images of public domain material from the ,google ,print project47 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this e-text includes characters that require ,,utf-#h 7,unicode7 file encoding1 primarily ,greek words and letters1 and some letters with macron or breve3 ,if any of these characters do not display properly--in particular1 if the diacritic does not appear directly above the letter--or if the apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage1 make sure your text reader's 8character set0 or 8file encoding0 is set to ,unicode 7,,utf-#h74 ,you may also need to change the default font4 ,as a last resort1 use the ,latin-#a version of the file instead4 ,boldface is shown as marks1 italics as lines4 ,the ,,roman ,,pronunciation ,,of ,,latin ,why we use it and ,how to use it by ,,frances ,e4 ,,lord ,professor of ,latin in ,wellesley ,college ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,published by ,ginn ,company #ahid ,copyright1 #ahid ,by ,,frances ,e4 ,,lord ,all ,rights ,reserved ,publisher's ,device3 ,the ,athenum ,press _/ ,ginn and ,company ,contents 7added by transcriber7 ,introduction ,,part ,i4 ,why ,we ,use ,it4 ,sounds of the ,letters4 ,vowels4 ,diphthongs4 ,consonants4 ,quantity4 ,accent4 ,pitch4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,how ,to ,use ,it4 ,elision4 ,quantity4 ,accent4 ,,introduction4 ,the argument brought against the #8,roman pronunciation' of ,latin is twofold3 the impossibility of perfect theoretical knowledge1 and the difficulty of practical attainment4 ,if to know the main features of the classic pronunciation of ,latin were impossible1 then our obvious course would be to refuse the attempt2 to regard the language as in reality dead1 and to make no pretence of reading it4 ,this is in fact what the ,english scholars generally do4 ,but if we may know substantially the sounds of the tongue in which ,cicero spoke and ,horace sung1 shall we give up the delights of the melody and the rhythm and content ourselves with the thought form8 ,poetry especially does not exist apart from sound2 sense alone will not constitute it1 nor even sense and form without sound4 ,but if it is true that the task of practical acquisition is1 if not impossible1 extremely difficult1 #8the work of a lifetime1' as the objectors say1 do the results justify the expenditure of time and labor8 ,the position of the ,english-speaking peoples is not the same in this as that of ,europeans4 ,europeans have not the same necessity to urge them to the #8,roman pronunciation4' ,their own languages represent the ,latin more or less adequately1 in vowel sounds1 in accent1 and even1 to some extent1 in quantity2 so that with them1 all is not lost if they translate the sounds into their own tongues2 while with us1 nothing is left--sound1 accent1 quantity1 all is gone2 none of these is reproduced1 or even suggested1 in ,english4 ,we believe a great part of our difficulty1 in this country1 lies in the fact that so few of those who study and teach ,latin really know what the #8,roman pronunciation' is1 or how to use it4 ,inquiries are constantly being made by teachers1 ,why is this so8 ,what authority is there for this8 ,what reason for that8 ,in the hope of giving help to those who desire to know the ,why and the ,how this little compendium is made2 in the interest of time-and-labor-saving uniformity1 and in the belief that what cannot be fully known or perfectly acquired does still not prevent our perceiving1 and showing in some worthy manner and to1 some satisfactory degree1 how1 as well as what1 the honey-tongued orators and divine poets of ,rome spoke or sung4 ,in the following pages free use has been made of the highest ,english authorities1 of ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,quotations will be found from ,prof4 ,h4 ,a4 ,j4 ,munro's pamphlet on 8,pronunciation of ,latin10 and from ,prof4 ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis' book on 8,quantitative ,pronunciation of ,latin02 also from the pamphlet issued by the ,cambridge 7,eng47 ,philological ,society1 on the 8,pronunciation of ,latin in the ,augustan ,period40 ,in the present compendium the chief points of divergence from the general ,american understanding of the #8,roman' method are in respect of the diphthong ae and the consonantal u4 ,in these cases the pronunciation herein recommended for the ae is that favored by ,roby1 ,munro1 and ,ellis1 and adopted by the ,cambridge ,philological ,society2 for the v1 or u consonant1 that advocated by ,corssen1 ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis1 and ,robinson ,ellis4 ,,the ,,roman ,,pronunciation ,,of ,,latin4 ,,part ,i4 ,,why ,,we ,,use ,,it4 ,in general1 the greater part of our knowledge of the pronunciation of ,latin comes from the ,latin grammarians1 whose authority varies greatly in value2 or through incidental statements and expressions of the classic writers themselves2 or from monumental inscriptions4 ,of these three1 the first is inferior to the other two in quality1 but they in turn are comparatively meagre in quantity4 ,in the first place1 we know 7a most important piece of knowledge7 that1 as a rule1 ,latin was pronounced as written4 ,this is evident from the fact1 among others1 that the same exceptions recur1 and are mentioned over and over again1 in the grammarians1 and that so much is made of comparatively1 and confessedly1 insignificant points4 ,such1 we may be sure1 would not have been the case had exceptions been numerous4 ,then we have the authority of ,quintilian--than whom is no higher4 ,he speaks of the subtleties of the grammarians3 ,quint4 ,i4 iv4 #f4 ,interiora velut sacri hujus adeuntibus apparebit multa rerum subtilitas1 quae non modo acuere ingenia puerilia sed exercere altissimam quoque eruditionem ac scientiam possit4 ,and says3 ,id4 ib4 iv4 #g4 ,an cujuslibet auris est exigere litterarum sonos8 ,but after citing some of those idiosyncrasies which appear on the pages of all the grammarians1 he finally sums up the matter in the following significant words3 ,id4 ib4 vii4 #cj1 #ca4 ,indicium autem suum grammaticus interponat his omnibus2 nam hoc valere plurimum debet4 ,ego 7note the ego7 nisi quod consuetudo obtinuerit sic scribendum quidque judico1 quomodo sonat4 ,hic enim est usus litterarum1 ut custodiant voces et velut depositum reddant legentibus1 itaque id exprimere debent quod dicturi sumus4 ,this is still a characteristic of the ,italian language1 so that one may by books1 getting the rules from the grammarians1 learn to pronounce the language with a good degree of correctness4 ,on this point ,professor ,munro says3 8,we see in the first volume of the ,corpus ,inscr4 ,latin4 a map1 as it were1 of the language spread open before us1 and feel sure that change of spelling meant systematical change of pronunciation3 coira1 coera1 cura2 aiquos1 aequos1 aecus2 queicumque1 quicumque1 etc41 etc40 ,and again3 8,we know exactly how ,cicero or ,quintilian did or could spell2 we know the syllable on which they placed the accent of almost every word2 and in almost every case we already follow them in this4 ,i have the conviction that in their best days philological people took vast pains to make the writing exactly reproduce the sounding2 and that if ,quintilian or ,tacitus spelt a word differently from ,cicero or ,livy1 he also spoke it so far differently40 ,three chief factors are essential to the ,latin language1 and each of these must be known with some good degree of certainty1 if we would lay claim to an understanding of ,roman pronunciation4 ,these are3 7#a7 ,sounds of the letters 7vowels1 diphthongs1 consonants72 7#b7 ,quantity2 7#c7 ,accent4 ,,sounds ,,of ,,the ,,letters4 ,,vowels4 ,the vowels are five3 a1 e1 i1 o1 u4 ,these when uttered alone are always long4 ,pompei4 ,comm4 ad ,donat4 ,keil4 v4 ,v4 p4 #aja et al4 ,vocales autem quinque sunt3 a1 e1 i1 o1 u4 ,istae quinque1 quando solae proferuntur1 longae sunt semper3 quando solas litteras dicis1 longae sunt4 ,a sola longa est2 e sola longa est4 ,a is uttered with the mouth widely opened1 the tongue suspended and not touching the teeth3 ,ars ,gram4 ,mar4 ,vict4 de orthographia et de metrica ratione1 ,i4 vi4 #f4 ,a littera rictu patulo1 suspensa neque impressa dentibus lingua1 enuntiatur4 ,e is uttered with the mouth less widely open1 and the lips drawn back and inward3 ,id4 ib4 vi4 #g4 ,e quae sequitur1 de represso modice rictu oris1 reductisque introrsum labiis1 effertur4 ,i will voice itself with the mouth half closed and the teeth gently pressed by the tongue3 ,id4 ib4 vi4 #h4 ,i semicluso ore1 impressisque sensim lingua dentibus1 vocem dabit4 ,o 7long7 will give the 8tragic sound0 through rounded opening1 with lips protruded1 the tongue pendulous in the roof of the mouth3 ,id4 ib4 vi4 #i4 ,o longum autem1 protrusis labiis1 rictu tereti1 lingua arcu oris pendula1 sonum tragicum dabit4 ,u is uttered with the lips protruding and approaching each other1 like the ,greek 3 ,id4 ib4 vi4 #aj4 ,u litteram quotiens enuntiamus1 productis et coeuntibus labris efferemus 4 4 4 quam nisi per conjunctam ,graeci scribere ac pronuntiare non possunt4 ,of these five vowels the grammarians say that three 7a1 i1 u7 do not change their quality with their quantity3 ,pompei4 ,comm4 ad ,donat4 ,keil4 v4 ,v4 p4 #aja4 ,de istis quinque litteris tres sunt1 quae sive breves sive longae ejusdemmodi sunt1 a1 i1 u3 similiter habent sive longae sive breves4 ,but two 7e1 o7 change their quality3 ,id4 ib4 ,o vero et e non sonant breves4 ,e aliter longa aliter brevis sonat4 ,dicit ita ,terentianus 7hoc dixit7 #8,quotienscumque e longam volumus proferri1 vicina sit ad i litteram4' ,ipse sonus sic debet sonare1 quomodo sonat i littera4 ,quando dicis evitat1 vicina debet esse1 sic pressa1 sic angusta1 ut vicina sit ad i litteram4 ,quando vis dicere brevem e simpliciter sonat4 ,o longa sit an brevis4 ,si longa est1 debet sonus ipse intra palatum sonare1 ut si dices orator1 quasi intra sonat1 intra palatum4 ,si brevis est debet primis labris sonare1 quasi extremis labris1 ut puta sic dices obit4 ,habes istam regulam expressam in ,terentiano4 ,quando vis exprimere quia brevis est1 primis labris sonat2 quando exprimis longam1 intra palatum sonat4 ,ars ,gram4 ,mar4 ,vict4 de ,orthog4 et de ,metr4 ,rat41 ,i4 vi4 #i4 ,o qui correptum enuntiat1 nec magno hiatu labra reserabit1 et retrorsum actam linguam tenebit4 ,it would thus seem that the long e of the ,latin in its prolongation draws into the i sound1 somewhat as if i were subjoined1 as in the ,english vein or ,italian fedele4 ,the grammarians speak of the obscure sound of i and u1 short and unaccented in the middle of a word2 so that in a number of words i and u were written indifferently1 even by classic writers1 as optimus or optumus1 maximus or maxumus4 ,this is but a simple and natural thing4 ,the same obscurity occurs often in ,english1 as1 for instance1 in words ending in able or ible4 ,how easy1 for instance1 to confuse the sound and spelling in such words as detestable and digestible4 ,serg4 ,explan4 ,art4 ,donat4 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #dge4 ,hae etiam duae i et u 4 4 4 interdum expressum suum sonum non habent3 i1 ut vir2 u1 ut optumus4 ,non enim possumus dicere vir producta i1 nec optumus producta u2 unde etiam mediae dicuntur4 ,et hoc in commune patiuntur inter se1 et bene dixit ,donatus has litteras in quibusdam dictionibus expressum suum sonum non habere4 ,hae etiam mediae dicuntur1 quia quibusdam dictionibus expressum sonum non habent1 4 4 4 ut maxume pro maxime4 4 4 4 ,in quibusdam nominibus non certum exprimunt sonum2 i1 ut vir modo i opprimitur2 u ut optumus modo u perdit sonum4 ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #dfe4 ,cur per vi scribitur 7virum78 ,quia omnia nomina a vi syllaba incipientia per vi scribuntur exceptis bitumine et bile1 quando fel significat1 et illis quae a bis adverbio componuntur1 ut biceps1 bipatens1 bivium4 ,cur sonum videtur habere in hac dictione i vocalis u litterae ,graecae8 ,quia omnis dictio a vi syllaba brevi incipiens1 d vel t vel m vel r vel x sequentibus1 hoc sono pronuntiatur1 ut video1 videbam1 videbo3 quia in his temporibus vi corripitur1 mutavit sonum in u3 in praeterito autem perfecto1 et in aliis in quibus producitur1 naturalem servavit sonum1 ut vidi1 videram1 vidissem1 videro4 ,similiter vitium mutat sonum1 quia corripitur2 vita autem non mutat1 quia producitur4 ,similiter vim mutat quia corripitur1 vimen autem non mutat quia producitur4 ,similiter vir et virgo mutant1 quia corripiuntur3 virus autem et vires non mutant1 quia producuntur4 ,vix mutant1 quia corripitur3 vixi non mutant1 quia producitur4 ,hoc idem plerique solent etiam in illis dictionibus facere1 in quibus a fi brevi incipiunt syllabae sequentibus supra dictis consonantibus1 ut fides1 perfidus1 confiteor1 infimus1 firmus4 ,sunt autem qui non adeo hoc observant1 cum de vi nemo fere dubitat4 ,from this it would seem that in the positions above mentioned vi short--and with some