,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,bold text is denoted by equal signs4 ,a subscript x is denoted by x1 for example ,h#b,o4 ,footnote anchors are denoted by number1 and the footnotes have been placed at the end of the book4 ,some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book4 ,,the ,,unseen ,,universe 444 1 1 1 4 1 4 4 ,animula6 vagula1 blandula1 ,hospes comesque corporis1 ,quae nunc abibis in loca1-- ,pallidula1 rigida1 nudula4444 ,,hadrian4 #8,god hath endowed us with different faculties1 suitable and proportional to the different objects that engage them4 ,we discover sensible things by our senses1 rational things by our reason1 things intellectual by understanding2 but divine and celestial things he has reserved for the exercise of our faith1 which is a kind of divine and superior sense in the soul4 ,our reason and understanding may at some times snatch a glimpse1 but cannot take a steady and adequate prospect of things so far above their reach and sphere4 ,thus1 by the help of natural reason1 ,i may know there is a ,god1 the first cause and original of all things2 but his essence1 attributes1 and will1 are hid within the veil of inaccessible light1 and cannot be discerned by us but through faith in his divine revelation4 ,he that walks without this light1 walks in darkness1 though he may strike out some faint and glimmering sparkles of his own4 ,and he that1 out of the gross and wooden dictates of his natural reason1 carves out a religion to himself1 is but a more refined idolater than those who worship stocks and stones1 hammering an idol out of his fancy1 and adoring the works of his own imagination4 ,for this reason ,god is nowhere said to be jealous1 but upon the account of his worship4'--,pilgrims ,progress1 ,part ,,iii4 #8,to die1--to sleep2-- ,to sleep6 perchance to dream2--ay1 there's the rub2 ,for in that sleep of death what dreams may come1 ,when we have shuffled off this mortal coil1 ,must give us pause4'--,,shakespeare1 ,hamlet1 ,act iii4 ,scene #a4 ,illustration3 7decorative icon7 ,,the ,,unseen ,,universe ,,or ,,physical ,,speculations ,,on ,a ,,future ,,state ,,by ,b4 ,,stewart ,,and ,p4 ,g4 ,,tait4 ----the things which are seen are temporal1 but the things which are not seen are eternal4 ,,seventh ,,edition 7,revised1 and ,enlarged47 ,london ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co #ahgh4 ,all ,rights reserved4 ,blessed ,lord1 who hast caused all holy ,scriptures to be written for our learning2 ,grant that we may in such wise hear them1 read1 mark1 learn1 and inwardly digest them1 that by patience1 and comfort of thy holy ,word1 we may embrace1 and ever hold fast the blessed hope of everlasting life1 which thou hast given us in our ,saviour ,jesus ,christ4--,amen4 ,edinburgh ,university ,press3 ,t4 ,,and ,a4 ,,constable1 ,,printers ,,to ,,her ,,majesty4 ,,preface4 ,the following was prefixed to our ,sixth ,edition4 ,though many changes1 some of importance1 have since been made in the text1 we do not think it necessary to call attention to them here4 ,our readers will find near the end of our work the following paragraph1 which has appeared in every edition3--#8,we are in hopes that when this region of thought comes to be further examined1 it may lead to some common ground on which followers of science on the one hand1 and of revealed religion on the other1 may meet together and recognise each other's claims without any sacrifice of the spirit of independence1 or any diminution of self-respect4 ,entertaining these views1 we shall welcome with sincere pleasure any remarks or criticism on these speculations of ours1 whether by the leaders of scientific thought1 or by those of religious inquiry4' ,a work like ours1 containing a challenge of this sort1 has naturally called forth a great amount of criticism4 ,bearing in mind the existence of the #8odium theologicum1' we are bound to confess that at first we were disposed to tremble on opening any review of our work in a theological journal of repute4 ,we were soon however delightfully perplexed at finding that the leaders of religious inquiry were disposed to treat us with the utmost courtesy1 agreeing with us in very many points1 and stating when necessary any difference of opinion in a manner calculated alike to preserve their independence and to conciliate our self-respect4 ,we feel much gratified and encouraged by this treatment1 and we think that if our fourth edition be compared with our first1 it will be found that we possess some plasticity and have learned to make some use of the criticism so faithfully and courteously bestowed upon us4 99 99 99 99 99 ,here we would wish to take an opportunity of stating that the ,principle of ,continuity as upheld by us has reference solely to the intellectual faculties4 ,we are led1 for instance1 by this principle to assert that the process of production of the visible universe must have been of such a nature as to be comprehensible more or less to the higher intelligences of the universe4 ,but we are not led to assert the eternity of stuff or matter1 for that would denote an unauthorised application to the invisible universe of the experimental law of the conservation of matter which belongs entirely to the present system of things4 ,nor are we led to assert that the ether must play some important part in our future bodies1 for our knowledge of things is vastly too limited to enable us to come to any such conclusion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,notwithstanding these remarks1 if any theologian of repute thinks that our fourth and subsequent editions savour too much of ideas of this nature1 we will gladly amend our language when a suitable opportunity occurs4 ,it is probably due to misconception of our words1 possibly to a difficulty1 which we have all along felt1 of finding words exactly fitted to express some of the more novel of the conceptions to which we have been led1 that we have been spoken of1 to a certain extent even by some friendly critics1 as #8subtly materialistic' or as #8loose ,positivists4' ,unless we were to coin new terms 7which we may yet find it necessary to do71 it will probably be found all but impossible to escape such charges when writing on such matters4 99 99 99 99 99 ,while the treatment we have experienced from the true leaders of religious thought has been all that we could wish1 and while some of them have come forward as our champions rather than our critics1 we regret to think that certain of their following have not invariably imitated the good example thus set them4 ,all are not ,bayards1 whether we regard the temper of the blade or that of the individual who wields it4 ,pages of so-called #8extracts' from our book have been strung together1 now by some writers of the ,high ,church school1 anon by writers of the very lowest ,evangelical type1 in each case with absolute disregard of their original collocation and surroundings1 and the result is of course as utterly unfair a representation of our meaning as could possibly be given4 ,these #8extracts1' which are always scrupulously enclosed in inverted commas1 are not merely altered in meaning by being arbitrarily detached from the context--they are often altered by the insertion of terms 7e4g4 luminiferous force67 which we1 as scientific men1 could not possibly have employed4 ,people who adopt a system like this deserve to have1 once for all1 thoroughly brought home to them the bitter rebuke administered to their analogues long ago by a witty if semi-profane divine1 who proposed to choose his text on their principle1 and gave out1 to the astonishment of his audience1 part only of a verse1 viz41 #8,hang all the law and the prophets'6 ,we have placed at the commencement of this ,preface the only words of ours which appear to commit us to controversy1 and we trust that a study of them will convince our readers1 as it has convinced us1 that we do not stand committed to the hopeless task of entering the lists against this species of controversialist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is with reluctance that we have felt ourselves compelled to allude to a method of controversy1 in our opinion1 as deficient in ,christian courtesy as it is powerful to stifle the interests of truth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the attacks which have been made on our work since the sixth edition was published1 are 7all at least that we have seen7 completely met by the ,introduction4 ,their basis1 when such exists1 has usually been some short passage1 arbitrarily detached from its context1 and thus made susceptible of any gloss desired4 ,november #ahgg4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition4 ,forgetful of the splendid example shown by intellectual giants like ,newton and ,faraday1 and aghast at the materialistic statements now-a-days freely made 7often professedly in the name of science71 the orthodox in religion are in somewhat evil case4 ,as a natural consequence of their too hastily reached conclusion1 that modern science is incompatible with ,christian doctrine1 not a few of them have raised an outcry against science itself4 ,this result is doubly to be deplored2 for there cannot be a doubt that it is calculated to do mischief1 not merely to science but to religion4 ,our object1 in the present work1 is to endeavour to show that the presumed incompatibility of ,science and ,religion does not exist4 ,this1 indeed1 ought to be self-evident to all who believe that the ,creator of the ,universe is ,himself the ,author of ,revelation4 ,but it is strangely impressive to note how very little often suffices to alarm even the firmest of human faith4 ,of course we cannot1 in this small volume1 enter upon the whole of so vast a subject1 and we have therefore contented ourselves with a brief1 though1 we hope1 sufficiently developed discussion of one very important--even fundamental--point4 ,we endeavour to show1 in fact1 that immortality is strictly in accordance with the principle of ,continuity 7rightly viewed72 that principle which has been the guide of all modern scientific advance4 ,as one result of this inquiry we are led1 by strict reasoning on purely scientific grounds1 to the probable conclusion that #8a life for the unseen1 through the unseen1 is to be regarded as the only perfect life4' 7,see ,chap4 ,,vii47 ,we need not point out here the bearing of this on religion4 ,incidentally1 the reader will find many remarks and trains of reasoning which 7by the alteration of a word or two7 can be made to apply to other points of almost equal importance4 ,we may state that the ideas here developed--very imperfectly of course1 as must always be the case in matters of the kind--are not the result of hasty guessing1 but have been pressed on us by the reflections and discussions of several years4 ,we have to thank many of our friends1 theological as well as scientific1 for ready and valuable assistance4 ,the matter of our work has certainly gained by this1 though it is likely that the manner may have suffered by the introduction1 here and there1 of peculiarities of style which could not easily be removed without damage to the sense4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,as a preface to our ,second ,edition1 we cannot do better than record the experience derived from our first4 ,it is indeed gratifying to find a wonderful want of unanimity among the critics who assail us1 and it is probably owing to this cause that we have been able to preserve a kind of kinetic stability1 just as a man does in consequence of being equally belaboured on all sides by the myriad petty impacts of little particles of air4 ,some call us infidels1 while others represent us as very much too orthodoxly credulous2 some call us pantheists1 some materialists1 others spiritualists4 ,as we cannot belong at once to all these varied categories1 the presumption is that we belong to none of them4 ,this1 by the way1 is our own opinion4 ,venturing to classify our critics1 we would divide them into three groups3-- 7#a47 ,there are those who have doubtless faith in revelation2 but more especially1 sometimes solely1 in their own method of interpreting it2 none1 however1 in the method according to which really scientific men with a wonderful unanimity have been led to interpret the works of nature4 ,these critics call us1 some infidels1 some pantheists1 some dangerously subtle materialists1 etc4 7#b47 ,there are those who have faith in the methods according to which men of science interpret the laws of nature1 but none whatever in revelation or theology4 ,these consider us as orthodoxly credulous and superstitious1 or as writers of #8the most hardened and impenitent nonsense that ever called itself original speculation4' 7#c47 ,there are those who have a profound belief that the true principles of science will be found in accordance with revelation1 and who welcome any work whose object is to endeavour to reconcile these two fields of thought4 ,such men believe that the ,author of revelation is likewise the ,author of nature1 and that these works of ,his will ultimately be found to be in perfect accord4 ,such of this school as have yet spoken have approved of our work4 ,our readers may judge for themselves which of these three classes of belief represents most nearly the true ,catholic ,faith4 ,many of our critics seem to fancy that we presume to attempt such an absurdity as a demonstration of ,christian truth from a mere physical basis6 ,we simply confute those who 7in the outraged name of science7 have asserted that science is incompatible with religion4 ,surely it is not we who are dogmatists1 but those who assert that the principles and well-ascertained conclusions of science are antagonistic to ,christianity and immortality4 ,if in the course of our discussion we are to some extent constructors1 and find analogies in nature which seem to us to throw light upon the doctrines of ,christianity1 yet in the main our object is rather to break down unfounded objections than to construct apologetic arguments4 ,these we leave to the ,theologian4 ,the ,bishop of ,manchester has very clearly described our position by stating that from a purely physical point of view1 #bjd we #8contend for the possibility of immortality and of a personal ,god4' ,to vary the metaphor1 we have merely stripped off the hideous mask with which materialism has covered the face of nature to find underneath 7what every one with faith in anything at all must expect to find7 something of surpassing beauty1 but yet of inscrutable depth4 ,for indeed we are entire believers in the infinite depth of nature1 and hold that just as we must imagine space and duration to be infinite1 so must we imagine the structural complexity of the universe to be infinite also4 ,to our minds it appears no less false to pronounce eternal that aggregation we call the atom1 than it would be to pronounce eternal that aggregation we call the ,sun4 ,all this follows from the principle of ,continuity1 in virtue of which we make scientific progress in the knowledge of things1 and which leads us1 whatever state of things we contemplate1 to look for its antecedent in some previous state of things also in the ,universe4 ,this principle represents the path from the known to the unknown1 or to speak more precisely1 our conviction that there is a path4 ,nevertheless it does not authorise us to dogmatise regarding the properties of the unknown lying beyond or at the boundary of our little #8clearing4' ,we must go up to it and examine it often1 with long continued labour1 under great difficulties1 before we can at all say what its properties are4 ,among those who recognise us as orthodox1 and for that reason attack us1 there is one of deservedly high authority4 ,our #8brother1' ,professor ,w4 ,k4 ,clifford1 has published a lively attack on our speculations in a recent number of the ,fortnightly ,review4 ,we are bound respectfully to consider the arguments of an adversary of his calibre4 ,he appears to be unable to conceive the possibility of a spiritual body which shall not die with the natural body4 ,or rather1 he conceives that he is in a position to assert1 from his knowledge of the universe1 that such a thing cannot be4 ,we join issue with him at once1 for the depth of our ignorance with regard to the unseen universe forbids us to come to any such conclusion with regard to a possible spiritual body4 ,our critic begins his article by summoning up or constructing a most grotesque and ludicrous figure1 which he calls our argument1 and forthwith proceeds to demolish2 and he ends by summoning up a horrible and awful phantom1 against which he feelingly warns us4 ,this phantom has already1 it seems1 destroyed two civilisations1 and is capable of even worse things1 though it is merely the #8sifted sediment of a residuum4' ,he does not tell us whether he means ,religion in general1 or only that particularly objectionable form of it called ,christianity4 ,our critic shows that he has not read our work1--has1 in fact1 merely glanced into it here and there4 ,this is proved by what he says of ,struve's notions1 on which we lay no stress whatever1 while he puts them forward as the mainstay of our argument4 ,we are also made out to be the assertors of a peculiar molecular constitution of the unseen universe1 although with reference to this we say in our work1 page #bag1 #8for the sake of bringing our ideas in a concrete form before the reader1 and for this purpose only1 we will now adopt a definite hypothesis4' ,of course it is too much to expect a critic now-a-days to read every word of a book which he is content to demolish1 but we did hope he might have noticed the italics4 ,our critic too commits several singular mistakes due to imperfections of memory4 ,why speak of the negative as universal1 which appears in such words as immortality1 endless existence1 etc41 when the most common of all expressions connected with the subject are the phrases1 #8eternal life1' #8everlasting life1' etc41 none of which involve the negative8 ,how the sun could go down upon #8,gideon' is not obvious4 ,had it done so it would certainly have occasioned personal inconvenience 7to say the least7 to that hero4 ,but what's in a name8 ,our critic was evidently thinking of ,joshua and #8,gibeon1' and why should a critic care about the difference between ,amorites and ,amalekites8 ,it is a mere matter of spelling1--a trifle4 ,similar mistakes in a previous article are apologised for in a footnote appended to that on the #8,unseen ,universe4' ,probably the author designed the apology to extend to it also1 but forgot to say so2 again a trifle4 ,but it is of straws1 some even weaker than these1 that the imposing article is built2 so that when we come forth to battle we find nothing to reply to4 ,to reduce matters to order1 we may confidently assert that the only reasonable and defensible alternative to our hypothesis 7or1 at least1 something similar to it7 is1 the stupendous pair of assumptions that visible matter is eternal1 and that ,,it ,,is ,,alive4 7,see #bdj47 ,if any one can be found to uphold notions like these 7from a scientific point of view71 we shall be most happy to enter the lists with him4 ,we have made numerous small though sometimes important changes in the text1 but none of them at all modify the general tenor of the work as it first appeared two months ago4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition4 ,we have reason to think that notwithstanding all we have said1 the position we take is not yet clearly understood1 and we would therefore utilise the ,preface to our ,third ,edition to put ourselves right with the public on this vital point4 ,to begin with the scientific side of our argument1 we must once more make the statement that it is not we who are the dogmatists1 but rather that school of scientific men who assert the incompatibility of science with ,christianity4 ,persistent as they have been in their endeavours to close the door leading from the seen to the unseen1 we as resolutely maintain that it must be left open4 ,this class take