines1 such as were established later by ,christian doctors4 ,the indefiniteness of his views was so apparent that it caused even among his personal disciples a sort of dissension1 while a majority of his disciples cherished a visionary hope for the advent #g of a divine kingdom on earth4 ,but those externalities which are doomed to pass1 do not prevent the spirit of the movement once awakened by a great leader from growing more powerful and noble4 ,the same thing can be said of the teachings of the ,buddha4 ,what he inspired in his followers was the spirit of that religious system which is now known as ,buddhism4 ,guided by this spirit1 his followers severally developed his teachings as required by their special needs and circumstances1 finally giving birth to the distinction of ,mahynism and ,hnaynism4 ,the ,original ,meaning of ,mahyna4 ,the term ,mahyna was first used to designate the highest principle1 or being1 or knowledge1 of which the universe with all its sentient and non-sentient beings is a manifestation1 and through which only they can attain final salvation 7moka or nirvna74 ,mahyna was not the name given to any religious doctrine1 nor had it anything to do with doctrinal controversy1 though later it was so utilised by the progressive party4 ,avaghoa1 the first ,mahyna expounder known to us1--living about the time of ,christ1--used the term in his religio-philosophical book called ,discourse on the ,awakening of ,faith in the ,mahyna#c as synonymous with ,bhtatatht1 or ,dharmaky1#d the #h highest principle of ,mahynism4 ,he likened the recognition of1 and faith in1 this highest being and principle into a conveyance which will carry us safely across the tempestuous ocean of birth and death 7samsra7 to the eternal shore of ,nirvna4 ,soon after him1 however1 the controversy between the two schools of ,buddhism1 conservatives and progressionists as we might call them1 became more and more pronounced2 and when it reached its climax which was most probably in the times of ,ngrjuna and ryadeva1 i4e41 a few centuries after ,avaghoa1 the progressive party ingeniously invented the term ,hnayna in contrast to ,mahyna1 the latter having been adopted by them as the watchword of their own school4 ,the ,hnaynists and the ,trthakas#e then were sweepingly condemned by the ,mahynists as inadequate to achieve a universal salvation of sentient beings4 ,an ,older ,classification of ,buddhists4 ,before the distinction of ,mahynists and ,hnaynists became definite1 that is to say1 at the time of ,ngrjuna or even before it1 those ,buddhists who held a more progressive and broader view tried to distinguish three ynas among the followers of the ,buddha1 viz41 ,bodhisattva-yna1 ,pratyekabuddha-yna1 and rvaka-yna2 yna being another name for class4 #i ,the ,bodhisattva is that class of ,buddhists who1 believing in the ,bodhi 7intelligence or wisdom71 which is a reflection of the ,dharmakya in the human soul1 direct all their spiritual energy toward realising and developing it for the sake of their fellow-creatures4 ,the ,pratyekabuddha is a 8solitary thinker0 or a philosopher1 who1 retiring into solitude and calmly contemplating on the evanescence of worldly pleasures1 endeavors to attain his own salvation1 but remains unconcerned with the sufferings of his fellow-beings4 ,religiously considered1 a ,pratyekabuddha is cold1 impassive1 egotistic1 and lacks love for all mankind4 ,the rvaka which means 8hearer0 is inferior in the estimate of ,mahynists even to the ,pratyekabuddha1 for he does not possess any intellect that enables him to think independently and to find out by himself the way to final salvation4 ,being endowed1 however1 with a pious heart1 he is willing to listen to the instructions of the ,buddha1 to believe in him1 to observe faithfully all the moral precepts given by him1 and rests fully contented within the narrow horizon of his mediocre intellect4 ,to a further elucidation of ,bodhisattvahood and its important bearings in the ,mahyna ,buddhism1 we devote a special chapter below4 ,for ,mahynism is no more than the ,buddhism of ,bodhisattvas1 while the ,pratyekabuddhas and the rvakas are considered by ,mahynists to be adherents of ,hnaynism4 #aj ,the ,mahyna ,buddhism ,defined4 ,we can now form a somewhat definite notion as to what the ,mahyna ,buddhism is4 ,it is the ,buddhism which1 inspired by a progressive spirit1 broadened its original scope1 so far as it did not contradict the inner significance of the teachings of the ,buddha1 and which assimilated other religio-philosophical beliefs within itself1 whenever it felt that1 by so doing1 people of more widely different characters and intellectual endowments could be saved4 ,let us be satisfied at present with this statement1 until we enter into a more detailed exposition of its doctrinal peculiarities in the pages that follow4 ,it may not be out of place1 while passing1 to remark that the term ,mahynism is used in this work merely in contradistinction to that form of ,buddhism1 which is flourishing in ,ceylon and ,burma and other central ,asiatic nations1 and whose literature is principally written in the language called ,pli1 which comes from the same stock as ,sanskrit4 ,the term 8,mahyna0 does not imply1 as it is used here1 any sense of superiority over the ,hnayna4 ,when the historical aspect of ,mahynism is treated1 it may naturally develop that its over-zealous and one-sided devotees unnecessarily emphasised its controversial and dogmatical phase at the sacrifice of its true spirit2 but the reader must not think that this work has anything to do with those complications4 ,in fact1 ,mahynism professes to be a boundless ocean in which all form #aa of thought and faith can find its congenial and welcome home2 why then should we make it militate against its own fellow-doctrine1 ,hnaynism8 #b4 ,,is ,,the ,,mah,y,,na ,,buddhism ,,the ,,genuine ,,teaching ,,of ,,the ,,buddha8 ,what is generally known to the ,western nations by the name of ,buddhism is ,hnaynism1 whose scriptures as above stated are written in ,pli and studied mostly in ,ceylon1 ,burma1 and ,siam4 ,it was through this language that the first knowledge of ,buddhism was acquired by ,orientalists2 and naturally they came to regard ,hnaynism or ,southern ,buddhism as the only genuine teachings of the ,buddha4 ,they insisted1 and some of them still insist1 that to have an adequate and thorough knowledge of ,buddhism1 they must confine themselves solely to the study of the ,pli1 that whatever may be learned from other sources1 i4e41 from the ,sanskrit1 ,tibetan1 or ,chinese documents should be considered as throwing only a side-light on the reliable information obtained from the ,pli1 and further that the knowledge derived from the former should in certain cases be discarded as accounts of a degenerated form of ,buddhism4 ,owing to these unfortunate hypotheses1 the significance of ,mahynism as a living religion has been entirely ignored2 and even those who are regarded as best authorities on the subject appear greatly misinformed and1 what is worse1 altogether prejudiced4 #ab ,no ,life ,without ,growth4 ,this is very unfair on the part of the critics1 because what religion is there in the whole history of mankind that has not made any development whatever1 that has remained the same1 like the granite1 throughout its entire course8 ,let us ask whether there is any religion which has shown some signs of vitality and yet retained its primitive form intact and unmodified in every respect4 ,is not changeableness1 that is1 susceptibility to irritation the most essential sign of vitality8 ,every organism grows1 which means a change in some way or other4 ,there is no form of life to be found anywhere on earth1 that does not grow or change1 or that has not any inherent power of adjusting itself to the surrounding conditions4 ,take1 for example1 ,christianity4 ,is ,protestantism the genuine teaching of ,jesus of ,nazareth8 or does ,catholicism represent his true spirit8 ,jesus himself did not have any definite notion of ,trinity doctrine1 nor did he propose any suggestion for ritualism4 ,according to the ,synoptics1 he appears to have cherished a rather immature conception of the kingdom of ,god than a purely ideal one as conceived by ,paul1 and his personal disciples who were just as illiterate philosophically as the master himself were anxiously waiting in all probability for its mundane realisation4 ,but what ,christians1 ,catholics or ,protestants1 in these days of enlightenment1 would dare #ac give a literal explanation to this material conception of the coming kingdom8 ,again1 think of ,jesus's view on marriage and social life4 ,is it not an established fact that he highly advocated celibacy and in the case of married people strict continence1 and also that he greatly favored pious poverty and asceticism in general8 ,in these respects1 the monks of the ,medieval ,ages and the ,catholic priests of the present day 7though ,i cannot say they are ascetic and poor in their living7 must be said to be in more accord with the teaching of the master than their ,protestant brethren4 ,but what ,protestants would seriously venture to defend all those views of ,jesus1 in spite of their avowed declaration that they are sincerely following in the steps of their ,lord8 ,taking all in all1 these contradictions do not prevent them1 ,protestants as well as ,catholics1 from calling themselves ,christians and even good1 pious1 devoted ,christians1 as long as they are consciously or unconsciously animated by the same spirit1 that was burning in the son of the carpenter of ,nazareth1 an obscure village of ,galilee1 about two thousand years ago4 ,the same mode of reasoning holds good in the case of ,mahynism1 and it would be absurd to insist on the genuineness of ,hnaynism at the expense of the former4 ,take for granted that the ,mahyna school of ,buddhism contains some elements absorbed from other ,indian religio-philosophical systems2 but what of it8 ,is not ,christianity also an amalgamation1 #ad so to speak1 of ,jewish1 ,greek1 ,roman1 ,babylonian1 ,egyptian1 and other pagan thoughts8 ,in fact every healthy and energetic religion is historical1 in the sense that1 in the course of its development1 it has adapted itself to the ever-changing environment1 and has assimilated within itself various elements which appeared at first even threatening its own existence4 ,in ,christianity1 this process of assimilation1 adaptation1 and modification has been going on from its very beginning4 ,as the result1 we see in the ,christianity of to-day its original type so metamorphosed1 so far as its outward appearance is concerned1 that nobody would now take it for a faithful copy of the prototype4 ,mahynism a ,living ,faith4 ,so with ,mahynism4 ,whatever changes it has made during its historical evolution1 its spirit and central ideas are all those of its founder4 ,the question whether or not it is genuine1 entirely depends on our interpretation of the term 8genuine40 ,if we take it to mean the lifeless preservation of the original1 we should say that ,mahynism is not the genuine teaching of the ,buddha1 and we may add that ,mahynists would be proud of the fact1 because being a living religious force it would never condescend to be the corpse of a by-gone faith4 ,the fossils1 however faithfully preserved1 are nothing but rigid inorganic substances from which life is forever departed4 #ae ,mahynism is far from this2 it is an ever-growing faith and ready in all times to cast off its old garments as soon as they are worn out4 ,but its spirit originally inspired by the 8,teacher of ,men and ,gods0 7stadevamanuynam7 is most jealously guarded against pollution and degeneration4 ,therefore1 as far as its spirit is concerned1 there is no room left to doubt its genuineness2 and those who desire to have a complete survey of ,buddhism cannot ignore the significance of ,mahynism4 ,it is naught but an idle talk to question the historical value of an organism1 which is now full of vitality and active in all its functions1 and to treat it like an archeological object1 dug out from the depths of the earth1 or like a piece of bric--brac1 discovered in the ruins of an ancient royal palace4 ,mahynism is not an object of historical curiosity4 ,its vitality and activity concern us in our daily life4 ,it is a great spiritual organism2 its moral and religious forces are still exercising an enormous power over millions of souls2 and its further development is sure to be a very valuable contribution to the world-progress of the religious consciousness4 ,what does it matter1 then1 whether or not ,mahynism is the genuine teaching of the ,buddha8 ,here is an instance of most flagrant contradictions present in our minds1 but of which we are not conscious on account of our preconceived ideas4 ,christian critics vigorously insist on the genuineness of their own religion1 which is no more than a #af hybrid1 at least outwardly2 but they want to condemn their rival religion as degenerated1 because it went through various stages of development like theirs4 ,it is of no practical use to trouble with this nonsensical question1--the question of the genuineness of ,mahynism1 which by the way is frequently raised by outsiders as well as by some unenlightened ,buddhists themselves4 #c4 ,,some ,,misstatements ,,about ,,the ,,mah,y,,na ,,doctrines4 ,before entering fully into the subject proper of this work1 let us glance over some erroneous opinions about the ,mahyna doctrines1 which are held by some ,western scholars1 and naturally by all uninitiated readers1 who are like the blind led by the blind4 ,it may not be altogether a superfluous work to give them a passing review in this chapter and to show broadly what ,mahynism is not4 ,why ,injustice is done to ,buddhism4 ,the people who have had their thoughts and sentiments habitually trained by one particular set of religious dogmas1 frequently misjudge the value of those thoughts that are strange and unfamiliar to them4 ,we may call this class of people bigots or religious enthusiasts4 ,they may have fine religious and moral sentiments as far as their own religious training goes2 but1 when examined from a broader point of view1 they are to a great extent vitiated #ag with prejudices1 superstitions1 and fanatical beliefs1 which1 since childhood1 have been pumped into their receptive minds1 before they were sufficiently developed and could form independent judgments4 ,this fact so miserably spoils their purity of sentiment and obscures their transparency of intellect1 that they are disqualified to perceive and appreciate whatever is good and true and beautiful in the so-called heathen religions4 ,this is the main reason why those ,christian missionaries are incapable of rightly understanding the spirit of religion generally--,i mean1 those missionaries who come to the ,east to substitute one set of superstitions for another4 ,this strong general indictment against the ,christian missionaries1 however1 is by no means prompted by any partisan spirit4 ,my desire1 on the contrary1 is to do justice to those thoughts and sentiments that have been working consciously or unconsciously in the human mind from time immemorial and shall work on till the day of the last judgment1 if there ever be such a day4 ,to see what these thoughts and sentiments are1 which1 by the way1 constitute the kernel of every religion1 we must without any reluctance throw off all the prejudices we are liable to cherish1 though quite unknowingly2 and keeping always in view what is most essential in the religious consciousness1 we must not confound it with its accessories1 which are doomed to die in the course of time4 #ah ,examples of ,injustice4 ,as specimen of injustice done to the ,mahyna ,buddhism by ,christian critics1 we quote the following passages from ,monier-,william's ,buddhism1 ,waddell's ,buddhism in ,tibet1 and ,samuel ,beal's ,buddhism in ,china1 all of which are representative works each in its own field4 ,monier ,monier-,williams4 ,monier ,monier-,williams is a well-known authority on ,sanskrit literature1 and his works in this department will long remain as a valuable contribution to human knowledge4 ,but1 unfortunately1 as soon as he attempts to enter the domain of religious controversy1 his intellect becomes piteously obscured by his preconceived ideas4 ,he thinks1 for instance1 that the principal feature of ,mahynism consists merely in amplifying the number of ,bodhisattvas1 who are contented1 according to his view1 with their 8perpetual residence in the heavens1 and quite willing to put off all desires for ,buddhahood and ,parinirvana40 7,p4 #aij47 ,this remark is so absurd that it will at once be rejected by any one who has a first-hand knowledge of the ,mahyna system1 as even unworthy of refutation1 but ,monier-,williams takes special pains to give to his characterisation of the ,mahyna doctrine a show of rational explanation4 8,of course10 says he1 8men instinctively recoiled from utter self-annihilation1 #ai and so the ,buddha's followers ended in changing the true idea of ,nirvana and converting it from a condition of non-existence into a state of lazy beatitude in celestial regions 7671 while they encouraged all men--whether monks or laymen--to make a sense of dreamy bliss in ,heaven 7671 and not total extinction of life1 the end of all their efforts40 7,p4 #aef47 ,this view of the ,buddhist heaven as interpreted by ,monier-,williams is nothing but the conception of the ,christian heaven colored with paganism4 ,nothing is more foreign to ,buddhists than this distinguished ,sankritist's interpretation of celestial existence4 ,the life of devas 7celestial beings7 is just as much subject to the law of birth and death as that of men on earth4 ,what consolation would there be for the ,mahynists striving after the highest principle of existence1 only to find themselves transmigrated to a celestial abode1 that is also full of sorrows and sufferings8 ,always working for the welfare of their fellow-creatures1 the ,bodhisattvas never desire any earthly or heavenly happiness for themselves4 ,whatever merits1 according to the law of karma1 there be stored up for their good work1 they do not have any wish to enjoy them by themselves1 but they will have all these merits turned over 7parivarta7 to the interests of their fellow-beings4 ,this is the ideal of ,bodhisattvas1 i4e41 of the followers of ,mahynism4 #bj ,beal4 ,samuel ,beal who is considered by ,western scholars to be an authority on ,chinese ,buddhism1 referring to the ,mahyna conception of ,dharmakya1#f says in his ,buddhism in ,china 7p4 #aef73 8,we can have little doubt1 then1 that from early days worship was offered by ,buddhists at several spots1 consecrated by the presence of the ,teacher1 to an invisible presence4 ,this presence was formulated by the later ,buddhists under the phrase1 #8the ,body of the ,law'1 ,dharmakya40 ,then1 alluding to ,buddha's instruction that says after his ,parinirvana the ,law given by him should be regarded as himself1 ,beal proceeds to say3 8,here was the germ from which proceeded the idea or formula of an invisible presence3 teaching and power of the ,law 7,dharma7 represented the ,dharmakya or ,law-,body of ,buddha1 present with the order1 and fit for reverence40 ,to interpret ,dharmakya as the ,body of the ,law is quite inadequate and misleading4 ,to the ,hnaynists1 there is nothing beside the ,tripitaka as the object of reverence1 and1 therefore1 the notion of the ,body of the ,law has no meaning to them4 ,the idea #ba is distinctly ,mahynistic1 but ,beal is not well informed about its real significance as understood by the ,buddhists4 ,the chief reason of his misinterpretation1 as ,i judge1 lies in his rendering dharma by 8law01 while dharma here means 8that which subsists10 or 8that which maintains itself even when all the transient modes disappear10 in short1 8being10 or 8substance40 ,dharmakya1 therefore1 would be a sort of the ,absolute1 or ,essence-,body of all things4 ,this notion plays such an important rle in ,mahynism that an adequate knowledge of it is indispensable to understand the constitution of ,mahynism as a religious system4 ,waddell4 ,let us state one more case of misrepresentation by ,western scholars of the ,mahyna ,buddhism4 ,waddell1 author of ,buddhism in ,tibet1 referring to the point of divergence between the so-called ,northern ,buddhism and the ,southern1 says 7pp4 #aj-aa73 8,it was the theistic ,mahyna doctrine which substituted1 for the agnostic idealism and simple morality of ,buddha1 a speculative theistic system with a mysticism of sophistic nihilism in the background40 ,and again3 8,this ,mahyna meaning ,ngrjuna's ,mdhyamika school was essentially a sophistic nihilism1 or rather ,parinirvana1 while ceasing to be extinction of life1 was converted a mystic state which admitted of no definition40 #bb ,it may not be wrong to call ,mahynism a speculative theistic system in a wide sense1 but it must be asked on what ground ,waddell thinks that it has in its background 8a mysticism of sophistic nihilism04 ,could a religious system be called sophistry when it makes a close inquiry into the science of dialectics1 in order to show how futile it is to seek salvation through the intellect alone8 ,could a religious system be called a nihilism when it endeavors to reach the highest reality which transcends the phenomenality of concrete individual existences8 ,could a doctrine be called nihilistic when it defines the absolute as neither void 7nya7 nor not-void 7anya78 ,i could cull some more passages from other ,buddhist scholars of the ,west and show how far ,mahynism has been made by them a subject of misrepresentation4 ,but since this work is not a polemic1 but devoted to a positive exposition of its basic doctrines1 ,i refrain from so doing4 ,suffice it to state that one of the main causes of the injustice done to ,buddhism by the ,christian critics comes from their preconceptions1 of which they may not be aware1 but which all the more vitiate their 8impartial0 judgments4 #d4 ,,the ,,significance ,,of ,,religion4 ,those misconceptions about ,buddhism as above stated induce me to digress in this introductory part and to say a few words concerning the distinction #bc between the form and the spirit of religion4 ,a clear knowledge of this distinction will greatly facilitate the formation of a correct notion about ,mahynism and will also help us duly to appreciate its significance as a living religious faith4 ,by the spirit of religion ,i mean that element in religion which remains unchanged throughout its successive stages of development and transformation3 while the form of it is the external shell which is subject to any modification required by circumstances4 ,no ,revealed ,religion4 ,it admits of no doubt that religion1 as everything else under the sun1 is subject to the laws of evolution1 and that1 therefore1 there is no such thing as a revealed religion1 whose teachings are supposed to have been delivered to us direct from the hands of an anthropomorphic or anthropopsychic supernatural being1 and which1 like an inorganic substance1 remains forever the same1 without changing1 without growing1 without modifying itself in accord with the surrounding conditions4 ,unless people are so blinded by a belief in this kind of religion as to insist that its dogmas have suffered absolutely no change whatever since its 8revelation10 they must recognise like every clear-headed person the fact that there are some ephemeral elements in every religion1 which must carefully be distinguished from its quintessence which remains eternally the same4 ,when this discrimination is not observed1 prejudice #bd will at once assert itself1 inducing them to imagine that the religion in which they were brought up with all its truths and superstitions is the only orthodox religion in the world1 and all the other religions are nothing else than heathenism1 idolatry1 atheism1 apostasy1 and the like4 ,this attitude of such religionists1 however1 serves only to betray their own narrowness of mind and dimness of spiritual insight4 ,no one who desires to penetrate into the innermost recesses of the human heart and who longs to feel the fullest meaning of life1 should foster in himself in the least degree a disposition of bigotry4 ,the ,mystery4 ,religion is the inmost voice of the human heart that under the yoke of a seemingly finite existence groans and travails in pain4 ,mankind1 from their first appearance on earth1 have never been satisfied with the finiteness and impermanency of life4 ,they have always been yearning after something that will liberate them from the slavery of this mortal coil1 or from the cursed bondage of metempsychosis1 as ,hindu thinkers express it4 ,this something1 however1 on account of its transcending all the principles of separation and individuation1 which characterise the phenomena of this mundane existence1 has always remained as something indefinite1 inadequate1 chaotic1 and full of mystery4 ,and1 according to different degrees of intellectual development in different ages and nations1 people have endeavored to invest this #be mysterious something with all sorts of human feelings and intelligence4 ,most of modern scientists are now content with the hypothesis that the mystery is unfathomable by the human mind1 which is conditioned by the law of relativity1 and that our business here1 moral as well as intellectual1 can be executed without troubling ourselves with this ever-haunting problem of mystery2--this doctrine is called agnosticism4 ,but this hypothesis can in no wise be considered the final sentence passed on the mystery4 ,from the scientific point of view1 the maxim of agnosticism is excellent1 as science does not pretend to venture into the realm of non-relativity4 ,dissatisfaction1 however1 presents itself1 when we attempt to silence by this hypothesis the last demand of the human heart4 ,intellect and ,imagination4 ,the human heart is not an intellectual crystal4 ,when the intellect displays itself in its full glory1 the heart still aches and struggles to get hold of something beyond4 ,the intellect may sometimes declare that it has at last laid its hand on what is demanded by the heart4 ,time passes on1 and the mystery is examined from the other points that escaped consideration before1 and1 to the great disappointment of the heart1 the supposed solution is found to be wanting4 ,the intellect is baffled4 ,but the human heart never gets tired of its yearnings and demands a satisfaction ever more pressingly4 ,should they be considered a mere nightmare of imagination8 ,surely #bf not1 for herein lies the field where religion claims supreme authority1 and its claim is perfectly right4 ,but religion cannot fabricate whatever it pleases2 it must work in perfect accord with the intellect4 ,as the essential nature of man does not consist solely in intellect1 or will1 or feeling1 but in the cordination of these psychical elements1 religion must guard herself against the unrestrained flight of imagination4 ,most of the superstitions fondly cherished by a pious heart are due to the disregard of the intellectual element in religion4 ,the imagination creates3 the intellect discriminates4 ,creation without discrimination is wild3 discrimination without creation is barren4 ,religion and science1 when they do not work with mutual understanding1 are sure to be one-sided4 ,the soul makes an abnormal growth at one point1 loses its balance1 and is finally given up to a collapse of the entire system4 ,those pious religious enthusiasts who see a natural enemy in science and denounce it with all their energy1 are1 in my opinion1 as purblind and distorted in their view1 as those men of science who think that science alone must claim the whole field of soul-activities as well as those of nature4 ,i am not in sympathy with either of them3 for one is just as arrogant in its claim as the other4 ,without a careful examination of both sides of a shield1 we are not competent to give a correct opinion upon it4 ,but the imagination is not the exclusive possession of religion1 nor is discrimination or ratiocination the #bg monopoly of science4 ,they are reciprocal and complementary3 one cannot do anything without the other4 ,the difference between science and religion is not that between certitude and probability4 ,the difference is rather in their respective fields of activity4 ,science is solely concerned with things conditional1 relative1 and finite4 ,when it explains a given phenomenon by some fixed laws which are in turn nothing but a generalisation of particular facts1 the task of science is done1 and any further attempt to go beyond this1 i4e41 to make an inquiry into the whence1 whither1 and why of things1 is beyond its realm4 ,but the human soul does not remain satisfied here1 it asks for the ultimate principle underlying all so-called scientific laws and hypotheses4 ,science is indifferent to the teleology of things3 a mechanical explanation of them appeases its intellectual curiosity4 ,but in religion teleology is of paramount importance1 it is one of the most fundamental problems1 and a system which does not give any definite conception on this point is no religion4 ,science1 again1 does not care if there is something beyond or outside its manifold laws and theories2 but a religion which does not possess a ,god or anything corresponding to it1 ceases to be so1 for it fails to give consolation to the human heart4 ,the ,contents of ,faith vary4 ,the solution of religious problems1 as far as they fall within the sphere of relative experience1 is largely #bh a matter of personal conviction1 determined by one's intellectual development1 external circumstances1 education1 disposition1 etc4 ,the conceptions of faith thus formulated are naturally infinitely diversified2 even among the followers of a certain definite set of dogmas1 each will understand them in his own way1 owing to individual peculiarities4 ,if we could subject their conceptions of faith to a strict analysis as a chemist does his materials1 we should detect in them all the possible forms of differentiation4 ,but all these things belong to the exterior of religion and have nothing to do with the essentials which underlie them4 ,the abiding elements of religion come from within1 and consist mainly in the mysterious sentiment that lies hidden in the deepest depths of the human heart1 and that1 when awakened1 shakes the whole structure of personality and brings about a great spiritual revolution1 which results in a complete change of one's world-conception4 ,when this mysterious sentiment finds expression and formulates its conceptions in the terms of intellect1 it becomes a definite system of beliefs1 which is popularly called religion1 but which should properly be termed dogmatism1 that is1 an intellectualised form of religion4 ,on the other hand1 the outward forms of religion consist of those changing elements that are mainly determined by the intellectual and moral development of the times as well as by individual esthetical feelings4 ,true ,christians and enlightened ,buddhists may1 therefore1 find their point of agreement in the recognition #bi of the inmost religious sentiment that constitutes the basis of our being1 though this agreement does by no means prevent them from retaining their individuality in the conceptions and expressions of faith4 ,my conviction is3 ,if the ,buddha and the ,christ changed their accidental places of birth1 ,gautama might have been a ,christ rising against the ,jewish traditionalism1 and ,jesus a ,buddha1 perhaps propounding the doctrine of non-ego and ,nirvna and ,dharmakya4 ,however great a man may be1 he cannot but be an echo of the spirit of the times4 ,he never stands1 as is supposed by some1 so aloof and towering above the masses as to be practically by himself4 ,on the contrary1 8he10 as ,emerson says1 8finds himself in the river of the thoughts and events1 forced onward by the ideas and necessities of his contemporaries40 ,so it was with the ,buddha1 and so with the ,christ4 ,they were nothing but the concrete representatives of the ideas and feelings that were struggling in those times against the established institutions1 which were degenerating fast and menaced the progress of humanity4 ,but at the same time those ideas and sentiments were the outburst of the ,eternal ,soul1 which occasionally makes a solemn announcement of its will1 through great historical figures or through great world-events4 99 99 99 ,believing that a bit of religio-philosophical exposition as above indulged will prepare the minds of #cj my ,christian readers sincerely to take up the study of a religious system other than their own1 ,i now proceed to a systematical elucidation of the ,mahyna ,buddhism1 as it is believed at present in the ,far ,east4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,a ,,general ,,characterisation ,,of ,,buddhism4 #ca ,no ,god and no ,soul4 _/,buddhism_/ is considered by some to be a religion without a ,god and without a soul4 ,the statement is true and untrue according to what meaning we give to those terms4 ,buddhism does not recognise the existence of a being1 who stands aloof from his 8creations10 and who meddles occasionally with human affairs when his capricious will pleases him4 ,this conception of a supreme being is very offensive to ,buddhists4 ,they are unable to perceive any truth in the hypotheses1 that a being like ourselves created the universe out of nothing and first peopled it with a pair of sentient beings2 that1 owing to a crime committed by them1 which1 however1 could have been avoided if the creator so desired1 they were condemned by him to eternal damnation2 that the creator in the meantime feeling pity for the cursed1 or suffering the bite of remorse for his somewhat rash deed1 despatched his only beloved son to the earth for the purpose of rescuing mankind from universal misery1 etc41 etc4 ,if ,buddhism is called atheism on account of its #cb refusal to take poetry for actual fact1 its followers would have no objection to the designation4 ,next1 if we understand by soul tman1 which1 secretly hiding itself behind all mental activities1 direct them after the fashion of an organist striking different notes as he pleases1 ,buddhists outspokenly deny the existence of such a fabulous being4 ,to postulate an independent tman outside a combination of the five ,skandhas#g1 of which an individual being is supposed by ,buddhists to consist1 is to unreservedly welcome egoism with all its pernicious corollaries4 ,and what distinguishes ,buddhism most characteristically and emphatically from all other religions is the doctrine of non-tman or non-ego1 exactly opposite to the postulate of a soul-substance which is cherished by most of religious enthusiasts4 ,in this sense1 ,buddhism is undoubtedly a religion without the soul4 ,to make these points clearer in a general way1 let us briefly treat in this chapter of such principal tenets of ,buddhism as ,karma1 tman1 ,avidy1 ,nirvna1 ,dharmakya1 etc4 ,some of these doctrines being the common property of the two schools of ,buddhism1 ,hnaynism and ,mahynism1 their brief1 comprehensive exposition here will furnish our readers with a general notion about the constitution of ,buddhism1 and will also prepare them to pursue a further specific exposition of the ,mahyna doctrine which follows4 #cc ,karma4 ,one of the most fundamental doctrines established by ,buddha is that nothing in this world comes from a single cause1 that the existence of a universe is the result of a combination of several causes 7hetu7 and conditions 7pratyaya71 and is at the same time an active force contributing to the production of an effect in the future4 ,as far as phenomenal existences are concerned1 this law of cause and effect holds universally valid4 ,nothing1 even ,god1 can interfere with the course of things thus regulated1 materially as well as morally4 ,if a ,god really exists and has some concern about our worldly affairs1 he must first conform himself to the law of causation4 ,because the principle of karma1 which is the ,buddhist term for causation morally conceived1 holds supreme everywhere and all the time4 ,the conception of karma plays the most important rle in ,buddhist ethics4 ,karma is the formative principle of the universe4 ,it determines the course of events and the destiny of our existence4 ,the reason why we cannot change our present state of things as we may will1 is that it has already been determined by the karma that was performed in our previous lives1 not only individually but collectively4 ,but1 for this same reason1 we shall be able to work out our destiny in the future1 which is nothing but the resultant of several factors that are working and that are being worked by ourselves in this life4 #cd ,therefore1 says ,buddha3 8,by self alone is evil done1 ,by self is one disgraced2 ,by self is evil left undone1 ,by self alone is he purified2 ,purity and impurity belong to self3 ,no one can purify another40#h ,again1 8,not in the sky ,nor in the midst of the sea1 ,nor entering a cleft of the mountains1 ,is found that realm on earth ,where one may stand and be ,from an evil deed absolved40#i ,this doctrine of karma may be regarded as an application in our ethical realm of the theory of the conservation of energy4 ,everything done is done once for all2 its footprints on the sand of our moral and social evolution are forever left2 nay1 more than left1 they are generative1 good or evil1 and waiting for further development under favorable conditions4 ,in the physical world1 even the slightest possible movement of our limbs cannot but affect the general cosmic motion of the earth1 however infinitesimal it be2 and if we had a proper instrument1 we could surely measure its precise extent of effect4 ,so is it even with our deeds4 ,a deed once performed1 together with its subjective motives1 can never vanish without leaving some impressions either on the individual #ce consciousness or on the supra-individual1 i4e41 social consciousness4 ,we need not further state that the conception of karma in its general aspect is scientifically verified4 ,in our moral and material life1 where the law of relativity rules supreme1 the doctrine of karma must be considered thoroughly valid4 ,and as long as its validity is admitted in this field1 we can live our phenomenal life without resorting to the hypothesis of a personal ,god1 as declared by ,lamarck when his significant work on evolution was presented to ,emperor ,napoleon4 ,but it will do injustice to ,buddhism if we designate it agnosticism or naturalism1 denying or ignoring the existence of the ultimate1 unifying principle1 in which all contradictions are obliterated4 ,dharmakya is the name given by ,buddhists to this highest principle1 viewed not only from the philosophical but also from the religious standpoint4 ,in the ,dharmakya1 ,buddhists find the ultimate significance of life1 which1 when seen from its phenomenal aspect1 cannot escape the bondage of karma and its irrefragable laws4 ,avidy4 ,what claims our attention next1 is the problem of nescience1 which is one of the most essential features of ,buddhism4 ,buddhists think1 nescience 7in ,sanskrit avidy7 is the subjective aspect of karma1 involving us in a series of rebirths4 ,rebirth1 considered by itself1 is no moral evil1 but rather a necessary #cf condition of progress toward perfection1 if perfection ever be attainable here4 ,it is an evil only when it is the outcome of ignorance1--ignorance as to the true meaning of our earthly existence4 ,ignorant are they who do not recognise the evanescence of worldly things and who tenaciously cleave to them as final realities2 who madly struggle to shun the misery brought about by their own folly2 who savagely cling to the self against the will of ,god1 as ,christians would say2 who take particulars as final existences and ignore ,one pervading reality which underlies them all2 who build up an adamantine wall between the mine and thine3 in a word1 ignorant are those who do not understand that there is no such thing as an ego-soul1 and that all individual existences are unified in the system of ,dharmakya4 ,buddhism1 therefore1 most emphatically maintains that to attain the bliss of ,nirvana we must radically dispel this illusion1 this ignorance1 this root of all evil and suffering in this life4 ,the doctrine of nescience or ignorance is technically expressed in the following formula1 which is commonly called the ,twelve ,nidnas or ,pratyayasamutpada1 that is to say ,chains of ,dependence3 7#a7 ,there is ,ignorance 7avidy7 in the beginning2 7#b7 from ,ignorance ,action 7sanskra7 comes forth2 7#c7 from ,action ,consciousness 7vijna7 comes forth2 7#d7 from ,consciousness ,name-and-,form 7nmarpa7 comes forth2 7#e7 from ,name-and-,form the ,six ,organs 7adytana7 come forth2 7#f7 from the ,six ,organs #cg ,touch 7spara7 comes forth2 7#g7 from ,touch ,sensation 7vedan7 comes forth2 7#h7 from ,sensation ,desire 7tn7 comes forth2 7#i7 from ,desire ,clinging 7updna7 comes forth2 7#aj7 from ,clinging ,being 7bhva7 comes forth2 7#aa7 from ,being ,birth 7jati7 comes forth2 and 7#ab7 from ,birth ,pain 7dukha7 comes forth4 ,according to ,vasubandhu's ,abhidharmakoa1 the formula is explained as follows3 ,being ignorant in our previous life as to the significance of our existence1 we let loose our desires and act wantonly4 ,owing to this karma1 we are destined in the present life to be endowed with consciousness 7vijna71 name-and-form 7nmarpa71 the six organs of sense 7adytana71 and sensation 7vedan74 ,by the exercise of these faculties1 we now desire for1 hanker after1 cling to1 these illusive existences which have no ultimate reality whatever4 ,in consequence of this 8,will to ,live0 we potentially accumulate or make up the karma that will lead us to further metempsychosis of birth and death4 ,the formula is by no means logical1 nor is it exhaustive1 but the fundamental notion that life started in ignorance or blind will remains veritable4 ,non-,atman4 ,the problem of nescience naturally leads to the doctrine usually known as that of non-,atman1 i4e41 non-ego1 to which allusion was made at the beginning #ch of this chapter4 ,this doctrine of ,buddhism is one of the subjects that have caused much criticism by ,christian scholars4 ,its thesis runs3 ,there is no such thing as ego-soul1 which1 according to the vulgar interpretation1 is the agent of our mental activities4 ,and this is the reason why ,buddhism is sometimes called a religion without the soul1 as aforesaid4 ,this ,buddhist negation of the ego-soul is perhaps startling to the people1 who1 having no speculative power1 blindly accept the traditional1 materialistic view of the soul4 ,they think1 they are very spiritual in endorsing the dualism of soul and flesh1 and in making the soul something like a corporeal entity1 though far more ethereal than an ordinary object of the senses4 ,they think of the soul as being more in the form of an angel1 when they teach that it ascends to heaven immediately after its release from the material imprisonment4 ,they further imagine that the soul1 because of its imprisonment in the body1 groans in pain for its liberty1 not being able to bear its mundane limitations4 ,the immortality of the soul is a continuation after the dismemberment of material elements of this ethereal1 astral1 ghost-like entity1--very much resembling the ,samkhyan ,lingham or the ,vedantic skama-rra4 ,self-consciousness will not a whit suffer in its continued activity1 as it is the essential function of the soul4 ,brothers and sisters1 parents and sons and daughters1 wives and husbands1 all transfigured and sublimated1 will meet again in the #ci celestial abode1 and perpetuate their home life much after the manner of their earthly one4 ,people who take this view of the soul and its immortality must feel a great disappointment or even resentment1 when they are asked to recognise the ,buddhist theory of non-tman4 ,the absurdity of ascribing to the soul a sort of astral existence taught by some theosophists is due to the confusion of the name and the object corresponding to it4 ,the soul1 or what is tantamount according to the vulgar notion1 the ego1 is a name given to a certain cordination of mental activities4 ,abstract names are invented by us to economise our intellectual labors1 and of course have no corresponding realities as particular presences in the concrete objective world4 ,vulgar minds have forgotten the history of the formation of abstract names4 ,being accustomed always to find certain objective realities or concrete individuals answering to certain names1 they--those nave realists--imagine that all names1 irrespective of their nature1 must have their concrete individual equivalents in the sensual world4 ,their idealism or spiritualism1 so called1 is in fact a gross form of materialism1 in spite of their unfounded fear for the latter as atheistic and even immoral2--curse of ignorance6 ,the non-tman theory does not deny that there is a cordination or unification of various mental operations4 ,buddhism calls this system of cordination vijna1 not tman4 ,vijna is consciousness1 while #dj tman is the ego conceived as a concrete entity1--a hypostatic agent which1 abiding in the deepest recess of the mind1 directs all subjective activities according to its own discretion4 ,this view is radically rejected by ,buddhism4 ,a familiar analogy illustrating the doctrine of non-tman is the notion of a wheel or that of a house4 ,wheel is the name given to a combination in a fixed form of the spokes1 axle1 tire1 hub1 rim1 etc42 house is that given to a combination of roofs1 pillars1 windows1 floors1 walls1 etc41 after a certain model and for a certain purpose4 ,now1 take all these parts independently1 and where is the house or the wheel to be found8 ,house or wheel is merely the name designating a certain form in which parts are systematically and definitely disposed4 ,what an absurdity1 then1 it must be to insist on the independent existence of the wheel or of the house as an agent behind the combination of certain parts thus definitely arranged6 ,it is wonderful that ,buddhism clearly anticipated the outcome of modern psychological researches at the time when all other religious and philosophical systems were eagerly cherishing dogmatic superstitions concerning the nature of the ego4 ,the refusal of modern psychology to have soul mean anything more than the sum-total of all mental experiences1 such as sensations1 ideas1 feelings1 decisions1 etc41 is precisely a rehearsal of the ,buddhist doctrine of non-tman4 ,it does not deny that there is a unity of consciousness1 #da for to deny this is to doubt our everyday experiences1 but it refuses to assert that this unity is absolute1 unconditioned1 and independent4 ,everything in this phenomenal phase of existence1 is a combination of certain causes 7hetu7 and conditions 7pratyaya7 brought together according to the principle of karma2 and everything that is compound is finite and subject to dissolution1 and1 therefore1 always limited by something else4 ,even the soul-life1 as far as its phenomenality goes1 is no exception to this universal law4 ,to maintain the existence of a soul-substance which is supposed to lie hidden behind the phenomena of consciousness1 is not only misleading1 but harmful and productive of some morally dangerous conclusions4 ,the supposition that there is something where there is really nothing1 makes us cling to this chimerical form1 with no other result than subjecting ourselves to an eternal series of sufferings4 ,so we read in the ,lankvatra ,stra1 ,,iii3 8,a flower in the air1 or a hare with horns1 ,or a pregnant maid of stone3 ,to take what is not for what is1 ',tis called a judgment false4 8,in a combination of causes1 ,the vulgar seek the reality of self4 ,as truth they understand not1 ,from birth to birth they transmigrate40 ,the ,non-,atman-ness of ,things4 ,mahynism has gone a step further than ,hnaynism in the development of the doctrine of non-tman1 for it expressly disavows1 besides the denial #db of the existence of the ego-substance1 a noumenal conception of things1 i4e41 the conception of particulars as having something absolute in them4 ,hnaynism1 indeed1 also disfavors this conception of thinginess1 but it does so only implicitly4 ,it is ,mahynism that definitely insists on the non-existence of a personal 7pudgala7 as well as a thingish 7dharma7 ego4 ,according to the vulgar view1 particular existences are real1 they have permanent substantial entities1 remaining forever as such4 ,they think1 therefore1 that organic matter remains forever organic just as much as inorganic matter remains inorganic2 that1 as they are essentially different1 there is no mutual transformation between them4 ,the human soul is different from that of the lower animals and sentient beings from non-sentient beings2 the difference being well-defined and permanent1 there is no bridge over which one can cross to the other4 ,we may call this view naturalistic egoism4 ,mahynism1 against this egoistic conception of the world1 extends its theory of non-tman to the realm lying outside us4 ,it maintains that there is no irreducible reality in particular existences1 so long as they are combinations of several causes and conditions brought together by the principle of karma4 ,things are here because they are sustained by karma4 ,as soon as its force is exhausted1 the conditions that made their existence possible lose efficience and dissolve1 and in their places will follow other conditions and existences4 ,therefore1 what is organic #dc to-day1 may be inorganic to-morrow1 and vice versa4 ,carbon1 for instance1 which is stored within the earth appears in the form of coal or graphite or diamond2 but that which exists on its surface is found sometimes combined with other elements in the form of an animal or a vegetable1 sometimes in its free elementary state4 ,it is the same carbon everywhere2 it becomes inorganic or organic1 according to its karma1 it has no tman in itself which directs its transformation by its own self-determining will4 ,mutual transformation is everywhere observable2 there is a constant shifting of forces1 an eternal transmigration of the elements1--all of which tend to show the transitoriness and non-tman-ness of individual existences4 ,the universe is moving like a whirl-wind1 nothing in it proving to be stationary1 nothing in it rigidly adhering to its own form of existence4 ,suppose1 on the other hand1 there were an tman behind every particular being2 suppose1 too1 it were absolute and permanent and self-acting2 and this phenomenal world would then come to a standstill1 and life be forever gone4 ,for is not changeability the most essential feature and condition of life1 and also the strongest evidence for the non-existence of individual things as realities8 ,the physical sciences recognise this universal fact of mutual transformation in its positive aspect and call it the law of the conservation of energy and of matter4 ,mahynism1 recognising its negative side1 proposes the doctrine of the non-tman-ness of things1 that is to say1 the #dd impermanency of all particular existences4 ,therefore1 it is said1 8,sarvam anityam1 sarvam nyam1 sarvam antman40 7,all is transitory1 all is void1 all is without ego47 ,mahynists condemn the vulgar view that denies the consubstantiality and reciprocal transformation of all beings1 not only because it is scientifically untenable1 but mainly because1 ethically and religiously considered1 it is fraught with extremely dangerous ideas1--ideas which finally may lead a 8brother to deliver up the brother to death and the father the child10 and1 again1 it may constrain 8the children to rise up against their parents and cause them to be put to death40 ,why8 ,because this view1 born of egoism1 would dry up the well of human love and sympathy1 and transform us into creatures of bestial selfishness2 because this view is not capable of inspiring us with the sense of mutuality and commiseration and of making us disinterestedly feel for our fellow-beings4 ,then1 all fine religious and humane sentiments would depart from our hearts1 and we should be nothing less than rigid1 lifeless corpses1 no pulse beating1 no blood running4 ,and how many victims are offered every day on this altar of egoism6 ,they are not necessarily immoral by nature1 but blindly led by the false conception of life and the world1 they have been rendered incapable of seeing their own spiritual doubles in their neighbors4 ,being ever controlled by their sensual impulses1 they sin against humanity1 against nature1 and against themselves4 #de ,we read in the ,mahyna-abhisamaya ,stra 7,nanjo1 no4 #aif73 8,empty and calm and devoid of ego ,is the nature of all things3 ,there is no individual being ,that in reality exists4 8,nor end nor beginning having ,nor any middle course1 ,all is a sham1 here's no reality whatever3 ,it is like unto a vision and a dream4 8,it is like unto clouds and lightning1 ,it is like unto gossamer or bubbles floating ,it is like unto fiery revolving wheel1 ,it is like unto water-splashing4 8,because of causes and conditions things are here3 ,in them there's no self-nature i4e41 tman3 ,all things that move and work1 ,know them as such4 8,ignorance and thirsty desire1 ,the source of birth and death they are3 ,right contemplation and discipline by heart1 ,desire and ignorance obliterate4 8,all beings in the world1 ,beyond words they are and expressions3 ,their ultimate nature1 pure and true1 ,is like unto vacuity of space40#aj ,the ,dharmakya4 ,the ,dharmakya1 which literally means 8body or system of being10 is1 according to the ,mahynists1 #df the ultimate reality that underlies all particular phenomena2 it is that which makes the existence of individuals possible2 it is the raison d'tre of the universe2 it is the norm of being1 which regulates the course of events and thoughts4 ,the conception of ,dharmakya is peculiarly ,mahynistic1 for the ,hnayna school did not go so far as to formulate the ultimate principle of the universe2 its adherents stopped short at a positivistic interpretation of ,buddhism4 ,the ,dharmakya remained for them to be the ,body of the ,law1 or the ,buddha's personality as embodied in the truth taught by him4 ,the ,dharmakya may be compared in one sense to the ,god of ,christianity and in another sense to the ,brahman or ,paramtman of ,vedantism4 ,it is different1 however1 from the former in that it does not stand transcendentally above the universe1 which1 according to the ,christian view1 was created by ,god1 but which is1 according to ,mahynism1 a manifestation of the ,dharmakya himself4 ,it is also different from ,brahman in that it is not absolutely impersonal1 nor is it a mere being4 ,the ,dharmakya1 on the contrary1 is capable of willing and reflecting1 or1 to use ,buddhist phraseology1 it is ,karun 7love7 and ,bodhi 7intelligence71 and not the mere state of being4 ,this pantheistic and at the same time entheistic ,dharmakya is working in every sentient being1 for sentient beings are nothing but a self-manifestation of the ,dharmakya4 ,individuals are not isolated existences1 as imagined by most people4 ,if isolated1 #dg they are nothing1 they are so many soap-bubbles which vanish one after another in the vacuity of space4 ,all particular existences acquire their meaning only when they are thought of in their oneness in the ,dharmakya4 ,the veil of ,mya1 i4e41 subjective ignorance may temporally throw an obstacle to our perceiving the universal light of ,dharmakya1 in which we are all one4 ,but when our ,bodhi or intellect1 which is by the way a reflection of the ,dharmakya in the human mind1 is so fully enlightened1 we no more build the artificial barrier of egoism before our spiritual eye2 the distinction between the meum and teum is obliterated1 no dualism throws the nets of entanglement over us2 ,i recognise myself in you and you recognise yourself in me2 tat tvam asi4 ,or1 8,what is here1 that is there2 ,what is there1 that is here3 ,who sees duality here1 ,from death to death goes he40#aa ,this state of enlightenment may be called the spiritual expansion of the ego1 or1 negatively1 the ideal annihilation of the ego4 ,a never-drying stream of sympathy and love which is the life of religion will now spontaneously flow out of the fountainhead of ,dharmakya4 ,the doctrine of non-ego teaches us that there is no reality in individual existences1 that we do not have any transcendental entity called ego-substance4 #dh ,the doctrine of ,dharmakya1 to supplement this1 teaches us that we all are one in the ,system of ,being and only as such are immortal4 ,the one shows us the folly of clinging to individual existences and of coveting the immortality of the ego-soul2 the other convinces us of the truth that we are saved by living into the unity of ,dharmakya4 ,the doctrine of non-tman liberates us from the shackle of unfounded egoism2 but as mere liberation does not mean anything positive and may perchance lead us to asceticism1 we apply the energy thus released to the execution of the will of ,dharmakya4 ,the questions3 8,why have we to love our neighbors as ourselves8 ,why have we to do to others all things whatsoever we would that they should do to us80 are answered thus by ,buddhists3 8,it is because we are all one in the ,dharmakya1 because when the clouds of ignorance and egoism are totally dispersed1 the light of universal love and intelligence cannot help but shine in all its glory4 ,and1 enveloped in this glory1 we do not see any enemy1 nor neighbor1 we are not even conscious of whether we are one in the ,dharmakya4 ,there is no #8my will' here1 but only #8thy will1' the will of ,dharmakya1 in which we live and move and have our being40 ,the ,apostle ,paul says3 8,for as in ,adam all die1 even so in ,christ shall all be made alive40 ,why8 ,buddhists would answer1 8because ,adam asserted his egoism in giving himself up to ignorance1 7the tree of knowledge is in truth the tree of ignorance1 #di for from it comes the duality of me and thee72 while ,christ on the contrary surrendered his egoistic assertion to the intelligence of the universal ,dharmakya4 ,that is why we die in the former and are made alive in the latter40 ,nirvna4 ,the meaning of ,nirvna has been variously interpreted by non-,buddhist students from the philological and the historical standpoint2 but it matters little what conclusions they have reached1 as we are not going to recapitulate them here2 nor do they at all affect our presentation of the ,buddhists' own view as below4 ,for it is the latter that concerns us here most and constitutes the all-important part of the problem4 ,we have had too much of non-,buddhist speculation on the question at issue4 ,the majority of the critics1 while claiming to be fair and impartial1 have1 by some preconceived ideas1 been led to a conclusion1 which is not at all acceptable to intelligent ,buddhists4 ,further1 the fact has escaped their notice that ,pli literature from which they chiefly derive their information on the subject represents the views of one of the many sects that arose soon after the demise of the ,master and were constantly branching off at and after the time of ,king ,aoka4 ,the probability is1 that ,buddha himself did not have any stereotyped conception of ,nirvana1 and1 as most great minds do1 expressed his ideas outright as formed under various circumstances2 though of course they could not be #ej in contradiction with his central beliefs1 which must have remained the same throughout the course of his religious life4 ,therefore1 to understand a problem in all its apparently contradictory aspects1 it is very necessary to grasp at the start the spirit of the author of the problem1 and when this is done the rest will be understood comparatively much easier4 ,non-,buddhist critics lack in this most important qualification2 therefore1 it is no wonder that ,buddhists themselves are always reluctant to accede to their interpretations4 ,enough for apology4 ,nirvna1 according to ,buddhists1 does not signify an annihilation of consciousness nor a temporal or permanent suppression of mentation#ab1 as imagined by some2 but it is the #ea annihilation of the notion of ego-substance and of all the desires that arise from this erroneous conception4 ,but this represents the negative side of the doctrine1 and its positive side consists in universal love or sympathy 7karun7 for all beings4 ,these two aspects of ,nirvna1 i4e41 negatively1 the destruction of evil passions1 and1 positively1 the practice of sympathy1 are complementary to each other2 and when we have one we have the other4 ,because1 as soon as the heart is freed from the cangue of egoism1 the same heart1 hitherto so cold and hard1 undergoes a complete change1 shows animation1 and1 joyously escaping from self-imprisonment1 finds its freedom in the bosom of ,dharmakya4 ,in this latter sense1 ,nirvna is the 8humanisation0 of ,dharmakya1 that is to say1 8,god's will done in earth as it is in heaven40 ,if we make use of the #eb terms1 subjective and objective4 ,nirvna is the former1 and the ,dharmakya is the latter1 phase of one and the same principle4 ,again1 psychologically1 ,nirvna is enlightenment1 the actualisation of the ,bodhicitta#ac 7,heart of ,intelligence74 ,the gospel of love and the doctrine of ,nirvna may appear to some to contradict each other1 for they think that the former is the source of energy and activity1 while the latter is a lifeless1 inhuman1 ascetic quietism4 ,but the truth is1 love is the emotional aspect and ,nirvna the intellectual aspect of the inmost religious consciousness which constitutes the essence of the ,buddhist life4 ,that ,nirvna is the destruction of selfish desires is plainly shown in this stanza3 8,to the giver merit is increased2 ,when the senses are controlled anger arises not1 ,the wise forsake evil1 ,by the destruction of desire1 sin1 and infatuation1 ,a man attains to ,nirvna40#ad ,the following which was breathed forth by ,buddha against a certain class of monks1 testifies that when ,nirvna is understood in the sense of quietism or pessimism1 he vigorously repudiated it3 8,fearing an endless chain of birth and death1 ,and the misery of transmigration1 ,their heart is filled with worry1 ,but they desire their safety only4 #ec 8,quietly sitting and reckoning the breaths1 ,they're bent on the ,anpnam4#ae ,they contemplate on the filthiness of the body1-- ,thinking how impure it is6 8,they shun the dust of the triple world1 ,and in ascetic practise their safety they seek3 ,incapable of love and sympathy are they1 ,for on ,nirvna abides their thought40#af ,against this ascetic practise of some monks1 the ,buddha sets forth what might be called the ideal of the ,buddhist life3 8,arouse thy will1 supreme and great1 ,practise love and sympathy1 give joy and protection2 ,thy love like unto space1 ,be it without discrimination1 without limitation4 8,merits establish1 not for thy own sake1 ,but for charity universal2 ,save and deliver all beings1 ,let them attain the wisdom of the ,great ,way40 ,it is apparent that the ethical application of the doctrine of ,nirvna is naught else than the ,golden #ed ,rule1#ag so called4 ,the ,golden ,rule1 however1 does not give any reason why we should so act1 it is a mere command whose authority is ascribed to a certain superhuman being4 ,this does not satisfy an intellectually disposed mind1 which refuses to accept anything on mere authority1 for it wants to go to the bottom of things and see on what ground they are standing4 ,buddhism has solved this problem by finding the oneness of things in ,dharmakya1 from which flows the eternal stream of love and sympathy4 ,as we have seen before1 when the cursed barrier of egoism is broken down1 there remains nothing that can prevent us from loving others as ourselves4 ,those who wish to see nothing but an utter barrenness of heart after the annihilation of egoism1 are much mistaken in their estimation of human nature4 ,for they think its animation comes from selfishness1 and that all forms of activity in our life are propelled simply by the desire to preserve self and the race4 ,they1 therefore1 naturally shrink from the doctrine that teaches that all things worldly are empty1 and that there is no such thing as ego-substance whose #ee immortality is so much coveted by most people4 ,but the truth is1 the spring of love does not lie in the idea of self1 but in its removal4 ,for the human heart1 being a reflection of the ,dharmakya which is love and intelligence1 recovers its intrinsic power and goodness1 only when the veil of ignorance and egoism is cast aside4 ,the animation1 energy1 strenuousness1 which were shown by a self-centered will1 and which therefore were utterly despicable1 will not surely die out with the removal of their odious atmosphere in which egoism had enveloped them4 ,but they will gain an ever nobler interpretation1 ever more elevating and satisfying significance2 for they have gone through a baptism of fire1 by which the last trace of egoism has been thoroughly consumed4 ,the old evil master is eternally buried1 but the willing servants are still here and ever ready to do their service1 now more efficiently1 for their new legitimate and more authoritative lord4 ,destruction is in common parlance closely associated with nothingness1 hence ,nirvna1 the destruction of egoism1 is ordinarily understood as a synonym of nihilism4 ,but the removal of darkness does not bring desolation1 but means enlightenment and order and peace4 ,it is the same chamber1 all the furniture is left there as it was before4 ,in darkness chaos reigned1 goblins walked wild2 in enlightenment everything is in its proper place4 ,and did we not state plainly that ,nirvna was enlightenment8 #ef ,the ,intellectual ,tendency of ,buddhism4 ,one thing which in this connection ,i wish to refer to1 is what makes ,buddhism appear somehow cold and impassive4 ,by this ,i mean its intellectuality4 ,the fact is that anything coming from ,india greatly savors of philosophy4 ,in ancient ,india everybody of the higher castes seems to have indulged in intellectual and speculative exercises4 ,being rich in natural resources and thus the struggle for existence being reduced to a minimum1 the ,brahmans and the ,katriyas gathered themselves under most luxuriously growing trees1 or retired to the mountain-grottoes undisturbed by the hurly-burly of the world1 and there they devoted all their leisure hours to metaphysical speculations and discussions4 ,buddhism1 as a product of these people1 is naturally deeply imbued with intellectualism4 ,further1 in ,india there was no distinction between religion and philosophy4 ,every philosophical system was at the same time a religion1 and vice versa4 ,philosophy with the ,hindus was not an idle display of logical subtlety which generally ends in entangling itself in the meshes of sophistry4 ,their aim of philosophising was to have an intellectual insight into the significance of existence and the destiny of humanity4 ,they did not believe in anything blindly nor accept anything on mere tradition4 ,buddha most characteristically echoes this sentiment when he says1 8,follow my teachings not as taught by a ,buddha1 but as #eg being in accord with truth40 ,this spirit of self-reliance and self-salvation later became singularly ,buddhistic4 ,even when ,buddha was still merely an enthusiastic aspirant for ,nirvna1 he seems to have been strongly possessed of this spirit1 for he most emphatically declared the following famous passage1 in response to the pathetic persuasion of his father's ministers1 who wanted him to come home with them3 8,the doubt whether there exists anything or not1 is not to be settled for me by another's words4 ,arriving at the truth either by mortification or by tranquilisation1 ,i will grasp myself whatever is ascertainable about it4 ,it is not mine to receive a view which is full of conflicts1 uncertainties1 and contradictions4 ,what enlightened men would go by other's faith8 ,the multitudes are like the blind led in the darkness by the blind40#ah ,to say simply1 8,love your enemy10 was not satisfactory to the ,hindu mind1 it wanted to see the reason why4 ,and as soon as the people were convinced intellectually1 they went even so far as to defend the faith with their lives4 ,it was not an uncommon event that before a party of ,hindu philosophers entered into a discussion they made an agreement that the penalty of defeats should be the sacrifice of the life4 ,they were1 above all1 a people of intellect1 though of course not lacking in religious sentiment4 ,it is no wonder1 then1 that ,buddha did not make the first proclamation of his message by 8,repent1 for #eh the kingdom of heaven is at hand10 but by the establishment of the ,four ,noble ,truths4#ai ,one appeals to the feeling1 and the other to the intellect4 ,that which appeals to the intellect naturally seems to be less passionate1 but the truth is1 feeling without the support of intellect leads to fanaticism and is always ready to yield itself to bigotry and superstition4 ,the doctrine of ,nirvna is doubtless more intellectual than the ,christian gospel of love4 ,it first recognises the wretchedness of human life as is proved by our daily experiences2 it then finds its cause in our subjective ignorance as to the true meaning of existence1 and in our egocentric desires which1 obscuring our spiritual insight1 make us tenaciously cling to things chimerical2 it then proposes the complete annihilation of egoism1 the root of all evil1 by which1 subjectively1 tranquillity of heart is restored1 and1 objectively1 the realisation of universal love becomes possible4 ,buddhism1 thus1 proceeds most logically in the development of its doctrine of ,nirvna and universal love4 ,says ,victor ,hugo 7,les ,misrables1 vol4 ,,ii73 8,the reduction of the universe to a single being1 the expansion of a single being even to ,god1 this is love40 ,when a man clings to the self and does not want #ei to identify himself with other fellow-selves1 he cannot expand his being to ,god4 ,when he shuts himself in the narrow shell of ego and keeps all the world outside1 he cannot reduce the universe to his innermost self4 ,to love1 therefore1 one must first enter ,nirvna4 ,the truth is everywhere the same and is attained through the removal of ignorance4 ,but as individual disposition differs according to the previous karma1 some are more prone to intellectualism1 while the others to sentimentality 7in its psychological sense74 ,let us then follow our own inclination conscientiously and not speak evil of others4 ,this is called the ,doctrine of ,middle ,path4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,historical ,,characterisation ,,of ,,mah,y,,nism4 #fj _/,we_/ are now in a position to enter into a specific exposition of the ,mahyna doctrine4 ,but1 before doing so1 it will be well for us first to consider the views that were held by the ,hindu ,buddhist thinkers concerning its characteristic features2 in other words1 to make an historical survey of its peculiarities4 ,as stated in the ,introduction1 the term ,mahyna was invented in the times of ,ngrjuna and ryadeva 7about the third or fourth century after ,christ71 when doctrinal struggles between the rvaka and the ,bodhisattva classes reached a climax4 ,the progressive ,hindu ,buddhists1 desiring to announce the essential features of their doctrine1 did so naturally at the expense of their rival and by pointing out why theirs was greater than1 or superior to1 ,hnaynism4 ,their views were thus necessarily vitiated by a partisan spirit1 and instead of impartially and critically enumerating the principal characteristics of ,mahynism1 they placed rather too much stress upon those points that do not in these latter days appear to be very essential1 but that were then considered by them to be of paramount importance4 ,these points1 nevertheless1 #fa throw some light on the nature of ,mahyna ,buddhism as historically distinguished from its consanguineous rival and fellow-doctrine4 ,sthiramati's ,conception of ,mahynism4 ,sthiramati#bj in his ,introduction to ,mahynism states that ,mahynism is a special doctrine for the ,bodhisattvas1 who are to be distinguished from the other two classes1 viz1 the rvakas and the ,pratyekabuddhas4 ,the essential difference of the doctrine consists in the belief that objects of the senses are merely phenomenal and have no absolute reality1 that the indestructible ,dharmakya which is all-pervading constitutes the norm of existence1 that all ,bodhisattvas#ba are incarnations of the ,dharmakya1 who not by their evil karma previously accumulated1 but by their boundless love for all mankind1 assume #fb corporeal existences1 and that persons who thus appear in the flesh1 as avatars of the ,buddha supreme1 associate themselves with the masses in all possible social relations1 in order that they might thus lead them to a state of enlightenment4 ,while this is a very summary statement of the ,mahyna doctrine1 a more elaborate and extended enumeration of its peculiar features in contradistinction to those of ,hnaynism1 is made in the ,miscellanea on ,mahyna ,metaphysics1#bb ,the ,spiritual ,stages of the ,yogcra1#bc ,an ,exposition of the ,holy ,doctrine1#bd ,a ,comprehensive ,treatise on ,mahynism1#be and others4 ,let us first explain the 8,seven ,general ,characteristics0 as described in the first three works here mentioned4 ,seven ,principal ,features of ,mahynism4 ,according to ,asanga1 who lived a little later than ,ngrjuna1 that is1 at the time when ,mahynism was further divided into the ,yogcrya and the ,mdhyamika school1 the seven features peculiar to ,mahynism as distinguished from ,hnaynism1 are as follows3 7#a7 ,its ,comprehensiveness4 ,mahynism does not confine itself to the teachings of one ,buddha alone2 #fc but wherever and whenever truth is found1 even under the disguise of most absurd superstitions1 it makes no hesitation to winnow the grain from the husk and assimilate it in its own system4 ,innumerable good laws taught by ,buddhas#bf of all ages and localities are all taken up in the coherent body of ,mahynism4 7#b7 ,universal love for ,all ,sentient ,beings4 ,hnaynism confines itself to the salvation of individuals only2 it does not extend its bliss universally1 as each person must achieve his own deliverance4 ,mahynism1 on the other hand1 aims at general salvation2 it endeavors to save us not only individually1 but universally4 ,all the motives1 efforts1 and actions of the ,bodhisattvas pivot on the furtherance of universal welfare4 7#c7 ,its ,greatness in ,intellectual ,comprehension4 ,mahynism maintains the theory of non-tman not only in regard to sentient beings but in regard to things in general4 ,while it denies the hypothesis of a metaphysical agent directing our mental operations1 it also rejects the view that insists on the noumenal or thingish reality of existences as they appear to our senses4 7#d7 ,its ,marvelous ,spiritual ,energy4 ,the ,bodhisattvas never become tired of working for universal salvation1 #fd nor do they despair because of the long time required to accomplish this momentous object4 ,to try to attain enlightenment in the shortest possible period and to be self-sufficient without paying any attention to the welfare of the masses1 is not the teaching of ,mahynism4 7#e7 ,its ,greatness in the ,exercise of the ,upya4 ,the term upya literally means expediency4 ,the great fatherly sympathetic heart of the ,bodhisattva has inexhaustible resources at his