speakers fi short--had an obscure1 somewhat thickened1 sound1 not unlike that heard in the ,english words virgin1 firm1 a not unnatural obscuration4 ,as ,donatus says of it3 ,keil4 v4 ,,iv4 p4 #cfg4 ,pingue nescio quid pro naturali sono usurpamus4 ,sometimes1 apparently1 this tendency ran into excess1 and the long i was also obscured2 while sometimes the short i was pronounced too distinctly4 ,this vice is commented on by the grammarians1 under the name iotacism3 ,pompei4 ,comm4 ad ,donat4 ,keil4 v4 ,v4 p4 #cid4 ,iotacismum dicunt vitium quod per i litteram vel pinguius vel exilius prolatam fit4 ,galli pinguius hanc utuntur1 ut cum dicunt ite1 non expresse ipsam proferentes1 sed inter e et i pinguiorem sonum nescio quem ponentes4 ,graeci exilius hanc proferunt1 adeo expressioni ejus tenui studentes1 ut si dicant jus1 aliquantulum de priori littera sic proferant1 ut videas dissyllabam esse factam4 ,romanae linguae in hoc erit moderatio1 ut exilis ejus sonus sit1 ubi ab ea verbum incipit1 ut ite1 aut pinguior1 ubi in ea desinit verbum1 ut habui1 tenui2 medium quendam sonum inter e et i habet1 ubi in medio sermone est1 ut hominem4 ,mihi tamen videtur1 quando producta est1 plenior vel acutior esse2 quando autem brevis est medium sonum exhibere debet1 sicut eadem exempla quae posita sunt possunt declarare4 ,the grammarians also note the peculiar relation of u to q1 as in the following passage3 ,serg4 ,explan4 ,art4 ,donat4 ,keil4 v4 ,,iv4 p4 #dge4 ,u vero hoc accidit proprium1 ut interdum nec vocalis nec consonans sit1 hoc est ut non sit littera1 cum inter q et aliquam vocalem ponitur4 ,nam consonans non potest esse1 quia ante se habet alteram consonantem1 id est q2 vocalis esse non potest1 quia sequitur illam vocalis1 ut quare1 quomodo4 ,,diphthongs4 ,in ,marius ,victorinus we find diphthongs thus defined3 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,gaisford1 ,i4 v4 #ed4 ,duae inter se vocales jugatae ac sub unius vocis enuntiatione prolatae syllabam faciunt natura longam1 quam ,graeci diphthongon vocant1 veluti geminae vocis unum sonum1 ut ae1 oe1 au4 ,and more fully in the following paragraph3 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,gaisford1 ,i4 v4 #f4 ,sunt longae naturaliter syllabae1 cum duae vocales junguntur1 quas syllabas ,graeci diphthongos vocant2 ut ae1 oe1 au1 eu1 ei3 nam illae diphthongi non sunt quae fiunt per vocales loco consonantium positas2 ut ia1 ie1 ii1 io1 iu1 va1 ve1 vi1 vo1 vu4 ,of these diphthongs eu occurs1--except in ,greek words1--only in heus1 heu1 eheu2 in seu1 ceu1 neu4 ,in neuter and neutiquam the e is probably elided4 ,diphthongs ending in i1 viz41 ei1 oi1 ui1 occur only in a few interjections and in cases of contraction4 ,while in pronouncing the diphthong the sound of both vowels was to some extent preserved1 there are many indications that 7in accordance with the custom of making a vowel before another vowel short7 the first vowel of the diphthong was hastened over and the second received the stress4 ,as in modern ,greek we find all diphthongs that end in iota pronounced as simple i1 so in ,latin there are numerous instances1 before and during the classic period1 of the use of e for ae or oe1 and it is to be noted that in the latest spelling e generally prevails4 ,munro says3 8,in ,lucilius's time the rustics said ,cecilius pretor for ,caecilius praetor2 in two ,samothracian inscriptions older than ,b4,c4 #ajj 7the sound of ai by that time verging to an open e71 we find muste piei and muste3 in similar inscriptions piei1 and mystae3 ,paeligni is reproduced in ,strabo by 3 ,cicero1 ,virgil1 ,festus1 and ,servius all alike give caestos for 3 by the first century1 perhaps sooner1 e was very frequently put for ae in words like taeter3 we often find teter1 erumna1 mestus1 presto and the like3 soon inscriptions and ,,mss4 began pertinaciously to offer ae for 3 praetum1 praeces1 quaerella1 aegestas and the like1 the ae representing a short and very open e3 sometimes it stands for a long e1 as often in plaenus1 the liquid before and after making perhaps the e more open 7 is always scaena73 and it is from this form plaenus that in ,italian1 contrary to the usual law of long ,latin e1 we have pino with open e4 ,with such pedigree then1 and with the genuine ,latin ae always represented in ,italian by open e1 can we hesitate to pronounce the ae with this open e sound80 ,the argument sometimes used1 for pronouncing ae like ai1 that in the poets we occasionally find ai in the genitive singular of the first declension1 appears to have little weight in view of the following explanation3 ,mar4 ,vict1 de ,orthog4 et de ,metr4 ,rat41 ,i4 iii4 #ch4 ,ae ,syllabam quidam more ,graecorum per ai scribunt1 nec illud quidem custodient1 quia omnes fere1 qui de orthographia aliquid scriptum reliquerunt1 praecipiunt1 nomina femina casu nominativo a finita1 numero plurali in ae exire1 ut ,aeliae3 eadem per a et i scripta numerum singularem ostendere1 ut hujus ,aeliai3 inducti a poetis1 qui pictai vestis scripserunt3 et quia ,graeci per i potissimum hanc syllabam scribunt propter exilitatem litterae1 autem propter naturalem productionem jungere vocali alteri non possunt3 iota vero1 quae est brevis eademque longa1 aptior ad hanc structuram visa est3 quam potestatem apud nos habet et i1 quae est longa et brevis4 ,vos igitur sine controversia ambiguitatis1 et pluralem nominativum1 et singularem genitivum per ae scribite3 nam qui non potest dignoscere supra scriptarum vocum numeros et casum1 valde est hebes4 ,of oe ,munro says3 8,when hateful barbarisms like coelum1 coena1 moestus are eliminated1 oe occurs very rarely in ,latin3 coepi1 poena1 moenia1 coetus1 proelia1 besides archaisms coera1 moerus1 etc41 where oe1 coming from oi1 passed into u4 ,if we must have a simple sound1 ,i should take the open e sound which ,i have given to ae3 but ,i should prefer one like the ,german 4 ,their rarity1 however1 makes the sound of oe1 eu1 ui of less importance40 ,of au ,munro says3 8,here1 too1 au has a curious analogy with ae3 ,the ,latin au becomes in ,italian open o3 ro de3 ,i would pronounce thus in ,latin3 plstrum1 ,cldius1 crus4 ,perhaps1 too1 the fact that gloria1 vittoria and the common termination -orio1 have in ,italian the open o1 might show that the corresponding in ,latin was open by coming between two liquids1 or before one3 compare plenus above40 8,i should prefer10 he says1 7to represent the ,latin au17 8the ,italian au1 which gives more of the u than our owl1 cow40 ,,consonants4 ,b has1 in general1 the same sound as in ,english4 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,e quibus b et p litterae 4 4 4 dispari inter se oris officio exprimuntur4 ,nam prima exploso e mediis labiis sono1 sequens compresso ore velut introrsum attracto vocis ictu explicatur4 ,b before s or t is sharpened to p3 thus urbs is pronounced urps2 obtinuit1 optinuit4 ,some words1 indeed1 are written either way2 as obses1 or opses2 obsonium1 or opsonium2 obtingo1 or optingo2 and ,quintilian says it is a question whether the change should be indicated in writing or not3 ,quint4 ,i4 vii4 #g4 ,quaeri solet1 in scribendo praepositiones1 sonum quern junctae efficiunt an quem separatae1 observare conveniat3 ut cum dico obtinuit1 secundam enim b litteram ratio poscit1 aures magis audiunt p4 ,this change1 however1 is both so slight and so natural that attention need scarcely be called to it4 ,indeed if quantity is properly observed1 one can hardly go wrong4 ,if1 for instance1 you attempt1 in saying obtinuit1 to give its normal sound to b1 you can scarcely avoid making a false quantity 7the first syllable too long71 while if you observe the quantity 7first syllable short7 your b will change itself to p4 ,c appears to have but one sound1 the hard1 as in sceptic3 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,c etiam et 4 4 4 ,g sono proximae1 oris molimine nisuque dissentiunt4 ,nam c reducta introrsum lingua hinc atque hinc molares urgens haerentem intra os sonum vocis excludit3 g vim prioris pari linguae habitu palato suggerens lenius reddit4 ,not only do we find no hint in the grammarians of any sound akin to the soft c in ,english1 as in sceptre1 but they all speak of c and k and q as identical1 or substantially so1 in sound2 and ,quintilian expressly states that the sound of c is always the same4 ,speaking of k as superfluous1 he says3 ,quint4 ,i4 vii4 #aj4 ,nam k quidem in nullis verbis utendum puto1 nisi quae significat1 etiam ut sola ponatur4 ,hoc eo non omisi1 quod quidam eam quotiens a sequatur necessariam credunt1 cum sit c littera1 quae ad omnes vocales vim suam perferat4 ,and ,priscian declares3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #ac4 ,quamvis in varia figura et vario nomine sint k et q et c1 tamen quia unam vim habent tam in metro quam in sono1 pro una littera accipi debent4 ,without the best of evidence we should hardly believe that words written indifferently with ae or e after c would be so differently pronounced by those using the diphthong and those using the simple vowel1 that1 to take the instance already given1 in the time of ,lucilius1 the rustic said ,sesilius for ,kaekilius4 ,nor does it seem probable that in different cases the same word would vary so greatly1 or that in the numerous compounds where after c the a weakens to i the sound of the c was also changed from k to s1 as 8kapio0 8insipio02 8kado10 8insido40 ,quintilian1 noting the changes of fashion in the sounding of the h1 enumerates1 among other instances of excessive use of the aspirate1 the words choronae 7for coronae71 chenturiones 7for centuriones71 praechones 7for praecones71 as if the three words were alike in their initial sound4 ,alluding to inscriptions 7first volume71 where we have pulcher and pulcer1 ,gracchis and ,graccis1 ,mr4 ,munro says3 8,i do not well see how the aspirate could have been attached to the c1 if c had not a k sound1 or how in this case c before e or i could have differed from c before a1 o1 u40 ,professor ,munro also cites an inscription 7#hdd of the 8,corpus ,inscr410 vol4 ,i47 bearing on the case in another way4 ,in this inscription we have the word dekembres4 8,this10 says ,mr4 ,munro1 8is one of nearly two hundred short1 plebeian1 often half-barbarous1 very old inscriptions on a collection of ollae4 ,the k before e1 or any letter except a1 is solecistic1 just as in no4 #hca is the c1 instead of k1 for calendas4 ,from this ,i would infer that1 as in the latter the writer saw no difference between c and k1 so to the writer of the former k was the same as c before e40 ,again he says3 8,and finally1 what is to me most convincing of all1 ,i do not well understand how in a people of grammarians1 when for seven hundred years1 from ,ennius to ,priscian1 the most distinguished writers were also the most minute philologers1 not one1 so far as we know1 should have hinted at any difference1 if such existed40 ,as to the peculiar effect of c final in certain particles to 8lengthen0 the vowel before it1 this c is doubtless the remnant of the intensive enclitic ce1 and the so-called #8length' is not in the vowel1 but in the more forcible utterance of the c4 ,it is true that ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #cd4 ,notandum1 quod ante hanc solam mutam finalem inveniuntur longae vocales1 ut hc1 hc1 sc1 hc adverbium4 ,and ,probus speaks of c as often prolonging the vowel before it4 ,but ,victorinus1 more philosophically1 attributes the length to the 8double0 sound of the consonant3 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,i4 v4 #df4 ,consideranda ergo est in his duntaxat pronominibus natura c litterae1 quae crassum quodammodo et quasi geminum sonum reddat1 hic et hoc4 ,and he adds that you do not get that more emphatic sound in1 for instance1 the conjunction nec4 ,si autem nec conjunctionem aspiciamus1 licet eadem littera finitam1 diversum tamen sonabit4 ,and again3 ,ut dixi1 in pronominibus c littera sonum efficit crassiorem4 ,pompeius1 commenting upon certain vices of speech1 says that some persons bring out the final c in certain words too heavily1 pronouncing sic ludit as sic cludit2 while others1 on the contrary1 touch it so lightly that when the following word begins with c you hear but a single c3 ,keil4 v4 ,v4 p4 #cid4 ,item litteram c quidam in quibusdam dictionibus non latine ecferunt1 sed ita crasse1 ut non discernas quid dicant3 ut puta siquis dicat sic ludit1 ita hoc loquitur ut putes eum in secunda parte orationis cludere dixisse1 non ludere3 et item si contra dicat illud contrarium putabis4 ,alii contra ita subtiliter hoc ecferunt1 ut cum duo c habeant1 desinentis prioris partis orationis et incipientis alterius1 sic loquantur quasi uno c utrumque explicent1 ut dicunt multi sic custodit4 ,d1 in general1 is pronounced as in ,english1 except that the tongue should touch the teeth rather than the palate4 ,pompei4 ,comm4 ad ,donat4 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,d autem et t quibus1 ut ita dixerim1 vocis vicinitas quaedam est1 