credit to themselves for having thus barred the entrance to a throng of superstitious fancies which would inevitably rush through an open avenue--forgetting that they have by the same act barred the way to all the higher aspirations of man4 ,but though we have founded no argument for immortality on the existence of these higher aspirations1 we cannot allow our adversaries to bar the way upon the plea that it would inevitably be the resort of unworthy passengers4 ,if it be the ,king's highway it must be left open2 if the unseen universe be a reality1 surely we are not to dismiss it from our minds lest some people might entertain absurd views regarding its relation to the present visible universe4 ,such fancies are no new thing in the progress of knowledge4 ,when two things are known to exist1 we may have ten thousand erroneous hypotheses regarding their mutual relations1 but only one true theory4 ,in the next place1 we would say one word to that religious school which is more particularly affected by our present inquiry1--we mean the school who assert the resurrection of our material bodies1 and a grossly material future state4 ,we have endeavoured to explain to this class of men that their belief is inconsistent with the integrity of that ,principle of ,continuity which underlies not only all scientific inquiry1 but all action of any kind in this world of ours4 ,under these circumstances such men have three honest alternatives before them4 ,in the first place they may acknowledge the truth of our position and change their views2 or1 secondly1 they may combat our argument regarding the alleged incompatibility of their position with the ,principle of ,continuity2 or1 lastly1 they may decline to accept this scientific principle in matters which concern their faith4 ,what we complain of is1 that the members of this school have chosen none of these alternatives1 but have rather attempted to brand us as infidels and materialists1 apparently forgetting 7as usual7 that such a method of conducting a discussion is neither ,christ-like nor convincing4 ,but while one class of religious men have tried to brand us with these names1 those of another school consider our theology narrow and gloomy4 ,we reply to these men that we do not pretend to be theologians in any sense of the word4 ,our position in this respect has been greatly misunderstood4 ,we are1 no doubt1 endeavouring to bring about a reconciliation between science and religion4 ,in order to accomplish this we must first find out what is the fundamental principle of science1 next what is the fundamental creed of the great majority of ,christians1 and then endeavour to show that the two are not incompatible with each other4 ,in carrying out this process we have been led to regard the ,principle of ,continuity as the great law which regulates scientific inquiry1 and there cannot be a doubt that the ,old and ,new ,testaments are regarded as authoritative expositions of religious truth by the great majority of the ,church of ,christ4 ,now we find that the expressions in the ,scriptures regarding the future of man and the constitution of the unseen world1 taken in their obvious1 if not absolutely literal meaning1 are not inconsistent with scientific deductions from the ,principle of ,continuity4 ,we know very well that1 especially of late years1 a multitude of religious schools have risen up who take many of these expressions in a non-literal and far from obvious acceptation1 and who1 perhaps1 do not accord the same authority to the writers as was formerly done4 ,into the disputes between these various religious schools we do not pretend to enter1 nor do we see that the ,shibboleths of such schools can be affected by our arguments1 inasmuch as their discussions have1 in the great majority of cases1 nothing whatever to do with ,physical principles4 ,they are rather founded on historical1 or moral1 or metaphysical considerations1 all of which are foreign to our argument4 ,having no pretensions to a title which we certainly do not covet1 we trust that we shall no longer be regarded as theologians either of a narrow and gloomy1 or a lax and heretical school1 or indeed of any school whatsoever4 ,september #ahge4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,fourth ,,and ,,fifth ,,editions4 ,in consequence of misapprehensions into which several of our critics have fallen1 we have prefixed to this edition an ,introduction wherein the objects of our work1 and the mode in which we seek to attain them1 are fully but compactly explained4 ,we need therefore say nothing on these matters here4 ,the work has been greatly enlarged1 and in many parts almost rewritten2 but we have nowhere found it necessary to alter or recall any of the statements hitherto made by us4 ,as we now give our names1 we can at length complain of the conduct of a ,london #8,weekly1' which1 only a few days after the first appearance of our book1 took the 7we hope7 very unusual course of stating the authorship as a matter of absolute fact1 not of conjecture4 ,it was1 of course1 not authorised to do so1 either by ourselves or by our ,publisher3--and we regret to find that the exigencies of competition for public favour can be thought capable of justifying1 in the eyes of any one1 such a course of conduct4 ,as ,professors of ,natural ,philosophy we have one sad remark to make4 ,the great majority of our critics have exhibited almost absolute ignorance as to the proper use of the term ,force1 which has had one1 and only one1 definite scientific sense since the publication of the ,principia4 ,as such men are usually among the exceptionally well educated1 ignorance of this important question must be all but universal4 ,in addition to what we have said on the subject in the text 7 #ig71 we would now only mention that the sole recorded case of true ,persistency or ,indestructibility of ,force which we recollect having ever met with1 occurs in connection with ,baron ,munchausen's remarkable descent from the moon4 ,it is1 no doubt1 a very striking case2 but it is apparently unique1 and it was not subjected to scientific scrutiny4 ,b4 ,,stewart4 ,p4 ,g4 ,,tait4 ,april #ahgf4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,page ,,introduction1 #a ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory ,,sketch4 ,article ,object of the ,book1 #a #bb ,two classes of speculators1 #b #bd ,why doubters of immortality have lately increased1 #c #bf ,belief of the ,ancient ,egyptians-- ,separation between priests and people1 #d #bf ,the abode of the dead1 #e #bg ,transmigration of souls1 #f #bh ,embalming of the body1 #g #bh ,belief of the ,ancient ,hebrews-- ,position of ,moses1 #h-i #bh ,his task1 #aj #bi ,belief of the ,jews in an unseen world1 #aa #cj ,their belief in a future state1 #ab #ca ,their belief in a resurrection1 #ac #cb ,belief of the ,ancient ,greeks and ,romans-- ,unsubstantial nature of ,elysium1 #ad #cc ,transmigration introduced1 #ae #cd ,rise of the ,epicurean school1 #af #cf ,uncertainty of philosophic opinion1 #ag #cg ,belief of the ,eastern ,aryans-- ,the ,rig-,veda1 #ah #cg ,it inculcates immortality1 #ai #ci ,double source of corruption1 #bj #dj ,zoroastrian reformation and tenets1 #ba-bb #dj ,reformation of ,buddha1 #bc #da ,meaning of ,nirvna1 #bd #db ,observations on ancient beliefs1 #be-bi #dc ,belief of the ,disciples of ,christ-- ,the resurrection of ,christ1 #cj #dg ,future state taught by ,christ1 #ca-cb #di ,perishable nature of that which is seen1 #cc #ej ,the ,christian ,heaven and ,hell1 #cd #ea ,general opinion regarding the person of ,christ1 #ce #eb ,general opinion regarding the position of ,christ1 #cf #ec ,spread of the ,christian religion1 #cg #ed ,rise of ,mohammed1 #ch #ee ,materialistic conceptions of the dark ages1 #ci #eg ,extreme scientific school1 #dj-da #ei ,points of similarity between this school and ,christians1 #db #fj ,varieties of opinions among ,christians1 #dc-dd #fj ,believers in a new revelation1 #de #fb ,swedenborg and his doctrines1 #df #fc ,remarks on ,swedenborg1 #dg #fe ,modern spiritualists1 #dh-di #fg ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,position ,,taken ,,by ,,the ,,authors--,,physical ,,axioms4 ,class of readers to whom the ,authors appeal1 #ej-ec #fi ,position assumed by the ,authors-- ,laws of the universe defined1 #ed #gb ,embodiment of some sort essential1 #ee #gc ,materialistic position described1 #ee #gd ,unjustifiable assumptions of materialists1 #ef-eh #gd ,intimacy of connection between mind and matter1 #ei #gg ,essential requisites for continued existence-- ,an organ of memory1 #fj #gh ,possibility of action in the present1 #fa #gh ,principle of ,continuity-- ,illustrated by reference to astronomy1 #fb-ge #gi ,breach of the principle illustrated1 #gf #hg ,extension to other faculties of man1 #gg #hh ,application of this principle to ,christian miracles-- ,erroneous position of old divines1 #gh #hi ,such opposed to the genius of ,christianity1 #gi #ij ,new method of explanation1 #hj-hb #ij ,application of this principle to the doctrines of the extreme scientific school-- ,the visible universe will probably come to an end in transformable energy1 #hc-hd #ib ,it must have been developed out of the invisible1 #he #id ,,the ,,universe1-- #hf #ie ,similar errors committed by the extreme schools of theology and science1 #hg #if ,application of this principle to ,immortality-- ,three conceivable suppositions1 #hh #if ,these reduced to two1 #hi #ig ,future course of our argument1 #ij #ig ,the problem may be profitably discussed1 #ia #ih ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,present ,,physical ,,universe4 ,definition of the term #8,physical ,universe'1 #ib #ii ,it contains something else besides matter or stuff1 #ic #ajj ,grounds of our belief in an external universe1 #id #aja ,these in accordance with our definition of the laws of the universe 7,art4 #ed71 #ie #ajb ,meaning of conservation1 #if #ajc ,use and ,abuse of the ,term ,force1 #ig #ajd ,conservation of ,momentum1 #ig #aje ,conservation of ,moment of ,momentum1 #ig #ajf ,conservation of ,vis ,viva1 #ig #ajg ,definition of ,energy1 #ih-ii #ajh ,newton's second interpretation of his ,third ,law1 #ii-ajj #ajh ,friction changes work into heat1 #aja #aaj ,historical sketch of the theory of energy1 #ajb-ajc #aab ,transformability of energy constitutes its use1 #ajd #aae ,case where energy is useless1 #aje #aaf ,historical ,sketch of ,second ,law of ,thermodynamics-- 99,carnot's perfect heat-engine1 99#ajf #aag 99,sir ,w4 ,thomson's definition of absolute temperature1 99#ajg #aah 99,melting point of ice lowered by pressure1 99#ajh #abj 99,sir ,w4 ,thomson's rectification of ,carnot's reasoning1 99#aji-99aaj #abj 99,professor ,j4 ,clerk-,maxwell's demons1 99#aaa-99aac #abb ,degradation of energy1 #aad #abf ,future of the physical universe1 #aad-aae #abf ,past of the physical universe1 #aaf #abh ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,matter ,,and ,,ether4 ,inquiry regarding structure and material of the universe1 #aag #abi ,various hypotheses regarding matter-- 7#a47 ,greek notion of the ,atom1 #aah #acj ,speculations of ,lucretius1 #aai-acj #aca 7#b47 ,theory of ,boscovich 7centres of force71 #aca #acg 7#c47 ,theory of infinite divisibility1 #acb #ach 7#d47 ,vortex-atom theory1 #acc-acd #aci ,remarks on these theories1 #ace-acf #ada ,relative quantity of matter associated with energy1 #acg-ach #adb ,universal gravitation-- ,is a weak force1 #aci #add ,two ways of accounting for it1 #adj #ade ,le ,sage's hypothesis1 #ada-adb #adf ,the ,ethereal medium-- ,its principal properties apparently incongruous1 #adc #adh ,analogy of ,professor ,stokes1 #add #adi ,distortion and displacement of ether1 #ade #adi ,inferior limit of its density1 #adf #aej ,its supposed imperfect transparency1 #adg #aea ,remarks on ether1 #adh #aec ,remarks on the speculations of this chapter1 #adi-aej #aed ,modification of the vortex-ring hypothesis1 #aea-aeb #aee ,possible disappearance of the visible universe1 #aec #aeg ,,chapter ,v4 ,,development4 ,nature of inquiry stated1 #aed #aeh ,chemical development-- ,changes in lists of elementary substances1 #aee #aei ,prout's speculations1 #aef #afj ,experiments of ,m4 ,stas1 #aef #afj ,family groups1 #aeg #afa ,mr4 ,lockyer's speculations1 #aeh-aei #afa ,globe development-- ,hypothesis of ,kant and ,laplace1 #afj #afc ,tendency to aggregation of mass1 #afa-afb #afd ,process cannot have been going on for ever1 #afc #aff ,peculiarity of products developed inorganically1 #afd #afg ,life development-- ,morphological and physiological species1 #afe #afh ,species regarded physiologically1 #aff #agj ,position of a certain class of theologians1 #afg #aga ,tendency to minor variations1 #afh #agb ,artificial selection1 #afi #agd ,natural selection1 #agj #age ,unproved point in the ,darwinian hypothesis1 #aga #age ,remarks of ,mr4 ,darwin1 #agb #agg ,development of the ,darwinian hypothesis1 #agc #agg ,mr4 ,wallace's views1 #agd #agh ,professor ,huxley's remarks1 #age #agh ,position assumed by the authors1 #agf #agi ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,speculations ,,as ,,to ,,possibility ,,of ,,superior ,,intelligences ,,in ,,the ,,visible ,,universe4 ,position of life in the present physical universe1 #agg #ahj ,two kinds of equilibrium1 #agh #aha ,two kinds of machines or material systems1 #agi #ahb ,two respects in which a living being resembles a machine1 #ahj #ahc ,a living being resembles a delicately constructed machine1 #aha #ahe ,the delicacy is due to chemical instability1 #ahb #ahf ,delicacy of construction derived from the sun's rays1 #ahc #ahf ,delicacy of construction in atmospheric changes1 #ahd #ahg ,worship of powers of nature--medival superstitions1 #ahe #ahi ,theory which attributes a soul to the universe1 #ahf #aij ,real point at issue stated1 #ahg #aij ,man presents the highest order of the present visible universe1 #ahh #aia ,the same idea pervades the ,old ,testament1 #ahi #aib ,and it likewise pervades the ,new ,testament1 #aij-aia #aic ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,unseen ,,universe4 ,decadence of the visible universe1 #aib-aic #aie ,its arrangements apparently wasteful1 #aid #aig ,explanation of this1 #aie #aig ,memory of the universe1 #aif-aig #aih ,connection between seen and unseen1 #aig-aih #aih ,physical explanation of a future state1 #aii-bja #aii ,dr4 ,thomas ,young's conception of the unseen1 #bjb #bjj ,objections to the proposed theory of a future state replied to-- ,religious1 #bjc #bjb ,theological1 #bjd-bjg #bjb ,scientific1 #bjh-bab #bjf ,quasi-scientific1 #bac #baj ,miracles and the ,resurrection of ,christ-- ,objections of extreme school stated1 #bad #baa ,how these are to be met1 #bae #bab ,development has produced the visible universe1 #baf #bad ,its atoms resemble manufactured articles1 #bag #bae ,development through intelligence1 #bah-bai #bae ,idea presented in concrete form1 #bbj #bah ,christian theory of the development of the universe1 #bba-bbg #bbc ,life development--,biogenesis1 #bbh-bbi #bbh ,life comes from the ,unseen ,universe1 #bcj #bcj ,christian theory of life development1 #bca #bcb ,position of life in the universe discussed1 #bcb-bch #bcc ,meteoric hypothesis implies ,discontinuity1 #bci #bdj ,discussion of the notion that all matter is1 in some simple sense1 alive1 #bdj-bda #bdb ,life1 as well as matter1 comes to us from the ,unseen ,universe1 #bdb-bdc #bdc ,position reviewed1 #bdd #bdf ,miracles possible without breach of ,continuity1 #bde #bdg ,peculiar communication with the unseen in the case of ,christ1 #bdf #bdh ,apparent breaks are concealed avenues leading to the unseen1 #bdg #bdi ,probable nature of present connection between seen and unseen4 ,efficacy of ,prayer1 #bdh #bej ,angelic intelligences1 #bdi #bea ,remarks on ,god's providential government1 #bej-beb #bec ,our argument may be very much detached from all conceptions of the ,divine essence1 #bec #beg ,christian conceptions of ,heaven1 #bed #beh ,two ideas in all ,christian hymns1 #bee #bei ,possible glimpse into the conditions of the future life1 #bef-beg #bfj ,darker side of the future1 #beh #bfb ,plato on the markings of the soul1 #bei #bfc ,christian ,gehenna1 #bfj #bfd ,medival idea of ,hell1 #bfa #bfe ,the process in the ,gehenna of the ,new ,testament apparently an enduring one1 #bfb #bfg ,personality of the ,evil ,one asserted by ,scripture1 #bfc #bfi ,brief statement of the results of this discussion1 #bfd #bgj ,the scientific conclusion is directly against the opponents of ,christianity1 #bfe #bga ,criticism invited from leaders of scientific thought or of religious inquiry1 #bff #bgb ,,introduction4 ,the present age is one of very rapid progress in almost all branches of knowledge4 ,like a wave swelling as it advances shoreward1 this progress has violently transformed whole regions of thought1 while it has repeatedly invaded others not heretofore deemed accessible to such catastrophes4 ,presuming upon a soil of great natural richness1 the inhabitants of these latter regions had for a long series of years given themselves up to a species of husbandry which was beginning at length to be detrimental in its effects4 ,it thus came to pass that while the immediate result of each inundation was a sudden alarm and consequent confusion1 yet nevertheless a fertilising residuum was always left behind1 together with a very plain intimation that no region of thought can permanently flourish if it be entirely cut off from any of the intellectual influences around it4 ,suchlike1 we take it1 have been the results of the recent great floods of intellectual energy1 much of them seemingly subversive1 which have repeatedly invaded the region occupied by the followers of ,christianity4 ,at present there is no book more read than the ,bible1 no life more deeply studied and discussed than the life of ,christ4 ,there is probably a greater amount of earnest attention devoted to these subjects than to any other branch of human inquiry4 ,nevertheless there is great confusion1 and an almost despairing outcry from many of the inhabitants of the ,christian region4 ,it is imagined that fences and landmarks have disappeared1 and that at length the rising tide is about to attack1 as it has long threatened1 the very lives and holdings of the community4 ,it will be our endeavour to reassure these somewhat over-timid people4 ,being students of physical science1 we will try to gauge the strength of the tide1 and more especially of the forces which give it motion1 and endeavour to convince those who are sufficiently calm to receive conviction1 that there neither is nor can be any real danger to their lives and holdings from the violence of the waters2 but that1 on the contrary1 they will ultimately receive a blessing from that which will remain behind after the present confusion has disappeared4 #8,skin for skin1' said a certain evil one1 #8yea all that a man hath will he give for his life1' and the proverb is true 7with a modification7 as regards the life of the soul1 no less than as regards that of the body4 ,take away all hope of a future state1--appear to demonstrate1 if not with absolute certainty1 yet with an approach to it1 that such a condition of things is antagonistic to well-understood scientific principles1 and we feel certain that the effect upon humanity would be simply disastrous4 ,at any rate1 those who propound an argument of this kind must reasonably expect determined opposition from the followers of religion4 ,let us here1 before proceeding further1 take the opportunity of stating that we discuss only the physical aspects of the argument regarding a future state4 ,being neither metaphysicians nor moral philosophers1 we leave to others more competent than we can be the argument which may be based upon the universal craving among the intelligent races of mankind for a life beyond the grave4 ,in the fourth and following editions of our work1 while we have not materially altered our argument1 we have recast to some extent the shape in which it was first put before the reader1 and this recasting