command in order that he might lead the masses to final enlightenment1 each according to his disposition and environment4 ,mahynism does not ask its followers to escape the metempsychosis of birth and death for the sake of entering into the lethargic tranquillity of ,nirvna2 for metempsychosis in itself is no evil1 and ,nirvna in its coma is not productive of any good4 ,and as long as there are souls groaning in pain1 the ,bodhisattva cannot rest in ,nirvna2 there is no rest for his unselfish heart1 so full of love and sympathy1 until he leads all his fellow-beings to the eternal bliss of ,buddhahood4 ,to reach this end he employs innumerable means 7upya7 suggested by his disinterested lovingkindness4 7#f7 ,its ,higher ,spiritual ,attainment4 ,in ,hnaynism the highest bliss attainable does not go beyond ,arhatship which is ascetic saintliness4 ,but the followers of ,mahynism attain even to ,buddhahood with all its spiritual powers4 7#g7 ,its ,greater ,activity4 ,when the ,bodhisattva #fe reaches the stage of ,buddhahood1 he is able to manifest himself everywhere in the ten quarters of the universe#bg and to minister to the spiritual needs of all sentient beings4 ,these seven peculiarities are enumerated to be the reasons why the doctrine defended by the progressive ,buddhists is to be called ,mahynism1 or the doctrine of great vehicle1 in contradistinction to ,hnaynism1 the doctrine of small vehicle4 ,in each case1 therefore1 ,asanga takes pains to draw the line of demarcation distinctly between the two schools of ,buddhism and not between ,buddhism and all other religious doctrines which existed at his time4 ,the ,ten ,essential ,features of ,buddhism4 ,the following statement of the ten essential features of ,mahynism as presented in the ,comprehensive ,treatise on ,mahynism1 is made from a different standpoint from the preceding one1 for it is the pronunciamento of the ,yogcra school of ,asanga #ff and ,vasubandhu rather than that of ,mahynism generally4 ,this school together with the ,mdhyamika school of ,ngrjuna constitute the two divisions of ,hindu ,mahynism4#bh ,the points enumerated by ,asanga and ,vasubandhu as most essential in their system are ten4 7#a7 ,it teaches an immanent existence of all things in the layavijna or ,all-,conserving ,soul4 ,the conception of an ,all-,conserving ,soul1 it is claimed1 was suggested by ,buddha in the so-called ,hnayna stras2 but on account of its deep meaning and of the liability of its being confounded with the ego-soul conception1 he did not disclose its full significance in their stras2 but made it known only in the ,mahyna stras4 ,according to the ,yogcra school1 the laya is not an universal1 but an individual mind or soul1 whatever we may term it1 in which the 8germs0 of all things exist in their ideality4#bi ,the objective world in reality does not exist1 but by dint of subjective #fg illusion that is created by ignorance1 we project all these 8germs0 in the layavijna to the outside world1 and imagine that they are there really as they are2 while the ,manovijna 7ego-consciousness7 which is too a product of illusion1 tenaciously clinging to the layavijna as the real self1 never abandons its egoism4 ,the layavijna1 however1 is indifferent to1 and irresponsible for1 all these errors on the part of the ,manovijna4#cj 7#b7 ,the ,yogcra school distinguishes three kinds of knowledge3 #a4 ,illusion 7parikalpita71 #b4 ,discriminative or ,relative ,knowledge 7paratantra71 and #c4 ,perfect ,knowledge 7parinipanna74 ,the distinction may best be illustrated by the well-known analogy of a rope and a snake4 ,deceived by a similarity in appearance1 men frequently take a rope lying on the ground for a poisonous snake and #fh are terribly shocked on that account4 ,but when they approach and carefully examine it1 they become at once convinced of the groundlessness of this apprehension1 which was the natural sequence of illusion4 ,this may be considered to correspond to what ,kant calls ,schein4 ,most people1 however1 do not go any further in their inquiry4 ,they are contented with the sensual1 empirical knowledge of an object with which they come in contact4 ,when they understand that the thing they mistook for a snake was really nothing but a yard of innocent rope1 they think their knowledge of the object is complete1 and do not trouble themselves with a philosophical investigation as to whether the rope which to them is just what it appears to be1 has any real existence in itself4 ,they do not stop a moment to reflect that their knowledge is merely relative1 for it does not go beyond the phenomenal significance of the things they perceive4 ,but is an object in reality such as it appears to be to our senses8 ,are particular phenomena as such really actual8 ,what is the value of our knowledge concerning those so-called realities8 ,when we make an investigation into such problems as these1 the ,yogcra school says1 we find that their existence is only relative and has no absolute value whatever independent of the perceiving subject4 ,they are the 8ejection0 of our ideas into the outside world1 which are centred and conserved in our layavijna and which are awakened into activity by subjective #fi ignorance4 ,this clear insight into the nature of things1 i4e41 into their non-realness as tman1 constitutes perfect knowledge4 7#c7 ,when we attain to the perfect knowledge1 we recognise the ideality of the universe4 ,there is no such thing as an objective world1 which is really an illusive manifestation of the mind called layavijna4 ,but even this supposedly real existence of the layavijna is a product of particularisation called forth by the ignorant ,manovijna4 ,the ,manovijna1 or empirical ego1 as it might be called1 having no adequate knowledge as to the true nature of the laya1 takes the latter for a metaphysical agent1 that like the master of a puppet-show manages all mental operations according to its humour4 ,as the silkworm imprisons itself in the cocoon created by itself1 the ,manovijna1 entangling itself in ignorance and confusion1 takes its own illusory creations for real realities4 7#d7 ,for the regulation of moral life1 the ,yogcra with the other ,mahyna schools1 proposes the practising of the six ,pramits 7virtues of perfection71 which are3 #a4 ,dana 7giving71 #b4 la 7moral precept71 #c4 ,knti 7meekness71 #d4 ,vrya 7energy71 #e4 ,dhyna 7meditation71 #f4 ,praj 7knowledge or wisdom74 ,in way of explanation1 says ,asanga3 8,by not clinging to wealth or pleasures 7#a71 by not cherishing any thoughts to violate the precepts 7#b71 by not feeling dejected in the face of evils 7#c71 by not awakening any thought of indolence while practising goodness 7#d71 #gj by maintaining serenity of mind in the midst of disturbance and confusion of this world 7#e71 and finally by always practising ekacitta#ca and by truthfully comprehending the nature of things 7#f71 the ,bodhisattvas recognise the truth of vijnamtra1--the truth that there is nothing that is not of ideal or subjective creation40 7#e7 ,mahynism teaches that there are ten spiritual stages of ,bodhisattvahood1 viz41 #a4 ,pramudit1 #b4 ,vimal1 #c ,prabhkar1 #d4 ,arcismat1 #e4 ,sudurjay1 #f4 ,abhimukh1 #g4 ,drangam1 #h4 ,acal1 #i4 ,sdhumat1 #aj4 ,dharmamegh#cb4 ,by passing through all these stages one after another1 we are believed to reach the oneness of ,dharmakya4 7#f7 ,the ,yogcrists claim that the precepts that are practised by the followers of ,mahynism are far superior to those of ,hnaynists4 ,the latter tend to externalism and formalism1 and do not go deep into our spiritual1 subjective motives4 ,now1 there are physical1 verbal1 and spiritual precepts observed by the ,buddha4 ,the ,hnaynists observe the first two neglecting the last which is by far more important than the rest4 ,for instance1 the rvaka's interpretation of the ten ikas#cc is literal and not spiritual2 #ga further1 they follow these precepts because they wish to attain ,nirvna for their own sake1 and not for others'4 ,the ,bodhisattva1 on the other hand1 does not wish to be bound within the narrow circle of moral restriction4 ,aiming at an universal emancipation of mankind1 he ventures even violating the ten ikas1 if necessary4 ,the first ika1 for instance1 forbids the killing of any living being2 but the ,bodhisattva does not hesitate to go to war1 in case the cause he espouses is right and beneficient to humanity at large4 7#g7 ,as ,mahynism insists on the purification of the inner life1 its teaching applies not to things outward1 its principles are not of the ascetic and exclusive kind4 ,the ,mahynists do not shun to commingle themselves with the 8dust of worldliness02 they aim at the realisation of the ,bodhi2 they are not afraid of being thrown into the whirlpool of metempsychosis2 they endeavor to impart spiritual benefits to all sentient beings without regard to their attitude1 whether hostile or friendly1 towards themselves2 having immovable faith in the ,mahyna1 they never become contaminated by vanity and worldly pleasures with which they may constantly be in touch2 they have a clear insight into the doctrine of non-tman2 being free from all spiritual faults1 they live in perfect accord with the laws of ,suchness and discharge their duties without the #gb least conceit or self-assertion3 in a word1 their inner life is a realisation of the ,dharmakya4 7#h7 ,the intellectual superiority of the ,bodhisattva is shown by his possession of knowledge of non-particularisation 7annrtha74#cd ,this knowledge1 philosophically considered1 is the knowledge of the absolute1 or the knowledge of the universal4 ,the ,bodhisattva's mind is free from the dualism of samsra 7birth-and-death7 and nirvna1 of positivism and negativism1 of being and non-being1 of object and subject1 of ego and non-ego4 ,his knowledge1 in short1 transcends the limits of final realities1 soaring high to the realm of the absolute and the abode of non-particularity4 7#i7 ,in consequence of this intellectual elevation1 the ,bodhisattva perceives the working of birth and death in nirvna1 and nirvna in the transmigration of birth and death4 ,he sees the 8ever-changing many0 in the 8never-changing one10 and the 8never-changing #gc one0 in the 8ever-changing many40 ,his inward life is in accord at once with the laws of transitory phenomena and with those of transcendental ,suchness4 ,according to the former1 he does not recoil as ascetics do when he comes in contact with the world of the senses2 he is not afraid of suffering the ills that the flesh is heir to2 but1 according to the latter1 he never clings to things evanescent1 his inmost consciousness forever dwells in the serenity of eternal ,suchness4 7#aj7 ,the final characteristic to be mentioned as distinctly ,mahynistic is the doctrine of ,trikya4 ,there is1 it is asserted1 the highest being which is the ultimate cause of the universe and in which all existences find their essential origin and significance4 ,this is called by the ,mahynists ,dharmakya4 ,the ,dharmakya1 however1 does not remain in its absoluteness1 it reveals itself in the realm of cause and effect4 ,it then takes a particular form4 ,it becomes a devil1 or a god1 or a deva1 or a human being1 or an animal of lower grade1 adapting itself to the degrees of the intellectual development of the people4 ,for it is the people's inner needs which necessitate the special forms of manifestation4 ,this is called ,nirmnakya1 that is1 the body of transformation4 ,the ,buddha who manifested himself in the person of ,gautama1 the son of ,king of uddhodna about two thousand five hundred years ago on the ,ganges1 is a form of ,nirmnakya4 ,the third one is called ,sambhogakya1 or body of bliss4 ,this is the spiritual #gd body of a ,buddha1 invested with all possible grandeur in form and in possession of all imaginable psychic powers4 ,the conception of ,sambhogakya is full of wild imaginations which are not easy of comprehension by modern minds4#ce ,these characteristics enumerated at seven or ten as peculiarly ,mahynistic are what the ,hindu ,buddhist philosophers of the first century down to the fifth or sixth century of the ,christian era thought to be the most essential points of their faith and what they thought entitled it to be called the 8,great ,vehicle0 7,mahyna7 of salvation1 in contradistinction to the faith embraced by their conservative brethren4 ,but1 as we view them now1 the points here specified are to a great extent saturated with a partisan spirit1 and besides they are more or less scattered and unconnected statements of the so-called salient features of ,mahynism4 ,nor do they furnish much information concerning the nature of ,mahynism as a coherent system of religious teachings4 ,they give but a general and somewhat obscure delineation of it1 and that in opposition to ,hnaynism4 ,in point of fact1 ,mahynism is a school of ,buddhism and has many characteristics in common with ,hnaynism4 ,indeed1 the spirit of the former is also that of the latter1 and as far as the general trend of ,buddhism is concerned there is no need of emphasising #ge the significance of one school over the other4 ,on the following pages ,i shall try to present a more comprehensive and impartial exposition of the ,buddhism1 which has been persistently designated by its followers as ,mahynism4 ,,speculative ,,mah,y,,nism4 #gf ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,practise ,,and ,,speculation4 _/,mahynism_/ perhaps can best be treated in two main divisions1 as it has distinctly two principal features in its doctrinal development4 ,i may call one the speculative phase of ,mahynism and the other practical4 ,the first part is essentially a sort of ,buddhist metaphysics1 where the mind is engaged solely in ratiocination and abstraction4 ,here the intellect plays a very prominent part1 and some of the most abstruse problems of philosophy are freely discussed4 ,speculative followers of ,buddhism have taken great interest in the discussion of them and have written many volumes on various subjects4#cf #gg ,the second or practical phase of ,mahynism deals with such religious beliefs that constitute the life and essence of the system4 ,mahynists might have reasoned wrongfully to explain their practical faith1 but the faith itself is the outburst of the religious sentiment which is inherent in human nature4 ,this practical part1 therefore1 is by far more important1 and in fact it can be said that the speculative part is merely a preparatory step toward it4 ,inasmuch as ,mahynism is a religion and not a philosophical system1 it must be practical1 that is1 it must directly appeal to the inmost life of the human heart4 ,relation of ,feeling and ,intellect in ,religion4 ,so much has been said about the relation between philosophy and religion2 and there are many scholars who so firmly believe in the identity of religion either with superstitions or with supernatural revelation1 that the denial of this assertion is considered by them practically to be the disavowal of all religions4 ,for1 according to them1 there is no midway in religion4 ,a religion which is rational and yet practical is no religion4 ,now1 ,buddhism is neither a vagary of imagination nor a revelation from above1 and on this account it has been declared by some to be a philosophy4 ,the title 8,speculative ,mahynism0 thus1 is apt to #gh be taken as a confirmation of such opinion4 ,to remove all the misconceptions1 therefore1 which might be entertained concerning the religious nature of ,mahynism and its attitude toward intellectualism1 ,i have deemed it wise here to say a few words about the relation between feeling and intellect in religion4 ,there is no doubt that religion is essentially practical2 it does not necessarily require theorisation4 ,the latter1 properly speaking1 is the business of philosophy4 ,if religion was a product of the intellect solely1 it could not give satisfaction to the needs of man's whole being4 ,reason constitutes but a part of the organised totality of an individual being4 ,abstraction however high1 and speculation however deep1 do not as such satisfy the inmost yearnings of the human heart4 ,but this they can do when they enter into one's inner life and constitution2 that is1 when abstraction becomes a concrete fact and speculation a living principle in one's existence2 in short1 when philosophy becomes religion4 ,philosophy as such1 therefore1 is generally distinguished from religion4 ,but we must not suppose that religion as the deepest expression of a human being can eliminate altogether from it the intellectual element4 ,the most predominant rle in religion may be played by the imagination and feeling1 but ratiocination must not fail to assert its legitimate right in the co-ordination of beliefs4 ,when this right is denied1 religion becomes fanaticism1 superstition1 fata morgana1 and even a menace to the progress of humanity4 #gi ,the intellect is critical1 objective1 and always tries to stand apart from the things that are taken up for examination4 ,this alienation or keeping itself aloof from concrete facts on the part of the intellect1 constantly tends to disregard the real significance of life1 of which it is also a manifestation4 ,therefore1 the conflict between feeling and reason1 religion and science1 instinct and knowledge1 has been going on since the awakening of consciousness4 ,seeing this fact1 intellectual people are generally prone to condemn religion as barring the freedom and obstructing the progress of scientific investigations4 ,it is true that religion went frequently to the other extreme and tried to suppress the just claim of reason2 it is true that this was especially the case with ,christianity1 whose history abounds with regretable incidents resulting from its violent encroachments upon the domain of reason4 ,it is also true that the feeling and the intellect are sometimes at variance1 that what the feeling esteems as the most valuable treasure is at times relentlessly crushed by the reason1 while the feeling looks with utmost contempt at the results that have been reached by the intellect after much lucubration4 ,but this fatal conflict is no better than the fight which takes place between the head and the tail of a hydra when it is cut in twain2 it always results in self-destruction4 ,we cannot live under such a miserable condition forever2 when we know that it is altogether due to a myopia on the part of our understanding4 ,the #hj truth is that feeling and reason 8cannot do without one another1 and must work together inseparably in the process of human development1 since reason without feeling could have nothing to act for and would be impotent to act1 while feeling without reason would act tyrannically and blindly--that is to say1 if either could exist and act at all without the other2 for in the end it is not feeling nor reason1 which acts1 but it is the man who acts according as he feels and reasons04 7,h4 ,maudsley's ,natural ,causes and ,supernatural ,seemings1 p4 vii74 ,if it is thus admitted that feeling and reason must co-ordinate and co-operate in the realisation of human ideals1 religion1 though essentially a phenomenon of the emotional life1 cannot be indifferent to the significance of the intellect4 ,indeed1 religion1 as much as philosophy1 has ever been speculating on the problems that are of the most vital importance to human life4 ,in ,christianity speculation has been carried on under the name of theology1 though it claims to be fundamentally a religion of faith4 ,in ,india1 however1 as mentioned elsewhere1 there was no dividing line between philosophy and religion2 and every teaching1 every system1 and every doctrine1 however abstract and speculative it might appear to the ,western mind1 was at bottom religious and always aimed at the deliverance of the soul4 ,there was no philosophical system that did not have some practical purpose4 ,indian thinkers could not separate religion from #ha philosophy1 practice from theory4 ,their philosophy flowed out of the very spring of the human heart and was not a mere display of fine intellectuation4 ,if their thinking were not in the right direction and led to a fallacy which made life more miserable1 they were ever ready to surrender themselves to a superior doctrine as soon as it was discovered4 ,but when they thought they were in the right track1 they did not hesitate to sacrifice their life for it4 ,their philosophy had as much fire as religion4 ,buddhism and ,speculation4 ,owing to this fact1 ,buddhism as much as ,hinduism is full of abstract speculations and philosophical reflections so much so that some ,christian critics are inclined to deny the religiosity of ,buddhism4 ,but no student of the science of comparative religion would indorse such a view nowadays4 ,buddhism1 in spite of its predominant intellectualism1 is really a religious system4 ,there is no doubt that it emphasises the rational element of religion more than any other religious teachings1 but on that account we cannot say that it altogether disregards the importance of the part to be played by the feeling4 ,its speculative1 philosophical phase is really a preparation for fully appreciating the subjective significance of religion1 for religion is ultimately subjective1 that is to say1 the essence of religion is love and faith1 or1 to use ,buddhist phraseology1 it is the expression of the ,bodhi which #hb consists in praj#cg 7intelligence or wisdom7 and karun 7love or compassion74 ,mere knowledge 7not praj7 has very little value in human life4 ,when not guided by love and faith1 it readily turns out to be the most obedient servant of egoism and sensualism4 ,what ,tennyson says in the following verses is perfectly true with ,buddhism3 8,who loves not knowledge8 ,who shall rail ,against her beauty8 ,may she mix ,with men and prosper6 ,who shall fix ,her pillars8 ,let her work prevail4 8,but on her forehead sits a fire2 ,she sets her forward countenance ,and leaps into the future chance1 ,submitting all things to desire4 8,half grown as yet1 a child1 and vain-- ,she cannot fight the fear of death4 ,what is she1 cut from love and faith1 ,but some wild ,pallas from the brain 8,of demons8 fiery-hot to burst ,all barriers in her onward race ,for power4 ,let her know her place2 ,she is the second1 not the first4 8,a higher hand must make her mild1 ,if all be not in vain1 and guide ,her footsteps1 moving side by side ,with ,wisdom1 like the younger child40 #hc ,but it must be remembered that ,buddhism never ignores the part which is played by the intellect in the purification of faith4 ,for it is by the judicious exercise of the intellect1 that all religious superstitions and prejudices are finally destroyed4 ,the intellect is so far of great consequence1 and we must respect it as the thunderbolt of ,vajrapani1 which crushes everything that is mere sham and false4 ,but at the same time we must also remember that the quintessence of religion like the house built on the solid rock never suffers on account of this destruction4 ,its foundation lies too deeply buried in human #hd heart to be damaged by knowledge or science4 ,so long as there is a human heart warm with blood and burning with the fire of life1 the intellect however powerful will never be able to trample it under foot4 ,indeed1 the more severely the religious sentiment is tested in the crucible of the intellect1 the more glorious and illuminating becomes its intrinsic virtue4 ,the true religion is1 therefore1 never reluctant to appear before the tribunal of scientific investigation4 ,in fact by ignoring the ultimate significance of the religious consciousness1 science is digging its own grave4 ,for what purpose has science other than the unravelling of the mysteries of nature and reading into the meaning of existence8 ,and is this not what constitutes the foundation of religion8 ,science cannot be final1 it must find its reason in religion2 as a mere intellectual exercise it is not worthy of our serious consideration4 ,religion and ,metaphysics4 ,the ,french sociologist1 ,m4 ,guyau1 says in his ,irreligion of the ,future 7,english translation p4 #aj73 8,every positive and historical religion presents three distinctive and essential elements3 7#a7 ,an attempt at a mythical and non-scientific explanation of natural phenomena 7divine intervention1 miracles1 efficacious prayers1 etc471 or of historical facts 7incarnation of ,jesus ,christ or of ,buddha1 revelation1 and so forth72 7#b7 ,a system of dogmas1 that is to say1 of symbolic ideas1 of imaginative beliefs1 forcibly #he imposed upon one's faith as absolute verities1 even though they are susceptible of no scientific demonstration or philosophical justification2 7#c7 ,a cult and a system of rites1 that is to say1 of more or less immutable practices regarded as possessing a marvelous efficacy upon the course of things1 a propitiatory virtue4 ,a religion without myth1 without dogma1 without cult1 without rite1 is no more than that somewhat bastard product1 #8natural religion1' which is resolvable to a system of metaphysical hypotheses40 ,m4 ,guyau seems to think that what will be left in religion1 when severed from its superstitions and imaginary beliefs and mysterious rites1 is a system of metaphysical speculations1 and that1 therefore1 it is not a religion4 ,but in my opinion the ,french sociologist shares the error that is very prevalent among the scientific men of to-day4 ,he is perfectly right in trying to strip religion of all its ephemeral elements and external integuments1 but he is entirely wrong when he does this at the expense of its very essence1 which consists of the inmost yearnings of the human heart4 ,and this essence has no affinity with the superstitions which grow round it like excrescences as the results of insufficient or abnormal nourishment4 ,nor does it concern itself with mere philosophising and constructing hypotheses about metaphysical problems4 ,far from it4 ,religion is a cry from the abysmal depths of the human heart1 that can never be silenced1 until it finds that something and identifies itself with it1 which reveals the teleological #hf significance of life and the universe4 ,but this something has a subjective value only1 as ,goethe makes ,faust exclaim1 8,feeling is all in all1 name for it ,i have none40 ,why8 ,because it cannot objectively or intellectually be demonstrated1 as in the case with those laws which govern phenomenal existences1--the proper objects of the discursive human understanding4 ,and this subjectivity of religion is what makes 8all righteousnesses as filthy garments40 ,if religion deprived of its dogmas and cults is to be considered1 as ,m4 ,guyau thinks1 nothing but a system of metaphysics1 we utterly lose sight of its subjective significance or its emotional element1 which indeed constitutes its raison d'tre4 99 99 99 ,having this in view we proceed to see first on what metaphysical hypothesis speculative ,mahyna ,buddhism is built up2 but the reader must remember that this phase of ,mahynism is merely a preliminary to its more essential part1 which we expound later under the heading of 8,practical ,mahynism10 in contradistinction to 8,speculative ,mahynism40 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,classification ,,of ,,knowledge4 #hg ,three ,forms of ,knowledge4 _/,mahynism_/ generally distinguishes two or three forms of knowledge4 ,this classification is a sort of epistemology1 inasmuch as it proposes to ascertain the extent and nature of human knowledge1 from a religious point of view4 ,its object is to see what kind of human knowledge is most reliable and valuable for the annihilation of ignorance and the attainment of enlightenment4 ,the ,mahyna school which has given most attention to this division of ,buddhist philosophy is the ,yogcra of ,asanga and ,vasubandhu4 ,the ,lankvatar and the ,sandhinirmocana and some other ,stras1 on which the school claims to have its doctrinal foundation1 teach three forms of knowledge4 ,the stra literature1 however1 as a rule does not enter into any detailed exposition of the subject2 it merely classifies knowledge and points out what form of knowledge is most desirable by the ,buddhists4 ,to obtain a fuller and more discursive elucidation1 we must come to the ,abhidharma ,pitaka of that school4 ,of the text books most generally studied of the #hh ,yogcra1 we may mention ,vasubandhu's ,vijnamtra with its commentaries and ,asanga's ,comprehensive ,treatise on ,mahynism4 ,the following statements are abstracted mainly from these documents4 ,the three forms of knowledge as classified by the ,yogcra are3 7#a7 ,illusion 7parikalpita71 7#b7 ,relative ,knowledge 7paratantra71 and 7#c7 ,absolute ,knowledge 7parinipanna74 ,illusion4 ,illusion 7parikalpita71 to use ,kantian phraseology1 is a sense-perception not co-ordinated by the categories of the understanding2 that is to say1 it is a purely subjective elaboration1 not verified by objective reality and critical judgment4 ,so long as we make no practical application of it1 it will harbor no danger2 there is no evil in it1 at least religiously4 ,perceptual illusion is a psychical fact1 and as such it is justified4 ,a straight rod in water appears crooked on account of the refraction of light2 a sensation is often felt in the limb after it has been amputated1 for the nervous system has not yet adjusted itself to the new condition4 ,they are all illusions1 however4 ,they are doubtless the correct interpretation of the sense-impressions in question1 but they are not confirmed by other sense-impressions whose cordination is necessary to establish an objective reality4 ,the moral involved in this is3 all sound inferences and correct behavior must be based on critical knowledge and not on illusory premises4 #hi ,reasoning in this wise1 the ,mahynists declare that the egoism fostered by vulgar minds belongs to this class of knowledge1 though of a different order1 and that those who tenaciously cling to egoism as their final stronghold are believers in an intellectual fata morgana1 and are like the thirsty deer that madly after the visionary water in the desert1 or like the crafty monkey that tries to catch the lunar reflection in the water4 ,because the belief in the existence of a metaphysical agent behind our mental phenomena is not confirmed by experience and sound judgment1 it being merely a product of unenlightened subjectivity4 ,besides this ethical and philosophical egoism1 all forms of world-conception which is founded on the sandy basis of subjective illusion1 such as fetichism1 idolatry1 anthropomorphism1 anthropopsychism1 and the like1 must be classed under the parikalpita-lakana as doctrines having illusionary premises4 ,relative ,knowledge4 ,next comes the paratantra-lakana1 a welt-anschauung based upon relative knowledge1 or better1 upon the knowledge of the law of relativity4 ,according to this view1 everything in the world has a relative and conditional existence1 and nothing can claim an absolute reality free from all limitations4 ,this closely corresponds to the theory advanced by most of modern scientists1 whose agnosticism denies our intellectual capability of transcending the law of relativity4 #ij ,the paratantra-lakana1 therefore1 consists in the knowledge derived from our daily intercourse with the outward world4 ,it deals with the highest abstractions we can make out of our sensuous experiences4 ,it is positivistic in its strictest sense4 ,it says3 ,the universe has only a relative existence1 and our knowledge is necessarily limited4 ,even the highest generalisation cannot go beyond the law of relativity4 ,it is impossible for us to know the first cause and the ultimate end of existence2 nor have we any need to go thus beyond the sphere of existence1 which would inevitably involve us in the maze of mystic imagination4 ,the paratantra-lakana1 therefore1 is a positivism1 agnosticism1 or empiricism in its spirit4 ,though the ,yogcra ,buddhists do not use all these modern philosophical terms1 the interpretation here given is really what they intended to mean by the second form of knowledge4 ,a world-conception based on this view1 it is declared by the ,mahynists1 is sound as far as our perceptual knowledge is concerned2 but it does not exhaust the entire field of human experience1 for it does not take into account our spiritual life and our inmost consciousness4 ,there is something in the human heart that refuses to be satisfied with merely systematising under the so-called laws of nature those multitudinous impressions which we receive from the outside world4 ,there is a singular feeling1 or sentiment1 or yearning1 whatever we may call it1 in our inmost heart1 which defies any plainer #ia description than a mere suggestion or an indirect statement4 ,this somewhat mystic consciousness seems despite its obscureness to contain the meaning of our existence as well as that of the universe4 ,the intellect may try to persuade us with all its subtle reasonings to subdue this disquieting feeling and to remain contented with the systematising of natural laws1 so called4 ,but it is deceiving itself by so doing2 because the intellect is but a servant to the heart1 and so far as it is not forced to self-contradiction1 it must accommodate itself to the needs of the heart4 ,that is to say1 we must transcend the narrow limits of conditionality and see what indispensable postulates are underlying our life and experiences4 ,the recognition of these indispensable postulates of life constitutes the ,yogcra's third form of knowledge called parinipanna-lakana4 ,absolute ,knowledge4 ,parinipanna-lakana literally means the world-view founded on the most perfect knowledge4 ,according to this view1 the universe is a monistico-pantheistic system4 ,while phenomenal existences are regulated by natural laws characterised by conditionality and individuation1 they by no means exhaust all our experiences which are stored in our inmost consciousness4 ,there must be something1--this is the absolute demand of humanity1 the ultimate postulate of experience1--be it ,will1 or ,intelligence1 which1 underlying and animating all existences1 forms #ib the basis of cosmic1 ethical1 and religious life4 ,this highest ,will1 or ,intelligence1 or both may be termed ,god1 but the ,mahynists call it religiously ,dharmakya1 ontologically ,bhtatatht1 and psychologically ,bodhi or ,sambodhi4 ,and they think it must be immanent in the universe manifesting itself in all places and times2 it must be the cause of perpetual creation2 it must be the principle of morality4 ,this being so1 how do we come to the recognition of its presence8 ,the ,buddhists say that when our minds are clear of illusions1 prejudices1 and egotistic assumptions1 they become transparent and reflect the truth like a dust-free mirror4 ,the illumination thus gained in our consciousness constitutes the so-called parinipanna1 the most perfect knowledge1 that leads to ,nirvna1 final salvation1 and eternal bliss4 ,world-views ,founded on the ,three ,forms of ,knowledge4 ,the reason will be obvious to the reader why the ,yogcra school distinguishes three classes of world-conception founded on the three kinds of knowledge4 ,the parikalpita-lakana is most primitive and most puerile4 ,however1 in these days of enlightenment1 what is believed by the masses is naught else than a parikalpita conception of the world4 ,the material existence as it appears to our senses is to them all in all4 ,they seem to be unable to shake off the yoke of egoistic illusion and nave realism4 ,their ,god must be transcendent and anthropopathic1 #ic and always willing to meddle with worldly affairs as his whim pleases4 ,how different the world is1 in which the multitudes of unreflecting minds are living1 from that which is conceived by ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas6 ,hartmann1 a ,german thinker1 is right1 when he says that the masses are at least a century behind in their intellectual culture4 ,but the most strange thing in the world is that1 in spite of all their ignorance and superstitious beliefs1 the waves of universal transformation are ever carrying them onward to a destination1 of which1 perhaps1 they have not the slightest suspicion4 ,the paratantra-lakana advances a step further1 but the fundamental error involved in it is its persistent self-contradictory disregard for what our inmost consciousness is constantly revealing to us4 ,the intellect alone can by no means unravel the mystery of our entire existence4 ,in order to reach the highest truth1 we must boldly plunge with our whole being into a region where absolute darkness defying the light of intellect is supposed to prevail4 ,this region which is no more nor less than the field of religious consciousness is shunned by most of the intellectual people on the plea that the intellect by its very nature is unable to fathom it4 ,but the only way that leads us to the final pacification of the heart-yearnings is to go beyond the horizons of limiting reason and to resort to the faith that has been planted in the heart as the sine qua non of its own existence and vitality4 ,and by faith ,i mean ,praj 7wisdom71 transcendental #id knowledge1 that comes direct from the intelligence-essence of the ,dharmakya4 ,a mind1 so tired in vainly searching after truth and bliss in the verbiage of philosophy and the nonsense of ritualism1 finds itself here completely rested bathing in the rays of divine effulgence1--whence this is1 it does not question1 being so filled with supramundane blessings which alone are felt4 ,buddhism calls this exalted spiritual state ,nirvna or ,moka2 and parinipanna-lakana is a world-conception which naturally follows from this subjective1 ideal enlightenment4#ch ,two ,forms of ,knowledge4 ,the other ,hindu ,mahynism1 the ,mdhyamika school of ,ngrjuna1 distinguishes two1 instead of three1 orders of knowledge1 but practically the ,yogcra and the ,mdhyamika come to the same conclusion4#ci #ie ,the two kinds of knowledge or truth distinguished by the ,mdhyamika philosophy are ,samvtti-satya and ,paramrtha-satya1 that is1 conditional truth and transcendental truth4 ,we read in ,ngrjuna's ,mdhyamika stra 7,buddhist ,text ,society edition1 pp4 #ahj1 #aha73 8,on two truths is founded ,the holy doctrine of ,buddhas3 ,truth conditional1 ,and truth transcendental4 8,those who verily know not ,the distinction of the two truths4 ,know not the essence ,of ,buddhism which is meaningful40#dj ,the conditional truth includes illusion and relative knowledge of the ,yogcra school1 while the transcendental truth corresponds to the absolute knowledge4 ,in explaining these two truths1 the ,mdhyamika philosophers have made a constant use of the terms1 nya and anya1 void and not-void1 which unfortunately became a cause of the misunderstanding by ,christian scholars of ,ngrjuna's transcendental philosophy4 ,absolute truth is void in its ultimate nature1 for it contains nothing concrete or real or individual that makes it an object of particularisation4 ,but this must not be understood1 as is done by some superficial critics1 in the sense of absolute #if nothingness4 ,the ,mdhyamika philosophers make the satya 7transcendental truth7 empty when contrasted with the realness of phenomenal existences4 ,because it is not real in the sense a particular being is real2 but it is empty since it transcends the principle of individuation4 ,when considered absolutely1 it can neither be empty nor not-empty1 neither nya nor anya1 neither asti nor nsti1 neither abhva nor bhva1 neither real nor unreal4 ,all these terms imply relation and contrast1 while the ,paramrtha ,satya is above them1 or better1 it unifies all contrasts and antitheses in its absolute oneness4 ,therefore1 even to designate it at all may lead to the misunderstanding of the true nature of the ,satya1 for naming is particularising4 ,it is not1 as such1 an object of intellectuation or of demonstrative knowledge4 ,it underlies everything conditional and phenomenal1 and does not permit itself to be a particular object of discrimination4 ,transcendental ,truth and ,relative ,understanding4 ,one may say3 ,if transcendental truth is of such an abstract nature1 beyond the reach of the understanding1 how can we ever hope to attain it and enjoy its blessings8 ,but ,ngrjuna says that it is not absolutely out of the ken of the understanding2 it is1 on the contrary1 through the understanding that we become acquainted with the quarter towards which our spiritual efforts should be directed1 only #ig let us not cling to the means by which we grasp the final reality4 ,a finger is needed to point at the moon1 but when we have recognised the moon1 let us no more trouble ourselves with the finger4 ,the fisherman carries a basket to take the fish home1 but what need has he to worry about the basket when the contents are safely on the table8 ,only so long as we are not yet aware of the way to enlightenment1 let us not ignore the value of relative knowledge or conditional truth or lokasamvttisatya as ,ngrjuna terms it4 8,if not by worldly knowledge1 ,the truth is not understood2 ,when the truth is not approached1 ,nirvna is not attained40#da ,from this1 it is to be inferred that ,buddhism never discourages the scientific1 critical investigation of religious beliefs4 ,for it is one of the functions of science that it should purify the contents of a belief and that it should point out in which direction our final spiritual truth and consolation have to be sought4 ,science alone which is built on relative knowledge is not able to satisfy all our religious cravings1 but it is certainly able to direct us to the path of enlightenment4 ,when this path is at last revealed1 we shall know how to avail ourselves of the discovery1 as then ,praj 7or ,sambodhi1 or ,wisdom7 becomes the #ih guide of life4 ,here we enter into the region of the unknowable4 ,the spiritual facts we experience are not demonstrable1 for they are so direct and immediate that the uninitiated are altogether at a loss to get a glimpse of them4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,bh,,tatath,t 7,,suchness74 #ii _/,from_/ the ontological point of view1 ,paramrtha-satya or ,parinipanna 7transcendental truth7 is called ,bhtatatht1 which literally means 8suchness of existence40 ,as ,buddhism does not separate being from thought nor thought from being1 what is suchness in the objective world1 is transcendental truth in the subjective world1 and vice versa ,bhtatatht1 then1 is the ,godhead of ,buddhism1 and it marks the consummation of all our mental efforts to reach the highest principle1 which unifies all possible contradictions and spontaneously directs the course of world-events4 ,in short1 it is the ultimate postulate of existence4 ,like ,paramrtha-satya1 as above stated1 it does not belong to the domain of demonstrative knowledge or sensuous experience2 it is unknowable by the ordinary processes of intellectuation1 which the natural sciences use in the formulation of general laws2 and it is grasped1 declare the ,buddhists1 only by the minds that are capable of exercising what might be called religious intuition4 ,avaghoa argues1 in his ,awakening of ,faith for the indefinability of this first principle4 ,when we say it is nya or empty1 on account of its being independent #ajj of all the thinkable qualities1 which we attribute to things relative and conditional1 people would take it for the nothingness of absolute void4 ,but when we define it as a real reality1 as it stands above the evanescence of phenomena1 they would imagine that there is something individual and existing outside the pale of this universe1 which1 though as concrete as we ourselves are1 lives an eternal life4 ,it is like describing to the blind what an elephant looks like2 each one of them gets but a very indistinct and imperfect conception of the huge creature1 yet every one of them thinks he has a true and most comprehensive idea of it4#db ,avaghoa1 thus1 wishes to eschew all definite statements concerning the ultimate nature of being1 but as language is the only mode with which we mortals can express our ideas and communicate them to others1 he thinks the best expression that can be given to it is ,bhtatatht1 i4e41 8suchness of existence10 or simply1 8suchness40 ,bhtatatht 7suchness71 thus absolutely viewed1 does not fall under the category of being and non-being2 and minds which are kept within the narrow circle of contrasts1 must be said to be incapable of grasping it as it truly is4 ,says ,ngrjuna in his stra 7,ch4 ,,xv473 8,between thisness 7svabhva7 and thatness 7parabhva71 ,between being and non-being1 ,who discriminates1 ,the truth of ,buddhism he perceives not40#dc #aja ,or1 8,to think #8it is'1 is eternalism1 ,to think #8it is not'1 is nihilism3 ,being and non-being1 ,the wise cling not to either40#dd ,again1 8,the dualism of #8to be' and #8not to be1' ,the dualism of pure and not-pure3 ,such dualism having abandoned1 ,the wise stand not even in the middle40#de ,to quote1 again1 from the ,awakening of ,faith 7pp4 #eh-ei73 8,in its metaphysical origin1 ,bhtatatht has nothing to do with things defiled1 i4e41 conditional3 it is free from all signs of individualisation1 such as exist in phenomenal objects3 it is independent of an unreal1 particularising consciousness40 ,indefinability4 ,absolute ,suchness from its very nature thus defies all definitions4 ,we cannot even say that it is1 for everything that is presupposes that which is not3 existence and non-existence are relative terms as much as subject and object1 mind and matter1 this and that1 one and other3 one cannot be conceived #ajb without the other4 8,it is not so 7na iti7#df10 therefore1 may be the only way our imperfect human tongue can express it4 ,so the ,mahynists generally designate absolute ,suchness as nyat or void4 ,but when this most significant word1 nyat1 is to be more fully interpreted1 we would say with ,avaghoa that 8,suchness is neither that which is existence nor that which is non-existence2 neither that which is at once existence and non-existence1 nor that which is not at once existence and non-existence2 it is neither that which is unity nor that which is plurality2 neither that which is at once unity and plurality1 nor that which is not at once unity and plurality40#dg #ajc ,ngrjuna's famous doctrine of 8,the ,middle ,path of ,eight ,no's0 breathes the same spirit1 which declares3 8,there is no death1 no birth1 no destruction1 no persistence1 ,no oneness1 no manyness1 no coming1 no departing10#dh ,elsewhere1 he expresses the same idea in a somewhat paradoxical manner1 making the historical ,buddha a real concrete manifestation of ,suchness3 8,after his passing1 deem not thus3 #8,the ,buddha still is here1' ,he is above all contrasts1 ,to be and not to be4 8,while living1 deem not thus3 #8,the ,buddha is now here4' ,he is above all contrasts1 ,to be and not to be40#di ,this view of ,suchness as no-ness abounds in the literature of the ,dhyna school of ,mahynism4 ,to cite one instance3 ,when ,bodhi-,dharma#ej1 the founder #ajd of the ,dhyna sect1 saw ,emperor ,wu of ,liang dynasty 7,a4,d4 #ejb-eef71 he was asked what the first principle of the ,holy ,doctrine was1 he did not give any lengthy1 periphrastic statement after the manner of a philosopher1 but laconically replied1 8,vast emptiness and nothing holy40 ,the ,emperor was bewildered and did not know how to take the words of his holy adviser4 ,naturally1 he did not expect such an abrupt answer1 and1 being greatly disappointed1 ventured another question3 8,who is he1 then1 that stands before me80 ,by this he meant to repudiate the doctrine of absolute ,suchness4 ,his line of argument being this3 ,if there is nothing in the ultimate nature of things that distinguishes between holiness and sinfulness1 why this world of contrasts1 where some are revered as holy1 for instance1 ,bodhi-,dharma who is at this very moment standing in front of him with the mission of propagating the holy teachings of ,buddha8 ,bodhi-,dharma1 however1 was a mystic and was fully convinced of the insufficiency of the human tongue to express the highest truth which is revealed only #aje intuitively to the religious consciousness4 ,his conclusive answer was1 8,i do not know04#ea ,this 8,i do not know0 is not to be understood in the spirit of agnosticism1 but in the sense of 8,god when understood is no ,god10 for in se est et per se conceptur4 ,this way of describing ,suchness by negative terms only1 excluding all differences of name and form 7nmarpa7 to reach a higher kind of affirmation1 seems to be the most appropriate one1 inasmuch as the human understanding is limited in so many respects2 but1 nevertheless1 it has caused much misinterpretation even among ,buddhists themselves1 not to mention those ,christian ,buddhist scholars of to-day1 who sometimes appear almost wilfully to misconstrue the significance of the nyat philosophy4 ,it was to avoid these unfortunate misinterpretations that the ,mahynists frequently made the paradoxical assertion that absolute ,suchness is empty and not empty1 nya and aunya1 being and non-being1 sat and asat1 one and many1 this and that4 ,the 8,thundrous ,silence40 ,there yet remains another mode of explaining absolute ,suchness1 which though most practical and most effective for the religiously disposed minds1 may prove very inadequate to a sceptical intellect4 #ajf ,it is the 8thundrous silence0 of ,vimalakrti in response to an inquiry concerning the nature of ,suchness or the 8,dharma of ,non-duality10 as it is termed in the ,stra4#eb ,bodhisattva ,vimalakrti once asked a host of ,bodhisattvas led by ,majuri1 who came to visit him1 to express their views as to how to enter into the ,dharma of ,non-duality4 ,some replied1 8,birth and death are two1 but the ,dharma itself was never born and will never die4 ,those who understand this are said to enter into the ,dharma of ,non-duality40 ,some said1 8#8,i' and #8mine' are two4 ,because ,i think #8,i am' there are things called #8mine4' ,but as there is no #8,i am' where shall we look for things #8mine'8 ,by thus reflecting we enter into the ,dharma of ,non-duality40 ,some replied1 8,samsra and ,nirvna are two4 ,but when we understand the ultimate nature of ,samsra1 ,samsra vanishes from our consciousness1 and there is neither bondage nor release1 neither birth nor death4 ,by thus reflecting we enter into the ,dharma of ,non-duality04 ,others said1 8,ignorance and enlightenment are two4 ,no ignorance1 no enlightenment1 and there is no dualism4 ,why8 ,because those who have entered a meditation in which there is no sense-impression1 no cogitation1 are free from ignorance as well as from enlightenment4 ,this holds true with all the other dualistic categories4 ,those who enter thus into the thought of sameness are #ajg said to enter into the ,dharma of ,non-duality40 ,still others answered1 8,to long for ,nirvna and to shun worldliness are of dualism4 ,long not for ,nirvna1 shun not worldliness1 and we are free from dualism4 ,why8 ,because bondage and release are relative terms1 and when there is no bondage from the beginning1 who wishes to be released8 ,no bondage1 no release1 and therefore no longing1 no shunning3 this is called the entering into the ,dharma of ,non-duality40 ,many more answers of similar nature came forth from all the ,bodhisattvas in the assembly except the leader ,majuri4 ,vimalakrti now requested him to give his own view1 and to this ,majuri responded1 8,what ,i think may be stated thus3 ,that which is in all beings wordless1 speechless1 shows no signs1 is not possible of cognisance1 and is above all questionings and answerings1--to know this is said to enter into the ,dharma of ,non-duality40 ,finally1 the host ,vimalakrti himself was demanded by ,majuri to express his idea of ,non-duality1 but he kept completely silent and uttered not a word4 ,thereupon1 ,majuri admiringly exclaimed1 8,well done1 well done6 ,the ,dharma of ,non-duality is truly above letters and words60#ec #ajh ,now1 of this ,suchness1 the ,mahynists distinguish two aspects1 as it is comprehended by our consciousness1 which are conditional and non-conditional1 or the phenomenal world of causality and the transcendental realm of absolute freedom4 ,this distinction corresponds to that1 in the field of knowledge1 of relative truth and transcendental truth4#ed #aji ,suchness ,conditioned4 ,absolute transcendental ,suchness defying all means of characterisation does not1 as long as it so remains1 have any direct significance in the phenomenal world and human life4 ,when it does1 it must become conditional ,suchness as ,gesetzmssigkeit in nature and as ethical order in our practical life4 ,suchness as absolute is too remote1 too abstract1 and may have only a metaphysical value4 ,its existence or non-existence seems not to affect us in our daily social life1 inasmuch as it is transcendental4 ,in order to enter into our limited consciousness1 to become the norm of our conscious activities1 to regulate the course of the evolutionary tide in nature1 ,suchness must surrender its 8splendid isolation10 must abandon its absoluteness4 ,when ,suchness thus comes down from its sovereign-seat in the realm of unthinkability1 we have this universe unfolded before our eyes in all its diversity and magnificence4 ,twinkling stars inlaid in the vaulted sky2 the planet elaborately decorated with verdant meadows1 towering mountains1 and rolling waves2 the birds cheerfully singing in the woods2 the beasts wildly running through the thickets2 the summer heavens ornamented with white fleecy clouds and on #aaj earth all branches and leaves growing in abundant luxury2 the winter prairie destitute of all animation1 only with naked trees here and there trembling in the dreary north winds2 all these manifestations1 not varying a hair's breadth of deviation from their mathematical1 astronomical1 physical1 chemical1 and biological laws1 are naught else than the work of conditional ,suchness in nature4 ,when we turn to human life and history1 we have the work of conditional ,suchness manifested in all forms of activity as passions1 aspirations1 imaginations1 intellectual efforts1 etc4 ,it makes us desire to eat when hungry1 and to drink when thirsty2 it makes the man long for the woman1 and the woman for the man2 it keeps children in merriment and frolic2 it braces men and women bravely to carry the burden of life4 ,when we are oppressed1 it causes us to cry1 8,let us have liberty or die02 when we are treated with injustice1 it leads us even to murder and fire and revolution2 when our noble sentiments are aroused to the highest pitch1 it makes us ready to sacrifice all that is most dear to us4 ,in brief1 all the kaleidoscopic changes of this phenomenal world1 subjective as well as objective1 come from the playing hands of conditional ,suchness ,it not only constitutes the goodness and blessings of life1 but the sins1 crimes1 and misery which the flesh is heir to4#ee #aaa ,avaghoa in his ,awakening of ,faith speaks of the ,heart 7hdaya7 of ,suchness and of the ,heart of ,birth-and-,death4 ,by the ,heart of ,suchness he means the absolute and by the ,heart of ,birth-and-,death a manifestation of the absolute in this world of particulars4 8,they are not separate10 however1 says he1 but they are one1 for the ,heart of #aab ,suchness is the ,heart of ,birth-and-,death4 ,it is on account of our limited senses and finite mind that we have a world of particulars1 which1 as it is1 is no more than a fragment of the absolute ,bhtatatht4 ,and yet it is through this fragmentary manifestation that we are finally enabled to reach the fundamental nature of being in its entirety4 ,says ,avaghoa1 8,depending on the ,tathgata-garbha1 there evolves the ,heart of ,birth-and-,death4 ,what is immortal and what is mortal are harmoniously blended1 for they are not one1 nor are they separate44444 ,herein all things are organised4 ,hereby all things are created40 ,the above is from the ontological standpoint4 ,when viewed psychologically1 the ,heart of ,suchness is enlightenment1 for ,buddhism makes no distinction between being and thought1 world and mind4 ,the ultimate nature of the two is considered to be absolutely one4 ,now1 speaking of the nature of enlightenment1 ,avaghoa says3 8,it is like the emptiness of space and the brightness of the mirror in that it is true1 and real1 and great4 ,it completes and perfects all things4 ,it is free from the condition of destructibility4 ,in it is reflected every phase of life and activity in the world4 ,nothing goes out of it1 nothing enters into it1 nothing is annihilated1 nothing is destroyed4 ,it is one eternal soul1 no forms of defilement can defile it4 ,it is the essence of intelligence4 ,by reason of its numerous immaculate virtues which inhere in it1 it perfumes the hearts of all beings40 ,thus1 the ,heart of ,suchness1 which is enlightenment and #aac the essence of intelligence1 constantly works in and through the hearts of all human beings1 that is1 in and through our finite minds4 ,in this sense1 ,buddhism declares that truth is not to be sought in highly abstract philosophical formul1 but in the phenomena of our everyday life such as eating1 dressing1 walking1 sleeping1 etc4 ,the ,heart of ,suchness acts and does not abstract2 it synthesises and does not 8dissect to murder40 ,questions ,defying ,solution4 ,speaking of the world as a manifestation of ,suchness1 we are here beset with the most puzzling questions that have baffled the best minds ever since the dawn of intellect4 ,they are3 ,why did ,suchness ever leave its abode in the mysterious realm of transcendentality and descend on earth where every form of misery greets us on all sides8 ,what inherent necessity was there for it to mingle in the dust of worldliness while it could enjoy the unspeakable bliss of its own absoluteness8 ,in other words1 why did absolute ,suchness ever become conditional ,suchness8 ,to dispose of these questions as not concerning human interests is the creed of agnosticism and positivism2 but the fact is1 they are not questions whimsically framed by the human mind when it was in the mood of playing with itself4 ,they are queries of the most vital importance ever put to us1 and the significance of life entirely hangs on our interpretation of them4 #aad ,buddhism confesses that the mystery is unsolvable purely by the human mind1 for it is absolutely beyond the region of finite intellect and the power of a logical demonstrability4 ,the mystery can only be solved in a practical way when we attain the highest spiritual enlightenment of ,buddhahood1 in which the ,bodhi with its unimpeded supernatural light directly looks into the very abyss of ,suchness4 ,the ,bodhi or ,intelligence which constitutes the kernel of our being1 is a partial realisation in us of ,suchness4 ,when this intelligence is merged and expands in the ,body of ,suchness1 as the water in a vessel poured into the waters of the boundless ocean1 it at once perceives and realises its nature1 its destiny1 and its significance in life4 ,buddhism is a religion and leaves many topics of metaphysics unsolved1 at least logically4 ,though it is more intellectual and philosophical than any other religion1 it does not pretend to build a complete system of speculation4 ,as far as theorisation is concerned1 ,buddhism is dogmatic and assumes many propositions without revealing their dialectical processes4 ,but they are all necessary and fundamental hypotheses of the religious consciousness2 they are the ultimate demands of the human soul4 ,religion has no positive obligation to prove its propositions after the fashion of the natural sciences4 ,it is enough for religion to state the facts as they are1 and the intellect1 though hampered by limitations inherent in it1 has to try her best to put them together in a coherent system4 #aae ,the solution1 then1 by ,buddhism of those queries stated above cannot be said to be very logical and free from serious difficulties1 but practically it serves all required purposes and is conducive to religious discipline4 ,by this ,i mean the ,buddhist theory of ,nescience or ,ignorance 7avidy74 ,theory of ,ignorance4 ,the theory of nescience or ignorance 7avidy7 is an attempt by ,buddhists to solve the relation between the one and the many1 between absolute ,suchness and conditional ,suchness1 between ,dharmakya and ,sarvasattva1 between wisdom 7bodhi7 and sin 7klea71 between ,nirvna and ,samsra4 ,but ,buddhism does not give us any systematic exposition of the doctrine4 ,what it says is categorical and dogmatic4 8,this universe is really the ,dharmadhtu2#ef it is characterised by sameness 7samat72 there is no differentiation 7visama7 in it2 it is even emptiness itself 7nyat72 all things have no pudgala 7self74 ,but1 because of nescience1 there are four or six mahbhta 7elements71 five skandha 7aggregates71 six 7or eight7 vijna 7senses71 and twelve nidna 7chains of causation74 ,all these names and forms 7nmarpa7 are of nescience or ignorance40 ,or1 according to ,avaghoa1 8,the ,heart of ,suchness is the vast ,all of one ,dharmadhtu2 it is the essence of all doctrines4 ,the ultimate nature does not perish1 nor does it #aaf decay4 ,all particular objects exist because of confused subjectivity 7smti74#eg ,independent of confused subjectivity1 there is no outside world to be perceived and discriminated40 8,everything that is subject to the law of birth and death exists only because of ignorance and karma40 ,such statements as these are found almost everywhere in the ,buddhist literature2 but as to the question how and why this negative principle of ignorance came to assert itself in the body of ,suchness1 we are at a loss where to find an authoritative and definite answer to it4 ,one thing1 however1 is certain1 which is this3 ,ignorance 7avidy7 is principium individium1 that creates the multitudinousness of phenomena in the absolute oneness of being1 that tosses up the roaring billows of existence in the eternal ocean of ,suchness1 that breaks the silence of ,nirvna and starts the wheel of metempsychosis perpetually rolling1 that1 veiling the transpicuous mirror of ,bodhi1 affects the reflection of ,suchness therein1 that transforms the sameness 7samat7 of ,suchness to the duality of thisness and thatness and leads many confused minds to egoism with all its pernicious corollaries4 ,perhaps1 the best way to attack the problem of ignorance is to understand that ,buddhism is a thoroughly idealistic doctrine as every true religion should be1 and that psychologically1 and not ontologically1 #aag should ,suchness be conceived1 and further1 that nescience is inherent in ,suchness1 though only hypothetically1 illusively1 apparently1 and not really in any sense4 ,according to ,brahmanism1 there was in the beginning only one being2 and this being willed to be two2 which naturally resulted in the differentiation of subject and object1 mind and nature4 ,in ,buddhism1 however1 ,suchness is not explicitly stated as having had any desire to be other than itself1 at least when it is purely metaphysically conceived4 ,but as ,buddhism interprets this world of particularisation as a manifestation of ,suchness conditioned by the principle of ignorance1 ignorance must be considered1 however illusory in its ultimate nature1 to have potentially or rather negatively existed in the being of ,suchness2 and when ,suchness1 by its transcendental freedom of will1 affirmed itself1 it did so by negating itself1 that is1 by permitting itself to be conditioned by the principle of ignorance or individuation4 ,the latter1 as is expressly stated everywhere in ,buddhist stras and stras1 is no more than an illusion and a negative quantity1 it is merely the veil of ,mya4 ,this chimerical nature of ignorance preserves the essential absoluteness of the first principle and makes the monism of the ,mahyna doctrine thoroughly consistent4 ,what is to be noted here1 however1 is this3 ,buddhism does not necessarily regard this world of particulars as altogether evanescent and dream-like4 ,when ignorance alone is taken notice #aah of and the presence of ,suchness in all this multitudinousness of things is denied1 this existence is positively declared to be void4 ,but when an enlightened mind perceives ,suchness even in the midst of the utter darkness of ignorance1 this life assumes an entirely new aspect1 and we come to realise the illusiveness of all evils4 ,to return to the subject1 ignorance or nescience is defined by ,avaghoa as a spark of consciousness#eh that spontaneously flashes from the unfathomable depths of ,suchness4 ,according to this1 ignorance and consciousness are interchangeable terms1 though with different shades of meaning4 ,ignorance is1 so to speak1 the raison d'tre of consciousness1 is that which makes the appearance of the latter possible1 while ignorance itself is in turn an illusive emanation of ,suchness4 ,it is then evident that the awakening of consciousness marks the first step toward the rising of this universe from the abyss of the self-identity of ,suchness4 ,for the unfolding of consciousness implies the separation of the perceiving and the perceived1 the viayin and the viaya1 of subject and object1 mind and nature4 ,the eternal abyss of ,suchness1 so called1 is the point where subjectivity and objectivity are merged in absolute oneness4 ,it is the time1 though strictly #aai speaking chronology does not apply here1 when all 8the ten thousand things0 of the world have not yet been differentiated and even when the ,god who 8created the heaven and earth0 has not yet made his debut4 ,to use psychological terms1 it is a state of transcendental or transmarginal consciousness1 where all sense-perceptions and conceptual images vanish1 and where we are in a state of absolute unconsciousness4 ,this sounds mystical2 but it is an established fact that in the field of our mental activities there is an abyss where consciousness sometimes suddenly disappears4 ,this region beyond the threshold of awaredness1 though often a trysting place for psychical abnormalities1 has a great religious significance1 which cannot be ignored by superficial scientific arguments4 ,here is the region where the consciousness of subject and object is completely annihilated1 but here we do not have the silence and darkness of a grave1 nor is it a state of absolute nothingness4 ,the self is here lost in the presence of something indescribable1 or better1 it expands so as to embrace the world-all within itself1 and is not conscious of any egoistic elation or arrogance2 but it merely feels the fulness of reality and a touch of celestial joy that cannot be imparted to others by anything human4 ,the most convincing spiritual insight into the nature of being comes from this source4 ,enlightenment is the name given by ,buddhists to the actual gaining of this insight4 ,bodhi or ,praj or intelligence is the term for the #abj spiritual power that brings about this enlightenment4 ,when the mind emerges from this state of sameness1 consciousness spontaneously comes back as it vanished before1 retaining the memory of the experience so unique and now confronting the world of contrasts and mutual dependence1 in which our empirical ego moves4 ,the transition from one state to the other is like a flash of lightning scintilating from behind the clouds2 though the two1 the subliminal and the superficial consciousness1 seem to be one continuous form of activity1 permitting no hiatus between them4 ,at any rate1 this awakening of subjectivity and the leaving behind of transmarginal consciousness marks the start of ignorance4 ,therefore1 psychologically speaking1 ignorance must be considered synonymous with the awakening of consciousness in a sentient being4 ,here we have the most mysterious fact that baffles all our intellectual efforts to unravel1 which is3 ,how and why has ignorance1 or what is tantamount1 consciousness1 ever been awakened from the absolute calmness 7nti7 of being8 ,how and why have the waves of mentation ever been stirred up in the ocean of eternal tranquillity8 ,avaghoa simply says1 8spontaneously40 ,this by no means explains anything1 or at least it is not in the line with our so-called scientific interpretations1 nor does it give us any reason why4 ,nevertheless1 religiously and practically viewed1 8spontaneous0 is the most graphic and vigorous term there is for describing the actual state of things #aba as they pass before our mental eye4 ,in fact1 there is always something vague and indefinite in all our psychological experiences4 ,with whatever scientific accuracy1 with whatever objective precision we may describe the phenomena that take place in the mind1 there is always something that eludes our scrutiny1 is too slippery1 as it were1 to take hold of2 so that after all our strenuous intellectual efforts to be exact and perspicuous in our expositions1 we are still compelled to leave much to the imagination of the reader4 ,in case he happens to be lacking in the experience which we have endeavored to describe we shall vainly hope to awaken in him the said impression with the same degree of intensity and realness4 ,it is for this reason that ,avaghoa and other ,mahynists declare that the rising of consciousness out of the abysmal depths of ,suchness is felt by ,buddhas and other enlightened minds only that have actually gone through the experience4 ,the why of ignorance nobody can explain as much as the why of ,suchness4 ,but when we personally experience this spiritual fact1 we no more feel the need of harboring any doubt about how or why4 ,everything becomes transparent1 and the rays of supernatural enlightenment shine like a halo round our spiritual personality4 ,we move as dictated by the behest of ,suchness1 i4e41 by the ,dharmakya1 and in which we feel infinite bliss and satisfaction4 ,this religious experience is the most unique phenomenon in the life of a sentient being4 #abb ,dualism and ,moral ,evil4 ,as we cannot think that the essence of the external world to be other than that of our own mind1 that is to say1 as we cannot think subject and object to be different in their ultimate nature1 our conclusion naturally is that the same principle of ,ignorance which gathers the clouds of subjectivity1 calls up the multitudinousness of phenomena in the world-mind of ,suchness4 ,the universe in its entirety is an infinite mind1 and our limited mind with its transmarginal consciousness is a microcosm4 ,what the finite mind feels in its inmost self1 must also be what the cosmic mind feels2 nay1 we can go one step further1 and say that when the human mind enters the region lying beyond the border of subjectivity and objectivity1 it is in communion with the heart of the universe1 whose secrets are revealed here without reserve4 ,therefore1 ,buddhism does not make any distinction between knowing and being1 enlightenment and ,suchness4 ,when the mind is free from ignorance and no more clings to things particular1 it is said to be in harmony and even one with ,suchness4 ,we must1 however1 remember that ignorance as the principle of individuation and a spontaneous expression of ,suchness1 is no moral evil4 ,the awakening of subjectivity or the dawn of consciousness forms part of the necessary cosmic process4 ,the separation of subject and object1 or the appearance of a phenomenal world1 is nothing but a realisation #abc of the cosmic mind 7,dharmakya74 ,as such ,ignorance performs an essential function in the evolution of the world-totality4 ,ignorance is inherent in ,buddhas as well as in all sentient beings4 ,every one of us cannot help perceiving an external world 7viaya7 and forming conceptions and reasoning and feeling and willing4 ,we do not see any moral fault here4 ,if there is really anything morally wrong1 then we cannot do anything with it1 we are utterly helpless before it1 for it is not our fault1 but that of the cosmic soul from which and in which we have our being4 ,ignorance has produced everywhere a state of relativity and reciprocal dependence4 ,birth is inseparably linked with death1 congregation with segregation1 evolution with involution1 attraction with repulsion1 the centripetal with the centrifugal force1 the spring with the fall1 the tide with the ebb1 joy with sorrow1 ,god with ,satan1 ,adam with ,eve1 ,buddha with ,devadatta1 etc41 etc41 ad infinitum4 ,these are necessary conditions of existence2 and if existence is an evil1 they must be abolished1 and with their abolition the very reason of existence is abolished1 which means absolute nothingness1 an impossibility as long as we exist4 ,the work of ignorance in the world of conditional ,suchness is quite innocent1 and ,buddhists do not recognise any fault in its existence1 if not contaminated by confused subjectivity4 ,those who speak of the curse of existence1 or those who conceive ,nirvna to be the abode of non-existence #abd and the happiness of absolute annihilation1 are considered by ,buddhists to be unable to understand the significance of ,ignorance4 ,is there then no fault to be found with ,ignorance8 ,not in ,ignorance itself1 but in our defiled attachment to it1 that is1 when we are ignorant of ,ignorance4 ,it is wrong to cling to the dualism of subject and object as final and act accordingly4 ,it is wrong to take the work of ignorance as ultimate and to forget the foundation on which it stands4 ,it is wrong1 thinking that the awakening of consciousness reveals the whole world1 to ignore the existence of unseen realities4 ,in short1 evils quickly follow our steps when we try to realise the conclusions of ignorance without knowing its true relation to ,suchness4 ,egoism is the most fundamental of all errors and evils4 ,when we speak of ignorance as hindering the light of intelligence from penetrating to the bottom of reality1 we usually understand the term ignorance not in the philosophical sense of principium individuum1 but in the sense of confused subjectivity1 which conceives the work of ,ignorance as the final reality culminating in egoism4 ,so1 we might say that while the principle of ,ignorance is philosophically justified1 its unenlightened actualisation in our practical life is altogether unwarranted and brings on us a series of dire calamities4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,tath,,gata-,,garbha ,,and ,,the ,,laya-,,vij,,na4 #abe _/,suchness_/ 7,bhtatatht71 the ultimate principle of existence1 is known by so many different names1 as it is viewed in so many different phases of its manifestation4 ,suchness is the ,essence of ,buddhas1 as it constitutes the reason of ,buddhahood2 it is the ,dharma1 when it is considered the norm of existence2 it is the ,bodhi when it is the source of intelligence2 ,nirvana1 when it brings eternal peace to a heart troubled with egoism and its vile passions2 ,praj 7wisdom71 when it intelligently directs the course of nature2 the ,dharmakya1 when it is religiously considered as the fountain-head of love and wisdom2 the ,bodhicitta 7intelligence-heart71 when it is the awakener of religious consciousness2 nyat 7vacuity71 when viewed as transcending all particular forms2 the summum bonum 7kualam71 when its ethical phase is emphasised2 the ,highest ,truth 7paramrtha71 when its epistemological feature is put forward2 the ,middle ,path 7mdhyamrga71 when it is considered above the onesidedness and limitation of individual existences2 the ,essence of ,being 7bhtakoti71 when its ontological aspect is taken into #abf account2 the ,tathgata-garbha 7the ,womb of ,tathgata71 when it is thought of in analogy to mother earth1 where all the germs of life are stored1 and where all precious stones and metals are concealed under the cover of filth4 ,and it is