linguae sublatione ac positione distinguuntur4 ,nam cum summos atque imos conjunctim dentes suprema sui parte pulsaverit d litteram exprimit4 ,quotiens autem sublimata partem1 qua superis dentibus est origo1 contigerit t sonare vocis explicabit4 ,but when certain words in common use ending in d were followed by words beginning with a consonant1 the sound of the d was sharpened to t2 and indeed the word was often1 especially by the earlier writers1 written with t1 as1 for instance1 set1 haut1 aput3 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,i4 iii4 #ej4 ,d tamen litteram conservat si sequens verbum incipiat a vocali2 ut haud aliter muros2 et haud equidem4 ,at cum verbum a consonante incipit1 d perdit1 ut haut dudum1 et haut multum1 et haut placitura refert1 et inducit t4 ,f is pronounced as in ,english except that it should be brought out more forcibly1 with more breath4 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #ca4 ,f litteram imum labium superis imprimentibus dentibus1 reflexa ad palati fastigium lingua1 leni spiramine proferemus4 ,marius ,victorinus says that f was used in ,latin words as ph in foreign4 ,diomedes 7of the fourth century7 says the same3 ,diom4 ,keil4 v4 ,i4 p4 #dbb4 ,id hoc scire debemus quod f littera tum scribitur cum ,latina dictio scribitur1 ut felix4 ,nam si peregrina fuerit1 p et h scribimus1 ut ,phoebus1 ,phaethon4 ,and ,priscian makes a similar statement3 ,prisc4 ,keil4 v4 ,i4 p4 #ce4 ,f multis modis muta magis ostenditur1 cum pro p et aspiratione1 quae similiter muta est1 accipitur4 ,from the following words of ,quintilian we may judge the breathing to have been quite pronounced3 ,quint4 ,,xii4 x4 #bi4 ,nam et ilia quae est sexta nostrarum1 paene non humana voce1 vel omnino non voce1 potius inter discrimina dentium efflanda est1 quae etiam cum vocalem proxima accipit quassa quodammodo1 utique quotiens aliquam consonantem frangit1 ut in hoc ipso frangit1 multo fit horridior4 ,g1 no less than c1 appears to have had but one sound1 the hard1 as in the ,english word get4 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,c etiam et g1 ut supra scriptae1 sono proximae1 oris molimine nisuque dissentiunt4 ,nam c reducta introrsum lingua1 hinc atque hinc molares urgens1 haerentem intra os sonum vocis excludit3 g vim prioris1 pari linguae habitu palato suggerens1 lenius reddit4 ,diomedes speaks of g as a new consonant1 whose place had earlier been filled by c3 ,keil4 v4 ,i4 p4 #dbc4 ,g nova est consonans1 in cujus locum c solebat adponi1 sicut hodieque cum ,gaium notamus ,caesarem1 scribimus ,c4 ,c41 ideoque etiam post b litteram1 id est tertio loco1 digesta est1 ut apud ,graecos posita reperitur in eo loco4 ,victorinus thus refers to the old custom still in use of writing ,c and ,cn1 as initials1 in certain names1 even where the names were pronounced as with ,g4 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,i4 iii4 #ih4 ,c autem et nomen habuisse g et usum praestitisse1 quod nunc ,caius per ,c1 et ,cneius per ,cn1 quamvis utrimque syllabae sonus g exprimat1 scribuntur4 ,h has the same sound as in ,english4 ,the grammarians never regarded it as a consonant1--at least in more than name1--but merely as representing the rough breathing of the ,greeks4 ,victorinus thus speaks of its nature3 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,h quoque inter litteras obviam grammatici tradiderunt1 eamque adspirationis notam cunctis vocalibus praefici2 ipsi autem consonantes tantum quattuor praeponi1 quotiens graecis nominibus latina forma est1 persuaserunt1 id est c1 p1 r1 t2 ut chori1 ,phyllis1 rhombos1 thymos2 quae profundo spiritu1 anhelis faucibus1 exploso ore1 fundetur4 ,by the best authorities h was looked upon as a mere mark of aspiration4 ,victorinus says that ,nigidius ,figulus so regarded it3 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,i4 iv4 #e4 ,idem 7,n4 ,f47 h non esse litteram1 sed notam adspirationis tradidit4 ,there appears to have been the same difference of opinion and usage among the ,romans as with us in the matter of sounding the h4 ,quintilian says that the fashion changed with the age3 ,quint4 ,i4 v4 #ai1 #bj1 #ba4 ,cujus quidem ratio mutata cum temporibus est saepius4 ,parcissime ea veteres usi etiam in vocalibus1 cum oedus vicosque dicebant1 diu deinde servatum ne consonantibus aspirarent1 ut in ,graecis et in triumpis2 erupit brevi tempore nimius usus1 ut choronae1 chenturiones1 praechones1 adhuc quibusdam inscriptionibus maneant1 qua de re ,catulli nobile epigramma est4 ,inde durat ad nos usque vehementer1 et comprehendere1 et mihi1 nam mehe quoque pro me apud antiquos tragoediarum praecipue scriptores in veteribus libris invenimus4 ,in the epigram above referred to ,catullus thus satirizes the excessive use of the aspirate3 ,catullus lxxxiv4 ,chommoda dicebat1 si quando commoda vellet ,dicere1 et hinsidias ,arrius insidias3 ,et tum mirifice sperabat se esse locutum1 ,cum quantum poterat dixerat hinsidias4 ,credo sic mater1 sic ,liber avunculus ejus1 ,sic maternus avus dixerat1 atque avia4 ,hoc misso in ,syriam requierunt omnibus aures2 ,audibant eadem haec leniter et leviter4 ,nec sibi post illa metuebant talia verba1 ,cum subito adfertur nuntius horribilis1 ,ionios fluctus postquam illuc ,arrius isset ,jam non ,ionios esse1 sed ,hionios4 ,on the other hand ,quintilian seems disposed to smile at the excess of #8culture' which drops its h's1 to class this with other affected #8niceties' of speech1 and to regard the whole matter as of slight importance3 ,quint4 ,i4 vi4 #ba1 #bb4 ,multum enim litteratus1 qui sine aspiratione et producta secunda syllaba salutarit 7avere est enim71 et calefacere dixerit potius quam quod dicimus1 et conservavisse2 his adjiciat face et dice et similia4 ,recta est haec via1 quis negat8 sed adjacet mollior et magis trita4 ,cicero confesses that he himself changed his practice in regard to the aspirate4 ,he had been accustomed to sound it only with vowels1 and to follow the fathers1 who never used it with a consonant2 but at length1 yielding to the importunity of his ear1 he conceded the right of usage to the people1 and #8kept his learning to himself4' ,cic4 ,or4 ,,xlviii4 #afj4 ,quin ego ipse1 cum scirem ita majores locutos esse ut nusquam nisi in vocali aspiratione uterentur1 loquebar sic1 ut pulcros1 cetegus1 triumpos1 ,kartaginem1 dicerem2 aliquando1 idque sero1 convicio aurium cum extorta mihi veritas1 usum loquendi populo concessi1 scientiam mihi reservavi4 ,gellius speaks of the ancients as having employed the h merely to add a certain force and life to the word1 in imitation of the ,attic tongue1 and enumerates some of these words4 ,thus1 he says1 they said lachrymas2 thus1 sepulchrum1 aheneum1 vehemens1 inchoare1 helvari1 hallucinari1 honera1 honustum4 ,gellius ,,ii4 iii4 ,in his enim verbis omnibus litterae1 seu spiritus istius nulla ratio visa est1 nisi ut firmitas et vigor vocis1 quasi quibusdam nervis additis1 intenderetur4 ,and he tells an interesting anecdote about a manuscript of ,vergil3 ,sed quoniam aheni quoque exemplo usi sumus1 venit nobis in memoriam1 fidum optatumque1 multi nominis ,romae1 grammaticum ostendisse mihi librum ,aeneidos secundum mirandae vetustatis1 emptum in ,sigillariis ,,xx4 aureis1 quem ipsius ,vergilii fuisse credebat2 in quo duo isti versus cum ita scripti forent3 8,vestibulum ante ipsum1 primoque in limine1 ,pyrrhus3 ,exultat telis1 et luce coruscus ana40 ,additam supra vidimus h litteram1 et ahena factum4 ,sic in illo quoque ,vergilii versu in optimis libris scriptum invenimus3 8,aut foliis undam tepidi dispumat aheni40 ,i consonant has the sound of i in the ,english word onion4 ,the grammarians all express themselves in nearly the same terms as to its character3 ,serg4 ,explan4 in ,art4 ,donat4 ,keil4 v4 ,,iv4 p4 #ebj4 ,i et u varias habent potestates3 nam sunt aliquando vocales1 aliquando consonantes1 aliquando mediae1 aliquando nihil1 aliquando digammae1 aliquando duplices4 ,vocales sunt quando aut singulae positae syllabam faciunt aut aliis consonantibus sociantur1 ut ,iris et unus et ,isis et urna4 ,consonantes autem sunt1 cum aliis vocalibus in una syllaba praeponuntur1 aut cum ipsae inter se in una syllaba conjunguntur4 ,nisi enim et prior sit et in una syllaba secum habeat conjunctam vocalem1 non erit consonans i vel u4 ,nam ,iulius et ,iarbas cum dicis1 i consonans non est1 licet praecedat1 quia in una syllaba secum non habet conjunctam vocalem1 sed in altera consequentem4 ,the grammarians speak of i consonant as different in sound and effect from the vowel i2 and1 as they do not say how it differs1 we naturally infer the variation to be that which follows in the nature of things from its position and office1 as in the kindred ,romance languages4 ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #ac4 ,sic i et u1 quamvis unum nomen et unam habeant figuram tam vocales quam consonantes1 tamen1 quia diversum sonum et diversam vim habent in metris et in pronuntiatione syllabarum1 non sunt in eisdem meo judicio elementis accipiendae1 quamvis et ,censorino1 doctissimo artis grammaticae1 idem placuit4 ,it would seem to be by reason of this twofold nature 7vowel and consonant7 that i has its #8lengthening' power4 ,probus explains the matter thus3 ,keil4 v4 ,,iv4 p4 #bbj4 ,praeterea vim naturamque i litterae vocalis plenissime debemus cognoscere1 quod duarum interdum loco consonantium ponatur4 ,hanc enim ex suo numero vocales duplicem litteram mittunt1 ut cetera elementa litterarum singulas duplices mittunt1 de quibus suo disputavimus loco4 ,illa ergo ratione i littera duplicem sonum designat1 una quamvis figura sit1 si undique fuerit cincta vocalibus1 ut acerrimus ,aiax1 et 8,aio te1 ,eacida1 ,romanos vincere posse40 ,again in the commentaries on ,donatus we find3 ,keil4 v4 ,,iv4 p4 #dba4 ,plane sciendum est quod i inter duas posita vocales in una parte orationis pro duabus est consonantibus1 ut ,troia4 ,priscian tells us that earlier it was1 as we know1 the custom to write two i's3 ,keil4 v4 ,,iii4 p4 #dfg4 ,antiqui solebant duas ii scribere1 et alteram priori subjungere1 alteram praeponere sequenti1 ut ,troiia1 ,maiia1 ,aiiax4 ,and ,quintilian says3 ,quint4 ,i4 iv4 ,,ii4 ,sciat etiam ,ciceroni placuisse aiio ,maiiamque geminata i scribere4 ,this doubling of the sound of i1 natural1 even unavoidable1 between vowels1 gives us the consonant effect 7as vowel1 uniting with the preceding1 as consonant1 introducing the following1 vowel74 ,k has the same sound as in ,english4 ,the grammarians generally agree that k is a superfluous1 or at least unnecessary1 letter1 its place being filled by c4 ,diomedes says3 ,keil4 v4 ,i4 pp4 #dbc1 #dbd4 ,ex his quibusdam supervacuae videntur k et q1 quod c littera harum locum possit implere4 ,and again3 ,k consonans muta supervacua1 qua utimur quando a correpta sequitur1 ut ,kalendae1 caput1 calumniae4 ,its only use is as an initial and sign of certain words1 and it is followed by short a only4 ,victorinus says3 ,i4 iii4 #bc4 ,k autem dicitur monophonos1 quia nulli vocali jungitur nisi soli a brevi3 et hoc ita ut ab ea pars orationis incipit1 aliter autem non recte scribitur4 ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #cf4 ,k supervacua est1 ut supra diximus3 quae quamvis scribetur nullam aliam vim habet quam c4 ,and ,quintilian speaks of it as a mere sign1 but says some think it should be used when a follows1 as initial3 ,quint4 ,i4 iv4 #i4 ,et k1 quae et ipsa quorundam nominum nota est4 ,and3 ,quint4 ,i4 vii4 #aj4 ,nam k quidem in nullis verbis utendum puto nisi quae significat etiam ut sola ponatur4 ,hoc eo non omisi quod quidam eam quotiens a sequatur necessariam credunt1 cum sit c littera1 quae ad omnes vocales vim suam perferat4 ,this use of k1 as an initial1 and in certain words1 was regarded somewhat in the light of a literary #8fancy4' ,priscian says of it3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #ab4 ,et k quidem penitus supervacua est2 nulla enim videtur ratio cur a sequente haec scribi debeat3 ,carthago enim et caput sive per c sive per k scribantur nullam faciunt nec in sono nec in potestate ejusdem consonantis differentiam4 ,l is pronounced as in ,english1 only more distinctly and with the tongue more nearly approaching the teeth4 ,the sound is thus given by ,victorinus3 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,sequetur l1 quae validum nescio quid partem palati qua primordium dentibus superis est lingua trudente1 diducto ore personabit4 ,but it varies according to its position in the force and distinctness with which it is uttered4 ,pliny and others recognize three degrees of force3 ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #bi4 ,l triplicem1 ut ,plinius videtur1 sonum habet3 exilem1 quando geminatur secundo loco posita1 ut ille1 ,metellus2 plenum1 quando finit nomina vel syllabas1 et quando aliquam habet ante se in eadem syllaba consonantem1 ut sol1 silva1 flavus1 clarus2 medium in aliis1 ut lectum1 lectus4 ,pompeius1 in his commentaries on ,donatus1 makes nearly the same