has taken a more definite form in our present edition4 ,the large amount of friendly criticism which our work has called forth has convinced us that we did not at first sufficiently separate between certain conclusions which inevitably flowed from our argument1 and certain others which1 while deriving their strength from a totally different quarter1 were yet not inconsistent with the former1 but even1 it might be1 supported by them4 ,the consequence has been that we have found ourselves credited with attempts which were very far from our thoughts1 such1 for instance1 as the endeavour to deduce ,christian theological doctrine from mere physical considerations4 ,we have therefore thought it desirable to bring in review before the reader1 in this introductory chapter1 the fundamental points of our argument1 more especially as in what follows we may not always be able without an undesirable formality to keep separate the foundation and the superstructure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in his justly renowned ,analogy1 ,bishop ,butler begins with a chapter on a future life4 ,he says with great truth that if there is an idea that death will be the destruction of living powers1 that idea must arise either from the reason of the thing or the analogy of nature4 #8,but it does not arise 7he proceeds to say7 from the reason of the thing2 for we do not know what death is4 ,again1 we do not know on what the existence of our living powers depends2 for we see them suspended in sleep1 for example1 or in a swoon1 and still not extinguished4 ,neither does it arise from the analogy of nature2 for death removes all sensible proof1 and precludes us consequently from tracing out any analogy which would warrant us in inferring their destruction4' ,now1 it is well known that since the days of ,bishop ,butler a school has arisen1 the members of which assert that they have at length learned what ,death is1 and that in virtue of their knowledge they are in a position to tell us that life is impossible after death4 ,it is one of the main objects of this volume to demonstrate the fallacy which underlies the argument brought forward by this school4 ,we attempt to show that we are absolutely driven by scientific principles to acknowledge the existence of an ,unseen ,universe1 and by scientific analogy to conclude that it is full of life and intelligence--that it is in fact a spiritual universe and not a dead one4 ,but while we are fully justified by scientific considerations in asserting the existence of such an unseen universe1 we are not justified in assuming that we have yet attained1 or can easily or perhaps ever attain1 to more than a very slight knowledge of its nature4 ,thus we do not believe that we can really ascertain what death is4 ,to those1 therefore1 who assert that there is no spiritual unseen world1 and that death is an end of the existence of the individual1 we reply by simply denying their first statement1 and in consequence of this denial1 insisting that none of us know anything whatever about death4 ,indeed1 it is at once apparent that a scientific denial of the possibility of life after death must be linked with at least something like a scientific proof of the non-existence of a spiritual unseen world4 ,for if scientific analogy be against a spiritual ,unseen1 then evidently it is equally against the likelihood of life after death4 ,but if1 on the other hand1 we feel constrained to believe in a spiritual universe1 then though it does not follow that life is certain after death1 inasmuch as we do not know whether any provision has been made in this unseen world for our reception1 yet it does follow that we cannot deny the possibility of a future life4 ,for to do so would imply on our part such an exhaustive knowledge of the ,unseen as would justify us in believing that no arrangement had been made in it for our transference thither4 ,now1 our almost absolute ignorance with regard to the ,unseen must prevent us from coming to any such conclusion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have been accused by some of our critics of being dogmatists4 ,so far is this from being true that in the first part of our argument--namely1 that which relates to a spiritual unseen3--we are content to develop from the present recognised condition of things4 ,we take the world as we find it1 and are forced by a purely scientific process to recognise the existence of an ,unseen ,universe4 ,we are likewise led to regard the ,unseen as having given birth to the present universe1 a conclusion to which one of our leading critics has apparently given his assent4 ,here1 however1 we join issue with the materialistic school4 ,they continue to insist--against all analogy as we take it--that this ,unseen ,universe is a dead one1 having no life worthy of the name1 although it must have existed for inconceivable ages before the present ,universe arose4 ,let our readers remark that in all this we introduce no dogma--we do not require to assert or even assume the existence of ,god4 ,we are content to develop our argument from a position which is common to our adversaries and to ourselves4 ,an objection has been raised that our argument tends to the ,swedenborgian doctrine of a spiritual body4 ,now1 the same principles which guide us from the continuous existence of the outer world to acknowledge an ,unseen1 lead us on the assumption of our own existence after death to acknowledge what we may term a spiritual body4 ,in other words1 our conception of something which retains at once a hold upon the past and a possibility of future life assumes the form which we clothe in this or similar language4#a ,but why ,swedenborgian8 ,why not ,pauline8 ,was it not the great ,apostle who first gave utterance to his belief in these very words8 ,if it be said to us that the way in which we regard the spiritual body is decidedly ,swedenborgian1 we would reply by asking our critics to tell us in what way we regard it4 ,we certainly hold that if we are to accept scientific principles1 one of the necessary conditions of immortality is a frame surviving death1 but we as resolutely maintain that of the nature of this frame we are and must probably remain profoundly ignorant4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has likewise been objected that we do not sufficiently allow for the possibility that the present universe may be infinite1 and that thus it might last for ever and continue1 although spasmodically1 to be the residence of living beings even in spite of the constant degradation of its energy4 ,unquestionably we cannot prove that the present visible universe is not infinite2 this we have acknowledged in our work4 ,but our chief argument is derived rather from the past than from the future4 ,we maintain that the visible universe--that is to say the universe of atoms--must have had its origin in time1 and that while ,,the ,,universe is1 in its widest sense1 alike eternal and infinite1 the universe of atoms certainly cannot have existed from all eternity4 ,while we freely confess that we cannot prove the finite magnitude of the universe of atoms1 inasmuch as we cannot be sure that the stars which we see represent more than a small portion of this universe1 we are unable to perceive any scientific principle which leads us to conclude that the number of such atoms must necessarily be infinite4 ,but whether it be finite or infinite1 we have very great difficulty in imagining this universe to be eternal4 ,regarding the atom as something that has been developed from a previously existing unseen universe1 we cannot readily believe it capable of lasting for ever4 ,but if there be any element of decay in the material substance of the visible universe1 the assumption of its present infinity will not enable us to predicate its future eternity4 ,having thus defined our position1 we may allow that in our earlier editions we have possibly given undue prominence to the particular argument in favour of an ,unseen1 which is derived from the future degradation of the energy of the present visible universe4 ,we come now to the second part of our subject4 ,all that we have yet endeavoured to show is that the theory of a future life is not in any way whatever in contradiction to any ascertained facts or principles of science4 ,but we have not succeeded in finding any proof that arrangements have been made in the ,unseen world for our translation thither after death4 ,it has been shown that there is nothing in the whole range of science to lead us to suppose that life is impossible after death2 but we have yet to inquire what evidence1 if any1 exists in favour of a future state4 ,now it is well known that the followers of ,christianity believe they have received such evidence in virtue of the resurrection of ,christ1 and it is equally well known that of late years a school of scientific men have arisen who reject such an event as one impossible to be believed4 ,it is not1 however1 rejected mainly because it is an uncommon event1 or one unconfirmed by modern experience1 for it is sufficiently well known that uncommon events have a recognised place in the universe4 ,thus1 for instance1 there are certain conjunctions of the planets which are very uncommon1 and have not occurred in modern experience1 but we do not hesitate for a moment to believe in the possibility of their occurrence4 ,nay1 we are in a position to go further1 and to assert that at particular epochs of time1 which we are capable of defining with greater or less precision1 such uncommon conjunctions took place in the past1 and will again take place in the future4 ,an absolutely new comet1 one which 7from the fact that its orbit is hyperbolic7 was probably never in the solar system before1 and probably cannot again return to it1 is by no means a rarity4 ,now we believe that an extension of purely scientific logic drives us to receive as quite certain the occurrence of two events which are as incomprehensible as any miracle2 these are3--the introduction of visible matter and its energy1 and of visible living things into the universe4 ,furthermore1 we are led by scientific analogy to regard the agency in virtue of which these two astounding events were brought about as an intelligent agency1 an agency whose choice of the time for action is determined by considerations similar in their nature to those which influence a human being when he chooses the proper moment for the accomplishment of his purpose4 ,if this be true1 the discussion regarding miracles must be removed altogether from the domain of science1 and this for the very good reason that scientific logic admits the occurrence of events at least as astounding4 ,the question is now rather one for the historian and the moral philosopher to decide4 ,the first of these is clearly bound to examine the evidence in favour of the life and resurrection of ,christ1 while the latter is bound to look around and ask what moral necessity there was for the interference of this peculiar intelligent agency1 and also whether1 as a matter of fact1 the interference has proved beneficial4 ,but neither of these two ways of regarding the subject is at all cognate to our inquiry4 ,we simply show that a reception of the miracles of ,christ leads to no intellectual confusion4 ,meanwhile1 there are some who regard such a reception as tending to historical confusion1 or to moral confusion1 or to both2 but with these sources of doubt we have nothing whatever to do4 ,it may be thought by some of our readers that here our discussion ought to end2 but1 as it appears to us1 there yet remains another point vitally connected with our inquiry4 ,there is1 perhaps1 hardly a human being who seriously questions the moral beauty of the character of ,christ2 there are many who question the truth of the miracles recorded as having been wrought by ,him2 while still more1 it may be1 question the truth of certain of ,his sayings1 especially such as have reference to the constitution of the ,unseen world4 ,entertaining the most profound reverence for ,christ ,himself1 many of the latter class1 rather than believe that ,christ enuntiated the doctrine to which they object1 maintain that it may have been a late human fiction which grew up with and finally incrusted itself around the true sayings of ,christ3 some again maintain that the sayings were really those of ,christ1 but insist that the common interpretation of them is erroneous4 ,on this account we conceive that in order to complete our programme we should extend our inquiry beyond the miracles of ,christ so as to embrace those of ,his sayings which have reference to ,himself and to the constitution of the ,unseen world4 ,we are thus led to the consideration of another subject1 which is1 we venture to think1 intimately connected with that which appears on our title-page2 and in this respect the ,bishop of ,manchester has very clearly defined our position by stating that 7from a purely physical point of view7 we contend for the possibility of immortality and of a personal ,god4 ,we must now1 however1 start from a new basis and assume the existence of a ,deity who is the ,creator and ,upholder of all things4 ,it is not our intention to enter into the argument by which the existence of a ,deity may be derived from a consideration of ,his works4 ,here1 therefore1 we must necessarily part company with our materialistic friends1 for while they may have been content to go along with us in our first argument to a greater or less length1 they will most assuredly not even set foot upon the second stage of our journey4 ,we cannot help it4 ,assuming therefore the existence of a ,deity1 who is the ,creator and ,upholder of all things1 we further look upon the laws of the universe as those laws according to which the beings in the universe are conditioned by the ,governor thereof1 as regards time1 place1 and sensation4 ,nothing whatever lies1 or can be even conceived to lie1 outside of this sovereign and paramount influence4 ,there is no impression made upon the bodily senses--no thought or other mental operation which does not take place under conditions imposed by the will of ,god4 ,if it be asked how we can imagine any free-will or moral responsibility to exist consistently with this doctrine1 we may reply that we cannot tell in virtue of what peculiar constitution of things the sovereignty of ,god is consistent with our moral responsibility1 nor can we even conceive the possibility of our obtaining the knowledge requisite to reply to this question4 ,but it may1 we think1 be shown that the doctrine of the sovereign power of ,god as above defined is not inconsistent with moral responsibility4 ,for in the statement made three things are spoken of4 ,in the first place1 there is ,god1 the source of power2 secondly1 there are the conditions which ,he imposes2 and thirdly1 there is the ,ego1 the being who is thus conditioned4 ,now1 the laws of thought absolutely forbid our dismissing this ,ego4 ,it may possibly be argued that we consist of a bundle of sensations bound together1 just as a bundle of threads are1 by something which is no less a sensation1 namely1 the impression that we have an individual existence and moral responsibility2 to which we would reply that even if this be granted we must submit to impressions from which there is no escape4 ,now1 it appears to us that we cannot possibly have any impression more deeply seated or more impossible to uproot than this3--that we ourselves exist and are responsible2 it is something which we continually carry about with us1 even into the grotesque regions of thought1 where all individuality is denied4 ,it is into these regions that the materialists invite us to accompany them in order to perform1 or rather to delude ourselves with the idea that we have performed1 this singularly unhappy despatch6 ,but1 just as we cannot conceive of a man swallowing up himself1 so neither can we conceive of his getting rid of his own individuality by any legitimate process of thought4 ,can we conceive of consciousness without a being who is conscious8 or of sensation without a being who feels8 ,we may perhaps take it for granted that the statements we have now made1 acknowledging at once a ,sovereign ,power and our own moral responsibility1 will commend themselves to a large body of thinkers who will virtually agree with our conclusions4 ,it is to these we would now address ourselves1 inviting them to accompany us upon the second stage of our journey4 ,let us here1 therefore1 regarding ourselves as moral and intellectual beings1 bear in mind that there are various avenues through which we receive instruction4 ,we do not1 of course1 mean that these avenues are absolutely separate from each other1 inasmuch as they must all somehow or other merge into the one grand avenue through which we perceive the ,sovereign ,power of ,god4 ,such avenues are1--the study of matter and its laws1--communion with our fellows1 and--example4 ,now why should not all these various avenues be filled with the knowledge of ,god1 thus effecting the displacement of a vast throng of mean and loathsome influences which would otherwise run riot there8 ,surely that must be a singular process of reasoning by which the ,most ,high is altogether banished from these avenues into which it is alleged ,he cannot possibly condescend to enter4 ,we are confident there is some misapprehension here2 let us therefore try to point out its probable nature4 ,we have assumed that a study of creation leads us up to some conception of ,god--that we are driven by the faculties which ,he has given us to acknowledge the existence of a ,paramount ,power1 and inasmuch as scientific thought leads us to regard ,,the ,,universe as both infinite and eternal1 so are we driven to regard this ,power which underlies all phenomena as infinite and eternal also4 ,this at least appears to us to be the conclusion to which we are driven if we endeavour to reduce mental confusion to a minimum4 ,it is1 however1 manifestly absurd to imagine that by means of this process we can ever comprehend the essential nature of ,god4 ,we can no more comprehend ,his essential nature by this means than we can the essential nature of matter or of life4 ,but surely we can judge of ,his character by the various modes in which ,he influences us1 and indeed all scientific generalisations--even the simple conclusion that the sun will rise to-morrow--are in a sense expressions of our faith in the unchanging character of ,god4 ,now if we examine the process by which we have obtained this conception of ,god it will be seen that we start with a single intellectual being who is applying himself to a scientific study of the works of nature4 ,the idea of our neighbour does not enter into it1 and we agree to regard ourselves as intellectual rather than as moral or social beings4 ,the result is that having voluntarily confined our argument to one channel1 we obtain a knowledge of ,god's character--that is to say1 of ,his manifested relations towards us--which is necessarily incomplete4 ,but are we therefore entitled to say3--,because we obtain a very imperfect conception of ,god by this method1 we will not believe there is any other method by which this conception may be rendered more complete8 ,sound argument1 it appears to us1 leads the other way altogether4 ,for if we assume that the knowledge of ,god derived from one source is incomplete1 ought we not to try whether it can be supplemented by knowledge derived from other sources8 ,undoubtedly if other sources furnish1 or seem to furnish1 conceptions of ,god which are fundamentally inconsistent with that which we have derived through the scientific channel1 we are entitled to sit in intellectual judgment upon them until the source of confusion is in some way removed4 ,but does this inconsistency as a matter of fact exist8 ,we do not think it does4 ,the statements in the ,new ,testament scriptures regarding ,god are necessarily mysterious1 but mystery can be no test of their truth or falsehood1 inasmuch as it must in such regions be the almost inevitable accompaniment