of this last aspect of ,suchness that ,i here propose to consider at some length4 ,the ,tathgata-,garbha and ,ignorance4 ,tathgata-,garbha literally means ,tathgata's womb#ei or treasure or store1 in which the essence of ,tathgatahood remains concealed under the veil of ,ignorance4 ,it may rightly be called the womb of universe1 from which issues forth the multitudinousness of things1 mental as well as physical4 ,the ,tathgata-,garbha1 therefore1 may be explained ontologically as a state of ,suchness quickened by ,ignorance and ready to be realised in the world of particulars1 that is1 when it is about to transform itself to the duality of subject and object1 though there is yet no perceptible manifestation of motility in any form4 ,psychologically1 it is the transcendental soul of man just coming under the bondage of the law of karmaic causation4 ,though pure and free in its nature as the expression of ,suchness in man1 the transcendental #abg soul or pure intelligence is now influenced by the principle of birth-and-death and subjects itself to organic determinations4 ,as it is1 it is yet devoid of differentiation and limitation1 save that there is a bare possibility of them4 ,it will1 however1 as soon as it is actualised in a special form1 unfold all its particularities subject to their own laws2 it will hunger1 desire1 strive1 and even be annoyed by its material bonds1 and then1 beginning to long for liberation1 will struggle inwardly4 ,here is then no more of the absolute freedom of ,suchness1 as long as its phenomenal phase alone is considered1 since the ,garbha works under the constraint of particularisation4 ,the essence of ,tathgatahood1 however1 is here preserved intact1 and1 whenever it is possible1 our finite minds are able to feel its presence and power4 ,hypothetically1 therefore1 the ,garbha is always in association with passions and desires that are of ,ignorance4 ,we read in the riml-,stra3 8,with the storage of passions attached we find the ,tathgata-,garbha10 or1 8,the ,dharmakya of the ,tathgata not detached from the storage of passions is called ,tathgata-,garbha40 ,in ,buddhism1 passion or desire or sin 7klea7 is generally used in contrast to intelligence or ,bodhi or ,nirvna4 ,as the latter1 religiously considered1 represents a particular manifestation in the human mind of the ,dharmakya or ,bhtatatht1 so the former is a reflection of universal ,ignorance in the microcosm4 ,therefore1 the human soul in which1 according to ,buddhism1 intelligence and desire are merged1 should #abh be regarded as an individuation of the ,tathgata-,garbha4 ,and it is in this capacity that the ,garbha is called layavijna4 ,the layavijna and its ,evolution4 ,as we have seen1 the layavijna or ,all-,conserving ,soul is a particularised expression in the human mind of the ,tathgata-,garbha4 ,it is an individual1 ideal reflex of the cosmic ,garbha4 ,it is this 8psychic germ10 as the laya is often designated1 that stores all the mental possibilities1 which are set in motion by the impetus of an external world1 which works on the laya through the six senses 7vijna74 ,mahynism is essentially idealistic and does not make a radical1 qualitative distinction between subject and object1 thought and being1 mind and nature1 consciousness and energy4 ,therefore1 the being and activity of the laya are essentially those of the ,garbha2 and again1 as the ,garbha is the joint creation of universal ,ignorance and ,suchness1 so is the laya the product of desire 7klea7 and wisdom 7bodhi74 ,the ,garbha and the laya1 however1 are each in itself innocent and absolutely irresponsible for the existing state of affairs4 ,and let it be remarked here that ,buddhism does not condemn this life and universe for their wickedness as was done by some religious teachers and philosophers4 ,the so-called wickedness is not radical in nature and life4 ,it is merely superficial4 ,it is the work of ignorance and desire1 and when they are converted to do service for the #abi ,bodhi1 they cease to be wicked or sinful or evil4 ,buddhists1 therefore1 strongly insist on the innate and intrinsic goodness of the laya and the ,garbha4 ,says ,avaghoa in his ,awakening of ,faith 7p4 #ge73 8,in the ,all-,conserving ,soul 7laya7 ,ignorance obtains1 and from non-enlightenment thus produced starts that which sees1 that which represents1 that which apprehends an objective world1 and that which constantly particularises40 ,here we have the evolution of the ,garbha in its psychological manifestation2 in other words1 we have here the evolution of the layavijna4 ,when the ,garbha or laya comes under the influence of birth-and-death 7samsra71 it no longer retains its primeval indifference or sameness 7samat72 but there come to exist that which sees 7viayin7 and that which is seen 7viaya71 a mind and an objective world4 ,from the interaction of these two forms of existence1 we have now before our eyes the entire panorama of the universe swiftly and noiselessly moving with its never-tiring steps4 ,a most favorite simile with ,buddhists to illustrate these incessant activities of the phenomenal world1 is to compare them to the waves that are seen forever rolling in a boundless ocean1 while the body of waters which make up the ocean is compared to ,suchness1 and the wind that stirs up the waves to the principle of birth-and-death or ignorance which is the same thing4 ,so we read in the ,lankvatra ,stra3 #acj 8,like unto the ocean-waves1 ,which by a raging storm maddened ,against the rugged precipice strike ,without interruption2 ,even so in the ,alaya-sea ,stirred by the objectivity-wind ,all kinds of mentation-waves ,arise a-dancing1 a-rolling40#fj ,but all the psychical activities thus brought into full view1 should not be conceived as different from the ,mind 7citta7 itself4 ,it is merely in the nature of our understanding that we think of attributes apart from their substance1 the latter being imagined to be in possession and control of the former4 ,there is1 however1 in fact no substance per se1 independent of its attributes1 and no attributes detached from that which unites them4 ,and this is one of the fundamental conceptions of ,buddhism1 that there is no soul-in-itself considered apart from its various manifestations such as imagination1 sensation1 intellectuation1 etc4 ,the innumerable ripples and waves and billows of mentation that are stirred in the depths of the ,tathgata-,garbha1 are not things foreign or external to it1 but they are all particular expressions of the same essence1 they are working out its immanent destiny4 ,so continues the ,lankvatra ,stra3 #aca 8,the saline crystal and its red-bluishness1 ,the milky sap and its sweetness1 ,various flowers and their fruits1 ,the sun and the moon and their luminosity3 ,these are neither separable nor inseparable4 ,as waves are stirred in the water1 ,even so the seven modes of mentation ,are awakened in the ,mind and united with it4 ,when the waters are troubled in the ocean1 ,we have waves that roll each in its own way3 ,so with the ,mind ,all-,conserving4 ,when stirred1 therein diverse mentations arise3 ,citta1 ,manas1 and ,manovijna4 ,these we distinguish as attributes1 ,in substance they differ not from each other2 ,for they are neither attributing nor attributed4 ,the sea-water and the waves1 ,one varies not from the other3 ,it is even so with the ,mind and its activities2 ,between them difference nowhere obtains4 ,citta is karma-accumulating1 ,manas reflects an objective world1 ,manovijna is the faculty of judgment1 ,the five ,vijnas are the differentiating senses40#fa #acb ,the ,manas4 ,the layavijna which is sometimes1 as in the preceding quotations1 simply called citta 7mind71 is1 as such1 no more than a state of ,suchness1 allowing itself to be influenced by the principle of birth-and-death1 i4e41 by ,ignorance2 and there has in it taken place as yet no 8awakening0 or 8stirring up0 7vtti71 from which results a consciousness4 ,when the ,manas is evolved1 however1 we have a sign of mentality thereby set in motion1 for the ,manas1 according to the ,mahynists1 marks the dawn of consciousness in the universe4 ,the ,manas1 deriving its reason of consciousness from the ,citta or laya1 reflects on it as well as on an external world1 and becomes conscious of the distinction between me and not-me4 ,but since this not-,i or external world is nothing but an unfoldment of the laya itself1 the ,manas must be said really to be self-reflecting1 when it discriminates between subject and object4 ,if the laya is not yet conscious of itself1 the ,manas is1 as the latter comes to realise the state of self-awareness4 ,the laya is perhaps to be compared in a sense to the ,kantian 8ego of transcendental apperception02 while the ,manas is the actual center of self-consciousness4 ,but the ,manas and the laya 7or ,citta7 are not two different things in the sense that one emanates from the other or that one is created by the other4 ,it is better to understand #acc the ,manas as a state or condition of the ,citta in its evolution4 ,now1 the ,manas is not only contemplative1 but capable of volition4 ,it awakens the desire to cling to the state of individuation1 it harbors egoism1 passion1 and prejudice2 it wills and creates3 for ,ignorance1 the principle of birth-and-death1 is there in its full force1 and the absolute identity of ,suchness is here forever departed4 ,therefore1 the ,manas really marks the beginning of concrete1 particularising consciousness-waves in the eternal ocean of the ,all-,conserving ,mind4 ,the mind which was hitherto indifferent and neutral here acquires a full consciousness2 discriminates between ego and non-ego2 feels pain and pleasure2 clings to that which is agreeable and shrinks from that which is disagreeable2 urges activities according to judgments1 false or truthful2 memorises what has been experienced1 and stores it all3--in short1 all the modes of mentation come into play with the awakening of the ,manas4 ,according to ,avaghoa1 with the evolution of the ,manas there arise five important psychical activities which characterise the human mind4 ,they are3 7#a7 motility1 that is the capability of creating karma2 7#b7 the power to perceive2 7#c7 the power to respond2 7#d7 the power to discriminate2 and 7#e7 individuality4 ,through the exercise of these five functions1 the ,manas is able to create according to its will1 to be a perceiving subject1 to respond to the stimuli of an external world1 to deliver judgments #acd over what it likes and what it dislikes1 and finally to retain all its own 8karma-seeds0 in the past and to mature them for the future1 according to circumstances4 ,with the advent of the ,manas1 the evolution of the ,citta is complete4 ,practically1 it is the consummation of mentality1 for self-consciousness is ripe now4 ,the will can affirm its ego-centric1 dualistic activities1 and the intellect can exercise its discriminating1 reasoning1 and image-retaining faculties4 ,the ,manas now becomes the center of psychic cordination4 ,it receives messages from the six senses and pronounces over the impressions whatever judgments1 intellectual or volitional1 which are needed at the time for its own conservation4 ,it also reflects on its own sanctum1 and1 perceiving there the presence of the laya1 wrongfully jumps to the conclusion that herein lies the real1 ultimate ego-soul1 from which it derives the notions of authority1 unity1 and permanency4 ,as is evident1 the ,manas is a double-edged sword4 ,it may destroy itself by clinging to the error of ego-conception1 or it may1 by a judicious exercise of its reasoning faculty1 destroy all the misconceptions that arise from a wrong interpretation of the principle of ,ignorance4 ,the ,manas destroys itself by being overwhelmed by the dualism of ego and alter1 by taking them for final1 irreducible realities1 and by thus fostering absolute ego-centric thoughts and desires1 and by making itself a willing prey of an indomitable egoism1 religiously and morally4 ,on the other hand1 when it #ace sees an error in the conception of the absolute reality of individuals1 when it perceives a play of ,ignorance in the dualism of me and not-me1 when it recognises the raison d'tre of existence in the essence of ,tathgatahood1 i4e41 in ,suchness1 when it realises that the laya which is mistaken for the ego is no more than an innocent and irreproachable reflection of the cosmic ,garbha1 it at once transcends the sphere of particularity and becomes the very harbinger of eternal enlightenment4 ,buddhists1 therefore1 do not see any error or evil in the evolution of the ,mind 7laya74 ,there is nothing faulty in the awakening of consciousness1 in the dualism of subject and object1 in the individualising operation of birth-and-death 7samsra71 only so long as our ,manas keeps aloof from the contamination of false egoism4 ,the gravest error1 however1 permeates every fiber of our mind with all its wickedness and irrationality1 as soon as the nature of the evolution of the laya is wrongfully interpreted by the abuse of the functions of the ,manas4#fb #acf ,though ,mahynism most emphatically denies the existence of a personal ego which is imagined to be lodging within the body and to be the spiritual master of it1 it does not necessarily follow that it denies the unity of consciousness or personality or individuality4 ,in fact1 the assumption of ,manovijna by ,buddhists most conclusively proves that they have an ego in a sense1 the denial of whose empirical existence is tantamount to the denial of the most concrete facts of our daily experiences4 ,what is most persistently negated by them is not the existence of ego1 but its final1 ultimate reality4 ,but to discuss this subject more fully we have a special chapter below devoted to 8tman40 ,the ,smkhya ,philosophy and ,mahynism4 ,if we draw a comparison between the ,smkhya philosophy and ,mahynism1 the layavijna may #acg be considered an unification of ,soul 7purua7 and ,nature 7prakt71 and the ,manovijna a combination of ,buddhi 7intellect7 or ,mahat 7great element7 with ,ahankra 7ego74 ,according to the ,smkhyakrika 7#aa71 the essential nature of ,prakt is the power of creation1 or1 to use ,buddhist phraseology1 it is blind activity2 while that of ,purua is witnessing 7sakitv7 and perceiving 7drasttv74 7,the ,krika1 #ai47 ,a modern philosopher would say1 ,purua is intelligence and ,prakt the will2 and when they are combined and blended in one1 they make ,hartmann's ,unbewusste ,geist 7unconscious spirit74 ,the ,all-,conserving ,mind 7laya7 in a certain sense resembles the ,unconscious1 as it is the manifestation of ,suchness1 the principle of enlightenment1 in its evolutionary aspect as conditioned by ,ignorance2 and ,ignorance apparently #ach corresponds to the will as the principle of blind activity4 ,the ,smkhya philosophy is an avowed dualism and permits the existence of two principles independent of each other4 ,mahynism is fundamentally monistic and makes ,ignorance merely a condition necessary to the unfolding of ,suchness4#fc ,therefore1 what the ,smkhya splits into two1 ,mahynism puts together in one4 ,so is the parallelism between the ,manovijna1 and ,buddhi and ,ahankra4 ,buddhi1 intellect1 is defined as adhyavasya 7,krika1 #bc71 while ,ahankra is interpreted as abhimanas 7,krika1 #bd71 which is evidently self-consciousness4 ,as to the exact meaning of adhyavasya1 there is a divergence of opinion3 8ascertainment10 8judgment10 8determination10 8apprehension0 are some of the ,english equivalents chosen for it4 ,but the inner signification of ,buddhi is clear enough2 it indicates the awakening of knowledge1 the dawn of rationality1 the first shedding of light on the dark recesses of unconsciousness2 so the commentators give as the synonyms mati 7understanding71 khyti 7cognition71 jnam1 praj1 etc41 the last two of these1 which mean knowledge or intelligence1 being also technical terms of ,mahynism4 ,and1 as we have seen above1 these senses are what the ,buddhists give to their ,manovijna1 save that the #aci latter in addition has the faculty of discriminating between teum and meum1 while in the ,smkhya this is reserved for ,ahankra4 ,thus1 here1 too1 in place of the ,smkhya dualism1 we have the ,buddhist unity4 ,another point we have to take notice here in comparing the two great ,hindu religio-philosophical systems1 is that the ,smkhya philosophy pluralises the ,soul 7purua1 ,krika1 #ah71 while ,buddhism postulates one universal ,citta or laya4 ,according to the followers of ,kapila1 therefore1 there must be as many souls as there are individuals1 and at every departure or advent of an individual there must be assumed a corresponding soul passing away or coming into existence1 though we do not know its whence and whither4 ,buddhism1 on the other hand1 denies the existence of any individual mind apart from the ,all-,conserving ,mind 7laya7 which is universal4 ,individuality first appears at the awakening of the ,manovijna4 ,the quintessence of the ,mind is ,suchness and is not subject to the limitations of time and space as well as the law of causation4 ,but as soon as it asserts itself in the world of particularisation1 it negates itself thereby1 and1 becoming specialised1 gives rise to individual souls4#fd ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,non-,,atman ,,or ,,non-,,ego4 #adj _/,if_/ ,i am requested to formulate the ground-principles of the philosophy of ,mahyna ,buddhism1 and1 indeed1 of all the schools of ,buddhism1 ,i would suggest the following3 7#a7 ,all is momentary 7sarvam kanikam74 7#b7 ,all is empty 7sarvam nyam74 7#c7 ,all is without self 7sarvam antmam74 7#d7 ,all is such as it is 7sarvam tathtvam74 ,these four tenets1 as it were1 are so closely interrelated that1 stand or fall1 they all inevitably share one and the same fate together4 ,whatever different views the various schools of ,buddhism may hold on points of minor importance1 they all concur at least on these four principal propositions4 ,of these four propositions1 the first1 the second1 and the fourth have been elucidated above1 more or less explicitly4 ,if the existence of a relative world is the work of ignorance and as such has no final reality1 it must be considered illusory and empty2 though it does not necessarily follow that on this account our life is not worth living4 ,we must not #ada confuse the moral value of existence with the ontological problem of its phenomenality4 ,it all depends on our subjective attitude whether or not our world and life become full of significance4 ,when the illusiveness or phenomenality of individual existences is granted and we use the world accordingly1 that is1 8as not abusing it10 we escape the error and curse of egoism and take things as they are presented to us1 as reflecting the ,dharma of ,suchness4 ,we no more cling to forms of particularity as something ultimate and absolutely real and as that in which lies the essence of our life4 ,we take them for such as they are1 and recognise their reality only in so far as they are considered a partial realisation of ,suchness1 and do not go any further4 ,suchness1 indeed1 lies not hidden behind them1 but exists immanently in them4 ,things are empty and illusory so long as they are particular things and are not thought of in reference to the ,all that is ,suchness and ,reality4 ,from this1 it logically follows that in this world of relativity all is momentary1 that nothing is permanent1 so far as isolated1 particular existences are concerned4 ,even independently of the statement made above1 the doctrine of universal impermanency is an almost self-evident truth experienced everywhere1 and does not require any special demonstration to prove its validity4 ,the desire for immortality which is so conspicuous and persistent in all the stages of development of the religious consciousness that the very desire has been thought to be the essence of all #adb religious systems1 is the most conclusive proof that things on this earth are in a constant flux of becoming1 and that there is nothing permanent or stationary in our individual existences2 if otherwise1 people would never have sought for immortality4 ,if this be granted as a fact of our everyday experience1 we naturally ask3 8,why are things so changeable8 ,why is life so fleeting8 ,what is it that makes things so mutable and transitory80 ,to this1 the ,buddhist's answer is3 ,because the universe is a resultant product of many efficient forces that are acting according to different karmas2--the destiny of those forces being that no one force or no one set of forces can constantly be predominant over all the others1 but that when one has exhausted its potential karma1 it is replaced by another that has been steadily coming forward in the meantime4 ,hence the universal cadence of birth and death1 of the spring and the fall1 of the tide and the ebb1 of integration and disintegration4 ,where there is attraction1 there is repulsion2 where there is the centripetal force1 there is the centrifugal force4 ,because it is the law of karma that at the very moment of birth the arms of death are around the neck of life4 ,the universe is nothing but a grand rhythmic manifestation of certain forces working in conformity to their predetermined laws2 or1 to use ,buddhist terminology1 this lokadhtu 7material world7 consists in a concatenation of hetus 7causes7 and pratyayas 7conditions7 regulated by their karma4 #adc ,if this were not so1 there would be either a certain fixed state of things in which perfect equilibrium would be maintained1 or an inexpressible confusion of things of which no knowledge or experience would be possible4 ,in the former case1 we should have universal stagnation and eternal death2 in the latter case1 there would be no universe1 no life1 nothing but absolute chaos4 ,therefore1 so long as we have the world before us1 in which all the possible varieties of particularisation are manifested it cannot be otherwise than in a state of constant vicissitudes and therefore of universal transitoriness4 ,now1 the ,buddhist argument for the theory of non-ego is this3 ,if individual existences are due to relations obtaining between diverse forces1 which act sometimes in unison with and sometimes in opposition to one another as predetermined by their karma1 they cannot be said to have any transcendental agency behind them1 which is a permanent unity and absolute dictator4 ,in other words1 there is no tman or ego-soul behind our mental activities1 and no thing-in-itself 7svabhva71 so to speak1 behind each particular form of existence4 ,this is called the ,buddhist theory of non-tman or non-ego4 tman4 ,buddhists use the term 8tman0 in two senses3 first1 in the sense of personal ego1#fe and secondly1 in #add that of thing-in-itself1 perhaps1 with a slight modification of its commonly accepted meaning4 ,let us use the term 8tman0 here in its first sense as equivalent to bhttman1 for we are going first to treat of the doctrine of non-ego1 and later of that of no-thing-in-itself4 tman is usually translated 8life10 8ego10 or 8soul10#ff and is a technical term used both by ,vedanta philosophers and ,buddhists4 ,but we have to note at the beginning that they do not use the term in the same sense4 ,when the ,vedanta philosophy1 especially the later one1 speaks of tman as our inmost self which is identical with the universal ,brahma1 it is used in its most abstract metaphysical sense and does not mean the soul whatever1 as the latter is #ade commonly understood by vulgar minds4 ,on the other hand1 ,buddhists understand by tman this vulgar1 materialistic conception of the soul 7bhttman7 and positively denies its existence as such4 ,if we1 for convenience' sake1 distinguish between phenomenal and noumenal in our notion of ego or soul1 the tman of ,buddhism is the phenomenal ego1 namely1 a concrete agent that is supposed to do the acting1 thinking1 and feeling2 while the tman of ,vedantists is the noumenal ego as the raison d'tre of our psychical life4 ,the one is in fact material1 however ethereal it might be conceived4 ,the other is a highly metaphysical conception transcending the reach of human discursive knowledge4 ,the latter may be identified with ,paramtman and the former with ,jvtman4 ,paramtman is a universal soul from which1 according to ,vedantism1 emanates this world of phenomena1 and in a certain sense it may be said to correspond to the ,tathgata-garbha of ,buddhism4 ,jvtman is the ego-soul as it is conceived by ignorant people as an independent entity directing all the mental activities4 ,it is this latter tman that was found to be void by ,buddha when he arose from his long meditation1 declaring3 8,many a life to transmigrate1 ,long quest1 no rest1 hath been my fate1 ,tent-designer#fg inquisitive for3 ,painful birth from state to state4 #adf 8,tent-designer6 ,i know thee now2 ,never again to build art thou3 ,quite out are all thy joyful fires1 ,rafter broken and roof-tree gone1 ,gain eternity--dead desires40#fh ,buddha's ,first ,line of ,inquiry4 ,buddhism finds the source of all evils and sufferings in the vulgar material conception of the ego-soul1 and concentrates its entire ethical force upon the destruction of the ego-centric notions and desires4 ,the ,buddha seems1 since the beginning of his wandering life1 to have conceived the idea that the way of salvation must lie somehow in the removal of this egoistic prejudice1 for so long as we are not liberated from its curse we are liable to become the prey of the three venomous passions3 covetousness1 infatuation1 and anger1 and to suffer the misery of birth and death and disease and old age4 ,thus1 when he received his first instructions from the ,smkhya philosopher1 ,arada1 he was not satisfied1 because he did not teach how to abandon this ego-soul itself4 ,the ,buddha argued3 8,i consider that the embodied ego-soul1 though freed from the evolvent-evolutes1#fi #adg is still subject to the condition of birth and has the condition of a seed4 ,the seed may remain dormant so long as it is deprived of the opportunity of coming into contact with the requisite conditions of quickening and being quickened1 but since its germinating power has not been destroyed1 it will surely develop all its potentialities as soon as it is brought into that necessary contact4 ,even though the ego-soul free from entanglement i4e4 from the bondage of ,prakti is declared to be liberated1 yet1 so long as the ego-soul remains1 there can be no absolute abandonment of it1 there can be no real abandonment of egoism40#gj ,the ,buddha then proceeds to indicate the path through which he reached his final conclusion and declares3 8,there is no real separation of the qualities and their subject2 for fire cannot be conceived apart from its heat and form40 ,when this argument is logically carried out1 it leads nowhere but to the ,buddhist doctrine of non-tman1 that says3 ,the existence of an ego-soul cannot be conceived apart from sensation1 perception1 imagination1 intelligence1 volition1 etc41 and1 therefore1 it is absurd to think that there is an independent individual soul-agent which makes our consciousness its workshop4 ,to imagine that an object can be abstracted from its qualities1 not only logically but in reality1 that there is some unknown quantity that is in #adh possession of such and such characteristic marks 7lakana7 whereby it makes itself perceivable by our senses1 says ,buddhism1 is wrong and unwarranted by reason4 ,fire cannot be conceived apart from its form and heat2 waves cannot be conceived apart from the water and its commotion2 the wheel cannot exist outside of its rim1 spokes1 axle1 etc4 ,all things1 thus1 are made of hetus and pratyayas1 of causes and conditions1 of qualities and attributes2 and it is impossible for our pudgala or tman or ego or soul to be any exception to this universal condition of things4 ,let me in this connection state an interesting incident in the history of ,chinese ,buddhism4 ,hui-,k'e1 the second patriarch of the ,dhyna sect in ,china1 was troubled with this ego-problem before his conversion4 ,he was at first a faithful ,confucian1 but ,confucianism did not satisfy all his spiritual wants4 ,his soul was wavering between agnosticism and scepticism1 and consequently he felt an unspeakable anguish in his inmost heart4 ,when he learned of the arrival of ,bodhidharma in his country1 he hastened to his monastery and implored him to give him some spiritual advice4 ,but ,bodhidharma did not utter a word1 being seemingly absorbed in his deep meditation4 ,hui-,k'e1 however1 was determined to obtain from him some religious instructions at all hazards4 ,so it is reported that he was standing at the same spot seven days and nights1 when he at last cut off his left arm with the sword he was carrying 7being #adi a military officer7 and placed it before ,dharma1 saying3 8,this arm is a token of my sincere desire to be instructed in the ,holy ,doctrine4 ,my soul is troubled and annoyed2 pray let your grace show me the way to pacify it40 ,dharma quietly arose from his meditation and said3 8,where is your soul8 ,bring it here and ,i will have it pacified40 ,hui-,k'e replied3 8,i have been searching for it all these years1 but ,i have never succeeded in laying a hand on it40 ,dharma then exclaimed3 8,there1 ,i have your soul pacified60 ,at this1 it is said1 a flash of spiritual enlightenment went across the mind of ,hui-,k'e1 and his 8soul0 was pacified once for all4 ,the ,skandhas4 ,when the five skandhas are combined according to their previous karma and present a temporal existence in the form of a sentient being1 vulgar minds imagine that they have here an individual entity sustained by an immortal ego-substratum4 ,in fact1 the material body 7rpakya7 alone is not what makes the ego-soul1 nor the sensation 7vedan71 nor the deeds 7sanskra71 nor the consciousness 7vijna71 nor the conception 7samj72 but only when they are all combined in a certain form they make a sentient being4 ,yet this combination is not the work of a certain independent entity1 which1 according to its own will1 combines the five skandhas in one form and then hides itself in it4 ,the combination of the constituent #aej elements1 ,buddhism declares1 is achieved by themselves after their karma4 ,when a certain number of atoms of hydrogen and of oxygen are brought together1 they attract each other on their own accord or owing to their own karma1 and the result is water4 ,the ego of water1 so to speak1 did not will to bring the two elements and make itself out of them4 ,even so is it with the existence of a sentient being1 and there is no need of hypostasising a fabulous ego-monster behind the combination of the five skandhas4 ,skandha 7khanda in ,pli7 literally means 8aggregate0 or 8agglomeration01 and1 according to the ,chinese exegetists1 it is called so1 because our personal existence is an aggregate of the five constituent elements of being1 because it comes to take a definite individual form when the skandhas are brought together according to their previous karma4 ,the first of the five aggregates is matter 7rpa71 whose essential quality is thought to consist in resistance4 ,the material part of our existence in the five sense-organs called indryas3 eyes1 ears1 nose1 tongue1 and the body4 ,the second skandha is called sensation or sense-impression 7vedan71 which results from the contact of the six vijnas 7senses7 with the viaya 7external world74 ,the third is called samj which corresponds to our conception4 ,it is the psychic power by which we are enabled to form the abstract images of particular objects4 ,the fourth is sanskra which may be rendered action or deed4 ,our intelligent consciousness1 #aea responding to impressions received which are either agreeable or disagreeable or indifferent1 acts accordingly2 and these acts bear fruit in the coming generations4 ,sanskra1 the fourth constituent of being1 comprises two categories1 mental 7caitta7 and non-mental 7cittaviprayukta74 ,and the mental is subdivided into six3 fundamental 7mahbhmi71 good 7kuala71 tormenting 7klea71 evil 7akuala71 tormenting minor 7upaklea71 and indefinite 7aniyata74 ,it may be interesting to enumerate what all these sankras are1 as they shed light on the practical ethics of ,buddhism4 ,there are ten fundamental sanskras belonging to the category of mental or psychic activities3 #a4 cetan 7mentation71 #b4 spara 7contact71 #c4 chanda 7desire71 #d4 mati 7understanding71 #e4 smti 7recollection71 #f4 manaskara 7concentration71 #g4 adhimoka 7unfettered intelligence71 #h4 samdhi 7meditation74 ,the ten good sanskras are3 #a4 raddh 7faith71 #b4 vrya 7energy71 #c4 upeka 7complacency71 #d4 hr 7modesty71 #e4 apatrap 7shame71 #f alobha 7non-covetousness71 #g4 advea 7freedom from hatred71 #h4 ahimsa 7gentleness of heart71 #i4 praradbhi 7mental repose71 #aj4 apramda 7attentiveness74 ,the six tormenting sanskras are as follows3 #a4 moha 7folly71 #b4 pramda 7wantonness71 #c4 kusidya 7indolence71 #d4 arddhya 7scepticism71 #e4 styna 7slothfulness71 #f4 uddhatpa 7unsteadiness74 ,the two minor evil sanskras are3 #a4 ahrkat1 state of not being modest1 or arrogance1 or self-assertiveness1 #aeb and #b4 anapatrapa1 being lost to shame1 or to be without conscience4 ,the ten minor tormenting sanskras are3 #a4 krodha 7anger71 #b4 mraka 7secretiveness71 #c4 mtsarya 7niggardliness71 #d4 rya 7envy74 #e4 prada 7uneasiness71 #f4 vihims 7noxiousness71 #g4 upanha 7malignity71 #h4 my 7trickiness71 #i4 thya 7dishonesty71 #aj4 mada 7arrogance74 ,the eight indefinite sanskras are3 #a4 kuktya 7repentance71 #b4 middha 7sleep71 #c4 vitarka 7inquiry71 #d4 vicra 7investigation71 #e4 rga 7excitement71 #f4 pratigha 7wrath71 #g4 mna 7self-reliance71 #h4 vicikits 7doubting74 ,the second grand category of sanskra which is not included under 8mental0 or 8psychic10 comprises fourteen items as follows3 #a4 prpti 7attainment71 #b4 aprpti 7non-attainment71 #c4 sabhgat 7grouping71 #d asanjika 7unconsciousness71 #e4 asanjisampatti 7unconscious absorption in religious meditation71 #f4 nirodhasampatti 7annihilation-trance of a heretic71 #g4 jvita 7vitality71 #h4 jti 7birth71 #i4 sthiti 7existing71 #aj4 jar 7decadence71 #aa4 anityat 7transitoriness71 #ab4 nmakya 7name71 #ac4 padakya 7phrase71 #ad4 vyajanakya 7sentence74 ,now1 to return to the main problem4 ,the fifth skandha is called vijna1 commonly rendered consciousness1 which1 however1 is not quite correct4 ,the vijna is intelligence or mentality1 it is the psychic power of discrimination1 and in many cases it can be translated by sense4 ,there are1 according to ,hnaynists1 six vijnas or senses3 visual1 auditory1 olfactory1 gustatory1 tactual1 and cogitative2 according #aec to ,mahynism there are eight vijnas3 the manovijna and the layavijna1 being added to the above six4 ,this psychological phase of ,mahyna philosophy is principally worked out by the ,yogcra school1 whose leading thinkers are ,asanga and ,vasubandhu4 ,king ,milinda and ,ngasena4 ,buddhist literature1 ,northern as well as ,southern1 abounds with expositions of the doctrine of non-ego1 as it is one of the most important foundation-stones on which the magnificent temple of ,buddhism is built4 ,the dialogue#ga between ,king ,milinda and ,ngasena1 among many others1 is very interesting for various reasons and full of suggestive thoughts1 and we have the following discussion of theirs concerning the problem of ego abstracted from the ,dialogue4 ,at their first meeting the ,king asks ,ngasena1 8,how is your ,reverence known1 and what is your name80 ,to this the monk-philosopher replies3 8,i am known as ,ngasena1 and it is by that name that my brethren in the faith address me4 ,but although parents give such a name as ,ngasena1 or ,srasena1 ,vrasena1 or ,shasena1 yet this ,ngasena and so on--is only a generally understood term1 a designation in common use4 ,for there is no permanent self involved in the matter40 ,being greatly surprised by this answer1 the ,king #aed volleys upon ,ngasena a series of questions as follows3 8,if there be no permanent self involved in the matter1 who is it1 pray1 who gives to you members of the ,order your robes and food and lodging and necessaries for the sick8 ,who is it who enjoys such things when given8 ,who is it who lives a life of righteousness8 ,who is it who devotes himself to meditation8 ,who is it who attains to the goal of the ,excellent ,way1 to the ,nirvna of ,arhatship8 ,and who is it who destroys living creatures8 who is it who takes what is not his own8 who is it who lives an evil life of worldly lusts1 who speaks lies1 who drinks strong drink1 who in a word commits any one of the five sins which work out their bitter fruit even in this life8 ,if that be so1 there is neither merit nor demerit2 there is neither doer nor cause of good or evil deeds2 there is neither fruit nor result of good or evil karma4 ,if we are to think that were a man to kill you there would be no murder1#gb then it follows that there are no real masters or teachers in your ,order1 that your ordinations are void4 ,you tell me that your brethren in the ,order are in the habit of addressing you as ,ngasena4 ,now1 what is that ,ngasena8 ,do you mean to say that the hair is ,ngasena80 ,this last query being denied by the ,buddhist sage1 the ,king asks3 8,or is it the nails1 the skin1 the flesh1 the nerves1 the bones1 the marrow1 the kidneys1 #aee the heart1 the liver1 the abdomen1 the spleen1 the lungs1 the larger intestines1 the smaller intestines1 the faeces1 the bile1 the phlegm1 the pus1 the blood1 the sweat1 the fat1 the tears1 the serum1 the saliva1 the mucus1 the oil that lubricates the joints1 the urine1 or the brain or any or all of these1 that is ,ngasena8 8,is it the material form that is ,ngasena1 or the sensations1 or the ideas1 or the confections 7deeds71 or the consciousness1 that is ,ngasena80 ,to all these questions1 the ,king1 having received a uniform denial1 exclaims in excitement3 8,then1 thus1 ask as ,i may1 ,i can discover no ,ngasena4 ,ngasena is a mere empty sound4 ,who then is the ,ngasena that we see before us8#gc ,it is a falsehood that your ,reverence has spoken1 an untruth80 ,ngasena does not give any direct answer1 but quietly proposes some counter-questions to the ,king4 ,ascertaining that he came in a carriage to the ,buddhist philosopher1 he asks3 8,is it the wheel1 or the framework1 or the ropes1 or the spokes of the wheels1 or the goad1 that are the chariot80 ,to this1 the king says1 8,no10 and continues3 8,it is on account of its having all these things that it #aef comes under the generally understood term1 the designation in common use1 of #8chariot4'0 8,very good10 says ,ngasena1 8,your ,majesty has rightly grasped the meaning of #8chariot4' ,and just even so it is on account of all these things you questioned me about the thirty-two kinds of organic matter in a human body1 and the five skandhas 7constituent elements of being7 that ,i come under the generally-understood term1 the designation in common use1 of #8,ngasena4'0 ,then1 the sage quotes in way of confirmation a passage from the ,samyutta ,nikya3 8,just as it is by the condition precedent of the co-existence of its various parts that the word #8chariot' is used1 just so it is that when the skandhas are there we talk of a #8being4'0 99 99 99 ,to further illustrate the theory of non-tman from earlier ,buddhist literature1 let me quote the following from the ,jtaka ,tales 7,no4 #bdd73 ,the ,bodhisattva said to a pilgrim4 8,will you have a drink of ,ganges-water fragrant with the scent of the forest80 ,the pilgrim tried to catch him in his words3 8,what is the ,ganges8 ,is the sand the ,ganges8 ,is the water the ,ganges8 ,is the hither bank the ,ganges8 ,is the further bank the ,ganges80 ,but the ,bodhisattva retorted1 8,if you except the #aeg water1 the sand1 the hither bank1 and the further bank1 where can you find any ,ganges80 ,following this argument we might say1 8,where is the ego-soul1 except imagination1 volition1 intellection1 desire1 aspiration1 etc480 ,ananda's ,attempts to ,locate the ,soul4 ,in the ,surangama ,sutra#gd1 ,buddha exposes the absurdity of the hypothesis of an individual concrete soul-substance by subverting ndanda's seven successive attempts to determine its whereabouts4 ,most people who firmly believe in personal immortality1 will see how vague and chimerical and logically untenable is their notion of the soul1 when it is critically examined as in the following case4 nanda's conception of the soul is somewhat puerile1 but ,i doubt whether even in our enlightened age the belief #aeh entertained by the multitude is any better than his4 ,when questioned by the ,buddha as to the locality of the soul1 nanda asserts that it resides within the body4 ,thereupon1 the ,buddha says3 8,if your intelligent soul resides within your corporeal body1 how is it that it does not see your inside first8 ,to illustrate1 what we see first in this lecture hall is the interior and it is only when the windows are thrown open that we are able to see the outside garden and woods4 ,it is impossible for us who are sitting in the hall to see the outside only and not to see the inside4 ,reasoning in a similar way1 why does not the soul that is considered to be within the body see the internal organs first such as the stomach1 heart1 veins etc48 ,if however it does not see the inside1 surely it cannot be said to reside within the body40 nanda now proposes to solve the problem by locating the soul outside the body4 ,he says that the soul is like a candle-light placed without this hall4 ,where the light shines everything is visible1 but within the room there are no candles burning1 and therefore here prevails nothing but darkness4 ,this explains the incapacity of the soul to see the inside of the body4 ,but the ,buddha argues that 8it is impossible for the soul to be outside4 ,if so1 what the soul feels may not be felt by the body1 and what the body feels may not be felt by the soul1 as there is no relationship between the two4 ,the fact1 however1 is that when you1 nanda1 see my hand thus stretched1 you are conscious that you have the perception of #aei it4 ,as far as there is a correspondence between the soul and the body1 the soul cannot be said to be residing outside the body40 ,the third hypothesis assumed by nanda is that the soul hides itself just behind the sense-organs4 ,suppose a man put a pair of lenses over his eyes4 ,cannot he see the outside world through them8 ,the reason why it cannot see the inside is that it resides within the sense-organs4 ,but says the ,buddha3 8,when we have a lens over an eye1 we perceive this lens as well as the outside world4 ,if the soul is hidden behind the sense-organ1 why does it not see the sense-organ itself8 ,as it does not in fact1 it cannot be residing in the place you mention40 ,ananda proposes another theory4 8,within1 we have the stomach1 liver1 heart1 etc43 without1 we have so many orifices4 ,where the internal organs are1 there is darkness2 but where we have openings1 there is light4 ,close the eyes and the soul sees the darkness inside4 ,open the eyes and it sees the brightness outside4 ,what do you say to this theory80 ,the ,buddha says3 8,if you take the darkness you see when the eyes are closed for your inside1 do you consider this darkness as something confronting your soul1 or not8 ,in the first case1 wherever there prevails a darkness1 that must be thought to be your interior organs4 ,in the latter case1 seeing is impossible1 for seeing presupposes the existence of subject and object4 ,besides this1 there is another difficulty4 ,granting #afj your supposition that the eye could turn itself inward or outward and see the darkness of the interior or the brightness of the external world1 it could also see your own face when the eye is opened4 ,if it could not do so1 it must be said to be incapable of turning the sight inward40 ,the fifth assumption as made by nanda is that the soul is the essence of understanding or intelligence1 which is not within1 nor without1 nor in the middle1 but which comes into actual existence as soon as it confronts the objective world1 for it is taught by the ,buddha that the world exists on account of the mind and the mind on account of the world4 ,to this the ,buddha replies3 8,according to your argument1 the soul must be said to exist before it comes in contact with the world2 otherwise1 the contact cannot have any sense4 ,the soul1 then1 exists as an individual presence1 not after nor at the time of a contact with the external world1 but assuredly before the contact4 ,granting this1 we come back again to the old difficulties3 ,does the soul come out of your inside1 or does it come in from the outside8 ,in case of the first alternative1 the soul must be able to see its own face40 nanda interrupts3 8,seeing is done by the eyes1 and the soul has nothing to do with it40 ,the ,buddha objects3 8,if so1 a dead man has eyes just as perfect as a living man4#ge ,he must be able #afa to see things1 but if he sees at all1 he cannot be dead4 ,well1 if your intelligent soul has a concrete existence1 should it be thought simple or compound8 ,should it be thought of as filling the body or being present only in a particular spot8 ,if it is a simple unit1 when one of your limbs is touched1 all the four will at once be conscious of the touch1 which really means no touch4 ,if the soul is a compound body1 how can it distinguish itself from another soul8 ,if it is filling the body all over1 there will be no localisation of sensation1 as must be the case according to the first supposition of a simple soul-unit4 ,finally1 if it occupies only a particular part of the body1 you may experience certain feelings on that spot only1 and all the other parts will remain perfectly anesthetic4 ,all these hypotheses are against the actual facts of our experience and cannot be logically maintained40 ,for the sixth time1 nanda ventures to untie the ,gordian knot of the soul-problem4 8,as the soul cannot be located neither within nor without1 it must be somewhere in the middle40 ,but the ,buddha again refutes this1 saying3 8,this #8middle' is extremely indefinite4 ,should it be located as a point in space or somewhere on the body8 ,if it is on the surface of the body1 #afb it is not the middle2 if it is in the body1 it is then within4 ,if it is said to occupy a point in space1 how should that point be indicated8 ,without an indication1 a point is no point2 and if an indication is needed1 it can be fixed anywhere arbitrarily1 and then there will be no end of confusion40 nanda interposes and says that he does not mean this kind of 8middle40 ,the eye and the color conditioning each other1 there comes to exist visual perception4 ,the eye has the faculty to discriminate1 and the color-world has no sensibility2 but the perception takes place in their 8middle10 that is1 in their interaction2 and then it is said that there exists a soul4 ,says the ,buddha3 8,if the soul1 as you say1 exists in the relation between the sense-organs 7indya7 and their respective sense-objects 7viaya71 should we consider the soul as uniting and partaking the natures of these two incongruous things1 viaya and indya8 ,if the soul partakes something of each1 it has no characteristics of its own4 ,if it unites the two natures1 the distinction between subject and object exists no more4 #8,in the middle' is an empty word2 that is to say1 to conceive the soul as the relation between the indryas and the viayas is to make it an airy nothing40 ,the seventh and final hypothesis offered by nanda is that the soul is the state of non-attachment1 and that1 therefore1 it has no particular locality in which it abides4 ,but this is also mercilessly attacked by the ,buddha who declares3 8,attachment presupposes the existence of beings to which a mind-may be attached4 #afc ,now1 should we consider these things 7dharmas7 such as the world1 space1 land1 water1 birds1 beasts1 etc4 as existing or not existing8 ,if the external world does not exist1 we cannot speak about non-attachment1 as there is nothing to attach from the first4 ,if the external world really is1 how can we manage not to come in contact with it8 ,when we say that things are devoid of all characteristic marks1 it amounts to the declaration that they are non-existent4 ,but they are not non-existent1 they must have certain characteristics that distinguish themselves4 ,now1 the external world has certainly some marks 7lakana7 and it must by all means be considered as existing4 ,there then is no room for your theory of non-attachment40 ,at this1 nanda surrenders and the ,buddha discloses his theory of ,dharmakya1 which we shall expound at some length in the chapter specially devoted to it4 99 99 99 ,by way of a summary of the above1 let me remark that the ,buddhists do not deny the existence of the so-called empirical ego in contradistinction to the noumenal ego1 which latter can be considered to correspond to the ,buddhist tman4 ,vasubandhu in his treatise on the ,yogcra's idealistic philosophy declares that the existence of tman and dharma is only hypothetical1 provisional1 apparent1 and not in any sense real and ultimate4 ,to express this in modern terms1 the soul and the world1 or subject and object1 have only relative existence1 and no absolute reality can #afd be ascribed to them4 ,psychologically speaking1 every one of us has an ego or soul which means the unity of consciousness2 and physically1 this world of phenomena is real either as a manifestation of one energy or as a composite of atoms or electrons1 as is considered by physicists4 ,to confine ourselves to the psychological question1 what ,buddhism most emphatically insists on is the non-existence of a concrete1 individual1 irreducible soul-substance1 whose immortality is so much coveted by most unenlightened people4 ,individuation is only relative and not absolute4 ,buddhism knows how far the principle could safely and consistently be carried out1 and its followers will not forget where to stop and destroy the wall1 almost adamantine to some religionists1 of individualism4 ,absolute individualism1 as the ,buddhists understand it1 incapacitates us to follow the natural flow of sympathy2 to bathe in the eternal sunshine of divinity which not only surrounds but penetrates us2 to escape the curse of individual immortality which is strangely so much sought after by some people2 to trace this mundane life to its fountainhead of which it drinks so freely1 yet quite unknowingly2 to rise rejuvenated from the consuming fire of ,kla 7,chronos74 ,to think that there is a mysterious something behind the empirical ego and that this something comes out triumphantly after the fashion of the immortal phnix from the funeral pyre of corporeality1 is not ,buddhistic4 ,what ,i would remark here in connection with this #afe problem of the soul1 is its relation to that of layavijna1 of which it is said that the ,buddha was very reluctant to talk1 on account of its being easily confounded with the notion of the ego4 ,the laya1 as was explained1 is a sort of universal soul from which our individual empirical souls are considered to have evolved4 ,the ,manas which is the first offspring of the laya is endowed with the faculty of discrimination1 and from the wrongful use of this faculty there arises in the ,manas the conception of the laya as the ego1--the real concrete soul-substratum4 ,the laya1 however1 is not a particular phenomenon1 for it is a state of ,suchness in its evolutionary disposition and has nothing in it yet to suggest its concrete individuality4 ,when the ,manas finds out its error and lifts the veil of ,ignorance from the body of the laya1 it soon becomes convinced of the ultimate nature of the soul1 so called4 ,for the soul is not individual1 but supra-individual4 tman and the 8,old ,man40 ,when the ,buddhists exclaim3 8,put away your egoism1 for the ego is an empty notion1 a mere word without reality10 some of our ,christian readers may think that if there is no ego1 what will become of our personality or individuality8 ,though this point will become clearer as we proceed1 let us remark here that what ,buddhism understands by ego or tman may be considered to correspond in many respects to the ,christian notion of 8flesh0 or the #aff 8old man10 which is the source of all our sinful acts4 ,says ,paul3 8,i am crucified with ,christ2 nevertheless ,i live2 yet not ,i1 but ,christ liveth in me3 and the life which ,i live now in the flesh ,i live by the faith of the ,son of ,god1 who loved me and gave himself for me40 7,gal4 ii1 #bj47 ,when this passage is interpreted by the ,buddhists1 the 8,i0 that was annihilated through crucifixion1 is our false notion of an ego-soul 7tman72 and the 8,i0 that is living through the grace of ,god is the ,bodhi1 a reflex in us of the ,dharmakya4 ,when ,christians put the spirit and the flesh in contrast and advise us to 8walk in the spirit0 and not to 8fulfil the lust of the flesh10 it must be said that they understand by the flesh our concrete1 material existence whose characteristic is predominantly individual1 and by the spirit1 that which transcends particularity and egoism2 for 8love1 joy1 peace1 long-suffering1 faith1 meekness1 temperance10 and suchlike virtues are possible only when our egocentric1 tman-made desires are utterly abnegated4 ,buddhism is more intellectual than ,christianity or ,judaism and prefers philosophical terms which are better understood than popular language which leads often to confusion4 ,compared with the ,buddhists' conception of tman1 the 8flesh0 lacks in perspicuity and exactitude1 not to speak of its dualistic tendency which is extremely offensive to the ,buddhists4 #afg ,the ,vedantic ,conception4 ,though the doctrine of non-tman is pre-eminently ,buddhistic1 other ,hindu philosophers did not neglect to acknowledge its importance in our religious life4 ,having grown in the same soil under similar circumstances1 the following passage which is taken from the ,yogavsistha 7which is supposed to be a ,vedantic work1 ,upaama ,p41 ch4 ,,lii1 #ca1 #dd7 sounds almost like ,buddhistic3 8,i am absolute1 ,i am the light of intelligence1 ,i am free from the defilement of egoism4 ,o thou that art unreal6 ,i am not bound by thee1 the seed of egoism40#gf ,the author then argues3 ,where shall we consider the ego-soul1 so called1 to be residing in this body of flesh and bones8 and what does it look like8 ,we move our limbs1 but the movement is due to the vital airs 7vta74 ,we think1 but consciousness is a manifestation of the great mind 7mahcitta74 ,we cease to exist1 but extinction belongs to the body 7kya74 ,now1 take apart what we imagine to constitute our personal existence4 ,the flesh is one thing1 the blood is another1 and so on with mentation 7bodha7 and vitality 7spanda74 ,the ear hears1 the tongue tastes1 the eye sees1 the mind #afh thinks1 but what and where is that which we call 8ego08 ,then comes the conclusion3 8,in reality1 there is no such thing as the ego-soul1 nor is there any mine and thine1 nor imagination4 ,all this is nothing but the manifestation of the universal soul which is the light of pure intelligence40#gg ,ngrjuna on the ,soul4 ,in conclusion1 let me quote some passage bearing on the subject from ,ngrjuna's ,discourse on the ,middle ,path 7chapter #i73gh 8,some say that there are seeing1 hearing1 feeling1 etc41 because there is something which exists even prior to those manifestations4 ,for how could seeing1 etc4 come from that which does not exist8 ,therefore1 it must be admitted that that being i4e4 soul existed prior to those manifestations4 8,but this hypothesis of the prior 7prva7 or independent existence of the soul is wrong1 because how could that being be known if it existed prior to seeing1 feeling1 etc48 ,if that being could exist without seeing1 etc41 the latter too could surely exist without that being4 ,but how could a thing which could not be known by any sign exist before it is known8 ,how could this exist without that1 and how could #afi that exist without this8 ,are not all things relative and conditioning one another8 8,if that being called soul could not exist prior to all manifestations such as seeing1 etc41 how could it exist prior to each of them taken individually8 8,if it is the same soul that sees1 hears1 feels1 etc41 it must be assumed that the soul exists prior to each of these manifestations4 ,this1 however1 is not warranted by facts4 ,because in that case one must be able to hear with the eyes1 see with the ears1 as one soul is considered to direct all these diverse faculties at its will4 8,if1 on the other hand1 the hearer is one1 and the seer is another1 the feeler must be still another4 ,then1 there will be hearing1 seeing1 etc4 simultaneously1--which leads to the assumption of a plurality of souls4#gi ,this too is against experience4 8,further1 the soul does not exist in the element 7bhta7 on which seeing1 hearing1 feeling1 etc4 depend4 ,to use modern expression1 the soul does not exist in the nerves which respond to the external stimuli4 8,if seeing1 hearing1 feeling1 etc4 have no soul that exists prior to them1 they too have no existence as such4 ,for how could that exist without this1 and this without that8 ,subject and object are mutually conditioned4 ,the soul as it is has no independent1 individual reality whatever4 ,therefore1 the hypothesis that contends for the existence of an ego-soul prior #agj to simultaneous with1 or posterior to1 seeing1 etc41 is to be abandoned as fruitless1 for the ego-soul existeth not40 ,non-tman-ness of ,things4 ,the word 8tman0 is used by the ,buddhists not only psychologically in the sense of soul1 self1 or ego1 but also ontologically in the sense of substance or thing-in-itself or thinginess2 and its existence in this capacity is also strongly denied by them4 ,for the same reason that the existence of an individual ego-soul is untenable1 they reject the hypothesis of the permanent existence of an individual object as such4 ,as there is no transcendent agent in our soul-life1 so there is no real1 eternal existence of individuals as individuals1 but a system of different attributes1 which1 when the force of karma is exhausted1 ceases to subsist4 ,individual existences cannot be real by their inherent nature1 but they are illusory1 and will never remain permanent as such2 for they are constantly becoming1 and have no selfhood though they may so appear to our particularising senses on account of our subjective ignorance4 ,they are in reality cnya and antman1 they are empty and void of tman4 ,svabhva4 ,the term 8svabhva0 7self-essence or noumenon7 is sometimes used by the ,mahynists in place of tman1 and they would say that all dharmas have no self-essence1 #aga sarvam dharmam nisvabhvam1 which is to say1 that all things in their phenomenal aspect are devoid of individual selves1 that it is only due to our ignorance that we believe in the thinginess of things1 whereas there is no such thing as svabhva or tman or noumenon which resides in them4 ,svabhva and tman are thus habitually used by ,buddhists as quite synonymous4 ,what do they exactly understand by 8svabhva0 whose existence is denied in a particular object as perceived by our senses8 ,this has never been explicitly defined by the ,mahynists1 but they seem to understand by svabhva something concrete1 individual1 yet independent1 unconditional1 and not subject to the law of causation 7pratyayasamutpda74 ,it1 therefore1 stands in opposition to nyat1 emptiness1 as well as to conditionality4 ,inasmuch as all beings are transient and empty in their inherent being1 they cannot logically be said to be in possession of self-essence which defies the law of causation4 ,all things are mutually conditioning and limiting1 and apart from their relativity they are non-existent and cannot be known by us4 ,therefore1 says ,ngrjuna1 8,if substance be different from attribute1 it is then beyond comprehension40#hj ,for 8a jag is not to be known independent of matter et cetera1 and matter in turn is not to be known independent of ether et cetera40#ha #agb ,as there is no subject without object1 so there is no substance without attribute2 for one is the condition for the other4 ,does self-essence then exist in causation8 ,no1 8whatever is subject to conditionality1 is by its very nature tranquil and empty40 7,prattya yad yad bhavati1 tat tac ntam svabhvata47 ,whatever owes its existence to a combination of causes and conditions is without self-essence1 and therefore it is tranquil 7nta71 it is empty1 it is unreal 7asat71 and the ultimate nature of this universal emptiness is not within the sphere of intellectual demonstrability1 for the human understanding is not capable of transcending its inherent limitations4 ,says ,pingalaka1 a commentator of ,ngrjuna3 8,the cloth exists on account of the thread2 the matting is possible on account of the rattan4 ,if the thread had its own fixed1 unchangeable self-essence1 it could not be made out of the flax4 ,if the cloth had its own fixed1 unchangeable self-essence1 it could not be made from the thread4 ,but as in point of fact the cloth comes from the thread and the thread from the flax1 it must be said that the thread as well as the cloth had no fixed1 unchangeable self-essence4 ,it is just like the relation that obtains between the burning and the burned4 ,they are brought together under certain conditions1 and thus there takes place a phenomenon called burning4 ,the burning and the burned1 each has no reality of its own4 ,for when one is absent the other is put out of existence4 ,it is so with all things in this world1 they are all empty1 #agc without self1 without absolute existence1 they are like the will-o'-the-wisp40#hb ,the ,real ,significance of ,emptiness4 ,from these statements it will be apparent that the emptiness of things 7nyat7 does not mean nothingness1 as is sometimes interpreted by some critics1 but it simply means conditionality or transitoriness of all phenomenal existences1 it is a synonym for aniyata or prattya4 ,therefore1 emptiness1 according to the ,buddhists1 signifies1 negatively1 the absence of particularity1 the non-existence of individuals as such1 and positively1 the ever-changing state of the phenomenal world1 a constant flux of becoming1 an eternal series of causes and effects4 ,it must never be understood in the sense of annihilation or absolute nothingness1 for nihilism is as much condemned by ,buddhism as nave realism4 8,the ,buddha proclaimed emptiness as a remedy for all doctrinal controversies1 but those who in turn cling to emptiness are beyond treatment40 ,a medicine is indispensable as long as there is a disease to heal1 but it turns poisonous when applied after the restoration of perfect health4 ,to make this point completely clear1 let me quote the following from ,ngrjuna's ,mdhyamika stra 7,chap4 ,,xxiv74 8,some one may object to the ,buddhist doctrine of emptiness1 declaring3 ,if all is void 7nya7 and #agd there is neither creation nor destruction1 then it must be concluded that even the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth does not exist4 ,if the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth does not exist1 the recognition of ,suffering1 the stoppage of ,accumulation1 the attainment of ,cessation1 and the advancement of ,discipline1--all must be said to be unrealisable4 ,if they are altogether unrealisable1 there cannot be any of the four states of saintliness2 and without these states there cannot be anybody who will aspire for them4 ,if there are no wise men1 the ,sangha is then impossible4 ,further1 as there is no ,fourfold ,noble ,truth1 there is no ,good ,law 7saddharma72 and as there is neither ,good ,law nor ,sangha1 the existence of ,buddha himself must be an impossibility4 ,those who talk of emptiness1 therefore1 must be said to negate the ,triple ,treasure 7triratna7 altogether4 ,emptiness not only destroys the law of causation and the general principle of retribution 7phalasadbhvam71 but utterly annihilates the possibility of a phenomenal world40 8,to this it is to be remarked that 8,only he is annoyed over such scepticism who understands not the true significance and interpretation of emptiness 7nyat74 8,the ,buddha's teaching rests on the discrimination of two kinds of truth 7satya73 absolute and relative4 ,those who do not have any adequate knowledge of them are unable to grasp the deep and subtle meaning of ,buddhism4 ,the essence of being1 dharmata1 is beyond verbal definition or intellectual comprehension1 #age for there is neither birth nor death in it1 and it is even like unto ,nirvna4 ,the nature of ,suchness1 tattva1 is fundamentally free from conditionality1 it is tranquil1 it distances all phenomenal frivolities1 it discriminates not1 nor is it particularised4#hc 8,but if not for relative truth1 absolute truth is unattainable1 and when absolute truth is not attained1 ,nirvna is not to be gained4 8,the dull-headed who do not perceive the truth rightfully go to self-destruction1 for they are like an awkward magician whose trick entangles himself1 or like an unskilled snake-catcher who gets himself hurt4 ,the ,world-honored ,one knew well the abstruseness of the ,doctrine which is beyond the mental capacity of the multitudes and was inclined not to disclose it before them4 8,the objection that ,buddhism onesidedly adheres to emptiness and thereby exposes itself to grave errors1 entirely misses the mark2 for there are no errors in emptiness4 ,why8 ,because it is on account of emptiness that all things are at all possible1 and without emptiness all things will come to naught4 ,those who deny emptiness and find fault with it1 are like a horseman who forgets that he is on horseback4 8,if they think that things exist because of their self-essence 7svabhva71 and not because of their emptiness1 they thereby make things come out of causelessness 7ahetupratyaya71 they destroy those #agf relations that exist between the acting and the act and the acted2 and they also destroy the conditions that make up the law of birth and death4 8,all is declared empty because there is nothing that is not a product of universal causation 7pratyayasamutpda74 ,this law of causation1 however1 is merely provisional1 though herein lies the middle path4 8,as thus there is not an object 7dharma7 which is not conditioned 7prattya71 so there is nothing that is not empty4 8,if all is not empty1 then there is no death nor birth1 and withal disappears the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth4 8,how could there be ,suffering1 if not for the law of causation8 ,impermanence is suffering4 ,but with self-essence there will be no impermanence4 ,so long as impermanence is the condition of life1 self-essence which is a causeless existence1 is out of question4 ,suppose ,suffering is self-existent1 then it could not come from ,accumulation1 which in turn becomes impossible when emptiness is not admitted4 ,again1 when ,suffering is self-existent1 then there could be no ,cessation1 for with the hypothesis of self-essence ,cessation becomes a meaningless term4 ,again1 when ,suffering is self-existent1 then there will be no ,path4 ,but as we can actually walk on the ,path1 the hypothesis of self-essence is to be abandoned4 8,if there is neither ,suffering nor ,cessation1 it must be said that the ,path leading to the ,cessation of ,suffering is also non-existent4 8,if there is really self-essence1 ,suffering could not #agg be recognised now1 as it had not been recognised1 for self-essence as such must remain forever the same4 ,that is to say1 enlightened minds1 through the teaching of ,buddha1 now recognise the existence of ,suffering1 though they did not recognise it when they were still uninitiated4 ,if things were all in a fixed1 self-determining state on account of their self-essence1 it would be impossible for those enlightened men to discover what they had never observed before4 ,the recognition of the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth is only possible when this phenomenal world is in a state of constant becoming1 that is1 when it is empty as it really is4 8,as it is with the recognition of ,suffering1 so it is with the stoppage of ,accumulation1 the attainment of ,cessation1 the realisation of ,path as well as with the four states of saintliness4 8,if1 on account of self-essence1 the four states of saintliness were unattainable before1 how could they be realised now1 still upholding the hypothesis of self-essence8 ,but we can attain to saintliness as a matter of fact1 for there are many holy men who through their spiritual discipline have emerged from their former life of ignorance and darkness4 ,if everything had its own self-essence which makes it impossible to transform from one state to another1 how could a person desire to ascend1 if he ever so desire1 higher and higher on the scale of existence8 8,if there were no four states of saintliness 7catvri phalni71 then there would be no aspirants for it4 #agh ,and if there were no eight wise men 7puruapugala71 there could exist no ,sangha4 8,again1 when there could not be the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth1 the ,law would be impossible1 and without the ,sangha and the ,law how could the ,buddha exist8 ,you might say3 #8,a ,buddha does not exist on account of wisdom 7,bodhi71 nor does wisdom exist on account of the ,buddha4' ,but if a man did not have ,buddha-essence that is1 ,bodhi he could not hope to attain to ,buddhahood1 however strenuously he might exert himself in the ways of ,bodhisattva4 8,further1 if all is not empty but has self-essence1 i4e4 if all is in a fixed1 unchangeable state of sameness1 how could there be any doing8 ,how could there be good and evil8 ,if you maintain that there is an effect 7phala7 which does not come from a cause good or evil1 which is the practical conclusion of the hypothesis of self-essence1 then it means that retribution is independent of our deed1 good or evil4 ,but is this justified by our experience8 8,if it must then be admitted that our deed good or evil becomes the cause of retribution1 retribution must be said to come from our deed1 good or evil2 then how could we say there is no emptiness8 8,when you negate the doctrine of emptiness1 the law of universal causation1 you negate the possibility of this phenomenal world4 ,when the doctrine of emptiness is negated1 there remains nothing that ought to be done2 and a thing is called done which is not yet accomplished2 and he is said to be a doer who has #agi not done anything whatever4 ,if there were such a thing as self-essence1 the multitudinousness of things must be regarded as uncreated and imperishable and eternally existing which is tantamount to eternal nothingness4 8,if there were no emptiness there would be no attainment of what has not yet been attained1 nor would there be the annihilation of pain1 nor the extinction of all the passions 7sarvaklea74 8,therefore1 it is taught by the ,buddha that those who recognise the law of universal causation1 recognise the ,buddha as well as ,suffering1 ,accumulation1 ,cessation1 and the ,path40 99 99 99 ,the ,mahynistic doctrines thus formulated and transmitted down to the present days are3 ,there is no such thing as the ego2 mentation is produced by the co-ordination of various vijnas or senses4 ,individual existences have no selfhood or self-essence or reality1 for they are but an aggregate of certain qualities sustained by efficient karma4 ,the world of particulars is the work of ,ignorance as declared by ,buddha in his ,formula of ,dependence 7,twelve ,nidnas74 ,when this veil of ,mya is uplifted1 the universal light of ,dharmakya shines in all its magnificence4 ,individual existences then as such lose their significance and become sublimated and ennobled in the oneness of ,dharmakya4 ,egoistic prejudices are forever vanquished1 and the aim of our lives is no more the #ahj gratification of selfish cravings1 but the glorification of ,dharma as it works its own way through the multitudinousness of things4 ,the self does not stand any more in a state of isolation 7which is an illusion71 it is absorbed in the universal body of ,dharma1 it recognises itself in other selves animate as well as inanimate1 and all things are in ,nirvna4 ,when we reach this state of ideal enlightenment1 we are said to have realised the ,buddhist life4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,karma4 #aha ,definition4 _/,karma_/1 or ,sanskra which is sometimes used as its synonym1--though the latter gives a slightly different shade of meaning1--comes from the ,sanskrit root k1 8to do10 8to make10 8to perform10 8to effect10 8to produce10 etc4 ,both terms mean activity in its concrete as well as in its abstract sense1 and form an antithesis to intelligence1 contemplation1 or ideation in general4 ,when karma is used in its most abstract sense1 it becomes an equivalent to 8beginningless ignorance10 which is universally inherent in nature1 and corresponds to the ,will or blind activity of ,schopenhauer2 for ignorance as we have seen above is a negative manifestation of ,suchness 7,bhtatatht7 and marks the beginning or unfolding of a phenomenal world1 whose existence is characterised by incessant activities actuated by the principle of karma4 ,when ,goethe says in ,faust1 8,in ,anfang war die ,that10 he uses the term 8,that0 in the sense of karma as it is here understood4 ,when karma is used in its concrete sense1 it is the #ahb principle of activity in the world of particulars or nmarpas3 it becomes in the physical world the principle of conservation of energy1 in the biological realm that of evolution and heredity etc41 and in the moral world that of immortality of deeds4 ,sanskara1 when used as an equivalent of karma1 corresponds to this concrete signification of it1 as it is the case in the ,twelve ,chains of ,dependence 7,nidnas1 or ,pratyyasamutpda74#hd ,here it follows ignorance 7avidy7 and precedes consciousness 7vijna74 ,ignorance in this case means simply privation of enlightenment1 and does not imply any sense of activity which is expressed in ,sanskra4 ,it is only when it is coupled with the latter that it becomes the principle of activity1 and creates as its first offspring consciousness or mentality4 ,in fact1 ignorance and blind activity are one1 their logical difference being this3 the former emphasises the epistemological phase and the latter the ethical2 or1 we might say1 one is statical and the other dynamical4 ,if we are to draw a comparison between the first four of the ,twelve ,nidnas and the several processes of evolution that takes place in the ,tathgata-garbha as described above1 we can take ,ignorance and the principle of blind activity1 sanskra1 #ahc in the ,twelve ,chains as corresponding to the ,all-conserving ,soul 7layavijna71 and the ,vijna1 consciousness of the ,twelve ,chains1 to the ,manovijna1 and the ,nmrpa to this visible world1 viaya1 in which the principle of karma works in its concrete form4 ,as we have a special chapter devoted to 8,ignorance0 as an equivalent of karma in its abstract sense1 let us here treat of the ,buddhist conception of karma in the realm of names and forms1 i4e4 of karma in its concrete sense4 ,but we shall restrict ourselves to the activity of karmaic causation in the moral world1 as we are not concerned with physics or biology4 ,the ,working of ,karma4 ,the ,buddhist conception of karma briefly stated is this3 ,any act1 good or evil1 once committed and conceived1 never vanishes like a bubble in water1 but lives1 potentially or actively as the case may be1 in the world of minds and deeds4 ,this mysterious moral energy1 so to speak1 is embodied in and emanates