statement1 when treating of #8labdacism'3 ,keil4 v4 ,v4 p4 #cid4 ,labdacismum vitium in eo esse dicunt quod eadem littera vel subtilius1 a quibusdam1 vel pinguius1 ecfertur4 ,et re vera alterutrum vitium quibusdam gentibus est4 ,nam ecce ,graeci subtiliter hunc sonum ecferunt4 ,ubi enim dicunt ille mihi dixit sic sonat duae ll primae syllabae quasi per unum l sermo ipse consistet4 ,contra alii sic pronuntiant ille meum comitatus iter1 et illum ego per flammas eripui ut aliquid illic soni etiam consonantis ammiscere videantur1 quod pinguissimae prolationis est4 ,romana lingua emendationem habet in hoc quoque distinctione4 ,nam alicubi pinguius1 alicubi debet exilius1 proferri3 pinguius cum vel b sequitur1 ut in albo2 vel c1 ut in pulchro2 vel f1 ut in adelfis2 vel g1 ut in alga2 vel m1 ut in pulmone2 vel p1 ut in scalpro3 exilius autem proferenda est ubicumque ab ea verbum incipit2 ut in lepore1 lana1 lupo2 vel ubi in eodem verbo et prior syllaba in hac finitur1 et sequens ab ea incipit1 ut ille et ,allia4 ,in another place he speaks of the ,africans as #8abounding' in this vice1 and of their pronouncing ,metellus and ,catullus2 ,metelus1 ,catulus3 ,keil4 v4 ,v4 p4 #bhg4 ,in his etiam agnoscimus gentium vitia2 labdacismis scatent ,afri1 raro est ut aliquis dicat l3 per geminum l sic loquuntur ,romani1 omnes ,latini sic loquuntur1 ,catullus1 ,metellus4 ,m is pronounced as in ,english1 except before q1 where it has a nasal sound1 and when final4 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,m impressis invicem labiis mugitum quendam intra oris specum attractis naribus dabit4 ,but this #8mooing' sound1 in which so many of their words ended1 was not altogether pleasing to the ,roman ear4 ,quintilian exclaims against it3 ,quint4 ,,xii4 x4 #ca4 ,quid quod pleraque nos illa quasi mugiente littera cludimus m1 qua nullum ,graece verbum cadit4 ,the offensive sound was therefore gotten rid of1 as far as possible1 by obscuring the m at the end of a word4 ,priscian speaks of three sounds of m1--at the beginning1 in the middle1 and at the end of a word3 ,prisc4 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #bi4 ,m obscurum in extremitate dictionum sonat1 ut templum1 apertum in principio1 ut magnus2 mediocre in mediis1 ut umbra4 ,this #8obscuring' led in verse to the cutting off of the final syllable in m when the following word began with a vowel1--as ,priscian remarks in the same connection3 ,finales dictionis subtrahitur m in metro plerumque1 si a vocali incipit sequens dictio1 ut3 8,illum expirantem transfixo pectore flammas40 ,yet1 he adds1 the ancients did not always withdraw the sound3 ,vetustissimi tamen non semper eam subtrahebant1 ,ennius in ,x ,annalium3 8,insigneita fere tum milia militum octo ,duxit delectos bellum tolerare potentes40 ,the m was not1 however1 entirely ignored4 ,thus ,quintilian says3 ,quint4 ,,ix4 iv4 #dj4 ,atqui eadem illa littera1 quotiens ultima est et vocalem verbi sequentis ita contingit ut in eam transire possit1 etiamsi scribitur tamen parum exprimitur1 ut multum ille et quantum erat2 adeo ut paene cujusdam novae litterae sonum reddat4 ,neque enim eximitur1 sed obscuratur1 et tantum aliqua inter duas vocales velut nota est1 ne ipsae coeant4 ,it is a significant fact in this connection that m is the only one of the liquids 7semivowels7 that does not allow a long vowel before it4 ,priscian1 mentioning several peculiarities of this semivowel1 thus speaks of this one3 ,priscian4 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #bc4 ,nunquam tamen eadem m ante se natura longam 7vocalem7 patitur in eadem syllaba esse1 ut illam1 artem1 puppim1 illum1 rem1 spem1 diem1 cum aliae omnes semivocales hoc habent1 ut ,maecenas1 ,paean1 sol1 pax1 par4 ,that the m was really sounded we may infer from ,pompeius 7on ,donatus7 where1 treating of myotacism1 he calls it the careless pronunciation of m between two vowels 7at the end of one word and the beginning of another71 the running of the words together in such a way that m seems to begin the second1 rather than to end the first3 ,keil4 v4 ,v4 p4 #bhg4 ,ut si dices hominem amicum1 oratorem optimum4 ,non enim videris dicere hominem amicum1 sed homine mamicum1 quod est incongruum et inconsonans4 ,similiter oratorem optimum videris oratore moptimum4 ,he also warns against the vice of dropping the m altogether4 ,one must neither say homine mamicum1 nor homine amicum3 ,plerumque enim aut suspensione pronuntiatur aut exclusione4 4 4 4 ,nos quid sequi debemus8 ,quid8 per suspensionem tantum modo4 ,qua ratione8 ,quia si dixeris per suspensionem homimem amicum1 et haec vitium vitabis1 myotacismum1 et non cades in aliud vitium1 id est in hiatum4 ,from such passages it would seem that the final syllable ending in m is to be lightly and rapidly pronounced1 the m not to be run over upon the following word4 ,some hint of the sound may perhaps be got from the ,englishman's pronunciation of such words as ,birmingham 7,birminghm71 ,sydenham 7,sydenhm71 ,blenheim 7,blenhm74 ,n1 except when followed by f or s1 is pronounced as in ,english1 only that it is more dental4 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,n vero1 sub convexo palati lingua inhaerente1 gemino naris et oris spiritu explicabitur4 ,naturally1 as with us1 it is more emphatic at the beginning and end of words than in the middle 7as1 ,do not give the tendrils the wrong turn4 ,is not the sin condemned87 ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #bi4 ,n quoque plenior in primis sonat1 et in ultimis1 partibus syllabarum1 ut nomen1 stamen2 exilior in mediis1 ut amnis1 damnum4 ,as in ,english1 before a guttural 7c1 g1 q1 x71 n is so affected as to leave its proper sound incomplete 7the tongue not touching the roof of the mouth7 while it draws the guttural1 so to speak1 into itself1 as in the ,english words concord1 anger1 sinker1 relinquish1 anxious4 ,nigidius apud ,gell4 ,,xix4 xiv4 #g4 ,inter litteram n et g est alia vis1 ut in nomine anguis et angaria et anchorae et increpat et incurrit et ingenuus4 ,in omnibus enim his non verum n sed adulterinum ponitur4 ,nam n non esse lingua indicio est4 ,nam si ea littera esset lingua palatum tangeret4 ,not only the ,greeks1 but some of the early ,romans1 wrote g1 instead of n1 in this position1 and gave to the letter so used a new name1 agma4 ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #bi4 ,sequente g vel c1 pro ea 7n7 g scribunt ,graeci et quidam tamen vetustissimi auctores ,romani euphoniae causa bene hoc facientes1 ut ,agchises1 agceps1 aggulus1 aggens1 quod ostendit ,varro in ,primo de ,origine ,linguae ,latinae his verbis3 ,ut ,ion scribit1 quinquavicesima est littera1 quam vocant 8agma10 cujus forma nulla est et vox communis est ,graecis et ,latinis1 ut his verbis3 aggulus1 aggens1 agguilla1 iggerunt4 ,in ejusmodi ,graeci et ,accius noster bina g scribunt1 alii n et g1 quod in hoc veritatem videre facile non est4 ,this custom did not1 however1 prevail among the ,romans1 and ,marius ,victorinus gives it as his opinion that it is better to use n than g1 as more correct to the ear1 and avoiding ambiguity 7the gg being then left for the natural expression of double g74 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,i4 iii4 #gj4 ,familiarior est auribus nostris n potius quam g1 ut anceps et ancilla et anguia et angustum et anquirit et ancora1 et similia1 per n potius quam per g scribite3 sicut per duo g quotiens duorum g sonum aures exigent1 ut aggerem1 suggillat1 suggerendum1 suggestum1 et similia4 ,n before f or s seems to have become a mere nasal1 lengthening the preceding vowel4 ,cicero speaks of this as justified by the ear and by custom1 rather than by reason3 ,cic4 ,or4 ,,xlviii4 ,quid vero hoc elegantius1 quod non fit natura1 sed quodam institute8 indoctus dicimus brevi prima littera1 insanis producta3 inhumanus brevi1 infelix longa3 et1 ne multis1 quibus in verbis eae primae litterae sunt quae in sapiente atque felice1 producte dicitur2 in ceteris omnibus breviter3 itemque composuit1 consuevit1 concrepit1 confecit4 ,consule veritatem1 reprehendet2 refer ad aures1 probabunt4 ,quaere1 cur8 ,ita se dicent juvari4 ,voluptati autem aurium morigerari debet oratio4 ,in ,donatus we have the same fact stated1 with the same reason3 ,keil4 v4 ,,iv4 p4 #ddb4 ,quod magis aurium indicio quam artis ratione colligimus4 ,thus we find numeral adverbs and others ending either in iens or ies1 as centiens or centies1 decies or deciens1 millies or milliens1 quotiens or quoties1 totiens or toties4 ,other words1 in like manner1 participles and nouns1 are written either with or without the n before s1 as contunsum or contusum1 obtunsus or obtusus1 thesaurus or thensaurus 7the ens is regularly represented in ,greek by 72 infans or infas1 frons or fros4 ,in late ,latin the n was frequently dropped in participle endings4 ,donatus says that this nasal sound of n should be strenuously observed3 ,keil4 v4 ,,iv4 p4 #ddb4 ,illud vehementissime observare debemus1 ut con et in quotiensque post se habent s vel f litteram1 videamus quemadmodum pronuntientur4 ,plerumque enim non observantes in barbarismos incurrimus4 ,gn in the terminations gnus1 gna1 gnum1 has1 according to ,priscian1 the power to lengthen the penultimate vowel4 ,prisc4 ,i4 ,gnus quoque1 vel gna1 vel gnum1 terminantia1 longam habent vocalem penultimam2 ut a regno1 regnum2 a sto1 stagnum2 a bene1 benignus2 a male1 malignus2 ab abiete1 abiegnus2 privignus2 ,pelignus4 7,perhaps the liquid sound1 as in caon47 ,p is pronounced as in ,english4 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,e quibus b et p litterae 4 4 4 dispari inter se oris officio exprimuntur4 ,nam prima exploso e mediis labiis sono2 sequens1 compresso ore1 velut introrsum attracto vocis ictu1 explicatur4 ,q has the sound of ,english q in the words quire1 quick4 ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #ab4 ,k enim et q1 quamvis figura et nomine videantur aliquam habere differentiam1 cum c tamen eandem1 tam in sono vocum1 quam in metro1 potestatem continent4 ,and again3 ,id4 ib4 p4 #cf4 ,de q quoque sufficienter supra tractatum est1 quae nisi eandem vim haberet quam c4 ,marius ,victorinus says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #e4 ,item superfluas quasdam videntur retinere1 x et k et q 4 4 4 ,pro k et q1 c littera facillime haberetur2 x autem per c et s4 ,and again3 ,id4 ib4 p4 #cb4 ,k et q supervacue numero litterarum inseri doctorum plerique contendunt1 scilicet quod c littera harum officium possit implere4 ,the grammarians tell us that k and q are always found at the beginning of a syllable3 ,prise4 ,keil4 v4 ,,iii4 p4 #aaa4 ,q et k semper initio syllabarum ponuntur4 ,they say also that the use of q was more free among the earlier ,romans1 who placed it as initial wherever u followed1--as they placed k wherever followed1--but that in the later1 established1 usage1 its presence was conditioned upon a vowel after the u in the same syllable3 ,donat4 ,keil4 v4 ,,iv4 p4 #ddb4 ,namque illi q praeponebant quotiens u sequebatur1 ut quum2 nos vero non possumus q praeponere nisi ut u sequatur et post ipsam alia vocalis1 ut quoniam4 ,diomedes says3 ,keil4 v4 ,i4 p4 #dbe4 ,q consonans muta1 ex c et u litteris composita1 supervacua1 qua utimur quando u et altera vocalis in una syllaba junguntur1 ut ,quirinus4 ,r is trilled1 as in ,italian or ,french3 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,sequetur r1 quae1 vibratione vocis in palato linguae fastigio1 fragorem tremulis ictibus reddit4 7,this proper trilling of the r is most important47 ,s seems to have had1 almost1 if not quite1 invariably the sharp sound of the ,english s in sing1 hiss4 ,in ,greek words written also with z1 as ,smyrna 7also written ,zmyrna71 it probably had the z sound1 and possibly in a few ,latin words1 as rosa1 miser1 but this is not certain4 ,marius ,victorinus thus sets forth the difference between s and x 7cs73 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,dehinc duae supremae1 s et x1 jure junguntur4 ,nam vicino inter se sonore attracto sibilant rictu1 ita tamen si prioris ictus pone dentes excitatus ad medium lenis agitetur1 sequentis autem crasso spiritu hispidum sonet1 quia per conjunctionem c et s1 quarum et locum implet et vim exprimit1 ut sensu aurium ducemur1 efficitur4 ,donatus1 according to ,pompeius1 complains of the ,greeks as sounding the s too feebly3 ,keil4 v4 ,v4 p4 #cid4 ,item s litteram ,graeci exiliter ecferunt adeo ut cum dicunt jussit per unum s dicere existimas4 ,this would indicate that the ,romans pronounced the sibilant distinctly1--yet not too emphatically1 for ,quintilian says1 #8the master of his art 7of speaking7 will not fondly prolong or dally with his s'3 ,quint4 ,i4 xi4 #f4 ,ne illas quidem circa s litteram delicias hic magister feret4 ,t is pronounced like the ,english t pure1 except that the tongue should approach the teeth more nearly4 ,pompei4 ,comm4 ad ,donat4 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,d autem et t1 quibus1 ut ita dixerim1 vocis