of truth4 ,the question is not whether they are mysterious1 but whether they are consistent with themselves1 and with the knowledge we derive from other sources4 ,we therefore devote considerable portions of this volume to a proof that the conception of ,god which the majority of ,christians derive from the ,new ,testament is in no way inconsistent with that deduced from scientific principles4 ,meanwhile1 and in conclusion1 we must be allowed to express our conviction that much evil has been wrought by a certain class of sincere and well-meaning men in the various churches of ,christ4 ,by dint of contemplating lofty truths from one point of view1 and only one1 and by dint of developing excessively1 and in one direction only1 those analogies by which the mysterious has been rendered thinkable1 they have produced a result for which they themselves are mainly to blame4 ,with a strange reversal of the process by which ,satan transforms himself into an ,angel of ,light1 we have the noble1 the beautiful1 and the true presented to us by these men in a form which is fit only to inspire aversion or to create disgust4 ,it is in such terms that we reply to those of our critics1 on the one hand1 who attack us for adopting what they call a narrow and gloomy theology2 and to those1 on the other hand1 who regard as dangerous the method of discussion we have pursued4 ,we have tried honestly to view things with two eyes1--the eye of knowledge and the eye of faith3 first with one1 then with the other1 finally with both4 ,to what extent we have succeeded is1 after all1 a matter of minor importance if only the lawfulness of this mode of vision be ultimately allowed4 ,and just as we have a better appretiation of the form and distance of natural objects when we view them with both our physical eyes1 so1 we venture to think1 must it prove with the truths of which we now speak4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have explained that the first part of our argument is altogether independent of revelation2 proceeding as it does solely upon scientific data1 and the conclusions which these seem to render inevitable4 ,in the second part1 however1 we feel that we ought not to deprive ourselves of the overwhelming additional evidence which we derive from ,christian records4 ,here1 therefore1 we shall neither gratify one class of our critics by starting from a point which ignores what we regard as the fully warranted belief of the great majority of ,christians1 nor shall we be overruled by the excessive timidity of another class who apparently regard a two-eyed man as a monster in those regions where truths of really vital importance are concerned4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the horrors and blasphemies of ,materialism are at least every first day of the week so fully treated by many theologians that it is almost unnecessary for us to say anything on their view of the subject1 especially as we could not compete with the great majority of them in strength and happy audacity of language4 ,we would therefore content ourselves with mildly inquiring what sort of regard for the image of the ,divine in humanity is shown by those whose creed levels us all with #8the beasts that perish4' ,even the antient ,pagans were less disposed to such monstrosities3-- #84 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 finxit in effigiem moderantum cuncta ,deorum4 pronaque cum spectent animalia cetera terram1 os homini sublime dedit3 clumque tueri jussit1 et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus4 sic1 modo quae fuerat rudis et sine imagine1 tellus induit ignotas hominum conversa figuras4' ,it is well for the human race that such sophistical doctrines as those of ,materialism are as yet received by a small minority only4 #8,if in this life alone we have hope1' we should be led by common sense and prudence to make the best of it1 our neighbour's sufferings notwithstanding4 ,at least we should listen to him only as did the judge #8who neither feared ,god1 nor regarded man1' when he said1 #8,this widow troubleth me2 ,i will avenge her1 lest by her continual coming she weary me4' ,we would conclude by observing that the natural disinclination to receive as true a religion whose very first effect is #8to convict the world of sin1' is admirably set forth in the striking words of ,peter#b3 #8,depart from me1 for ,i am a sinful man1 ,o ,lord4' ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory ,,sketch4 #8,l'immortalit de l'me est une chose qui nous importe si fort1 et qui nous touche si profondment1 qu'il faut avoir perdu tout sentiment pour tre dans l'indiffrence de savoir ce qui en est4'--,,pascal4 #8,for he should persevere until he has attained one of two things2 either he should discover or learn the truth about them1 or1 if this is impossible1 ,i would have him take the best and most irrefragable of human notions1 and let this be the raft upon which he sails through life--not without risk1 as ,i admit1 if he cannot find some word of ,god which will more surely and safely carry him4'--,,plato',s ,phdo2 translated by ,,jowett4 #a4 ,the great majority of mankind have always believed in some fashion in a life after death2 many in the essential immortality of the soul2 but it is certain that we find many disbelievers in such doctrines who yet retain the nobler attributes of humanity4 ,it may1 however1 be questioned whether it be possible even to imagine the great bulk of our race to have lost their belief in a future state of existence1 and yet to have retained the virtues of civilised and well-ordered communities4 ,we have said that the disbelievers in such doctrines form a minority of the race2 but at the same time it must be acknowledged that the strength of this minority has of late years greatly increased1 so much so that at the present moment it numbers in its ranks not a few of the most intelligent1 the most earnest1 and the most virtuous of men4 ,it is1 however1 possible that1 could we examine these1 we should find them to be unwilling disbelievers1 compelled by the working of their intellects to abandon the desire of their hearts1 only after many struggles1 and with much bitterness of spirit4 ,others1 again1 without absolutely abandoning all hope of a future existence1 are yet full of doubt regarding it1 and have settled down into the belief that we cannot come to any reasonable conclusion upon the subject4 ,now1 these men can have had nothing to gain1 but rather much to lose1 in arriving at this result4 ,it has been reached by them with reluctance1 with misgivings1 not without a certain kind of persecution1 nor without the loss of friends and the stirring up of strife2 still they have fearlessly looked things in the face1 and have followed whithersoever they imagined they were led by facts1 even to the brink of an abyss4 ,it is the object of the present volume to examine the intellectual process which has brought about such results1 and we hope to be able to show not only that the conclusion at which these men have arrived is not justified by what we know of the physical universe1 but that on the other hand there are many lines of thought which point very strongly towards an opposite conclusion4 #b4 ,a division as old as ,aristotle separates#c speculators into two great classes1--those who study the ,how of the ,universe1 and those who study the ,why4 ,all men of science are embraced in the former of these1 all men of religion in the latter4 ,the former regard the ,universe as a huge machine1 and their object is to study the laws which regulate its working2 the latter again speculate about the object of the machine1 and what sort of work it is intended to produce4 ,the disciples of ,how are accused by their adversaries of being willing to sacrifice the individual to the system2 while the disciples of ,why are accused by their adversaries of being willing to sacrifice the system to the individual4 ,we may compare the ,universe to a great steamer plying between two well-known ports1 and carrying two sets of passengers4 ,the one set remain on deck and try to make out1 as well as they can1 the mind of the ,captain regarding the future of their voyage after they have reached the port to which they know they are all fast hastening1 while the other set remain below and examine the engines4 ,occasionally there is much wrangling at the top of the ladder where the two sets meet1 some of those who have examined the engines and the ship asserting that the passengers will all be inevitably wrecked at the next port1 it being physically impossible that the good ship can carry them further4 ,to whom those on deck reply1 that they have perfect confidence in the ,captain1 who has informed some of those nearest him that the passengers will not be wrecked1 but will be carried in safety past the port to an unknown land of felicity4 ,and so the altercation goes on2 some who have been on deck being unwilling or unable to examine the engines1 and some who have examined the engines preferring to remain below4 #c4 ,our readers will perceive from what we have said1 that difficulties regarding the possibility of a future state of existence are most likely to arise amidst the disciples of ,how or those who study the machinery of the ,universe1 and inasmuch as this class has greatly increased of late1 it follows that the disbelievers in or doubters of the future state have increased likewise4 ,the disciples of ,why have1 on the other hand1 existed from time immemorial1 and have1 in the plenitude of their power1 frequently carried themselves with much violence towards the disciples of ,how1 who are of comparatively modern origin4 ,it must not1 however1 be inferred that this old and venerable family have always been at peace amongst themselves1 for there have been numerous contentions among their various sections1 not the less acrimonious because the contending members have been to some extent supporters of a common cause1 believing in some fashion in the reality of a world to come4 ,we shall therefore begin by giving our readers a sketch1 necessarily and purposely a very meagre one1 of the various beliefs on these subjects held by the different branches of this great family4 #d4 ,let us begin with the ,egyptians1 who are perhaps the most antient people of whom we have historical records4 ,the manners and customs of this nation have been very minutely described by ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson1 to whose work we are chiefly indebted for the following account4 ,in the first place it appears that we must separate between what the priests believed and what was held by the great body of the people4 ,the bulk of the nation were left by the priests to believe in a multiplicity of deities1 and even to reverence animals as divine1 while on the other hand the higher orders of the priesthood1 who were initiated into the greater mysteries of their religion1 appear to have acknowledged the unity of ,god4 ,these believed in one ,eternal ,god1 from whom all other deities were produced1 and whom they did not permit themselves even to name1 far less to represent under any visible form4 ,the ,egyptians likewise believed in the existence of ,dmons or ,genii1 who were present unseen amongst mankind4 #e4 ,the earliest ,egyptian records attest the belief of this nation in the immortality of the soul3--#8,dissolution1 according to them1 is only the cause of reproduction--nothing perishes which has once existed1 and things which appear to be destroyed only change their natures and pass into another form4'#d ,anubis held in ,egypt an office similar to that of ,mercury among the ,greeks1 being the usher of souls in their passage to the future state4 ,amenti was the region to which the souls of men were supposed to go after death1 and ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson notices the resemblance between this name and that of ,ement #8the ,west'--the west1 where the sun was seen to sink1 being looked upon as the end of the world4 ,the guardian of the lower regions was called ,ouom-n-,amenti1 or the ,devourer of ,amenti4 ,it had frequently the appearance of a hippopotamus1 but was drawn sometimes with the head of a fanciful creature something between the hippopotamus and the crocodile4 #8,the judgment of the soul was conducted by ,osiris1 aided by forty-two assessors1 supposed to represent the forty-two crimes from which a virtuous man was expected to be free when judged in a future state1 or rather the accusing spirits1 each of whom examined if the deceased was guilty of the peculiar crime which it was his province to avenge4'#e #f4 ,as regards the fate of the soul when once the judgment had been passed upon it1--the ,egyptians considered the souls of men to be emanations of the ,divine soul1 and each was supposed to return to its ,divine origin when sufficiently pure to unite with the ,deity4 ,on the other hand1 those who had been guilty of sin were doomed to pass through a series of torments ending in the second death4 #g4 ,it is considered probable by some that the ,egyptian custom of embalming the body had relation to this religious doctrine1 and before the mummy was allowed burial it had to be judged and acquitted by terrestrial authorities4 ,diodorus gives a detailed account of the ceremonies which then took place1 in which forty-two judges were summoned to act as assessors and determine the fate of the body4 ,if it could be proved that the deceased had led an evil life1 his body was deprived of the accustomed burial1 and on such occasions the grief and shame felt by the family were excessive4 ,diodorus considers that this was in itself a strong inducement to every one to abstain from crime1 and praises very strongly the authors of so wise an institution4 #h4 ,let us next consider the antient belief of the ,hebrew nation4 ,referring to the records of this nation1 we find that at an early period they had been slaves or serfs to the ,egyptians1 from whom they were delivered by ,moses1 who became afterwards their lawgiver4 ,moses had by a species of adoption obtained a very prominent position among the ,egyptians1 and had probably been initiated into their sacred mysteries1 for we read that he was #8learned in all the wisdom of the ,egyptians4' ,without discussing the question of inspiration1 we may readily imagine that1 himself a believer in the unity of ,god1 this sagacious leader must have perceived the deficiency of a religious system in which the truth was confined to a few1 while the many were allowed to remain in the most degrading idolatry4 ,he was thus in a fit state to recognise the paramount importance of the whole mind and mass of the nation being pervaded with a belief in one invisible1 ever-present1 ever-living ,god4 ,we do not1 however1 mean to assert that ,moses got his religious notions from ,egypt1 but we think it possible that his mind may have been prepared by the failure of the ,egyptian system to receive a better one4 #i4 ,in the ,egyptian system there were two peculiarities which were probably connected together4 ,we have seen 7,art4 #d7 that amongst the higher orders of the priesthood there was a profound1 but at the same time a superstitious1 reverence for the name of ,god1 who was unnamed and unapproachable1 unless under some deified attribute4 ,at the same time there was1 and probably in consequence of the former1 an ignorance of the unity of ,god amongst the great mass of the people1 and a worship of the various deified attributes of one supreme being as so many separate divinities4 #aj4 ,now the task which ,moses believed himself divinely commissioned to accomplish was the revelation of this one living and ruling ,god to the whole body of his countrymen4 ,thus we find ,god1 in the sacred writings of the ,jews1 saying to ,moses1 #8,i am the ,,lord 7,jehovah71 and ,i appeared unto ,abraham1 unto ,isaac1 and unto ,jacob1 by the name of ,god ,almighty 7,el ,shaddai72 but by my name ,jehovah was ,i not known to them4'#f ,we do not however intend to discuss the precise meaning of the two names of ,god1 which we find in the ,hebrew ,scriptures--sufficient for us that ,moses endeavoured to impress upon his people the unity and ever-living presence of the ,divine ,being4 #aa4 ,again1 it would appear that the ,jews1 in addition to their belief as a nation in the unity of ,god1 believed also in the reality of an invisible world containing spiritual intelligences1 some of whom were the loyal servants and messengers of ,god1 while others delighted in the endeavour to thwart ,his counsels1 and were in rebellion against ,him4 ,apparently both orders of these were supposed to have very considerable power1 not only over the minds and bodies of men1 but also over the operations of nature4 ,thus two angels were commissioned by ,god to destroy ,sodom2#g and again1 in the poem of ,job1 when ,satan received power over the ,patriarch1 he overwhelmed him by at once inciting robbers who plundered his substance1 killing his children by a wind from the wilderness1 and finally smiting the body of ,job himself with a loathsome disease4 ,it is perhaps worthy of note that while we read in these records of various appearances of good spirits in the human form1 we have no certain account of any such manifestation of evil spirits4 ,it may even be supposed that a good deal of the ,demonology of ,scripture belongs to poetic or semi-parabolic representation of spiritual truths4 ,thus ,coleridge and others have thought that the ,satan of ,job is only the dramatic accuser or adversary imagined by the poet4 #ab4 ,very little is said about man's future state in the ,scriptures of the ,jews4 ,the ,hebrews1 like the ,assyrians and ,chaldeans1 believed in ,sheol 7,hades71 a dark and gloomy abode peopled by the shades of the dead4 ,but the continued existence of the #8pithless' shades 7,rephaim7 in this land of powerlessness and forgetfulness was not thought of as constituting immortality1 but rather as the essence of death itself4 ,the religious hope of immortality which appears in some passages of the ,old ,testament takes the form of a victory over or rescue from the fear of ,sheol4 ,but this higher hope was not brought before the mind of the ,hebrew nation in the same way as was the presence and unity of ,god4 ,it seems to us that ,dean ,stanley's conjecture is probably correct where he says1 with reference to this omission1 #8,not from want of religion1 but 7if we might use the expression7 from excess of religion1 was this void left in the ,jewish mind4 ,the future life was not denied or contradicted1 but it was overlooked1 set aside1 overshadowed by the consciousness of the living1 actual presence of ,god ,himself4 ,that truth1 at least in the limited conceptions of the youthful nation1 was too vast to admit of any rival truth1 however precious4 ,when ,david or ,hezekiah shrank from the gloomy vacancy of the grave1 it was because they feared lest1 when death closed their eyes in the present world1 they should lose their hold on that ,divine friend with whose being and communion the present world had in their minds been so closely interwoven4'#h #ac4 ,as the nation grew older we find frequent and distinct allusions indicating a belief in a resurrection of some kind4 ,thus we find the angel saying to ,daniel1 #8,and many of them which sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake1 some to everlasting life1 and some to shame and everlasting contempt4 ,and they that be wise shall shine as the brightness of the firmament2 and they that turn many to righteousness as the stars for ever and ever4'#i ,and again3 #8,go thy way till the end be2 for thou shalt rest and stand in thy lot at the end of the days4'#aj ,again1 in the ,apocrypha1 we find one of seven brethren who were put to death by ,antiochus1 saying to that tyrant1--#8,it is good1 being put to death by men1 to look for hope from ,god1 to be raised up again by ,him2 as for thee1 thou shalt have no resurrection to life1'#aa and the other brethren spoke in like manner4 ,here it is evident from the whole chapter that the hope expressed was rather the result