from every act and thought1 for it does not matter whether it is actually performed1 or merely conceived in the mind4 ,when the time comes1 it is sure to germinate and grow with all its vitality4 ,says ,buddha3 8,karma even after the lapse of a hundred kalpas1 ,will not be lost nor destroyed2 ,as soon as all the necessary conditions are ready1 ,its fruit is sure to ripe40#he #ahd ,again1 8,whatever a man does1 the same he in himself will find1 ,the good man1 good3 and evil he that evil has designed2 ,and so our deeds are all like seeds1 and bring forth fruit in kind40#hf ,a grain of wheat1 it is said1 which was accidentally preserved in good condition in a tomb more than a thousand years old1 did not lose its germinating energy1 and1 when planted with proper care1 it actually started to sprout4 ,so with karma1 it is endowed with an enormous vitality1 nay1 it is even immortal4 ,however remote the time of their commission might have been1 the karma of our deeds never dies2 it must work out its own destiny at whatever cost1 if not overcome by some counteracting force4 ,the law of karma is irrefragable4 ,the irrefragability of karma means that the law of causation is supreme in our moral sphere just as much as in the physical1 that life consists in a concatenation of causes and effects regulated by the principle of karma1 that nothing in the life of an individual or a nation or a race happens without due cause and sufficient reason1 that is1 without previous karma4 ,the ,buddhists1 therefore1 do not believe in any special act of grace or revelation in our religious realm and moral life4 ,the idea of deus ex machina is banned in ,buddhism4 ,whatever is suffered or enjoyed morally in our present life is due to the karma1 accumulated #ahe since the beginning of life on earth4 ,nothing sown1 nothing reaped4 ,whatever has been done leaves an ineffable mark in the individual's life and even in that of the universe2 and this mark will never be erased save by sheer exhaustion of the karma or by the interruption of an overwhelming counter-karma4 ,in case the karma of an act is not actualised during one's own life-time1 it will in that of one's successors1 who may be physical or spiritual4 ,not only 8the evil that men do lives after them10 but also the good1 for it will not be 8interred with their bones10 as vulgar minds imagine4 ,we read in the ,samyukta ,nikya1 ,,iii1 #a-d3 8,assailed by death1 in life's last throes1 ,at quitting of this human state1 ,what is it one can call his own8 ,what with him take as he goes hence8 ,what is it follows after him1 ,and like a shadow ne'er departs8 8,his good deeds and his wickedness1 ,whate'er a mortal does while here2 ',tis this that he can call his own1 ,this with him take as he goes hence4 ,this is what follows after him1 ,and like a shadow ne'er departs4 8,let all1 then1 noble deeds perform1 ,a treasure-store for future weal2 ,for merit gained this life within1 ,will yield a blessing in the next40#hg #ahf ,in accordance with this karmaic preservation1 ,buddhists do not expect to have their sins expatiated by other innocent people so long as their own hearts remain unsoftened as ever4 ,but when the all-embracing love of ,buddhas for all sentient beings kindles even the smallest spark of repentance and enlightenment in the heart of a sinner1 and when this ever-vacillating light grows to its full magnitude under propitious conditions1 the sinner gets fully awakened from the evil karma of eons1 and enters1 free from all curses1 into the eternity of ,nirvna4 ,karma and ,social ,injustice4 ,the doctrine of karma is very frequently utilised by some ,buddhists to explain a state of things which must be considered cases of social injustice4 ,there are some people who are born rich and noble and destined to enjoy all forms of earthly happiness and all the advantages of social life1 though they have done nothing that justifies them in luxuriating in such a fashion any more than their poor neighbors4 ,these people1 however1 are declared by some pseudo-,buddhists to be merely harvesting the crops of good karma they had prepared in their former lives4 ,on the other hand1 the poor1 needy1 and low that are struggling to eke out a mere existence in spite of their moral rectitude and honest industry1 are considered to be suffering the evil karma which had been accumulated during their previous lives4 ,the law of moral retribution is never #ahg suspended1 as they reason1 on account of the changes which may take place in a mortal being4 ,an act1 good or evil1 once performed1 will not be lost in the eternal succession and interaction of incidents1 but will certainly find the sufferer of its due consequence1 and it does not matter whether the actor has gone through the vicissitudes of birth and death4 ,for the ,buddhist conception of individual identity is not that of personal continuity1 but of karmaic conservation4 ,whatever deeds we may commit1 they invariably bear their legitimate fruit and follow us even after death4 ,therefore1 if the rich and noble neglect to do their duties or abandon themselves to the enjoyment of sensual pleasures1 then they are sure in their future births1 if not in their present life1 to gather the crops they have thus unwittingly prepared for themselves4 ,the poor1 however hard their lot in this life1 can claim their rightful rewards1 if they do not get despaired of their present sufferings and give themselves up to temptations1 but dutifully continue to do things good and meritorious4 ,because as their present fate is the result of their former deeds1 so will be their future fortune the fruit of their present deeds4 ,this view as held by some pseudo-,buddhists gives us a wrong impression about the practical working of the principle of karma in this world of nmarpas1 for it tries to explain by karmaic theory the phenomena which lie outside of the sphere of its applicability4 ,as ,i understand1 what the theory of karma #ahh proposes to explain is not cases of social injustice and economic inequality1 but facts of moral causation4 ,the overbearing attitude of the rich and the noble1 the unnecessary sufferings of the poor1 the over-production of criminals1 and suchlike social phenomena arise from the imperfection of our present social organisation1 which is based upon the doctrine of absolute private ownership4 ,people are allowed to amass wealth unlimitedly for their own use and to bequeath it to the successors who do not deserve it in any way4 ,and they do not pay regard to the injuries this system may incur upon the general welfare of the community to which they belong1 and upon other members individually4 ,the rich might have slaughtered economically and consequently politically and morally millions of their brethren before they could reach places of social eminence they now occupy and enjoy to its full extent4 ,they might have sacrificed hundreds of thousands of victims on the altar of ,mammon in order to carry out their vast scheme of self-aggrandisement4 ,and1 what is worse1 the wealth thus accumulated by an individual is allowed by the law to be handed down to his descendants1 who are in a sense the parasitic members of the community4 ,they are privileged to live upon the sweat and blood of others1 who know not where to lay their heads1 and who are daily succumbing to the heavy burden1 not of their free choice1 but forced upon them by society4 ,let us here closely see into the facts4 ,there is one portion of society that does almost nothing toward #ahi the promotion of the general welfare1 and there is another portion that1 besides carrying the burden not of its own1 is heroically struggling for bare existence4 ,these sad phenomena which1 owing to the imperfection of social organisation1 we daily witness about us1--should we attribute them to diversity of individual karma and make individuals responsible for what is really due to the faulty organisation of the community to which they belong8 ,no1 the doctrine of karma certainly must not be understood to explain the cause of our social and economical imperfection4 ,the region where the law of karma is made to work supreme is our moral world1 and cannot be made to extend also over our economic field4 ,poverty is not necessarily the consequence of evil deeds1 nor is plenitude that of good acts4 ,whether a person is affluent or needy is mostly determined by the principle of economy as far as our present social system is concerned4 ,morality and economy are two different realms of human activity4 ,honesty and moral rectitude do not necessarily guarantee well-being4 ,dishonesty and the violation of the moral law1 on the contrary1 are very frequently utilised as handmaids of material prosperity4 ,do we not thus see many good1 conscientious people around us who are wretchedly poverty-stricken8 ,shall we take them as suffering the curse of evil karma in their previous lives1 when we can understand the fact perfectly well as a case of social injustice8 ,it is not necessary by any means1 nay1 it is even productive of evil1 to establish a relation #aij between the two things that in the nature of their being have no causal dependence4 ,karma ought not to be made accountable for economic inequality4 ,a virtuous man is contented with his cleanliness of conscience and purity of heart4 ,obscure as is his present social position1 and miserable as are his present pecuniary conditions1 he has no mind to look backward and find the cause of his social insignificance there1 nor is he anxious about his future earthly fortune which might be awaiting him when his karmaic energy appears in a new garment4 ,his heart is altogether free from such vanities and anxieties4 ,he is sufficient unto himself as he is here and now4 ,and1 as to his altruistic aspect of his moral deeds1 he is well conscious that their karma would spiritually benefit everybody that gets inspired by it1 and also that it would largely contribute to the realisation of goodness on this earth4 ,why1 then1 must we contrive such a poor theory of karma as is maintained by some1 in order that they might give him a spiritual solace for his material misfortune8 ,vulgar people are too eager to see everything and every act they perform working for the accumulation of earthly wealth and the promotion of material welfare4 ,they would want to turn even moral deeds which have no relation to the economic condition of life into the opportunities to attain things mundane4 ,they would desire to have the law of karmaic causation applied to a realm1 where prevails an entirely different set of laws4 ,in point of fact1 what proceeds from #aia meritorious deeds is spiritual bliss only1--contentment1 tranquillity of mind1 meekness of heart1 and immovability of faith1--all the heavenly treasures which could not be corrupted by moth or rust4 ,and what more can the karma of good deeds bring to us8 ,and what more would a man of pious heart desire to gain from his being good8 8,take no thought for your life1 what ye shall eat1 or what ye shall drink1 nor yet for your body1 what ye shall put on4 ,is not the life more than meat and the body more than raiment80 ,let us then do away with the worldly interpretation of karma1 which is so contrary to the spirit of ,buddhism4 ,as long as we live under the present state of things1 it is impossible to escape the curse of social injustice and economic inequality4 ,some people must be born rich and noble and enjoying a superabundance of material wealth1 while others must be groaning under the unbearable burden imposed upon them by cruel society4 ,unless we make a radical change in our present social organisation1 we cannot expect every one of us to enjoy equal opportunity and fair chance4 ,unless we have a certain form of socialism installed which is liberal and rational and systematic1 there must be some who are economically more favored than others4 ,but this state of affairs is a phenomenon of worldly institution and is doomed to die away sooner or later4 ,the law of karma1 on the contrary1 is an eternal ordinance of the will of the ,dharmakya as manifested in this world of #aib particulars4 ,we must not confuse a transient accident of human society with an absolute decree issued from the world-authority4 ,an ,individualistic ,view of ,karma4 ,there is another popular misconception concerning the doctrine of karma1 which seriously mars the true interpretation of ,buddhism4 ,i mean by this an individualistic view of the doctrine4 ,this view asserts that deeds1 good or evil1 committed by a person determine only his own fate1 no other's being affected thereby in any possible way1 and that the reason why we should refrain from doing wrong is3 for we1 and not others1 have to suffer its evil consequences4 ,this conception of karma which ,i call individualistic1 presupposes the absolute reality of an individual soul and its continuance as such in a new corporeal existence which is made possible by its previous karma4 ,because an individual soul is here understood as an independent unit1 which stands in no relation to others1 and which therefore neither does influence nor is influenced by them in any wise4 ,all that is done by oneself is suffered by oneself only and no other people have anything to do with it1 nor do they suffer a whit thereby4 ,buddhism1 however1 does not advocate this individualistic interpretation of karmaic law1 for it is not in accord with the theory of non-tman1 nor with that of ,dharmakya4 ,according to the orthodox theory1 karma simply means the conservation or immortality of the inner #aic force of deeds regardless of their author's physical identity4 ,deeds once committed1 good or evil1 leave permanent effects on the general system of sentient beings1 of which the actor is merely a component part2 and it is not the actor himself only1 but everybody constituting a grand psychic community called 8,dharmadhtu0 7spiritual universe71 that suffers or enjoys the outcome of a moral deed4 ,because the universe is not a theatre for one particular soul only2 on the contrary1 it belongs to all sentient beings1 each forming a psychic unit2 and these units are so intimately knitted together in blood and soul that the effects of even apparently trifling deeds committed by an individual are felt by others just as much and just as surely as the doer himself4 ,throw an insignificant piece of stone into a vast expanse of water1 and it will certainly create an almost endless series of ripples1 however imperceptible1 that never stop till they reach the furthest shore4 ,the tremulation thus caused is felt by the sinking stone as much as the water disturbed4 ,the universe that may seem to crude observers merely as a system of crass physical forces is in reality a great spiritual community1 and every one of sentient beings forms its component part4 ,this most complicated1 most subtle1 most sensitive1 and best organised mass of spiritual atoms transmits its current of moral electricity from one particle to another with utmost rapidity and surety4 ,because this community is at bottom an expression of one ,dharmakya4 ,however diversified #aid and dissimilar it may appear in its material individual aspect1 it is after all no more than an evolution of one pervading essence1 in which the multitudinousness of things finds its unity and identity4 ,therefore1 it is for the interests of the community at large1 and not for their own welfare only1 that sincere ,buddhists refrain from transgressing moral laws and are encouraged to promote goodness4 ,those whose spiritual insight thus penetrates deep into the inner unity and interaction of all human souls are called ,bodhisattvas4 ,it is with this spirit1 let me repeat1 that pious ,buddhists do not wish to keep for themselves any merits created by their acts of love and benevolence1 but wish to turn them over 7parivarta7 to the deliverance of all sentient creatures from the darkness of ignorance4 ,the most typical way of concluding any religious treatise by ,buddhists1 therefore1 runs generally in the following manner3 8,the deep significance of the three karmas as taught by ,buddha1 ,i have thus completed elucidating in accord with the ,dharma and logic3 ,by dint of this merit ,i pray to deliver all sentient beings ,and to make them soon attain to perfect enlightenment40#hh ,or1 8,all the merits arising from this my exposition ,may abide and be universally distributed among all beings2 ,and may they ascend in the scale of existence and increase in bliss and wisdom1 ,and soon attain to an enlightenment supreme1 perfect1 great1 and far-reaching40#hi #aie ,the reason why a moral deed performed by one person would contribute to the attainment by others of supreme enlightenment1 is that souls which are ordinarily supposed to be individual and independent of others are not so in fact1 but are very closely intermingled with one another1 so that a stir produced in one is sooner or later transmitted to another influencing it rightfully or wrongfully4 ,the karmaic effect of my own deed determines not only my own future1 but to a not little extent that of others2 hence those invocations just quoted by pious ,buddhists who desire to dedicate all the merits they can attain to the general welfare of the masses4 ,the ever-increasing tendency of humanity to widen and facilitate communication in every possible way is a phenomenon illustrative of the intrinsic oneness of human souls4 ,isolation kills1 for it is another name for death4 ,every soul that lives and grows desires to embrace others1 to be in communion with them1 to be supplemented by them1 and to expand infinitely so that all individual souls are brought together and united in the one soul4 ,under this condition only a man's karma is enabled to influence other people1 and his merits can be utilised for the promotion of general enlightenment4 #aif ,karma and ,determinism4 ,if the irrefragability of karma means the predetermination of our moral life1 some would reason1 the doctrine is fatalism pure and simple4 ,it is quite true that our present life is the result of the karma accumulated in our previous existences1 and that as long as the karma preserves its vitality there is no chance whatever to escape its consequences1 good or evil4 ,it is also true that as the meanest sparrow shall not fall on the ground without the knowledge of ,god1 and as the very hairs of our heads are all numbered by him1 so even a single blade of grass does not quiver before the evening breeze without the force of karma4 ,it is also true that if our intellect were not near-sighted as it is1 we could reduce a possible complexity of the conditions under which our life exists into its simplest terms1 and thus predict with mathematical precision the course of a life through which it is destined to pass4 ,if we could record all our previous karma from time immemorial and all its consequences both on ourselves and on those who come in contact with us1 there would be no difficulty in determining our future life with utmost certainty4 ,the human intellect1 however1 as it happens1 is incapable of undertaking a work of such an enormous magnitude1 we cannot perceive the full significance of determinism2 but1 from the divine point of view1 determinism seems to be perfectly justified1 for there cannot be any short-sightedness on the part of a world-soul as to the destiny of the universe1 which #aig is nothing but its own expression4 ,it is only from the human point of view that we feel uncertain about our final disposition and endeavor to explain existence now from a mechanical1 now from a teleological standpoint1 and yet1 strange enough1 at the bottom of our soul we feel that there is something mysterious here which makes us cry1 either in despair or in trustful resignation1 8,let thy will be done40 ,while this very confidence in 8thy will0 proves that we have in our inmost consciousness and outside the pale of intellectual analysis a belief in the supreme order1 which is absolutely preordained and which at least is not controllable by our finite1 limited1 fragmentary mind1 yet the doctrine of karma must not be understood in the strictest sense of fatalism4 ,as far as a general theory of determinism is concerned1 ,buddhism has no objection to it4 ,grant that there is a law of causation1 that every deed1 actualised or thought of1 leaves something behind1 and that this something becomes a determining factor for our future life2 then how could we escape the conclusion that 8each of us is inevitable0 as ,whitman sings8 ,religious confidence in a divine will that is supposed to give us always the best of things1 is in fact no more than a determinism4 ,but if1 in applying the doctrine to our practical life1 we forget to endeavor to unfold all the possibilities that might lie in us1 but could be awakened only after strenuous efforts1 there will be no moral characters1 no personal responsibility1 no noble aspirations2 the mind will be nothing but a reflex nervous system and life a sheer machinery4 #aih ,in fact karma is not a machine which is not incapable of regeneration and self-multiplication4 ,karma is a wonderful organic power2 it grows1 it expands1 and even gives birth to a new karma4 ,it is like unto a grain of mustard1 the least of all seeds1 but1 being full of vitality1 it grows as soon as it comes in contact with the nourishing soil and becometh a tree so that the birds of the air come and lodge in the branches thereof4 ,its mystery is like that of sympathetic waves that pass through all the hearts which feel the great deeds of a hero or listen to the story of a self-sacrificing mother4 ,karma1 good or evil1 is contagious and sympathetic in its work4 ,even a most insignificant act of goodness reaps an unexpectedly rich crop4 ,even to the vilest rogue comes a chance for repentance by dint of a single good karma ever effected in his life1 which has extended through many a kalpa4 ,and the most wonderful thing in our spiritual world is that the karma thus bringing repentance and ,nirvna to the heart of the meanest awakens and rekindles a similar karma potentially slumbering in other hearts and leads them to the final abode of enlightenment4 ,inasmuch as we confine ourselves to general1 superficial view of the theory of karma1 it leads to a form of determinism1 but in our practical life which is a product of extremely complicated factors1 the doctrine of karma allows in us all kinds of possibilities and all chances of development4 ,we thus escape the mechanical conception of life1 we are saved from the despair of predetermination1 though this is true to a great extent2 #aii and we are assured of the actualisation of hopes1 however remote it may be4 ,though the curse of evil karma may sometimes hang upon us very heavily1 there is no reason to bury our aspirations altogether in the grave2 on the contrary1 let us bear it bravely and perform all the acts of goodness to destroy the last remnant of evil and to mature the stock of good karma4 ,the ,maturing of ,good ,stock 7kualamla7 and the ,accumulation of merits 7punyaskandha74 ,one of the most significant facts1 which we cannot well afford to ignore while treating of the doctrine of karma1 is the ,buddhist belief that kyamuni reached his supreme ,buddhahood only after a long practise of the six virtues of perfection 7pramits7 through many a rebirth4 ,this belief constitutes the very foundation of the ethics of ,buddhism and has all-important bearings on the doctrine of karma4 ,the doctrine of karma ethically considered is this3 ,sentient beings can attain to perfection not by an intervention from on high1 but through long1 steady1 unflinching personal efforts towards the actualisation of ideals1 or1 in other words1 towards the maturing of good stock 7kualamla7 and the accumulation of merits 7punyaskandha74 ,this can be accomplished only through the karma of good deeds untiringly practised throughout many a generation4 ,each single act of goodness we perform to-day is recorded with #bjj strict accuracy in the annals of human evolution and is so much the gain for the cause of righteousness4 ,on the contrary1 every deed of ill-will1 every thought of self-aggrandisement1 every word of impurity1 every assertion of egoism1 is a drawback to the perfection of humanity4 ,to speak concretely1 the ,buddha represents the crystalisation in the historical person of kyamuni of all the good karma that was accumulated in innumerable kalpas previous to his birth4 ,and if ,devadatta1 as legend has him1 was really the enemy of the ,buddha1 he symbolises in him the evil karma that was being stored up with the good deeds of all ,buddhas4 ,later ,buddhism has thus elaborated to represent in these two historical figures the concrete results of good and evil karma1 and tries to show in what direction its followers should exercise their spiritual energy4 ,the doctrine of karma is1 therefore1 really the theory of evolution and heredity as working in our moral field4 ,as ,walt ,whitman fitly sings1 in every one of us1 8converging objects of the universe0 are perpetually flowing1 through every one of us is 8afflatus surging and surging--the current and index40 ,and these converging objects and this afflatus are no more than our karma which is interwoven in our being and which is being matured from the very beginning of consciousness upon the earth4 ,each generation either retards or furthers the maturing of karma and transmits to the succeeding one its stock either impaired or augmented4 ,those who are blind enough not to #bja see the significance of life1 those who take their ego for the sole reality1 and those who ignore the spiritual inheritance accumulated from time immemorial1--are the most worthless1 most ungrateful1 and most irresponsible people of the world4 ,buddhism calls them the children of ,mra engaged in the work of destruction4 ,dr4 ,g4 ,r4 ,wilson of ,scotland states a very pretty story about a royal robe in his article on 8,the ,sense of ,danger0 7,the ,monist1 #aijc1 ,april71 which graphically illustrates how potential karma stored from time out of mind is saturated in every fibre of our subliminal consciousness or in the layavijna1 as ,buddhists might say4 ,the story runs as follows3 8,an ,oriental robe it was1 whose beginning was in a prehistoric dynasty of which the hieroglyphics are undecipherable4 ,with that pertinacity and durability so characteristic of the ,east1 this royal garment has been handed down1 not through hundreds of years1 but through hundreds of generations1--generations1 some of them1 unconsciously long and stale and dreary2 others short and quick and merry4 ,a garment of kings1 this1 and of queens1 a garment to which1 as tradition prescribed1 each monarch added something of quality1--a jewel of price1 a patch of gold1 a hem of rich embroidery1--and with each contribution a legend1 worked into the imperishable fibre1 told the story of the giver4 ,did something of the personality of these kings and queens linger in the work of their hands8 ,if so1 the robe was no dead thing1 no mere covering to be lightly assumed or lightly laid aside1 but a living #bjb power1 royal influence1 and the wearer1 all unwitting1 must have taken on something of the character of the dead4 ,it is a princess of the royal blood1 perhaps1 sensitive and mystical1 trembling on the apprehensive verge of monarchy1 who dons the robe1 and as she dons it1 tingles to its message4 ,these great rubies that blaze upon its front are the souvenirs of bloody conquerors4 ,as she fingers them idly1 she is thrilled with an emotion she does not understand1 for in her blood something answers to the fighting spirit they embody4 ,pearls are for peace4 ,that rope has been strung by kings and queens who favored art and learning2 and as the girl's fingers stray towards them the inspiration changes and her mind reverts to the purposes of the civilised scholar4 ,here is a gaudy hem1 the legacy of an unfaithful queen1 steeped in intrigue all her life until her murder ended it2 and as the maiden lifts it to examine it more closely1 she learns with shame and blushes1 yet not knowing what has wrought this change in her1 that1 deep down in her character1 are mischievous possibilities1 possibilities of wickedness and disgrace that will dog the footsteps of her reign4 ,suchlike are the suggestions which the hidden parts of the mind bring forth1 and in such subtle manner are they born40 ,the doctrine of karma thus declares that an act of love and good-will you are performing here is not for your selfish interests1 but it simply means the appreciation of the works of your worthy ancestors and the discharge of your duties towards #bjc all humanity and your contribution to the world-treasury of moral ideals4 ,mature good stock1 accumulate merits1 purify evil karma1 remove the ego-hindrance1 and cultivate love for all beings2 and the heavenly gate of ,nirvna will be opened not only to you1 but to the entire world4 ,we can sing with ,walt ,whitman the immortality of karma and the eternal progress of humanity1 thus3 8,did you guess anything lived only its moment8 ,the world does not so exist--no part palpable or impalpable so exist2 ,no consummation exists without being from some long previous consummation--and that from some other1 ,without the farthest conceivable one coming a bit nearer the beginning than any40#ij ,immortality4 ,we read in the ,milinda-paha3 8,your ,majesty1 it is as if a man were to ascend to the story of a house with a light1 and eat there2 and the light in burning were to set fire to the thatch2 and the thatch in burning were to set fire to the house2 and the house in burning were to set fire to the village2 and the people of the village were to seize him1 and say1 #8,why1 ,o man1 did you set fire to the village8' and he were to say1 #8,i did not set fire to the village4 ,the fire of the lamp by whose light ,i ate was a different one from the one which set fire to the village'2 #bjd and they1 quarreling1 were to come to you4 ,whose cause1 ,your ,majesty1 would you sustain80 8,that of the people of the village1 ,reverend ,sir10 etc4 8,and why80 8,because1 in spite of what the man might say1 the latter fire sprang from the former40 8,in exactly the same way1 ,your ,majesty1 although the name and form which is born into the next existence is different from the name and form which is to end at death1 nevertheless1 it is sprung from it4 ,therefore is one not freed from one's evil deeds40 ,the above is the ,buddhist notion of individual identity and its conservation1 which denies the immortality of the ego-soul and upholds that of karma4 ,another good way1 perhaps1 of illustrating this doctrine is to follow the growth and perpetuation of the seed4 ,the seed is in fact a concrete expression of karma4 ,when a plant reaches a certain stage of development1 it blooms and bears fruit4 ,this fruit contains in it a latent energy which under favorable conditions grows to a mature plant of its own kind4 ,the new plant now repeats the processes which its predecessors went through1 and an eternal perpetuation of the plant is attained4 ,the life of an individual plant cannot be permanent according to its inherent nature1 it is destined to be cut short some time in its course4 ,but this is not the case with the current of an ever-lasting vitality that has been running in the plant ever since the beginning of the world4 ,because this current is not individual in its nature and stands above the vicissitudes #bje which take place in the life of particular plants4 ,it may not be manifested in its kinetic form all the time1 but potentially it is ever present in the being of the seed4 ,changes are simply a matter of form1 and do not interfere with the current of life in the plant1 which is preserved in the universe as the energy of vegetation4 ,this energy of vegetation is that which is manifested in a mature plant1 that which makes it blossom in the springtime1 that which goes to seed1 that which lies apparently dormant in the seeds1 and that which resuscitates them to sprout among favorable surroundings4 ,this energy of vegetation1 this mysterious force1 when stated in ,buddhist phraseology1 is nothing else than the vegetative expression of karma1 which in the biological world constitutes the law of heredity1 or the transmission of acquired character1 or some other laws which might be discovered by the biologist4 ,and it is when this force manifests itself in the moral realm of human affairs that karma obtains its proper significance as the law of moral causation4 ,now1 there are several forms of transmission1 by means of which the karma of a person or a people or a nation or a race is able to perpetuate itself to eternity4 ,a few of them are described below4 ,one may be called genealogical1 or1 perhaps1 biological4 ,suppose here are descendants of an illustrious family1 some of whose ancestors distinguished themselves by bravery1 or benevolence1 or intelligence1 or by some other praiseworthy deeds or faculties4 ,these #bjf people are as a rule respected by their neighbors as if their ancestral spirits were transmitted through generations and still lingering among their consanguineous successors4 ,some of them in the line might have even been below the normal level in their intellect and morals1 but this fact does not altogether nullify the possibility and belief that others of their family might some day develop the faculties possessed by the forefathers1 dormant as they appear now1 through the inspiration they could get from the noble examples of the past4 ,the respect they are enjoying and the possibility of inspiration they may have are all the work of the karma generated by the ancestors4 ,the author or authors of the noble karma are all gone now1 their bones have long returned to their elements1 their ego-souls are no more1 their concrete individual personalities are things of the past2 but their karma is still here and as fresh as it was on the day of its generation and will so remain till the end of time4 ,if some of them1 on the other hand1 left a black record behind them1 the evil karma will tenaciously cling to the history of the family1 and the descendants will have to suffer the curse as long as its vitality is kept up1 no matter how innocent they themselves are4 ,here one important thing ,i wish to note is the mysterious way in which evil karma works4 ,evil does not always generate evils only2 it very frequently turns out to be a condition1 if not a cause1 which will induce a moral being to overcome it with his #bjg utmost spiritual efforts4 ,his being conscious of the very fact that his family history is somehow besmirched with dark spots1 would rekindle in his heart a flickering light of goodness4 ,his stock of good karma finally being brought into maturity1 his virtues would then eclipse the evils of the past and turn a new page before him1 which is full of bliss and glory4 ,everything in this world1 thus1 seems to turn to be merely a means for the final realisation of ,good4 ,buddhists ascribe this spiritual phenomenon to the virtues of the upya 7expediency7 of the ,dharmakya or ,amitbha ,buddha4#ia ,to return to the subject4 ,it does not need any further illustration to show that all these things which have been said about the family are also true of the race1 the tribe1 clan1 nation1 or any other form of community4 ,history of mankind in all its manifold aspects of existence is nothing but a grand drama visualising the ,buddhist doctrine of karmaic immortality4 ,it is like an immense ocean whose boundaries nobody knows and the waves of events now swelling and surging1 now ebbing1 now whirling1 now refluxing1 in all times1 day and night1 illustrate how the laws #bjh of karma are at work in this actual life4 ,one act provokes another and that a third and so on to eternity without ever losing the chain of karmaic causation4 ,next1 we come to a form of karma which might be called historical4 ,by this ,i mean that a man's karma can be immortalised by some historical objects1 such as buildings1 literary works1 productions of art1 implements1 or instruments4 ,in fact1 almost any object1 human or natural1 which1 however insignificant in itself1 is associated with the memory of a great man1 bears his karma1 and transmits it to posterity4 ,everybody is familiar with the facts that all literary work embodies in itself the author's soul and spirit1 and that posterity can feel his living presence in the thoughts and sentiments expressed there1 and that whenever the reader draws his inspiration from the work and actualises it in action1 the author and the reader1 though corporeally separate and living in different times1 must be said spiritually feeling the pulsation of one and the same heart4 ,and the same thing is true of productions of art4 ,when we enter a gallery decorated with the noble works of ,grcean or ,roman artists1 we feel as if we were breathing right in the midst of these art-loving people and seem to reawaken in us the same impressions that were received by them4 ,we forget1 as they did1 the reality of our particular existence1 we are unconsciously raised above it1 and our imagination is filled with things not earthly4 ,what a mysterious power it is6--the #bji power by which those inanimate objects carry us away to a world of ideals6 ,what a mysterious power it is that reawakens the spirits of by-gone artists on a sheet of canvas or in a piece of marble6 ,it was not indeed entirely without truth that primitive or ignorant people intuitively believed in the spiritual power of idols4 ,what they failed to grasp was the distinction between the subjective presence of a spirit and its objective reality4 ,as far as their religious feeling1 and not their critical intellect1 was concerned1 they were perfectly justified in believing in idolatry4 ,taking all in all1 these facts unmistakably testify the ,buddhist doctrine of the immortality of karma4 ,a chord of karma touched by mortals of bygone ages still vibrates in their works1 and the vibration with its full force is transmitted to the sympathetic souls down to the present day4 ,architectural creations bear out the doctrine of karma with no less force than works of art and literature4 ,as the uppermost bricks on an ,egyptian pyramid would fall on the ground with the same amount of energy that required to raise them up in the times of ,pharaohs2 as a burning piece of coal in the furnace that was dug out from the heart of the earth emits the same quantity of heat that it absorbed from the sun some hundred thousand years ago2 even so every insignificant bit of rock or brick or cement we may find among the ruins of ,babylonian palaces1 ,indian topes1 ,persian kiosks1 ,egyptian obelisks1 or ,roman pantheons1 is fraught with the same spirit and soul that actuated #baj the ancient peoples to construct those gigantic architectural wonders4 ,the spirit is here1 not in its individual form1 but in its karmaic presence4 ,when we pick these insignificant1 unseemly pieces1 our souls become singularly responsive to inspirations coming from those of the past1 and our mental eyes vividly perceive the splendor of the gods1 glory of the kings1 peace of the nation1 prosperity of the peoples1 etc41 etc4 ,because our souls and theirs are linked with the chain of karmaic causation through the medium of those visible remains of ancient days4 ,because the karma of those old peoples is still breathing its immortality in those architectural productions and sending its sympathetic waves out to the beholders4 ,when thus we come to be convinced of the truth of the immortality of karma1 we can truly exclaim with ,christians1 8,o death1 where is thy sting8 ,o grave1 where is thy victory80 ,it is hardly necessary to give any further illustration to establish the doctrine of karma concerning its historical significance4 ,all scientific apparatus and instruments are an undying eye-witness of the genius of the inventors4 ,all industrial machines and agricultural implements most concretely testify the immortality of karma created by the constructors1 in exact proportion as they are beneficial to the general welfare and progress of humanity4 ,the instruments or machines or implements may be superseded by later and better ones1 and possibly altogether forgotten by succeeding generations1 but this does not annul the fact that the #baa improved ones were only possible through the knowledge and experience which came from the use of the older ones1 in other words1 that the ideas and thoughts of the former inventors are still surviving through those of their successors1 just as much as in the case of genealogical karma-transmission4 ,whatever garb the karma of a person may wear in its way down to posterity1 it is ever there where its inspiration is felt4 ,even in an article of most trivial significance1 even in a piece of rag1 or in a slip of time-worn paper1 only let there be an association with the memory of the deceased2 and an unutterable feeling imperceptibly creeps into the heart of the beholder2 and if the deceased were known for his saintliness or righteousness1 this would be an opportunity for our inspiration and moral elevation according to how our own karma at that moment is made up4 ,we now come to see more closely the spiritual purport of karmaic activity4 ,any intelligent reader could infer from what has been said above what important bearing the ,buddhist doctrine of karma has on our moral and spiritual life4 ,the following remarks1 however1 will greatly help him to understand the full extent of the doctrine and to pass an impartial judgment on its merits4 ,here1 if not anywhere else1 looms up most conspicuously the characteristic difference between ,buddhism and ,christianity as to their conception of soul-activity4 ,christianity1 if ,i understand it rightly1 conceives our soul-phenomena as the work of an #bab individual ego-entity1 which keeps itself mysteriously hidden somewhere within the body4 ,to ,christians1 the soul is a metaphysical being1 and its incarnation in the flesh is imprisonment4 ,it groans after emancipation1 it craves for the celestial abode1 where1 after bodily death1 it can enjoy all the blessings due to its naked existence4 ,it finds the nectar of immortality up in ,heaven and in the presence of ,god the father and ,christ the son1 and not in the perpetuation of karma in this universe4 ,the soul of the wicked1 on the other hand1 is eternally damned1 if it is conceded that they have any soul4 ,as soon as it is liberated from the bodily incarceration1 it is hurled into the infernal fire1 and is there consumed suffering unspeakable agony4 ,christianity1 therefore1 does not believe in the transmigration or reincarnation of a soul4 ,a soul once departed from the flesh never returns to it2 it is either living an eternal life in ,heaven or suffering an instant annihilation in ,hell4 ,this is the necessary conclusion from their premises of an individual concrete ego-soul4 ,buddhism1 however1 does not teach the metaphysical existence of the soul4 ,all our mental and spiritual experiences1 it declares1 are due to the operations of karma which inherits its efficiency from its previous 8seeds of activity0 7karmabja71 and which has brought the five skandhas into the present state of co-ordination4 ,the present karma1 while in its force1 generates in turn the 8seeds of activity0 which under favorable conditions grow to maturity again4 ,therefore1 as long #bac as the force of karma is thus successively generated1 there are the five skandhas constantly coming into existence and working co-ordinately as a person4 ,karma-reproduction1 so to speak1 effected in this manner1 is the ,buddhist conception of the transmigration of a soul4 ,a ,japanese national hero1 ,general ,kusunoki ,masashige1 who was an orthodox ,buddhist1 is said to have uttered the following words when he fell in the battle-field3 8,i will be reborn seven times yet and complete discharging my duties for the ,imperial ,house40 ,and he did not utter these words to no purpose4 ,because even to-day1 after the lapse of more than seven hundred years1 his spirit is still alive among his countrymen1 and indeed his bronze statue on horseback is solemnly guarding the ,japanese ,imperial palace4 ,he was reborn more than seven times and will be reborn as long as the ,japanese as a nation exist on earth4 ,this constant rebirth or reincarnation means no more nor less than the immortality of karma4 ,says ,buddha3 8,ye disciples1 take after my death those moral precepts and doctrines which were taught to you for my own person1 for ,i live in them40 ,to live in karma1 and not as an ego-entity1 is the ,buddhist conception of immortality4 ,therefore1 the ,buddhists will perfectly agree with the sentiment expressed by a noted modern poet in these lines3 8,we live in deeds1 not years2 in thoughts1 not in breaths3 ,in feelings1 not in figures on a dial1 ,we should count time by heart-throbs4 ,he most lives ,who thinks most1 feels the noblest1 acts the best40 #bad ,some may like to call this kind of immortality unsatisfactory1 and impetuously demand that the ego-soul1 instead of mysterious force of karma1 should be made immortal1 as it is more tangible and better appreciated by the masses4 ,the ,buddhist response to such a demand would be2 8,if their intellectual and moral insight is not developed enough to see truth in the theory of karma1 why1 we shall let them adhere as long as they please to their crude1 primitive faith and rest contented with it40 ,even the ,buddha could not make children find pleasure in abstract metaphysical problems1 whatever truth and genuine spiritual consolation there might be in them4 ,what their hearts are after are toys and fairy-tales and parables4 ,therefore1 a motto of ,buddhism is3 8,minister to the patients according to their wants and conditions40 ,we cannot make a plant grow even an inch higher by artificially pulling its roots2 we have but to wait till it is ready for development4 ,unless a child becomes a man1 we must not expect of him to put away childish things4 ,the conclusion that could be drawn from the above is obvious4 ,if we desire immortality1 let there be the maturing of good karma and the cleansing of the heart from the contamination of evils4 ,in good karma we are made to live eternally1 but in evil one we are doomed1 not only ourselves but every one that follows our steps on the path of evils4 ,karma is always generative2 therefore1 good karma is infinite bliss1 and evil one is eternal curse4 ,it was for this reason that at the appearance of the ,buddha in the ,jambudvpa #bae heaven and earth resounded with the joyous acclamation of gods and men4 ,it was a signal triumph for the cause of goodness4 ,the ideal of moral perfection found a concrete example in the person of kyamuni4 ,it showed how the stock of good karma accumulated and matured from the beginning of consciousness on earth could be crystalised in one person and brought to an actuality even in this world of woes4 ,the ,buddha1 therefore1 was the culmination of all the good karma previously stored up by his spiritual ancestors4 ,and he was at the same time the starting point for the fermentation of new karma1 because his moral 8seeds of activity0 which were generated during his lifetime have been scattered liberally wherever his virtues and teachings could be promulgated4 ,that is1 his karma-seeds have been sown in the souls of all sentient beings4 ,every one of these seeds which are infinite in number will become a new centre of moral activity4 ,in proportion how strong it grows and begins to bear fruit1 it destroys the seeds of evil doers4 ,good karma is a combined shield and sword1 while it protects itself it destroys all that is against it4 ,therefore1 good karma is not only statically immortal1 but it is dynamically so2 that is to say1 its immortality is not a mere absence of birth and death1 but a constant positive increase in its moral efficiency4 ,pious ,buddhists believe that every time ,buddha's name is invoked with a heart free from evil thoughts1 he enters right into the soul and becomes integral part of his being4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that #baf ,buddha's ego-substratum which might have been enjoying its immortal spiritual bliss in the presence of an anthropomorphic ,god descends on earth at the invocation of his name and renders in that capacity whatever help the supplicant needs4 ,it means1 on the other hand1 that the ,buddhist awakens in his personal karma that which constituted ,buddhahood in the ,buddha and nourishes it to maturity4 ,that which constitutes ,buddhahood is not the personal ego of the ,buddha1 but his karma4 ,every chemical element1 whenever occasioned to befree itself from a combination1 never fails to generate heat which it absorbed at the time of combination with other elements2 and this takes place no matter how remote the time of combination was4 ,it is even so with the karma-seed of ,buddha4 ,it might have been in the barren soil of a sinful heart1 and1 being deeply buried there for many a year1 might have been forgotten altogether by the owner4 ,but1 sooner or later1 it will never fail to grow under favorable conditions and generate what it gained from the ,buddha in the beginning of the world4 ,and this regeneration will not be merely chemical1 but predominantly biological2 for it is the law which conditions the immortality of karma4 ,,practical ,,buddhism4 #bag ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,dharmak,,ya4 _/,we_/ have considered the doctrine of ,suchness 7,bhtatatht7 under 8,speculative ,buddhism10 where it appeared altogether too abstract to be of any practical use to our earthly life4 ,the theory as such did not seem to have any immediate bearings on our religious consciousness4 ,the fact is1 it must pass through some practical modification before it fully satisfies our spiritual needs4 ,as there is no concrete figure in this world that is a perfect type of mathematical exactitude1--since everything here must be perceived through our more or less distorted physical organs2 even so with pure reason3 however perfect in itself1 it must appear to us more or less modified while passing through our affective-intellectual objectives4 ,this modification of pure reason1 however1 is necessary from the human point of view2 because mere abstraction is contentless1 lifeless1 and has no value for our practical life1 and again1 because our religious cravings will not be satisfied with empty concepts lacking vitality4 ,we may sometimes ignore the claims of reason #bah and rest satisfied1 though usually unconsciously1 with assertions which are conflicting when critically examined1 but we cannot disregard by any means those of the religious sentiment1 which finds satisfaction only in the very fact of things4 ,if it ever harbored some flagrant contradictions in the name of faith1 it was because its ever-pressing demands had to be met with even at the expense of reason4 ,the truth is3 the religious consciousness first of all demands fact1 and when it attains that1 it is not of much consequence to it whether or not its intellectual interpretation is logically tenable4 ,if on the other hand logic be all-important and demand the first consideration and the sentiment had to follow its trail without a murmuring1 our life would surely lose its savory aspect1 turn tasteless1 our existence would become void1 the world would be a mere succession of meaningless events1 and what remains would be nothing else than devastation1 barrenness1 and universal misery4 ,the truth is1 in this life the will predominates and the intellect subserves2 which explains the fact that while all existing religions on the one hand display some logical inaccuracy and on the other hand a mechanical explanation of the world is gaining ground more and more1 religion is still playing an important part everywhere in our practical life4 ,abstraction is good for the exercises of the intellect1 but when it is the question of life and death we must have something more substantial and of more vitality than theorisation4 ,it may not be a mathematically exact #bai and certain proposition1 but it must be a working1 living1 real theory1 that is1 it must be a faith born of the inmost consciousness of our being4 ,what practical transformations then has the doctrine of ,suchness1 in order to meet the religious demands1 to suffer8 ,god4 ,buddhism does not use the word ,god4 ,the word is rather offensive to most of its followers1 especially when it is intimately associated in vulgar minds with the idea of a creator who produced the world out of nothing1 caused the downfall of mankind1 and1 touched by the pang of remorse1 sent down his only son to save the depraved4 ,but1 on account of this1 ,buddhism must not be judged as an atheism which endorses an agnostic1 materialistic interpretation of the universe4 ,far from it4 ,buddhism outspokenly acknowledges the presence in the world of a reality which transcends the limitations of phenomenality1 but which is nevertheless immanent everywhere and manifests itself in its full glory1 and in which we live and move and have our being4 ,god or the religious object of ,buddhism is generally called ,dharmakya-,buddha and occasionally ,vairocana-,buddha or ,vairocana-,dharmakya-,buddha2 still another name for it is ,amitbha-,buddha or ,amityur-,buddha1--the latter two being mostly used by the followers of the ,sukhvat sect of ,japan and ,china4 #bbj ,again1 very frequently we find kyamuni1 the ,buddha1 and the ,tathgata stripped of his historical personality and identified with the highest truth and reality4 ,these1 however1 by no means exhaust a legion of names invented by the fertile imagination of ,buddhists for their object of reverence as called forth by their various spiritual needs4 ,dharmakya4 ,western scholars usually translate ,dharmakya by 8,body of the ,law0 meaning by the ,law the doctrine set forth by kyamuni the ,buddha4 ,it is said that when ,buddha was preparing himself to enter into eternal ,nirvna1 he commanded his disciples to revere the ,dharma or religion taught by him as his own person1 because a man continues to live in the work1 deeds1 and words left behind himself4 ,so1 ,dharmakya came to be understood by ,western scholars as meaning the person of ,buddha incarnated in his religion4 ,this interpretation of the term is not very accurate1 however1 and is productive of some very serious misinterpretations concerning the fundamental doctrines of ,mahynism4 ,historically1 the ,body of the ,law as the ,buddha incarnate might have been the sense of ,dharmakya1 as we can infer from the occasional use of the term in some ,hnayna texts4 ,but as it is used by ,eastern ,buddhists1 it has acquired an entirely new significance1 having nothing to do with the body of religious teachings established by the ,buddha4 #bba ,this transformation in the conception of ,dharmakya has been effected by the different interpretation the term ,dharma came to receive from the hand of the ,mahynists4 ,dharma is a very pregnant word and covers a wide range of meaning4 ,it comes from the root dh1 which means 8to hold10 8to carry01 8to bear10 and the primitive sense of dharma was 8that which carries or bears or supports10 and then it came to signify 8that which forms the norm1 or regulates the course of things10 that is1 8law10 8institution10 8rule10 8doctrine10 then1 8duty10 8justice10 8virtue10 8moral merit10 8character10 8attribute10 8essential quality10 8substance10 8that which exists10 8reality10 8being10 etc41 etc4 ,the ,english equivalent most frequently used for dharma by ,oriental scholars is law or doctrine4 ,this may be all right as far as the ,pli texts go2 but when we wish to apply this interpretation to the ,mahyna terms1 such as ,dharmadhtu1 ,dharmakya1 ,dharmalaka1 ,dharmaloka1 etc41 we are placed in an awkward position and are at a loss how to get at the meaning of those terms4 ,there are passages in ,mahyna literature in which the whole significance of the text depends upon how we understand the word dharma4 ,and it may even be said that one of the many reasons why ,christian students of ,buddhism so frequently fail to recognise the importance of ,mahynism is due to their misinterpretation of dharma4 ,max ,mueller1 therefore1 rightly remarks in his introduction to an ,english translation of the ,vajracchedka ,stra1 when he says3 8,if we #bbb were always to translate dharma by law1 it seems to me that the whole drift of our treatise would become unintelligible40 ,not only that particular text of ,mahynism1 but its entire literature would become utterly incomprehensible4 ,in ,mahynism ,dharma means in many cases 8thing10 8substance10 or 8being10 or 8reality10 both in its particular and in its general sense1 though it is also frequently used in the sense of law or doctrine4 ,kya may be rendered 8body10 not in the sense of personality1 but in that of system1 unity1 and organised form4 ,dharmakya1 the combination of dharma and kya1 thus means the organised totality of things or the principle of cosmic unity1 though not as a purely philosophical concept1 but as an object of the religious consciousness4 ,throughout this work1 however1 the original ,sanskrit form will be retained in preference to any ,english equivalents that have been used heretofore2 for ,dharmakya conveys to the minds of ,eastern ,buddhists a peculiar religious flavor1 which1 when translated by either ,god or the ,all or some abstract philosophical terms1 suffers considerably4 ,dharmakya as ,religious ,object4 ,as aforesaid1 the ,dharmakya is not a product of philosophical reflection and is not exactly equivalent to ,suchness2 it has a religious signification as the object of the religious consciousness4 ,the ,dharmakya is a soul1 a willing and knowing being1 one that is #bbc will and intelligence1 thought and action4 ,it is1 as understood by the ,mahynists1 not an abstract metaphysical principle like ,suchness1 but it is living spirit1 that manifests itself in nature as well as in thought4 ,the universe as an expression of this spirit is not a meaningless display of blind forces1 nor is it an arena for the struggle of diverse mechanical powers4 ,further1 ,buddhists ascribe to the ,dharmakya innumerable merits and virtues and an absolute perfect intelligence1 and makes it an inexhaustible fountain-head of love and compassion2 and it is in this that the ,dharmakya finally assumes a totally different aspect from a mere metaphysical principle1 cold and lifeless4 ,the ,avatamsaka ,stra gives some comprehensive statements concerning the nature of the ,dharmakya as follows3 8,the ,dharmakya1 though manifesting itself in the triple world1 is free from impurities and desires4 ,it unfolds itself here1 there1 and everywhere responding to the call of karma4 ,it is not an individual reality1 it is not a false existence1 but is universal and pure4 ,it comes from nowhere1 it goes to nowhere2 it does not assert itself1 nor is it subject to annihilation4 ,it is forever serene and eternal4 ,it is the ,one1 devoid of all determinations4 ,this ,body of ,dharma has no boundary1 no quarters1 but is embodied in all bodies4 ,its freedom or spontaneity is incomprehensible1 its spiritual presence in things corporeal is incomprehensible4 ,all forms of corporeality are involved therein1 it is able to create all things4 ,assuming any concrete #bbd material body as required by the nature and condition of karma1 it illuminates all creations4 ,though it is the treasure of intelligence1 it is void of particularity4 ,there is no place in the universe where this ,body does not prevail4 ,the universe becomes1 but this ,body forever remains4 ,it is free from all opposites and contraries1 yet it is working in all things to lead them to ,nirvna40 ,more ,detailed ,characterisation4 ,the above gives us a general1 concise view as to what the ,dharmakya is1 but let me quote the following more detailed description of it1 in order that we may more clearly and definitely see into the characteristically ,buddhistic conception of the highest being4#ib 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,the ,tathgata#ic is not a particular dharma1 nor a particular form of activity1 nor has it a particular body1 nor does it abide in a particular place1 nor is its work of salvation confined to one particular people4 ,on the contrary1 it involves in itself infinite dharmas1 infinite activities1 infinite bodies1 infinite spaces1 and universally works for the salvation of all things4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,it is like unto space4 ,space#id contains in itself all material existences and all the vacuums that obtain between them4 ,again1 it establishes #bbe itself in all possible quarters1 and yet we cannot say of it that it is or it is not in this particular spot1 for space has no palpable form4 ,even so with the ,dharmakya of the ,tathgata4 ,it presents itself in all places1 in all directions1 in all dharmas1 and in all beings2 yet the ,dharmakya itself has not been thereby particularised4 ,because the ,body of the ,tathgata has no particular body but manifests itself everywhere and anywhere in response to the nature and condition of things4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,it is like unto space4 ,space is boundless1 comprehends in itself all existence1 and yet shows no trace of passion partiality4 ,it is even so with the ,dharmakya of the ,tathgata4 ,it illuminates all good works worldly as well as religious1 but it betrays no passion or prejudice4 ,why8 ,because the ,dharmakya is perfectly free from all passions and prejudices4#ie 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,it is like unto the ,sun4 ,the benefits conferred by the light of the sun upon all living beings on earth are incalculable3 e4g4 by dispelling darkness it gives nourishment to all trees1 herbs1 grains1 plants1 and grass2 it vanquishes humidity2 it illuminates ether whereby benefitting all the #bbf living beings in air2 its rays penetrate into the waters whereby bringing forth the beautiful lotus-flowers into full blossom2 it impartially shines on all figures and forms and brings into completion all the works on earth4 ,why8 ,because from the sun emanate infinite rays of life-giving light4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,it is even so with the ,sun-,body of the ,tathgata which in innumerable ways bestows benefits upon all beings4 ,that is1 it benefits us by destroying evils1 all good things thus being quickened to growth2 it benefits us with its universal illumination which vanquishes the darkness of ignorance harbored in all beings2 it benefits us through its great compassionate heart which saves and protects all beings2 it benefits us through its great loving heart which delivers all beings from the misery of birth and death2 it benefits us by the establishment of a good religion whereby we are all strengthened in our moral activities2 it benefits us by giving us a firm belief in the truth which cleanses all our spiritual impurities2 it benefits by helping us to understand the doctrine by virtue of which we are not led to disavow the law of causation2 it benefits us with a divine vision which enables us to observe the metempsychosis of all beings2 it benefits us by avoiding injurious deeds which may destroy the stock of merits accumulated by all beings2 it benefits us with an intellectual light which unfolds the mind-flowers of all beings2 it benefits us with an aspiration whereby we are enlivened to practice all that constitutes ,buddhahood4 ,why8 ,because the ,sun-,body #bbg of the ,tathgata universally emits the rays of the ,light of ,intelligence4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,when the day breaks1 the rising sun shines first on the peaks of all the higher mountains1 then on those of high mountains1 and finally all over the plains and fields2 but the sunlight itself does not make this thought3 ,i will shine first on all the highest mountains and then gradually ascending higher and higher shine on the plains and fields4 ,the reason why one gets the sunlight earlier than another is simply because there is a gradation of height on the surface of the earth4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,it is even so with the ,tathgata who is in possession of innumerable and immeasurable suns of universal intelligence4 ,the innumerable rays of the ,light of ,intelligence1 emanating everlastingly from the spiritual ,body of the ,tathgata1 will first fall on the ,bodhisattvas and ,mahsattvas who are the highest peaks among mankind1 then on the ,nidnabuddhas1 then on the rvakas1 then on those beings who are endowed with definitely good character1 as they will each according to his own capacity unhesitatingly embrace the doctrine of deliverance1 and finally on all common mortals whose character may be either indefinite or definitely bad1 providing them with those conditions which will prove beneficial in their future births4 ,but the ,light of ,intelligence emanating from the ,tathgata does not make this thought3 #8,i will first shine on the ,bodhisattvas #bbh and then gradually pass over to all common mortals1 etc4' ,the ,light is universal and illuminates everything without any prejudice1 yet on account of the diversity that obtains among sentient beings as to their character1 aspirations1 etc41 the ,light of ,intelligence is diversely perceived by them4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,when the sun rises above the horizon1 those people born blind1 on account their defective sight1 cannot see the light at all1 but they are nevertheless benefited by the sunlight1 for it gives them just as much as to any other beings all that is necessary for the maintenance of life3 it dispels dampness and coldness and makes them feel agreeable1 it destroys all the injurious germs that are produced on account of the absence of sunshine1 and thus keeps the blind as well as the not-blind comfortable and healthy4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,it is even so with the ,sun of ,intelligence of the ,tathgata4 ,all those beings whose spiritual vision is blinded by false doctrine1 or by the violation of ,buddha's precepts1 or by ignorance1 or by evil influences1 never perceive the ,light of ,intelligence2 because they are devoid of faith4 ,but they are nevertheless benefited by the ,light2 for it disperses indiscriminately for all beings the sufferings arising from the four elements1 and gives them physical comforts2 for it destroys the root of all passions1 prejudices1 and pains for unbelievers as well as for believers444 ,by virtue of this omnipresent ,light of ,intelligence1 the ,bodhisattvas will attain perfect purity and the #bbi knowledge of all things1 the ,nidnabuddhas and ravakas will destroy all passions and desires2 mortals poorly endowed and those born blind will rid of impurities1 control the senses1 and believe in the four views2#if and those creatures living in the evil paths of existence such as hell1 world of ghosts1 and the animal realm1 will be freed from their evils and torture and will1 after death1 be born in the human or celestial world444 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,the ,light of ,dharmakya is like unto the full moon which has four wondrous attributes3 7#a7 ,it outdoes in its brilliance all stars and satellites2 7#b7 ,it shows in its size increase and decrease as observable in the ,jambudvpa2 7#c7 ,its reflection is seen in every drop or body of clear water2 7#d7 ,whoever is endowed with perfect sight1 perceives it vis-a-vis4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,even so with the ,dharmakya of the ,tathgata1 that has four wondrous attributes3 7#a7 ,it eclipses the stars of the ,nidnabuddhas1 rvakas1 etc42 7#b7 ,it shows in its earthly life a certain variation which is due to the different natures of the beings to whom it manifests itself1#ig while the ,dharmakya #bcj itself is eternal and shows no increase or decrease in any way2 7#c7 ,its reflection is seen in the ,bodhi 7intelligence7 of every pure-hearted sentient being2 7#d7 ,all who understand the ,dharma and obtain deliverance1 each according to his own mental calibre1 think that they have really recognised in their own way the ,tathgata face to face1 while the ,dharmakya itself is not a particular object of understanding1 but universally brings all ,buddha-works into completion4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,the ,dharmakya is like unto the ,great ,brahmarja who governs three thousand chiliocosms4 ,the ,rja by a mysterious trick makes himself seen universally by all living beings in his realm and causes them to think that each of them has seen him face to face2 but the ,rja himself has never divided his own person nor is he in possession of diverse features4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,even so with the ,tathgata2 he has never divided himself into many1 nor has he ever assumed diverse features4 ,but all beings1 each according to his understanding and strength of faith1 recognise the ,body of the ,tathgata1 while he has never made this thought that he will show himself to such and such particular people and not to others444 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,the ,dharmakya is like unto the maniratna in the waters1 whose wondrous #bca light transforms everything that comes in contact with it to its own color4 ,the eyes that perceive it become purified4 ,wherever its illumination reaches1 there is a marvelous display of gems of every description1 which gives pleasure to all beings to see4 8,o ye1 sons of ,buddha6 ,it is even so with the ,dharmakya of the ,tathgata1 which may rightly be called the treasure of treasures1 the thesaurus of all merits1 and the mine of intelligence4 ,whoever comes in touch with this light1 is all transformed into the same color as that of the ,buddha4 ,whoever sees this light1 all obtains the purest eye of ,dharma4 ,whoever comes in touch with this light1 rids of poverty and suffering1 attains wealth and eminence1 enjoys the bliss of the incomparable ,bodhi0444444 ,dharmakya and ,individual ,beings4 ,from these statements it is evident that the ,dharmakya or the ,body of the ,tathgata1 or the ,body of ,intelligence1 whatever it may be designated1 is not a mere philosophical abstraction1 standing aloof from this world of birth and death1 of joy and sorrow1 calmly contemplates on the folly of mankind2 but that it is a spiritual existence which is 8absolutely one1 is real and true1 and forms the raison d'tre of all beings1 transcends all modes of upya1 is free from desires and struggles or compulsion1 and stands outside the pale of our finite understanding40#ih ,it is #bcb also evident that the ,dharmakya though itself free from ignorance 7avidy7 and passion 7klea7 and desire 7tn71 is revealed in the finite and fragmental consciousness of human being1 so that we can say in a sense that 8this body of mine is the ,dharmakya0--though not absolutely2 and also in a generalised form that 8the body of all beings is the ,dharmakya1 and the ,dharmakya is the body of all beings10--though in the latter only imperfectly and fractionally realised4 ,as we thus partake something in ourselves of the ,dharmakya1 we all are ultimately destined to attain ,buddhahood when the human intelligence1 ,bodhi1 is perfectly identified with1 or absorbed in1 that of the ,dharmakya1 and when our earthly life becomes the realisation of the will of the ,dharmakya4 ,the ,dharmakya as ,love4 ,here an important consideration forces itself upon us which is1 that the ,dharmakya is not only an intelligent mind but a loving heart1 that it is not only a god of rigorism who does not allow a hair's breadth deviation from the law of karma1 but also an incarnation of mercy that is constantly belaboring to develop the most insignificant merit into a field yielding rich harvests4 ,the ,dharmakya relentlessly punishes the wrong and does not permit the exhaustion of their karma without sufficient reason2 and yet its hands are always directing our life toward the actualisation #bcc of supreme goodness4 8,pangs of nature1 sins of will1 defects of doubt1 and stains of blood10--discouraging and gloomy indeed is the karma of evil-doers6 ,but the ,dharmakya1 infinite in love and goodness1 is incessantly managing to bring this world-transaction to a happy terminus4 ,every good we do is absorbed in the universal stock of merits which is no more nor less than the ,dharmakya4 ,every act of lovingkindness we practice is conceived in the womb of ,tathgata1 and therein nourished and matured1 is again brought out to this world of karma to bear its fruit4 ,therefore1 no life walks on earth with aimless feet2 no chaff is thrown into the fire unquenchable4 ,every existence1 great or insignificant1 is a reflection of the glory of the ,dharmakya and as such worthy of its all-embracing love4 ,for further corroboration of this view let us cite at random from a ,mahyna sutra3#ii 8,with one great loving heart ,the thirsty desires of all beings he quencheth with coolness refreshing2 ,with compassion1 of all doth he think1 ,which like space knows no bounds2 ,over the world's all creation ,with no thought of particularity he revieweth4 8,with a great heart compassionate and loving1 ,all sentient beings by him are embraced2 ,with means 7upya7 which are pure1 free from stain1 and all excellent1 ,he doth save and deliver all creatures innumerable4 #bcd 8,with unfathomable love and with compassion ,all creations caressed by him universally2 ,yet free from attachment his heart is4 8,as his compassion is great and is infinite1 ,bliss unearthly on every being he confereth1 ,and himself showeth all over the universe2 ,he'll not rest till all ,buddhahood truly attains40 ,later ,mahynists' view of the ,dharmakya4 ,the above has been quoted almost exclusively from the so-called stra literature of ,mahyna ,buddhism1 which is distinguished from the other religio-philosophical treatises of the school1 because the stras are considered to be the accounts of ,buddha himself as recorded by his immediate disciples4#ajj ,let us now see by way of further elucidation what views were held concerning the ,dharmakya by such writers as ,asanga1 ,vasubandhu1 etc4 ,we read in the ,general ,treatise on ,mahynism by ,asanga and ,vasubandhu the following statement3 8,when the ,bodhisattvas think of the ,dharmakya1 how have they to picture it to themselves8 8,briefly stated1 they will think of the ,dharmakya by picturing to themselves its seven characteristics1 which constitute the faultless virtues and essential #bce functions of the ,kya4 7#a7 ,think of the free1 unrivaled1 unimpeded activity of the ,dharmakya1 which is manifested in all beings2 7#b7 ,think of the eternality of all perfect virtues in the ,dharmakya2 7#c7 ,think of its absolute freedom from all prejudice1 intellectual and affective2 7#d7 ,think of those spontaneous activities that uninterruptedly emanate from the will of the ,dharmakya2 7#e7 ,think of the inexhaustible wealth1 spiritual and physical1 stored in the ,body of the ,dharma2 7#f7 ,think of its intellectual purity which has no stain of onesidedness2 7#g7 ,think of the earthly works achieved for the salvation of all beings by the ,tathgatas who are reflexes of the ,dharmakya40 ,as regards the activity of the ,dharmakya1 which is shown in every ,buddha's work of salvation1 ,asanga enumerates five forms of operation3 7#a7 ,it is shown in his power of removing evils which may befall us in the course of life1 though the ,buddha is unable to cure any physical defects which we may have1 such as blindness1 deafness1 mental aberration1 etc4 