vicinitas quaedam est1 linguae sublatione ac positione distinguuntur4 ,nam cum summos atque imos conjunctim dentes suprema sua parte pulsaverit d litteram exprimit4 ,quotiens autem sublimata partem qua superis dentibus est origo contigerit1 t sonore vocis explicabit4 ,from the same writer we learn that some pronounced the t too heavily1 giving it a #8thick sound'3 ,keil4 v4 ,v4 p4 #cid4 ,ecce in littera t aliqui ita pingue nescio quid sonant1 ut cum dicunt etiam nihil de media syllaba infringant4 ,by which we understand that the t was wrongly uttered with a kind of effort1 such as prevented its gliding on to the i4 ,th nearly as in then1 not as in thin4 ,u 7consonant7 or ,v4 ,that the letter u performed the office of both vowel and consonant all the grammarians agree1 and state the fact in nearly the same terms4 ,priscian says that they 7i and u7 seem quite other letters when used as consonants1 and that it makes a great difference in which of these ways they are used3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #ac4 ,videntur tamen i et u cum in consonantes transeunt quantum ad potestatem1 quod maximum est in elementis1 aliae litterae esse praeter supra dictis2 multum enim interest utrum vocales sint an consonantes4 ,the grammarians also state that this consonant u was represented by the ,greek digamma1 which the ,romans called vau also4 ,marius ,victorinus says3 ,i4 iii4 #dd4 ,nam littera u vocalis est1 sicut a1 e1 i1 o1 sed eadem vicem obtinet consonantis3 cujus potestatis notam ,graeci habent 1 nostri vau vocant1 et alii digamma2 ea per se scripta non facit syllabam1 anteposita autem vocali facit1 ut 1 et 4 ,nos vero1 qui non habemus hujus vocis nomen aut notam1 in ejus locum quotiens una vocalis pluresve junctae unam syllabam faciunt1 substituimus u litteram4 ,now it is contended by some that this digamma1 or vau1 was merely taken as a symbol1 somewhat arbitrarily perhaps1 and that it did not indicate a particular sound1 but might stand for anything which the ,romans chose to represent by it2 and that therefore it gives us no certain indication of what the ,latin u consonant was4 ,but we are expressly told that it had the force and sound of the ,greek digamma4 ,in ,marius ,victorinus we find3 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #bc4 ,f autem apud ,aeolis dumtaxat idem valere quod apud nos vau cum pro consonante scribitur1 vocarique et digamma4 ,priscian explains more fully3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #ae4 ,u vero loco consonantis posita eandem prorsus in omnibus vim habuit apud ,latinos quam apud ,aeolis digamma4 ,unde a plerisque ei nomen hoc datur quod apud ,aeolis habuit olim digamma1 id est vau1 ab ipsius voce profectum teste ,varrone et ,didymo1 qui id ei nomen esse ostendunt4 ,pro quo ,caesar hanc figuram scribi voluit1 quod quamvis illi recte visum est tamen consuetudo antiqua superavit4 ,adeo autem hoc verum est quod pro ,aeolico digamma u ponitur4 ,what then was the sound of this ,aeolic digamma or 8 ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #aa4 ,aeolicum digamma1 quod apud antiquissimos ,latinorum eandem vim quam apud ,aeolis habuit4 ,eum autem prope sonum quem nunc habet significabat p cum aspiratione1 sicut etiam apud veteres ,graecos pro et 2 unde nunc quoque in ,graecis nominibus antiquam scripturam servamus1 pro p et h ponentes1 ut ,orpheus1 ,phaethon4 ,postea vero in ,latinis verbis placuit pro p et h1 f scribi1 ut fama1 filius1 facio1 loco autem digamma u pro consonante1 quod cognatione soni videbatur affinis esse digamma ea littera4 ,the ,latin u consonant is here distinctly stated to be akin to the ,greek digamma 77 in sound4 ,now the office of the ,greek digamma was apparently manifold4 ,it stood for 1 7,eng4 v71 1 1 1 and for the breathings #8rough' and #8smooth4' ,sometimes the sound of the digamma is given1 we are told1 where the character itself is not written4 ,it is said that in the neighborhood of ,olympia it is to-day pronounced1 though not written1 between two vowels as 7,eng4 v74 ,which of these various sounds should be given the digamma appears to have been determined by the law of euphony4 ,it was sometimes written but not sounded 7like our h74 ,the question then is1 which of these various sounds of the digamma is represented by the ,latin u consonant1 or does it represent all1 or none1 of these4 ,speaking of f1 ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #ce4 ,antiqui ,romanorum ,aeolis sequentes loco aspirationis eam 7f7 ponebant1 effugientes ipsi quoque aspirationem1 et maxime cum consonante recusabant eam proferre in ,latino sermone4 ,habebat autem haec f littera hunc sonum quem nunc habet u loco consonantis posita1 unde antiqui af pro ab scribere solebant2 sed quia non potest vau1 id est digamma1 in fine syllabae inveniri1 ideo mutata in b4 ,sifilum quoque pro sibilum teste ,nonio ,marcello de ,doctorum ,indagine dicebant4 ,and again3 ,prisc4 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #ae4 ,in b etiam solet apud ,aeolis transire digamma quotiens ab incipit dictio quae solet aspirari1 ut 1 dicunt1 quod digamma nisi vocali praeponi et in principio syllabae non potest4 ,ideo autem locum transmutavit1 quia b vel digamma post in eadem syllaba pronuntiari non potest4 ,apud nos quoque est invenire quod pro u consonante b ponitur1 ut caelebs1 caelestium vitam ducens1 per b scribitur1 quod u consonans ante consonantem poni non potest4 ,sed etiam ,bruges et ,belena antiquissimi dicebant1 teste ,quintiliano1 qui hoc ostendit in primo institutionum oratoriarum3 nec mirum1 cum b quoque in u euphoniae causa converti invenimus2 ut aufero4 ,quint4 ,i4 v4 #fi4 ,frequenter autem praepositiones quoque copulatio ista corrumpit2 inde abstulit1 aufugit1 amisit1 cum praepositio sit ab sola4 ,it is significant here that ,cicero speaks of the change from du to b as a contraction4 ,he says3 ,cic4 ,or4 ,,lxv4 ,quid vero licentius quam quod hominum etiam nomina contrahebant1 quo essent aptiora8 ,nam ut duellum1 bellum2 et duis1 bis2 sic ,duellium eum qui ,poenos classe devicit ,bellium nominaverunt1 cum superiores appellati essent semper ,duellii4 ,one cannot but feel in reading the numerous passages in the grammarians that treat of the sound of u consonant1 that if its sound had been no other than the natural sound of u with consonantal force1 they never would have spent so much time and labor in explaining and elucidating it4 ,why did they not turn it off with the simple explanation which they give to the consonantal i--that of double i8 ,what more natural than to speak of consonant u as 8double u0 7as we ,english do w74 ,but on the contrary they expressly declare it to have a sound distinct and peculiar4 ,quintilian says that even if the form of the ,aeolic digamma is rejected by the ,romans1 yet its force pursues them3 ,quint4 ,,xii4 x4 #bi4 ,aeolicae quoque litterae qua servum cervumque dicimus1 etiamsi forma a nobis repudiata est1 vis tamen nos ipsa persequitur4 ,he gives it as his opinion that it would have been well to have adopted the vau1 and says that neither by the old way of writing 7by uo71 nor by the modern way 7by uu71 is at all produced the sound which we perceive3 ,quint4 ,i4 vii4 #bf4 ,nunc u gemina scribuntur 7servus et cervus7 ea ratione quam reddidi3 neutro sane modo vox quam sentimus efficitur4 ,nec inutiliter ,claudius ,aeolicam illam ad hos usus litteram adjecerat4 ,and again still more distinctly3 ,id4 ib4 iv4 #g1 #h4 ,at grammatici saltem omnes in hanc descendent rerum tenuitatem1 desintne aliquae nobis necessariae literarum1 non cum ,graeca scribimus 7tum enim ab iisdem duas mutuamur7 sed propriae1 in ,latinis1 ut in his seruus et uulgus ,aeolicum digammon desideratur4 ,this need of a new symbol1 recognized by authorities like ,cicero and ,quintilian1 is not an insignificant point in the argument4 ,marius ,victorinus says that ,cicero adds u 7consonant7 to the other five consonants that are understood to assimilate certain other consonants coming before them3 ,mar4 ,vict4 ,i4 iv4 #fd4 ,sed propriae sunt cognatae 7consonantes7 quae simili figuratione oris dicuntur1 ut est b1 f1 r1 m1 p1 quibus ,cicero adjicit u1 non eam quae accipitur pro vocali1 sed eam quae consonantis obtinet vicem1 et interposita vocali fit ut aliae quoque consonantes4 ,he proceeds to illustrate with the proposition ob3 ,id4 ib4 #fg4 ,ob autem mutatur in cognatas easdem1 ut offert1 officit2 et ommovet1 ommutescit2 et oppandit1 opperitur2 ovvertit1 ovvius4 ,let any one1 keeping in mind the distinctness with which the ,romans uttered doubled consonants1 attempt to pronounce ovvius on the theory of consonant u like ,english 7w7 7674 ,by the advocates of the w sound of the v much stress is laid upon the fact that the poets occasionally change the consonant into the vowel u1 and vice versa2 as ,horace1 ,epode ,,viii4 #b3 8,nivesque deducunt ,jovem1 nunc mare nunc silu20 ,or ,lucretius1 in ,,ii4 #bcb3 8,propterea quia corpus aquae naturaque tenvis40 ,such single instances suggest1 indeed1 a common origin in the u and v1 and a poet's license1 archaistic perhaps2 but no more determine the ordinary value of the letter than1 say1 in the ,english poets the rhyming of wnd with mnd1 or the making a distinct syllable of the ed in participle endings4 ,another argument used in support of the w sound is taken from the words of ,nigidius ,figulus4 ,he was contending1 we are told1 that words and names come into being not by chance1 or arbitrarily1 but by nature2 and he takes1 among other examples1 the words vos and nos1 tu and ego1 tibi and mihi3 ,aul4 ,gell4 ,x4 iv4 #d4 ,vos1 inquit1 cum dicimus motu quodam oris conveniente cum ipsius verbi demonstratione utimur1 et labias sensim primores emovemus1 ac spiritum atque animam porro versum et ad eos quibuscum sermonicamur intendimus4 ,at contra cum dicimus nos neque profuso intentoque flatu vocis1 neque projectis labiis pronunciamus2 sed et spiritum et labias quasi intra nosmetipsos coercemus4 ,hoc idem fit et in eo quod dicimus tu et ego2 et tibi et mihi4 ,nam sicuti cum adnuimus et abnuimus1 motus quidem ille vel capitis vel oculorum a natura rei quam significabat non abhorret2 ita in his vocibus1 quasi gestus quidam oris et spiritus naturalis est4 ,but a little careful examination will show that this passage favors the other side rather4 ,the first part of the description3 8labias sensim primores emovemus10 will apply to either sound1 vos or wos1 although better1 as will appear upon consulting the mirror1 to vos than to wos2 but the second3 8ac spiritum atque animam porro versum et ad eos quibuscum sermonicamur intendimus10 will certainly apply far better to vos than to wos4 ,in wos we get the 8projectis labiis0 to some extent1 although not so marked as in vos2 but we do not get anything like the same 8profuso intentoque flatu vocis0 as in vos4 ,the same may be said of the argument drawn from the anecdote related by ,cicero in his de ,divinatione3 ,cic4 de ,div4 ,,xl4 #hd4 ,cum ,m4 ,crassus exercitum ,brundisii imponeret1 quidam in portu caricas ,cauno advectas vendens 8,cauneas60 clamitabat4 ,dicamus1 si placet1 monitum ab eo ,crassum caveret ne iret1 non fuisse periturum si omini paruisset4 ,now when we remember that ,caunos1 whence these particular figs came1 was a ,greek town2 that the fig-seller was very likely a ,greek himself 7,brundisium being a ,greek port so to speak71 but at any rate probably pronounced the name as it was doubtless always heard2 and that u in such a connection is at present pronounced like our f or v1 and we know of no time when it was pronounced like our u1 it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the fig-seller was crying 8,cafneas60--a sound far more suggestive of ,cave-ne-eas6 than 8,cauneas60 of ,cawe ne eas6 ,but beyond the testimony1 direct and indirect1 of grammarians and classic writers1 an argument against the w sound appears in the fact that this sound is not found in ,greek 7from which the vau is borrowed71 nor in ,italian or kindred ,romance languages4 ,the initial u in ,italian represents not ,latin u consonant1 but some other letter1 as h1 in uomo 7for homo74 ,on the other hand we find the v sound1 as vedova 7from vidua71--notice the two v sounds1--or the u sometimes changed to b1 as serbare from servare2 bibita and bevanda1 both from bibo4 ,in ,french we find the ,latin u consonant passing into f1 as ovum into uf2 novem into neuf4 ,it seems not improbable that in ,cicero's time and later the consonant u represented some variation of sound1 that its value varied in the direction of b or f1 and possibly1 in some ,greek words especially1 it was more vocalized1 as in vae6 7,greek 74 ,yet here it is worthy of note that the corresponding words in ,italian are not written with u but with gu1 as guai6 ,in considering the sound of ,latin u consonant we must always keep in mind that the question is one of time1--not1 was u ever pronounced as ,english w2 but1 was it so pronounced in the time of ,cicero and ,virgil4 ,professor ,ellis well says3 8,any