of perfect trust in ,god than derived from any process of their own reason1 or even from any revelation on the subject which they imagined to have been made4 ,we have likewise the testimony of ,josephus as well as of the ,new ,testament that the ,pharisees believed in a resurrection4 ,josephus tells us1--#8,they the ,pharisees say that all souls are incorruptible1 but that the souls of good men only are removed into other bodies1 but that the souls of bad men are subject to eternal punishment4'#ab ,again1 we learn from the same two authorities that the ,sadducees held sceptical notions on the subject1 and ,josephus says--#8,they take away the belief of the immortal duration of the soul1 and the punishments and rewards in ,hades4' #ad4 ,if we next turn to the ,greek and ,roman mythologies we find ideas of a future state very similar to those entertained by the ,egyptians1 from whom probably the ,greek notions were originally largely derived4 ,they called by the name of ,elysium the abode appropriated to the souls of the good1 while those of the wicked suffered punishment in ,tartarus4 ,it has been well remarked by ,archbishop ,whately that these regions were supposed to be of the most dreamy and unsubstantial nature3-- #8,the poet remarks ,whately from whom so many were content to derive their creed meaning ,homer represents ,achilles among the shades as declaring that the life of the meanest drudge on earth is preferable to the very highest of the unsubstantial glories of ,elysium3-- ' 1 ' 1 1 4 ,it is remarkable too that the same poet seems plainly to regard the body not the soul as being properly 8the man0 after death has separated them4 ,we should be apt to say that such a one's body is here1 and that he1 properly the person himself1 is departed to the other world2 but ,homer uses the very opposite language in speaking of the heroes slain before ,troy3 viz41 that their souls were despatched to the shades1 and that ,,they themselves were left a prey to dogs and birds3-- ' 1 4'#ac ,we agree with this writer that the belief in an unsubstantial region of this description can have had no real influence either in deterring men from vice1 or in encouraging them to virtue4 ,indeed its inevitable tendency must have been to foster an undue regard for the pleasures of this present life to the absolute discouragement of goodness and virtue4 ,for while we of the present day regard the future life as in some sense the reward of piety and goodness1 the antients looked upon ,hades rather as a penalty which inexorable fate had reserved for all men1 and from which even piety and goodness were powerless to exempt their possessors4 ,cum semel occideris1 et de te splendida ,minos ,fecerit arbitria2 ,non1 ,torquate1 genus1 non te facundia1 non te ,restituet pietas4 ,infernis neque enim tenebris ,diana pudicum ,liberat ,hippolytum2 ,nec ,letha valet ,theseus abrumpere caro ,vincula ,piritho4 #ae4 ,the active-minded as well as the gross-minded members of the community could hardly be expected to care much for such an unsubstantial future1 and this consideration may probably have led to the readier acceptance of the doctrine of some of the ,greek philosophers who introduced a bodily state after death4 ,but these1 in so doing1 rather favoured the doctrine of transmigration than that of a resurrection of the body which was seen to die1 and which1 after being devoured by dogs1 or destroyed in some other manner1 they could hardly conceive to rise again4 ,it is well known that ,pythagoras taught the doctrine of transmigration1 although as none of his writings have come down to us we are not sure of the exact manner in which he held it4 ,plato also alludes to a similar doctrine1 in a passage which refers no doubt to the doctrine of the pre-existence of souls1 and to the view that it is a punishment to become corporeal at all4 ,he tells us3--#8,if any one's life has been virtuous he shall obtain a better fate hereafter2 if wicked a worse4 ,but no soul will return to its pristine condition till the expiration of ten thousand years1 since it will not recover the use of its wings until that period1 except it be the soul of one who has philosophised sincerely or together with philosophy has loved beautiful forms4 ,these indeed in the third period of a thousand years1 if they have thrice chosen this mode of life in succession1 444 shall in the three thousandth year fly away to their pristine abode1 but other souls1 being arrived at the end of their first life1 shall be judged4 ,and of those who are judged1 some1 proceeding to a subterraneous place of judgment1 shall there sustain the punishments they have deserved2 but others1 in consequence of a favourable judgment1 being elevated into a certain celestial place1 shall pass their time in a manner becoming the life they have lived in a human shape4 ,and in the thousandth year both the kinds of those who have been judged1 returning to the lot and election of a second life1 shall each of them receive a life agreeable to his desire4 ,here also the human soul shall pass into the life of a beast1 and from that of a beast again into a man if it has first been the soul of a man4 ,for the soul which has never perceived the truth cannot pass into the human form4'#ad ,a certain degree of choice is here supposed to be left to the soul1 and those who cannot attain to the more ethereal and refined existence1 have to choose a bodily one1 returning1 after they have become sufficiently purified1 once more into human shape4 #af4 ,as a matter of course1 a dim belief of this nature gave rise to a class of philosophers who denied the possibility of a future state altogether4 ,the advent of this school of thought was probably hastened by outward events4 ,in the golden age of ,greece a vigorous republic served to concentrate upon itself the energies of the citizens1 and under these circumstances their minds were not likely to question the truth of the national creed4 ,while the gods smiled upon them they were content to acknowledge their active existence4 ,it has been remarked by ,schmitz1 that the unfavourable political circumstances of the time may have been concerned in the rise of the ,epicurean school--#8thinking men were led to seek within for that which they could not find without4' ,the gods of ,epicurus1 this writer goes on to remark1 #8consisted of atoms1 and were in the enjoyment of perfect happiness1 which had not been disturbed by the laborious business of creating the world1 and as the government of the world would interfere with their happiness1 ,epicurus conceived them as exercising no influence whatever upon the world or man4' ,it is of such gods the poet speaks when he says3-- #8,for they lie beside their nectar1 and the bolts are hurl'd ,far below them in the valleys1 and the clouds are lightly curl'd ,round their golden houses1 girdled with the gleaming world ,where they smile in secret1 looking over wasted lands1 ,blight and famine1 plague and earthquake1 roaring deeps and fiery sands1 ,clanging fights1 and flaming towns1 and sinking ships and praying hands4' ,the antient ,roman poet ,lucretius1 in his well-known poem #8,de ,rerum ,natura1' has beautifully interpreted the ,epicurean philosophy4 ,adopting like ,epicurus the atomic or corpuscular theory of things1 he tells his readers that the soul of man perishes along with the body1 and that it is the height of folly for man to be afraid of that which may happen to him after death4 #ag4 ,it is unnecessary to discuss in detail the tenets of the various ,greek and ,roman philosophers4 ,a number of indefinite and sometimes contradictory expressions sufficiently betrays the uncertainty of their opinions4 ,desirous1 it may be1 themselves to believe--desirous at least that the body of their countrymen should believe--in a future state1 it is yet not wonderful that they should have felt strongly the difficulty of believing1 or have expressed their doubts in writings which were not intended to be read by the great mass of the people4 #ah4 ,proceeding now to the extreme east1 it is well known that of late years very great light has been thrown upon the antient religions of the ,brahmans1 the ,magians1 and the ,buddhists4 ,in an admirable collection of essays by ,professor ,max ,mller1#ae we have a good epitome of what has been accomplished by the laborious investigations of oriental scholars4 ,we learn from these that the most antient document is the ,rig-,veda1 or ,sacred ,hymns of the ,brahmans1 in which we have the religious belief of a large section of the ,indo-,germanic race at a period supposed to be from #abjj to #bjjj years before the ,christian era4 ,in these hymns the gods are called ,deva1 a word which is conjectured to be the same with the ,latin ,deus4 #8,it would be easy1' says ,max ,mller1 #8to find in the numerous hymns of the ,veda passages in which every important deity is represented as supreme and absolute4 ,thus in one hymn1 ,agni 7fire7 is called 8the ruler of the universe40444 ,in another hymn1 another god1 ,indra1 is said to be greater than all4 8,the gods10 it is said1 8do not reach thee1 ,indra1 nor men1--thou overcomest all creatures in strength40444 ,another god1 ,soma1 is called the king of the world1 the king of heaven and earth1 the conqueror of all4444 ,another poet says of another god1 ,varuna1 8,thou art lord of all1 of heaven and earth2 thou art the king of all1 of those who are gods1 and of those who are men40444 ,this surely1' remarks ,max ,mller1 #8is not what is commonly understood by ,polytheism4 ,yet it would be equally wrong to call it ,monotheism4 ,if we must have a name for it1 ,i should call it ,kathenotheism4 ,the consciousness that all the deities are but different names of one and the same godhead1 breaks forth indeed here and there in the ,veda4 ,but it is far from being general4 ,one poet for instance says1 8,they call him ,indra1 ,mitra1 ,varuna1 ,agni2 then he is the beautiful-winged heavenly ,garutmat--that which is one1 the wise call it1 in divers manners2 they call it ,agni1 ,yama1 ,mtarisvan40' #ai4 ,we learn from the same author that #8there is in the ,veda no trace of metempsychosis1 or that transmigration of souls from human to animal bodies1 which is generally supposed to be a distinguishing feature of ,indian religion4 ,instead of this we find what is really the sine qu non of all real religion1 a belief in immortality and in personal immortality4444 ,thus we read1 ,he who gives alms goes to the highest place in heaven2 he goes to the gods4444 ,again we find this prayer addressed to ,soma3-- #8,where there is eternal light1 in the world where the sun is placed1 in that immortal1 imperishable world place me1 ,o ,soma6 #8,where ,king ,vaivasvata reigns1 where the secret place of heaven is1 where these mighty waters are1 there make me immortal6 #8,where there is happiness and delight1 where joy and pleasure reside1 where the desires of our desire are attained1 there make me immortal6' ,max ,mller further remarks1 that the ,rig-,veda contains allusions1 although vague1 to a place of punishment for the wicked4 #8,the dogs of ,yama1 the king of the departed1 present some terrible aspects1 and ,yama is asked to protect the departed from them4 ,again1 a pit is mentioned1 into which the lawless are said to be hurled down1 and into which ,indra casts those who offer no sacrifices4' #bj4 ,a religion like this1 however pure at its commencement1 was likely soon to become corrupted4 ,it speedily merged into idolatry and polytheism1 as far at least as the main body of the worshippers were concerned1 while at the same time the rule of the ,brahmans or officiating priests became strengthened into an insupportable social tyranny4 ,thus a double reformation was to be apprehended1 corresponding on the one hand to the religious1 and on the other to the ceremonial and social1 development of the system4 #ba4 ,the first reformation was that attributed to ,zoroaster and his disciples1 whose belief is contained in the ,zend-,avesta4 ,in his confession of faith1 the disciple of the ,eranian or ,zoroastrian religion declares1 #8,i cease to be a worshipper of the davas4' ,it must however be remembered that in this religion daeva means devil1 or evil spirit4 ,thus the earliest forms of the ,zoroastrian religion need not have excluded1 and apparently did not exclude1 the worship of good spirits4 ,whilst the ,zoroastrian disciples believed in a supreme ,god who rules the world1 they yet gave a prominent place to a spirit of evil1 which afterwards received the name of ,ahriman1 and was supposed to exercise very considerable influence over the order of nature and the minds of men4 ,indeed1 ,ahriman is apparently an independent power so strong that but for the fact that he acts before he thinks1 while ,ormuzd 7the good spirit7 thinks before he acts1 the victory of good would be doubtful4 ,the whole system hinges on this and on the fact that everything noxious and evil in creation is the work of ,ahriman4 ,max ,mller is of opinion that #8the ,zoroastrian religion was founded on a solemn protest against the whole worship of the powers of nature involved in the ,vedas2' and again the same writer says1 #8,the characteristic change that has taken place between the ,veda and ,avesta is1 that the battle is no longer a conflict of gods and demons for cows 7alluding to a ,vaidik myth71 nor of light and darkness for rain4 ,it is the battle of a pious man against the power of evil4' #bb4 ,the disciples of the ,zoroastrian religion believed in a future state2 the ill-speaker 7the devil71 we are told in the ,zend-,avesta1 shall not destroy the second life4 ,the following extracts given by ,max ,mller from a catechism of the modern ,parsis or disciples of ,zoroaster give us a very good idea of their present creed3-- #8,q4 ,whom do we of the ,zarthosti community believe in8 #8,a4 ,we believe in only one ,god1 and we do not believe in any besides ,him4 #8,q4 ,do we not believe in any other ,god8 #8,a4 ,whoever believes in any other ,god but this is an infidel1 and shall suffer the punishment of hell4' ,in another extract the disciples are told that in the world to come they shall receive the return according to their actions4 #bc4 ,the next reform of the ,brahminical system had reference to its social characteristics1 and was occasioned by the insupportable tyranny of the priesthood4 ,the reformer1 a young prince1 was born about #ejj years ,b4,c41 and from his life and doctrines received the name of ,buddha1 or the ,enlightened4 ,after having learned from various famous ,brahmans1 he came to the conclusion that their austerities and doctrines could neither free men from the miseries of this life nor from the fear of death4 ,from this stage ,buddha passed into the belief that all we see is vanity--a delusion1 a dream--and that the highest wisdom consists in perceiving this1 and in desiring to enter into ,nirvna1 or1 in other words1 to be blown out like a flame4 ,it would seem from these words that ,buddha himself regarded annihilation rather than immortality as the summum bonum2 but no account of ,buddhism would be satisfactory which did not pay special regard to the notion so widely diffused in heathenism1 that matter is the source of all evil4 ,to be liberated from matter is to be liberated from evil2 and this would seem to be the fundamental thought in the ,nirvna in all its different senses4 ,but however this may be1 we know that1 allied to these extreme metaphysical opinions1 ,buddha inculcated a moral code which is one of the purest the world has ever known4 ,m4 ,laboulaye says1 #8,it is difficult to comprehend how men not assisted by revelation could have soared so high2' and ,m4 ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire does not hesitate to assert that #8with the sole exception of ,christ1 there is not amongst the founders of religion a more pure or touching figure than that of ,buddha4' #bd4 ,in process of time1 among the followers of the ,buddhist religion1 the word ,nirvna came to have a very different meaning from that which it had at first4 ,buddha was himself worshipped as a divinity1 and his ,nirvna came to denote a state in which there was a total absence of pain1 or in other words an ,elysium4 ,in illustration of this we may quote the account given by ,max ,mller of the dying words of ,hiouen-,thsang1 a famous pilgrim from ,china to the shrine of ,buddha1 who died in the year of our era #ffd3-- #8,i desire1' he said1 #8that whatever merits ,i may have gained by good works may fall upon other people4 ,may ,i be born again with them in the heaven of the blessed1 be admitted to the family of ,mi-le1 and serve the ,buddha of the future who is full of kindness and affection4 ,when ,i descend again upon earth1 to pass through other forms of existence1 ,i desire at every new birth to fulfil my duties towards ,buddha1 and arrive at the last at the highest and most perfect intelligence4' #be4 ,having thus surveyed1 however imperfectly1 the belief regarding a future state held by the greater nations both of the ,east and ,west before the advent of ,christianity1 let us now make a few observations4 ,in the first place1 there are manifestly two ways in which such a belief may be held4 ,in one of these it becomes the natural result of an implicit faith in ,god and his goodness1 which will not suffer him to disappoint the natural and innate longings of his intelligent creatures4 ,and such a belief is most likely to arise amongst a nation which has already vividly realised the living presence and goodness of ,god4 ,now the ancient ,jews were such a nation1 and the belief that even death cannot break the fellowship of the believer with ,god comes out clearly enough in several of the ,psalms4 ,moreover1 the notion of some sort of future life lies clearly in what is said of ,enoch4 ,all this goes beyond the mere notion of ,sheol1 which is not thought of as a happy place4 ,but in the time of the ,maccabees this had grown into a definite belief in the resurrection1 and without insisting on the truthfulness of the ,second ,book of ,maccabees as an historical document1 we may yet be sure that it embodies the feelings of the ,jewish nation at the time when it was written4 ,it is of little consequence whether a mother and seven brethren were actually put to death because they would not transgress what they believed to be the laws of ,god1 or whether in dying they expressed their belief that they would be continued in a bodily existence by the ,creator4 ,for it is manifest from what we know of the ,jews1 that not merely one family but many would under similar circumstances have acted in the manner described by the historian1 dying with the same fortitude and encouraged by the same hope4 ,we have here a region in which there is no thought of the ,how--this troublesome question has not yet arisen1 nor is it likely to arise4 ,no doubt has yet been entertained regarding the power of ,god1 nor would such a doubt be likely to receive much encouragement here4 #bf4 ,but the human mind will not refrain from speculation1 and this brings us to the second method in which a belief regarding a future state may be held4 ,it may be held after a mode determined by speculations regarding the possible conditions of a future state4 ,such speculations may of course take every variety of form1 but yet there are three well-defined classes into which they naturally group themselves3-- ,in the first place1 we have the doctrine of an ethereal state1 which may or may not be eternal2 ,secondly1 we have the doctrine of a bodily existence1 which may or may not be eternal2 and1 ,in the third place1 we have the doctrine that a future state is inconceivable or impossible4 #bg4 ,the first of these beliefs was probably held by a portion of the ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 and by most of the ,jews4 ,it was likewise held by many amongst the eastern nations4 ,it formed indeed one of the two ways of imagining a future state1 but it was of a very vague and dreary nature2 and from the passage of ,homer already quoted 7,art4 #ad71 we realise the longing supposed