7#b7 ,it is shown in his irresistible spiritual domination over all evil-doers1 who1 base as they are1 cannot help doing some good if they ever come in the presence of the ,buddha4 7#c7 ,it is shown in his power of destroying various unnatural and irrational methods of salvation which are practiced by followers of asceticism1 hedonism1 or ,ishvaraism4 7#d7 ,it is shown in his power of curing those diseased minds that believe in the reality1 permanency1 and indivisibility of the ego-soul1 that is1 in the pudgalavda4 7#e7 ,it is shown in his inspiring #bcf influence over those ,bodhisattvas who have not yet attained to the stage of immovability as well as over those rvakas whose faith and character are still in a state of vacillation4 ,the ,freedom of the ,dharmakya4 ,those spiritual influences over all beings of the ,dharmakya through the enlightened mind of a ,buddha1 which we have seen above as stated by ,asanga1 are fraught with religious significance4 ,according to the ,buddhist view1 those spiritual powers everlastingly emanating from the ,body of ,dharma have no trace of human elaboration or constrained effort1 but they are a spontaneous overflow from its immanent necessity1 or1 as ,i take it1 from its free will4 ,the ,dharmakya does not make any conscious1 struggling efforts to shower upon all sentient creatures its innumerable merits1 benefits1 and blessings4 ,if there were in it any trace of elaboration1 that would mean a struggle within itself of divers tendencies1 one trying to gain ascendency over another4 ,and it is apparent that any struggle and its necessary ally1 compulsion1 are incompatible with our conception of the highest religious reality4 ,absolute spontaneity and perfect freedom is one of those necessary attributes which our religious consciousness cannot help ascribing to its object of reverence4 ,buddhists therefore repeatedly affirm that the activity of the ,dharmakya is perfectly free from all effort and coercion1 external and internal4 ,its every act of creation or salvation #bcg or love emanates from its own free will1 unhampered by any struggling exertion which characterises the doings of mankind4 ,this free will which is divine1 standing in such a striking contrast with our own 8free will0 which is human and at best very much limited1 is called by the ,buddhists the ,dharmakya's 8,purvapranidhnabala40#aja ,as the ,dharmakya works of its own accord it does not seek any recompense for its deed2 and it is evident that every act of the ,dharmakya is always for the best welfare of its creatures1 for they are its manifestations and it must know what they need4 ,we do not have to ask for our 8daily bread10 #bch nor have we to praise or eulogise its virtues to court its special grace1 nor is there any necessity for us to offer prayer or supplication to the ,dharmakya4 ,consider the lilies of the field which neither toil nor spin1--and ,i might add1--which ask not for any favoritism from above2 yet are they not arrayed even better than ,solomon in all his glory8 ,the ,dharmakya shines in its august magnificence everywhere there is life1 nay1 even where there is death4 ,we are all living in the midst of it and yet1 strange to say1 as 8the fish knows not the presence of water about itself10 and also as 8the mountaineers recognise not the mountains among which they hunt10 even so we know not whence that power comes whose work is made manifest in us and whither it finally leadeth us4 ,in spite of this profound ignorance1 we really feel that we are here1 and thereby we rest supremely contented4 ,for we believe that all this is wrought through the mysterious and miraculous will of the ,dharmakya1 who does all excellent works and seeks no recompense whatever4 ,the ,will of the ,dharmakya4 ,summarily speaking1 the ,dharmakya assumes three essential aspects as reflected in our religious consciousness3 first1 it is intelligence 7praj72 secondly1 it is love 7karun72 and thirdly1 it is the will 7pranidhnabala74 ,we know that it is intelligence from the declaration that the ,dharmakya directs the course of the universe1 not blindly but rationally2 we know again that it is love because it embraces all #bci beings with fatherly tenderness2#ajb and finally we must assume that it is a will1 because the ,dharmakya has firmly set down its aim of activity in that good shall be the final goal of all evil in the universe4 ,without the will1 love and intelligence will not be realised2 without love1 the will and intelligence will lose their impulse2 without intelligence1 love and the will will be irrational4 ,in fact1 the three are co-ordinates and constitute the oneness of the ,dharmakya2 and by oneness ,i mean the absolute1 and not the numerical1 unity of all these three things in the being of the ,dharmakya1 for intelligence and love and the will are differentiated as such only in our human1 finite consciousness4 ,some ,buddhists may not agree entirely with the view here expounded4 ,they may declare3 8,we conform to your view when you say the ,dharmakya is intelligence and love1 as this is expressly stated in the stras and stras2 but we do not see how it could be made a will4 ,indeed1 the ,scriptures say that the ,dharmakya is in possession of the ,pranidhnabala1 but this bala or power is not necessarily the will1 it is the power of prayers or intense vows4 ,the ,dharmakya actually made solemn vows1 and their spiritual energy abiding in the world of particulars works out its original plan and makes possible the universal salvation of all creatures40 ,it is quite true that the word pranidhnabala means #bdj literally 8the power of original prayers40 ,but this literary rendering totally ignores its inner significance without which the nature of the ,dharmakya would become unintelligible4 ,we admit that the ,dharmakya knows no higher existence by which it is conditioned1 nor has it any fragmentary1 limited consciousness like that of human being1 nor has it any intrinsic want by which it is necessitated to appeal to something other than itself4 ,it is1 therefore1 utterly nonsensical to speak of its prayer1 8original0 or borrowed1 as some ,buddhists are inclined to think4 ,on the other hand1 we are perfectly justified in saying that whatever is done by the ,dharmakya is done by its own free will independent of all the determinations that might affect it from outside4 ,but ,i can presume the reason why they speak of the prayers of the ,dharmakya instead of its will4 ,here we have an instance of emotional outburst4 ,the fervency of the intense religious sentiment not infrequently carries us beyond the limits of the intellect1 landing us in a region full of mysteries and contradictions4 ,it anthropomorphises everything beyond the proper measure of intellection and ascribes all earthly human feelings and passions to an object which the mind well-balanced demands to be above all the forms of human helplessness4 ,the ,buddhists1 especially those of the ,sukhvat sect1#ajc recognise the existence #bda of an all-powerful will1 all-embracing love1 and all-knowing intelligence in the ,dharmakya1 but they want to represent it more concretely and in a more humanly fashion before the mental vision of the less intellectual followers4 ,the result thus is that the ,dharmakya in spite of its absoluteness made prayers to himself to emancipate all sentient beings from the sufferings of birth and death4 ,but are not these self-addressed prayers of the ,dharmakya which sprang out of its inmost nature exactly what constitutes its will8 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,trik,,ya4 #bdb 7_/,buddhist ,theory of ,trinity_/47 ,the ,human and the ,super-human ,buddha4 _/,one_/ of the most remarkable differences between the ,pli and the ,sanskrit1 that is1 between the ,hnayna and the ,mahyna ,buddhist literature1 is in the manner of introducing the characters or persons who take principal parts in the narratives4 ,in the former1 sermons are delivered by the ,buddha as a rule in such a natural and plain language as to make the reader feel the presence of the teacher1 fatherly-hearted and philosophically serene2 while in the latter generally we have a mysterious1 transcendent figure1 more celestial than human1 surrounded and worshipped by beings of all kinds1 human1 celestial1 and even demoniac1 and this mystical central character performing some supernatural feats which might well be narrated by an intensely poetical mind4 ,in the ,pli scriptures1 the texts as a rule open with the formula1 8,thus it was heard by me0 7,evam me sutam71 then relate the events1 if any1 which induced the ,buddha to deliver them1 and finally lead the reader to the main subjects which are generally written in #bdc lucid style4 ,their opening or introductory matter is very simple1 and we do not notice anything extraordinary in its further development4 ,but with the ,mahyna texts it is quite different4 ,here we have1 as soon as the curtain rises with the stereotyped formula1 8,evam may rutam10 a majestic prologue dramatically or rather grotesquely represented1 which prepares the mind of the audience to the succeeding scenes1 in which some of the boldest religio-philosophical proclamations are brought forth4 ,the perusal of this introductory part alone will stupefy the reader by its rather monstrous grandeur1 and he may without much ado declare that what follows must be extraordinary and may be even nonsensical4 ,the following is an illustration showing the typical manner of introducing the characters in the ,mahyna texts4#ajd 8,thus it was heard by me4 ,buddha was once staying at ,rjagriha1 on the ,gridhrakuta mountain4 ,he was in the ,hall of ,ratnachandra in the ,double ,tower of ,chandana4 ,ten years passed since his attainment of ,buddhahood4 ,he was surrounded by a hundred thousand ,bhikus and ,bodhisattvas and ,mahsattvas numbering sixty times as many as the sands of the ,ganges4 ,all of them were in possession of the greatest spiritual energy2 they had paid homage to thousands of hundred millions #bdd of niyutas#aje of ,buddhas2 they were able to set rolling the never-sliding-back ,wheel of ,dharma2 and whoever heard their names could establish themselves firmly in the ,highest ,perfect ,knowledge4 ,their names were4444 ,here about fifty ,bodhisattvas are mentioned4 8,all these ,bodhisattvas numbering sixty times as many as the sands of the ,ganges coming from innumerable ,buddha-countries were accompanied by numberless ,devas1 ,ngas1 ,yakas1 ,gandharvas1 ,auras1 ,garudas1 ,kinnaras1 and ,mahoragas4#ajf ,this great assembly all joined in revering1 honoring1 paying homage to the ,bhagavat1 the ,world-honored ,one4 8,at this time the ,bhagavat in the ,double ,tower of ,chandana seated himself in the assigned seat1 entered upon a samdhi1 and displayed a marvelous phenomenon4 ,there appeared innumerable lotus-flowers with thousand-fold petals and each flower as large as a carriage-wheel4 ,they had perfectly beautiful color and fragrant odour1 but their petals containing celestial beings in them were not yet unfolded4 ,they all were raised now by themselves high up in the heavens and hung over the earth like a canopy of pearls4 ,each one of these lotus-flowers emitted innumerable rays of light and simultaneously grew in size with wonderful vitality4 ,but through the divine power of ,buddha they all of #bde a sudden changed color and withered4 ,all the celestial ,buddhas sitting cross-legged within the flowers now came into full view1 shone with innumerable hundred thousand-fold rays of light4 ,at this moment the transcendent glory of the spot was beyond description40444 ,as is here thus clearly shown1 the ,buddha in the ,mahyna scriptures is not an ordinary human being walking in a sensuous world2 he is altogether dissimilar to that son of ,suddhodana1 who resigned the royal life1 wandered in the wilderness1 and after six years' profound meditation and penance discovered the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth and the ,twelve ,chains of ,dependence2 and we cannot but think that the ,mahyna ,buddha is the fictitious creation of an intensely poetic mind4 ,let it be so4 ,but the question which engages us now is1 8,how did the ,buddhists come to relegate the human ,buddha to oblivion1 as it were1 and assign a mysterious being in his place invested with all possible or sometimes impossible majesty and supernaturality80 ,this question1 which marks the rise of ,mahyna ,buddhism1 brings us to the doctrine of ,trikya1--which in a sense corresponds to the ,christian theory of trinity4 ,according to this doctrine1 the ,buddhists presume a triple existence of the ,tathgata1 that is1 the ,tathgata is conceived by them as manifesting himself in three different forms of existence3 the ,body of ,transformation1 the ,body of ,bliss1 and the ,body of ,dharma4 ,though they are conceived as three1 they are in fact all the manifestations of one ,dharmakya1--the ,dharmakya that revealed itself in the historical kyamuni #bdf ,buddha as a ,body of ,transformation1 and in the ,mahyna ,buddha as a ,body of ,bliss4 ,however differently they may appear from the human point of view1 they are nothing but the expression of one eternal truth1 in which all things have their raison d'tre4 ,an ,historical ,view4 ,at present we are not in possession of any historical documents that will throw light on the question as to how early this doctrine of ,trikya or ,buddhist trinity conception came to be firmly established among ,northern ,buddhists and found its way in an already-finished form as such into the ,mahyna scriptures4 ,as far as we know1 it was ,avaghoa1 the first ,mahyna philosopher1 who incorporated this conception in his ,discourse on the ,awakening of ,faith in the ,mahyna as early as the first century before ,christ4 ,this work1 as the author declares1 is a sort of synopsis of the ,mahyna teachings1 elucidating their principal features as taught by the ,buddha in his various stras4 ,it is not an original work which expounds the individual views of ,avaghoa concerning ,buddhism4 ,he wrote the book in a concise and comprehensive form1 in order that the later generations who remote from the ,buddha could not have the privilege of being inspired by his august presence1 might peruse it with concentration of mind and synthetically grasp the whole significance of many lengthy and voluminous stras4 ,therefore1 in the ,awakening of ,faith1 we are supposed #bdg not to find any ,mahyna doctrines that were not already taught by the ,buddha and incorporated in the stras4 ,everything ,avaghoa treats in his work must be considered merely a recapitulation of the doctrines which were not only formulated but firmly established as the ,mahyna faith long before him4 ,his is simply the work of a recorder4 ,he carefully scanned all the ,mahyna scriptures that had existed prior to his time and faithfully collected all the principal teachings of ,mahynism here and there scatteringly told in them4 ,his merit lies in compilation and systematisation4 ,this being the case1 we must assume that all the doctrines that are found in ,avaghoa and distinct from those usually held to be ,hnaynistic are the teachings elaborated by ,buddhists from the time of ,buddha's death down to the time of ,avaghoa4 ,but as the latter apparently believes all these doctrines as ,buddha's own and raises no doubt concerning their later origin1 even if they were so1 we must assume again that these doctrines were in a state of completion long before ,avaghoa's time4 ,if our calculation is correct that he lived in the first century before ,christ1 the ,mahyna faith must be said to have been formulated at least two hundred years prior to his age1--taking this presumably as the time that is required for the formulation and dogmatical establishment of a doctrine4 ,this calculation places the development of the ,mahyna faith during the first century after the ,buddha1 and1 we know1 it was during this time that so many schools and divisions1--among #bdh which we must also find the so-called 8primitive0 ,buddhism of ,ceylon1 arose among the ,buddhists1--each claiming to be the only authentic transmission of the ,buddha's teaching4 ,did ,mahynism come out of this turmoil of contention8 ,did it boldly raise itself from this chaos and claim to have solved all the questions and doubts that agitated the minds of ,buddhists after the ,nirvna8 ,for certain we do not know anything concerning the chronology of the development of ,buddhist philosophy and dogmas in ,india1 at least before ,avaghoa2 but1 as far as our ,chinese ,buddhist literature records1 we must conclude that this was most probably the case4 ,to give our readers a glimpse of the state of things that were taking place in those early days of ,buddhism in ,india1 ,i will quote some passages from ,vasumitra's ,discourse on the ,points of ,controversy by the ,different ,schools of ,buddhism1--the work once referred to in the beginning of this book4 ,the two principal schools that arose soon after the ,nirvna of the ,buddha were1 as is well known1 the ,elders and the ,great ,council1 and though they were further divided into a number of smaller sections and their views became so complex and intermixed that some of the ,elders shared similar views with the ,great ,council ,school and vice versa1 yet we can fairly distinguish one from the other and describe the essential peculiarities of each school4 ,these points of difference1 generally speaking1 are as follows1 confining ourselves to their conceptions about the ,buddha3 #bdi 7#a7 ,according to the ,school of the ,great ,council1 the ,buddha's personality is transcendental 7lokottara71 and all the ,tathgatas are free from the defilements that might come from the material existence 7bhva-rava74#ajg ,for in the ,buddha all evil passions hereditary and acquired were eternally uprooted1 and his presence on earth was absolutely spotless4 7,the ,vibhaa1 ,,clxxiii47 ,contending this view1 the ,elders held that the ,buddha's personality was not free from ,bhvrava1 though his mind was fully enlightened4 ,his corporeal existence was the product of blind love veiled with ignorance and tangled with attachment4 ,if this were not so1 the ,buddha's feature would not have awakened an impure affection in the heart of a maiden1 an ill-will in the heart of a highwayman1 stupidity in the mind of an ascetic1 and arrogance in that of a haughty ,brahman4 ,these incidents which #bej happened during the life of the ,buddha evince that his corporeal presence was apt to agitate others' hearts1 and to that extent it was contaminated by ,bhvrava4 7#b7 ,the ,great ,council ,school insists that every word uttered by a ,tathgata has a religious1 spiritual meaning and purports to the edification of his fellow-beings2 that his one utterance is variously interpreted by his audience each according to his own disposition1 but all to his spiritual welfare2 that every instruction given out by the ,buddha is rational and perfect4 ,against these views the ,elders think that the ,buddha occasionally uttered things which had nothing to do with the enlightenment of others2 that even with the ,buddha something was out of his attainment1 for instance1 he could not make every one of his hearers perfectly understand his preachings2 that though the ,buddha never taught anything irrational and heretical1 yet all his speeches were not perfect1 he said some things which had no concern with rationality or orthodoxy4 7#c7 ,the corporeal body 7rpakya7 of the ,buddha has no limits 7koi72 his majestic power has no limits2 every ,buddha's life is unlimited2 a ,buddha knows no fatigue1 knows not when to rest1 always occupying himself with the enlightenment of all sentient beings and with the awakening in their hearts of pure faith4 ,against these tendencies of the ,great ,council ,school to deify the historical ,buddha1 the ,elders generally insist on the humanity of ,buddhahood4 ,though the #bea ,elders agree with the ,great ,council in that the body assumed by the ,buddha as the result of his untiring accumulation of good karma through eons of his successive existences possesses a wonderful power1 spiritual and material1 they do not conceive it to be beyond all limitations4 7#d7 ,the ,great ,council ,school says that with the ,buddha sleep is not necessary and he has no dreams4 ,the ,elders admit that the ,buddha never dreams1 but denies that he does not need any sleep4 7#e7 ,as the ,buddha is always in the state of a deep1 exalted spiritual meditation1 it is not necessary for him to think what to say when requested to answer certain questions4 ,though he might appear to the inquirers as if he thoroughly cogitates over the problems presented to him for solution1 the ,buddha's response is in fact immediate and without any efforts4 ,the ,elders1 on the other hand1 presume the ,buddha's mental calculation as to how to express his ideas as best suited to the understanding of the audience4 ,indeed1 he does not cogitate over the problem itself1 for with him everything is transparent1 but he thinks over the best method of presenting his ideas before his pupils4#ajh #beb ,now to return to the doctrine of ,dharmakya and ,trikya4 ,when we consider these controversies as above stated1 it is apparent that among many other questions which arose soon after the demise of the ,buddha kyamuni1 there was one1 which in all probability most agitated the minds of his disciples4 ,i mean the question of the personality of ,buddha4 ,was he merely a human being like ourselves8 ,then1 how could he reach such a height of moral perfection8 ,or was he a divine being8 ,but ,buddha himself did not communicate anything to his disciples concerning his divinity1 nor did he tell them to accept the ,dharma on account of his divine personality1 but solely for the sake of truth4 ,but for all that how could the disciples ever eradicate from their hearts the feeling of sacred reverence for their teacher1 which was so indelibly engraved there8 ,whenever they recalled the sermons1 anecdotes1 or gths of their master1 the truth and spirit embodied in them and the author must have become so closely associated that they could not but ask themselves3 8,what in the ,buddha caused him to perceive and declare these solemn profound truths8 ,what was it that formed in him such a noble majestic character8 ,what was there in the mind of ,buddha that raised him to such a perfection of intellectual and religious life8 ,how was it possible that1 possessed of such exalted moral and spiritual virtues1 ,buddha too had to succumb to the law of birth and death that is the lot of common mortals80 ,some such questions must have been repeatedly asked before they #bec could answer them by the doctrines of ,dharmakya and ,trikya4 ,who was the ,buddha8 ,the evidence that these questions were constantly disturbing the minds of the disciples ever since the ,master's entrance into ,parinirvna1 is scatteringly revealed throughout the ,buddhist texts both ,southern and ,northern4 ,the regret of the immediate followers that they did not ask the ,buddha to prolong his earthly life1 while the ,buddha told them that he could do so if he wished1 and their lamentation over the remains of the ,blessed ,one1 8,how soon the ,light of the ,world has passed away60#aji--these utterances may be considered the first drops foreboding the showers of doubt and speculation as to his personality4 ,according to the ,suvarna ,prabh ,stra1#aaj a ,bodhisattva1 by the name of ,ruciraketu1 was greatly annoyed by the doubt why kyamuni ,tathgata had such a short life terminating only at eighty4 ,he #bed taught the disciples that those who did not injure any living beings1 and those who generously practised charity1 in their former lives1 could enjoy a considerably long life on earth2 why then was the life of the ,blessed ,one himself cut so short1 who practised those virtues from time immemorial8 ,the stra now records that this doubt was dispelled by the declaration of four ,tathgatas who mysteriously appeared to the sceptic and told him that 8,every drop of water in the vast ocean can be counted1 but the age of kyamuni none can measure4 ,crush the mount ,sumeru into particles as fine as mustard seeds and we can count them1 but the age of kyamuni none can measure44444 the ,buddha never entered into ,parinirvana2 the ,good ,dharma will never perish4 ,he showed an earthly death merely for the benefits of sentient beings4044444 ,here we have the conception of a spiritual ,dharmakya germinating out of the corporeal death of kyamuni4#aaa ,here we have the bridge that spans #bee the wide gap between the human kyamuni ,buddha and the spiritual existence of the ,dharmakya4 ,the ,buddha did not die after he partook of the food offered by ,chunda4 ,his age was not eighty4 ,his life did not pass to an airy nothingness when his cinerary urns were divided among kings and ,brahmans4 ,his virtues and merits which were accumulated throughout innumerable kalpas1 could not come to naught so abruptly4 ,what constituted the essence of his life--and that of ours too--could not perish with the vicissitudes of the corporeal existence4 ,the ,buddha as a particular individual being was certainly subject to transformation--so is every mortal1 but his truth must abide forever4 ,his ,dharmakya is above birth and death and even above ,nirvna2 but his ,body of ,transformation comes out of the womb of ,tathgata as destined by karma and vanishes into it when the karma exhausts its force4 ,the ,buddha who is still seated at the summit of the ,gridhrakuta1 delivering to all beings the message of joy and bliss1 and who among other precious teachings bequeathed to us #bef such stras as the ,avatamsaka1 the ,pundarka1 etc41 is no more nor less than an expression of the eternal spirit4 ,thus came the doctrine of ,dharmakya to be formulated by the ,mahynists1 and from this the transition to that of ,trikya was but a natural sequence4 ,because one without the other could not give an adequate solution of the problems above cited4 ,the ,trikya as ,explained in the ,suvarna ,prabh4 ,what then is the ,trikya or triple body of the ,tathgata8 ,it is 7#a7 ,nirmna ,kya1 the ,body of ,transformation2 7#b73 ,sambhoga ,kya1 the ,body of ,bliss2 and 7#c7 ,dharma ,kya1 the ,body of ,dharma4 ,if we draw a parallelism between the ,buddhist and the ,christian trinity1 the ,body of ,transformation may be considered to correspond to ,christ in the flesh1 the ,body of ,bliss either to ,christ in glory or to ,holy ,ghost1 and ,dharmakya to ,godhead4 ,let us again quote from the ,suvarna ,prabh1 in which 7,i-tsing's translation1 chap4 ,,iii47 we find the following statements concerning the doctrine of ,trikya4 8,the ,tathgata1 when he was yet at the stage of discipline1 practised divers deeds of morality for the sake of sentient beings4 ,the practise finally attained perfection1 reached maturity1 and by virtue of its merits he acquired a wonderful spiritual power4 ,the power enabled him to respond to the thoughts1 deeds1 and livings of sentient beings4 ,he thoroughly understood them and never missed the right opportunity #beg to respond to their needs4 ,he revealed himself in the right place and in the right moment2 he acted rightly1 assuming various bodily forms in response to the needs of mortal souls4 ,these bodily forms are called the ,nirmnakya of the ,tathgata4 8,but when the ,tathgatas1 in order to make the ,bodhisattvas thoroughly conversant with the ,dharma1 to instruct them in the highest reality1 to let them understand that birth-and-death 7samsra7 and ,nirvna are of one taste1 to destroy the thoughts of the ego1 individuality1 and the fear of transmigration1 and to promote happiness1 to lay foundation for innumerable ,buddha-dharmas1 to be truly in accord with ,suchness1 the knowledge of ,suchness1 and the ,spontaneous ,will1 manifest themselves to the ,bodhisattvas in a form which is perfect with the thirty-two major and eighty minor features of excellence and shining with the halo around the head and the back1 the ,tathgatas are said to have assumed the ,body of ,bliss or ,sambhogakya4#aab 8,when all possible obstacles arising from sins material1 intellectual1 and emotional are perfectly removed1 and when all possible good dharmas are preserved1 there would remain nothing but ,suchness and the knowledge of ,suchness1--this is the ,dharmakya4 8,the first two forms of the ,tathgata are provisional and temporal existences2 but the last one is a reality1 wherein the former two find the reason of #beh their existence4 ,why8 ,because when deprived of the ,dharma of ,suchness and of knowledge of non-particularity1 no ,buddha-dharma can ever exist2 because it is ,suchness and ,knowledge of ,suchness that absorbs within itself all possible forms of ,buddha-wisdom and renders possible a complete extinction of all passions and sins arising from particularity40 ,according to the above1 the ,dharmakya which is tantamount to ,suchness or ,knowledge of ,suchness is absolute2 but like the moon whose image is reflected in a drop of water as well as in the boundless expanse of the waves1 the ,dharmakya assumes on itself all possible aspects from the grossest material form to the subtlest spiritual existence4 ,when it responds to the needs of the ,bodhisattvas whose spiritual life is on a much higher plane than that of ordinary mortals1 it takes on itself the ,body of ,bliss or ,sambhogakya4 ,this ,body is a supernatural existence1 and almost all the ,buddhas in the ,mahyna scriptures belong to this class of being4 ,avaghoa 7p4 #aja7 says3 8,the ,body has infinite forms4 ,the form has infinite attributes4 ,the attribute has infinite excellences4 ,and the accompanying fruition1 that is1 the region where they are destined to be born by their previous karma1 also has infinite merits and ornamentations4 ,manifesting itself everywhere1 the ,body of ,bliss is infinite1 boundless1 limitless1 unintermittent in its activity which comes directly from the ,mind ,dharmakya40 ,but the ,buddhas revealed to the eyes of common #bei mortals are not of this kind4 ,they are common mortals themselves1 and the earthly kyamuni who came out of the womb of ,mydev and passed away under the sla trees at the age of eighty years was one of them4 ,he was essentially a manifestation of the ,dharmakya1 and as such we ordinary people also partake something of him4 ,but the masses1 unless favored by good karma accumulated in the past1 are generally under the spell of ignorance4 ,they do not see the glory of ,dharmakya in its perfect purity shining in the lilies of the field and sung by the fowls of the air4 ,they are blindly groping in the dark wilderness1 they are vainly seeking1 they are wildly knocking4 ,to the needs of these people the ,dharmakya responds by assuming an earthly form as a human ,buddha4 ,revelation in ,all ,stages of ,culture4 ,en passant1 let us remark that it is in this sense that ,christ is conceived by ,buddhists also as a manifestation of the ,dharmakya in a human form4 ,he is a ,buddha and as such not essentially different from kyamuni4 ,the ,dharmakya revealed itself as kyamuni to the ,indian mind1 because that was in harmony with its needs4 ,the ,dharmakya appeared in the person of ,christ on the ,semitic stage1 because it suited their taste best in this way4 ,the doctrine of ,trikya1 however1 goes even further and declares that demons1 animal gods1 ancestor-worship1 nature-worship1 and what not1 are all due to the activity and revelation of the ,dharmakya responding to the spiritual needs of barbarous #bfj and half-cultured people4 ,the ,buddhists think that the ,dharmakya never does things that are against the spiritual welfare of its creatures1 and that whatever is done by it is for their best interests at that moment of revelation1 no matter how they comprehend the nature of the ,dharmakya4 ,the ,great ,lord of ,dharma never throws a pearl before the swine1 for he knows the animal's needs are for things more substantial4 ,he does not reveal himself in an exalted spiritual form to the people whose hearts are not yet capable of grasping anything beyond the grossly material4 ,as they understand animal gods better than a metaphysical or highly abstracted being1 let them have them and derive all possible blessings and benefits through their worshiping4 ,but as soon as they become dissatisfied with the animal or human-fashioned gods1 there must not be a moment's hesitation to let them have exactly what their enlightened understanding can comprehend4#aac #bfa ,they are thus all the while being led1 though unconsciously on their part1 to the higher and higher region of mystery1 till they come fully to grasp the true and real meaning of the ,dharmakya in its absolute purity1 or1 to use ,christian terminology1 till 8we all1 with open face beholding as in a glass the glory of the ,lord1 are changed into the same image from glory1 even as by the ,spirit of the ,lord40 7#b ,cor ,,iii4 #ah47 ,the ,mahynists now argue that the reason why kyamuni entered into ,parinirvana when his worldly career was thought by him to be over is that by this his resignation to the law of birth and death1 he wished to exemplify in him the impermanency of worldly life and the folly of clinging to it as final reality4 ,as for his ,dharmakya1 it has an eternal life1 it was never born1 and it would never perish2 and when called by the spiritual needs of the ,bodhisattvas1 it will cast off the garb of absoluteness and preach in the form of a ,sambhogakya 8never-ceasing sermons which run like a stream for ever and aye40 ,it will be evident from this that ,buddhists are ready to consider all religious or moral leaders of mankind1 whatever their nationality1 as the ,body of ,transformation of the ,dharmakya4 ,translated into ,christian thoughts1 ,god reveals himself in every being that is worthy of him4 ,he reveals himself not only at a certain #bfb period in history1 but everywhere and all the time4 ,his glory is perceived throughout all the stages of human culture4 ,this manifestation1 from the very nature of ,god1 cannot be intermittent and sporadic as is imagined by some 8orthodox ,christians40 ,the following from ,st4 ,paul's first ,epistle to the ,corinthians 7,chap4 ,,xiii71 when read in this connection1 sounds almost like a ,buddhist philosopher's utterance3 8,now there are diversities of gifts1 but the same ,spirit4 ,and there are diversities of administrations1 but the same ,lord4 ,and there are diversities of operations1 but it is the same ,god which worketh all in all4 ,but the manifestation of the ,spirit is given to every man to profit withal4 ,for to one is given by the ,spirit the word of wisdom2 to another the word of knowledge by the same ,spirit2 to another faith by the same ,spirit2 to another the gifts of healing by the same ,spirit2 to another the working of miracles2 to another prophecy2 to another divers kinds of tongues2 to another the interpretation of tongues2 but all these worketh that one and the selfsame ,spirit1 dividing to every man severally as he will4 ,for as the body is one and hath many members1 and all the members of that one body1 being many1 are one body3 so also is ,christ4 ,for by one ,spirit are we all baptised into one body1 whether we be ,jews or ,gentiles1 whether we be bond or free2 and have been all made to drink into one ,spirit40 #bfc ,the ,sambhogakya4 ,one peculiar point in the doctrine of ,trikya1 which modern minds find rather difficult to comprehend1 is the conception of the ,sambhogakya1 or the ,body of ,bliss4 ,we can understand the relation between the ,dharmakya and ,nirmnakya1 the latter being similar to the notion of ,god incarnate or to that of ,avatara4 ,inasmuch as the ,dharmakya does not exist outside the triple world but in it as the raison d'tre of its existence1 all beings must be considered a partial manifestation of it2 and in this sense ,buddhists sometimes call themselves ,bodhisattvas1 that is1 beings of intelligence1 because intelligence 7,bodhi7 is the psychological aspect of the ,dharmakya as realised in sentient beings4 ,but the conception of ,sambhogakya is altogether too mysterious to be fathomed by a limited consciousness4 ,the fact becomes more apparent when we are told that the ,sambhogakya1 ,body of ,bliss1 is a corporeal existence and at the same time filling the universe and that there are two forms of the ,body of ,bliss1 one for self-enjoyment and the other as a sort of religious object for the ,bodhisattvas4 ,that the ,body of ,bliss is corporeal and yet infinite has already been shown by the quotations from the ,suvarna ,prabh and ,avaghoa on the preceding pages4 ,for further confirmation of this point no less authority than ,asanga and ,vasubandhu will be here referred to4 ,in ,a ,comprehensive ,treatise on the ,mahyana and #bfd in its commentary1 the author ,asanga and the commentator ,vasubandhu endeavor to prove why the ,body of ,bliss cannot be the raison d'tre of the ,dharmakya1 instead of vice versa2 and in this connection they argue that 7#a7 the ,body of ,bliss consists of the five ,skandhas1 that is1 of material form 7rpa71 sensation 7vedan71 ideas 7samj71 deeds 7sanskra71 and consciousness 7vijna72 7#b7 it is subject to particularisation2 7#c7 it reveals different virtues and characters according to the desires of ,bodhisattvas2 7#d7 even to the same individual it appears differently at different times2 7#e7 when it manifests itself simultaneously before an assemblage of ,bodhisattvas of divers characters and qualifications1 it at once assumes divers forms1 in order to satisfy their infinitely diversified inclinations2 7#f7 it is a creation of the layavijna1 ,all-conserving ,mind4 ,these six peculiarities of the ,body of ,bliss as enumerated by ,asanga and ,vasubandhu make it indeed entirely dependent on the ,dharmakya1 but they do not place us in any better position to penetrate into the deep mystery of its nature4 ,its supernatural incomprehensibility remains the same forever4 ,in a certain sense1 however1 the ,body of ,bliss may be considered to be corresponding to the ,christian idea of an angel4 ,supernaturalness and luminosity are the two characters possessed by both1 but angels are merely messengers of ,god communicating the latter's will to human beings4 ,when they reveal themselves to a specially favored person1 it is not of their own #bfe account4 ,when they speak to him at all1 it is by the name of the being who sent them4 ,they do not represent him1 they do not act his own will by themselves4 ,on the contrary1 the ,body of ,bliss is the master of its own4 ,it is an expression of the ,dharmakya4 ,it instructs and benefits all the creatures who come to it4 ,it acts according to its own will and judgment4 ,in these respects the ,body of ,bliss is altogether different from the ,christian conception of angels4 ,but will it be more appropriately compared to ,christ in glory8 ,let us make another quotation from later authorities than ,asanga and his brother ,vasubandhu1 and let us see more convincingly what complicated notions are involved in the idea of the ,body of ,bliss4 ,according to the commentators on ,vasubandhu's ,vijnamtra stra 7a treatise on the ,yoga philosophy71#aad the ,body of ,bliss has two distinct aspects3 7#a7 ,the body obtained by the ,tathgata for his self-enjoyment1 by dint of his religious discipline through eons2 7#b7 ,the body which the ,tathgata manifests to the #bff ,bodhisattvas in ,pure ,land 7sukhvat74 ,this last body is in possession of wonderful spiritual powers1 reveals the ,wheel of ,dharma1 resolves all the religious doubts raised by the ,bodhisattvas1 and lets them enjoy the bliss of the ,mahyna ,dharma4 ,a ,mere ,subjective ,existence4 ,judging from all these characterisations1 the most plausible conclusion that suggests itself to modern sceptical minds is that the ,sambhogakya must be a mere creation of an intelligent1 finite mind1 which is intently bent on reaching the highest reality1 but1 not being able1 on account of its limitations1 to grasp the object in its absoluteness1 the finite mind fabricates all its ideals after its own fashion into a spiritual-material being1 which is logically a contradiction1 but religiously an object deserving veneration and worship4 ,and this being is no more than the ,body of ,bliss4#aae ,it lies half way between the pure being of ,dharmakya and the earthly form of ,nirmnakya1 the ,body of ,transformation4 ,it does not belong to either1 but partakes something of both4 ,it is in a sense spiritual #bfg like the ,dharmakya1 and yet it cannot go beyond material limitations1 for it has a form1 definite and determinate4 ,when the human soul is thirsty after a pure being or an absolute which cannot be comprehended in a palpable form1 it creates a hybrid1 an imitation1 or a reflection1 and tries to be satisfied with it1 just as a little girl has her innate and not yet fully developed maternity satisfied by tenderly embracing and nursing the doll1 an inanimate imitation of a real living baby4 ,and the ,mahynists seem to have made most of this childish humanness4 ,they produced as many stras as their spiritual yearnings demanded1 quite regardless of historical facts1 and made the ,body of ,bliss of the ,tathgata the author of all these works4 ,for if the ,dharmakya of the ,tathgata never entered into ,parinirvna1 why then could he not deliver sermons and cite gths as often as beings of intelligence 7,bodhisattvas7 felt their needs8 ,the ,suvarna ,prabh 7fas4 #b1 chap4 #c7 again echoes this sentiment as follows3 8,to illustrate by analogy1 the sun or the moon does not make any conscious discrimination1 nor does the water-mirror1 nor the light conceived separate from the body from which it emanates4 ,but when all these three are brought together1 there is produced an image of the sun or the moon in the water4 ,so it is with ,suchness and ,knowledge of ,suchness4 ,it is not possessed of any particular consciousness1 but by virtue of the ,spontaneous ,will inherent in the nature of ,suchness1 or what is the same thing1 in the #bfh ,dharmakya1 the ,body of ,transformation or of ,bliss as a shadow of the ,dharmakya reveals itself in response to the spiritual needs of sentient beings4 8,and1 again1 as the water-mirror boundlessly expanding reflects in all different ways the images of ksa 7void space7 through the medium of light1 while space itself is void of all particular marks1 so the ,dharmakya reflects its images severally in the receiving minds of believers1 and this by virtue of ,spontaneous ,will4 ,the ,will creates the ,body of ,transformation as well as the ,body of ,bliss in all their possible aspects1 while the original1 the ,dharmakya1 does not suffer one whit a change on this account40 ,according to this1 it is evident that whenever our spiritual needs become sufficiently intense there is a response from the ,dharmakya1 and that this response is not always uniform as the recipient minds show different degrees of development1 intellectually and spiritually4 ,if we call this communion between sentient souls and the ,dharmakya an inspiration1 all the phenomena that flow out of fulness of heart and reflect purity of soul should be called 8works of inspiration02 and in this sense the ,mahynists consider their scriptures as emanating directly from the fountainhead of the ,dharmakya4 ,attitude of ,modern ,mahynists4 ,modern ,mahynists in full accordance with this interpretation of the ,doctrine of ,trikya do not place #bfi much importance on the objective aspects of the ,body of ,bliss 7,sambhogakya74 ,they consider them at best the fictitious products of an imaginative mind2 they never tarry a moment to think that all these mysterious ,tathgatas or ,bodhisattvas who are sometimes too extravagantly and generally too tediously described in the ,mahyna texts are objective realities1 that the ,sukhvats or ,pure ,lands#aaf are decorated with such worldly stuff as gold1 silver1 emerald1 cat's eye1 pearl1 and other precious stones1 that pious ,buddhists would be transferred after their death to these ostentatiously ornamented heavens1 be seated on the pedestals of lotus-flowers1 surrounded by innumerable ,bodhisattvas and ,buddhas1 and would enjoy all the spiritual enjoyments that human mind can conceive4 ,on the contrary1 modern ,buddhists look with disdain on these egotistic materialistic conceptions of religious life4 ,for1 to a fully enlightened soul1 of what use could those worldly treasures #bgj be8 ,what happiness1 earthly or heavenly1 does such a soul dream of1 outside the bliss of embracing the will of the ,dharmakya as his own8 ,recapitulation4 ,to sum up1 the ,buddha in the ,pli scriptures was a human being1 though occasionally he is credited to have achieved things supernatural and superhuman4 ,his historical career began with the abandonment of a royal life1 then the wandering in the wilderness1 and a long earnest meditation on the great problems of birth-and-death1 and his final enlightenment under the ,bodhi tree1 then his fifty years' religious peregrination along the valleys of the ,ganges1 and the establishment of a religious system known as ,buddhism1 and finally his eternal entrance into the 8,parinirvna that leaves nothing behind0 7anupadhieanirvna74 ,and as far as plain historical facts are concerned1 these seem to exhaust the life of kyamuni on earth4 ,but the deep reverence which was felt by his disciples could not be satisfied with this prosaic humanness of their master and made him something more than a mortal soul4 ,so even the ,pli tradition gives him a supramundane life besides the earthly one4 ,he is supposed to have been a ,bodhisattva in the ,tuita heaven before his entrance into the womb of ,mydev4 ,the honor of ,bodhisattvahood was acceded to him on account of his deeds of self-sacrifice which were praised throughout his innumerable past incarnations4 ,while he was walking #bga among us in the flesh1 he was glorified with the thirty-two major and eighty minor excellent characteristics of a great man4#aag ,but he was not the first ,buddha that walked on earth to teach the ,dharma1 for there were already seven ,buddhas before him1 nor was he the last one that would appear among us1 for #bgb a ,bodhisattva by the name of ,maitreya is now in heaven and making preparations for the attainment of ,buddhahood in time to come4 ,but here stopped the ,pli writers1 they did not venture to make any further speculation on the nature of ,buddhahood4 ,their religious yearnings did not spur them to a higher flight of the imagination4 ,they recited simple stras or gths1 observed the ilas 7moral precepts7 as strictly and literally as they could1 and thought the spirit of their ,master still alive in these instructions2--let alone the personality of the ,tathgata4 ,but there was at the same time another group of the disciples of the ,buddha1 whose religious and intellectual inclinations were not of the same type as their fellow-believers2 and on that account a simple faith in the ,buddha as present in his teachings did not quite satisfy them4 ,they perhaps reasoned in this fashion3 8,if there were seven ,buddhas before the advent of the ,great ,muni of akya and there would be one more who is to come1 where1 let us ask1 did they derive their authority and knowledge to preach8 ,how is it that there cannot be any more ,buddhas1 that they do not come to us much oftener8 ,if they were human beings like ourselves1 why not we ourselves be ,buddhas80 ,these questions1 when logically carried out1 naturally led them to the theory of ,dharmakya1 that all the past ,buddhas1 and those to come1 and even we ordinary mortals made of clay and doomed to die soon1 owe the raison d'tre of their existence to the ,dharmakya1 which alone is immortal in us #bgc as well as in ,buddhas4 ,the first religious effort we have to make is1 therefore1 to recognise this archetype of all ,buddhas and all beings4 ,but the ,dharmakya as such is too abstract for the average mind to become the object of its religious consciousness2 so they personified or rather materialised it4 ,in other words1 they idealised kyamuni1 endowed him not only with the physical signs 7lakas7 of greatness as in the ,pli scriptures1 but with those of celestial transfiguration1 and called him a ,body of ,bliss of the ,tathgata2 while the historical human ,buddha was called a ,body of ,transformation and all sentient beings ,bodhisattvas1 that is1 beings of intelligence destined to become ,buddhas4 ,this idealised ,buddha1 or1 what is the same thing1 a personified ,dharmakya1 according to the ,mahyna ,buddhists1 not only revealed himself in the particular person of ,siddhrtha ,gautama in ,central ,asia a few thousand years ago1 but is revealing himself in all times and all places4 ,there is no specially favored spot on the earth where only the ,buddha makes his appearance2 from the zenith of ,akanita heaven down to the bottom of ,nraka1 he is manifesting uninterruptedly and unintermittently and is working out his ideas1 of which1 however1 our limited understanding is unable to have an adequate knowledge4 ,the ,avatamsaka ,stra 7,buddhabhadra's translation1 fas4 #de1 chap4 #cd7 describes how the ,buddha works out his scheme of salvation in all possible ways4 7,see also the ,saddharma #bgd pundarka1 ,kern's translation1 chap4 #b1 p4 #cj et seq41 and also pp4 #dac-daa474 8,in this wise the ,buddha teaches and delivers all sentient beings through his religious teachings whose number is innumerable as atoms4 ,he may reveal sometimes in the world of devas1 sometimes in that of ,ngas1 ,yakas1 ,gandharvas1 ,asuras1 ,garudas1 ,kinnaras1 ,mahoragas1 etc41 sometimes in the world of ,brahmans1 sometimes in the world of human beings1 sometimes in the palace of ,ymarja 7king of death71 sometimes in the underworld of damned spirits1 ghosts1 and beasts4 ,his all-swaying compassion1 intelligence1 and will would not rest until all beings had been brought under his shelter through all possible means of salvation4 ,he may achieve his work of redemption sometimes by means of his name1 sometimes by means of memory1 sometimes of voice1 sometimes of perfect illumination1 sometimes of the net of illumination4 ,whenever and wherever conditions are ripe for his appearance1 he would never fail to present himself before sentient beings and also to manifest views of grandeur and splendor4 8,the ,buddha does not depart from his own region1 he does not depart from his seat in the tower2 yet he reveals himself in all the ten quarters of the globe4 ,he would sometimes emanate from his own body the clouds of ,nirmnakyas1 or sometimes reveal himself in an undivided personality1 and itinerating in all quarters would teach and deliver all sentient beings4 ,he may assume sometimes the form of a rvaka1 sometimes that of a ,brahmadeva1 sometimes that of #bge an ascetic1 sometimes that of a good physician1 sometimes that of a tradesman1 sometimes that of a ,bhiku or honest worker1 sometimes that of an artist1 sometimes that of a deva4 ,again1 he may reveal himself sometimes in all the forms of art and industry1 sometimes in all the places of congregation1 such as towns1 cities1 villages1 etc4 ,and whatever his subjects for salvation may be1 and whatever his surroundings1 he will accommodate himself to all possible conditions and achieve his work of enlightenment and salvation0#aah4444 ,the practical sequence of this doctrine of ,trikya is apparent2 it has ever more broadened the spirit of tolerance in ,buddhists4 ,as the ,dharmakya universally responds to the spiritual needs of all sentient beings in all times and in all places and at any stage of their spiritual development1 ,buddhists consider all spiritual leaders1 whatever their nationality and personality1 as the expressions of the one omnipotent ,dharmakya4 ,and as the ,dharmakya always manifests itself for the best interests of sentient creatures1 even those doctrines and their authors that are apparently against the teachings of ,buddhism are tolerated through the conviction that they are all moving according to the ,spontaneous ,will that pervades everywhere and works all the time4 ,though1 superficially1 they may appear as evils1 their central and final aim is goodness and harmony which are destined by the ,will of the ,dharmakya to overcome this world of tribulations and #bgf contradictions4 ,the general intellectual tendency of ,buddhism has done a great deal towards cultivating a tolerant spirit in its believers1 and we must say that the doctrine of ,trinity which appears sometimes too radical in its pantheistic spirit has contributed much to this cause4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,bodhisattva4 #bgg _/,next_/ to the conception of ,buddha1 what is important in ,mahyna ,buddhism is that of ,bodhisattva 7intelligence-being7 and of that which constitutes its essence1 ,bodhicitta1 intelligence-heart4 ,as stated above1 the followers of ,mahynism do not call themselves rvakas or ,pratyekabuddhas or ,arhats as do those of ,hnaynism2 but they distinguish themselves by the title of ,bodhisattva4 ,what this means will be the subject-matter of this chapter4 ,let us begin with a quotation from the ,saddharma-pundarka ,stra1 in which a well-defined distinction between the rvakas and the ,pratyekabuddhas and the ,bodhisattvas is given4#aai ,the ,three ,ynas4 8,now1 riputra1 the beings who have become wise1 have faith in the ,tathgata1 the father of the world1 and consequently apply themselves to his commandments4 8,amongst them there are some who1 wishing to follow the dictate of an authoritative voice1 apply themselves to the commandment of the ,tathgata to #bgh acquire the knowledge of the ,four ,great ,truths1 for the sake of their own complete ,nirvana4 ,these1 one may say1 to be those who1 seeking the vehicle of the rvaka1 fly from the triple world44444 8,other beings desirous of the unconditioned knowledge1 of self-restraint and tranquillity1 apply themselves to the commandment of the ,tathgata to learn to understand the ,twelve ,chains of ,dependence1 for the sake of their own complete ,nirvana4 ,these1 one may say1 to be those who1 seeking the vehicle of the ,pratyekabuddha1 fly from the triple world44444 8,other beings again desirous of omniscience1 ,buddha-knowledge1 absolute knowledge1 unconditioned knowledge1 apply themselves to the commandment of the ,tathgata and to learn to understand the knowledge1 powers1 and conviction of the ,tathgata1 for the sake of the common weal and happiness1 out of compassion to the world1 for the benefit1 weal and happiness of the world at large1 of both gods and men1 for the sake of the complete ,nirvana of all beings4 ,these1 one may say1 to be those who seeking the ,great ,vehicle 7,mahyna7 fly from the triple world4 ,therefore1 they are called ,bodhisattva-mahsattvas4044444 ,this characterisation of the ,bodhisattvas as distinct from the rvakas and ,pratyekabuddhas constitutes one of the most significant features of ,mahyna ,buddhism4 ,here the ,bodhisattva does not exert himself in religious discipline for the sake of his own weal1 but for the sake of the spiritual benefit of all his fellow-creatures4 ,if he will1 he could1 #bgi like the rvakas and ,pratyekabuddhas1 enter into eternal ,nirvana that never slides back2 he could enjoy the celestial bliss of undisturbed tranquillity in which all our worldly tribulations are forever buried2 he could seclude himself from the hurly-burly of the world1 and1 sitting cross-legged in a lonely cave1 quietly contemplate on the evanescence of human interests and the frivolity of earthly affairs1 and then self-contentedly await the time of final absorption into the absolute ,all1 as streams and rivers finally run into one great ocean and become of one taste4 ,but1 in spite of all these self-sufficient blessings1 the ,bodhisattva would not seek his own ease1 but he would mingle himself in the turmoil of worldly life and devote all his energy to the salvation of the masses of people1 who1 on account of their ignorance and infatuation1 are forever transmigrating in the triple world1 without making any progress towards the final goal of humanity4 ,along this ,bodhisattvaic devotion1 however1 there was another current of religious thought and practice running among the followers of ,buddha4 ,by this ,i mean the attitude of the rvakas and the ,pratyekabuddhas4 ,both of them sought peace of mind in asceticism and cold philosophical speculation4 ,both of them were intently inclined to gain ,nirvana which may be likened unto an extinguished fire4 ,it was not theirs to think of the common weal of all beings1 and1 therefore1 when they attained their own redemption from earthly sins and passions1 their religious discipline was completed1 and no further attempt was #bhj made by them to extend the bliss of their personal enlightenment to their fellow-creatures4#abj ,they recoiled from mingling themselves among vulgar people lest their holy life should get contaminated4 ,they did not have confidence enough in their own power to help the masses to break the iron yoke of ignorance and misery4 ,moreover1 everybody was supposed to exert himself for his own emancipation1 however unbearable his pain was for others could not do anything to alleviate it4 ,sympathy was of no avail2 because the reward of his own karma good or evil could be suffered by himself alone1 nor could it be avoidable even by the doer himself4 ,things done were done #bha once for all1 and their karma made an indelible mark on the pages of his destiny4 ,even ,buddha who was supposed to have attained that exalted position by practising innumerable pious deeds in all his former lives1 could not escape the fruit of evil karma which was quite unwittingly committed by him4 ,this iron arm of karma seizes everybody in person and does not allow any substitute whatever4 ,those who wish to give a halt to the working of karma could do so only by applying a counter-force to it1 and this with no other hand than his own4 ,the ,mahynist conception of ,bodhisattvahood may be considered an effort somewhat to mitigate this ruthless mechanical rigidity of the law of karma4 #bhb ,strict ,individualism4 ,the ,buddhism of the rvakas and the ,pratyekabuddhas is the most unscrupulous application to our ethico-religious life of the individualistic theory of karma4 ,all things done are done by oneself2 all things left undone are left undone by oneself4 ,they would say3 8,your salvation is exclusively your own business1 and whatever sympathy ,i may have is of no avail4 ,all that ,i can do toward helping you is to let you see intellectually the way to emancipation4 ,if you do not follow it1 you have but to suffer the fruition of your folly4 ,i am helpless with all my enlightenment1 even with my ,nirvana1 to emancipate you from the misery of perpetual metempsychosis40 ,but with the ,buddhism of the ,mahyna ,bodhisattvas the case is entirely different4 ,it is all-sympathy1 it is all-compassion1 it is all-love4 ,a ,bodhisattva would not seclude himself into the absolute tranquillity of ,nirvana1 simply because he wishes to emancipate his fellow-creatures also from the bondage of ignorance and infatuation4 ,whatever rewards he may get for his self-enjoyment as the karma of his virtuous deeds1 he would turn them over 7parivarta7 towards the uplifting of the suffering masses4 ,and this self-sacrifice1 this unselfish devotion to the welfare of his fellow-beings constitutes the essence of ,bodhisattvahood4 ,the ideal ,bodhisattva1 therefore1 is thought to be no more than an incarnation of ,intelligence and ,love1 of ,praj and ,karun4 ,the irrefragability of karma seems to be satisfactory #bhc from the intellectual and individualistic standpoint1 for the intellect demands a thorough application of logic1 and individualism does not allow the transferring of responsibility from one person to another4 ,from this viewpoint1 therefore1 a rigorous enforcement as demanded by ,hnaynism of the principle of self-emancipation does not show any logical fault2 divine grace must be suspended as the curse of karma produced by ignorance tenaciously clings to our soul4 ,but when viewed from the religious side of the question1 this inflexibility of karma is more than poor mortals can endure4 ,they want something more elastic and pliable that yields to the supplication of the feeling4 ,when individuals are considered nothing but isolated1 disconnected atoms1 between which there is no unifying bond which is the feeling1 they are too weak to resist and overcome the ever-threatening force of evil1 whose reality as long as a world of particulars exists cannot be contradicted4 ,this religious necessity felt in our inmost consciousness may explain the reason why ,mahyna ,buddhism proposed the doctrine of parivarta 7turning over7 founded on the oneness of ,dharmaky4 ,the ,doctrine of ,parivarta4 ,the doctrine of turning over 7parivarta7 of one's own merits to others is a great departure from that which seems to have been the teaching of 8primitive ,buddhism40 ,in fact1 it is more than a departure1 it #bhd is even in opposition to the latter in some measure4 ,because while individualism is a predominant feature in the religious practice of the rvakas and the ,pratyekabuddhas1 universalism or supra-individualism1 if ,i am allowed to use these terms1 is the principle advocated by the ,bodhisattvas4 ,the latter believe that all beings1 being a manifestation of the ,dharmakya1 are in their essence of one nature2 that individual existences are real so far as subjective ignorance is concerned2 and that virtues and merits issuing directly from the ,dharmakya which is intelligence and love1 cannot fail to produce universal benefit and to effect final emancipation of all beings4 ,thus1 the religion of the ,bodhisattvas proposes to achieve what was thought impossible by the rvakas and the ,pratyekabuddhas1 that is1 the turning over of one's own merits to the service of others4 ,it is in this spirit that the ,bodhisattvas conceive the seriousness of the significance of life2 it is in this spirit that1 pondering over the reason of their existence on earth1 they come to the following view of life3 8,all ignorant beings are daily and nightly performing evil deeds in innumerable ways2 and1 on this account1 their suffering beggars description4 ,they do not recognise the ,tathgata1 do not listen to his teachings1 do not pay homage to the congregation of holy men4 ,and this evil karma will surely bring them a heavy crop of misery4 ,this reflection fills the heart of a ,bodhisattva with gloomy feelings1 which in turn #bhe gives rise to the immovable resolution1 that he himself will carry all the burdens for ignorant beings and help them to reach the final goal of ,nirvana4 ,inestimably heavy as these burdens are1 he will not swerve nor yield under their weight4 ,he will not rest until all ignorant beings are freed from the entangling meshes of desire and sin1 until they are uplifted above the darkening veil of ignorance and infatuation2 and this his marvelous spiritual energy defies the narrow limitations of time and space1 and will extend even to eternity when the whole system of worlds comes to a conclusion4 ,therefore1 all the innumerable meritorious deeds practised by the ,bodhisattvas are dedicated to the emancipation of ignorant beings4 8,the ,bodhisattvas do not feel1 however1 that they are being compelled by any external force to devote their lives to the edification and uplifting of the masses4 ,they do not recognise any outward authority1 the violation of which may react upon them in the form of a punishment4 ,they have already passed beyond this stage of world-conception which implies a dualism2 they are on the contrary moving in a much wider and higher sphere of thought4 ,all that is done by them springs from their spontaneous will1 from the free activity of the ,bodhicitta1 which constitutes their reason of existence2 and thus there is nothing compulsory in their thoughts and movements4 ,to use ,laotzean terminology1 they are practising non-action1 wu wei1 and whatever may appear to the ignorant and unenlightened as a strenuous and restless life1 is merely a natural #bhf overflow from the inexhaustible fount of energy called ,bodhicitta1 heart of intelligence40#aba ,bodhisattva in 8,primitive0 ,buddhism4 ,the notion of ,bodhisattva was not entirely absent in 8primitive0 ,buddhism1 only it did not have such a wide signification4 ,all ,buddhas were ,bodhisattvas in their former lives4 ,the ,jtaka stories minutely describe what self-sacrificing deeds were done by them and how by the karma of these merits they finally attained ,buddhahood4 kyamuni was not the only ,buddha1 but there had already been seven or twenty-four ,buddhas prior to him1 and the coming ,buddha to be known as ,maitreya is believed to be disciplining himself in the ,tuita heaven and going through the stages of ,bodhisattvahood4 ,the one who is thus destined to be the future ,buddha must be extraordinarily gifted in spiritual energy4 ,he must pass through eons of self-discipline1 must practise deeds of non-atman with unflinching courage and fortitude through innumerable existences4 ,the following quotation from the ,jtaka tales will be sufficient to see what ponderous and exacting conditions were conceived by the so-called ,hnaynists to be necessary for a human being to become a fully qualified ,buddha4#abb #bhg 8,of men it is he1 and only he1 who is in a fit condition by the attainment of saintship in that same existence1 that can successfully make a wish to be a ,buddha4 ,of those in a fit condition it is only he who makes the wish in the presence of a living ,buddha that succeeds in his wish2 after the death of a ,buddha a wish made at a relic shrine1 or at the foot of a ,bo-tree1 will not be successful4 ,of those who make the wish in the presence of a ,buddha it is he and only he who has retired from the world that can successfully make the wish1 and not one who is a layman4 ,of those who have retired from the world it is only he who is possessed of the ,five ,high ,powers and is master of the ,eight ,attainments that can successfully make the wish1 and no one can do so who is lacking in these excellences4 ,of those1 even1 who possess these excellences1 it is he1 and only he1 who has such firm resolve that he is ready to sacrifice his life for the ,buddhas that can successfully make the wish1 but no other4 ,of those who possess this resolve it is he1 and only he1 who has great zeal1 determination1 strenuousness1 and endeavor in striving for the qualities that make a ,buddha that is successful4 ,the following comparisons will show the intensity of the zeal4 ,if he is such a one as to think3 #8,the man who1 if all within the rim of the world were to become water1 would be ready to swim across it with his own arms and get further shore1--he is the one to attain the ,buddhaship3 or1 in case all within the rim of the world were to become a #bhh jungle of bamboo1 would be ready to elbow and trample his way through it and get to the further side1--he is the one to attain the ,buddhaship2 or1 in case all within the rim of the world were to become a terra firma of thick-set javelins1 would be ready to tread on them and go afoot to the further side1--he is the one to attain the ,buddhaship2 or1 in case all within the rim of the world were to become live coals1 would be ready to tread on them and so get to the further side1--he is the one to attain the ,buddhaship1'--if he deems not even one of these feats too hard for himself but has such great zeal1 determination1 strenuousness1 and power of endeavor that he would perform these feats in order to attain the ,buddhaship1 then1 but not otherwise1 will his wish succeed40 ,from this it is apparent that everybody could not become a ,buddha in 8primitive0 ,buddhism2 the highest aspiration that could be cherished by him was to believe in the teachings of ,buddha1 to follow the precepts laid down by him1 and to attain at most to ,arhatship4 ,the idea of ,arhatship1 however1 was considered by ,mahynists cold1 impassionate1 and hard-hearted1 for the saint calmly reviews the sight of the suffering masses2 and therefore ,arhatship was altogether unsatisfactory to be the object for the ,bodhisattvas of their high religious aspirations4 ,the ,mahynists wanted to go even beyond the attainment of ,arhatship1 however exalted its spirituality may be4 ,they wanted to make every humble soul #bhi a being like kyamuni1 they wanted lavishly to distribute the bliss of enlightenment2 they wanted to remove all the barriers that were supposed to lie between ,buddhahood and the common humanity4 ,but how could they do this when the iron hands of karma held tight the fate of each individual6 ,how was it possible for him to identify his being with the ideal of mankind8 ,perhaps this serious problem could not very well be solved by ,buddhists1 when their memory of the majestic personality of kyamuni was still vivid before their mental eyes4 ,it was probably no easy task for them to overcome the feeling of awe and reverence which was so deeply engraved in their hearts1 and to raise themselves to such a height as reached by their ,master1 even ideally4 ,this was certainly an act of sacrilege4 ,but1 as time advances1 the personal recollection of the ,master would naturally wane and would not play so much influence as their own religious consciousness which is ever fresh and active4 ,generally speaking1 all great historical characters that command the reverence and awe of posterity do so only when their words or acts or both unravel the deepest secrets of the human heart4 ,and this feeling of awe and reverence and even of worship is not due so much to the great characters themselves as to the worshiper's own religious consciousness4 ,history passes1 but the heart persists4 ,an individual called kyamuni may be forgotten in the course of time1 but the sacred chord in the inmost heart struck by him reverberates through eternity4 ,so with the ,mahyna ,buddhists1 #bij the religious sentiment at last asserted itself in spite of the personal recollection and reverential feeling for the ,master4 ,and perhaps in the following way was the reasoning then advanced by them relative to the great problem of ,buddhahood4 ,we are all ,bodhisattvas4 ,as kyamuni was a ,bodhisattva in his former lives destined to become a ,buddha1 so we are all ,bodhisattvas and even ,buddhas in a certain sense1 when we understand that all sentient beings1 the ,buddha not excepted1 are one in the ,dharmakya4 ,the ,dharmakya manifests in us as ,bodhi which is the essence of ,buddhas as well as of ,bodhisattvas4 ,this ,bodhi can suffer no change whatever in quantity even when the ,bodhisattva attains finally to the highest human perfection as kyamuni ,buddha4 ,in this spirit1 therefore1 the ,buddha exclaimed when he obtained enlightenment1 8,it is marvelous indeed that all beings animate and inanimate universally partake of the nature of ,tathgatahood40 ,the only difference between a ,buddha and the ignorant masses is that the latter do not make manifest in them the glory of ,bodhi4 ,they only are not ,bodhisattvas who1 enveloped in the divine rays of light in a celestial abode1 philosophically review the world of tribulations4 ,even we mortals made of dust are ,bodhisattvas1 incarnates of the ,bodhi1 capable of being united in the all-embracing love of the ,dharmakya and also of obliterating the #bia individual curse of karma in the eternal and absolute intelligence of the ,dharmakya4 ,as soon as we come to live in this love and intelligence1 individual existences are no hindrance to the turning over 7parivarta7 of one's spiritual merits 7punya7 to the service of others4 ,let us only have an insight into the spirituality of our existence and we are all ,bodhisattvas and ,buddhas4 ,let us abandon the selfish thought of entering into ,nirvana that is conceived to extinguish the fire of heart and leave only the cold ashes of intellect4 ,let us have sympathy for all suffering beings and turn over all our merits1 however small1 to their benefit and happiness4 ,for in this way we are all made the ,bodhisattvas4#abc ,the ,buddha's ,life4 ,this spirit of universal love prevails in all ,mahyna literature1 and the ,bodhisattvas are everywhere represented as exercising it with utmost energy4 ,the ,mahynists1 therefore1 could not rest satisfied with a simple1 prosaic1 and earthly account of kyamuni1 #bib they wanted to make it as ideal and poetic as possible1 illustrating the gospel of love1 as was conceived by them1 in every phase of the life of the ,buddha4 ,the ,mahynists first placed the ,buddha in the ,tuita heaven before his birth1 7as was done by the ,hnaynists71 made him feel pity for the distressed world below1 made him resolve to deliver it from 8the ocean of misery which throws up sickness as its foam1 tossing with the waves of old age1 and rushing with the dreadful onflow of death10 and after his ,parinirvana1 they made him abide forever on the peak of the ,mount ,vulture delivering the sermon of immortality to a great assemblage of spiritual beings4 ,in this wise1 they explained the significance of the appearance of kyamuni on earth1 which was nothing but a practical demonstration of the 8,great ,loving ,heart0 7mahkaruncitta74 ,the ,bodhisattva and ,love4 ,ngrjuna in his work on the ,bodhicitta#abd elucidates the ,mahynist notion of ,bodhisattvahood as follows3 8,thus the essential nature of all ,bodhisattvas is a great loving heart 7mahkaruncitta71 and all sentient beings constitute the object of its love4 ,therefore1 all the ,bodhisattvas do not cling to the blissful taste #bic that is produced by the divers modes of mental tranquilisation 7dhyna71 do not covet the fruit of their meritorious deeds1 which may heighten their own happiness4 8,their spiritual state is higher than that of the rvakas1 for they do not leave all sentient beings behind them as the rvakas do4 ,they practise altruism1 they seek the fruit of ,buddha-knowledge instead of rvaka-knowledge4 8,with a great loving heart they look upon the sufferings of all beings1 who are diversely tortured in ,avici ,hell in consequence of their sins--a hell whose limits are infinite and where an endless round of misery is made possible on account of all sorts of karma committed by sentient creatures4 ,the ,bodhisattvas filled with pity and love desire to suffer themselves for the sake of those miserable beings4 8,but they are well acquainted with the truth that all those diverse sufferings causing diverse states of misery are in one sense apparitional and unreal1 while in another sense they are not so4 ,they know also that those who have an intellectual insight into the emptiness 7nyat7 of all existences1 thoroughly understand why those rewards of karma are brought forth in such and such ways through ignorance and infatuation4 8,therefore1 all ,bodhisattvas1 in order to emancipate sentient beings from misery1 are inspired with great spiritual energy and mingle themselves in the filth of birth and death4 ,though thus they make themselves #bid subject to the laws of birth and death1 their hearts are free from sins and attachments4 ,they are like unto those immaculate1 undefiled lotus-flowers which grow out of mire1 yet are not contaminated by it4 8,their great hearts of sympathy which constitute the essence of their being never leave suffering creatures behind in their journey towards enlightenment4 ,their spiritual insight is in the emptiness 7nyat7 of things1 but their work of salvation is never outside the world of sins and sufferings40 ,the ,meaning of ,bodhi and ,bodhicitta4 ,what is the meaning of the word 8,bodhisattva08 ,it is a ,sanskrit term consisting of