one who wishes to arrive at a conclusion respecting the ,latin consonantal u must learn to pronounce and distinguish readily the four series of sounds3 a e i o1 wa we wi wo wu1 v'a v'e v'i v'o v'u1 va ve vi vo vu40 ,now the question is3 ,at what point along this line do we find the u consonant of the golden age8 ,roby1 though not agreeing with ,ellis in rejecting the ,english w sound1 as the representative of that period1 declares himself 8quite content to think that a labial v was provincially contemporary and in the end generally superseded it40 ,but #8provincialisms' do not seem sufficient to account for the use of for u consonant in inscriptions and in writers of the first century4 ,for instance1 ,nerva and ,severus in contemporary inscriptions are written both with and with 3 1 2 1 4 ,and in ,plutarch we find numerous instances of taking the place of 4 ,it is true that the instances in which we find taking the place of in the first century1 and earlier1 are decidedly in the minority1 but when we recollect that was the original and natural representative of the ,latin u1 the fact that a change was made at all is of great weight1 and one instance of for u would outweigh a dozen instances of the old form1 ou4 ,that the letter should be changed in the ,greek1 even when it had not been in the ,latin1 seems to make it certain that the #8,greek ear1' at least1 had detected a real variation of sound from the original u1 and one that approached1 at least1 their 7,eng4 v74 ,nor1 in this connection1 should we fail to notice the words in ,latin where u consonant is represented by b1 such as bubile from bovile1 defervi and deferbui from deferveo4 ,in concluding the argument for the labial v sound of consonantal u1 it may be proper to suggest a fact which should have no weight against a conclusive argument on the other side1 but which might1 perhaps1 be allowed to turn the scale nicely balanced4 ,the w sound is not only unfamiliar but nearly1 if not quite1 impossible1 to the lips of any ,european people except the ,english1 and would therefore of necessity have to be left out of any universally adopted scheme of ,latin pronunciation4 ,professor ,ellis pertinently says3 8,as a matter of practical convenience ,english speakers should abstain from w in ,latin1 because no ,continental nation can adopt a sound they cannot pronounce40 ,x has the same sound as in ,english4 ,marius ,victorinus says3 ,keil4 t4 ,,vi4 p4 #cb4 ,dehinc duae supremae s et x jure jungentur1 nam vicino inter se sonore attracto sibilant rictu1 ita tamen si prioris ictus pone dentes excitatus ad medium lenis agitetur2 sequentis autem crasso spiritu hispidum sonet qui per conjunctionem c et s1 quarum et locum implet et vim exprimit1 ut sensu aurium ducamur efficitur4 ,again3 ,id4 ib4 p4 #e4 ,x autem per c et s possemus scribere4 ,and3 ,posteaquam a ,graecis 1 et a nobis x1 recepta est1 abiit et illorum et nostra perplexa ratio1 et in primis observatio ,nigidii1 qui in libris suis x littera non est usus1 antiquitatem sequens4 ,x suffers a long vowel before it1 being composed of the c 7the only mute that allows a long vowel before it7 and the s4 ,z probably had a sound akin to ds in ,english4 ,after giving the sound of x as cs1 ,marius ,victorinus goes on to speak of z thus3 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #e4 ,sic et z1 si modo latino sermoni necessaria esset1 per d et s litteras faceremus4 ,,quantity4 ,a syllable in ,latin may consist of from one to six letters1 as a1 ab1 ars1 ,mars1 stans1 stirps4 ,in dividing into syllables1 a consonant between two vowels belongs to the vowel following it4 ,when there are two consonants1 the first goes with the vowel before1 the second with the vowel after1 unless the consonants form such a combination as may stand at the beginning of a word 7,latin or ,greek71 that is1 as may be uttered with a single impulse1 as one letter2 in which case they go1 as one1 with the vowel following4 ,an apparent exception is made in the case of compound words4 ,these are divided into their component parts when these parts remain intact4 ,on these points ,priscian says3 ,si antecedens syllaba terminat in consonantem necesse est et sequentem a consonante incipere2 ut artus1 ille1 arduus2 nisi fit compositum3 ut abeo1 adeo1 pereo4 ,nam in simplicibus dictionibus necesse est s et c ejusdem esse syllabae1 ut pascua1 luscus4 ,m quoque1 vel p1 vel t1 in simplicibus dictionibus1 si antecedat s1 ejusdem est syllabae1 ut cosmos1 perspirare1 testis4 ,in semivocalibus similiter sunt praepositivae aliis semivocalibus in eadem syllaba2 ut m sequente n1 ut ,mnesteus1 amnis4 ,each letter has its #8time1' or #8times4' ,thus a short vowel has the time of one beat 7mora72 a long vowel1 of two beats2 a single consonant1 of a half beat2 a double consonant1 of one beat4 ,theoretically1 therefore1 a syllable may have as many as three1 or even four1 tempora2 but practically only two are recognized4 ,all over two are disregarded and each syllable is simply counted #8short' 7one beat7 or #8long' 7two beats74 ,priscian says3 ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #eb4 ,in longis natura vel positione duo sunt tempora1 ut do1 ars2 duo semis1 quando post vocalem natura longam una sequitur consonans1 ut sol2 tria1 quando post vocalem natura longam duae consonantes sequuntur1 vel una duplex1 ut mons1 rex4 ,tamen in metro necesse est unamquamque syllabam vel unius vel duorum accipi temporum4 ,,accent4 ,the grammarians tell us that every syllable has three dimensions1 length1 breadth and height1 or tenor1 spiritus1 tempus3 ,keil4 ,supp4 p4 ,,xviii4 ,habet etiam unaquaeque syllaba altitudinem1 latitudinem et longitudinem2 altitudinem in tenore2 crassitudinem vel latitudinem1 in spiritu2 longitudinem in tempore4 ,diomedes says3 ,keil4 v4 ,i4 p4 #dcj4 ,accentus est dictus ab accinendo1 quod sit quasi quidam cujusque syllabae cantus4 ,and ,cicero3 ,cic4 ,or4 ,,xviii4 ,ipsa enim natura1 quasi modularetur hominem orationem1 in omni verbo posuit acutam vocem1 nec una plus1 nec a postrema syllaba citra tertiam4 ,the grammarians recognize three accents2 but practically we need take account of but two1 inasmuch as the third is merely negative4 ,the syllable having the grave accent is1 as we should say1 unaccented4 ,diom4 ,keil4 v4 ,i4 p4 #dcj4 ,sunt vero tres1 acutus1 gravis1 et qui ex duobus constat circumflexus4 ,ex his1 acutus in correptis semper1 interdum productis syllabis versatur2 inflexus 7or #8circumflexus'71 in his quae producuntur2 gravis autem per se nunquam consistere in ullo verbo potest1 sed in his in quibus inflexus est1 aut acutus ceteras syllabas obtinet4 ,the same writer thus gives the place of each accent3 ,keil4 v4 ,i4 p4 #dca4 7,acutus7 apud ,latinos duo tantum loca tenent1 paenultimum et antepaenultimum2 circumflexus autem1 quotlibet syllabarum sit dictio1 non tenebit nisi paenultimum locum4 ,omnis igitur pars orationis hanc rationem pronuntiationis detinet4 ,omnis vox monosyllaba aliquid significans1 si brevis est1 acuetur1 ut ab1 mel1 fel2 et1 si positione longa fuerit1 acutum similiter tenorem habebit1 ut ars1 pars1 pix1 nix1 fax4 ,sin autem longa natura fuerit1 flectetur1 ut lux1 spes1 flos1 sol1 mons1 fons1 lis4 ,omnis vox dissyllaba priorem syllabam aut acuit aut flectit4 ,acuit1 vel cum brevis est utraque1 ut deus1 citus1 datur1 arat2 vel cum positione longa est utraque1 ut sollers2 vel alterutra positione longa dum ne natura longa sit1 prior1 ut pontus2 posterior1 ut cohors4 ,si vero prior syllaba natura longa et sequens brevis fuerit1 flectitur prior1 ut luna1 ,roma4 ,in trisyllabis autem et tetrasyllabis et deinceps1 secunda ab ultima semper observanda est4 ,haec1 si natura longa fuerit1 inflectitur1 ut ,romanus1 ,cethegus1 marinus1 ,crispinus1 amicus1 ,sabinus1 ,quirinus1 lectica4 ,si vero eadem paenultima positione longa fuerit1 acuetur1 ut ,metellus1 ,catullus1 ,marcellus2 ita tamen si positione longa non ex muta et liquida fuerit4 ,nam mutabit accentum1 ut latebrae1 tenebrae4 ,et si novissima natura longa itemque paenultima1 sive natura sive positione longa fuerit1 paenultima tantum acuetur1 non inflectetur2 sic1 natura1 ut ,fidenae1 ,athenae1 ,thebae1 ,cymae2 positione1 ut tabellae1 fenestrae4 ,sin autem media et novissima breves fuerint1 prima servabit acutum tenorem1 ut ,sergius1 ,mallius1 ascia1 fuscina1 ,julius1 ,claudius4 ,si omnes tres syllabae longae fuerint1 media acuetur1 ut ,romani1 legati1 praetores1 praedones4 ,priscian thus defines the accents3 ,keil4 v4 ,,iii4 p4 #eai4 ,acutus namque accentus ideo inventus est quod acuat sive elevet syllabam2 gravis vero eo quod deprimat aut deponat2 circumflexus ideo quod deprimat et acuat4 ,then after giving the place of the accent he notes some disturbing influences1 which cause exceptions to the general rule3 ,keil4 v4 ,,iii4 pp4 #eai-eba4 ,tres quidem res accentuum regulas conturbant2 distinguendi ratio2 pronuntiandi ambiguitas2 atque necessitas4 4 4 4 ,ratio namque distinguendi legem accentuum saepe conturbat4 ,siquis pronuntians dicat pon et erg1 quod apud ,latinos in ultima syllaba nisi discretionis causa accentus poni non potest3 ex hoc est quod diximus pon et erg4 ,ideo pon dicimus ne putetur verbum esse imperativi modi1 hoc est pne2 erg ideo dicimus ne putetur conjunctio rationalis1 quod est rgo4 ,ambiguitas vero pronuntiandi legem accentuum saepe conturbat4 ,siquis dicat interealoci1 qui nescit1 alteram partem dicat interea1 alteram loci1 quod non separatim sed sub uno accentu pronuntiandum est1 ne ambiguitatem in sermone faciat4 ,necessitas pronuntiationis regulam1 corrumpit1 ut puta siquis dicat in primis doctus1 addat que conjunctionem1 dicatque doctusque1 ecce in pronuntiatione accentum mutavit1 cum non in secunda syllaba1 sed in prima1 accentum habere debuit4 ,he also states the law that determines the kind of accent to be used3 ,id4 ib4 p4 #eba4 ,syllaba quae correptam vocalem habet acuto accentu pronuntiatur1 ut px1 fx1 px1 nx1 dx1 nx1 quae etiam tali accentu pronuntianda est1 quamvis sit longa positione1 quia naturaliter brevis est4 ,quae vero naturaliter producta est circumflexo accentu exprimenda est ut1 rs1 ds1 sps4 ,dissyllabae vero quae priorem productam habent et posteriorem correptam1 priorem syllabam circumflectunt1 ut mta1 ,crta4 ,illae vero quae sunt ambae longae vel prior brevis et ulterior longa acuto accento pronuntiandae sunt1 ut npos1 lges1 rges4 ,hae vero quae sunt ambae breves similiter acuto accentu proferuntur1 ut bonus1 melos4 ,sed notandum quod si prior sit longa positione non circumflexo1 sed acuto1 accentu pronuntianda est1 ut arma1 arcus1 quae1 quamvis sit longa positione1 tamen exprimenda est tali accentu quia non est naturalis4 ,trisyllabae namque et tetrasyllabae sive deinceps1 si paenultimam correptam habuerint1 antepaenultimam acuto accentu proferunt1 ut ,tllius1 ,hostlius4 ,nam paenultima1 si positione longa fuerit1 acuetur1 antepaenultima vero gravabitur1 ut ,catllus1 ,metllus4 ,si vero ex muta et liquida longa in versu esse constat1 in oratione quoque accentum mutat1 ut latbrae1 tenbrae4 ,syllaba vero ultima1 si brevis sit et paenultimam naturaliter longam habuerit ipsam paenultimam circumflectit1 ut ,cethgus1 persus4 ,ultima quoque1 si naturaliter longa fuerit1 paenultimam acuet1 ut ,athnae1 ,mycnae4 ,ad hanc autem rem arsis et thesis necessariae4 ,nam in unaquaque parte oratione arsis et thesis sunt1 non in ordine syllabarum1 sed in pronuntiatione3 velut in hac parte natura1 ut quando dico natu elevatur vox1 et est arsis intus2 quando vero sequitur ra vox deponitur1 et est thesis deforis4 ,quantum autem suspenditur vox per arsin tantum deprimitur per thesin4 ,sed ipsa vox quae per dictiones formatur donec accentus perficiatur in arsin deputatur1 quae autem post accentum sequitur in thesin4 ,in the matter of exceptions to the rule that accent does not fall on the ultimate1 we find a somewhat wide divergence of opinion among the grammarians4 ,some of them give numerous exceptions1 particularly in the distinguishing of parts of speech1 as1 for instance1 between the same word used as adverb or preposition1 as nte and ant2 or between the same form as occurring in nouns and verbs1 as rges and regs2 and in final syllables contracted or curtailed1 as fint 7for finivit74 ,but since on this point the grammarians do not agree among themselves1 either as to number or class of exceptions1 or even as to the manner of making them1 we may treat this matter as of no great importance 7as in ,english1 we please ourselves in saying prfect or perfct74 ,and here it may be said that due attention to the quantity will of itself often regulate the accent in doubtful cases2 as when we say doce1 if we duly shorten the o and lengthen the e the effect will be correct1 whether the ear of the grammarian detect accent on the final syllable1 or not4 ,for as ,quintilian well says3 ,nam ut color oculorum indicio1 sapor palati1 odor narium dinoscitur1 ita sonus aurium arbitrio subjectus est4 ,,pitch4 ,but besides the length of the syllable1 and