to be felt by the inhabitants of such a place to escape into a more substantial region4 ,unquestionably it was not a place in which practical men like the ,jews1 for instance1 would wish to dwell1 and yet no doubt it had great attraction for minds of a visionary and ecstatic nature1 who held matter to be the source of evil4 ,the return of the soul to its divine original1 an ,egyptian doctrine1 the entrance into ,nirvna1 proclaimed by ,buddha1 and the absorption into ,buddha himself1 proclaimed by some of his followers1 are all proofs that a doctrine of this nature has peculiar fascinations for a dreamy order of minds4 ,nor must we analyse too rigidly the exact meaning and tendency of such doctrines1 inasmuch as we cannot easily enter into the real feelings of those who propounded them1 and who probably entertained conceptions which cannot adequately be expressed in words4 #bh4 ,coming now to the belief in a bodily future existence1 it is remarkable that the doctrine of a transmigration of souls was extensively prevalent among all the nations we have named1 if we except the ,jews4 ,it was believed in1 as we have seen1 by a large class of the ,egyptians2 it was introduced into ,greece by ,pythagoras and his followers2 it is considered to have been from time immemorial a common property of the various religions of the extreme ,east2 and it is recorded by ,csar that the ,druids believed in the same doctrine1 although they confined the transmigration to human bodies4 ,it will perhaps surprise many of our readers to learn the extensive prevalence of such a doctrine1 wondering as they must how it is possible to attach certainty to an existence which passes through the body of various men and animals--something perhaps like a draught of ,lethe being administered at the moment of passage4 ,but the antients1 being unable to rise to a higher conception of a bodily future1 were compelled to admit either this doctrine or one yet more absurd1 namely1 that the very same body which was laid in the tomb will once more be animated by the spirit which formerly possessed it4 ,it does not therefore surprise us that the antients1 with the exception probably of a portion of the inhabitants of ,egypt1 and some of the ,jews1 should have preferred the doctrine of transmigration2 but we are exceedingly surprised that the alternative doctrine1 of manifestly ,egyptian parentage1 should have come to be accepted by the modern nations of ,europe under the garb of ,christianity4 ,we shall return again to this subject1 but meanwhile let us observe that1 when men first began to ask the ,how of a future state1 the reply was something extremely vague and unsatisfying4 ,no wonder1 then1 that a class of men who had not unlimited confidence in ,god1 and who could not believe in either of the doctrines of a future state1 should have lapsed into philosophical infidelity and denied altogether the possibility of a future state4 #bi4 ,we have thus arrived at a stage of development in which we may imagine the next step to be one which will throw some light upon this question of ,how--that is1 which will give1 or at any rate profess to give1 some information regarding the conditions of a future life4 ,the intellect of man had attempted to obtain such knowledge for itself1 but the result was a conspicuous failure2 the sword was not sharp enough1 nor the arm which wielded it powerful enough1 to hew down the thick and seemingly impenetrable barrier which closes the avenue to the world of spirits4 #8,we cannot go to them1' was the unanimous wail of the antient philosophers2 till some of the more hopeful of them suggested as an alternative that they might come to us4 ,for clearly1 if ,a and ,b are separated from each other by a barrier1 and there yet remains good-will between them1 two courses are possible1 and only two1 if they are to be made acquainted with each other4 ,one or other must surmount the barrier4 ,if ,a be so weak as to be unable to do so1 and if at the same time it would be a matter of importance to him to become better acquainted with ,b1 then ,b may be expected to surmount the barrier if it be surmountable1 and exhibit himself to ,a4 #cj4 ,as a matter of history1 it appears that about the time of the birth of ,christ there was an expectation1 however vague1 that something of this nature was about to take place4 ,and when ,christ made ,his appearance1 and gathered round ,him a little band of disciples1 there can be no doubt that ,he claimed to be the bearer of intelligence from the world of spirits4 ,all who accept the gospel narratives1 however much they may differ from one another as to the light in which they regard ,his person and doctrine1 will yet1 we think1 agree in this4 ,the claim made by ,his disciples for ,his gospel was that it #8had brought life and immortality to light' 7#b ,tim4 i4 #aj71 and that ,christ had by his resurrection #8abolished death4' ,the grounds of the claim were built upon the belief that ,he showed ,himself after ,his resurrection to a body of men who had not previously believed that the ,messiah ,himself was to die and rise again4 ,his disciples in short took ,his resurrection for a proof that life is possible after death4 ,christ was believed to be the first-fruits of a system which was destined ultimately to enfold in the same glorious immortality all those of ,his disciples who were united to their ,master by a sincere and living faith4 ,evidently ,paul attached the utmost importance to the fact of ,christ's resurrection1 for he says 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #ad71 #8,if ,christ be not risen1 then is our preaching vain1 and your faith is also vain4 ,yea1 and we are found false witnesses of ,god3 because we have testified of ,god that he raised up ,christ2 whom he raised not up1 if so be that the dead rise not4 ,for if the dead rise not1 then is not ,christ raised3 and if ,christ be not raised1 your faith is vain2 ye are yet in your sins4' #ca4 ,let us now try to ascertain what sort of future state was taught by ,christ4 ,in the first place1 it was a bodily state--a state which could even adapt itself with some modification to the views of the ,pharisees who believed in the resurrection of the body4 ,but the modification introduced is sufficiently important4 ,the occasion of its announcement was a disputation with the ,sadducees1 who attempted to perplex ,christ by stating to ,him the case of a woman who had been married in this life to seven brethren in succession1 and then asking ,him whose wife she should be in the resurrection4 ,we are told 7,matthew xxii4 #bi7 that in reply to this question1 #8,jesus answered and said unto them1 ,ye do err1 not knowing the scriptures1 nor the power of ,god4 ,for in the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage1 but are as the angels of ,god in heaven4' ,we may gather by implication from this narrative1 that the question would have puzzled the ,pharisees1 who had certainly not arrived at this idea of the resurrection state4 ,they must evidently have thought that the resurrection body was to be similar to the present one1 and although they believed in the existence of angels1 and their occasional appearance to human beings1 they cannot have risen to the idea that it was possible for man to reach a similar state after death4 #cb4 ,it may perhaps be said that many of ,christ's sayings would seem to lead towards the doctrine of a resurrection of the very same material particles which are laid in the grave4 ,to this1 however1 it may be replied that ,christ undoubtedly wished to impress upon ,his hearers1 who were for the most part unlearned and ignorant men1 the substantial and bodily reality of the future state1 and therefore spoke in plain language without entering into scientific minuti1 which would only have perplexed them1 and diminished the impression which ,his words were otherwise calculated to produce4 ,few of ,his hearers would trouble themselves about the mode1 nor was it until an objection was started by the learned ,sadducees that ,christ took occasion to develop ,his doctrine4 ,in accordance with this view we see that a similar difficulty must have occurred more than once in the life of ,paul1 who was brought into contact with the philosophy of ,greece and ,rome4 ,for in one of his ,epistles#af he asks the question1--,how are the dead raised up8 and with what body do they come8 ,he then replies to the supposed objector in the following noble and beautiful language3--#8,there is one glory of the sun1 and another glory of the moon1 and another glory of the stars2 for one star differeth from another star in glory4 ,so also is the resurrection of the dead2 it is sown in corruption1 it is raised in incorruption3 it is sown in dishonour1 it is raised in glory3 it is sown in weakness1 it is raised in power3 it is sown a natural body1 it is raised a spiritual body4 ,there is a natural body1 and there is a spiritual body4' #cc4 ,in the next place we remark1 that this conception of a spiritual body similar to that of the angels is accompanied in the religious system of ,christ by a conviction that the present visible universe will assuredly pass away4 ,this is expressed in both divisions of the writings acknowledged as sacred by the disciples of ,christ4 ,thus it is said3--#8,of old hast thou laid the foundation of the earth2 and the heavens are the works of thy hands4 ,they shall perish1 but thou shalt endure2 yea1 all of them shall wax old like a garment3 as a vesture shalt thou change them1 and they shall be changed4'#ag ,again1 ,paul tells us that #8the things which are seen are temporal1 but the things which are not seen are eternal4'#ah ,likewise also ,peter says--#8,the day of the ,lord will come as a thief in the night2 in the which the heavens shall pass away with a great noise1 and the elements shall melt with fervent heat2 the earth also1 and the works that are therein1 shall be burned up4444 ,nevertheless we1 according to his promise1 look for new heavens and a new earth1 wherein dwelleth righteousness4'#ai ,in like manner ,john tells us that he saw in a vision #8a great white throne1 and him that sat on it1 from whose face the earth and the heaven fled away2 and there was found no place for them4'#bj ,from all this we may conclude that the more advanced disciples of ,christ supposed the resurrection body to be angelic in its nature1 and similar to that which they believed ,christ had himself assumed2 and further1 that they supposed this body would remain when the present visible universe had passed away4 #cd4 ,we have already remarked that it was the object of ,christ to bring the future state in a very vivid manner before ,his disciples1 so that they might realise its substantial existence1 and ,he has accordingly given them on the one hand exalted descriptions of the joys of heaven1 and on the other awful accounts of the fate of the lost4 ,heaven was variously described by ,him as a banqueting house1 as a beautiful city1 as ,abraham's bosom1 and1 when speaking to ,his immediate disciples1 as a place where they shall dwell together with their ,master4 ,on the other hand1 it is believed that ,christ's description of hell was borrowed from the valley of ,hinnom1 a place near ,jerusalem1 which formed the receptacle for every species of filth1 the combustible parts of which were consumed by fire4 ,putrefaction1 or the worm1 was always busy there1 and the fire was always burning1 and this may have given rise to the expression3 #8,where their worm dieth not1 and the fire is not quenched4' ,there can be no doubt1 we think1 that such descriptions were meant to be allegorical1 the intention being by forcible earthly images to convey an idea of what could not otherwise be conveyed4 #ce4 ,it is well known that many varieties of opinion have been entertained regarding the person of ,christ even by those who profess to be ,his disciples4 ,it is not however here our object to enter into theological controversies2 our treatment of this subject is at present historical1 and we will therefore bring before our readers only those views regarding the person of ,christ and the constitution of the invisible world1 which are held by the large majority of those who call themselves ,christians4 ,whilst all the ,christian ,churches believe in one ,god1 yet by most of them the ,godhead is believed to consist of three persons1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost4 ,the first of these appears to be regarded as the ,being or ,essence in virtue of whom the ,universe exists4 ,thus in reciting the ,apostles' ,creed the ,christian disciple says3--#8,i believe in ,god1 the ,father ,almighty1 maker of ,heaven and ,earth2' and the laws of the ,universe are regarded by ,christian theologians as being expressions of the will acting in conformity with the character of this ,being4 ,thus ,nature 7according to ,whately7 is the course in which the ,author and ,governor of all things proceeds in ,his works4 ,but the majority of ,christian ,churches virtually assert that there are two other ,divine ,persons1 who work through and by the ,universe4#ba ,one great object of the second ,person of the ,trinity is held to be the manifestation of ,god to man1 and possibly to other beings1 in a manner and to an extent which could not be accomplished by finite intelligences4 ,one great object of the third ,person is to enter1 as ,lord and giver of life1 into the souls of men1 and possibly of other beings1 and to dwell there in such a manner as to fit them for the position which they are destined ultimately to occupy in the universe of ,god4 #cf4 ,in ,christ it is supposed that we have an incarnation of the second ,person of the ,trinity1 and the work which ,he accomplished is regarded as done not in violation of the order of things as established by ,god the ,father1 but rather in strict obedience to it4 ,but while this is generally accepted by the ,church of ,christ1 yet the doctrine of the submission of ,christ to law has been held by some as not inconsistent with a view which regards the miraculous works of ,christ as manifestations of ,his divine nature1 so changing the order of things as to denote something wrought upon the universe rather than something wrought through it and by its means4 ,we do not think that this theory is borne out by the words of ,christ himself4 ,he says3 #8,i seek not mine own will1 but the will of the ,father who sent me4'#bb ,again1 we are told by ,paul1 that #8when the fulness of the time was come1 ,god sent forth his ,son1 made of a woman1 made under the law1 to redeem them that were under the law1 that they might receive the adoption of sons4'#bc ,christ also frequently represents ,his works as wrought by the ,father1 as for instance when he says3--#8,i do nothing of myself2 but as the ,father hath taught me1 ,i speak these things4'#bd ,in fine1 the whole genius of ,christianity would appear to point towards a total submission of ,christ in every respect to all the laws of the universe3 for these1 indeed1 as we shall soon have occasion to show1 form but another expression for the will of ,god acting in conformity with ,his character4 ,to make our meaning clear1 we may say that the will of man is accomplished in conformity with the laws of the universe1 while on the other hand the will of ,god1 as above defined1 constitutes in itself the laws of the universe4 ,now it appears to us from what we find contained in the books of the ,christian religion1 that ,christ must in this sense be regarded as similar to man2 but1 inasmuch as the relation of ,christ to the universe is there asserted to have been different from that of any mere man1 so the works of ,christ are to be regarded as different from those which any mere man can accomplish4 #cg4 ,the ,christian system1 of which we have thus briefly described the peculiarities1 was soon called upon to do battle1 on the one hand with the antient philosophies of ,greece and ,rome1 and on the other with the semi-savage creeds of those less civilised races of man which were destined ultimately to overpower the ,roman ,empire4 ,but it was chiefly when the apostolic pioneers came into contact with the acute minds of the antient philosophers that we have light struck regarding what may be termed the philosophical system of ,christianity2 thus we have already remarked 7,art4 #cb71 that the nature of the glorified body is most clearly indicated to us by the ,apostle ,paul4 ,as respects the more barbarous nations which afterwards embraced ,christianity1 they were not likely to puzzle themselves about the physical possibilities of a future state1 nor even to contest the reality of a place of eternal physical torment4 ,and so it happened that1 when dealing with a lower class of converts1 some prominent ,christians in post-apostolic periods appealed more to their fears than to their hopes1 bringing vividly before them awful ideas of the nature of hell2 while on the other hand1 the higher class of converts1 if they had not a very clear idea of heaven1 were yet drawn with intense longing to a future which they were to spend in the company of ,christ4 #ch4 ,in the course of a few hundred years we find the whole ,roman ,empire converted to ,christianity1 while1 however1 in ,arabia and the ,east it appears either to have made very little progress1 or to have become corrupted into something very different from that which we read of in the ,new ,testament4 ,it had not become the national religion of the ,arabs2 and we can well imagine that this nation1 with their pretensions to be regarded as the most antient representatives of the ,semitic race1 would not look kindly upon a religion which took its origin in a rival branch of the same family4 ,we can further imagine that1 with such a feeling1 they would be very ready to welcome any skilfully devised religious system which should spring up amongst themselves4 ,such an opportunity was afforded them by ,mohammed4 ,acknowledging in some measure the claims of ,moses and of ,christ1 ,mohammed yet claimed for himself and his religion a superiority over his rivals1 flattering by this means the vanity of his own countrymen1 who considered themselves the elder branch of the ,semitic race4 ,the heaven which was promised by ,mohammed was altogether of a sensuous character1 and well calculated to strike the imagination of his countrymen4 ,he succeeded equally well in describing hell as a place of physical torture reserved for those who did not believe in his religion4 ,he further commissioned his followers to propagate his tenets by the sword1 so that men became converts from dread of earthly punishment1 and were retained in his ranks by the success which attended his arms1 and by the promise of a paradise full of earthly delights1 as well as by the threat of a horrible material hell which was reserved for unbelievers4 ,we could not possibly have a better or more graphic description of such a system than that which is given us by ,byron3-- #8,but him the maids of paradise ,impatient to their halls invite1 ,and the dark ,heaven of ,houris' eyes ,on him shall shine for ever bright2 ,they come--their kerchiefs green they wave1 ,and welcome with a kiss the brave6 ,who falls in battle 'gainst the ,giaour ,is worthiest an immortal bower4 ,but thou1 false ,infidel6 shalt writhe ,beneath avenging ,monkir's scythe2 ,and from its torment 'scape alone ,to wander round lost ,eblis' throne1 ,and fire unquench'd1 unquenchable1 ,around1 within1 thy heart shall dwell2 ,nor ear can hear nor tongue can tell ,the tortures of that inward hell6' ,the disciples of ,mohammed believed in the unity of ,god1 but it is evident that they had not a very exalted conception of ,his character4 ,their trust in ,him could infuse zeal into their hearts and vigour into their arms when they went to make proselytes by the sword1 but could not produce that lofty type of character which has so frequently appeared amongst the followers of ,christ4 #ci4 ,we have now reached in the history of our problem the period known as the dark ages1 during which the spirit of scientific inquiry was well-nigh extinct4 ,at