two words1 8,bodhi10 and 8sattva40 ,bodhi which comes from the root budh meaning 8to wake10 is generally rendered 8knowledge0 or 8intelligence40 ,sattva 7sat-tva7 literally means 8state of being02 thus 8existence10 8creature10 or 8that which is10 being its ,english equivalent4 8,bodhisattva0 as one word means 8a being of intelligence10 or 8a being whose essence is intelligence40 ,why the ,mahynists came to adopt this word in contradistinction to rvaka is easily understood1 when we see what special significance they attached to the conception of ,bodhi in their philosophy4 ,when ,bodhi was used by the rvakas in the simple sense of knowledge1 it did not bear any particular import4 ,but as soon as it came to express some metaphysical relation to the conception of ,dharmakya1 it ceased to be used in its generally accepted sense4 #bie ,bodhi1 according to the ,mahynists1 is an expression of the ,dharmakya in the human consciousness4 ,philosophically speaking1 ,suchness or ,bhtatatht is an ontological term1 and ,dharmakya or ,tathgata or ,buddha bears a religious significance2 while all these three1 ,bodhi1 ,bhtatatht1 and ,dharmakya1 and their synonyms are nothing but different aspects of one and the same reality refracting through the several defective lenses of a finite intellect4 ,bodhi1 though essentially an epistemological term1 assumes a psychological sense when it is used in conjunction with citta1 i4e4 heart or soul4 ,bodhicitta1 or ,bodhihdaya which means the same thing1 is more generally used than ,bodhi singly in the ,mahyna texts1 especially when its religious import is emphasised above its intellectual one4 ,bodhicitta1 viz4 intelligence-heart is a reflex in the human heart of its religious archetype1 the ,dharmakya4 ,bodhicitta when further amplified is called anuttara-samyak-sambodhicitta1 that is1 8intelligence-heart that is supreme and most perfect40 ,it will be easily understood now that what constitutes the essence of the ,bodhicitta is the very same thing that makes up the ,dharmakya4 ,for the former is nothing but an expression of the latter1 though finitely1 fragmentarily1 imperfectly realised in us4 ,the citta is an image and the ,dharmakya the prototype1 yet one is just as real as the other1 only the two must not be conceived dualistically4 ,there is a ,dharmakya1 there is a human heart1 and the former reflects itself #bif in the latter much after the fashion of the lunar reflection in the water3--to think in this wise is not perfectly correct2 because the fundamental teaching of ,buddhism is to view all these three conceptions1 the ,dharmakya1 human heart1 and the reflections of the former in the latter1 as different forms of one and the same activity4 ,love and ,karun4 ,the ,bodhicitta or ,intelligence-heart1 therefore1 like the ,dharmakya is essentially love and intelligence1 or1 to use ,sanskrit terms1 karun and praj4 ,here some may object to the use of the term 8love0 for karun1 perhaps on the ground that karun does not exactly correspond to the ,christian notion of love1 as it savors more of the sense of commiseration4 ,but if we understand by love a sacrifice of the self for the sake of others 7and it cannot be more than that71 then karun can correctly be rendered love1 even in the ,christian sense4 ,is not the ,bodhisattva willing to abandon his own ,nirvanic peace for the interests of suffering creatures8 ,is he not willing to dedicate the karma of his meritorious deeds performed in his successive existences to the general welfare of his fellow-beings8 ,is not his one fundamental motive that governs all his activities in life directed towards a universal emancipation of all sentient beings8 ,is he not perfectly willing to forsake all the thoughts and passions that arise from egoism and to embrace the will of the ,dharmakya8 ,if this be the case1 then there is #big no reason why karun should not be rendered by love4 ,christians say that without love we are become sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal2 and ,buddhists would declare that without karun we are like unto a dead vine hanging over a frozen boulder1 or like unto the cold ashes left after a blazing fire4 ,some may say1 however1 that the ,buddhist sympathy or commiseration somewhat betrays a sense of passive contemplation on evils4 ,when ,christians say that ,god loves his creatures1 the love implies activity and shows ,god's willingness to do whatever for the actual benefits of his subject-beings4 ,quite true4 ,yet when the ,buddha is stated to have declared that all sentient beings in the triple world are his own children or that he will not enter into his final ,nirvana unless all beings in the three thousand great chiliocosms1 not a single soul excepted1 are emancipated from the misery of birth and death1 his self-sacrificing love must be considered to be all-comprehensive and at the same time full of energy and activity4 ,whatever objections there may be1 we do not see any sufficient reason against speaking of the love-essence of the ,dharmakya and the ,bodhicitta4 ,ngrjuna and ,sthiramati on the ,bodhicitta4 ,says ,ngrjuna in his ,discourse on the ,transcendentality of the ,bodhicitta3 8,the ,bodhicitta is free from all determinations1 that is1 it is not included in the categories of the five skandhas1 the twelve yatanas1 and the eighteen dhtus4 ,it is not a particular #bih existence which is palpable4 ,it is non-atmanic1 universal4 ,it is uncreated and its self-essence is void nya1 immaterial1 or transcendental4 8,one who understands the nature of the ,bodhicitta sees everything with a loving heart1 for love is the essence of the ,bodhicitta4 8,the ,bodhicitta is the highest essence4 8,therefore1 all ,bodhisattvas find their raison d'tre of existence in this great loving heart4 8,the ,bodhicitta1 abiding in the heart of sameness 7samat7 creates individual means of salvation 7upaya74#abe #bii ,one who understands this heart becomes emancipated from the dualistic view of birth and death and performs such acts as are beneficial both to oneself and to others40 ,sthiramati advocates in his ,discourse on the ,mahyna-,dharmadhtu#abf the same view as ,ngrjuna's on the nature of the ,bodhicitta1 which ,i summarise here3 8,nirvna1 ,dharmakya1 ,tathgata1 ,tathgata-garbha1 ,paramrtha1 ,buddha1 ,bodhicitta1 or ,bhtatatht1--all these terms signify merely so many different aspects of one and the same reality2 and ,bodhicitta is the name given to a form of the ,dharmakya or ,bhtatatht as it manifests itself in the human heart1 and its perfection1 or negatively its liberation from all egoistic impurities1 constitutes the state of ,nirvana40 ,being a reflex of the ,dharmakya1 the ,bodhicitta is practically the same as the original in all its characteristics2 so continues ,sthiramati3 8,it is free from compulsive activities2 it has no beginning1 it has no end2 it cannot be defiled by impurities1 it cannot be obscured by egoistic individualistic prejudices2 it is incorporeal1 it is the spiritual essence of ,buddhas1 #cjj it is the source of all virtues earthly as well as transcendental2 it is constantly becoming1 yet its original purity is never lost4 8,it may be likened unto the ever-shining sunlight which may temporarily be hidden behind the clouds4 ,all the modes of passion and sin arising from egoism may sometimes darken the light of the ,bodhicitta1 but the ,citta itself forever remains free from these external impurities4 ,it may again be likened unto all-comprehending space which remains eternally identical1 whatever happenings and changes may occur in things enveloped therein4 ,when the ,bodhicitta manifests itself in a relative world1 it looks as if being subject to constant becoming1 but in reality it transcends all determinations1 it is above the reach of birth and death 7samsra74 8,so long as it remains buried under innumerable sins arising from ignorance and egoism1 it is productive of no earthly or heavenly benefit4 ,like the lotus-flower whose petals are yet unfolded1 like the gold that is deeply entombed under the dbris of dung and dirt1 or like the light of the full moon eclipsed by ,aura2 the ,bodhicitta1 when blindfolded by the clouds of passion1 avarice1 ignorance1 and folly1 does not reveal its intrinsic spiritual worth4 8,destroy at once with your might and main all those entanglements2 then like the full-bloomed lotus-flower1 like genuine gold purified from dirt and dust1 like the moon in a cloudless sky1 like the sun in its full glory1 like mother earth producing all kinds of #cja cereals1 like the ocean containing innumerable treasures1 the eternal bliss of the ,bodhicitta will be upon all sentient beings4 ,all sentient beings are then emancipated from the misery of ignorance and folly1 their hearts are filled with love and sympathy and free from the clinging to things worthless4 8,however defiled and obscured the ,bodhicitta may find itself in profane hearts1 it is essentially the same as that in all ,buddhas4 ,therefore1 says the ,muni of akya3 #8,o riputra1 the world of sentient beings is not different from the ,dharmakya2 the ,dharmakya is not different from the world of sentient beings4 ,what constitutes the ,dharmakya is the world of sentient beings2 and what constitutes the world of sentient beings is the ,dharmakya4' 8,as far as the ,dharmakya or the ,bodhicitta is concerned1 there is no radical distinction to be made between profane hearts and the ,buddha's heart2 yet when observed from the human standpoint that is1 from the phenomenal side of existence the following general classification can be made3 87#a7 ,the heart hopelessly distorted by numberless egoistic sins and condemned to an eternal transmigration of birth and death which began in the timeless past1 is said to be in the state of profanity4 87#b7 ,the heart that1 loathing the misery of wandering in birth and death and taking leave of all sinful and depraved conditions1 seeks the ,bodhi in the ten virtues of perfection 7pramit7 and #hd1jjj ,buddha-dharmas and disciplines itself in all meritorious deeds1 #cjb is said to be the spiritual state of a ,bodhisattva4 87#c7 ,the state in which the heart is emancipated from the obscuration of all passions1 has distanced all sufferings1 has eternally effaced the stain of all sins and corruptions1 is pure1 purer1 and purest1 abides in the essence of ,dharma1 has reached the height from which the states of all sentient beings are surveyed1 has attained the consummation of all knowledges1 has realised the highest type of manhood1 has gained the power of spiritual spontaneity which frees one from attachment and hesitation1--this spiritual state is that of the fully1 perfectly1 enlightened ,tathgata04 ,the ,awakening of the ,bodhicitta4 ,the ,bodhicitta is present in the hearts of all sentient beings4 ,only in ,buddhas it is fully awakened and active with its immaculate virility1 while in ordinary mortals it is dormant and miserably crippled by its unenlightened intercourse with the world of sensuality4 ,one of the most favorite parables told by the ,mahynists to illustrate this point is to compare the ,bodhicitta to the moonlight in the heavens4 ,when the moon shines with her silvery light in the clear1 cloudless skies1 she is reflected in every drop and in every mass of water on the earth4 ,the crystal dews on the quivering leaves reflect her like so many pearls hung on the branches4 ,every little water-pool1 probably formed temporarily by heavy showers in the daytime1 reflects her like so many stars descended #cjc on earth4 ,perhaps some of the pools are muddy and others even filthy1 but the moonlight does not refuse to reflect her immaculate image in them4 ,the image is just as perfect there as in a clear1 undisturbed1 transparent lake1 where cows quench their thirst and swans bathe their taintless feathers4 ,wherever there is the least trace of water1 there is seen a heavenly image of the goddess of night4 ,even so with the ,bodhicitta3 where there exists a little warmth of the heart1 there it unfailingly glorifies itself in its best as circumstances permit4 ,now1 the question is3 ,how should this dormant ,bodhicitta in our hearts be awakened to its full sense8 ,this is answered more or less definitely in almost all the ,mahyna writings1 and we may here recite the words of ,vasubandhu from his ,discourse on the ,awakening of the ,bodhicitta1#abg for they give us a somewhat systematic statement of those conditions which tend to awaken the ,bodhicitta from its lethargic inactivity4 7,chap4 ,,ii47 ,the ,bodhicitta or ,intelligence-heart is awakened in us 7#a7 by thinking of the ,buddhas1 7#b7 by reflecting on the faults of material existence1 7#c7 by observing the deplorable state in which sentient beings are living1 and finally 7#d7 by aspiring after those virtues which are acquired by a ,tathgata in the highest enlightenment4 #cjd ,to describe these conditions more definitely3 7#a7 ,by thinking of the ,buddhas4 8,all ,buddhas in the ten quarters1 of the past1 of the future1 and of the present1 when first started on their way to enlightenment1 were not quite free from passions and sins 7klea7 any more than we are at present2 but they finally succeeded in attaining the highest enlightenment and became the noblest beings4 8,all the ,buddhas1 by strength of their inflexible spiritual energy1 were capable of attaining perfect enlightenment4 ,if enlightenment is attainable at all1 why should we not attain it8 8,all the ,buddhas1 erecting high the torch of wisdom through the darkness of ignorance and keeping awake an excellent heart1 submitted themselves to penance and mortification1 and finally emancipated themselves from the bondage of the triple world4 ,following their steps1 we1 too1 could emancipate ourselves4 8,all the ,buddhas1 the noblest type of mankind1 successfully crossed the great ocean of birth and death and of passions and sins2 why1 then1 we1 being creatures of intelligence1 could also cross the sea of transmigration4 8,all the ,buddhas manifesting great spiritual power sacrificed the possessions1 body1 and life1 for the attainment of omniscience 7sarvaj72 and we1 too1 could follow their noble examples40 7#b7 ,the faults of the material existence4 8,this our bodily existence consisting of the five skandhas and the four mahats 7elements7 is a perpetuator of innumerable #cje evil deeds2 and therefore it should be cast aside4 ,this our bodily existence constantly secretes from its nine orifices filths and impurities which are truly loathsome2 and therefore it should be cast aside4 ,this our bodily existence1 harboring within itself anger1 avarice1 and infatuation1 and other innumerable evil passions1 consumes a good heart2 and therefore it should be destroyed4 ,this our bodily existence is like a bubble1 like a spatter1 and is decaying every minute4 ,it is an undesirable possession and should be abandoned4 ,this our bodily existence engulfed in ignorance is creating evil karma all the time1 which throws us into the whirlpool of transmigration through the six gatis40 7#c7 ,the miserable conditions of sentient beings which arouse the sympathy of the ,bodhisattvas4 8,all sentient beings are under the bondage of ignorance4 ,spell-bound by folly and infatuation1 they are suffering the severest pain4 ,not believing in the law of karma1 they are accumulating evils2 going astray from the path of righteousness1 they are following false doctrines2 sinking deeper in the whirlpool of passions1 they are being drowned in the four waters of sin4 8,they are being tortured with all sorts of pain4 ,they are needlessly haunted by the fear of birth and death and old age1 and do not seek the path of emancipation4 ,mortified with grief1 anxiety1 tribulation1 they do not refrain from committing further foul deeds4 ,clinging to their beloved ones and being always afraid of separation1 they do not understand that there #cjf is no individual reality1 that individual existences are not worth clinging to4 ,trying to shun enmity1 hatred1 pain1 they cherish more hatred4044444444 7#d7 ,the virtues of the ,tathgata4 8,all the ,tathgatas1 by virtue of their discipline1 have acquired a noble1 dignified mien which aspires every beholder with the thought that dispels pain and woe4 ,the ,dharmakya of all the ,tathgatas is immortal and pure and free from evil attachments4 ,all the ,tathgatas are possessed of moral discipline1 tranquillity1 intelligence1 and emancipation4 ,they are not hampered by intellectual prejudices and have become the sanctuary of immaculate virtues4 ,they have the ten blas 7powers71 four abhayas 7fearlessness71 great compassion1 and the three smtyupasthnas 7contemplations74 ,they are omniscient1 and their love for suffering beings knows no bounds and brings all creatures back to the path of righteousness1 who have gone astray on account of ignorance40 99 99 99 ,in short1 the ,intelligence-heart or ,bodhicitta is awakened in us either when love for suffering creatures 7which is innate in us7 is called forth1 or when our intellect aspires after the highest enlightenment1 or when these two psychical activities are set astir under some favorable circumstances4 ,as the ,bodhicitta is a manifestation of the ,dharmakya in our limited conscious mind1 it constantly longs for a unification with #cjg its archetype1 in spite of the curse of ignorance heavily weighing upon it4 ,when this unification is not effected for any reason1 the heart 7citta7 shows its dissatisfaction in some way or other4 ,the dissatisfaction may take sometimes a morbid course1 and may result in pessimism1 or misanthropy1 or suicide1 or asceticism1 or some other kindred eccentric practices4 ,but if properly guided and naturally developed1 the more intense the dissatisfaction1 the more energetic will be the spiritual activity of a ,bodhisattva4 ,the ,bodhisattva's ,pranidhna4 ,having awakened his ,bodhicitta from its unconscious slumber1 a ,bodhisattva will now proceed to make his vows4 ,let me remark here1 however1 that 8vow0 is not a very appropriate term to express the meaning of the ,sanskrit pranidhna4 ,pranidhna is a strong wish1 aspiration1 prayer1 or an inflexible determination to carry out one's will even through an infinite series of rebirths4 ,buddhists have such a supreme belief in the power of will or spirit that1 whatever material limitations1 the will is sure to triumph over them and gain its final aim4 ,so1 every ,bodhisattva is considered to have his own particular pranidhnas in order to perform his share in the work of universal salvation4 ,his corporeal shadow may vanish as its karma is exhausted1 but his pranidhna survives and takes on a new garment1 which procedure being necessary to #cjh keep it ever effective4 ,all that is needed for a ,bodhisattva to do this is to make himself a perfect incarnation of his own aspirations1 putting everything external and foreign under their controlling spiritual power4 ,buddhists are so thoroughly idealistic and their faith in ideas and ideals is so unshakable that they firmly believe that whatever they aspire to will come out finally as real fact2 and1 therefore1 the more intense and permanent and born of the inmost needs of humanity1 the more certain are our yearnings to be satisfied4 7,this belief1 by the way1 will help to explain the popular belief among the ,buddhists that any strong passion possessed by a man will survive him and take a form1 animate or inanimate1 which will best achieve its end47 ,according to ,vasubandhu whom we have quoted several times1 the ,bodhisattvas generally are supposed to make the following ten pranidhnas1 which naturally spring from a great loving heart now awakened in them3#abh 7#a7 8,would that all the merits ,i have accumulated in the past as well as in the present be distributed among all sentient beings and make them all aspire after supreme knowledge1 and also that this my pranidhna be constantly growing in strength and sustain me throughout my rebirths4 7#b7 8,would that1 through the merits of my work1 #cji ,i may1 wherever ,i am born1 come in the presence of all ,buddhas and pay them homage4 7#c7 8,would that ,i be allowed all the time to be near ,buddhas like shadow following object1 and never to be away from them4 7#d7 8,would that all ,buddhas instruct me in religious truths as best suited to my intelligence and let me finally attain the five spiritual powers of the ,bodhisattva4 7#e7 8,would that ,i be thoroughly conversant with scientific knowledge as well as the first principle of religion and gain an insight into the truth of the ,good ,law4 7#f7 8,would that ,i be able to preach untiringly the truth to all beings1 and gladden them1 and benefit them1 and make them intelligent4 7#g7 8,would that1 through the divine power of the ,buddha1 ,i be allowed to travel all over the ten quarters of the world1 pay respect to all the ,buddhas1 listen to their instructions in the ,doctrine1 and universally benefit all sentient beings4 7#h7 8,would that1 by causing the wheel of immaculate ,dharma to revolve1 all sentient beings in the ten quarters of the universe who may listen to my teachings or hear my name1 be freed from all passions and awaken in them the ,bodhicitta4 7#i7 8,would that ,i all the time accompany and protect all sentient beings and remove for them things which are not beneficial to them and give them innumerable blessings1 and also that through the sacrifice #caj of my body1 life1 and possessions ,i embrace all creatures and thereby practise the ,right ,doctrine4 7#aj7 8,would that1 though practising the ,doctrine in person1 my heart be free from the consciousness of compulsion and unnaturalness1 as all the ,bodhisattvas practise the ,doctrine in such a way as not practising it yet leaving nothing unpractised2 for they have made their pranidhnas for the sake of all sentient beings40 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,ten ,,stages ,,of ,,bodhisattvahood4 #caa ,gradation in our ,spiritual ,life4 _/,theoretically_/ speaking1 as we have seen above1 the ,bodhi or ,bodhicitta is in every sentient being1 and in this sense he is a ,bodhisattva4 ,in profane hearts it may be found enveloped in ignorance and egoism1 but it can never be altogether annulled4 ,for the ,bodhi1 when viewed from its absolute aspect1 transcends the realm of birth and death 7samsra71 is beyond the world of toil and trouble and is not subject to any form of defilement4 ,but when it assumes a relative existence and is only partially manifested under the cover of ignorance1 there appear various stages of actualisation or of perfection4 ,in some beings it may attain a more meaningful expression than in others1 while there may be even those who apparently fail on account of their accursed karma to show the evidence of its presence4 ,this latter class is usually called 8,icchantika10 that is1 people who are completely overwhelmed by the passions4 ,they are morally and religiously a mere corpse which even a great spiritual physician finds it almost impossible to resuscitate4 ,but1 philosophically considered1 the glory of the ,bodhi must be admitted #cab to be shining even in these dark1 ignorant souls4 ,such souls1 perhaps1 will have to go round many a cycle of transmigration1 before their karma loses its poignancy and becomes susceptible to a moral influence with which they may come in contact4 ,this accursed force of karma is not the same in all beings1 it admits of all possible degrees of strength1 and causes some to suffer more intensely than others4 ,but there is no human heart or soul that is absolutely free from the shackle of karma and ignorance1 because this very existence of a phenomenal world is a product of ignorance1 though this fact does not prove that this life is evil4 ,the only heart that transcends the influence of karma and ignorance and is all-purity1 all-love1 and all-intelligence1 is the ,dharmakya or the absolute ,bodhi itself4 ,the life of a ,bodhisattva and indeed the end of our religious aspiration is to unfold1 realise1 and identify ourselves with the love and intelligence of that ideal and yet real ,dharmakya4 ,the awakening of the ,bodhicitta 7or intelligence-heart7 marks the first step towards the highest good of human life4 ,this awakening must pass through several stages of religious discipline before it attains perfection4 ,these stages are generally estimated by the ,mahynists at ten4 ,they appear1 however1 to our modern sceptical minds to be of no significant consequence1 nor can we detect any very practical and well-defined distinction between successive stages4 ,we fail to understand what religious necessity impelled the ,hindu ,buddhists to establish such apparently unimportant #cac stages one after another in our religious life4 ,we can see1 however1 that the first awakening of the ,bodhicitta does not transform us all at once to ,buddhahood2 we have yet to overcome with strenuous efforts the baneful influence of karma and ignorance which asserts itself too readily in our practical life4 ,but the marking of stages as in the gradation of the ,daabhm in our spiritual progress seems to be altogether too artificial4 ,nevertheless ,i here take pains as an historical survey to enumerate the ten stages and to give some features supposed to be most characteristic of each ,bhm 7stage7 as expounded in the ,avatamsaka ,sutra4 ,probably they will help us to understand what moral conceptions and what religious aspirations were working in the establishment of the doctrine of ,daabhm1 for it elaborately describes what was considered by the ,mahynists to be the essential constituents of ,bodhisattvahood1 and also shows what spiritual routine a ,buddhist was expected to pursue4 ,the ten stages are3 7#a7 ,pramudit1 7#b7 ,vimal1 7#c7 ,prabhkar1 7#d7 ,arcismat1 7#e7 ,sudurjay1 7#f7 ,abhimukh1 7#g7 ,drangam1 7#h7 ,acal1 7#i7 ,sdhumat1 7#aj7 ,dharmamegh4 7#a7 ,the ,pramudit4 ,pramudit means 8delight0 or 8joy0 and marks the first stage of ,bodhisattvahood1 at which the ,buddhists emerge from a cold1 self-sufficing1 and almost nihilistic contemplation of ,nirvna as fostered by the rvakas #cad and ,pratyekabuddhas4 ,this spiritual emergence and emancipation is psychologically accompanied by an intense feeling of joy1 as that which is experienced by a person when he unexpectedly recognises the most familiar face in a faraway land of strangers4 ,for this reason the first stage is called 8joy40 ,even in the midst of perfect tranquillity of ,nirvna in which all passions are alleged to have died away as declared by ascetics or solitary philosophers1 the inmost voice in the heart of the ,bodhisattva moans in a sort of dissatisfaction or uneasiness1 which1 though undefined and seemingly of no significance1 yet refuses to be eternally buried in the silent grave of annihilation4 ,he vainly gropes in the darkness2 he vainly seeks consolation in the samdhi of non-resistance or non-activity2 he vainly finds eternal peace in the gospel of self-negation2 his soul is still troubled1 not exactly knowing the reason why4 ,but as soon as the ,bodhicitta 7intelligence-heart7 is awakened from its somnolence1 as soon as the warmth of love 7mahkarun7 penetrates into the coldest cell of asceticism1 as soon as the light of supreme enlightenment 7mahpraj7 dawns upon the darkest recesses of ignorance1 the ,bodhisattva sees at once that the world is not made for self-seclusion nor for self-negation1 that the ,dharmakya is the source of 8universal effulgence10 that ,nirvna if relatively viewed in contrast to birth-and-death is nothing but sham and just as unreal as any worldly existence2 and these insights finally lead him to feel that he cannot rest quiet until all sentient beings are #cae emancipated from the snarl of ignorance and elevated to the same position as now occupied by himself4 7#b7 ,the ,vimal4 ,vimal means 8freedom from defilement10 or1 affirmatively1 8purity40 ,when the ,bodhisattva attains1 through the spiritual insight gained at the first stage1 to rectitude and purity of heart1 he reaches the second stage4 ,his heart is now thoroughly spotless1 it is filled with tenderness1 he fosters no anger1 no malice4 ,he is free from all the thoughts of killing any animate beings4 ,being contented with what belongs to himself1 he casts no covetous eyes on things not his own4 ,faithful to his own betrothed1 he does not harbor any evil thoughts on others4 ,his words are always true1 faithful1 kind1 and considerate4 ,he likes truth1 honesty1 and never flatters4 7#c7 ,the ,prabhkar4 ,prabhkar means 8brightness10 that is1 of the intellect4 ,this predominantly characterises the spiritual condition of the ,bodhisattva at this stage4 ,here he gains the most penetrating insight into the nature of things4 ,he recognises that all things that are created are not permanent1 are conducive to misery1 have no abiding selfhood 7tman71 are destitute of purity1 and subject to final decay4 ,he recognises also that the real nature of things1 however1 is neither created nor subject to destruction1 it is eternally abiding in the selfsame essence1 and transcends the limits of time #caf and space4 ,ignorant beings not seeing this truth are always worrying over things transient and worthless1 and constantly consuming their spiritual energy with the fire of avarice1 anger1 and infatuation1 which in turn accumulates for their future existences the ashes of misery and suffering4 ,this wretched condition of sentient beings further stimulates the loving heart of the ,bodhisattva to seek the highest intelligence of ,buddha1 which1 giving him great spiritual energy1 enables him to prosecute the gigantic task of universal emancipation4 ,his desire for the ,buddha-intelligence and his faith in it are of such immense strength that he would not falter even for a moment1 if he is only assured of the attainment of the priceless treasure1 to plunge himself into the smeltering fire of a volcano4 7#d7 ,the ,arcimat4 ,arcimat1 meaning 8inflammation10 is the name given to the fourth stage1 at which the ,bodhisattva consumes all the sediments of ignorance and evil passions in the fiery crucible of the purifying ,bodhi4 ,he practises here most strenuously the thirty-seven virtues called ,bodhipkikas which are conducive to the perfection of the ,bodhi4 ,these virtues consist of seven categories3 7,i7 ,four ,contemplations 7smtyusthna73 #a4 ,on the impurity of the body2 #b4 ,on the evils of sensuality2 #c4 ,on the evanescence of the worldly interests2 #d4 ,on the non-existence of tman in things composite4 7,,ii7 ,four ,righteous ,efforts 7samyakprahna73 #a4 ,to #cag prevent evils from arising2 #b4 ,to suppress evils already existing2 #c4 ,to produce good not yet in existence2 #d4 ,to preserve good already in existence4 7,,iii7 ,four ,forces of the ,will 7ddhipda73 #a4 ,the determination to accomplish what is willed2 #b4 ,the energy to concentrate the mind on the object in view2 #c4 ,the power of retaining the object in memory2 #d4 ,the intelligence that perceives the way to ,nirvna4 7,,iv7 ,five ,powers 7indrya71 from which all moral good is produced3 #a4 ,faith2 #b4 ,energy2 #c4 ,circumspection2 #d4 ,equilibrium1 or tranquillity of mind2 #e ,intelligence4 7,v7 ,five ,functions 7bala73 ,same as the above4#abi 7,,vi7 ,seven ,constituents of the ,bodhi 7bodhyanga73 #a4 ,the retentive power2 #b4 ,discrimination2 #c4 ,energy2 #d4 ,contentment2 #e4 ,modesty2 #f4 ,the balanced mind2 #g4 ,large-heartedness4 7,,vii7 ,the ,eightfold ,noble ,path 7ryamrga73 #a4 ,right view2 #b4 ,right resolve2 #c4 ,right speech2 #d4 ,right conduct2 #e4 ,right livelihood2 #f4 ,right recollection2 #h4 ,right tranquilisation1 or contemplation4 #cah 7#e7 ,the ,sudurjay4 ,sudurjay means 8very difficult to conquer40 ,the ,bodhisattva reaches this stage when he1 completely armed with the thirty-seven ,bodhipkikas and guided by the beacon-light of ,bodhi1 undauntedly breaks through the column of evil passions4 ,provided with the two spiritual provisions1 love and wisdom1 and being benefitted by the spirits of all the ,buddhas of the past1 present1 and future1 the ,bodhisattva has developed an intellectual power to penetrate deep into the system of existence4 ,he perceives the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth in its true light2 he perceives the highest reality in the ,tathgata2 he also perceives that the highest reality1 though absolutely one in its essence1 manifests itself in a world of particulars1 that relative knowledge 7samvrtti7 and absolute knowledge 7paramrtha7 are two aspects of one and the same truth1 that when subjectivity is disturbed there appears particularity1 and that when it is not disturbed there shines only the eternal light of ,tathgataj 7,tathgata-knowledge74 7#f7 ,the ,abhimukh4 ,abhimukh means 8showing one's face10 that is1 the presentation of intelligence 7praj7 before the ,bodhisattva at this stage4 ,the ,bodhisattva enters upon this stage by reflecting on the essence of all dharmas which are throughout of one nature4 ,when he perceives the truth1 his heart is filled with great love1 he serenely contemplates on #cai the life of ignorant beings who are constantly going astray yielding themselves to evil temptations1 clinging to the false conception of egoism1 and thus making themselves the prey of eternal damnation4 ,he then proceeds to contemplate the development of evils generally4 ,there is ignorance1 there is karma2 and in this fertile soil of blind activity the seeds of consciousness are sown2 the moisture of desire thoroughly soaks them1 to which the water of egoism or individuation is poured on4 ,the bed for all forms of particularity is well prepared1 and the buds of nmarpas 7name-and-form7 most vigorously thrive here4 ,from these we have the flowers of sense-organs1 and which come in contact with other existences and produce impressions1 feel agreeable sensations1 and tenaciously cling to them4 ,from this clinging or the will to live as the principle of individuation or as the principle of bhva as is called in the ,twelve ,nidnas1 another body consisting of the five skandhas comes into existence1 and1 passing through all the phases of transformation1 dissolves and disappears4 ,all sentient beings are thus kept in a perpetual oscillation of combination and separation1 of pleasure and pain1 birth and death4 ,but the insight of the ,bodhisattva has gone deeply into the inmost essence of things1 which forever remains the same and in which there is no production and dissolution4 7#g7 ,the ,drangam4 ,drangam means 8going far away40 ,the ,bodhisattva enters upon this stage by attaining the so-called #cbj ,upyaj1 i4e4 the knowledge that enables him to produce any means or expediency suitable for his work of salvation4 ,he himself abides in the principles of nyat 7transcendentality71 animitta 7non-individuality71 and apranihita 7desirelessness71 but his lovingkindness keeps him busily engaged among sentient beings4 ,he knows that ,buddhas are not creatures radically and essentially different from himself1 but he does not stop tendering them due homage4 ,he is always contemplating on the nature of the ,absolute1 but he does not abandon the practice of accumulating merits4 ,he is no more encumbered with worldly thoughts1 yet he does not disdain managing secular affairs4 ,he keeps himself perfectly aloof from the consuming fire of passion1 but he plans all possible means for the sake of sentient beings to quench the enraging flames of avarice 7lobha71 anger 7dvea71 and infatuation 7moha74 ,he knows that all individual existences are like dream1 mirage1 or the reflection of the moon in the water1 but he works and toils in the world of particulars and submits himself to the domination of karma4 ,he is well aware of the transcendental nature of ,pure ,land 7sukhvat71 but he describes it with material colors for the sake of unenlightened masses4 ,he knows that the ,dharmakya of all the ,buddhas is not a material existence1 but he does not refuse to dignify himself with the thirty-two major and eighty minor excellent features of a great man or god 7mahpurua74 ,he knows that the language of all the ,buddhas does not fall within the ken of human comprehension1 but #cba he endeavors with all contrivances 7upya7 to make it intelligible enough to the understanding of people4 ,he knows that all the ,buddhas perceive the past1 present1 and future in the twinkling of an eye1 but he adapts himself to divers conditions of the material world and endeavors to help sentient beings to understand the significance of the ,bodhi according to their destinies and dispositions4 ,in short1 the ,bodhisattva himself lives on a higher plane of spirituality far removed from the defilements of worldliness2 but he does not withdraw himself to this serene1 unmolested subjectivity2 he boldly sets out in the world of particulars and senses2 and1 placing himself on the level of ignorant beings1 he works like them1 he toils like them1 and suffers like them2 and he never fails all these times to practise the gospel of lovingkindness and to turn over 7parivarta7 all his merits towards the emancipation and spiritual edification of the masses1 that is1 he never gets tired of practising the ten virtues of perfection 7pramit74 ,that is to say1 7#a7 the ,bodhisattva practises the virtue of charity 7dna7 by freely giving away to all sentient creatures all the merits that he has acquired by following the path of ,buddhas4 7#b7 ,he practises the virtue of good conduct 7la7 by destroying all the evil passions that disturb serenity of mind4 7#c7 ,he practises the virtue of patience 7knti71 for he never gets irritated or excited over what is done to him by ignorant beings4 7#d7 ,he practises the virtue of strenuousness 7vriya71 for he never gets tired of #cbb accumulating merits and of promoting good-will among his fellow-creatures4 7#e7 ,he practises the virtue of calmness 7dhyna71 for his mind is never distracted in steadily pursuing his way to supreme knowledge4 7#f7 ,he practises the virtue of intelligence 7praj71 for he always restrains his thoughts from wandering away from the path of absolute truth4 7#g7 ,he practises the virtue of tactfulness 7upya71 for he has an inexhaustible mine of expediencies ready at his command for the work of universal salvation4 7#h7 ,he practises the virtue of will-to-do 7pranidhna7 by determinedly following the dictates of the highest intelligence4 7#i7 ,he practises the virtue of strength 7bala71 for no evil influences1 no heretical thoughts can ever frustrate or slacken his efforts for the general welfare of people4 7#aj7 ,finally1 he practises the virtue of knowledge1 7jna71 by truthfully comprehending and expounding the ultimate nature of beings4 7#h7 ,the ,acal4 ,acal1 8immovable10 is the name for the eighth stage of ,bodhisattvahood4 ,when a ,bodhisattva1 transcending all forms of discursive or deliberate knowledge1 acquires the highest1 perfect knowledge called anutpattikadharmaknti1 he is said to have gone beyond the seventh stage4 ,anutpattikadharmaknti literally means 8not-created-being-forbearance02 and the ,buddhists use the term in the sense of keeping one's thoughts in conformity to the views that nothing in this world #cbc has ever been created1 that things are such as they are1 i4e4 they are ,suchness itself4 ,this knowledge is also called non-conscious or non-deliberate knowledge in contradistinction to relative knowledge that constitutes all our logical and demonstrative knowledge4 ,strictly speaking1 this so-called knowledge is not knowledge in its ordinary signification1 it is a sort of unconscious or subconscious intelligence1 or immediate knowledge as some call it1 in which not only willing and acting1 but also knowing and willing are one single1 undivided exhibition of activity1 all logical or natural transition from one to the other being altogether absent4 ,here indeed knowledge is will and will is action2 8,let there be light10 and there is light1 and the light is good2 it is the state of a divine mind4 ,at this stage of perfection1 the ,bodhisattva's spiritual condition is compared to that of a person who1 attempting when in a dreamy state to cross deep waters1 musters all his energy1 plans all schemes1 and1 while at last at the point of starting on the journey1 suddenly wakes up and finds all his elaborate preparations to no purpose4 ,the ,bodhisattva hitherto showed untiring spiritual efforts to attain the highest knowledge1 steadily practised all virtues tending to the acquirement of ,nirvna1 and heroically endeavored to exterminate all evil passions1 and at the culmination of all these exercises1 he enters all of a sudden upon the stage of ,acal and finds the previous elaboration mysteriously vanished from his conscious mind4 ,he cherishes #cbd now no desire for ,buddhahood1 ,nirvna1 or ,bodhicitta1 much less after worldliness1 egoism1 or the satisfaction of evil passions4 ,the conscious striving that distinguished all his former course has now given way to a state of spontaneous activity1 of saintly innocence1 and of divine playfulness4 ,he wills and it is done4 ,he aspires and it is actualised4 ,he is nature herself1 for there is no trace in his activity that betrays any artificial lucubration1 any voluntary or compulsory restraint4 ,this state of perfect ideal freedom may be called esthetical1 which characterises the work of a genius4 ,there is here no trace of consciously following some prescribed laws1 no pains of elaborately conforming to the formula4 ,to put this poetically1 the inner life of the ,bodhisattva at this stage is like the lilies of the field whose glory is greater than that of ,solomon in all his human magnificence4 ,kant's remarks on this point are very suggestive1 and ,i will quote the following from his ,kritik der ,urteilskraft 7,reclam edition1 p4 #agc73 8,also muss die ,zweckmssigkeit im ,produkte der schnen ,kunst1 ob sie zwar absichtlich ist1 doch nicht absichtlich scheinen3 d4i41 schne ,kunst muss als ,natur anzusehen sein1 ob man sich ihrer zwar als ,kunst bewusst ist4 ,als ,natur aber erscheint ein ,produkt der ,kunst dadurch1 dass zwar alle ,pnktlichkeit in der ,uebereinkunst mit ,regeln1 nach denen allein das ,produkt das werden kann1 was es soll sein1 angetroffen wird1 aber ohne ,peinlichkeit1 d4i41 ohne eine ,spur zu zeigen1 dass die ,regel dem ,knstler vor ,augen #cbe geschwebt und seinen ,gemthskrften ,fesseln angelegt haben40#acj 7#i7 ,the ,sdhumat4 ,sdhumat1 meaning 8good intelligence10 is the name given to the ninth stage of ,bodhisattvahood4 ,all the ,bodhisattvas are said to have reached here1 when sentient beings are benefitted by the ,bodhisattva's attainment of the highest perfect knowledge1 which is unfathomable by the ordinary human intelligence4 ,the knowledge leads them to the ,dharma of the deepest mystery1 to the ,samdhi of perfect spirituality1 to the ,dhran of divine spontaneity1 to ,love of absolute purity1 to the ,will of utmost freedom4 ,the ,bodhisattva will acquire at this stage the four ,pratisamvids 7comprehensive knowledge71 which are 7#a7 ,dharmapratisamvid1 7#b7 ,arthapratisamvid1 7#c7 ,niruktipratisamvid1 7#d7 ,pratibhanapratisamvid4 ,by the ,dharmapratisamvid1 the ,bodhisattvas understand the #cbf self-essence 7svabhva7 of all beings2 by the ,arthapratisamvid1 their individual attributes2 by the ,niruktipratisamvid1 their indestructibility2 by the ,pratibhanapratisamvid1 their eternal order4 ,again1 by the first intelligence they understand that all individual dharmas have no absolute reality2 by the second1 that they are all subject to the law of constant becoming2 by the third1 that they are no more than mere names2 by the fourth1 that even mere names as such are of some value4 ,again1 by the first intelligence1 they comprehend that all dharmas are of one reality which is indestructible2 by the second1 that this one reality differentiating itself becomes subject to the law of causation2 by the third1 that by virtue of a superior understanding all ,buddhas become the object of admiration and the haven of all sentient beings2 by the fourth1 that in the one body of truth all ,buddhas preach infinite lights of the ,dharma4 7#aj7 ,the ,dharmamegh4 ,dharmamegh1 8clouds of dharma10 is the name of the tenth and final stage of ,bodhisattvahood4 ,the ,bodhisattvas have now practised all virtues of purity1 accumulated all the constituents of ,bodhi1 are fortified with great power and intelligence1 universally practise the principle of great love and sympathy1 have deeply penetrated into the mystery of individual existences1 fathomed the inmost depths of sentiency1 followed step by step the walk of all the ,tathgatas4 ,every thought cherished by the ,bodhisattva now dwells in #cbg all the ,tathgatas' abode of eternal tranquillity1 and every deed practised by him is directed towards the ten balas 7power71#aca four vairadyas 7conviction71#acb and eighteen avenikas 7unique characteristics71#acc of the ,buddha4 ,by these virtues the ,bodhisattva has now acquired the knowledge of all things 7sarvaj71 is dwelling in the sanctum sanctorum of all dhras and samdhis1 have arrived at the summit of all activities4 #cbh ,the ,bodhisattva at this stage is a personification of love and sympathy1 which freely issue from the fount of his inner will4 ,he gathers the clouds of virtue and wisdom1 in which he manifests himself in manifold figures2 he produces the lightnings of ,buddhi1 ,vidys1 and ,vairadyas2 and shaking the whole world with the thunder of ,dharma he crushes all the evil ones2 and pouring forth the showers of ,good ,law he quenches the burning flames of ignorance #cbi and passion in which all sentient creatures are being consumed4 99 99 99 ,the above presentation of the ,daabhm#acd of ,bodhisattvahood allows us to see what ideal life is held out by the ,mahynists before their own eyes and in what respect it differs from that of the rvakas and ,pratyekabuddhas as well as from that of other religious followers4 ,mahynism is not contented to make us mere transmitters or 8hearers0 of the teachings of the ,buddha1 it wants to inspire with all the religious and ethical motives that stirred the noblest heart of kyamuni to its inmost depths4 ,it fully recognises the intrinsic worth of the human soul2 and1 holding up its high ideals and noble aspirations1 it endeavors to develop all the possibilities of our soul-life1 which by our strenuous efforts and all-defying courage will one day be realised even on this earth of impermanence4 ,we as individual existences are nothing but shadows which will vanish as soon as the conditions disappear that make them possible2 we as mortal beings are no more than the #ccj thousands of dusty particles that are haphazardly and powerlessly scattered about before the cyclone of karma2 but when we are united in the love and intelligence of the ,dharmakya in which we have our being1 we are ,bodhisattvas1 and we can immovably stand against the tempest of birth and death1 against the overwhelming blast of ignorance4 ,then even an apparently insignificant act of lovingkindness will lead finally to the eternal abode of bliss1 not the actor alone1 but the whole community to which he belongs4 ,because a stream of love spontaneously flows from the lake of ,intelligence-heart 7,bodhicitta7 which is fed by the inexhaustible spring of the ,dharmakya1 while ignorance leads only to egoism1 hatred1 avarice1 disturbance1 and universal misery4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,nirv,,na4 #cca _/,nirvna_/1 according to ,mahyna ,buddhism1 is not understood in its nihilistic sense4 ,even with the rvakas or ,hnaynists1 ,nirvna in this sense is not so much the object of their religious life as the recognition of the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth1 or the practise of the ,eightfold ,path1 or emancipation from the yoke of egoism4 ,it is mostly due1 as far as ,i can see1 to non-,buddhist critics that the conception of ,nirvna has been selected among others as one of the most fundamental teachings of ,buddha1 declaring it at the same time to consist in the annihilation of all human passions and aspirations1 noble as well as worthless4 ,in fact1 ,nirvna literally means 8extinction0 or 8dissolution0 of the five skandhas1 and therefore it may be said that the entering into ,nirvna is tantamount to the annihilation of the material existence and of all the passions4 ,catholic ,buddhists1 however1 do not understand ,nirvna in the sense of emptiness1 for they say that ,buddhism is not a religion of death nor for the dead1 but that it teaches how to attain eternal life1 how to gain an insight into the real nature of things1 and how to regulate our conduct #ccb in accordance with the highest truth4 ,therefore1 ,buddhism1 when rightly understood in the spirit of its founder1 is something quite different from what it is commonly supposed to be by the general public4 ,i will endeavor in the following pages to point out that ,nirvna in the sense of a total annihilation of human activities1 is by no means the primary and sole object of ,buddhists1 and then proceed to elucidate in what signification it is understood in the ,mahyna ,buddhism and see what relative position ,nirvna in its ,mahynistic sense occupies in the body of ,buddhism4 ,nihilistic ,nirvna not the ,first ,object4 ,in order to see the true signification of ,nirvna1 it is necessary first to observe in what direction ,buddha himself ploughed the waves in his religious cruise and upon what shore he finally debarked4 ,this will show us whether or not ,nirvna as nihilistic nothingness is the primary and sole object of ,buddhism1 to which every spiritual effort of its devotees is directed4 ,if the attainment of negativistic ,nirvna were the sole aim of ,buddhism1 we should naturally expect ,buddha's farewell address to be chiefly dealing with that subject4 ,in his last sermon1 however1 ,buddha did not teach his disciples to concentrate all their moral efforts on the attainment of ,nirvnic quietude disregarding all the forms of activity that exhibit themselves in life4 ,far from it4 ,he told them1 according to the ,mahnibbna sutta 7the ,book of the ,great #ccc decease1 ,s4 ,b4 ,e4 ,vol4 ,,xi4 p4 #aad7 that 8,decay is inherent in all component things6 ,work out your salvation with diligence60 ,this exhortation of the strenuous life is quite in harmony with the last words of ,buddha as recorded in ,avaghoa's ,buddhacarita 7,chinese translation1 ,chap4 ,,xxvi74 ,they were3 8,even if ,i lived a kalpa longer1 ,separation would be an inevitable end4 ,a body composed of various aggregates1 ,its nature is not to abide forever4 8,having finished benefiting oneself and others1 ,why live ,i longer to no purpose8 ,of gods and men that should be saved1 ,each and all had been delivered4 8,o ye1 my disciples6 ,without interruption transmit the ,good ,dharma6 ,know ye that things are destined to decay6 ,never again abandon yourselves to grief6 8,but pursue the ,way with diligence1 ,and arrive at the ,home of ,no-separation6 ,i have lit the ,lamp of ,intelligence1 ,that shining dispels the darkness of the world4 8,know ye that the world endureth not6 ,as ye should feel happy when ye see ,the parents suffering a mortal disease ,are released by a treatment from pain2 8,so with me1 ,i now give up the vessel of misery1 ,transcend#ace the current of birth and death1 ,and am eternally released from all pain and suffering4 ,this too must be deemed blest4 #ccd 8,ye should well guard yourselves6 ,never give yourselves up to indulgence6 ,all that exists finally comes to an end6 ,i now enter into ,nirvna40#acf ,in this we find ,buddha's characteristic admonition to his disciples not to waste time but to work out their salvation with diligence and rigor1 but we fail to find the gospel of annihilation1 the supposedly fundamental teaching of ,buddhism4 ,did then ,buddha start in his religious discipline to attain the absolute annihilation of all human aspirations and after a long meditation reach the conclusion that contradicted his premises8 ,far from it4 ,his first and last ambition was nothing else than the emancipation of all beings from ignorance1 misery1 and suffering through enlightenment1 knowledge1 and truth4 ,when ,mra the evil one was exhausting all his evil powers upon the destruction of the ,buddha in the beginning of his career1 the good gods in the heavens exclaimed to the evil one3#acg 8,take not on thyself1 ,o ,mra1 this vain fatigue1--throw aside thy malevolence and retire to thy home4 ,this sage cannot be shaken by thee any more than the mighty mountain ,meru by the wind4 #cce 8,even fire might lose its hot nature1 water its fluidity1 earth its steadiness1 but never will he abandon his resolution1 who has acquired his merit by a long course of actions through unnumbered eons4 8,such is the purpose of his1 that heroic effort1 that glorious strength1 that compassion for all beings1--until he attains the highest wisdom or suchness1 tattva1 he will never rise from his seat1 just as the sun does not rise without dispelling the darkness4 8,pitying the world lying distressed amidst diseases and passions1 he1 the great physician1 ought not to be hindered1 who undergoes all his labors for the sake of the remedy-knowledge4 8,he1 who1 when he beholds the world drowned in the great flood of existence and unable to reach the further shore1 strives to bring them safely across1--would any right-minded soul offer him wrong8 8,the tree of knowledge1 whose roots go deep in firmness1 and whose fibres are patience1--whose flowers are moral actions and whose branches are memory and thought1--and which gives out the ,dharma as its fruit1--surely when it is growing it should not be cut down40 ,these words of the good gods in the heavens truthfully echo the motive that stirred kyamuni to take up his gigantic task of universal salvation1 and we are unable here as before to perceive a particle of the nihilistic speculation which is supposed to characterise ,nirvna4 ,the ,buddha from the very first of his religious course searched after the light that will illuminate #ccf the whole universe and dispel the darkness of nescience4 ,what enlightenment1 then1 did the ,buddha1 pursuing his first object1 finally gain8 ,what truth was it that he is said to have discovered under the ,bodhi tree after six years' penance and deep meditation8 ,as is universally recognised1 it was no more than the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth and the ,twelve ,chains of ,dependence1 which are acknowledged by the ,mahynists as well as by the ,hnaynists as the essentially original teachings of the ,buddha4 ,what then was his subjective state when he discovered these truths8 ,how did he feel in his inmost being after this intellectual triumph over egoistic thoughts and passions8 ,according to the ,southern tradition1 the famous ,hymn of ,victory is said to be his utterance on this occasion4 ,it reads 7,the ,dharmapada1 #aec73 8,many a life to transmigrate1 ,long quest1 no rest1 hath been my fate1 ,tent-designer inquisitive for2 ,painful birth from state to state4 8,tent-designer1 ,i know thee now2 ,never again to build art thou2 ,quite out are all thy joyful fires1 ,rafter broken and roof-tree gone2 ,into the vast my heart goes on1 ,gains ,eternity--dead desires40#ach ,in this ,hymn of ,victory1 the 8tent-designer0 means #ccg the ego that is supposed to be a subtle existence behind our mental experiences4 ,as was pointed out elsewhere the negative phase of ,buddhism consists in the eradication of this ego-substratum or the 8designer0 of eternal transmigration4 ,the ,buddha now finds out that this ego-soul is a fantasmagoria and has no final existence2 and with this insight his ego-centric desires that troubled him so long are eternally dead2 he feels the breaking up of their limitations2 he is absorbed in the ,eternal ,vast1 in which we all live and move and have our being4 ,no shadow is perceptible here that suggests anything of an absolute nothingness supposed to be the attribute of ,nirvna4 ,before proceeding further1 let us see what the ,mahyna tradition says concerning this point4 ,the tradition varies in this case as in many others4 ,according to ,beal's ,romantic ,history of ,buddha1 which is a translation of a ,chinese version of the ,buddhacarita 7,fo pen hing ching71#aci ,buddha is reported to have exclaimed this3 8,through ages past have ,i acquired continual merit1 ,that which my heart desired have ,i now attained1 ,how quickly have ,i arrived at the ever-constant condition1 ,and landed on the very shore of ,nirvna4 ,the sorrows and opposition of the world1 ,the ,lord of the ,kmalokas1 ,mra ,pisuna1 ,these are unable now to affect1 they are wholly destroyed2 ,by the power of religious merit and of wisdom are they cast away4 ,let a man but persevere with unflinching resolution1 ,and seek ,supreme ,wisdom1 it will not be hard to acquire it2 ,when once obtained1 then farewell to all sorrows1 ,all sin and guilt are forever done away40#adj #cch ,viewing the significance of ,buddhism in this light1 it is evident that ,buddha did not emphasise so much the doctrine of ,nirvna in the sense of a total abnegation of human aspirations as the abandonment of egoism and the practical regulation of our daily life in accordance with this view4 ,nirvna in which all the passions noble and base are supposed to have been 8blown out like a lamp0 was not the most coveted object of ,buddhist life4 ,on the contrary1 ,buddhism advises all its followers to exercise most strenuously all their spiritual energy to attain perfect freedom from the bondage of ignorance and egoism2 because that is the only way in which we can conquer the vanity of worldliness and enjoy the bliss of eternal life4 ,the following verse from the ,visuddhi ,magga 7,,xxi7 practically #cci sums up the teaching of ,buddhism as far as its negative and individual phase is concerned3 8,behold how empty is the world1 ,mogharja6 ,in thoughtfulness ,let one remove belief in self1 ,and pass beyond the realm of death4 ,the king of death will never find ,the man who thus the world beholds40#ada ,nirvna is ,positive4 ,it is not my intention here to investigate the historical side of this question2 we are not concerned with the problem of how the followers of ,buddha gradually developed the positive aspect of ,nirvna in connection with the practical application of his moral and religious #cdj teachings2 nor are we engaged in tracing the process of evolution through which ,buddha's noble resolution to save all sentient beings from ignorance and misery was brought out most conspicuously by his later devotees4 ,what ,i wish to state here about the positive conception of ,nirvna and its development is this3 ,the ,mahyna ,buddhism was the first religious teaching in ,india that contradicted the doctrine of ,nirvna as conceived by other ,hindu thinkers who saw in it a complete annihilation of being1 for they thought that existence is evil1 and evil is misery1 and the only way to escape misery is to destroy the root of existence1 which is nothing less than the total cessation of human desires and activities in ,nirvnic unconsciousness4 ,the ,yoga taught self-forgetfulness in deep meditation2 the ,samkhya1 the absolute separation of ,purua from ,prakti1 which means undisturbed self-contemplation2 the ,vednta1 absorption in the ,brahma1 which is the total suppression of all particulars2 and thus all of them considered emancipation from human desires and aspirations a heavenly bliss1 that is1 ,nirvna4 ,metaphysically speaking1 they might have been correct each in its own way1 but1 ethically considered1 their views had little significance in our practical life and showed a sad deficiency in dealing with problems of morality4 ,the ,buddha was keenly aware of this flaw in their doctrines4 ,he taught1 therefore1 that ,nirvna does not consist in the complete stoppage of existence1 but in the practise of the ,eightfold ,path4 ,this moral #cda practise leads to the unalloyed joy of ,nirvna1 not as the tranquillisation of human aspirations1 but as the fulfilment or unfolding of human life4 ,the word ,nirvna in the sense of annihilation was in existence prior to ,buddha1 but it was he who gave a new significance to it and made it worthy of attainment by men of moral character4 ,all the doctrinal aspects of ,nirvna are later additions or rather development made by ,buddhist scholars1 according to whom their arguments are solidly based on some canonical passages4 ,whatever the case may be1 my conviction is that those who developed the positive significance of ,nirvna are more consistent with the spirit of the founder than those who emphasised another aspect of it4 ,in the ,udna we read 7,,iv41 #i73 8,he whom life torments not1 ,who sorrows not at the approach of death1 ,if such a one is resolute and has seen ,nirvna1 ,in the midst of grief1 he is griefless4 ,the tranquil-minded ,bhikkhu1 who has uprooted the thirst for existence1 ,by him the succession of births is ended1 ,he is born no more40#adb ,according to the ,mahynistic conception ,nirvna is not the annihilation of the world and the putting an end to life2 but it is to live in the whirlpool of birth and death and yet to be above it4 ,it is affirmation and fulfilment1 and this is done not blindly and egoistically1 for ,nirvna is enlightenment4 ,let us see how this is4 #cdb ,the ,mahynistic ,conception of ,nirvna4 ,while the conception of ,nirvna seems to have remained indefinite and confused as far as ,hnaynism goes1 the ,mahyna ,buddhists have attached several definite shades of meaning to ,nirvna and tried to give each of them some special1 distinctive character4 ,when it is used in its most comprehensive metaphysical sense1 it becomes synonymous with ,suchness 7tattva7 or with the ,dharmakya4 ,when we speak of ,buddha's entrance into ,nirvna1 it means the end of material existence1 i4e41 death4 ,when it is used in contrast to birth and death 7samsra7 or to passion and sin 7klea71 it signifies in the former case an eternal life or a state of immortality1 and in the latter case a state of consciousness that follows from the recognition of the presence of the ,dharmakya in individual existences4 ,nirvna has thus become a very comprehensive term1 and this fact adds much to the confusion and misunderstanding with which it has been treated ever since ,buddhism became known to the ,occident4 ,the so-called 8primitive ,buddhism0 is not altogether unfamiliar with all these meanings given to ,nirvna1 though in some cases they might have been but faintly foreshadowed4 ,most of ,european missionaries and scholars have ignored this fact and wanted to see in ,nirvna but one definite1 stereotyped sense which will loosen or untie all the difficult knots connected with its use4 ,one scholar would select a certain passage in a certain stra1 where the meaning #cdc is tolerably distinct1 and taking this as the key endeavor to solve all the rest2 while another scholar would do the same thing with another passage from the scriptures and refute other fellow-workers4 ,the majority of them1 however1 have found for missionary purposes to be advantageous to hold one meaning prominently above all the others that may be considered possibly the meaning of ,nirvna4 ,this one meaning that has been made specially conspicuous is its negativistic interpretation4 ,according to the ,vijnamtra stra 7,chinese version ,vol4 ,x471 the ,mahyna ,buddhists distinguish four forms of ,nirvna4 ,they are3 7#a7 ,absolute ,nirvna1 as a synonym of the ,dharmakya4 ,it is eternally immaculate in its essence and constitutes the truth and reality of all existences4 ,though it manifests itself in the world of defilement and relativity1 its essence forever remains undefiled4 ,while it embraces in itself innumerable incomprehensible spiritual virtues1 it is absolutely simple and immortal2 its perfect tranquillity may be likened unto space in which every conceivable motion is possible1 but which remains in itself the same4 ,it is universally present in all beings whether animate or inanimate#adc and makes their existence real4 ,in one respect it can be identified with them1 that is1 it can be pantheistically viewed2 but in the other respect it is transcendental1 #cdd for every being as it is is not ,nirvna4 ,this spiritual significance is1 however1 beyond the ken of ordinary human understanding and can be grasped only by the highest intelligence of ,buddha4 7#b7 ,upadhiea ,nirvna1 or ,nirvna that has some residue4 ,this is a state of enlightenment which can be attained by ,buddhists in their lifetime4 ,the ,dharmakya which was dormant in them is now awakened and freed from the 8affective obstacles10#add but they are yet under the bondage of birth and death2 and thus they are not yet absolutely free from the misery of life3 something still remains in them that makes them suffer pain4 7#c7 ,anupadhiea ,nirvna1 or ,nirvna that has no residue4 ,this is attained when the ,tathgata-essence 7the ,dharmakya7 is released from the pain of birth and death as well as from the curse of passion and sin4 ,this form of ,nirvna seems to be what is generally understood by ,occidental missionary-scholars as the ,nirvna of ,buddhists4 ,while in lifetime1 they have been emancipated from the egoistic conception of the soul1 they have practised the ,eightfold ,path1 and they #cde have destroyed all the roots of karma that makes possible their metempsychosis in the world of birth and death 7samsra71 though as the inevitable sequence of their previous karma they have yet to suffer all the evils inherent in the material existence4 ,but at last they have had even this mortal coil dissolved away1 and have returned to the original ,absolute from which by virtue of ignorance they had come out and gone through a cycle of births and deaths4 ,this state of supramundane bliss in the realm of the ,absolute is ,anupadiea ,nirvna1 that is1 ,nirvna that has no residue4 7#d7 ,the ,nirvna that has no abode4 ,in this1 the ,buddha-essence has not only been freed from the curse of passion and sin 7klea71 but from the intellectual prejudice1 which most tenaciously clings to the mind4 ,the ,buddha-essence or the ,dharmakya is revealed here in its perfect purity4 ,all-embracing love and all-knowing intelligence illuminate the path4 ,he who has attained to this state of subjective enlightenment is said to have no abode1 no dwelling place1 that is to say1 he is no more subject to the transmigration of birth and death 7samsra71 nor does he cling to ,nirvna as the abode of complete rest2 in short1 he is above ,samsra and ,nirvna4 ,his sole object in life is to benefit all sentient beings to the end of time2 but this he proposes to do not by his human conscious elaboration and striving4 ,simply actuated by his all-embracing love which is of the ,dharmakya1 he wishes to deliver all his fellow-creatures from misery1 he does #cdf not seek his own emancipation from the turmoil of life4 ,he is fully aware of the transitoriness of worldly interests1 but on this account he desires not to shun them4 ,with his all-knowing intelligence he gains a spiritual insight into the ultimate nature of things and the final course of existence4 ,he is one of those religious men 8that weep1 as though they wept not2 that rejoice as though they rejoiced not2 that buy1 as though they possessed not2 that use this world1 as not abusing it2 for the fashion of this world passes away40 ,nay1 he is in one sense more than this2 his life is full of positive activity1 because his heart and soul are devoted to the leading of all beings to final emancipation and supreme bliss4 ,when a man attains to this stage of spiritual life1 he is said to be in the ,nirvna that has no abode4 ,a commentator on the ,vijnamtra stra adds that of these four forms of ,nirvna the first is possessed by every sentient being1 whether it is actualised in its human perfection or lying dormant in posse and miserably obscured by ignorance2 that the second and third are attained by all the rvakas and ,pratyekabuddhas1 while it is a ,buddha alone that is in possession of all the four forms of ,nirvna4 ,nirvna as the ,dharmakya4 ,it is manifest from the above statement that in ,mahynism ,nirvna has acquired several shades of meaning psychological and ontological4 ,this apparent confusion1 however1 is due to the purely idealistic #cdg tendency of ,mahynism1 which ignores the distinction usually made between being and thought1 object and subject1 the perceived and the perceiving4 ,nirvna is not only a subjective state of enlightenment but an objective power through whose operation this beatific state becomes attainable4 ,it does not simply mean a total absorption in the ,absolute or of emancipation from earthly desires in lifetime as exemplified in the life of the ,arhat4 ,mahynists perceive in ,nirvna not only this1 but also its identity with the ,dharmakya1 or ,suchness1 and recognise its universal spiritual presence in all sentient beings4 ,when ,ngrjuna says in his ,mdhyamika stra#ade that3 8,that is called ,nirvna which is not wanting1 is not acquired1 is not intermittent1 is not non-intermittent1 is not subject to destruction1 and is not created20 he evidently speaks of ,nirvna as a synonym of ,dharmakya1 that is1 in its first sense as above described4 ,chandra ,krti1 therefore1 rightly comments that ,nirvna is sarva-kalpan-kaya-rpam1#adf i4e41 that which transcends all the forms of determination4 #cdh ,nirvna is an absolute1 it is above the relativity of existence 7bhva7 and non-existence 7abhva74#adg ,nirvna is sometimes spoken of as possessing four attributes2 7#a7 eternal 7nitya71 7#b7 blissful 7sukha71 7#c7 self-acting 7tman71 and 7#d7 pure 7ui74 ,judging from these qualities thus ascribed to ,nirvna as its essential features1 ,nirvna is here again identified with the highest reality of ,buddhism1 that is1 with the ,dharmakya4 ,it is eternal because it is immaterial2 it is blissful because it is above all sufferings2 it is self-acting because it knows no compulsion2 it is pure because it is not defiled by passion and error4#adh #cdi ,nirvna in its ,fourth ,sense4 ,no further elucidation is needed for the first signification of ,nirvna1 for we have treated it already when explaining the nature of the ,dharmakya4 ,nor is it necessary for us to dwell upon the second and the third phases of it4 ,the ,occidental missionary-scholars and ,orientalists1 however one-sided and often biased1 have almost exhaustively investigated these points from the ,pli sources4 ,what remains for us now is to analyse the ,mahynistic conception of ,nirvna which was stated above as its fourth signification4 ,nirvna1 briefly speaking1 is a realisation in this life of the all-embracing love and all-knowing intelligence of ,dharmakya4 ,it is the unfolding of the reason of existence1 which in the ordinary human life remains more or less eclipsed by the shadow of ignorance and egoism4 ,it does not consist in the mere observance of the moral precepts laid down by ,buddha1 nor in the blind following of the ,eightfold ,path1 nor in retirement from the world and absorption in abstract meditation4 ,the ,mahynistic ,nirvna is full of energy and activity which issues from the all-embracing love of the ,dharmakya4 ,there is no passivity in it1 nor a keeping aloof from the hurly-burly of worldliness4 #cej ,he who is in this ,nirvna does not seek a rest in the annihilation of human aspirations1 does not flinch in the face of endless transmigration4 ,on the contrary1 he plunges himself into the ever-rushing current of ,samsra and sacrifices himself to save his fellow-creatures from being eternally drowned in it4 ,though thus the ,mahyna ,nirvna is realised only in the mire of passions and errors1 it is never contaminated by the filth of ignorance4 ,therefore1 he that is abiding in ,nirvna1 even in the whirlpool of egoism and in the darkness of sin1 does not lose his all-seeing insight that penetrates deep into the ultimate nature of being4 ,he is aware of the transitoriness of things4 ,he knows that this life is a mere passing moment in the eternal manifestation of the ,dharmakya1 whose work can be realised only in boundless space and endless time4 ,as he is fully awake to this knowledge1 he never gets engrossed in the world of sin4 ,he lives in the world like unto the lotus-flower1 the emblem of immaculacy1 which grows out of the mire and yet shares not its defilement4 ,he is also like unto a bird flying in the air that does not leave any trace behind it4 ,he may again be likened unto the clouds that spontaneously gather around the mountain peak1 and1 soaring high as the wind blows1 vanish away to the region where nobody knows4 ,in short1 he is living in1 and yet beyond1 the realm of ,samsra and ,nirvna4 ,we read in the ,vimalakirti ,stra 7chap4 ,,viii473 8,vimalakirti asks ,majuri3 #8,how is it that you #cea declare all human passions and errors are the seeds of ,buddhahood8' 8,majuri replies3 #8,o son of good family6 ,those who cling to the view of non-activity asamskrita and dwell in a state of eternal annihilation do not awaken in them supremely perfect knowledge anuttara-samyak-sambodhi4 ,only the ,bodhisattvas1 who dwell in the midst of passions and errors1 and who1 passing through the ten stages1 rightly contemplate the ultimate nature of things1 are able to awaken and attain intelligence praj4 8#8,just as the lotus-flowers do not grow in the dry land1 but in the dark-colored1 waterly mire1 ,o son of good family1 it is even so with intelligence 7praj or bodhi7 ,in non-activity and eternal annihilation which are cherished by the rvakas and the ,pratyekabuddhas1 there is no opportunity for the seeds and sprouts of ,buddhahood to grow4 ,intelligence can grow only in the mire and dirt of passion and sin4 ,it is by virtue of passion and sin that the seeds and sprouts of ,buddhahood are able to grow4 8#8,o son of good family6 ,just as no seeds can grow in the air1 but in the filthy1 muddy soil1--and there even luxuriously1--,o son of good family1 it is even so with the ,bodhi4 ,it does not grow out of non-activity and eternal annihilation4 ,it is only out of the mountainous masses of egoistic1 selfish thoughts that ,intelligence is awakened and grows to the incomprehensible wisdom of ,buddha-seeds4 8#8,o son of good family6 ,just as we cannot obtain #ceb priceless pearls unless we dive into the depths of the four great oceans1 ,o son of good family1 it is even so with ,intelligence4 ,if we do not dive deep into the mighty ocean of passion and sin1 how could we get hold of the precious gem of ,buddha-essence8 ,let it therefore be understood that the primordial seeds of ,intelligence draw their vitality from the midst of passion and sin4'0 ,in a ,pauline epistle we read1 8,from the foulness of the soil1 the beauty of new life grows40 ,and ,emerson sings3 8,let me go where'er ,i will1 ,i hear a sky-born music still4 ',tis not in the high stars alone1 ,nor in the cup of budding flowers1 ,nor in the redbreast's mellow tone1 ,nor in the bow that smiles in showers1 ,but in the mud and scum of things4 ,there always1 always1 something sings40 ,do we not see here a most explicit statement of the ,mahynistic sentiment8 ,nirvna and ,samsra are ,one4 ,the most remarkable feature in the ,mahynistic conception of ,nirvna is expressed in this formula3 8,yas kleas so bodhi1 yas samsras tat nirvnam40 ,what is sin or passion1 that is ,intelligence1 what is birth and death 7or transmigration71 that is ,nirvna4 ,this is a rather bold and revolutionising proposition in the dogmatic history of ,buddhism4 ,but it is no more than the natural development of the spirit that was breathed by its founder4 #cec ,in the ,vieacinta-brahma-paripccha ,stra1#adi it is said that 7chap4 ,,ii73 8,samsra is ,nirvna1 because there is1 when