the place and quality of the accent1 another matter claims attention4 ,in ,english all that is required is to know the place of the accent1 which is simply distinguished by greater stress of voice4 ,this peculiarity of our language makes it more difficult for us than for other peoples to get the ,latin accent1 which is one of pitch4 ,in ,latin the acute accent means that on the syllable thus accented you raise the pitch2 the grave indicates merely the lower tone2 the circumflex1 that the voice is first raised1 then depressed1 on the same syllable4 ,to quote again the passage from ,priscian3 ,keil4 v4 ,,iii4 p4 #eai4 ,acutus namque accentus ideo inventus est quod acuat sive elevet syllabam2 gravis vero eo quod deprimat aut deponet2 circumflexus ideo quod deprimat et acuat4 ,in conclusion of this part of the work the following anecdotes from ,aulus ,gellius are given1 as serving to show that to the rules of classic ,roman pronunciation there were exceptions1 apparently more or less arbitrary1 some--perhaps many--of which we may not now hope to discover2 and as serving still more usefully to show1 by the stress laid upon points of comparative insignificance1 that exceptions were rare1 such as even scholars could afford to disagree upon1 and not such as to affect the general tenor of the language4 ,so that we are encouraged to believe that1 as the ,english language may be well and even elegantly spoken by those whose speech still includes scores1 if not hundreds1 of variations in pronunciation1 in sounds of letters or in accent1 so we may hope to pronounce the ,latin with some good degree of satisfaction1 whether1 for instance1 we say quisco or quisco1 ctito or ctito3 ,aul4 ,gell4 ,,vi4 xv4 ,amicus noster1 homo multi studii atque in bonarum disciplinarum opere frequens1 verbum quiescit usitate e littera correpta dixit4 ,alter item amicus homo in doctrinis1 quasi in praestigiis1 mirificus1 communiumque vocum respuens nimis et fastidiens1 barbare eum dixisse opinatus est2 quoniam producere debuisset1 non corripere4 ,nam quiescit ita oportere dici praedicavit1 ut calescit1 nitescit1 stupescit1 atque alia hujuscemodi multa4 ,id etiam addebat1 quod quies e producto1 non brevi1 diceretur4 ,noster autem1 qua est omnium rerum verecunda mediocritate1 ne si ,aelii quidem ,cincii et ,santrae dicendum ita censuissent obsecuturum sese fuisse ait1 contra perpetuam ,latinae linguae consuetudinem4 ,neque se tam insignite locuturum1 absona aut inaudita ut diceret4 ,litteras autem super hac re fecit1 item inter haec exercitia quaedam ludicra2 et quiesco non esse his simile quae supra posui1 nec a quiete dictum1 sed ab eo quietem2 ,graecaeque vocis 1 ,ionice a verbo 1 et modum et originem verbum illud habere demonstravit4 ,rationibusque haud sane frigidis docuit quiesco e littera longa dici non convenire4 ,aul4 ,gell4 ,,ix4 vi4 ,ab eo1 quod est ago et egi1 verba sunt quae appellant grammatici frequentativa1 actito et actitavi4 ,haec quosdam non sane indoctos viros audio ita pronuntiare ut primam in his litteram corripiant2 rationemque dicant1 quoniam in verbo principali1 quod est ago1 prima littera breviter pronuntiatur4 ,cur igitur ab eo quod est edo et ungo1 in quibus verbis prima littera breviter dicitur1 esito et unctito1 quae sunt eorum frequentativa prima littera longa promimus8 et contra1 dictito1 ab eo verbo quod est dico1 correpte dicimus8 ,num ergo potius actito et actitavi producenda sunt8 quoniam frequentativa ferme omnia eodem modo in prima syllaba dicuntur1 quo participia praeteriti temporis ex iis verbis unde ea profecta sunt in eadem syllaba pronuntiantur2 sicut lego1 lectus1 lectito facit2 ungo1 unctus1 unctito2 scribo1 scriptus1 scriptito2 moneo1 monitus1 monito2 pendeo1 pensus1 pensito2 edo1 esus1 esito2 dico1 autem1 dictus1 dictito facit2 gero1 gestus1 gestito2 veho1 vectus1 vectito2 rapio1 raptus1 raptito2 capio1 captus1 captito2 facio1 factus1 factito4 ,sic igitur actito producte in prima syllaba pronuntiandum1 quoniam ex eo fit quod est ago et actus4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it4 ,the directions now to be given may be fittingly introduced by a few paragraphs from ,professor ,munro's pamphlet on the pronunciation of ,latin1 already more than once quoted from4 ,he says--and part of this has been cited before3 8,we know exactly how ,cicero or ,quintilian did or could spell2 we know the syllable on which they placed the accent of almost every word2 and in almost every case we already follow them in this4 ,i have the conviction that in their best days philological people took vast pains to make the writing exactly reproduce the sounding2 and that if ,quintilian or ,tacitus spelt a word differently from ,cicero or ,livy1 he also spoke it so far differently4 ,with the same amount of evidence1 direct and indirect1 we have for ,latin1 it would not1 ,i think1 be worth anybody's while to try to recover the pronunciation of ,french or ,english2 it might1 ,i think1 be worth his while to try to recover that of ,german or ,italian1 in which sound and spelling accord more nearly1 and accent obeys more determinable laws40 8,i am convinced10 he says in another place1 8that the mainstay of an efficient reform is the adoption essentially of the ,italian vowel system3 it combines beauty1 firmness and precision in a degree not equalled by any other system of which ,i have any knowledge4 ,the little ragged boys in the streets of ,rome and ,florence enunciate their vowels in a style of which princes might be proud40 ,and again3 8,i do not propose that every one should learn ,italian in order to learn ,latin4 ,what ,i would suggest is1 that those who know ,italian should make use of their knowledge and should in many points take ,italian sounds for the model to be followed2 that those who do not know it should try to learn from others the sounds required1 or such an approximation to them as may be possible in each case40 ,we may then sum up the results at which we have arrived in the following directions3 ,first of all pay particular attention to the vowel sounds1 to make them full and distinct1 taking the ,italian model1 if you know ,italian1 and always observing strictly the quantity4 ,pronounce as in ,italian fato2 or as final a in aha6 as in ,italian fatto2 or as initial a in aha6 or as in fast 7not as in fat74 as second e in ,italian fedele2 or as in fte 7not fate72 or as in vein4 as in ,italian fetta2 or as in very4 as first i in ,italian timide2 or as in caprice4 as second i in ,italian timide2 or as in capricious4 or 1 where the spelling varies between the two 7e4g4 maximus1 maxumus71 as in ,german ,mller4 as first o in ,italian orlo2 or as in more4 as first o in ,italian rotto2 or as in wholly 7not as in holly74 as in ,italian rumore2 or as in rural1 as in ,italian ruppe2 or as in puss 7not as in fuss74 ,let i in v before d1 t1 m1 r or x1 in the first syllable of a word1 be pronounced quite obscurely1 somewhat as first i in virgin4 ,in the matter of diphthongs1 be sure to take always the correct spelling1 to begin with1 and thus avoid what ,munro justly terms 8hateful barbarisms like coelum1 coena1 moestus40 ,much time is wasted by students and bad habits are acquired in not finding1 at the outset1 the right spelling of each word and holding to it4 ,this each student must do for himself1 consulting a good dictionary1 as editors and editions are not always to be depended on4 ,here it is the diphthongs that present the chief difficulty and call for the greatest care4 ,in pronouncing diphthongs sound both vowels1 but glide so rapidly from the first to the second as to offer to the ear but a single sound4 ,in the publication of the ,cambridge 7,eng47 ,philological ,society on 8,pronunciation of ,latin in the ,augustan ,period10 the following directions are given3 8,the pronunciation of these diphthongs1 of which the last three are extremely rare1 is best learnt by first sounding each vowel separately and then running them together1 ae as ah-eh1 au as ah-oo1 oe as o-eh1 ei as eh-ee1 eu as eh-oo1 and ui as oo-ee40 ,thus3 ae 7ah-h7 as in ,german nher2 or as ea in pear2 or ay in aye 7ever72 7not like in fate nor like ai in aisle74 ai 7ah-e7 as in aye 7yes74 au 7ah-o7 as in ,german ,haus1 with more of the u sound than ou in house4 ei 7eh-e7 nearly as in veil4 7,in dein1 deinde1 the ei is not a diphthong1 but the e1 when not forming a distinct syllable1 is elided47 eu 7eh-o7 as in ,italian ,europa4 7,in neuter and neutiquam elide the e47 oe 7o-h7 nearly like ,german in ,goethe4 oi is not found in the classical period4 7,in proin1 proinde1 the o is either elided or forms a distinct syllable4 ou in prout is not a diphthong2 the u is either elided or forms a distinct syllable47 ui 7oo-e7 as in cuirass4 ,in the pronunciation of consonants certain points claim special attention4 ,and first among these is the sounding of the doubled consonants4 ,whoever has heard ,italian spoken recognizes one of its greatest beauties to be the distinctness1 yet smoothness1 with which its ll and rr and cc--in short1 all its doubled consonants--are pronounced4 ,no feature of the language is more charming4 ,and one who attempts the same in ,latin and perseveres1 with whatever difficulty and pains1 will be amply rewarded in the music of the language4 ,a good working rule for pronouncing doubled consonants is to hold the first until ready to pronounce the second3 as in the words we'll lie till late1 not to be pronounced as we lie till eight4 ,next in importance1 and1 in ,new ,england at least1 first in difficulty1 is the trilling of the r4 ,there can be no approximation to a satisfactory pronunciation of ,latin until this r is acquired2 but the satisfaction in the result when accomplished is well worth all the pains taken4 ,another point to be observed is that the dentals t1 d1 n1 l1 require that the tongue touch the teeth1 rather than the palate4 ,munro says3 8d and t we treat with our usual slovenliness1 and force them up to the roof of our mouth3 we should make them real dentals1 as no doubt the ,romans made them1 and then we shall see how readily ad at1 apud aput1 illud illut and the like interchange40 ,this requires care1 but amply repays the effort4 ,it is necessary also to remember that n before a guttural is pronounced as in the same position in ,english1 e4g41 in ancora as in anchor2 in anxius as in anxious2 in relinquo as in relinquish4 ,remember to make n before f or s a mere nasal1 having as little prominence otherwise as possible1 and to carefully lengthen the preceding vowel4 ,studiously observe the length of the vowel before the terminations gnus1 gna1 gnum4 ,remember that the final syllable in m1 when not elided1 is to be pronounced as lightly and rapidly as possible1 the more lightly and indistinctly the better4 ,remember that s must not be pronounced as z1 except where it represents z in ,greek words1 as ,smyrna 7,zmyrna71 ,smaragdus 7,zmaragdus71 otherwise always pronounce as in sis4 ,remember in pronouncing v to direct the lower lip toward the upper lip1 avoiding the upper teeth4 ,in general1 in pronouncing the consonants conform to the following scheme3 b as in blab4 b before s or t1 sharpened to p1 as urbs urps2 obtinuit optinuit4 c as sceptic 7never as in sceptre74 ch as in chemist 7never as in cheer or chivalry74 d as in did1 but made more dental than in ,english4 d final1 before a word beginning with a consonant1 in particles especially1 often sharpened to t as in tid-bit 7tit-bit74 f as in fief1 but with more breath than in ,english4 g as in gig 7never as in gin74 gn in terminations gnus1 gna1 gnum1 makes preceding vowel long4 h as in hah6 i 7consonant7 as in onion4 k as in kink4 l initial and final1 as in lull4 l medial1 as in lullaby1 always more dental than in ,english4 m initial and medial1 as in membrane4 m before q1 nasalized4 m final1 when not elided1 touched lightly and obscurely1 somewhat as in tandem 7tandm72 or as in the ,englishman's pronunciation of ,blenheim 7,blenhm71 ,birmingham 7,birminghm74 n initial and final1 as in nine4 n medial1 as in damnable1 always more dental than in ,english4 n before c1 g1 q1 x1 as in concord1 anger1 sinker1 relinquish1 anxious1 the tongue not touching the roof of the mouth4 n before f or s1 nasal1 lengthening the preceding vowel1 as in renaissance4 p as in pup4 q as in quick4 r as in roar1 but trilled1 as in ,italian or ,french4 7,this is most important47 s as in sis 7never as in his74 t as in tot1 but more dental than in ,english 7never as in motion74 th nearly as in then 7never as in thin74 v 7u consonant7 nearly as in verve1 but labial1 rather than labio-dental2 like the ,german w 7not like the ,english w74 ,make ,english v as nearly as may be done without touching the lower lip to the upper teeth4 x as in six4 z nearly as dz in adze4 ,doubled consonants to be pronounced each distinctly1 by holding the first until ready to pronounce the second4 ,as ,professor ,ellis well puts it3 8,no relaxation of the organs1 no puff of wind or grunt of voice should intervene between