length1 however1 there arrived a time when the human mind1 from a variety of causes1 suddenly awoke from the lethargy into which it had sunk4 ,when scientific thought was once more directed to the subject of immortality it was easily seen that the doctrine of the resurrection in its vulgar acceptation could not possibly be true1 since a case might easily be imagined in which there might be a contention between rival claimants for the same body4 ,we might1 for instance1 imagine a ,christian missionary to be killed and eaten by a savage1 who was afterwards killed himself4 ,it is indeed both curious and instructive to note the reluctance with which various sections of the ,christian ,church have been driven from their old erroneous conceptions on this subject2 and the expedients1 always grotesque1 and sometimes positively loathsome1 with which they have attempted to buttress up the tottering edifice4 ,some deem it necessary that a single material germ or organised particle of the body at death should survive until the resurrection1 forgetting that under such a hypothesis it would be easy to deprive a man of the somewhat doubtful benefits of such a resurrection1 by sealing him up 7while yet alive7 in a strong iron coffin1 and by appropriate means reducing his whole physical body into an inorganic mass4 ,boston1 again1 in his ,fourfold ,state1 goes still further1 adopting the idea that a single particle of insensible perspiration which has escaped from a man during his life1 will be sufficient to serve as a nucleus for the resurrection body4 ,so that according to the disciples of this school1 the resurrection will be preceded by a gigantic manufacture of shoddy1 the effete and loathsome rags of what was once the body being worked up along with a large quantity of new material into a glorious and immortal garment1 to form the clothing of a being who is to live for ever6 ,unquestionably we have continuity in this hypothesis1 but it is the continuity of the ,irishman's coat in the story1 the owner of which always made a point of retaining as many as possible of the rags which were present on the last occasion1 those only which had absolutely fallen to pieces being replaced by something new6 ,we have only to compare this grotesquely hideous conception with the noble and beautiful language of ,paul1 to recognise the depth of abasement into which the ,church had sunk through the materialistic conceptions of the ,dark ,ages4 #dj4 ,but it is needless to say that this offer of a certain class of theologians to surrender everything except a single shred of the worn-out body1 liberal as it may appear1 was nevertheless at once rejected by the school of scientific men4 ,death1 they replied1 must be regarded as a total and complete destruction of the visible body1 so far at least as the individual life is concerned4 ,at the same time professing themselves unable to conceive such an existence as a disembodied spirit1 they were forced to conclude like ,priestley1#be that the soul is not in its nature immortal4 ,at this point1 however1 the scientific school splits up into two or even three sections1 one believing with ,priestley and others that immortality is a fresh and miraculous gift conferred upon man at the resurrection2 another1 unable to conceive the possibility of a miracle in the case of each individual1 denying a future state altogether2 while a third section maintains that there is no use in discussing the subject1 because man after death has passed beyond the sphere of human inquiry4 #da4 ,regarding the existence and nature of the ,deity1 various opinions have been entertained by the disciples of what we may term the extreme school of science4 ,some have maintained that we have no evidence of the existence of any such ,being1 others that we have no evidence of ,his personality1 while others argue that although we may become convinced of ,his great power and wisdom from the works of creation1 there are other attributes of ,his character which are not so revealed4 ,we cannot1 for instance1 say they1 maintain the benevolence of the ,deity in the way in which we understand the word benevolence1 nor have we any evidence that ,he is just in the way in which we understand the word justice4 ,it is well known that the late ,john ,stuart ,mill would have regarded the claims of ,christianity with more favour had its character been more ,manichan1 that is to say1 had the spirit of evil been allowed a position more nearly equal to that of the spirit of good in the government of the universe4 #db4 ,let us here pause to indicate two points of similarity between this scientific school and the system of ,christianity4 ,both1 we conceive1 maintain in some sense the supremacy of law or the invariability of the procedure adopted by the ,deity in the government of the universe 7,art4 #cf72 both maintain likewise that the outer works of the visible universe are insufficient to manifest certain attributes of the ,deity4 ,here1 however1 the likeness ends2 this scientific school conceive they have no information beyond the visible universe1 while the ,christian system asserts the existence of an invisible order of things1 and the fact of communications having taken place between the two for the double purpose of revealing ,god to man1 and of raising man towards ,god4 #dc4 ,leaving now the views of those who may be said to constitute the extreme left1 let us shortly consider the various opinions held regarding a future state by those who1 though often differing widely from one another1 yet rank themselves within the pale of ,christianity4 ,not a few who revere the sacred writings1 believe nevertheless that the descriptions of the unseen world contained therein are purely allegorical4 ,these do not believe in the existence of evil spirits exercising an influence over the mind of man4 ,satan is regarded by them as a personification of evil 71 the accuser1 ,devil's advocate7 rather than as possessing a real objective existence4 ,the worst half of the unseen world having thus been got rid of1 the other half follows in due course4 ,such men do not believe in the unseen presence of angels 71 messenger72 in fine they conceive that there is nothing above man but the ,deity1 and that ,he always acts according to rigid law4 ,it is an immediate step from this to believe in the futility of prayer1 which is looked upon as necessarily devoid of any objective influence1 although the practice of it may be regarded as possessing a beneficial subjective effect4 ,a future life is believed to be conceivable1 but only under conditions and in a universe about which we know and can know nothing4 ,at this point1 however1 the views of what may be called the left centre come into contact with those of the extreme left4 #dd4 ,but there are others quite disposed to believe in the existence of the unseen world1 who yet regard as figurative a large part of the ,biblical descriptions4 ,some1 like the ,church of ,rome1 consider the separation of the souls of men after death into two categories1 and only two1 as insufficient and unsupported by the spirit of ,scripture2 while others cannot admit the eternity of misery1 but believe that the most reprobate will ultimately be reclaimed and elevated into the regions of bliss4 ,others again1 arguing from some expressions in the ,bible1 regard immortality as a boon reserved for the good alone1 believing that the wicked will be annihilated1 both soul and body1 in hell4 ,no doubt by an energetic nature such a fate would be regarded as even worse than endless misery3 ,sad cure6 for who would lose1 ,though full of pain1 this intellectual being8 ,those thoughts that wander through eternity ,to perish rather1 swallowed up and lost ,in the wide womb of uncreated night1 ,devoid of sense and motion4 ,so speaks ,milton1 putting the idea into the mouth of ,belial1 the fallen spirit1 when addressing his peers4 #de4 ,such are a few of the ways in which the statements of ,christ and his ,apostles regarding immortality have been interpreted by those who call themselves ,christians4 ,but amid this great diversity there is yet one principle common to all4 ,it is imagined that something peculiar in the history of the world took place at the coming of ,christ1 which has not since been repeated4 ,communications were then made to mankind which are regarded as unique1 and the truth of which it is held will only be verified in the case of each individual when he has passed into that country from which we receive no travellers' tales4 ,notwithstanding this general belief1 not a few have arisen pretending to have received a new and supplementary revelation4 ,in most of these cases the scientific historian may at once come to a conclusion without any violation of his impartiality1--they are so manifestly the products of delusion if not of imposture4 ,there is however one system which merits fuller treatment1 inasmuch as it has led to a mode of viewing the spiritual world which has many followers even at the present day4 #df4 ,emanuel ,swedenborg1 the apostle of this system1 was in many respects a remarkable man4 ,living more than a century ago1 and during the time when ,science was pausing for the spring she has since made1 he seems to have foreshadowed1 if he did not anticipate1 many of the doctrines now current4 ,we are not however now concerned with his purely physical speculations4 ,swedenborg has written at great length regarding the nature and destiny of man1 and the constitution of the unseen world into which he asserts he had the power of entering4 ,he assumes the existence of a human or semi-human race before ,adam1 of which he remarks that they lived as beasts4 #8,man1' he tells us1 #8considered in himself1 is nothing but a beast4444 ,man's peculiarity over animals--a peculiarity they neither have nor can have--consists in the presence of the ,lord in his will and understanding4 ,it is in consequence of this conjunction with the ,lord that man lives after death2 and although he should exist like a beast1 caring for nothing but himself and his relations1 yet the ,lord's mercy is so great1 being ,divine and ,infinite1 that ,he never leaves him1 but continually breathes into him ,his own life1 whereby he is enabled to recognise what is good and evil and true and false4' ,regarding man's mortal nature we are told by ,swedenborg that #8man at birth puts on the grosser substances of nature1 his body consisting of such4 ,these grosser substances by death he puts off1 but retains the purer substances of nature1 which are next to those that are spiritual4 ,these purer substances serve thereafter as his body1 the continent and expression of his mind4'#bf #8,a man at death1' he tells us again1 #8escapes from his material body as from a rent or worn-out vesture1 carrying with him every member1 faculty1 and function complete1 with not one wanting1 yet the corpse is as heavy as when he dwelt therein4' ,regarding the spiritual world1 he tells us #8that the whole natural world corresponds to the spiritual world collectively and in every part2 for the natural world exists and subsists from the spiritual world1 just as an effect does from its cause4' ,he also tells us #8that if in the spiritual world two desire intensely to see each other1 that desire at once brings about a meeting4 ,when any angel goes from one place to another1 whether it is in his own city1 or in the courts1 or the gardens1 or to others out of his own city1 he arrives sooner or later1 just as he is ardent or indifferent1 the way itself being shortened or lengthened in proportion4444 ,change of place being only change of state1 it is evident that approximations in the spiritual world arise from similitudes of mind and removals from dissimilitudes2 and thus spaces are merely signs of inner differences4444 ,from that cause alone the hells are altogether separated from the heavens4' ,of ,god he says3 #8,the ,divine is incomprehensible even by the angels1 for there is no ratio between the finite and the infinite4 #8,no man or angel can ever approach the ,father and immediately worship ,him2 for ,he is invisible1 and being invisible can neither be thought of nor loved4' ,of ,god's ,providence he says3 #8,as in the ,lord we are and act1 ,his ,providence is over us from birth to death1 and even to eternity4444 ,to talk of the ,lord's ,providence as universal1 and to separate it from particulars1 is like talking of a whole in which there are no parts1 or of something in which there is nothing4 ,consequently it is most false1 a mere picture of the imagination1 and downright stupidity1 to say that the ,lord's ,providence is universal1 and not at the same time in the minutest particulars2 for to provide and rule in the universal1 and not at the same time in the minutest particulars1 is not to rule at all4' ,swedenborg likewise believed in an intermediate state analogous to purgatory1 although he objected to the name4 ,this was called by him the world of spirits1 after staying in which1 for a longer or shorter time1 the souls of the departed were drafted off to heaven on the one side1 and to hell on the other4 #dg4 ,we have now said enough to give our readers some idea of ,swedenborg's spiritual system4 ,unquestionably it is the system of a profound thinker1 and many great men have not hesitated to express their admiration of ,swedenborg and his works4 ,it is one thing however to admit the beauty1 the philosophical completeness1 and even the possible truth of many of his statements1 and another thing to believe that he actually conversed with the inhabitants of another world in the way in which one man converses with another4 ,but1 after all1 suppose that the every-day experience of men is that only he who lives in the world as not of the world lives a true life1 and this is the ,bible teaching1--whose then is the true doctrine8 ,swedenborg errs if he claims this as his exclusive personal experience4 ,paul claimed it as belonging to all men4 ,surely men of science should of all men claim this likewise4 ,now1 when a man unquestionably honest makes an assertion such as ,swedenborg made1 there are only two possible conclusions to which we can come1 unless we choose to remain in a state of mental suspense4 ,we must either believe that he really saw what he professes to have seen1 or that he was the victim of some strange hallucination1 in virtue of which his subjective impressions became transferred into the realms of objective realities4 ,we know very well that the human mind is extremely prone to such delusions1 and that the nature of the case is frequently betrayed by some indiscreet admission which we have external grounds for believing to be incorrect4 ,had ,swedenborg confined himself to the invisible world it would have been very difficult to prove him the subject of a delusion1 but when he converses with angels from the planets1 and thus comes to describe their inhabitants1 he enters at once upon dangerous ground4 ,concerning his description of the various planets it has been remarked that his information relates only to those1 the existence of which was known when he wrote1 ,uranus and ,neptune being passed over4 ,this of itself is a suspicious circumstance4 ,again1 he peoples the planets ,jupiter and ,saturn with inhabitants as well as our own ,moon2 now1 scientific analogy is strongly against either of these two planets being inhabited1 while it is next to certain that our moon is entirely without inhabitants4 ,in fine1 there is no reason to suppose that the speculations of ,swedenborg were anything else than the product of his own mind1 in the same sense as that in which the speculations of this volume may be regarded as the product of the minds of its authors4 #dh4 ,before concluding this historical sketch let us say a few words about modern spiritualists in so far as their pretensions have reference to our subject4 ,they assert the presence among them of the spirits of the departed1 assuming sometimes a visible shape1 and they compare these appearances to those which are recorded in the ,sacred writings4 ,but there is this prominent distinction between the two3 the spiritual communications recorded in the ,scriptures are represented as made to those who were unprepared to receive them1 and also for the most part as taking place in open daylight1 or1 to speak more properly1 having no sort of reference to light or darkness4 ,whatever be their explanation they have an open-air look about them4 ,on the other hand1 the manifestations recorded by the spiritualists take place as a rule in insufficient light1 if not in total darkness1 and in presence of those who are in a state of mental excitement4 ,now1 for our own part1 we should not be disposed to credit any communication from the world of spirits that was not made openly1 and to those unprepared to receive it1 and therefore unprejudiced4 ,the man of science must be perfectly recipient1 but he must in the interests of truth guard himself against the possibility of delusion4 ,we know the almost infinite power of the mind not only to delude itself1 but to propagate its delusions to other minds1 and1 as we have already remarked1 the conditions of these manifestations are specially favourable to the spread of such delusions4 ,we do not therefore hesitate to choose between the two alternative explanations1 and to regard these pretended manifestations as having no objective reality4 #di4 ,but while we altogether deny the reality of these appearances1 we think it likely that the spiritualists have enlarged our knowledge of the power which one mind has of influencing another1 and this is in itself a valuable subject of inquiry4 ,we agree too in the position assumed by ,swedenborg1 and by the spiritualists1 according to which they look upon the invisible world not as something absolutely distinct from the visible universe1 and absolutely unconnected with it1 as is frequently thought to be the case1 but rather as a universe which has some bond of union with the present4 ,this line of argument will be developed in the following chapters of our book4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,position ,,taken ,,by ,,the ,,authors--,,physical ,,axioms4 #8,through faith we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of ,god2 so that things which are seen were not made of things which do appear4'--,,hebrews ,,xi4 #c4 #ej4 ,in the preceding chapter we have given a very brief epitome of the various beliefs regarding immortality and the invisible world held by the civilised nations of the earth1 from the earliest dawn of history to the present day4 ,our object has been not so much to enter even into general details as to present boldly those particular features of each system of belief which are most closely concerned with the subject of our work4 ,thus our account of each separate system is intentionally incomplete1 even as a simple sketch4 ,it is now time to say something about the object of this book1 as well as to define the position from which we mean to start in pursuance of that object4 ,we shall therefore commence by dividing those who at all concern themselves about our theme into three great classes4 ,first1 we have those who are so absolutely certain of the truth of their views of religion1 and of the immortality which they believe it teaches1 that they are not qualified to entertain or even to perceive any scientific objection4 ,they acknowledge that certain deductions made by men of science appear to contradict or to be incompatible with certain truths of their religion4 ,but these they regard as premature conclusions1 averring that when the laws of nature have been more deeply investigated1 there will be found a perfect concord between science and revelation4 ,certain scientific truths they readily assent to1 and it is only the altogether human superstructure of speculation built upon these that they profess to question4 #8,you have built1' they say1 #8upon the rock of truth a structure of wood1 hay1 stubble1 and you would persuade us that it is the very temple of ,god4 ,we will not enter it1 but will patiently wait in the expectation of seeing