viewed from the ultimate nature of the ,dharmakya1 nothing going out of1 nor coming into1 existence1 samsra being only apparent3 ,nirvna is samsra1 when it is coveted and adhered to40 ,in another place 7op4 cit47 the idea is expressed in much plainer terms3 8,the essence of all things is in truth free from attachment1 attributes1 and desires2 therefore1 they are pure1 and1 as they are pure1 we know that what is the essence of birth and death that is the essence of ,nirvna1 and that what is the essence of ,nirvna that is the essence of birth and death 7samsra74 ,in other words1 ,nirvna is not to be sought outside of this world1 which1 though transient1 is in reality no more than ,nirvna itself4 ,because it is contrary to our reason to imagine that there is ,nirvna and there is birth and death 7samsra71 and that the one lies outside the pale of the other1 and1 therefore1 that we can attain ,nirvna only after we have annihilated or escaped the world of birth and death4 ,if we are not hampered by our confused subjectivity1 this our worldly life is an activity of ,nirvna itself40 ,ngrjuna repeats the same sentiment in his ,mdhyamika stra1 when he says3 #ced 8,samsra is in no way to be distinguished from ,nirvna3 ,nirvna is in no way to be distinguished from ,samsra40#aej ,or1 8,the sphere of ,nirvna is the sphere of ,samsra3 ,not the slightest distinction exists between them40#aea ,asanga goes a step further and boldly declares that all the ,buddha-dharmas1 of which ,nirvna or ,dharmakya forms the foundation1 are characterised with the passions1 errors1 and sins of vulgar minds4 ,he says in ,mahyna-,sangraha stra 7the ,chinese ,tripitaka1 ,japanese edition of #ahha1 wang ,,viii41 p4 #hd73 87#a7 ,all ,buddha-dharmas are characterised with eternality1 for the ,dharmakya is eternal4 87#b7 ,all ,buddha-dharmas are characterised with an extinguishing power1 for they extinguish all the obstacles for final emancipation4 87#c7 ,all ,buddha-dharmas are characterised with regeneration1 for the ,nirmnakya ,body of ,transformation constantly regenerates4 87#d7 ,all ,buddha-dharmas are characterised with the power of attainment1 for by the attainment of truth they subjugate innumerable evil passions as cherished by ignorant beings4 87#e7 ,all ,buddha-dharmas are characterised with the desire to gain1 ill humor1 folly1 and all the other #cee passions of vulgar minds1 for it is through the ,buddha's love that those depraved souls are saved4 87#f7 ,all ,buddha-dharmas are characterised with non-attachment and non-defilement1 for ,suchness which is made perfect by these virtues cannot be defiled by any evil powers4 87#g7 ,all ,buddha-dharmas are above attachment and defilement1 for though all ,buddhas reveal themselves in the world1 worldliness cannot defile them40#aeb ,buddha-dharma means any thing1 or any virtue1 or any faculty1 that belongs to ,buddhahood4 ,non-attachment is a ,buddha-dharma1 love is a ,buddha-dharma1 wisdom is a ,buddha-dharma4 and in fact anything is a ,buddha-dharma which is an attribute of the ,perfect ,one1 not to mention the ,dharmakya or ,nirvna which constitutes the very essence of ,buddhahood4 ,therefore1 the conclusion which is to be drawn from those seven propositions of ,asanga as above quoted is this3 ,not only is this world of constant transformation as a whole ,nirvna1 but its apparent errors and sins and evils are also the various phases of the manifestation of ,nirvna4 ,the above being the ,mahynistic view of ,nirvna1 it is evident that ,nirvna is not something transcendental or that which stands above this world of birth #cef and death1 joy and sorrow1 love and hate1 peace and struggle4 ,nirvna is not to be sought in the heavens nor after a departure from this earthly life nor in the annihilation of human passions and aspirations4 ,on the contrary1 it must be sought in the midst of worldliness1 as life with all its thrills of pain and pleasure is no more than ,nirvna itself4 ,extinguish your life and seek ,nirvna in anchoretism1 and your ,nirvna is forever lost4 ,consign your aspirations1 hopes1 pleasures1 and woes1 and everything that makes up a life to the eternal silence of the grave1 and you bury ,nirvna never to be recovered4 ,in asceticism1 or in meditation1 or in ritualism1 or even in metaphysics1 the more impetuously you pursue ,nirvna1 the further away it flies from you4 ,it was the most serious mistake ever committed by any religious thinkers to imagine that ,nirvna which is the complete satisfaction of our religious feeling could be gained by laying aside all human desires1 ambitions1 hopes1 pains1 and pleasures4 ,have your own ,bodhi 7intelligence7 thoroughly enlightened through love and knowledge1 and everything that was thought sinful and filthy turns out to be of divine purity4 ,it is the same human heart1 formerly the fount of ignorance and egoism1 now the abode of eternal beatitude--,nirvna shining in its intrinsic magnificence4 ,suppose a torch light is taken into a dark cell1 which people had hitherto imagined to be the abode of hideous1 uncanny goblins1 and which on that account they wanted to have completely destroyed to the #ceg ground4 ,the bright light now ushered in at once disperses the darkness1 and every nook and corner therein is perfectly illumined4 ,everything in it now assumes its proper aspect4 ,and to their surprise people find that those figures which they formerly considered to be uncanny and horrible are nothing but huge precious stones1 and they further learn that every one of those stones can be used in some way for the great benefit of their fellow-creatures4 ,the dark cell is the human heart before the enlightenment of ,nirvna1 the torch light is love and intelligence4 ,when love warms and intelligence brightens1 the heart finds every passion and sinful desire that was the cause of unbearable anguish now turned into a divine aspiration4 ,the heart itself1 however1 remains the same just as much as the cell1 whose identity was never affected either by darkness or by brightness4 ,this parable nicely illustrates the ,mahynistic doctrine of the identity of ,nirvna and ,samsra1 and of the ,bodhi and ,klea1 that is1 of intelligence and passion4 ,therefore1 it is said3 8,all sins transformed into the constituents of enlightenment6 ,the vicissitudes of ,samsra transformed into the beatitude of ,nirvna6 ,all these come from the exercise of the great religious discipline 7upya72 ,beyond our understanding1 indeed1 is the mystery of all ,buddhas40#aec #ceh ,the ,middle ,course4 ,in one sense the ,buddha always showed an eclectic1 conciliatory1 synthetic spirit in his teachings4 ,he refused to listen to any extreme doctrine which elevates one end too high at the expense of the other and culminates in the collapse of the whole edifice4 ,when the ,buddha left his seat of enlightenment under the ,bodhi tree1 he made it his mission to avoid both extremes1 asceticism and hedonism4 ,he proved throughout his life to be a calm1 dignified1 thoughtful1 well-disciplined person1 and at no time irritable in character1--in this latter respect being so different from the sage of ,nazareth1 who in anger cast out all the tradesmen in the temple and overthrew the tables of the money-changers1 and who cursed the fig tree on which he could not find any fruit but leaves unfit to appease his hunger4 ,the doctrine of the ,middle ,path 7,mdhyamrga71 whatever it may mean morally and intellectually1 always characterised the life and doctrine of ,buddha as well as the later development of his teachings4 ,his followers1 however different in their individual views1 professed as a rule to pursue steadily the ,middle ,path as paved by the ,master4 ,even when ,ngrjuna proclaimed his celebrated doctrine of ,eight ,no's which seems to superficial critics nothing but an absolute nihilism1 he said that the ,middle ,path could be found only in those eight no's4#aed #cei ,mahynism has certainly applied this synthetic method of ,buddha to its theory of ,nirvna and ennobled it by fully developing its immanent signification4 ,in the ,discourse on ,buddha-essence1 ,vasubandhu quotes the following passage from the rimala ,stra1 which plainly shows the path along which the ,mahynists traveled before they reached their final conclusion3 8,those who see only the transitoriness of existence are called nihilists1 and those who see only the eternality of ,nirvna are called eternalists4 ,both views are incorrect40 ,vasubandhu then proceeds to say3 8,therefore1 the ,dharmakya of the ,tathgata is free from both extremes1 and on that account it is called the ,great ,eternal ,perfection4 ,when viewed from this absolute standpoint of ,suchness1 the logical distinction between ,nirvna and ,samsra cannot in reality be maintained1 and hereby we enter upon the realm of non-duality40 ,and this realm of non-duality is the ,middle ,path of ,nirvna1 not in its nihilistic1 but in its ,mahynistic1 significance4 ,how to ,realise ,nirvna4 ,how can we attain the ,middle ,path of ,nirvna8 ,how can we realise a life that is neither pessimistic asceticism nor materialistic hedonism8 ,how can we steer through the whirlpools of ,samsra without being #cfj swallowed up and yet braving their turbulent gyration8 ,the answer to this can readily be given1 when we understand1 as repeatedly stated above1 that this life is the manifestation of the ,dharmakya1 and that the ideal of human existence is to realise within the possibilities of his mind and body all that he can conceive of the ,dharmakya4 ,and this we have found to be all-embracing love and all-seeing intelligence4 ,destroy then your ignorance at one blow and be done with your egoism1 and there springs forth an eternal stream of love and wisdom4 ,says ,vasubandhu3 8,by virtue of ,praj intelligence or wisdom1 our egoistic thoughts are destroyed3 by virtue of ,karu love1 altruistic thoughts are cherished4 ,by virtue of ,praj1 the affective attachment inherent in vulgar minds is abolished2 by virtue of ,karu1 the intellectual attachment as possessed by the rvakas and ,pratyekabuddhas is abolished4 ,by virtue of ,praj1 ,nirvna in its transcendental sense is not rejected2 by virtue of ,karu1 ,samsra with its changes and transmigrations is not rejected4 ,by virtue of ,praj the truth of ,buddhism is attained2 by virtue of ,karu1 all sentient beings are matured for salvation40 ,the practical life of a ,buddhist runs in two opposite1 though not antagonistic1 directions1 one upward and the other downward1 and the two are synthesised in the ,middle ,path of ,nirvna4 ,the upward direction points to the intellectual comprehension of the truth1 while the downward one to a realisation of all-embracing #cfa love among his fellow-creatures4 ,one is complemented by the other4 ,when the intellectual side is too much emphasised at the expense of the emotional1 we have a ,pratyekabuddha1 a solitary thinker1 whose fountain of tears is dry and does not flow over the sufferings of his fellow-beings4 ,when the emotional side alone is asserted to the extreme1 love acquires the egoistic tint that colors everything coming in contact with it4 ,because it does not discriminate and takes sensuality for spirituality4 ,if it does not turn out sentimentalism1 it will assume a hedonistic form4 ,how many superstitious1 or foul1 or even atrocious deeds in the history of religion have been committed under the beautiful name of religion1 or love of ,god and mankind6 ,it makes the blood run cold when we think how religious fanatics burned alive their rivals or opponents at the stake1 cruelly butchered thousands of human lives within a day1 brought desolation and ruin throughout the land of their enemies1--and all these works of the ,devil executed for sheer love of ,god6 ,therefore1 says ,devala1 the author of the ,discourse on the ,mahpurua 7,great ,man73 8,the wise do not approve lovingkindness without intelligence1 nor do they approve intelligence without lovingkindness2 because one without the other prevents us from reaching the highest path40 ,knowledge is the eye1 love is the limb4 ,directed by the eye1 the limb knows how to move2 furnished with the limb1 the eye can attain what it perceives4 ,love alone is blind1 knowledge alone is lame4 ,it is only when one is supplemented #cfb by the other that we have a perfect1 complete man4 ,in ,buddha as the ideal human being we recognise the perfection of love and intelligence2 for it was in him that the ,dharmakya found its perfect realisation in the flesh4 ,but as far as the ,bodhisattvas are concerned1 their natural endowments are so diversified and their temperament is so uneven that in some the intellectual elements are more predominant while in others the emotional side is more pronounced1 that while some are more prone to practicality others preferably look toward intellectualism4 ,thus1 as a matter of course1 some ,bodhisattvas will be more of philosophers than of religious seers4 ,they may tend in some cases to emphasise the intellectual side of religion more than its emotional side and uphold the importance of praj 7intelligence7 above that of karu 7love74 ,but the ,middle ,path of ,nirvna lies in the true harmonisation of praj and karu1 of bodhi and upya1 of knowledge and love1 of intellect and feeling4 ,love ,awakens ,intelligence4 ,but if we have to choose between the two1 let us first have all-embracing love1 the ,buddhists would say2 for it is love that awakens in us an intense desire to find the way of emancipating the masses from perpetual sufferings and eternal transmigration4 ,the intellect will now endeavor to realise its highest possibilities2 the ,bodhi will exhibit its fullest strength4 ,when it is found out that this life is an expression of the ,dharmakya which is one and eternal1 that #cfc individual existences have no selfhood 7tman or svabhva7 as far as they are due to the particularisation of subjective ignorance1 and1 therefore1 that we are true and real only when we are conceived as one in the absolute ,dharmakya1 the ,bodhisattva's love which caused him to search after the highest truth will now unfold its fullest significance4 ,this love1 or faith in the ,mahyna1 as it is sometimes called1 is felt rather vaguely at the first awakening of the religious consciousness1 and agitates the mind of the aspirant1 whose life has hitherto been engrossed in every form of egocentric thought and desire4 ,he no more finds an unalloyed satisfaction1 as the rvakas or the ,pratyekabuddhas do1 in his individual emancipation from the curse of ,samsra4 ,however sweet the taste of release from the bond of ignorance1 it is lacking something that makes the freedom perfectly agreeable to the ,bodhisattva who thinks more of others than of himself2 to be sweet as well as acceptable1 it must be highly savored with lovingkindness which embraces all his fellow-beings as his own children4 ,the emancipation of the rvaka or of the ,pratyekabuddha is like a delicious food which is wanting in saline taste1 for it is no more than a dry1 formal philosophical emancipation4 ,love is that which stimulates a man to go beyond his own interests4 ,it is the mother of all ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas4 ,the sacred motive that induces them to renounce a life of ,nirvnic self-complacency1 is nothing but their boundless love for all beings4 ,they do #cfd not wish to rest in their individual emancipation1 they want to have all sentient creatures without a single exception emancipated and blest in paradisiacal happiness4 ,love1 therefore1 bestows on us two spiritual benefits3 7#a7 ,it saves all beings from misery and 7#b7 awakens in us the ,buddha-intelligence4 ,the following passages quoted at random from ,devala's ,mahpurua will help our readers to understand the true signification of ,nirvna and the value of love 7karu7 as estimated by the ,mahynists4 8,those who are afraid of transmigration and seek their own benefits and happiness in final emancipation1 are not at all comparable to those ,bodhisattvas1 who rejoice when they come to assume a material existence once again1 for it affords them another opportunity to benefit others4 ,those who are only capable of feeling their own selfish sufferings may enter into ,nirvna and not trouble themselves with the sufferings of other creatures like themselves2 but the ,bodhisattva who feels in himself all the sufferings of his fellow-beings as his own1 how can he bear the thought of leaving others behind while he is on his way to final emancipation1 and when he himself is resting in ,nirvnic quietude844444 ,nirvna in truth consists in rejoicing at other's being made happy1 and ,samsra in not so feeling4 ,he who feels a universal love for his fellow-creatures will rejoice in distributing blessings among them and find his ,nirvna in so doing4#aee #cfe 8,suffering really consists in pursuing one's egotistic happiness1 while ,nirvna is found in sacrificing one's welfare for the sake of others4 ,people generally think that it is an emancipation when they are released from their own pain1 but a man with loving heart finds it in rescuing others from misery4 8,with people who are not kindhearted1 there is no sin that will not be committed by them4 ,they are called the most wicked whose hearts are not softened at the sight of others' misfortune and suffering4 8,when all beings are tortured by avarice1 passion1 ill humor1 infatuation1 and folly1 and are constantly threatened by the misery of birth and death1 disease and decay44444 how can the ,bodhisattva live among them and not feel pity for them8 8,of all good virtues1 lovingkindness stands foremost4444 ,it is the source of all merit4444 ,it is the #cff mother of all ,buddhas4444 ,it induces others to take refuge in the incomparable ,bodhi4 8,the loving heart of a ,bodhisattva is annoyed by one thing1 that all beings are constantly tortured and threatened by all sorts of pain40 ,let us quote another interesting passage from a ,mahyna stra4 ,when ,vimalakirti was asked why he did not feel well1 he made the following reply1 which is full of religious significance3 8,from ignorance there arises desire and that is the cause of my illness4 ,as all sentient beings are ill1 so am ,i ill4 ,when all sentient beings are healed of their illness1 ,i shall be healed of my illness1 too4 ,why8 ,the ,bodhisattva suffers birth and death because of sentient beings4 ,as there is birth and death1 so there is illness4 ,when sentient beings are delivered from illness1 the ,bodhisattvas will suffer no more illness4 ,when an only son in a good family is sick1 the parents feel sick too3 when he is recovered they are well again4 ,so it is with the ,bodhisattva4 ,he loves all sentient beings as his own children4 ,when they are sick1 he is sick too4 ,when they are recovered1 he is well again4 ,do you wish to know whence this sympathetic illness is8 ,the illness of the ,bodhisattva comes from his all-embracing love 7mahkarun740 ,this gospel of universal love is the consummation of all religious emotions whatever their origin4 ,without this1 there is no religion--that is1 no religion that is animated with life and spirit4 ,for it is in the fact #cfg and nature of things that we are not moved by mere contemplation or mere philosophising4 ,every religion may have its own way of intellectually interpreting this fact1 but the practical result remains the same everywhere1 viz4 that it cannot survive without the animating energy of love4 ,whatever sound and fine reasoning there may be in the doctrine of the rvaka and the ,pratyekabuddha1 the force that is destined to conquer the world and to deliver us from misery is not intellection1 but the will1 i4e4 the prvapranidhna of the ,dharmakya4 ,conclusion4 ,we now conclude4 ,what is most evident from what we have seen above is that the ,mahyna ,nirvna is not the annihilation of life but its enlightenment1 that it is not the nullification of human passions and aspirations but their purification and ennoblement4 ,this world of eternal transmigration is not a place which should be shunned as the playground of evils1 but should be regarded as the place of ever-present opportunities given to us for the purpose of unfolding all our spiritual possibilities and powers for the sake of the universal welfare4 ,there is no need for us to shrink1 like the snail into his cozy shelter1 before the duties and burdens of life4 ,the ,bodhisattva1 on the contrary1 finds ,nirvna in a concatenation of births and deaths and boldly faces the problem of evil and solves it by purifying the ,bodhi from subjective ignorance4 #cfh ,his rule of conduct is3 8,sabba ppassa akaranam1 ,kusalassa upasampada1 ,sacitta pariyodapanam2 ,etam buddhnu ssanam40#aef ,his aspirations are solemnly expressed in this1 which we hear daily recited in the ,mahyna ,buddhist temples and monasteries and seminaries3 8,sentient beings1 however innumerable1 ,i take vow to save2 ,evil passions1 however inextinguishable1 ,i take vow to destroy2 ,the avenues of truth1 however numberless1 ,i take vow to study2 ,the way of the ,enlightened1 however unsurpassable1 ,i take vow to attain40 ,and an indefatigable pursuit of these noble aims will finally lead to the heaven of the ,buddhists1 ,nirvna1 which is not a state of eternal quietude1 but the source of energy and intelligence4 ,by way of summary1 and to avoid all misconceptions1 let me repeat once more that ,nirvna is thus no negation of life1 nor is it an idle contemplation on the misery of existence4 ,the life of a ,buddhist consists by no means in the monotonous repetition of reciting the stras and going his rounds for meals4 ,far from that4 ,he enters into all the forms of life-activity1 for he does not believe that universal emancipation #cfi is achieved by imprisoning himself in the cloister4 ,theoretically speaking1 ,nirvna is the dispersion of the clouds of ignorance hovering around the light of ,bodhi4 ,morally1 it is the suppression of egoism and the awakening of love 7karun74 ,religiously1 it is the absolute surrender of the self to the will of the ,dharmakya4 ,when the clouds of ignorance are dispersing1 our intellectual horizon gets clearer and wider2 we perceive that our individual existences are like bubbles and lightnings1 but that they obtain reality in their oneness with the ,body of ,dharma4 ,this conviction compels us to eternally abandon our old egoistic conception of life4 ,the ego finds its significance only when it is conceived in relation to the not-ego1 that is1 to the alter2 in other words1 self-love has no meaning whatever unless it is purified by love for others4 ,but this love for others must not remain blind and unenlightened1 it must be in harmony with the will of the ,dharmakya which is the norm of existence and the reason of being4 ,the mission of love is ennobled and fulfilled in its true sense when we come to the faith that says 8thy will be done40 ,love without this resignation to the divine ordinance is merely another form of egoism3 the root is already rotten1 how can its trunk1 stems1 leaves1 and flowers make a veritable growth8 ,let us then conclude with the following reflections of the ,bodhisattva1 in which we read the whole signification of ,buddhism4 #cgj 8,having practised all the six virtues of perfection 7pramit7 and innumerable other meritorious deeds1 the ,bodhisattva reflects in this wise3 8#8,all the good deeds practised by me are for the benefit of all sentient beings1 for their ultimate purification from sin4 ,by the merit of these good deeds ,i pray that all sentient beings be released from the innumerable sufferings suffered by them in their various abodes of existence4 ,by the turning over 7parivarta7 of these deeds ,i would be a haven for all beings and deliver them from their miserable existences2 ,i would be a great beacon-light to all beings and dispel the darkness of ignorance and make the light of intelligence shine4' 8,he reflects again in this wise3 8#8,all sentient beings are creating evil karma in innumerable ways1 and by reason of this karma they suffer innumerable sufferings4 ,they do not recognise the ,tathgata1 do not listen to the ,good ,law1 do not pay homage to the congregation of holy men4 ,all these beings carry an innumerable amount of great evil karma and are destined to suffer in innumerable ways4 ,for their sake ,i will in the midst of the three evil creations suffer all their sufferings and deliver every one of them4 ,painful as these sufferings are1 ,i will not retreat1 ,i will not be frightened1 ,i will not be negligent1 ,i will not forsake my fellow-beings4 ,why8 ,because it is the will of the ,dharmakya that all sentient beings should be universally emancipated4' #cga 8,he reflects again in this wise3 8#8,my conduct will be like the sun-god who with his universal illumination seeks not any reward1 who ceases not on account of one unrighteous person to make a great display of his magnificent glory1 who on account of one unrighteous person abandons not the salvation of all beings4 ,through the dedication 7parivarta7 of all my merits ,i would make every one of my fellow-creatures happy and joyous4'0 7,the ,avatamsaka ,stra1 fas ,,xiv74 #cgb ,,appendix4 #cgc #cgd #cge ,,hymns ,,of ,,mah,y,,na ,,faith4 ,,dharmak,,ya 7,,tath,,gata74a#ja ,in all beings there abideth the ,dharmakya2 ,with all virtues dissolved in it1 it liveth in eternal calmness4 ,it knoweth nor birth nor death1 coming nor going2 ,not one1 not two2 not being1 not becoming2 ,yet present everywhere in worlds of beings3 ,this is what is perceived by all ,tathgatas4 ,all virtues1 material and immaterial1 ,dependent on the ,dharmakya1 are eternally pure in it4 ,like unto the sky is the ultimate nature of the ,dharmakya2 ,far away from the six dusts1 it is defilement-free4 ,of no form and devoid of all attributes is the ,dharmakya1 ,in which are void both actor and action3 ,the ,dharmakya of all ,buddhas1 thus beyond comprehension1 ,quells all the struggles of sophistry and dialectics1 ,distances all the efforts of intellection1 ,thoughts all are dead in it1 and suchness alone abideth4 --- #cgf ,,the ,,dharmak,,ya ,,of ,,tath,,gata4a#jb ,in all the worlds over the ten quarters1 ,o ye1 sentient creatures living there1 ,behold the most venerable of men and gods1 ,whose spiritual ,dharma-body is immaculate and pure4 ,as through the power of one mind1 ,a host of thoughts is evolved3 ,so from one ,dharma-body of ,tathgata1 ,are produced all the ,buddha-bodies4 ,in ,bodhi nothing dual there existeth1 ,nor is any thought of self present3 ,the ,dharma-body1 undefiled and non-dual1 ,in its full splendor manifesteth itself everywhere4 ,its ultimate reality is like unto the vastness of space2 ,its manifested forms are like unto magic shows2 ,its virtues excellent are inexhaustible1 ,this1 indeed1 the spiritual state of ,buddhas only4 ,all the ,buddhas of the present1 past1 and future1 ,each one of them is an issue of the ,dharma-body immaculate and pure2 ,responding to the needs of sentient creatures1 ,they manifest themselves everywhere1 assuming corporeality which is beautiful4 ,they never made the premeditation ,that they would manifest in such and such forms4 ,separated are they from all desire and anxiety1 ,and free and self-acting are their responses4 #cgg ,they do not negate the phenomenality of dharmas1 ,nor do they affirm the world of individuals3 ,but manifesting themselves in all forms1 ,they teach and convert all sentient creatures4 ,the ,dharma-body is not changeable1 ,neither is it unchangeable2 ,all dharmas in essence are without change1 ,but manifestations are changeable4 ,the ,sambodhi knoweth no bounds1 ,extending as far as the limits of the ,dharmaloka itself2 ,its depths are bottomless1 and its extent limitless2 ,words and speeches are powerless to describe it4 ,of all the ways that lead to ,enlightenment ,the ,tathgata knoweth the true significance2 ,wandering freely all over the worlds1 ,obstacles he encountereth nowhere4 --- ,,the ,,tath,,gata4 7#a7;a#jc ,the ,tathgata appeared not on earth1 ,nor did he enter into ,nirvana2 ,by the supreme power of his inmost will1 ,he reveals himself freely as he wills4a#jd ,this fact is beyond comprehension1 ,belongs not to the sphere of a limited consciousness1 ,only an intelligence perfect and gone beyond ,is able to have an insight into the realm of ,buddhas4 #cgh ,the material body is not the ,tathgata1 ,nor is the voice1 nor the sound3 ,yet he is not beyond the visible and the audible3 ,the ,buddha has indeed a power miraculous4 ,people of little faith are unable to know ,the inmost adytum of ,buddhahood4 ,it is by the perfecting of primordial karma-intelligence ,that the realm of all ,buddhas is revealed4 ,all ,buddhas come from nowhere1 ,and depart for nowhere3 ,the ,body of ,dharma that is pure1 immaculate1 and incomprehensible1 ,is invested with a power miraculously free4 ,in infinity of worlds1 ,revealing itself in the body of ,tathgata1 ,it universally preaches the ,law supremely excellent1 ,and in its heart no attachment lingers4 ,an intellect that knows no limits or bounds ,perceives no obstacles in all dharmas1 ,and penetrates into the depths of the ,dharmaloka1 ,revealing itself with a power miraculously divine4 ,all sentient beings and all creatures1 ,it understandeth thoroughly without difficulty3 ,its ,bodies of ,transformation are innumerable1 ,and universally revealed in all the worlds4 ,those who seek after ,all-knowledge ,may in course of time attain perfect enlightenment2 ,let them above all purify the heart ,and complete their discipline in ,bodhisattvahood4 #cgi ,and then they will see the ,tathgata's ,immeasurable power that comes from his free will2 ,devoid of all doubts they are1 and accompanied ,with sages whose virtue is unsurpassable4 --- ,,the ,,tath,,gata 7#b74;a#je ,the ,tathgata1 in pure golden color1 ,and in person resplendent and majestic1 ,in innumerable ages past1 ,all merits hath accumulated4 ,with bliss and wisdom all in perfection1 ,and the highest enlightenment attaining4 ,and with great loving heart animated1 ,he now appeareth in this world of endurance4 ,men and devas and the eight hosts of demons1 ,all pay him homage most reverent1 ,who1 from his inmost self-being1 ,preacheth the deepest spiritual ,dharma4 ,which is so unfathomably deep1 ,that ,buddha alone can understand it3 ,multitudes of beings1 ignorant and blind1 ,listening to it1 are unable to comprehend4 ,the ,tathgata is the great leader of beings2 ,with skill that is excellent and marvellous1 ,guiding all those ignorant souls1 ,by degrees bringeth them to ,enlightenment4 #chj ,the heart of all beings is miraculously bright1 ,and eternally calm in its being4 ,pure and immaculate and defilement-free1 ,it is replenished with all merits4 ,its essence is like unto the sky3 ,devoid of all limitations1 ,knoweth neither birth nor death1 ,and there is neither coming nor departing4 ,eternally abiding in the ,dharma-essence1 ,it is immovable as the ,mount ,sumeru2 ,the oneness in it of all beings ,is indeed beyond finite knowledge4 ,vulgar minds from time immemorial1 ,blindly clinging to all passions1 ,are thrown deep into the ocean of pain1 ,and know not how to escape4 ,the most profound doctrine of ,tathgata1 ,full of meaning1 spiritual and transcendental1 ,with recipient intellects in all degrees1 ,in harmony unfoldeth he the ,law4 ,a shower of one taste from above ,covering all the ten quarters1 ,grasses and trees1 woods and forests1 ,roots and trunks1 large and small1 ,of all growing on this vast earth1 ,nothing is there that thereby itself benefiteth not4 ,the ,law delivered by the ,tathgata ,may even be likened unto it4 #cha ,with one voice which is wondrous1 ,he giveth utterance to thoughts innumerable1 ,that are received by audience of all sort1 ,each understanding them in his own way4 ,in this wise among the assemblage1 ,none is there but that enters upon ,buddha-knowledge ,such is ,buddha's miraculous power1 ,truly called 8,incomprehensible40 --- ,,repentance4a#jf ,those who repent as prescribed by the ,dharma1 ,altogether their earthly sins uproot2 ,as fire on doomsday the world will consume1 ,with its mountain peaks and infinite seas4 ,repentance burns up of earthly desires the fuel2 ,repentance to heaven the sinners is leading2 ,repentance the bliss of the four ,dhynas imparteth2 ,repentance brings showers of jewels and gems2 ,repentance a holy life renders firm as a diamond2 ,repentance transports to the palace of bliss everlasting2 ,repentance from the triple world's prison releases2 ,repentance makes blossom the bloom of the ,bodhi4 --- #chb ,,all ,,beings ,,are ,,mothers ,,and ,,fathers4 ,all sentient beings in transmigration travel through the six gatis1 ,like unto a wheel revolving without beginning and end1 ,becoming in turn fathers and mothers1 men and women3 ,generations and generations1 each owes something to others4 ,ye should then regard all beings as fathers and mothers2 ,though this truth is too hidden to be recognised without the aid of ,holy ,knowledge1 ,all men are your fathers1 ,all women are your mothers4 ,while not yet requiting their love received in your prior lives1 ,why should ye1 thinking otherwise1 harbor enmity8 ,ever thinking of love1 endeavor ye to benefit one another2 ,and provoke ye not hostility1 quarreling and insulting4 --- ,,the ,,ten ,,par,,mit,s4 ,o ye1 sons of ,buddha1 in the ,holy ,way trained1 ,with the ,heart of ,highest ,intelligence awakened1 ,and living in seclusion at the ,aranyaka1 ,should practice the ten pramits4 ,at daily meal think ye first of almsgiving1 ,and also distribute among beings the ,treasure of ,law2 ,when the three ringsa#jg are pure1 it is called true charity2 ,through this practice perfected are the merits of discipline4 #chc ,would ye understand the merits of almsgiving8 ,know ye that it comes from the heart pure1 and not from the wealth given2 ,a precious treasure with a heart unclean1 ,is surpassed by a mite with a heart clean4 ,wealth giving is a dna-pramit1 ,and there are other dna-pramits3 ,to give away one's life1 wife1 or children1 ,this is called blood-giving4 ,should a man of good family come and ask for the ,law ,let him have all the ,mahyna stras explained1 ,and awaken in him the ,heart of ,highest ,intelligence2 ,this is called a true pramit4 ,with sympathy and pure faith and conscience1 ,embrace ye all beings and befree them from greed1 ,that they might attain to the highest intelligence of the ,tathgata3 ,the giving of wealth and of the ,law is the first pramit4 ,firmly observing the three sets of the ,bodhisattva-las1a#jh ,o ye1 evolve the ,bodhi1 distance birth-and-death1 ,guard the ,law of ,buddha and make it long live in the world1 ,repent the violation of the las1 and be always mindful of the true ones4 ,subdue ye anger and hate and cultivate in your heart love and sympathy2 ,mindful of the karma past1 harbor ye not evil thoughts against offenders2 ,be not reluctant for the sake of all beings to sacrifice life3 ,this is called the pramit of meekness4 ,in practicing what is hard to practice1 hesitate ye not awhile2 ,with ever-increasing energy through three asankheya kalpas1 ,defile not yourselves1 but always discipline the heart2 ,and for the sake of all creatures seek ye salvation4 #chd ,entering into and rising from the ,samdhi1 spiritual freedom is obtained3 ,transforming yourselves and travelling in all the ten quarters1 ,have for all beings the cause of evil desire removed1 ,and let them seek deliverance in the doctrine of ,samdhi4 ,would ye desire to attain to ,true ,intelligence8 ,friendly approach ,bodhisattvas and ,tathgatas2 ,gladly listening to the doctrine transcendental and sublime1 ,attain ye the three disciplinesa#ji and remove the two obstaclesa#aj4 ,recognising difference in the disposition of beings1 ,apply the medicine proper for each disease3 ,love and sympathy1 skill and expediency1 each fitting the case1 ,try the proper means for the benefit of the multitudes4 ,would ye know the true meaning of existence8 ,the middle path lies in non-attachment1 neither 8yea0 nor 8nay02 ,intelligence pure is unfathomable and unites in ,suchness2 ,identify mine with thine1 embracing the whole4 ,by the force of intellect1 grasping the nature of beings1 ,teach the masses each in accord with his capacity2 ,the force of intellect penetrating through the heart of all beings1 ,destroys the root of transmigration in birth and death4 ,intelligently judging between black and white1 ,conscientiously take hold of one and put the other aside1 and let each rest in its place2 ,samsra and ,nirvna are but one in their essence2 ,fulfilling the meaning of existence1 cherish ye not self-conceit4 ,these ten deeds of excellence ,comprise all eighty-four thousand virtues2 ,each in its class excels all the others1 ,and is called the ,pramit of ,bodhisattva4 #che ,eighty-four thousand samdhis ,becalm the disturbant mind of all beings2 ,eighty-four thousand dhrans ,keep away all the prejudices and evil influences4 ,the ,great ,sage1 ,king of ,dharma1 with marvellous skill1 ,teacheth the ,law in three ways and converteth all beings2 ,casting the net of the ,doctrine in the ocean of birth and death1 ,he draweth out men and gods to the abode of bliss4 --- ,,the ,,bodhi4a#aa ,all things are of the ,bodhi1 ,the ,bodhi is in all things2 ,the ,bodhi and all things are one3 ,who knoweth this is called the ,world-honored4 --- ,,nirvana ,,and ,,the ,,three ,,evils4 ,greed is ,nirvana2 ,so is hate1 and folly2 ,in these three passions ,there dwells a ,buddha-dharma inexpressible4 ,who severalises1 thinking1 ,there's greed1 and hate1 and folly1 ,he is as far from ,buddha1 ,as heaven from earth4 ,the ,bodhi and greed1 ,they're one1 not two3 ,out of one ,dharma-gate cometh all2 ,here's sameness1 no diversity4 #chf ,this hearing1 the vulgar stand aghast2 ,far from the ,buddha-path are they4 ,the heart1 when innocent of greed1a#ab ,is never troubled4 ,in whose mind self is lurking still1 ,and who imagines that something he has1 ,greedy is this man called1 ,and he is bound for hell4 ,what is the true nature of greed1 ,that is the nature of ,buddha-dharma2 ,what is the nature of ,buddha-dharma1 ,that is the nature of greed4a#ac ,these two are of one nature2 ,that is1 of no-nature2 ,who knoweth this truth1 ,would be the world-leader4 --- ,,non-,,atman ,,and ,,prejudice4a#ad ,there once was an ignorant man2 ,so afraid of the sky was he ,that piteously crying he wandered away4 ,of its sudden collapse he was fearful4 ,but the sky has no boundary1 ,and to nobody 't will be harmful4 ,it was due to his ignorance ,that he trembled so fitfully4 ,with the ,bhikshus and ,brahmans ,it is even so1 who are prejudiced4 ,learning that empty is the world1 ,alarmed are they at heart2 ,and wrongly imagine that if empty were the nature of tman ,nothingness would be the end of all work4 --- #chg ,,non-,,action4 ,as the vacuity of sky1 ,being so clear and free of cloud and fog1 ,upon the earth below1 ,betrays no signs a shower to give3 ,so the enlightened ,betray no learning1 no intelligence3 ,and we1 sentient beings1 ,can trace no efforts in their deliverance of the ,law4a#ae --- ,,self-,,delusion4 ,there lived once a painter1 ,who such a monstrous ,yaksha painted ,that he himself was terrified ,and losing all his senses on the ground he fell3 ',tis even so with vulgar minds2 ,infatuated1 self-deluded by the senses1 ,of their own error they are unaware1 ,and go from birth to birth without an end4 --- ,,all ,,in ,,one4 ,as all the waters in the valley ,are emptied in the ocean ,which is of one and the same taste3 ,so the enlightened1 ,whatever is ,good and beneficial1 ,turn over to the ,bodhi ,and to that ,reality ,in which all things become of one and the same taste4 --- #chh ,,nihilism4 ,the vast vacuity of space1 ,how limitless and measureless6 ,but in the midst of the void ,how could a farmer sow his seeds8 ',tis even so with ,nihilism3 ,the past is gone forever1 ,the future's not here yet1 ,and in the present no ,buddha-seeds have they4 --- ,,the ,,nihilist4 ,a man who suffers from a disease incurable1 ,however excellent his treatment be1 ,impossible he will find his health to gain1 ,for his defies all means of remedy4 ',tis even so with them who walk in the way of emptiness2 ,no matter whereso'er they be1 ,how blindly they are clinging unto it6 ,such ,i declare to be incurable4 --- ,,the ,,buddha',s ,,dharma 7#a7 ,as in its oneness the element earth ,embraces diversities of objects1 ,and discriminates not this or that2 ,even so is it with all the ,buddha's ,dharma4 ,as in its oneness the element fire ,burns everything on earth1 ,and discriminates not in its nature2 ,even so is it with all the ,buddha's ,dharma4 #chi ,as waters in the vast ocean1 ,absorbing hundreds of streams1 ,are of the same taste forever2 ,even so is it with all the ,buddha's ,dharma4 ,as the dragon-god with thunder and lightning ,brings showers on the earth all over1 ,and the rain-drops discriminate not2 ,even so is it with all the ,buddha's ,dharma4 --- ,,the ,,buddha',s ,,dharma4 7#b7 ,as in her oneness mother earth ,creates diversities of seeds ,and in her inmost no discrimination knows2 ,e'en so is it with all the ,buddha's ,dharma4 ,as in the cloudless sky the sun ,o'er the ten quarters all illuminates1 ,and in its brightness shows no difference2 ,e'en so is it with all the ,buddha's ,dharma4 ,as high up in the heavens is the moon ,beheld by all beings on earth1 ,and there's nowhere her glory reaches not2 ,e'en so is it with all the ,buddha's ,dharma4 ,the ,brahma-rja great ,in thousands of worlds himself all manifests ,and knows in his being no diversities2 ,e'en so is it with all the ,buddha's ,dharma4 --- #cij ,,the ,,passions ,,and ,,wisdom4 ,only in the filthiness of soil1 ,could the seed be sown and grow2 ,even so in the mire of passion ,cherished by all sentient beings ,all over the world1 ,if by the sons of ,buddha well attended to1 ,there will grow the seed of ,buddha-dharma4 ,just as in filth and mud ,the lotus grows and blooms1 ,even so in a heart defiled with evil karma ,the seeds of ,buddha-dharma are growing4 --- ,,ignorance ,,and ,,enlightenment4 7#a7 ,a mansion there was once which was a hundred thousand years of age2 ,no occupant was there1 nor doors nor windows2 ,devas and men1 all of a sudden1 ,there came and burned a lamp2 ,and the darkness that dwelt so long ,departed instantly without a word4 ,the inky darkness that the mansion filled ,resisted not1 8,i've lived here for ages1 ,and ,i'll never be removed from here40 ,even with karma-consciousness and the horde of passions in the heart1 ,the analogy holds true4 ,though there abiding many hundred thousand kalpas1 ,their ultimate nature is not true nor real4 ,when a traveler1 day or night1 ,enters upon the truthful path1 ,the lamp of wisdom burns in its full splendor2 ,and the horde of evil passions ,cannot tarry there1 even for a moment4 --- #cia ,,ignorance ,,and ,,enlightenment4 7#b7 ,bright shines the lamp1 ,and the inky night is gone4 ,but with the darkness ,the quarters vanish not2 ,yet this illuminating lamp1 ,if not in the dark1 nowhere doth shine3 ,for light and dark depend upon each other2 ,no selfhood having1a#af they're empty4 ',tis even so with enlightenment4 ,in comes enlightenment1 ,and out goes ignorance of its own accord4 ,but both are like unto the flowers in the air1 ,for neither by itself exists2 ,impossible is one alone1 either to keep or to forego4 --- ,,the ,,bodhisattva ,,and ,,all ,,beingsa#ag ,great ,mother ,earth ,all creatures ,provides and nourishes1 ,but from none of them ,she seeks a favor special1 nor is she to any partial3 ,so is the ,bodhisattva4 ,since his awakening of the ,heart1 ,until he gains the depths of the ,law ,and realises the highest knowledge1 ,he toils to save all creatures1 ,himself no favor seeking1 nor to others granting any2 ,regardless of friend and enemy1 ,embracing all with single heart1 ,he fashions one and all for ,bodhi4 99 99 99 #cib ,the element ,water ,all permeating ,makes herbs and trees ,in luxury grow1 ,yet any favor special it nor shows nor seeks2 ,so is the ,bodhisattva2 ,with a pure heart of love ,all sentient beings equally embraces he2 ,all permeating gradually1 universally1 ,the seeds immaculate he nourishes1 ,which1 breaking down all evils powerful1 ,obtain the fruit of ,buddha-knowledge4 99 99 99 ,the element ,fire ,matures and ripens all ,the tender shoots of the cereals2 ,yet the element fire ,from those young plants ,no favor seeks1 nor any shows to them2 ,so is the ,bodhisattva3 ,with knowledge-fire ,matures he all ,the tender shoots of creatures2 ,yet he from them ,no favor special seeks1 nor shows he any4 99 99 99 ,the element ,air1 ,by reason of its virtue1 ,pervades all over ,buddha-lands2 ,with the ,bodhisattva ',tis even so1 ,who with consummate skill ,to ,buddha's children ,preaches the ,doctrine ,holy4 --- #cic ,,the ,,bodhisattva4 _/,his ,firmness_/4 ,as ,mra1 the evil one1 ,commanding his four armies1 ,even by the devas in the ,kmaloka1 ,cannot be overwhelmed2 ,so is the ,bodhisattva1 ,whose heart1 pure and clean1 ,by all the hosts of ,evil1 ,cannot be tempted1 nor confused4 _/,his ,progress_/4 ,as the new moon1 ,in size increasing gradually1 ,becomes perfect and full in the end2 ,even so the ,bodhisattva1 ,with a heart defilement-free1 ,all the good dharmas seeking and performing1 ,in virtue gradually progresses1 ,and finally obtains the ,law of ,purity1 perfect and full4 _/,his ,enlightenment_/4 ,the rising sun1 ,all illumining1 ,all forms and images in the world ,in glory are revealed2 ,so is the ,bodhisattva3 ,the light of knowledge emitting1 ,and sentient beings illumining1 ,bringeth he all to wisdom4 #cid _/,his ,fearlessness_/4 ,lion1 the king of beasts1 ,majestic1 overpowering1 ,and in the forest wandering1 ,knows he no fear1 no terror2 ,so is the ,bodhisattva3 ,calmly abiding in ,learning1 ,intelligence1 and ,morality1 ,throughout the universe1 ,wherever he wanders about1 ,knows he no fear1 no doubt4 _/,his ,energy_/4 ,the giant elephant1 ,with energy wondrous1 ,a burden heavy carrying1 ,shows not the least fatigue2 ,so is the ,bodhisattva3 ,bearing1 for the sake of the masses1 ,the misery of the flesh1 ,he shows not the least apathy4 _/,his ,purity_/4 ,the lotus-flower1 ,though growing in the marshy land1 ,by dirt1 or mire1 or filth ,is not defiled2 ,so is the ,bodhisattva3 ,though living in this world1 ,no form of passion ,ever touches him4 #cie _/,his ,self-sacrifice_/4 ,there lived once a man ,who craftily and skillfully ,felled the trunks of trees1 ,but left the roots untouched1 ,that after due time ,they might once more be growing2 ',tis even so with the ,bodhisattva3 ,with the upya that is excellent1 ,desires and passions down he fells1 ,but leaves their seed unscathed ,by reason of his all-embracing love1 ,and thereby ever and anon comes he on earth4a#ah --- ,,the ,,bodhisattva',s ,,homeless ,,life4a#ai ,the homeless ,bodhisat regards the home life or the world at large ,as a hurricane that abates not awhile1 ,or as the moon's illusive image in water cast1 ,which the imagination takes deliberately for the real4 ,the water in itself contains no lunar image real2 ,the real moon1 dependent on water clear1 a shadow casts2 ,so are all beings unreal2 only conditionally they exist2 ,yet 'tis imagined by the vulgar that an ,atman they have4 ,the ,atman is the product of conditions1 and real it is not2 ,but for a reality the imagination it takes4 ,have the two prejudicesa#bj removed1 ,and we perceive ,intelligence most high and peerless4 #cif ,our confused imagination is like unto a black storm1 ,blowing over the woods of birth and death1 stirs up the leaves of consciousness3 ,by the four winds of fallacy 'tis haunted all the time1 ,and five damnation-causes it produces1 ,entwining are indeed the roots of evil1 which are three1 ,through birth and death doth transmigration ever onward move4 ,who to the ,sutras listen and in them devoutly believe1 ,the right view they acquire1 removing all the thoughts which are fallacious1 ,and every instant growing are ,seeds of ,intelligence1 ,and the ,samdhi of knowledge great and of spirituality is awakened4 ,when well disciplined in speculation deep and subtle1 ,in the dark no more we grope1 nor do we reap the crop of pain2 ,perceiving ,suchness in the ultimate nature of things1 ,subject and object both gone1 and vanished are all sins4 ,female and male1 they're attributes1 and they are void essentially3 ,the ignorant imagine and create the two which only relatively exist4 ,the ,buddha has destroyed permanently the cause of ignorance1 ,and in the ultimate reality nothing particular sees he1 male or female4 ,the excellent fruit of wisdom1 if ever attained1 remains the same for aye2 ,the vulgar nathless imagine wrongly and see therein a thing concrete and definite4 ,the ,buddha's features thirty-two are after all no-features2 ,who sees no-features in the features1 the feature true he understands4 #cig ,to wander homeless1 and immaculate deeds to practise1 ,over the heart to watch1 in solitude quietly to sit3 ,this is the rightful way the ,bodhisattva cleanses his heart2 ,erelong will he attain the fruit of enlightenment4 --- ,,the ,,buddhist4a#ba ,encourage not1 for your self-interests1 ,heterodoxy and false doctrines2 ,a merciful heart for all have ye2 ,remove stupidity and untruth from your minds2 ,be ye ,tathgata's most faithful servants2 ,and teach the masses who are ignorant1 ,to them the ,bodhi impart1 on yourselves it practising2 ,and thereby make the ,buddha's name resound on earth2 ,deliver the multitudes from sin and initiate them ,to the perfect enlightenment of the ,buddha3 ,ye by these virtues firmly stand1 ,and your ,intelligence-heart doth never fail4 --- ,,hymn ,,to ,,the ,,bodhisattva4a#bb ,with lovingkindness1 a ,great ,being who saves and protects1 ,regards all beings impartially as his only child2 ,energetically1 cheerfully1 and without stint1 ,his life he sacrifices1 uprooting pain1 and bringing bliss unspeakable4 ,surely he will attain the height of truth and beauty1 ,forever be freed from the entanglement of birth and death4 ,and erelong will he the fruit of enlightenment obtain1 ,eternally peaceful1 and in the ,uncreate joy finding4 --- #cih ,a ,,vow ,,of ,,the ,,bodhisattva4a#bc ,for the sake of all sentient beings on earth1 ,i aspire for the abode of enlightenment which is most high2 ,in all-embracing love awakened1 and with a heart steadily firm1 ,even my life ,i will sacrifice1 dear as it is4 ,in enlightenment no sorrows are found1 no burning desires2 ',tis enjoyed by all men who are wise4 ,all sentient creatures from the turbulent waters of the triple world1 ,i'll release1 and to eternal peace them ,i'll lead4 --- ,,the ,,true ,,homeless ,,one4a#bd ,though not wearing the yellow robe1 ,whose heart is free from defilement1 ,in the doctrine of ,buddhas1 ,he is the true homeless one4 ,though not devoid of showy ornaments1 ,who has cut off all entanglements1 ,and in whose heart exists neither knottiness nor looseness1 ,he is the true homeless one4 ,though not initiated by the ,rules1 ,whose heart is clean of all evil thoughts1 ,and open only to tranquillity1 intelligence1 and virtuous deeds1 ,he is the true homeless one4 ,though not instructed in the ,law1 ,whose insight goes deep into the ultimate1 ,and is no more deluded by sham appearances1 ,he is the true homeless one4 #cii ,the mind that takes no thought of the ego1 ,that goes beyond the illusory phenomena1 ,yet sinks not into stupidity ,truly awakened to ,intelligence it is4 ,whose mind1 awakened to ,intelligence1 ,sees no substantiality in the ego1 ,and1 not seeing1 yet remains firm1 ,this man cannot be injured4 --- ,,the ,,bodhisattva',s ,,spiritual ,,life4a#be ,like unto the vast ocean that receives ,all the waters1 and yet overflows not2 ,even so is the ,bodhisattva1 ,who knoweth no fatigue in seeking the merits of the ,dharma4 ,again1 like unto the vast ocean that absorbs ,all the streams1 and yet shows no increase2 ,even so is the ,bodhisattva1 ,who1 receiving the deepest ,dharma1 nothing gaineth4a#bf ,again1 like unto the vast ocean that refuses to take filth1 ,and wherein when absorbed doth foulness change to purity2 ,even so is the ,bodhisattva1 ,whom all the filth of passion cannot tarnish4 ,again1 like unto the vast ocean whose bottom is unfathomable2 ,even so is the ,bodhisattva1 ,whose virtues and wisdom are so immeasurable ,that none ever knows their limits4 #djj ,again1 like unto the vast ocean in which there's no diversity1 ,all the waters and streams pouring thereinto become of one taste alone2 ,even so is the ,bodhisattva1 ,who listeneth to one note of ,dharma4 ,again1 like unto the vast ocean that existeth not ,for the interests of one individual2 ,even so is the ,bodhisattva1 ,whose aspirations are for the benefit of all4 ,again1 like unto the vast ocean that embosoms the jewel called 8all-jewel40 ,of which all jewels are produced2 ,even so is the jewel-treasure of the ,bodhisattva1 ,for it is through this that all the other jewels shine4 ,again1 like unto the vast ocean that produces the three kinds of jewel1 ,and yet discriminates not between them2 ,even so is the teaching of the ,bodhisattva1 ,who1 equally delivering the three ynas1 maketh not any distinction4 ,again1 like unto the vast ocean that by degrees becomes deeper2 ,even so is the ,bodhisattva1 ,who1 practising virtues for the sake of all1 ,forever aspireth after the deepest omniscience4 ,again1 like unto the vast ocean that harbors not a corpse2 ,even so is the ,bodhisattva1 ,who1 with the heart of purity and the vow of ,bodhi1 ,harboreth not a passion1 nor the thought of the rvaka4 --- #dja ,,the ,,bodhisattva',s ,,faith4 7#a7;a#bg ,perceiving all in one1 ,and one in all1 ,the ,bodhisattva diligent in his work ,is never given up to indolence4 ,pain he shunneth not1 to pleasure he clingeth not1 ,as he is ever bent on the deliverance of all beings2 ,to him all ,buddhas will themselves reveal1 ,and of their presence he is never weary4 ,he is in the deepest depths of the ,dharma1 ,where is found the inexhaustible ocean of merit4 ,all sentient beings in the fivefold path of existence1 ,he loveth as his own child2 ,removing things unclean and filthy1 ,supplying them with dharmas pure and immaculate4 --- ,,the ,,bodhisattva',s ,,faith4 7#b7;a#bh ,while to the doctrine most high listening1 ,the ,light of ,pure ,intelligence within me glows1 ,that shining over all the universe ,all the enlightened ones to me reveals4 ,who think there are individuals ,they put themselves in the position most difficult2 ,dharmas have no ego-master which is real1 ,for they are merely names and expressions4 ,the vulgar and ignorant know not ,that within themselves they have a reality true and real1 ,that the ,tathgata is not of any particular form2 ,therefore the ,tathgata they see not4 #djb ,dirt and dust obscuring their intelligence-eye1 ,enlightenment perfect and true they see not2 ,and throughout kalpas immeasurable and innumerable1 ,in the stream of birth and death they go a-rolling4 ,wandering and rolling is ,samsra1 ,no-more-a-rolling is ,nirvna2 ,yet ,samsra and ,nirvna1 ,absolutely1 exists neither of them4 ,to believer in falsehood and sophistry1 ,samsra is here and ,nirvna there2 ,clearly they grasp not the ,dharma of ancient sages1 ,nor understand the ,path ,incomparable4 ,those who thus cling to forms individual1 ,of ,buddha's universal enlightenment1 though they hear1 ,themselves negate1 and away they wander from the right course of thought2 ,therefore1 they cannot see the ,buddha4 ,who the ,dharma of ,truth perceive1 ,serene they are for aye1 and abide in ,suchness2 ,enlightenment most truthful they understand1 ,transcending words and all the modes of speech4 ,illusory are all forms individual2 ,no such thing as dharma here exists3 ,no enlightened ones ,seek ,truth in things particular4 ,whose insight to the past extends1 ,to the future and over the present1 ,and who fore'er abides in serenity of ,suchness1 ,he's said to be a ,tathgata4 --- #djc ,,the ,,bodhisattva',s ,,faith4 7#c7;a#bi ,i would rather suffer sufferings innumerable ,that ,i might listen to the voices of ,buddhas1 ,than enjoy all sorts of pleasure ,and not hear ,buddhas' names4 ,the reason why since ages out of mind ,we suffer sufferings countless ,and transmigrate through birth and death1 ,is that we have not heard ,buddhas' names4 ,a reality that exists in things unreal1 ,a perfect ,intellect synthetising truth and falsehood1 ,and that which transcends all the modes of relativity1 ,this is called the ,bodhi4 ,buddhas of the present are not products of composite conditions1 ,nor are those of the past1 nor those of the future4 ,what is formless in all forms1 ,that is the true essence of ,buddhas4 ,who thus perceives ,the deepest significance of all existences1 ,in innumerable ,buddhas1 he will see ,the truth and reality of the ,dharma-body4 ,the ,dharma-body knows truth as true1 ,and falsehood as false1 ,and well understands the realm of reality2 ,therefore1 it is called perfect intellect4 ,the enlightened has nothing enlightened1 ,which is the true spirituality of all ,buddhas3 ,and in this wise they behave1 ,neither to be one nor to be two4 #djd ,they see the one in the many1 ,they see the many in the one ,the ,dharma has nothing to depend upon2 ,how could it be a product of combination8 ,the actor and the action1 ,neither really subsists3 ,who can understand this1 ,seeks not reality in either of them4 ,and here where reality is unseekable1 ,buddhas find there the resting abode ,the ,dharma has nothing to depend upon2 ,and the enlightened have nothing to cling to4 #dje ,,notes ,,to ,,the ,,appendix4 a#ja ,this and the following are translations from some ,mahyna texts in the ,buddhist ,tripitaka1 which were rendered into the ,chinese language at various times from ,sanskrit mostly through the co-operation of the ,hindu missionaries and ,chinese scholars4 ,a detailed analysis of these texts is most urgently needed1 as they contain many informations of great importance not only concerning the history of ,buddhism in ,india but also concerning early ,hindu culture generally4 ,a rather incomplete idea as to their contents and material and general character will be attained by the perusal of ,rev4 ,nanjo's ,catalogue of the ,chinese ,tripitaka1 ,oxford1 #ahhc4 ,mahyna-mlajta-hdayabhmi-dhyna ,stra1 7,nanjo1 no4 #iee17 fas4 iii4 a#jb ,the ,avatamsaka1 fas4 xiv41 p4 #gc4 a#jc ,the ,avatamsaka1 7,buddhabhadra's translation71 fas4 xiv1 p4 #gb4 a#jd ,to conceive the ,tathgata as a personal being who appeared on earth for a certain limited time and then eternally disappeared is not ,mahynistic4 ,he reveals himself constantly and of his own will in this world of particulars4 a#je ,sarvadharma-pravtti-nirdea ,stra 7,nanjo1 no4 #ajab74 a#jf ,mahyna-mlajta-hrdavabhmi-dhyna ,stra 7,nanjo #iee71 fas4 iii1 p4 #ge4 a#jg ,the three rings are3 #a4 the giver1 #b4 the receiver1 and #c4 the thing given1 material or immaterial4 a#jh ,precepts4 ,the three sets are3 #a4 one relating to good behavior1 #b4 to the accumulation of merit1 and #c4 to lovingkindness toward all beings4 #djf a#ji ,the mental 7subjective71 physical 7objective71 and oral4 a#aj ,the intellectual and the affective4 a#aa ,sarvadharma-pravtti-nirdea ,stra4 a#ab ,literally1 8when greed is neither born nor dead40 ,this means1 to live in the world as not living in it4 ,this subjective divine innocence is thought by ,buddhists the essence of the religious life4 ,the consciousness of one's worth1 or self-conceit1 is a great obstacle in the path of perfect virtue4 ,as in the case of mechanical work or physical exercise1 we attain perfect skillfulness only when the work is involuntarily done1 i4e41 without any conscious effort on the part of the performer2 so in our moral and spiritual life we attain the height of virtuousness or saintliness when we identify ourselves with the reason of our being4 ,this is ,laotze's doctrine of non-action or non-resistance1 and also the teaching of the ,bhagavadgta4 ,as remarked elsewhere1 when a man reaches this stage of religious life1 he ceases to be human1 but divine1 in the sense that he transcends the world of good and evil and eternally abides in the realm of the beautiful4 a#ac ,this is a very radical statement and is enough to frighten timid moralists and 8,god-fearing0 pietists4 ,therefore1 it is said that 8,give not that which is holy to the dogs1 neither cast ye your pearls before swine40 ,but think not that this is expounding antinomianism4 a#ad ,this and all the following are taken from the ,kyapa-,parivarta 7,nanjo1 #hje74 a#ae ,this gth may not be very intelligible to our readers4 ,the sense is3 ,whatever is done by a ,buddha or ,bodhisattva does not come from logical calculation or deliberate premeditation1 but immediately from his inmost heart1 which1 in most natural and freest manner1 responds to the needs of the suffering4 ,this response is altogether free from all human elaboration1 for the ,buddha shows no painful and struggling efforts in so doing4 ,everything he does is like the work of nature herself4 ,his life is above the narrow sphere of human morality which is marked with a desperate struggle between good and evil4 ,his is in the realm of the divinely beautiful4 #djg a#af 8,having no selfhood0 7svabhva71 means that things have no independent existence1 no self-nature which will eternally preserve their thingish identity4 ,this theory has been explained in the chapter dealing with the doctrine of non-atman4 ,to state summarily1 darkness and light are conditioned by each other2 apart from darkness there is no light1 and conversely1 without light darkness has no meaning4 ,even so with enlightenment and ignorance3 one independent of the other1 they have no existence1 they cannot be conceived4 ,they are like imaginary flowers in the air projected there by a confused subjectivity4 ,they are nothing but our ideal fabrication4 ,to cling to ,god only1 forgetting that we are living in the world below1 in the world of relativity1 is just as much one-sided as to lose ourselves in the whirlpool of earthly pleasures without the thought of ,god4 ,life1 however1 is not antithetic1 but synthetic4 ,truth is never one-sided1 it is always in the middle4 ,therefore1 seek enlightenment in ignorance and truth in error4 ,a dualistic interpretation of the world and life is not approved by ,buddhists4 ,compare the sentiment expressed herein with ,emerson's poem as elsewhere quoted1 in which these lines occur3 8,but in the mud and scum of things1 ,there always1 always1 something sings40 a#ag ,the ,kyapaharivarta ,stra 7,nanjo1 #hje474 a#ah ,the sense is3 ,the ,bodhisattva never desires a complete absorption in the ,absolute1 in which no individual existences are distinguishable4 ,he always leaves the 8,will to live0 unhurt1 as it were1 so that he could come in this world of particulars ever and anon4 ,what he has destroyed is the egoistic assertion of the ,will1 for the aim of ,buddhism is not to remove the eternal principle of life1 but to manifest it in its true significance4 ,the wishes of the ,bodhisattva1 therefore1 are never egocentric2 he knows that transmigration and rebirth are painful1 but as it is by rebirth alone that he could mingle himself in the world of sin and save the suffering creatures therein1 he never shuns the misery of life4 ,his work of revelation is constant and eternal4 a#ai ,the ,mahyna-mlajti-hrdayabhmi-dhyna ,stra1 fas4 ,,iv4 #djh a#bj ,the two prejudices or obstacles that lie in our way to enlightenment are3 #a that which arises from intellectual shortsightedness2 #b4 that which arises from impurity of heart4 a#ba ,stra on ,mahkyapa's ,question ,concerning the ,absolute4 a#bb ,suvarna-,prabh ,stra4 a#bc ,suvarna-,prabh ,stra1 ,chap4 #bf a#bd ,padmapani ,stra1 ,fas4 #h4 a#be ,the ,avatamsaka ,sutra4 a#bf ,this means that the heart of the ,bodhisattva which is pure and eternal in its essential nature has nothing added externally to it by studying the ,dharma2 for the ,dharma is nothing else than the expression of his own heart4 a#bg ,the ,avatamsaka1 fas4 ,,ix1 p4 #dh4 ,this pantheistic thought of the ,one-,all is generally considered to be ,buddhistic2 but the truth is that every genuine religious sentiment inevitably leads us to this final conviction4 ,even in the so-called transcendental monotheistic ,christianity1 we find the pantheistic thought boldly proclaimed and put in contrast to the idea of 8our ,father which art in ,heaven40 ,for instance1 read the following passage from ,thomas ,kempis3 8,he to whom all things are one1 he who reduceth all things to one1 and seeth all things in one1 may enjoy a quiet mind1 and remain at peace in ,god40 7,chap4 ,,iii47 ,the passage in the ,gospel of ,john declaring that 8the ,father is in me and ,i in him10 when logically carried out1 comes to echo the same sentiment entertained by ,buddhists1 who recognise a manifestation of the ,dharmakya in all beings1 animate as well as inanimate4 ,the ,christianity of to-day is that of ,paul as expounded in his letters1 but the future one will advance a few steps more and will be that of ,john4 a#bh ,from the ,avatamsaka ,sutra4 a#bi ,from the ,avatamsaka ,sutra4 ,,index4 #dji ,abhimuk 7sixth stage of ,bodhisattvahood71 #cah4 ,acal 7eighth stage of ,bodhisattvahood71 #cbb4 ,aoka1 ,king1 #di4 ,arava 7evil71 explained1 #bdi ft4 ,anya1 #bb1 #ie4 ,avaghosha1 #d1 #h1 #fa ft41 #fe ft41 #aaa1 #aae2 on laya1 #ff ft41 #abi1 #aci ft42 ,awakening of ,faith1 #g2 on ,suchness1 #ii2 on ,ignorance1 #aah2 and ,dionysius1 #ajb ft42 ,buddhacarita1 quoted1 #adg2 on ,mahynism1 #bdf2 on the ,sambhogakya1 #beh1 #ccc4 ,agnosticism1 #be4 laya 7or laya-vijna71 ,all-conserving ,soul1 #ff2 as depository of 8germs01 #ff2 creator of the universe1 #fh2 and the ,garbha1 #abe et seq42 its evolution1 #abh2 and the soul1 #afe2 and the twelve nidnas1 #ahc4 ,amitbha1 #bjg1 #bai1 #bfi4 ,annrtha 7non-particularisation71 #gb4 nanda attempts to locate the soul1 #aeg4 npnam1 exercise in breathing1 #ec ft4 ,arada1 #adf4 ,arcismat 7fourth stage of ,bodhisattvahood71 #caf4 ,arhatship and ,mahynism1 #bhh4 ryadeva1 #c ft41 #h1 #fj4 ,asanga 7and ,vasubandhu71 #d1 #fb1 #fe1 #fi1 #hg1 #hh1 #aec1 #bca1 #bcd1 #bfc1 #ced4 #daj ,asceticism repudiated1 #eb1 #ec4 ,atman1 and ,samkhyan ,lingham1 #ch2 and the ,vedantic arra1 #ch2 and ,vijna1 #ci2 and unity of consciousness1 #dj2 and karma1 #da2 and impermanency1 #dc2 and egoism1 #dd2 and the 8old man01 #afe4 7,see also 8ego0 and 8soul047 ,atonement1 vicarious1 #bia ft4 ,avatamsaka ,stra1 ,the1 on ,bodhisattva's reflections1 #cfi et seq4 ,avenikas 7unique features71 #cbg ft4 ,avidy 7ignorance71 #ce et seq41 #aae4 ,balas1 the ten1 of the ,buddha1 #cbg4 ,beal1 ,samuel1 refuted1 #bj et seq4 ,catena of ,buddhist ,scriptures1 quoted1 #aeg ft42 ,romantic ,history of ,buddha1 quoted1 on ,buddha's enlightenment1 #ccg4 ,bhagavadgta1 quoted1 #abf ft4 ,bhtatatht 7,suchness71 #ii et seq2 and ,mahyna1 #g2 and perfect knowledge1 #ib4 ,bodhi 7wisdom71 #df2 and ,praj etc41 defined1 #hb ft42 as perfect knowledge1 #ib2 its meaning explained1 #bid2 by ,ngrjuna1 #big2 as a reflex of ,dharmakya1 #bii2 how awakened in human heart1 #cjb4 ,bodhicitta 7,intelligence-heart71 #eb4 7,see also 8,bodhi407 ,bodhi-,dharma1 of ,dhyna sect1 #ajc1 #adi1 #aee4 ,bodhipakshikas1 the seven1 #caf et seq4 ,bodhisattva1 above samsara and nirvana1 #gb2 in the three ynas1 #bgg2 the conception of1 in primitive ,buddhism1 #bhf2 we are1 #bij2 and love1 #bib2 his ten pranidhanas1 #cjh2 his reflections1 #cfi4 ,bodhisattvahood1 ten stages of1 #gj1 #caa et seq4 ,bodhisattva-yna1 #i4 ,brahdaranyaka ,upanishad1 quoted1 #ajb ft4 #daa ,buddha1 and his self-relying spirit1 #eg2 culmination of good karma1 #bae2 in the ,mahyna texts1 #bdc2 the idealisation of1 historically treated1 #bdi et seq42 in the ,trikya1 #beb2 the human1 and the spiritual ,dharmakya1 #bee2 his #cb major and #hj minor marks of greatness1 #bga2 in the process of idealisation1 #bhi2 in the ,mahynism1 #bia2 and ,mra1 #ccd2 on the ego-soul in the beginning of his religious career1 #ccg4 ,buddhacarita1 quoted1 #eg4 ,buddhadharma1 #cee4 ,buddha-,essence1 ,discourse on1 #ceg ft4 ,buddha-intelligence1 #cfd4 ,buddhism7s71 geographically divided1 #c1 #d2 two1 #d et seq42 and atheism1 #ca2 and the soul problem1 #ca et seq42 and agnosticism1 #ce2 and modern psychology1 #dj2 intellectual1 #ef et seq42 liberal1 #ef et seq42 and speculation1 #ha et seq42 and science1 #ig4 ,buddhist7s7 classified1 #h et seq42 life and love1 #eb2 ideal1 #ec2 aspiration1 #cfh2 rule of conduct1 #cfh4 kyamuni contrasted to ,devadatta1 #bjj4 ,carlyle's ,hero-,worship1 quoted1 #cbe ft4 ,causation1 universal1 and emptiness1 #agf4 ,christ and ,buddha1 compared1 #eg1 #eh4 ,christian conception of the ego-soul1 #aff4 ,christianity1 the growth of1 compared with ,mahynism1 #ab et seq42 and its founder1 #ac2 not intellectual1 #gi4 ikshas 7moral rules71 ten1 #gj ft4 ,confucius1 #fc ft4 ,consciousness1 subliminal1 #bja4 ,conservation of energy1 and karma1 #cd4 ,convictions1 the four1 of the ,buddha1 #cbg4 #dab rvaka1 #bgg4 rvaka-yna1 #i4 rimla ,stra1 quoted1 #abg4 nyat1 7or nya71 #bb1 #ie2 and ,christian critics1 #aje2 explained1 #agc2 and universal causation1 #agf4 ,daabhmi1 7see 8ten stages of ,bodhisattvahood071 #caa1 #cbi4 ,deussen1 ,p41 quoted1 #ajg4 ,devala1 #cfa1 #cfd4 ,dharma1 its meaning1 #ba1 #bba4 ,dharmadhatu1 #aae ft41 #aic4 ,dharmakya1 ,mahyna1 #g2 briefly explained1 #bj1 #de et seq42 the highest principle1 #ce2 and ,brahman1 #df2 and ,paramtman1 #df2 and ,god of ,christians1 #df2 as love and wisdom1 #df1 #ed1 #ee2 and non-ego1 #dg2 and the ,golden ,rule1 #dh2 and ,bodhisattvas1 #fa2 its universal incarnation1 #fc ft42 in the ,trikya1 #gc1 #beg2 as perfect knowledge1 #ib2 and praj1 #id2 as a cosmic mind1 #abc2 a unity1 #aic2 and ,suchness1 #bag2 as ,god1 #bai2 as religious object1 #bbb2 in the ,avatamsaka ,sutra1 #bbc2 its detailed characterisation1 #bbd2 in the phenomenal world1 #bca2 as love1 #bcb2 as a loving heart in the ,avatamsaka1 #bcc2 its seven characteristics1 #bcd2 by ,asanga and ,vasubandhu1 #bcd2 its five modes of operation1 #bce2 its freedom1 #bcf2 its prvanidhnabala1 #bcg2 as rational will1 #bch2 as father1 #bci2 and its perpetual revelation1 #bei2 the evolution of its conception1 #bgb2 all beings are one in1 #bij2 and the ,bodhi1 #bie4 ,dharmapada1 ,the1 quoted1 #cd1 #ade1 #ccf1 #cfh4 ,dharmamegha 7tenth stage of ,bodhisattvahood71 #cbf4 ,dharmapala1 the ,angarika1 #c ft4 ,discourse on ,buddha-,essence1 ,the1 by ,vasubandhu1 #ceg4 ,drangama 7seventh stage of ,bodhisattvahood71 #cai4 #dac ,ego1 not the source of energy1 #ee2 noumenal1 #ade1 #afc2 phenomenal1 #ade2 empirical1 #afc4 ,egoism and the evolution of ,manas1 #acd4 ,ego-soul1 and its attributes1 #adg2 and the five skandhas1 #adi2 located by ,ananda1 #aeg2 and the ,christian flesh1 #aff2 and the ,vedantic conception1 #afg et seq42 and ,ngrjuna1 #afh2 and svabhava1 #aga2 and ,christians1 #bab2 as conceived by ,buddha when he started on his religious career1 #ccg4 7,see also 8,ego01 8tman0 and 8soul074 ,ekacitta1 7one mind or thought71 #gj ft4 ,elders1 the ,school of1 #bdh et seq4 ,elephant and the blind1 #ajj4 ,emerson1 quoted1 #bi4 ,enlightenment1 #ee1 #aai2 and manas1 #acd2 two obstacles to1 #cdd ft4 ,faith1 its contents vary1 #bg et seq4 ,fatalism1 #aif4 ,gautama and ,christ1 #bi4 7,see also 8,buddha074 ,god1 the ,buddhist1 #bai4 7,see also 8,dharmakya074 ,goethe's ,faust1 quoted1 #aha4 ,golden ,rule1 the1 universal1 #ed4 ,great ,council ,school1 the1 #bdh et seq4 ,guyau1 ,french sociologist1 #ej ft41 #hd4 ,hartmann's ,unbewusste1 #acg4 ,hetus and ,pratyayas1 #cc1 #da1 #adb1 #adh4 ,hnaynism1 #a1 #fj1 #fc1 #bhj4 ,hugo1 ,victor1 quoted1 #eh4 ,hui-,k'e1 second patriarch of ,zen sect1 #adh4 #dad ,iccantika 7incapable of salvation71 #caa4 ,ignorance1 #ce et seq42 and evolution1 #aae2 and consciousness1 #abj2 no evil1 #abb2 when evil8 #abd2 and ,tathgata-,garbha1 #abf2 and ,manas1 #acc2 and ,prakrit1 #ach ft4 ,imitation of ,christ1 #cfd fn4 ,immortality1 #ch2 and ,dharmakya1 #ed2 karmaic and not individual1 #bad4 ,injustice1 social1 and karma1 #ahf ,intelligence1 awakened by love1 #cfb4 ,jtaka ,tales1 the1 quoted1 #aef4 ,jesus1 #f4 ,jvtman1 #ade4 ,kant1 #f2 ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 quoted1 #cbd4 ,karma1 and the law of causation1 #cc2 briefly explained1 #cc et seq42 and non-atman1 #db2 and suchness1 #aha2 defined1 #aha2 the working of1 #ahc2 irrefragable1 #ahd2 and injustice1 #ahf2 and the moral laws1 #ahi2 an individualistic view1 #aib2 and the desire to communicate1 #aie2 and determinism1 #aif2 not like a machine1 #aih2 and immortality1 #bjc2 and ,walt ,whitman 7quoted71 #bjc2 how transmitted1 #bje2 and ,dharmakya1 #bjg2 and productions of art1 #bjh2 and invention1 #baj2 and 8seeds of activity10 #bab4 ,karma-seeds1 #acd4 ,karun 7love71 #df1 #hb1 #bch1 #bif2 and ,praj1 #cfj4 ,kathopanishad1 quoted1 #dg4 ,knowledge 7sambodhi71 #c ft42 three kinds of1 #fg1 #hg4 ,kualamla1 #aii4 ,lalita ,vistara1 quoted1 on ,nirvana1 #cch fn4 #dae ,lankavatara ,sutra1 quoted1 #da1 #acj4 ,laotze1 #fc ft4 ,laotzean ,wu wei1 #bhe4 ,love1 and ego1 #ee2 and ,nirvana1 #cfb4 ,madhymika1 ,the1 on ,nirvana1 #cdg4 ,madhymika school1 #ba1 #fb1 #ff2 and the ,yogacarya1 on truth1 #ie4 ,mahpurusa1 ,discourse on the1 #cfa4 ,mahsangika1 #a ft4 ,mahyna1 #a et seq2 its original meaning1 #g2 and ,bodhisattvas1 #fa2 and ,hnayna1 #gj2 and spiritual life1 #ga2 and ,samkhya1 #acf4 ,mahyna-,abhisamaya ,sutra1 quoted1 #de4 ,mahyna-,sangraha stra1 #ced4 ,mahynism1 7,mahyna ,buddhism71 defined1 #aj et seq42 is it genuine8 #aa et seq42 as a living faith1 #ad et seq42 and its ,christian critics1 #ae2 misunderstood1 #af et seq42 historically treated1 #fj et seq42 and ,sthiramati1 #fa et seq42 its seven features1 #fb et seq42 and metempsychosis1 #fd2 ten essential features1 #fe et seq42 in its two phases1 #gf et seq42 no nihilism1 #ace ft42 the development of1 #bdg2 and individualism1 #bhb4 ,maitreya1 #bgb4 ,manas 7self-consciousness71 #acb4 ,majuri1 #ajf4 ,manovijna 7ego-consciousness71 #fg1 #fi4 ,masashige1 ,kusunoki1 #bac4 ,maudsley1 ,h41 quoted1 #hj4 ,max ,mueller1 quoted1 #ajh ft41 #aaj ft41 #bba4 ,mya1 subjective ignorance1 #dg4 ,merits1 the accumulation of1 #aii4 #daf ,middle path1 ,doctrine of the1 #ei1 #ceh2 of ,eight ,no's1 #ajc4 ,milinda-,panha1 quoted1 #bjc4 ,mitra1 ,rajendra1 referred to1 #cbi ft4 ,monier ,monier-,williams1 refuted1 #ah et seq4 ,ngrjuna1 #c ft41 #d1 #h1 #ba1 #fj1 #ff1 #ie1 #if1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #afh1 #aga1 #agc1 #bib1 #big1 #cec4 ,ngasena and ,king ,milinda1 #aec4 8,na iti10 #ajb4 ,nntva1 7difference71 #gb ft4 ,nidnas1 the twelve1 #cf et seq41 #agi1 #ahb4 ,nirmanakya1 7,body of ,transformation71 #gc1 #beg1 #bfh4 ,nirvana1 #ai2 and its non-,buddhist critics1 #di2 briefly explained1 #di et seq42 and the surrender of ego1 #ej2 and ,dharmakya1 #ea2 and love1 #ea1 #eh2 and pessimism1 #eb2 and ethics1 #ec2 and ,parinishpanna 7knowledge71 #id2 what is1 #cca et seq42 not nihilistic1 #ccb2 ,mahynistic1 #cda2 and ,dharmakya1 #cdb2 the ,mahynistic conception of1 #cdb et seq42 absolute1 #cdc2 four forms of1 #cdc2 upadhiesa1 #cdd2 ,anupadhiesa1 #cdd1 that has no abode1 #cde2 and ,i ,cor4 #g1 #cj-ca1 #cdf2 as synonym of ,dharmakya1 #cdf by ,chandra ,kirti1 #cdg2 its four attributes1 #cdh2 its religious phase1 #cdi2 and ,emerson1 #ceb2 and samsara are one1 #ceb2 and ,st4 ,paul1 #ceb2 and the ,eight ,no's of ,ngrjuna1 #ceh2 the realisation of1 #cfj2 as the ,middle ,path1 #cfb2 comprehensively treated1 #cfg et seq4 ,non-tman1 #cg et seq42 in things1 #da et seq1 #agj2 and impermanence of things1 #ada1 7see also 