the two parts of a doubled consonant1 which should more resemble separated parts of one articulation than two separate articulations40 8,duplication of consonants is consequently regarded simply as the energetic utterance of a single consonant40 ,,elision4 ,professor ,ellis believes that the m was always omitted in speaking and the following consonant pronounced as if doubled 7quorum pars as quoruppars74 ,final m at the end of a sentence he thinks was not heard at all4 ,where a vowel followed he thinks that the m was not heard1 the vowel before being slurred on to the initial vowel of the following word4 ,the ,cambridge 7,eng47 ,philological ,society1 however1 takes the view that 8final vowels 7or diphthongs7 when followed by vowels 7or diphthongs7 were not cut off1 but lightly run on to the following word1 as in ,italian4 ,but if the vowel was the same the effect was that of a single sound40 ,professor ,munro says3 8,in respect of elision ,i would only say that1 by comparing ,plautus with ,ovid1 we may see how much the elaborate cultivation of the language had tended to a more distinct sounding of final syllables2 and that but for ,virgil's powerful influence the elision of long vowels would have almost ceased4 ,clearly we must not altogether pass over the elided vowel or syllable in m1 except perhaps in the case of in common words1 que1 neque1 and the like40 ,this view1 held by the ,cambridge ,philological ,society and by ,professor ,munro1 is the one generally accepted2 the practice recommended by them is the one generally in use1 and that which seems safe and suitable to follow4 ,that is3 ,do not altogether pass over the elided vowel or syllable in m1 except in cases of very close connection1 in compound words or phrases1 or when the final and initial vowel are the same1 or in the case of final in common words1 as que1 neque1 and the like2 but let the final vowel run lightly on to the following vowel as in ,italian1 and touch lightly and obscurely the final syllable in m4 ,the o or e of proin1 proinde1 prout1 dein1 deinde1 neuter1 neutiquam1 when not forming a distinct syllable1 are to be treated as cases of elision between two words4 ,,quantity4 ,in the pronunciation of ,latin the observance of quantity and of pitch are the two most difficult points of attainment2 and they are the crucial test of good reading4 ,the observance of quantity is no less important in prose than in verse4 ,a little reflection will convince the dullest mind that the ,romans did not pronounce a word one way in prose and another in verse2 that we have not in poetry and prose two languages4 ,cicero and ,quintilian both enjoin a due admixture of long and short syllables in prose as well as verse2 and any one who takes delight in reading ,latin will heartily agree with ,professor ,munro when he says3 8,for myself1 by observing quantity1 ,i seem to feel more keenly the beauty of ,cicero's style and ,livy's1 as well as ,virgil's and ,horace's40 ,therefore until one feels at home with the quantities1 let him observe the rule of beating time in reading1 to make sure that the long syllables get twice the time of the short ones4 ,in this way he will soon have the pronunciation of each word correctly fixed in mind1 and will not be obliged to think of his quantities in verse more than in prose4 ,a long step has been taken in the enjoyment of ,latin poetry when the reader does not have to be thinking of the #8feet4' ,young students particularly should be especially careful in the final syllable of the verse4 ,since1 so far as the measure is concerned1 there is no difference there between the long and the short syllable1 the reader is apt to be careless as to the length of the syllable itself1 and to make all final syllables long1 even to the mispronouncing of the word1 thereby both making a false quantity and otherwise injuring the effect of the verse1 by importing into it a monotony foreign to the original4 ,does not ,cicero himself say that a short syllable at the end of the verse is as if you #8stood' 7came to a stand71 but a long one as if you #8sat down'8 ,it is1 in fact1 in the pronouncing of final syllables everywhere that the most serious and persistent faults are found1 bs for bs being one of the worst and most common cases4 ,how much of the teacher's time might be spared1 for better things1 if he did not have to correct bs into bs6 ,the disposition to neglect the double and doubled consonants is another serious fault1 as well as the slovenly pronunciation of two consonants1 where the reader fails to give the time necessary to speak each distinctly1 making false quantity and mispronunciation at the same time4 ,in general1 if two symbols are written we are to infer that two sounds were intended4 ,the only exception to this is in the case of a few words where the spelling varies1 as casso or caso4 ,in such cases we may suppose that the doubled consonant was only designed to indicate length4 ,another1 apparent1 exception is in the case of a mute followed by a liquid2 but the mute and liquid are regularly sounded as one1 and therefore do not affect the length of the preceding vowel4 ,sometimes1 however1 for the sake of time1 the verse requires them to be pronounced separately4 ,in this case each is to be given distinctly2 the mute and liquid must not coalesce4 ,for it must not be forgotten that1 as a rule1 the vowel before a mute followed by a liquid is short1 in which case it must on no account be lengthened4 ,thus1 ordinarily1 we say p-tris1 but the verse may require pat-ris4 ,although the vowel before two consonants is generally short1 we find1 in some instances1 a long vowel in this position4 ,for example1 it would appear that the vowel of the supine and cognate parts of the verb is long if the vowel of the present indicative1 though short1 is followed by a medial 7b1 g1 d1 z71 as ctus1 lctus1 from go1 lgo4 ,let it be remembered in the matter of i consonant between two vowels1 that we have really the force of two ii's1 as originally written1 one1 vowel1 making a diphthong with the preceding1 the other1 consonant1 introducing the new syllable2 and that the same is true of the compounds of jacio1 which should be written with a single i but pronounced as with two1 as obicit 7objicit74 ,,accent4 ,the question of accent presents little difficulty as to place1 but some as to quality1 and much as to kind4 ,as to quality1 it must be remembered that while the acute accent is found on syllables either short or long 7by nature or position71 and on either the penult or the antepenult1 the circumflex is found only on long vowels1 and 7in words of more than one syllable7 only on the penult1 and then only in case the ultima is short4 ,thus1 sps1 but dx2 ln1 but ln2 legtus1 but legti4 ,in these examples the length of the syllable is the same and of course remains the same in inflection1 but the quality of the accent changes4 ,in the one case the voice is both raised and depressed on the same syllable1 in the other it is only raised4 ,as ,professor ,ellis puts it3 8,if the last syllable but one is long1 it is spoken with a raised pitch1 which is maintained throughout if its vowel is short1 as3 vnts1 or if the last syllable is long1 as3 fme2 but sinks immediately if its own vowel is long1 and at the same time the vowel of the last syllable is short1 as fm1 to be distinguished from fm40 ,but when we come to the question of the kind of accent1 we come upon the most serious matter practically in the pronunciation of ,latin1 and this because of a difficulty peculiar to the ,english speaking peoples4 ,the ,english accent is one of stress1 whereas the ,roman is one of pitch4 ,no one will disagree with ,professor ,ellis when he 8assumes10 in his ,quantitative ,pronunciation of ,latin1 8that the ,augustan ,romans had no force accent1 that is1 that they did not1 as we do1 distinguish one syllable in every word invariably by pronouncing it with greater force1 that is1 with greater loudness1 than the others1 but that the force varied according to the feeling of the moment1 or the beat of the timekeeper in singing1 and was used for purposes of expression2 just as with us1 musical pitch is free1 that is1 just as we may pronounce the same word with different musical pitches for its different syllables1 and in fact are obliged to vary the musical pitch in interrogations and replies4 ,the fixity of musical pitch and freedom of degrees of force in ,latin1 and the freedom of musical pitch and fixity of degrees of force in ,english sharply distinguish the two pronunciations even irrespective of quantity40 ,but this pitch accent1 while alien to us1 is not impossible of acquisition1 and it is essential to any adequate rendering of any ,latin writer1 whether of prose or verse4 ,nor will the attainment be a work of indefinite time if one pursues with constancy some such course as the following1 recommended by ,professor ,ellis3 8,the place of raised pitch10 he says1 8must be strictly observed1 and for this purpose the verses had better be first read in a kind of sing-song1 the high pitched syllables being all of one pitch and the low pitched syllables being all of one pitch also1 but about a musical #8fifth' lower than the other1 as if the latter were sung to the lowest note of the fourth string of a violin1 and the former were sung to the lowest note of its third string40 99 99 99 ,in the foregoing pages an effort has been made to bring together compactly and to set forth concisely the nature of the #8,roman method' of pronouncing ,latin2 the reasons for adopting1 and the simplest means of acquiring it4 ,no attempt has been made at a philosophical or exhaustive treatment of the subject2 but at the same time it is hoped that nothing unphilosophical has crept in1 or anything been omitted1 which might have been given1 to render the subject intelligible and enable the intelligent reader to understand the points and be able to give a reason for each usage herein recommended4 ,the main object in view in preparing this little book has been to help the teachers of ,latin in the secondary schools1 to furnish them something not too voluminous1 yet as satisfactory as the nature of the case allows1 upon a subject which the present diversity of opinion and practice has rendered unnecessarily obscure4 ,to these teachers1 then1 a word from ,professor ,ellis may be fitly spoken in conclusion3 8,to teach a person to read prose well1 even in his own language1 is difficult1 partly because he has seldom heard prose well read1 though he is constantly hearing prose around him1 intonated1 but unrhythmical4 ,in the case of a dead language1 like the ,latin1 which the pupil never hears spoken1 and seldom hears read1 except by himself or his equally ignorant and hobbling fellow-scholars1 this difficulty is inordinately increased4 ,let me once more impress on every teacher of ,latin the duty of himself learning to read ,latin readily according to accent and quantity2 the duty of his reading out to his pupils1 of his setting them a pattern1 of his hearing that they follow it1 of his correcting their mistakes1 of his leading them into right habits4 ,if the quantitative pronunciation be adopted1 no one will be fit to become a classical teacher who cannot read a simple ,latin sentence decently1 with a strict observance of that quantity by which alone the greatest of ,latin orators regulated his own rhythms40 8,all pronunciation is acquired by imitation1 and it is not till after hearing a sound many times that we are able to grasp it sufficiently well to imitate4 ,it is a mistake constantly made by teachers of language to suppose that a pupil knows by once hearing unfamiliar sounds1 or even unfamiliar combinations of familiar sounds4 ,when pupils are made to imitate too soon1 they acquire an erroneous pronunciation1 which they afterward hear constantly from themselves actually or mentally1 and believe that they hear from the teacher during the small fraction of a second that each sound lasts1 and hence the habits of these organs become fixed40 ,the following direction is of the utmost importance 7,curwen's 8,standard ,course10 p4 #c73 8,the teacher never sings 7speaks7 with his pupils1 but sings 7utters1 reads1 dictates7 to them a brief and soft pattern4 ,the first art of the pupil is to listen well to the pattern1 and then to imitate it exactly4 ,he that listens best sings 7speaks7 best40 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,errors and ,inconsistencies 7noted by transcriber7 ,keil4 v4 ,,vi4 p4 #bc4 ,f autem apud ,aeolis the letter is printed as an ,f1 not a capital digamma ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #ae4 444 ,pro quo ,caesar hanc figuram the letter shown in brackets is printed as an upside-down digamma ,keil4 v4 ,,ii4 p4 #aa4 444 apud veteres ,graecos pro et the third letter may not display on your computer2 it is the capital ,heta1 resembling the left half of capital ,h or ,eta v 7u consonant7 444 without touching the lower lip 444 text reads 8touch-0 at line-end