8non-ego01 8self01 8soul01 8ego074 ,non-duality1 the ,dharma of1 #ajf4 ,non-ego and ,dharmakya1 #dg2 and the ,ganges water1 #aef4 #dag ,no's1 ,the ,eight1 of ,ngrjuna1 #ceh4 8,old man0 and ,atman1 #afe4 ,paramrtha-satya 7absolute truth71 #ia et seq4 ,paramtman1 #ade4 ,pramit1 #c ft42 six1 #fh2 ten1 #cba4 ,paratantra 7relative knowledge71 #fg2 explained1 #hi4 ,parikalpita 7illusion71 #fg2 explained1 #hh4 ,parinishpanna 7perfect knowledge71 #fg2 explained1 #ia4 ,parivarta1 7turning over71 #ai1 #aid2 doctrine of1 #bhc4 ,paul1 ,apostle1 quoted1 #dh1 #aff1 #bfj1 #bfb4 ,pingalaka1 ,ngrjuna's commentator1 quoted1 #agb4 ,prabhkar 7third stage of ,bodhisattvahood71 #cae4 ,praj 7and ,bodhi71 defined1 #hb ft42 #hb1 #ig1 #aai1 #bch1 #cfj4 ,prakti 7,samkyan primordial matter71 #ff ft4 ,pramdit 7first stage of ,bodhisattvahood71 #cac4 ,pranidhna1 a ,bodhisattva's1 #cjg4 ,pratisamvids1 the four1 #cbe4 ,pratyyasamutpda1 7,nidnas71 #cf et seq4 ,pratyekabuddha1 #bgh4 ,pratyekabuddha-yna1 #i4 ,precepts1 the ten moral1 #gj ft4 ,pudgala 7ego71 #db1 #adc ft4 ,punyaskandha1 #aii4 ,pure ,lands1 #bfi4 ,purusha 7,samkyan soul71 #ff ft4 ,prvanidhnabala1 #bcg4 ,religion1 its significance1 #bb et seq42 not revealed1 #bc2 and mystery1 #bd2 its intellectual and emotional sides1 #be et seq42 and science1 #bf2 intellect and feeling in1 #gg2 and philosophy1 #gh2 subjective1 #ha et seq42 not a philosophical system1 #he4 #dah ,rockhill's ,life of the ,buddha1 quoted1 on ,nirvana1 #cch fn4 ,saddharma ,pundarka1 quoted1 #bfj ft41 #bgd1 #bgg4 ,sadhumat1 7ninth stage of ,bodhisattvahood71 #cbe4 ,samat 7sameness71 #gb ft4 ,sambodhi1 7see 8,bodhi074 ,sambhogakya 7,body of ,bliss71 #fe ft41 #gc1 #beg2 in ,avaghosha1 #beh2 its six features1 #bfd2 a mere subjective existence1 #bff4 ,samkhya philosophy1 and ,yogacarya school1 #fg ft42 referred to1 #adf ft42 on ,nirvana1 #cdj4 ,samvrtti-satya 7conditional truth71 #ie et seq4 ,samyukta ,nikaya1 quoted1 #aef1 #ahe4 ,sanskaras1 enumerated1 #aea et seq4 ,schopenhauer1 #aha4 ,skandhas1 the five1 #cb ft41 #adi4 ,soul-substance1 denied1 #afd4 ,sthavira1 #a ft4 ,sthiramati1 on ,mahynism1 #fa et seq42 on ,bodhicitta1 #bii4 ,suchness1 7see also ,bhtatatht71 #c2 the first principle of ,buddhism1 #ii et seq42 indefinable1 #aja2 conditioned1 #aji2 in history1 #aaj2 in the world1 #aac2 and the ,bodhi1 #aad2 and ignorance1 #aag2 in its various modes1 #abe2 and ,dharmakya1 #abg2 and karma1 #aha4 ,sudurjay1 7fifth stage of ,bodhisattvahood71 #cah4 ,sukhvat sect1 the1 #d1 #bdj4 ,sumedha1 the story of1 #bhj4 ,srangama ,sutra1 quoted1 #aeg4 ,suvarna ,prabha ,sutra1 #bec ft4 ,svabhava1 and non-ego1 #agj et seq42 and emptiness1 #age4 #dai 8,tat tvam asi10 #dg1 #ace ft4 ,tathgata-,garbha1 #abe1 #ade4 ,teleology1 #hf4 ,tennyson1 quoted1 #hb4 ,trthakas1 #h4 ,tolstoi1 quoted1 in connection with karma1 #bjg ft4 ,trikya1 7trinity71 #gc1 #bdb1 #bef1 #bge4 ,truth 7satya71 conditional and transcendental1 #ie4 ,udna1 quoted1 #eb1 #cch ft41 #cda4 ,universe1 a mind1 #abb4 ,upya 7expediency71 #fd1 #bfj ft42 its meaning explained1 #bih ft4 ,upyaj1 #cbj4 ,vaiaradyas 7convictions71 the four1 #cbg ft4 ,vairocana1 #bai4 ,vasubandhu1 #hg1 #aec2 his ,abhidharmakoa1 referred to1 #cg2 on ,mahyna1 #ff2 ,on the ,completion of ,karma1 quoted1 #aid2 ,the ,distinguishing of the ,mean1 quoted1 #aie2 on ,bodhicitta1 #cjc2 on ,nirvana1 #ceg1 #cei1 #cfj4 ,vasumitra1 on ,various ,schools of ,buddhism1 #a ft4 ,vedanta philosophy1 and the ,mahynism1 #ajh ft42 on ,nirvana1 #cdj2 on ,atman1 #add4 ,vicesacinta-brahma-,pariprccha ,sutra1 #cec4 ,victory1 the hymn of1 #ccf4 ,vijna1 and atman1 #ci4 ,vijnnamtra1 7nothing but ideas71 #gj4 ,vijnnamtra stra1 #bfe ft41 #cdc4 ,vimala 7second stage of ,bodhisattvahood71 #cae4 ,vimalakrti1 #ajf1 #cej1 #cff4 ,visuddhi ,magga1 quoted1 #cci1 #cdh ft4 #dbj ,waddell1 refuted1 #ba et seq4 ,whitman1 ,walt1 quoted1 #aee ft41 #aig4 ,wilson1 ,dr4 ,g4 ,r41 quoted1 #bja4 ,yoga philosophy1 ,the1 on ,nirvana1 #cdj4 ,yogacarya school1 #fb1 #fe1 #hg1 #ib1 #ie4 ,yogavasistha1 a vedantic book1 quoted1 #afg4 ,,endnotes4 ,,introduction ,,notes4 #a ,according to ,vasumitra's ,treatise on the ,points of ,contention by the ,different ,schools of ,buddhism1 of which there are three ,chinese translations1 the earliest being one by ,kumrajva 7who came to ,china in ,a4,d4 #dja71 the first great schism seems to have broken out about one hundred years after the ,buddha4 ,the leader of the dissenters was ,mahdeva1 and his school was known as the ,mahsangka 7,great ,council71 while the orthodox was called the school of ,sthaviras 7,elders74 ,since then the two schools subdivided themselves into a number of minor sections1 twenty of which are mentioned by ,vasumitra4 ,the book is highly interesting as throwing light on the early pages of the history of ,buddhism in ,india4 77#a77 #b ,the ,anagrika ,dharmapala of ,ceylon objects to this geographical distinction4 ,he does not see any reason why the ,buddhism of ,ceylon should be regarded as ,hnaynism1 when it teaches a realisation of the ,highest ,perfect ,knowledge 7,anuttara-samyak-sambodhi7 and also of the six ,virtues of ,perfection 7,pramit71--these two features1 among some others1 being considered to be characteristic of ,mahynism4 ,it is possible that when the so-called ,mahynism gained great power all over ,central ,india in the times of ,ngrjuna and ryadeva1 it also found its advocates in the ,isle of ,lion1 or at least the followers of ,buddha there might have been influenced to such an extent as to modify their conservative views4 ,at the present stage of the study of ,buddhism1 however1 it is not yet perfectly clear to see how this took place4 ,when a thorough comparative review of ,pli1 ,singhalese1 ,tibetan1 ,sanskrit1 and ,chinese ,buddhist documents is effected1 we shall be able to understand the history and development of ,buddhism to its full extent4 #c ,translated into ,english by the author1 #aijj4 ,the ,open ,court ,pub4 ,co4 ,chicago4 #d ,these terms are explained elsewhere4 #e ,followers of any religious sects other than ,buddhism4 ,the term is sometimes used in a contemptuous sense1 like heathen by ,christians4 #f ,the conception of ,dharmakya constitutes the central point in the system of ,mahynism1 and the right comprehension of it is of vital importance4 ,the ,body of the ,law1 as it is commonly rendered in ,english1 is not exact and leads frequently to a misconception of the entire system4 ,the point is fully discussed below4 ,,chapter ,i ,,notes4 #g ,they are3 7#a7 form or materiality 7rpa71 7#b7 sensation 7vedan71 7#c7 conception 7samjn71 7#d7 action or deeds 7samkra71 and 7#e7 consciousness 7vijnna74 ,these terms are explained elsewhere4 #h ,the ,dhammapada1 v4 #afe4 ,tr4 by ,a4 ,j4 ,edmunds4 #i ,the ,dhammapada1 v4 #abg4 #aj ,this last passage should not be understood in the sense of a total abnegation of existence4 ,it means simply the transcendentality of the highest principle4 #aa ,the ,kathopaniad1 ,,iv4 #aj4 #ab ,guyau1 a ,french sociologist1 refers to the ,buddhist conception of ,nirvna in his ,non-,religion of the ,future4 ,i take his interpretation as typical of those non-,buddhist critics who are very little acquainted with the subject but pretend to know much4 7,english translation1 pp4 #dgb-dgd47 8,granted the wretchedness of life1 the remedy that pessimists propose is the new religious salvation that modern ,buddhists are to make fashionable444 ,the conception is that of ,nirvna4 ,to sever all the ties which attach you to the external world2 to prune away all the young offshoots of desire1 and recognise that to be rid of them is a deliverance2 to practise a sort of complete psychial circumcision2 to recoil upon yourself and to believe that by so doing you enter into the society of the great totality of things 7the mystic would say1 of ,god72 to create an inner vacuum1 and to feel dizzy in the void and1 nevertheless1 to believe that the void is plenitude supreme1 pleroma1 these have always constituted temptations to mankind4 ,mankind has been tempted to meddle with them1 as it has been tempted to creep up to the verge of dizzy precipices and look over444 ,nirvna leads1 in fact1 to the annihilation of the individual and of the race1 and to the logical absurdity that the vanquished are the victors over the trials and miseries of life40 ,then1 the author recites the case of one of his acquaintances1 who made a practical experiment of ,nirvna1 rejecting variety in his diet1 giving up meat1 wine1 every kind of ragout1 every form of condiment1 and reducing to its lowest possible terms the desire that is most fundamental in every living being--the desire of food1 and substituting a certain number of cups of pure milk4 8,having thus blunted his sense of taste and the grosser of his appetites1 having abandoned all physical activity1 he thought to find a recompense in the pleasure of abstract meditation and of esthetic contemplation4 ,he entered to a state which was not that of dreamland1 but neither was it that of real life1 with its definite details40 #ac ,for detailed explanation of this term see ,chapter ,,xi4 #ad ,the ,udna1 ,ch4 ,,viii1 p4 #aah4 ,translation by ,general ,strong4 #ae ,this is a peculiarly ,indian religious practice1 which consists in counting one's exhaling and inhaling breaths4 ,when a man is intensely bent on the practise1 he gradually passes to a state of trance1 forgetting everything that is going on around and within himself4 ,the practise may have the merit of alleviating nervousness and giving to the mind the bliss of relaxation1 but it oftentimes leads the mind to a self-hypnotic state4 #af ,here ,nirvna is evidently understood to mean self-abnegation or world-flight or quietism1 which is not in accord with the true ,buddhist interpretation of the term4 #ag ,the sentiment of the ,golden ,rule is not the monopoly of ,christianity2 it has been expressed by most of the leaders of thought1 thus1 for instance3 8,requite hatred with virtue0 7,lao-tze74 8,hate is only appeased by love0 7,buddha74 8,do not do to others what ye would not have done to you by others0 7,confucius74 8,one must neither return evil1 nor do any evil to any one among men1 not even if one has to suffer from them0 7,plato1 ,crito1 #di74 #ah ,the ,buddhacarita1 ,book ,,ix1 #fc-fd4 #ai ,according to one ,northern ,buddhist tradition1 ,buddha is recorded to have exclaimed at the time of his supreme spiritual beatitude3 8,wonderful6 ,all sentient beings are universally endowed with the intelligence and virtue of the ,tathgata60 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,notes4 #bj ,his date is not known1 but judging from the contents of his works1 of which we have at present two or three among the ,chinese ,tripitaka1 it seems that he lived later than ,avaghoa1 but prior to1 or simultaneously with1 ,ngrjuna4 ,this little book occupies a very important position in the development of ,mahynism in ,india4 ,next to ,avaghoa's ,awakening of ,faith1 the work must be carefully studied by scholars who want to grasp every phase of the history of ,mahyna school as far as it can be learned through the ,chinese documents4 #ba ,be it remarked here that a ,bodhisattva is not a particularly favored man in the sense of chosen people or elect4 ,we are all in a way ,bodhisattvas1 that is1 when we recognise the truth that we are equally in possession of the ,samyak-sambodhi1 ,highest ,true ,intelligence1 and through which everybody without exception can attain final enlightenment4 #bb ,mahyna-abhidharma-sangti-stra1 by ,asanga4 ,nanjo1 ,no4 #aaii4 #bc ,yogcrya-bhmi-stra1 ,nanjo1 ,no4 #aagj4 ,the work is supposed to have been dictated to ,asanga by a mythical ,bodhisattva4 #bd ,by ,asanga4 ,nanjo1 #aagg4 #be ,mahyna-samparigraha-stra1 by ,asanga4 ,nanjo1 #aahc4 #bf ,perceiving an incarnation of the ,dharmakya in every spiritual leader regardless of his nationality and professed creed1 ,mahynists recognise a ,buddha in ,socrates1 ,mohammed1 ,jesus1 ,francis of ,assisi1 ,confucius1 ,laotze1 and many others4 #bg ,ancient ,hindu ,buddhists1 with their fellow-philosophers1 believed in the existence of spiritually transfigured beings1 who1 not hampered by the limitations of space and time1 can manifest themselves everywhere for the benefit of all sentient beings4 ,we notice some mysterious figures in almost all ,mahyna stras1 who are very often described as shedding innumerable rays of light from the forehead and illuminating all the three thousand worlds simultaneously4 ,this may merely be a poetic exaggeration4 ,but this ,sambhogakya or ,body of ,bliss 7see ,avaghoa's ,awakening of ,faith1 p4 #aja7 is very difficult for us to comprehend as it is literally described4 ,for a fuller treatment see the chapter on 8,trikya40 #bh ,though ,i am very much tempted to digress and to enter into a specific treatment concerning these two ,hindu ,mahyna doctrines1 ,i reluctantly refrain from so doing1 as it requires a somewhat lengthy treatment and does not entirely fall within the scope of the present work4 #bi ,that ,avaghoa's conception of the laya varies with the view here presented may be familiar to readers of his ,awakening of ,faith4 ,this is one of the most abstruse problems in the philosophy of ,mahyna ,buddhism1 and there are several divergent theories concerning its nature1 attributes1 activities1 etc4 ,in a work like this1 it is impossible to give even a general statement of those controversies1 however interesting they may be to students of the history of intellectual development in ,india4 ,the layavijna1 to use the phraseology of ,samkhya philosophy1 is a composition1 so to speak1 of the ,soul 7purua7 and ,primordial ,matter 7prakti74 ,it is the ,soul1 so far as it is neutral and indifferent to all those phenomenal manifestations1 that are going on within as well as without us4 ,it is ,primordial ,matter1 inasmuch as it is the reservoir of everything1 whose lid being lifted by the hands of ,ignorance1 there instantly springs up this universe of limitation and relativity4 ,enlightenment or ,nirvna1 therefore1 consists in recognising the error of ,ignorance and not in clinging to the products of imagination4 #cj ,for a more detailed explanation of the ideal philosophy of the ,yogcra1 see my article on the subject in ,le ,muson1 #aije4 #ca 8,one mind0 or 8one heart0 meaning the mental attitude which is in harmony with the monistic view of nature in its broadest sense4 #cb ,these ten stages of spiritual development are somewhat minutely explained below4 ,see ,chapter ,,xii4 #cc ,the ten moral precepts of the ,buddha are3 7#a7 ,kill no living being2 7#b7 ,take nothing that is not given2 7#c7 ,keep matrimonial sanctity2 7#d7 ,do not lie2 7#e7 ,do not slander2 7#f7 ,do not insult2 7#g7 ,do not chatter2 7#h7 ,be not greedy2 7#i7 ,bear no malice2 7#aj7 ,harbor no scepticism4 #cd ,mahynism recognises two 8entrances0 through which a comprehensive knowledge of the universe is obtained4 ,one is called the 8entrance of sameness0 7samat7 and the other the 8entrance of diversity0 7nntva74 ,the first entrance introduces us to the universality of things and suggests a pantheistic interpretation of existence4 ,the second leads us to the particularity of things culminating in monotheism or polytheism1 as it is viewed from different standpoints4 ,the ,buddhists declare that neither entrance alone can lead us to the sanctum sanctorum of existence2 and in order to obtain a sound1 well-balanced knowledge of things in general1 we must go through both the entrances of universality and particularity4 #ce ,the doctrine of ,trikya will be given further elucidation in the chapter bearing the same title4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,notes4 #cf ,no efforts have yet been made systematically to trace the history of the development of the ,mahyna thoughts in ,india as well as in ,china and ,japan4 ,we have enough material at least to follow the general course it has taken1 as far as the ,chinese and ,tibetan collections of ,tripitaka are concerned4 ,when a thorough comparison by impartial1 unprejudiced scholars of these documents has been made with the ,pali and ,sanskrit literature1 then we shall be able to write a comprehensive history of the human thoughts that have governed the ,oriental people during the last two thousand years4 ,when this is done1 the result can further be compared with the history of other religious systems1 thus throwing much light on the general evolution of humanity4 #cg ,praj1 bodhi1 buddhi1 vidy and j or jna are all synonymous and in many cases interchangeable4 ,but they allow a finer discrimination4 ,speaking in a general way1 praj is reason1 bodhi wisdom or intelligence1 buddhi enlightenment1 vidy ideality or knowledge1 and j or jna intellect4 ,of these five terms1 praj and bodhi are essentially ,buddhistic and have acquired technical meaning1 ,in this work both praj and bodhi are mostly translated by intelligence1 for their extent of meaning closely overlaps each other4 ,but this is rather vague1 and wherever ,i thought the term intelligence alone to be misleading1 ,i either left the originals untranslated1 or inserted them in parentheses4 ,to be more exact1 praj in many cases can safely be rendered by faith1 not a belief in revealed truths1 but a sort of immediate knowledge gained by intuitive intelligence4 ,praj corresponds in some respects to wisdom1 meaning the foundation of all reasonings and experiences4 ,it may also be considered an equivalent for ,greek sophia4 ,bodhi1 on the other hand1 has a decidedly religious and moral significance4 ,besides being praj itself1 it is also love 7karun73 for1 according to ,buddhism1 these two1 praj and karun1 constitute the essence of ,bodhi4 ,may ,bodhi be considered in some respects synonymous with the divine wisdom as understood by ,christian dogmatists8 ,but there is something in the ,buddhist notion of ,bodhi that cannot properly be expressed by wisdom or intelligence4 ,this seems to be due to the difference of philosophical interpretation by ,buddhists and ,christians of the conception of ,god4 ,it will become clearer as we proceed farther4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,notes4 #ch ,for detailed exposition of the three forms of knowledge1 the reader is requested to peruse ,asanga's ,comprehensive ,treatise on ,mahynism 7,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,no4 #aahc71 ,vasubandhu's work on ,mahyna idealism 7,vijnnamtra stra1 ,nanjo1 ,no4 #abae71 the ,stra on the ,mystery of ,deliverance 7,sandhinirmocana-stra1 ,nanjo4 ,nos4 #bdf and #bdg71 etc4 #ci ,when the eminent representatives of both parties1 such as ,dharmapala and ,bhavaviveka1 were at the height of their literary activity in ,india about the fifth or sixth century after ,christ1 their partisan spirit incited them bitterly to denounce each other1 forgetting the common ground on which their principles were laid down4 ,their disagreement in fact on which they put an undue emphasis was of a very trifling nature4 ,it was merely a quarrel over phraseology1 for one insisted on using certain words just in the sense which the other negated4 #dj 8,dve satye samupritya buddhnm dhardean ,lokasamvttisatya ca satya ca paramrthata4 ,ye ca anayor na jnanti vibhgam satyayor dvayo1 ,te tatvam na vijnanti gambhrabuddhasane40 #da ,vyavahram anritya paramrtho na deyate1 ,paramrtham angamya nirvam na adhigamyata4 ,the ,mdhyamika1 p4 #aha4 ,,chapter ,v ,,notes4 #db ,cf4 ,the ,udna1 chapter ,,vi4 #dc ,svabhvam parabhvanca1 bhvancbhvameva ca1 ,ye payanti1 na payante tatvam hi buddhasane4 #dd ,astti vatagrho1 nsttyucchedadaranam3 ,tasmdastitvanstitve nriyeta vicaksanah #de ,astti nstti ubhe #8pi ant uddh auddhti ime #8pi ant2 ,tasmdubhe anta vivarjayitv ,madhye #8pi synam na karoti paditah4 #df ,this is the famous phrase in the ,brhadaranyaka ,upanisad occurring in several places 7,,ii1 #c1 #f2 ,,iii1 #i1 #bf2 ,,iv1 #b1 #d2 ,,iv1 #d1 #bb2 ,,iv1 #e1 #e74 ,the ,atman or ,brahman1 it says1 8is to be described by ,no1 ,no6 ,he is incomprehensible1 for he cannot be comprehended2 he is imperishable1 for he cannot perish2 he is unattached1 for he does not attach himself2 unfettered1 he does not suffer1 he does not fail4 ,him 7who knows71 these two do not overcome1 whether he says that for some reason he has done evil1 or for some reason he has done good--he overcomes both1 and neither what he has done1 nor what he has omitted to do1 affects him40 #dg ,the ,awakening of ,faith1 p4 #ei4 ,cf4 this with the utterances of ,dionysius the ,areopagite1 as quoted by ,prof4 ,w4 ,james in his ,varieties of ,religious ,experience1 pp4 #daf-dag3 8,the cause of all things is neither soul nor intellect2 nor has it imagination1 opinion1 or reason1 or intelligence2 nor is it spoken or thought4 ,it is neither number1 nor order1 nor magnitude1 nor littleness1 nor equality1 nor inequality1 nor similarity1 nor dissimilarity4 ,it neither stands1 nor moves1 nor rests4444 ,it is neither essence1 nor eternity1 nor time4 ,even intellectual contact does not belong to it4 ,it is neither science nor truth4 ,it is not even royalty nor wisdom2 not one2 not unity2 not divinity or goodness2 nor even spirit as we know it404444 ad libitum4 #dh ,anirodham anutpdam anucchedam avatam1 ,anekrtham annrtham angamam anirgamam4 7,mdhyamika stra1 first stanza47 #di ,param nirodhdbhagavn bhavattyeva nohyate1 ,na bhavatyubhayam ceti nobhayam ceti nohyate3 ,atihamno #8pi bhagavn bhavattyeva nohyate1 ,na bhavatyubhayam ceti nobhayam ceti nohyate4 7,mdhyamika1 p4 #aii74 #ej ,he was the third son of king of ,ki 787 in southern ,india4 ,he came to ,china ,a4,d4 #ebg and after a vain attempt to convert ,emperor ,wu to his own view1 he retired to a monastery1 where1 it is reported1 he spent all day in gazing at the wall without making any further venture to propagate his mysticism4 ,but finally he found a most devoted disciple in the person of ,shen ,kuang1 who was once a ,confucian1 and through whom the ,dhyna school became one of the most powerful ,mahyna sect in ,china as well as in ,japan4 ,dharma died in the year #ece4 ,besides the one here mentioned1 he had another audience with the ,emperor4 ,at that time1 the ,emperor said to ,dharma3 8,i have dedicated so many monasteries1 copied so many sacred books1 and converted so many bhiksus and bhiksunis3 what do you think my merits are or ought to be80 ,to this1 however1 ,dharma replied curtly1 8,no merit whatever40 #ea ,another interesting utterance by a ,chinese ,buddhist1 who1 earnestly pondering over the absoluteness of ,suchness for several years1 understood it one day all of a sudden1 is3 8,the very instant you say it is something 7or a nothing71 you miss the mark40 #eb ,the ,vimalakrti ,stra1 ,kumrajva's translation1 ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter #e4 #ec ,deussen relates1 in his address delivered before the ,bombay ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #ahic1 a similar attitude of a ,vedantist mystic in regard to the highest ,brahma4 8,the ,bhava1 therefore1 when asked by the king ,vaksalin1 to explain the ,brahman1 kept silence4 ,and when the king repeated his request again and again1 the rishi broke out into the answer3 #8,i tell it you1 but you don't understand it2 nto 'yam tm1 this tm is silence6'0 #ed ,it is a well-known fact that the ,vedanta philosophy1 too1 makes a similar distinction between ,brahman as sagunam 7qualified7 and ,brahman as nirgunam 7unqualified74 ,the former is relative1 phenomenal1 and has characteristics of its own2 but the latter is absolute1 having no qualification whatever to speak of1 it is absolute ,suchness4 7,see ,max ,mueller's ,the ,six ,systems of ,indian ,philosophy1 p4 #bbj et seq47 ,here1 a very interesting question suggests itself3 ,which is the original and which is the copy1 ,mahynism or ,vedantism8 ,most of ,european ,sanskrit scholars would fain wish to dispose of it at once by declaring that ,buddhism must be the borrower4 ,but ,i am strongly inclined to the opposite view1 for there is reliable evidence in favor of it4 ,in a writing of ,avaghoa1 who dates much earlier than ankara or ,badarayana we notice this distinction of absolute ,suchness and relative ,suchness4 ,he writes in his ,awakening of ,faith 7p4 #ee et seq47 that though ,suchness is free from all modes of limitation and conditionality1 and therefore it cannot be thought of by our finite consciousness1 yet on account of ,avidy inherent in the human mind absolute ,suchness manifests itself in the phenomenal world1 thereby subjecting itself to the law of causality and relativity and proceeds to say that there is a twofold aspect in ,suchness from the point of view of its explicability4 ,the first aspect is trueness as negation 7nyat7 in the sense that it is completely set apart from the attributes of all things unreal1 that it is a veritable reality4 ,the second aspect is trueness as affirmation 7anyat71 in the sense that it contains infinite merits1 that it is self-existent4 ,considering the fact that ,avaghoa comes earlier than any ,vedanta philosophers1 it stands to reason to say that the latter might have borrowed the idea of distinguishing the two aspects of ,brahma from their ,buddhist predecessors4 ankara also makes a distinction between saguna and nirguna vidya1 whose parallel we find in the ,mahynist samvtti and paramrtha satya4 #ee ,while passing1 ,i cannot help digressing and entering on a polemic in this footnote4 ,the fact is1 ,western ,buddhist critics stubbornly refuse to understand correctly what is insisted by ,buddhists themselves4 ,even scholars who are supposed to be well informed about the subject1 go astray and make false charges against ,buddhism4 ,max ,mueller1 for example1 declares in his ,six ,systems of ,indian ,philosophy 7p4 #bdb7 that 8,an important distinction between ,buddhists and ,vedantists is that the former holds the world to have arisen from what is not1 the latter from what is1 the ,sat or ,brahman40 ,the reader who has carefully followed my exposition above will at once detect in this ,max ,mueller's conclusion an incorrect statement of ,buddhist doctrine4 ,as ,i have repeatedly said1 ,suchness1 though described in negative terms1 is not a state of nothingness1 but the highest possible synthesis that the human intellect can reach4 ,the world did not come from the void of ,suchness1 but from its fulness of reality4 ,if it were not so1 to where does ,buddhism want us to go after deliverance from the evanescence and nothingness of the phenomenal world8 ,max ,mueller in another place 7op4 cit4 p4 #baj7 speaks of the ,vedantists' assertion of the reality of the objective world for practical purposes 7vyavahrrtham7 and of their antagonistic attitude toward 8the nihilism of the ,buddhists40 8,the ,buddhists0 this seems to refer to the followers of the ,mdhyamika school1 but a careful perusal of their texts will reveal that what they denied was not the realness of the world as a manifestation of conditional ,suchness1 but its independent realness and our attachment to it as such4 ,the ,mdhyamika school was not in any sense a nihilistic system4 ,true1 its advocates used many negative terms1 but what they meant by them was obvious enough to any careful reader4 #ef ,dharmadhtu is the world as seen by an enlightened mind1 where all forms of particularity do not contradict one another1 but make one harmonious whole4 #eg ,the word literally means recollection or memory4 ,avaghoa uses it as a synonym of ignorance1 and so do many other ,buddhist philosophers4 #eh ,smti or citta or vijna4 ,they are all used by ,avaghoa and other ,buddhist authors as synonymous4 ,smti literally means memory2 citta1 thought or mentation2 and vijna is generally rendered by consciousness1 though not very accurately4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,notes4 #ei ,cf4 the ,bhagavadgt 7,s4 ,b4 ,e4 ,vol4 ,,viii1 chap4 ,,xiv1 p4 #ajg73 8,the ,brahman is a womb for me1 in which ,i cast the seed4 ,from that1 ,o descendant of ,bharata6 is the birth of all things4 ,of the bodies1 ,o son of ,kunti6 which are born from all wombs1 the main womb is the great ,brahman1 and ,i am the father1 the giver of the seed40 #fj ,this is translated from the ,chinese of ikananda2 the ,sanskrit reads as follows3 8,tarang hi udadher yadvat pavanapratyaya rit1 ,ntyamnh pravartante vyuccheda ca na vidhyate3 layodhyas tath nityam viayapavana rita1 ,cittis tarangavijnir ntyamn pravartate40 #fa ,from the ,chinese4 ,the ,sanskrit reads as follows3 8,nle rakte #8tha lavae ankhe kre ca rkare1 ,kaayi phalapupdyih kira yatha bhskare3 ,no #8nyena ca nnanyena tarang hi udadher mat2 ,vijnni tath sapta1 cittena saha samyukt4 ,udadhe parimo #8su tarangnm vicitrat1 layam hi tath cittam vijnkhyam pravartate2 ,cittam mana ca vijnam lakartham prakalpyate2 bhinna lakan hi atu na laky na ca laka4 ,udadhe ca tarangnm yath nsti viean4 ,vijnnam tath citte parimo na labhyate4 ,cittena cyate karma1 manas ca vicyate1 ,vijnena vijnti1 dyam kalpeti pacabhi40 #fb ,a little digression here4 ,it has frequently been affirmed of the ethics of ,mahynism that as it has a nihilistic tendency its morality turns towards asceticism ignoring the significance of the sentiment and instinct4 ,it is true that ,mahynism perfectly agrees with ,vedantism when the latter declares3 8,if the killer thinks that he kills1 if the killed thinks that he is killed1 they do not understand2 for this one does not kill1 nor is that one killed40 7,the ,katopanishad1 ,,ii #ai47 ,this belief in non-action 7,laotzean ,wu ,wei7 apparently denies the existence of a world of relativity1 but he will be a superficial critic who will stop short at this absolute aspect of ,mahyna philosophy and refuses to consider its practical side4 ,as we have seen above1 ,buddhists do not conceive the evolution of the ,manovijna as a fault on the part of the cosmic mind1 nor do they think the assertion of ,ignorance altogether wrong and morally evil4 ,therefore1 ,mahynism does not deny the claim of reality to the world of the senses1 though of course relatively1 and not absolutely4 ,again1 8,tat tvam asi0 7thou art it7 or 8,i am the ,buddha0--this assertion1 though arrogant it may seem to some1 is perfectly justifiable in the realm of absolute identity1 where the serene light of ,suchness alone pervades4 ,but when we descend on earth and commingle in the hurly-burly of our practical1 dualistic life1 we cannot help suffering from its mundane limitations4 ,we hunger1 we thirst1 we grieve at the loss of the dearest1 we feel remorse over errors committed4 ,mahynism does not teach the annihilation of those human passions and feelings4 ,there was once a recluse-philosopher1 who was considered by the villagers to have completely vanquished all natural desires and human ambitions4 ,they almost worshipped him and thought him to be superhuman4 ,one day early in ,winter1 a devotee approached him and reverentially inquired after his health4 ,the sage at once responded in verse3 8,a hermit truly ,i am1 world-renounced2 ,yet when the ground is white with snow1 ,a chill goes through me and ,i shiver40 ,a false conception of religious saintliness as cherished by so many pious-hearted1 but withal ignorant1 minds1 has led them into some of the grossest superstitions1 whose curse is still lingering even among us4 ,our earthly life has so many limitations and tribulations4 ,the ills that the flesh is heir to must be relieved by some material1 scientific methods4 #fc ,that the ,buddhist ,ignorance corresponds to the ,smkhya ,prakti can be seen also from the fact that some ,samkhya commentators give to ,prakti as its synonyms such terms as kti 7energy7 which reminds of karma or sankra1 tamas 7darkness71 my1 and even the very word avidy 7ignorance7 #fd ,this view of the oneness of the laya or ,citta 7mind7 may not be acceptable to some ,mahynists1 particularly to those who advocate the ,yogcra philosophy2 but the present author is here trying to expound a more orthodox and more typical and therefore more widely-recognised doctrine of ,mahynism1 i4e41 that of ,avaghoa4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,notes4 #fe ,pudgala or pudgalasamja is sometimes used by ,mahynists as a synonym of tman4 ,the ,buddhist tman in the sense of ego-substratum may be considered to correspond to the ,vedantist ,jvtman1 which is used in contradistinction to ,paramtman1 the supreme being or ,brahma4 #ff ,mahyna ,buddhists generally understand the essential characteristic of tman to consist in freedom1 and by freedom they mean eternality1 absolute unity1 and supreme authority4 ,a being that is transitory is not free1 as it is conditioned by other beings1 and therefore it has no tman4 ,a being that is an aggregate of elemental matter or forms of energy is not absolute1 for it is a state of mutual relationship1 and therefore it has no tman4 ,again1 a being that has no authoritative command over itself and other beings1 is not free1 for it will be subjected to a power other than itself1 and therefore it has no tman4 ,now1 take anything that we come across in this world of particulars2 and does it not possess one or all of these three qualities3 transitoriness1 compositeness1 and helplessness or dependence8 ,therefore1 all concrete individual existences not excepting human beings have no tman1 have no ego1 that is eternal1 absolute1 and supreme4 #fg ,tent-designer is a figurative term for the ego-soul4 ,following the prevalent error1 the ,buddha at first made an earnest search after the ego that was supposed to be snugly sitting behind our mental experiences1 and the result was this utterance4 #fh ,the ,dharmapada1 vs4 #aec-aed4 ,tr4 by ,a4 ,j4 ,edmunds4 #fi ,praktiviktayas4 ,this is a technical term of ,smkhya philosophy and means the modes of ,prakrti1 as evolved from it and as further evolving on4 ,see ,satis ,chandra ,banarji1 ,samkhya-,philosophy1 p4 ,,xxxiii et seq4 #gj ,the passages quoted here as well as one in the next paragraph are taken from ,avaghoa's ,buddhacarita4 #ga ,the ,questions of ,king ,milinda1 ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 ,vol4 ,,xxxv4 #gb ,this reminds us of the passage quoted elsewhere from the ,katha-,upanishad2 cf4 the footnote to it4 #gc ,as cited elsewhere1 ,bodhi-,dharma of the ,dhyna sect1 when questioned in a similar way1 replied1 8,i do not know40 ,walt ,whitman echoes the same sentiment in the following lines3 8,a child said1 what is the grass8 fetching it to me with full hands2 ,how could ,i answer the child8 ,i do not know what it is1 any more than he40 #gd ,there seem to be two ,chinese translations of this ,stra1 one by ,kumrajva and the other by ,paramrtha1 but apparently they are different texts bearing the same title4 ,besides these two1 there is another text entirely in ,chinese transliteration4 ,owing to insufficiency of material at my disposal here1 ,i cannot say anything definite about the identity or diversity of these documents4 ,the following discussion that is reported to have taken place between the ,buddha and ,ananda is an abstract prepared from the first and the second fasciculi of ,paramrtha's 787 translation4 ,beal gives in his ,catena of ,buddhist ,scriptures from the ,chinese 7pp4 #bhf-cfi7 an ,english translation of the first four fasc4 of the ,surangama4 ,though this translation is not quite satisfactory in many points the reader may find there a detailed account of the discussion which is here only partially and roughly recapitulated4 #ge ,cf4 the following which is extracted from the ,questions of ,king ,milinda 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 ,,xxxv1 #acc73 8,if there be a soul distinct from the body which does all this1 then if the door of the eye were thrown down if the eye were plucked out could it stretch out its head1 as it were1 through the larger aperture and with greater range see forms much more clearly than before8 ,could one hear sounds better if the ears were cut off1 or taste better if the tongue were pulled out1 or feel touch better if the body were destroyed80 #gf ,nirvikalpo #8smi ciddipo nirahankaravasana ,tvaya ahankarabijena na sambaddho #8smi asanmaya 7#ca7 #gg ,yath bhtatay na ahammano na tvam na vsan ,atm uddhacidabhasa kevalo yam vijbhate4 7#dd7 #gh ,the following is a somewhat free translation of the original ,chinese of ,kumrajva1 which pretty closely agrees with the ,sanskrit text published by the ,buddhist ,text ,society of ,india4 #gi ,the ,sanskrit text does not give this passage4 #hj ,lakyl lakaam anyac cet syt tal lakyam alakanam4 #ha ,rpdi vyatirekena yath kumbho na vidyate1 ,vhydi vyatirea tath rpam na vidyate4 #hb ,abstracted from ,pingalaka's ,commentary on the ,mdhyamika stra1 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,chinese translation is by ,kumrajva4 #hc ,the passage in parentheses is taken from ,chandrakrti's ,commentary on ,ngrjuna1 pp4 #ahj-aha4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,notes4 #hd ,the ,twelve ,nidnas are3 7#a7 ,ignorance 7avidy71 7#b7 action 7sanskra71 7#c7 ,consciousness 7vijna71 7#d7 ,name-and-form 7nmarpa71 7#e7 ,six ,sense-organs 7yatana71 7#f7 ,contact 7spara71 7#g7 ,sensation 7vedan71 7#h7 ,desire 7trn71 7#i7 ,attachment 7updna71 7#aj7 ,procreation 7bhva71 7#aa7 birth 7jati71 7#ab7 ,old ,age1 ,death1 etc4 7jar1 marana1 oka1 etc474 #he ,from a ,chinese ,mahyna sutra4 #hf ,the ,pli ,jtaka1 no4 #bbb4 ,translation by ,w4 ,h4 ,rouse4 #hg ,warren's ,buddhism in ,translations1 p4 #bad4 #hh ,on the ,completion of ,karma1 by ,vasubandhu4 ,nanjo1 ,no4 #abbb4 #hi ,the ,distinguishing of the ,mean1 by ,vasubandhu4 ,nanjo1 #abdh4 #ij 8,manhattan's ,streets ,i ,saunter'd1 ,pondering40 ,i might have quoted the whole poem1 if not for limitation of space4 #ia ,if we understand the following words of ,tolstoi in the light which we gain from the ,buddhist doctrine of karmaic immortality1 we shall perhaps find more meaning in them than the author himself wished to impart3 8,my brother who is dead acts upon me now more strongly than he did in life2 he even penetrates my being and lifts me up towards him40 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,notes4 #ib ,the ,avatamsaka ,stra1 ,chinese translation by ,buddhabhadra1 fas4 ,,xxxiv4 #ic ,that is the ,dharmakya personified4 #id ,in ,hindu philosophy space is always conceived as an objective entity in which all things exist4 #ie ,this should be understood in the sense that 8,god maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good1 and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust40 ,the ,dharmakya is universal in its love1 as space is in its comprehensiveness4 ,because it is absolutely free from human desires and passions that are the product of egoism and therefore tend always to be discriminative and exclusive4 #if ,the four views are3 ,that the physical body is productive of impurities2 that sensuality causes pain2 that the individual soul is not permanent2 and that all things are devoid of the ,atman4 #ig ,that is to say3 ,the ,dharmakya1 that assumes all forms of existence according to what class of being it is manifesting itself1 is sometimes conceived by the believers to be a short-lived god1 sometimes an immortal spirit1 sometimes a celestial being of one hundred kalpas1 and sometimes an existence of only a moment4 ,as there are so many different dispositions1 characters1 karmas1 intellectual attainments1 moral environments1 etc41 so there are as many ,dharmakyas as subjectively represented in the minds of sentient beings1 though the ,dharmakya1 objectively considered1 is absolutely one4 #ih ,asanga's ,general ,treatise on ,mahynism4 7,mahyna samparigraha74 #ii ,the ,avatamsaka ,stra1 chap4 #ac1 8,on ,merit40 #ajj ,this is by no means the case1 for some of the ,mahyna stras are undoubtedly productions of much later writers than the immediate followers of the ,buddha1 though of course it is very likely that some of the most important ,mahyna canonical books were compiled within a few hundred years after the ,nirvana of the ,master4 #aja 8,purvapranidhnabala0 is frequently translated 8the power of original 7or primitive7 prayer40 ,literally1 prva means 8former0 or 8original0 or 8primitive02 and pranidhna1 8desire0 or 8vow0 or 8prayer02 and bala1 8power40 ,so far as literary rendering is concerned1 8power of original prayer0 seems to be the sense of the original ,sanskrit4 ,but when we speak of primitive prayers of the ,dharmakya or ,tathgata1 how shall we understand it8 ,has prayer any sense in this connection8 ,the ,dharmakya can by its own free will manifest in any form of existence and finish its work in whatever way it deems best4 ,there is no need for it to utter any prayer in the agony of struggle to accomplish4 ,there is in the universe no force whatever which is working against it so powerfully as to make it cry for help2 and there cannot be any struggle or agony in the activity of the ,dharmakya4 ,the term prayer therefore is altogether misleading and inaccurate and implicates us in a grave error which tends to contradict the general ,buddhist conception of ,dharmakya4 ,we must dispense with the term entirely in order to be in perfect harmony with the fundamental doctrine of ,buddhism4 ,this point will receive further consideration later4 #ajb 8,i am the father of all beings1 and they are my children40 7,the ,avatamsaka1 the ,pundarka1 etc47 #ajc ,to get more fully acquainted with the significance of the ,sukhvat doctrine1 the reader is advised to look up the ,sukhvat stras in the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 ,vol4 ,,xlix4 ,,chapter ,x ,,notes4 #ajd ,what follows is selected from a short stra called ,the ,mahvaipulya-,tathgatagarbha ,stra1 translated into ,chinese by ,buddhabhadra of the ,eastern ,tsin dynasty 7,a4,d4 #cga-dbj74 ,nanjo1 ,no4 #chd4 #aje ,niyuta is an exceedingly large number1 but generally considered to be equal to one billion4 #ajf ,all these are unhuman forms of existence1 including demons1 dragon-kings1 winged beasts1 etc4 #ajg rava literally means 8oozing10 or 8flowing out10 and the ,chinese translators rendered it by lou1 dripping1 or leaking4 ,roughly speaking1 it is a general name for evils1 principally material and sensuous4 ,according to an ,indian ,buddhist scholar1 rava has threefold sense3 7#a7 8keeping10 for it retains all sentient beings in the whirlpool of birth and death2 7#b7 8flowing10 for it makes all sentient beings run in the stream of birth and death2 7#c7 8leaking10 or 8oozing10 for it lets such evils as avarice1 anger1 lust1 etc41 ooze out from the six sense-organs after the fashion of an ulcer1 which lets out blood and filthy substance4 ,the cause of rava is a blind will1 and its result is birth and death4 ,specifically1 ,bhvrava is one of the three ravas1 which are 7#a7 kmrava1 7#b7 vidyrava1 and 7#c7 bhvrava4 ,the first is egotistic desires1 the second is ignorance1 and the third is the material existence which we have to suffer on account of our previous karma4 #ajh ,our thoughtful readers must have noticed here that the conceptions of the ,buddha as entertained by the ,mahsangika ,school 7,great ,council7 closely resemble those of the ,mahyna ,buddhism4 ,though we are still unable to trace step by step the development of ,mahynism in ,india1 the hypothesis assumed by most of ,japanese ,buddhist scholars is that the ,mahsangika was ,mahynistic in tendency4 #aji ,the ,mahparinibbna sutta4 #aaj ,there are three ,chinese translations of this stra3 the first1 by ,dharmaraka during the first two decades of the fifth century ,a4,d42 the second1 by ,paramrtha of the ,liang dynasty1 who came to ,china ,a4,d4 #edf and died ,a4,d4 #efi2 and the third1 by ,i-tsing of the ,tang dynasty who came back from his ,indian pilgrimage in the year #fie and translated this stra ,a4,d4 #gjc4 ,the last is the only complete ,chinese translation of the ,suvarn ,prabh4 ,a part of the original ,sanskrit text recovered in ,nepal was published by the ,buddhist ,text ,society of ,india in #ahih4 ,nanjo1 ,nos4 #abf1 #abg1 #acj4 #aaa ,the notion that great men never die seems to be universal4 ,spiritually they would never perish1 because the ideas that moved them and made them prominent in the history of humanity are born of truth4 ,and in this sense every person who is possessed of worthy thoughts is immortal1 while souls that are made of trumpery are certainly doomed to annihilation4 ,but the masses are not satisfied with this kind of immortality4 ,they must have something more tangible1 more sensual1 and more individual4 ,the notion of bodily resurrection of ,christ is a fine illustration of this truth4 ,when the followers of ,christ opened the master's grave1 they did not find his body1 so says legend1 and they at once conceived the idea of resurrection1 for they reasoned that such a great man as ,jesus could not suffer the same fate that befalls common mortals only4 ,the story of his corporeal resurrection now took wing and went wild2 some heard him speak to them1 some saw him break bread1 and others even touched his wounds4 ,what a grossly materialistic conception early ,christians 7and alas1 even some of the twentieth century7 cherished about resurrection and immortality6 ,it is no wonder1 therefore1 that primitive ,buddhists raised a serious question about the personality of ,buddha which culminated in the conception of the ,sambhogakya1 ,body of ,bliss1 by ,mahynists4 #aab ,compare this to the transfigured ,christ4 #aac ,cf4 ,i ,cor4 ,,xiii1 ,,ii4 8,when ,i was a child1 ,i spake as a child1 ,i understood as a child1 ,i thought as a child1 but when ,i became a man1 ,i put away childish things40 ,this point of our ever-ascending spiritual progress is well illustrated in the ,saddharma-pundarka ,stra4 ,see ,chapters ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iv1 ,v1 and ,,xi4 ,the following passage quoted from chap4 ,,ii1 p4 #di 7,kern's translation7 will give a tolerably adequate view concerning diversity of means and unity of purpose as here expounded3 8,those highest of men have1 all of them1 revealed most holy laws by means of illustrations1 reasons and arguments1 with many hundred proofs of skillfulness 7upyakaualya74 ,and all of them have manifested but one vehicle and introduced but one on earth2 by one vehicle have they led to full ripeness inconceivably many thousands of kotis of beings40 ,as was elsewhere noted1 this doctrine is sometimes known as the theory of ,upya4 ,upya is very difficult term to translate into ,english2 it literally means 8way10 8method10 or 8strategy40 ,for fuller interpretation see p4 #bih1 footnote4 #aad ,this is one of the most important philosophical works of the ,yogacra school4 ,vasubandhu wrote the text 7,nanjo1 ,no4 #abae7 which consists only of thirty verses1 but there appeared many commentators after the death of the author1 who naturally entertained widely different views among themselves on the subject-matter1 as it is too tersely treated in the text4 ,hsen ,tsang made selections out of the ten noted ,hindu exegetists in ,a4,d4 #fei and translated them into the ,chinese language4 ,the compilation consists of ten fascicles and is known as ,discourse on the ,ideality of the ,universe 7a free rendering of the ,chinese title ,chang wei shi lun1 ,nanjo1 ,no4 #aaig74 #aae ,may ,i venture to say that the conception of ,god as entertained by most ,christians is a ,body of ,bliss rather than the ,dharmakya itself8 ,in some respects their ,god is quite spiritual1 but in others he is thought of as a concrete material being like ourselves4 ,it seems to me that the human soul is ever struggling to free itself from this paradox1 though without any apparent success1 while the masses are not so intellectual and reflective enough as to become aware of this eternal contradiction which is too deeply buried in their minds4 #aaf ,the reader must not think that there is but one ,pure ,land which is elaborately described in the ,sukhvat ,vyha ,stra as the abode of the ,tathgata ,amitbha1 situated innumerable leagues away in the ,west4 ,on the contrary1 the ,mahyna texts admit the existence of as innumerable pure lands as there are ,tathgatas and ,bodhisattvas1 and every single one of these holy regions has no boundary and is coexistent with the universe1 and1 therefore1 their spheres necessarily intercrossing and overlapping one another4 ,it would look to every intelligent mind that those innumerable ,buddha-countries existing in such a mysterious and incomprehensible manner cannot be anything else than our own subjective creation4 #aag ,for a description of these marks see the ,dharmasangraha1 pp4 #ec ff4 ,a process of mystifying or deifying the person of ,buddha seems to have been going on immediately after the death of the ,master2 and the ,mahynistic conception of ,nirmnakya and ,sambhogakya is merely the consummation of this process4 ,southern ,buddhists who are sometimes supposed to represent a more 8primitive0 form of ,buddhism describe just as much as ,mahynism the thirty-two major and eighty minor excellent physical marks of a great man as having been possessed by kyamuni1 7for instance1 see the ,milindapaha1 ,s4 ,b4 ,e4 ,vol4 ,,xxxv4 p4 #aaf74 ,but any person with common sense will at once see the absurdity of representing any human being with those physical peculiarities4 ,and this seems to have inspired more rational ,mahynists to abandon the traditional way of portraying the human ,buddha with those mysterious signs4 ,they transferred them through the doctrine of ,trikya to the characterisation of the ,sambhogakya ,buddha1 that is1 to the ,buddha enjoying in a celestial abode the fruit of his virtuous earthly life4 ,the ,buddha who walked in the flesh as the son of ,king ,suddhodana was1 however1 no more than an ordinary human being like ourselves1 because he appeared to us in a form of ,nirmnakya1 i4e4 as a ,body of ,transformation1 devoid of any such physical peculiarities known as thirty-two or eighty lakanas4 ,southern ,buddhists1 so called1 seem1 however1 to have overlooked the ridiculousness of attributing these fantastic signs to the human ,buddha2 and this fact explains that as soon as the memory of the personal disciples of ,buddha about his person vanished among the later followers1 intense speculation and resourceful imagination were constantly exercised until the divers schools settled the question each in its own way4 #aah ,cf4 ,i ,cor4 ,,xi4 #ai et seq4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,notes4 #aai ,kern's ,english translation 7,s4 ,b4 ,e4 ,vol4 ,,xxi71 ,chap4 ,,iii1 p4 #hj4 #abj ,it should be noted here that the idea of universal salvation was lacking altogether in the followers of ,hnaynism4 ,but what distinguished it so markedly from ,mahynism is that the former did not extend the idea wide enough1 but confined it to ,buddhahood only4 ,buddha attained omniscience in order that he might deliver the world1 but we1 ordinary mortals1 are too ignorant and too helpless to aspire for ,buddhahood2 let us be contented with paying homage to ,buddha and faithfully observing his precepts as laid down by him for our spiritual edification4 ,our knowledge and energy are too limited to cope with such a gigantic task as to achieve a universal salvation of mankind2 let a ,buddha or ,bodhisattva attempt it while we may rest with a profound confidence in him and in his work4 ,thoughts somewhat like these must have been going about in the minds of the ,hnaynists1 when their ,mahyna brethren were making bold to strive after ,buddhahood themselves4 ,the difference between the two schools of ,buddhism1 when most concisely expressed1 is this3 ,while one has a most submissive confidence in the ,buddha1 the other endeavors to follow his example by placing himself in his position4 ,the following quotation 78the ,story of ,sumedha10 a ,jtaka tale1 from ,warren's ,buddhism1 p4 #ad7 in which ,sumedha1 one of the ,buddha's former incarnations1 expresses his resolve to be a ,buddha1 may just as well be considered as that of a ,mahynist himself1 while the ,hnaynists would not dare to make this wish their own3 8,or why should ,i1 valorous man1 ,the ocean seek to cross alone8 ,omniscience first will ,i achieve1 ,and men and gods convey across4 8,since now ,i make this earnest wish1 ,in presence of this ,best of ,men1 ,omniscience sometime ,i'll achieve1 ,and multitude convey across4 8,i'll rebirth' circling stream arrest1 ,destroy existence's three modes2 ,i'll climb the sides of ,doctrine's ship1 ,and men and gods convey across40 #aba ,this is a very rough summary of the doctrine that is known as ,parivarta and expounded in the ,avatamsaka ,stra1 fas4 #ba-bb where ten forms of ,parivarta are distinguished and explained at length4 #abb ,warren's ,buddhism in ,translations1 the 8,story of ,sumedha10 pp4 #ad-ae4 #abc ,it may be interesting to ,christian readers to note in this connection that modern ,buddhists do not reject altogether the idea of vicarious atonement1 for their religious conviction as seen here admits the parivarta of a ,bodhisattva's merits to the spiritual welfare of his fellow-creatures4 ,but they will object to the ,christian interpretation that ,jesus was sent down on earth by his heavenly father for the special mission to atone for the original sin through the shedding of his innocent blood1 for this is altogether too puerile and materialistic4 #abd ,the full title of the work is ,a ,treatise on the ,transcendentality of ,bodhicitta 7,nanjo1 ,no4 #acjd74 ,it is a little book consisting of seven or eight sheets in big ,chinese type4 ,it was translated into ,chinese by ,dnapla 7,shih ,hu7 during the tenth century of the ,christian ,era4 #abe ,upaya1 meaning 8expedient10 8stratagem10 8device10 or 8craft10 has a technical sense in ,buddhism4 ,it is used in contrast to intelligence 7praj7 and is synonymous with love 7karun74 ,so1 ,vimalakrti says in the stra bearing his name 7chap4 #h1 verses #a-d73 8,praj is the mother of the ,bodhisattva and ,upaya his father2 there is no leader of humanity who is not born of them40 ,intelligence 7praj7 is the one1 the universal1 representing the principle of sameness 7samat71 while ,upaya is the many1 being the principle of manifoldness 7nntv74 ,from the standpoint of pure intelligence1 the ,bodhisattvas do not see any particular suffering existences1 for there is nothing that is not of the ,dharmakya3 but when they see the universe from the standpoint of their love-essence1 they recognise everywhere the conditions of misery and sin that arise from clinging to the forms of particularity4 ,to remove these1 they devise all possible means that are directed towards the attainment of the final aim of existence4 ,there is only one religion1 religion of truth1 but there are many ways1 many means1 many upayas1 all issuing from the all-embracing love of the ,dharmakya and equally efficient to lead the masses to supreme enlightenment and universal good4 ,therefore1 ontologically speaking1 this universe1 the ,buddhists would say1 is nothing but a grand display of ,upayas by the ,dharmakya that desires thereby to lead all sentient beings to the ultimate realisation of ,buddhahood4 ,in many cases1 thus1 it is extremely difficult to render upaya by any of its ,english equivalents and yet to retain its original technical sense unsuffered4 ,this is also the case with many other ,buddhist terms1 among which we may mention ,bodhi1 ,dharmakya1 ,praj1 ,citta1 ,parivarta1 etc4 ,the ,chinese translators have fang p'ien for upaya which means 8means-accommodation40 #abf ,its full title is ,a ,discourse on the ,non-duality of the ,mahyna-,dharmadhtu4 ,it consists of less than a dozen pages in ordinary ,chinese large print4 ,it was translated by ,deva-praj and others in the year #fia ,a4,d4 #abg ,this work was translated by ,kumrajva into ,chinese at the beginning of the fifth century ,a4,d4 ,it is divided into two fascicles1 each consisting of about one score of ,chinese pages4 #abh ,the above is a liberal rendering of the first part of the ,chapter ,,iii1 in ,vasubandhu's ,bodhicitta4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,notes4 #abi ,the distinction between the five indriyas and the five balas seems to be rather redundant4 ,but the ,hindu philosophers usually distinguish actor from action1 agent from function or operation4 ,thus the sense-organs are distinguished from sensations or sense-consciousnesses1 and the manovijna 7mind7 from its functions such as thinking1 attention1 memory1 etc4 ,the tman has thus come to be considered the central agent that controls all the sensuous and intellectual activities4 ,though the ,buddhists do not recognise this differentiation of actor and action in reality1 they sometimes loosely follow the popular usage4 #acj ,in this connection it is very interesting also to note that ,carlyle expresses the same sentiment about the greatness of ,shakespeare in his ,hero ,worship4 8,if ,i say that ,shakspeare is the greatest of ,intellects1 ,i have said all concerning him4 ,but there is more in ,shakspeare's intellect than we have yet seen ,it is what ,i call an unconscious intellect2 there is more virtue in it that he himself is aware of4 ,novalis beautifully remarks of him1 that those dramas of his are ,products of ,nature too1 as deep as ,nature herself4 ,i find a great truth in this saying1 ,shakspeare's ,art is not ,artifice2 the noblest worth of it is not there by plan or precontrivance4 ,it grows from the deeps of ,nature1 through this noble sincere soul1 who is a voice of ,nature40 #aca ,the ten powers of the ,buddha are3 7#a7 ,the mental power which discriminates between right and wrong1 7#b7 ,the knowledge of the retribution of karma1 7#c7 ,the knowledge of all the different stages of creation1 7#d7 ,the knowledge of all the different forms of deliverance1 7#e7 ,the knowledge of all the different dispositions of sentient beings1 7#f7 ,the knowledge of the final destination of all deeds1 7#g7 ,the knowledge of all the different practices of meditation1 deliverance1 and tranquilisation1 7#h7 ,the knowledge of former existences1 7#i7 ,the unlimited power of divination1 7#aj7 ,the knowledge of the complete subjection of evil desires 7rava74 #acb ,the four convictions 7vairadyas7 of the ,buddha are3 7#a7 ,that he has attained the highest enlightenment1 7#b7 ,that he has destroyed all evil desires1 7#c7 ,that he has rightly described the obstacles that lie in the way to a life of righteousness1 7#d7 ,that he has truthfully taught the way of salvation4 #acc ,the eighteen unique characteristics which distinguish the ,buddha from the rest of mankind are3 7#a7 ,he commits no errors4 ,since time out of mind1 he has disciplined himself in morality1 meditation1 intelligence1 and lovingkindness1 and as the result his present life is without faults and free from all evil thoughts4 7#b7 ,he is faultless in his speeches4 ,whatever he speaks comes from his transcendental eloquence and leads the audience to a higher conception of life4 7#c7 ,his mind is faultless4 ,as he has trained himself in samdhi1 he is always calm1 serene1 and contented4 7#d7 ,he retains his sameness of heart 7samhitacitta71 that is1 his love for sentient beings is universal and not discriminative4 7#e7 ,his mind is free from thoughts of particularity 7nntvasamj71 that is1 it is abiding in truth transcendental1 his thoughts are not distracted by objects of the senses4 7#f7 ,resignation 7upek74 ,the ,buddha knows everything1 yet he is calmly resigned4 7#g7 ,his aspiration is unfathomable1 that is1 his desire to save all beings from the sufferings of ignorance knows no bounds4 7#h7 ,his energy is inexhaustible1 which he applies with utmost vigor to the salvation of benighted souls4 7#i7 ,his mentation 7smti7 is inexhaustible1 that is1 he is ever conscious of all the good doctrines taught by all the ,buddhas of the past1 present1 and future4 7#aj7 ,his intelligence 7praj7 is inexhaustible1 that is1 being in possession of all-intelligence which knows no limits1 he preaches for the benefits of all beings4 7#aa7 ,his deliverance 7vimukti7 is permanent1 that is1 he has eternally distanced all evil passions and sinful attachments4 7#ab7 ,his knowledge of deliverance 7vimuktijna7 is perfect1 that is1 his intellectual insight into all states of deliverance is without a flaw4 7#ac7 ,he possesses a wisdom which directs all his bodily movements towards the benefit and enlightenment of sentient beings4 7#ad7 ,he possesses a wisdom which directs all his speeches toward the edification and conversion of his fellow-creatures4 7#ae7 ,he possesses a wisdom which reflects in his clear mind all the turbulent states of ignorant souls1 from which he removes the dark veil of nescience and folly4 7#af7 ,he knows all the past4 7#ag7 ,he knows all the future4 7#ah7 ,he knows all the present4 #acd ,for an elaborate exposition of the ,daabhm1 see the ,avatamsaka 7sixty volume edition1 fas4 #bd-bg71 the rangama1 ,vasubandhu's ,commentary on ,asanga's ,comprehensive ,treatise on ,mahyanism 7fas4 #aj-aa71 the ,vijnnamtra stra 7fas4 #i71 etc41 and for a special treatment of the subject consult the stra bearing the name1 which by the way exists in a ,sanskrit version and whose brief sketch is given by ,rajendra ,mitra in his ,nepalese ,buddhist ,literature1 p4 #ha et seq4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,notes4 #ace ,literally1 8to advance against40 #acf ,cf4 ,beal's translation in the ,s4 ,b4 ,e4 ,vol ,,xix4 pp4 #cjf-cjg1 vs4 #bjie-baja4 ,beal utterly misunderstands the ,chinese original4 #acg ,the ,buddhacarita1 ,cowell's translation in the ,s4 ,b4 ,e4 ,vol4 ,,xlix4 p4 #ade4 #ach ,from ,a4 ,j4 ,edmunds's translation of ,dhammapada4 #aci ,p4 #bbe4 ,beal's translation is not always reliable1 and ,i would have my own if the ,chinese original were at all accessible4 #adj ,the gths supposed to be the first utterance of the ,buddha after his enlightenment1 according to ,rockhill's ,life of the ,buddha 7p4 #cc7 compiled from ,tibetan sources1 give an inkling of nihilism1 though ,i am inclined to think that the original ,tibetan will allow a different interpretation when examined by some one who is better acquainted with the spirit of ,buddhism than ,rockhill4 ,rockhill betrays in not a few cases his insufficient knowledge of the subject he treats4 ,his translation of the gths is as follows3 8,all the pleasures of the worldly joys1 ,all which are known among the gods1 ,compared with the joy of ending existence1 ,are not as its sixteenth part4 8,sorry is he whose burden is heavy1 ,and happy he who has cast it down2 ,when once he has cast off his burden1 ,he will seek to be burthened no more4 8,when all existences are put away1 ,when all notions are at an end1 ,when all things are perfectly known1 ,then no more will craving come back40 ,in the ,udna1 ,,ii41 #b1 we have a stanza corresponding to the first gth here cited1 but the ,udna does not say 8the joy of ending existence10 but 8the destruction of desire40 ,according to the ,lalita ,vistara1 the ,buddha's utterance of victory is 7,rjendra ,mitra's ,edition p4 #ddh73 8,cinna vartmopanta rajh uk rav na puna ravanti4 ,chinne vartmani varttate dukhasyaionta ucyate40 #ada ,warren's ,buddhism in ,translations1 p4 #cgf4 #adb ,general ,d4 ,m4 ,strong's translation1 p4 #fd4 #adc ,the text does not expressly say 8animate or inanimate01 but this is the author's own interpretation according to the general spirit of ,mahynism4 #add ,there are two obstacles to final emancipation3 7#a7 affective1 and 7#b7 intellectual4 ,the former is our unenlightened affective or emotional or subjective life and the latter our intellectual prejudice4 ,buddhists should not only be pure in heart but be perfect in intelligence4 ,pious men are of course saved from transmigration1 but to attain perfect ,buddhahood they must have a clear1 penetrating intellectual insight into the significance of life and existence and the destiny of the universe4 ,this emphasising of the rational element in religion is one of the most characteristic points of ,buddhism4 #ade ,this is one of the most important philosophical texts of ,mahynism4 ,its original ,sanskrit with the commentary of ,chandra ,krti has been edited by ,satis ,chandra ,acharya and published by the ,buddhist ,text ,society of ,india4 ,the original lines run as follows 7p4 #aic73 8,aprahnam1 asamprptam1 anucchinnam1 avatam1 ,aniruddham1 anutpannam1 evam nirvnam ucyate40 #adf ,literally1 that which is characterised by the absence of all characterisation4 #adg ,cf4 the following from the ,mdhyamika3 8,bhaved abbvo bhva ca nirvnam ubhayam katham3 ,asamsktam ca nirvnam bhvbhavi ca samsktam40 ,or1 8,tasmnna bhvo nbhvo nirvnamiti yujyate40 #adh ,in the ,visuddhi-,magga ,,xxi4 7,warren's translation1 p4 #cgf et seq471 we read that there are three starting points of deliverance arising from the consideration of the three predominant qualities of the constituents of being3 #a4 ,the consideration of their beginnings and ends leads the thoughts to the unconditioned2 #b4 ,the insight into their miserableness agitates the mind and leads the thoughts to the desireless2 #c4 ,the consideration of the constituents of being as not having an ego leads the thoughts to the empty4 ,and these three1 we are told1 constitute the three aspects of ,nirvna as unconditioned1 desireless1 and empty4 ,here we have an instance in the so-called ,southern 8primitive0 ,buddhism of viewing ,nirvna in the ,mahynistic light which ,i have here explained at length4 ,en passant1 let us remark that as ,buddha did not leave any document himself embodying his whole system1 there sprang up soon after his departure several schools explaining the ,master's view in divers ways1 each claiming the legitimate interpretation2 that in view of this fact it is illogical to conclude that ,southern ,buddhism is the authoritative representation par excellence of original ,buddhism1 while the ,eastern or the ,northern is a mere degeneration4 #adi ,there are three ,chinese translations of this ,mahyna text1 by ,dharmaraka1 ,kumrajva1 and ,bodhiruci1 between #bfe and #eag ,a4,d4 #aej ,samsrasya ca nirvnt kincid asti vieaam3 ,na nirvasya samsrt kincid asti viesaam4 #aea ,nirvasya ca y koti koti samsrasya ca1 ,vidydanantara kincit susukna vidyate4 #aeb ,concerning the similarity in meaning of this statement to the one just preceding1 a commentator says that the sixth is the statical view of ,suchness 7or ,dharmakya7 and the seventh its dynamical view4 ,one explains what the highest reality of ,buddhism is and the other what it does or works4 #aec ,the ,discourse on ,buddha-essence by ,vasubandhu4 ,the ,japanese ,tripitaka edition of #ahha1 fas4 ,,ii41 p4 #hd1 where the stanza is quoted from the ,stra on the ,incomprehensible4 #aed ,this is expressed in the first verse of the ,mdhyamika stra1 which runs as follows3 8,anirodham anutpdam anucchedam avatam ,anekrtham annrtham angamam anirgamam40 ,literally translated these lines read3 8,no annihilation1 no production1 no destruction1 no persistence1 ,no unity1 no plurality1 no coming in1 no going out40 #aee ,compare this ,buddhist sentiment of universal love with that of the ,christian religion and we shall see the truth that all religions are one at the bottom4 ,we read in ,thomas ,kempis's ,imitation of ,christ 7ch4 ,,xiii73 8,my son1 ,i descended from heaven for thy salvation2 ,i took upon me thy sorrows1 not necessity but love drawing me thereto2 that thou thyself mightest learn patience and bear temporal sufferings without repining4 ,for from the hour of my birth1 even until my death on the cross1 ,i was not without suffering of grief40 ,this is exactly the sentiment that stimulates the ,bodhisattvas to their gigantic task of universal salvation4 ,those who are free from sectarian biases will admit without hesitation that there is but one true religion which may assume various forms according to circumstances4 8,many are the roads to the summit1 but when reached there we have but one universal moonlight40 #aef ,the ,dharmapada1 ,,xiv4 #e4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,edmunds's translation is1 8,ceasing to do all wrong1 ,initiation into goodness1 ,cleansing the heart3 ,this the religion of the ,buddhas40 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes4 ,page numbers are given in curly brackets4 ,the following have been left as-printed3 ,archaic and inconsistent spellings 7e4g41 ,corea1 ,nirvna_/,nirvana1 cordination_/co-ordination1 efficience_/efficiency1 laya-vijna_/layavijna1 etc474 ,ellipses of varying lengths4 7p4 #cag7 ,the ,eightfold ,noble ,path is listed omitting the seventh step 7,right mindfulness74 ,also1 the sixth step is usually given as 8,right effort10 not 8,right recollection40 ,the usage of both 8fn40 and 8ft40 to denote 8footnote0 in the ,index4 ,lastly1 some syntactical errors with possible corrections given in square brackets3 7p4 #hc7 8,its foundation lies too deeply buried in the human heart to be damaged by knowledge or science40 7p4 #ajd7 8,when ,bodhi-,dharma444 saw ,emperor ,wu of the ,liang dynasty 7,a4,d4 #ejb-eef71 he was asked4440 7p4 #bad7 8,in good karma we are made to live eternally1 but in an evil one we are doomed4440 7p4 #bae7 8,pious ,buddhists believe that444 he enters right into the soul and becomes an integral part of his being40 ,alterations to the text3 ,abandon the use of drop-caps4 ,convert footnotes to endnotes and add a corresponding entry in the ,,toc4 ,punctuation corrections3 several missing_/invisible periods and a few commas1 some quotation mark pairings_/nestings1 etc4 ,,toc ,add missing 8,two ,forms of ,knowledge0 subsection under ,chapter ,,iv4 ,under ,chapter ,,xii1 change 8,bhimukh0 to 8,abhimukh04 ,introduction ,change 8the other schools1 which latter became a class by itself0 to later4 8led to the dissension af ,mahynism and ,hnaynism0 to of4 8,kant1 for instance1 as promotor of ,german philosophy0 to promoter4 8a few centnries after ,avaghoa1 the progressive party0 to centuries4 8while the ,prayekabuddhas and the rvakas are considered0 to ,pratyekabuddhas4 8,buddhism cannot ignore the significane of ,mahynism0 to significance4 8their rival religion as denegerated1 because it went0 to degenerated4 8,this fact so miserably spoils their purityof sentiment0 to purity of4 8his intellect becomes pitiously obscured by his0 to piteously4 8refering to the ,mahyna conception of ,dharmakya0 to referring4 ,chapter ,i 8that1 owing to a crime commited by them0 to committed4 8do not recognise the evanescence of wordly things0 to worldly4 8,the dotrine of nescience or ignorance is technically0 to doctrine4 8sons and daughters1 wives aud husbands1 all transfigured0 to and4 8and which therefore were utterly desplicable0 to despicable4 8in response to the pathetic persuation of his father's0 to persuasion4 ,chapter ,,ii 8,sthiramati in his ,indroduction to ,mahynism0 to ,introduction4 8,as the silkworm imprisons itself in the cacoon created0 to cocoon4 8realm of the absolute and the abode of non-particurality0 to non-particularity4 ,chapter ,,iii 8satisfy the inmost yearings of the human heart0 to yearnings4 8which consists of the inmost yearings of the human heart0 to yearnings4 ,chapter ,,iv 8,world-views ,founded on the ,three ,froms of ,knowledge0 to ,forms4 7p4 #id1 fn4 #a7 8,nanjo4 ,nos4 #bdf aud #bdg71 etc40 to and4 8,from this1 it is to be infered that ,buddhism never0 to inferred4 ,chapter ,v 7,ngrjana's famous doctrine of 8,the ,middle ,path7 to ,ngrjuna's4 8is no more than a fragment of the absoulte ,bhtatatht0 to absolute4 8to be very logical and free from serious dufficulties0 to difficulties4 8,adam with ,eve1 ,buddha with ,devadatta1 etc41 ect410 to etc4 ,chapter ,,vi 8and ,buddi and ,ahankra4 ,buddhi1 intellect1 is defined0 to ,buddhi4 7p4#aci1 fn4 #a7 8doctrine of ,mahynism1 i4e44 that of0 change third period to a comma4 ,chapter ,,vii 8fixed state of things in which perfect equillibrium0 to equilibrium4 8the noumenal ego as the raison d' tre of our0 to d'tre4 7literally means 8aggregate0 or 8aglomeration07 to agglomeration4 7saying3 8,this#8middle' is extremely indefinite7 to ,this #8middle'4 8the hypothesis of the permament existence of an0 to permanent4 7,the term 8sabhva0 7self-essence or noumenon7 is7 to svabhva4 8they are like the will-#8o-the-wisp0 to will-o'-the-wisp4 8,if the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth ds not exist0 to does4 8,the ,buddha 's teaching rests on the discrimination0 to ,buddha's4 ,chapter ,,viii 8,he is sufficent unto himself as he is here and now0 to sufficient4 8and the accumulation of of merits 7punyaskandha70 delete one of4 8,every one of these seeds which are infinte in number0 to infinite4 ,chapter ,,ix 8than devastation1 barreness1 and universal misery0 to barrenness4 8,even so with the ,dharkya of the ,tathgata0 to ,dharmakya4 8,even so with the ,dharmakya of the,t athgata0 to the ,tathgata4 8such as blindness1 deafness1 mental abberration1 etc40 to aberration4 8,it anthroposises everything beyond the proper measure0 to anthropomorphises4 ,chapter ,x 7p4 #bdc1 fn4 #a7 8the ,eastern ,tsin dynasty 7,a4,d1 #cga-dbj70 change the comma to a period4 8the work once refered to in the beginning of this book0 to referred4 8describe the the essential peculiarities of each school0 delete one the4 7p4 #bec1 fn4 #b7 8,a part of the orginal ,sanskrit text0 to original4 8,asanga and ,vasubandhu will be here refered to0 to referred4 8pious ,buddhists would be transfered after their death0 to transferred4 7p4 #bga1 fn4 #a7 8eighty minor exellent physical marks of a great0 to excellent4 7same7 8,they transfered them through the doctrine of ,trikya0 to transferred4 ,chapter ,,xi 8which was quite unwittingly commited by him0 to committed4 8does not allow the transfering of responsibility0 to transferring4 8,it is uncreate and its self-essence is void0 to uncreated4 ,chapter ,,xii 8,on the evanescence of the wordly interests0 to worldly4 8#c4 ,circumspection2 #d4 ,equillibrium1 or tranquillity0 to ,equilibrium4 8aloof from the consuming fire of passsion0 to passion4 8,he practises the virtue of strenuousuess 7vriya70 to strenuousness4 ,chapter ,,xiii 8,and am eternally released from all pain and suffe ring0 to suffering4 7p4 #ccd1 fn4 #b7 8,cowell's translation in the ,s4 ,b4 ,e4 ,vol4 ,,ilix4 p4 #ade0 to ,,xlix4 8,when we speak of ,buddha 's entrance into ,nirvna0 to ,buddha's4 8love is a ,buddha-dharma1 wisdom is a ,buddha dharma0 to ,buddha-dharma4 8emancipation of the rvaka or of the ,prayekabuddha0 to ,pratyekabuddha4 8hearts are not softened at the sight of others1 misfortune and suffering0 change the comma to a 7possessive7 apostrophe4 8he does not believe that universal emanciipation0 to emancipation4 8but that thay obtain reality in their oneness with0 to they4 8do not pay homage to the congregration of holy men0 to congregation4 ,appendix 8,devoid of all liminations0 to limitations4 8,none is there but that enters upon ,buddh a-knowledge0 to ,buddha-knowledge4 8,all senient beings in transmigration travel through0 to sentient4 8,i'll release1 and to eternal pease them ,i'll lead0 to peace4 8,in the stream of birth and death they go arolling0 to a-rolling4 8,no-more-arolling is ,nirvna0 to a-rolling4 ,change two incidents of ,nonjo to ,nanjo4 8,the ,avatamsaka ,sutru0 to ,sutra4 ,index 7,imitation of ,christ1 #cfe fn47 to #cfd4 7,lalita ,vistara1 quoted1 on ,nirvana1 #cci fn47 to #cch4 7,max ,mueller1 quoted1 #ajh ft41 #aaa ft41 #bba47 to #aaj4 7,praj 7and ,bodhi71 defined1 #fb ft42 #hb1 #ig1 #aai1 #bch1 #cfj47 to #hb4 7,prakti 7,samkyan primordial matter71 #fg ft47 to #ff4 7,purusha 7,samkyan soul71 #fg ft47 to #ff4 78,tat tvam asi10 #dg1 #acf ft47 to #ace4 7,udna1 quoted1 #eb1 #cci ft41 #cda47 to #cch4 7,upya 7expediency71 #fd1 #bfa ft42 its meaning7 to #bfj4 ,end of text