it speedily consumed with fire4' ,now1 whatever be the merits or demerits of such men1 it is not for them we write4 ,their merit may consist in having made a perfectly true charge against certain classes of scientific men--their demerit probably in having themselves treated religion precisely as they accuse their adversaries of having treated scientific truth4 ,we must let them alone--they will not be influenced by anything that we can say4 ,we may perhaps be praised by them in a certain measure if it be thought that we have helped to overthrow the superstructure built by their adversaries2 we shall certainly be condemned by them if it be thought that we have helped to weaken any portion of the superstructure which they themselves have reared4 #ea4 ,in the next place1 and occupying a middle position1 we have those who see strong grounds for believing in a future life for man and in the existence of an invisible world1 but who at the same time are forced to acknowledge the strength of the objections urged against these doctrines by certain men of science4 ,some of this class attach much weight to the evidence in favour of these doctrines derived from the ,christian records2 others again1 unable to believe in these records1 are yet powerfully impressed by the universal longing for immortality which civilised man has always shown1 while others attach nearly equal importance to both kinds of evidence4 ,nevertheless1 all of the class of which we now speak have deeply studied the scientific objections1 and do not well see how to surmount them4 ,it is to this class that we shall especially address ourselves in the following chapters4 #eb4 ,the third class of men are those of the extreme materialistic school4 ,all human history1 including the life of ,christ and that which took place in connection with it1 all yearnings of man for immortality1 all life1 from that of the noblest of human beings to that of the primordial animated germ1 are explained by this class as the result of the interaction of material atoms guided by certain measurable physical forces4 ,they consider that they have no reason to believe that there is anything beyond or beside the visible universe1 and in consequence they decline entering into any argument upon the subject4 ,their premiss may be wrong1 but their conclusion follows from it as a matter of course4 ,we have examined 7say they7 all the evidence in favour of another universe1 and find it utterly worthless1 why then should we discuss the subject8--it is one of those delusions that are common in man4 ,when a traveller pretends to have received information about some strange and distant country1 our first step is to inquire whether he is a trustworthy and sane man1 and if we find he is otherwise1 it is quite unnecessary for us to discuss either the information which he brings1 or the objections to that information4 ,you pretend to show the scientific possibility that this information may be correct1 but why should we study your argument since there is no evidence for supposing that there is any such place8 #ec4 ,to these men we would reply that1 even assuming their own point of view1 our scheme will1 we venture to suggest1 be found to give a more complete and continuous explanation of the visible order of things than one which proceeds upon the assumption that there is nothing else4 ,in this respect we may liken it to the hypothesis of atoms1 or that of an ethereal medium1 for neither of which have we the direct evidence of our senses1 both of which have nevertheless been adopted as affording the best explanations of the phenomena of the visible universe4 #ed4 ,our readers being thus classed will now be anxious to learn our position4 ,let us begin by stating at once that we assume1 as absolutely self-evident1 the existence of a ,deity who is the ,creator and ,upholder of all things4 7,romans i4 #ai-ba47 ,we further look upon the laws of the universe as those laws according to which the beings in the universe are conditioned by the ,governor thereof1 as regards time1 place1 and sensation4 ,it is for instance on account of these laws that we cannot be present in different places at the same time2 or move over more than a certain space in a certain time1 or think more than a certain number of thoughts2 or feel more than a certain number of sensations in a certain given time4 ,and hence while we can very easily imagine an intelligence superior to ourselves1 but yet finite1 to be very differently conditioned1 we cannot imagine any finite intelligence to be absolutely without conditions4 ,at any rate1 if finite intelligences unconditioned with respect to time and space be conceivable existences1 they must of necessity be so absolutely unconnected with the present universe1 which has reference to time and space1 that their existence need not be contemplated so far at least as our argument is concerned4 #ee4 ,it will thus be seen that we cannot conceive of finite intelligences existing in the universe without being in some way conditioned2 but we now come to a point which deserves a somewhat fuller discussion4 ,we can imagine the materialists saying to us3 #8,you are right in asserting the inconceivability of such intelligence as that of man existing without being conditioned1 which to our mind implies some sort of association with matter--that is precisely the view we ourselves take4 ,but1 on the other hand1 we can very well conceive of matter existing without intelligence1 as for instance a block of wood1 or a bar of iron4#bg ,thus the connection between these two things1 matter and mind1 is of such a nature1 that mind cannot exist without matter1 while matter can and does exist without mind4 ,is there not therefore a reality about matter which there is not about mind8#bh ,can we conceive a single particle of matter to go out of the universe for six or eight hours and then to return to it2 but do we not every day see our consciousness disappearing in the case of deep sleep1 or in a swoon1 and then returning to us again8 ,far be it from us to deny that we have something which is called consciousness1 and is utterly distinct from matter and the properties of matter1 as these are regarded in ,physics4 ,but may not the connection between the two be of this nature8--,when a certain number of material particles consisting of phosphorus1 carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and perhaps some other elements1 are1 in consequence of the operations of their mutual forces1 in certain positions with respect to each other1 and in certain states of motion1 consciousness is the result1 but whenever this relative state is brought to an end1 there is also an end of consciousness and the sense of individual existence1 while however the particles of phosphorus1 carbon1 etc41 remain as truly as ever4' #ef4 ,now this means that matter must be looked upon as mistress of the house1 and individual consciousness as an occasional visitor whom she permits to partake of her hospitality1 turning him out of doors whenever the larder is empty4 ,it is worth while to investigate the process of thought which gives rise to this curious conception of the economy of the universe4 ,in the first place1 it is clear that certain arrangements are made in the universe1 in virtue of which corresponding sensations are produced simultaneously in different individuals1 while in other arrangements the sensations produced are the peculiar property of some one individual4 ,the one set have come to be associated with objective realities1 while the other set are concerned with subjective impressions4 ,i am affected by a pain in my head1 and ,i am also affected by the sun1 but the one affection is the peculiar product of my brain1 and ,i carry it about with me1 while experience has shown me that ,i cannot appropriate the other2 yet it also becomes mine so soon as it has reached my brain4 ,it will further be allowed1 that there are certain material particles which may become vehicles for either or both of these kinds of sensations1 while there are others which have the power of producing one only4 ,gold1 silver1 and platinum are substances which may become the vehicle of common impressions1 but not of peculiar impressions1 since they do not occur in our brains4 ,phosphorus1 on the other hand1 is a substance which may become the vehicle of either kind4 ,when we burn a piece of phosphorus in a lecture-room it is the vehicle of a common impression1 while the phosphorus in our brain is the vehicle of a peculiar impression4 ,now there is a very noteworthy difference between portions of phosphorus playing these two parts4 ,when phosphorus is in the common state1 we can experiment upon it and investigate its properties1 but this we cannot do when it exists in the brain in its peculiar state4 ,the assertion1 therefore1 that phosphorus and its allied particles1 whose motions and positions are accompanied by individual consciousness1 are nevertheless1 when in this state1 essentially the same as they are in the ordinary state1 appears to us to be altogether without foundation4 ,we have no right thus to argue from the one state to the other4 ,for that most peculiar and interesting condition of phosphorus and other matter in which it is intimately connected with the production of individual consciousness1 and where some peculiarity of properties or behaviour due to this connection might most warrantably be expected1 is the very thing which we cannot investigate4 ,to say therefore that the living brain consists of particles of phosphorus1 carbon1 etc41 such as we know them in the common state1 and that when the particles of the brain have1 in consequence of the operation of physical forces1 a certain position and motion1 then individual consciousness follows1 is to assign a peculiar relation between the brain-particles and such consciousness for which we have no scientific warrant4 #eg4 ,allied to this assumption there is another in the materialistic argument as we have stated it4 ,if in the body there be no other material than the visible particles1 and in the brain no other material than a certain quantity of phosphorus and other things1 such as we know them in the common state1 and if individual consciousness depends upon the structural presence of these substances in the body and brain1 then when this structure falls to pieces there are of course reasonable grounds for supposing that such consciousness has entirely ceased4 ,but it is the object of this volume to exhibit various scientific reasons for believing that there is something beyond that which we call the visible universe2 and that individual consciousness is in some mysterious manner related to1 or dependent upon1 the interaction of the seen and unseen4 #eh4 ,there remains yet that part of the argument which hints that individual consciousness is less permanent than matter1 inasmuch as such consciousness frequently departs from the universe for six or eight hours and then returns to it again4 ,in one sense this is unquestionably true1 while1 however1 there is a potential or latent consciousness or possibility of consciousness that remains behind4#bi ,it will be seen in the sequel that this fact of latent consciousness will be used by us to strengthen our argument in favour of a future state4 #ei4 ,we may conclude1 as the result of this discussion1 that the connection between mind and matter is a very intimate one1 although we are in profound ignorance as to its exact nature4 ,the intimacy of this connection is a doctrine almost universally held by modern physiologists4 ,just as no single action of the body takes place without the waste of some muscular tissue1 so1 it is believed1 no thought takes place without some waste of the brain4 ,nay1 physiologists go even further1 and assert that each specific thought denotes some specific waste of brain matter1 so that there is some mysterious and obscure connection between the nature of the thought and the nature of the waste which it occasions4 ,in like manner memory is looked upon as dependent upon traces1 left behind in the brain1 of the state in which it was when the sensation remembered took place4 ,thus ,professor ,huxley in his ,belfast address 7#ahgd7 tells us3 #8,it is not to be doubted that those motions which give rise to sensation leave on the brain changes of its substance which answer to what ,haller called 8vestigia rerum10 and to what that great thinker ,david ,hartley termed 8,vibratiuncules40 ,the sensation which has passed away leaves behind molecules of the brain competent to its reproduction--8sensigenous molecules10 so to speak--which constitute the physical foundation of memory4' #fj4 ,it will be inferred from what we have said that one of the essential requisites of continued existence of the individual is the capability of retaining some sort of hold upon the past3 and1 inasmuch as we are unable to contemplate such a thing as a finite disembodied spirit1 or1 to speak more precisely1 an unconditioned finite spirit1 it is further evident that this hold implies an organ of some sort4 ,this we conceive to be a perfectly general proposition4 ,we do not limit ourselves in making it to any particular arrangement of bodily form1 or to any particular rank of finite organised intelligence4 ,from the archangel to the brute we conceive that something analogous to an organ of memory must be possessed by each4 ,this is1 in fact1 merely a corollary to what has been stated in ,art4 #ed above1 and does not require any further discussion4 #fa4 ,but if one general requisite of independent and responsible life be a connection with the past1 another is the possibility of action in the present4 ,a living being must have in his frame the capacity of varied movement4 ,he must possess an organisation in which there is the power of calling internal forces into play at irregular intervals dependent on his will4 ,we cannot imagine life to be associated with a motionless mass or with a mass which moves in an invariable manner4 ,the living being need not always be in motion1 but he must retain the capacity of moving4 ,he need not always be thinking1 but he must retain the capacity of thought4 ,he need not always be conscious1 but he must retain the capacity of consciousness4 ,to sum up--it thus appears that there are two general conditions of organised life4 ,there must in the first place be an organ connecting the individual with the past1 and in the next place there must be such a frame and such a universe that he has the power of varied action in the present4 ,we particularly request our readers to keep well in mind these two propositions1 since it is upon them that our argument will ultimately in great part be built4 #fb4 ,we come now to a very important part of our inquiry4 ,it will be necessary to discuss that which we term the ,principle of ,continuity1 and desirable to begin by defining exactly what is meant by us when these words are used4#cj ,let us introduce our definition by one or two illustrative examples4 ,take a particular problem of astronomy1 for instance1 and1 beginning at the very commencement1 let us suppose an early ,egyptian or ,chaldean astronomer to be observing the sun in the middle of summer4 ,day after day1 for perhaps a week1 he has noticed that this luminary rises over a certain place and sets over a certain other place1 and he conceives that he has now obtained some definite information regarding the sun4 ,his idea is1 that the sun will go on always doing the same thing1 and he therefore predicts to his fellows1 who are less observant than himself1 exactly where it will rise and where it will set4 ,they join him in observing the luminary for a week or more1 and the sagacity of our primeval astronomer is triumphantly vindicated3 the sun is found doing as nearly as possible that which had been predicted of it4 #fc4 ,these men have now got hold of the idea that the sun will always rise and set at the same places1 that in fact his daily journey is always the same1 and that he performs it in the same time4 ,but in the course of six months they suspect they are mistaken4 ,discredit is thrown upon the sagacity of our astronomer1 and he broods over his disgrace for six months longer4 ,at the end of this time1 on turning his eyes towards the sun1 what is his surprise and delight to find that luminary doing the very thing that he had all along predicted1 returning once more to his old points of rising and setting1--places1 we may presume1 which could be easily remembered on account of some peculiarity of landscape4 ,he is not yet prepared however for a higher generalisation1 but again calls for his fellows1 and while he suspects a certain amount of irregularity in the sun1 yet succeeds in convincing them that his guess was after all not far from the truth4 ,once again he is reinstated in their good opinion4 #fd4 ,however1 six months after1 precisely the same thing recurs once more2 the rising and setting points are now considerably different from those predicted4 ,our astronomer again loses credit1 and regains it only partially six months afterwards1 when the points are once more right4 ,but he has now learned a lesson4 ,he perceives a method in all this1 and ultimately rises1 by means of the difficulty1 to a higher generalisation4 ,he sees that the rising and setting points of the sun go through the complete series of their changes of position in about #cfe days2 and he has thus learned1 in a rude way1 that the sun has two motions1 one of which he accomplishes in #bd hours1 or one day1 while the other has a period of #cfe days1 or one year4 #fe4 ,while these things are in progress1 a portentous and wholly unexpected event takes place3 the sun for four minutes is totally extinguished4 ,our astronomer meditates much on this strange phenomenon1 and is inclined to regard it as a triumph of the powers of ,darkness1 in personal conflict with those of ,light4 ,nevertheless he does not neglect to keep a record of the precise day on which it took place4 #ff4 ,years pass away1 and our astronomer has passed away with them--he and all his generation2 but a regular record is now kept of celestial occurrences1 and especially of eclipses4 ,at length it comes to be perceived that there is a periodicity even in such untoward phenomena1 and an attempt is ultimately made1 by means of this knowledge1 to predict when the next eclipse will take place4 ,it is perfectly successful1 and the event loses from thenceforth much of its portentous significance4 #fg4 ,centuries roll on1 and the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies have now been gradually reduced to system4 ,the stars in particular are found to move1 just as if they were attached to the roof of a great hollow vault which revolves round the earth once in twenty-four hours4 ,but even amongst them there are five exceptions--namely1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn--which perform a sort of wandering or zigzag motion in the midst of their stationary brethren1 and have in consequence received the name of planets4 ,all1 however1 are supposed to move round the earth1 which forms the centre of the universe4 #fh4 ,in process of time1 this superiority of the earth over the heavenly bodies comes to be questioned4 ,there is a rising tendency to regard our earth as a somewhat insignificant member of a great system1 rather than as something apart by itself4 ,these tendencies are1 however1 strongly opposed by the authorities of a large section of the ,christian ,church1 on the ground that the language employed in the ,jewish ,scriptures is against such a method of regarding the universe4 ,nevertheless the ,copernican system ultimately prevails1 and the planets and the earth are associated together as stars which travel round the sun2 while the diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies is attributed to a motion of the earth round its axis4 ,and we cannot help thinking that philosophers of the present day are too much disposed to undervalue the absolutely enormous stride that was made when the ,copernican system was fully established4 #fi4 ,but the planets are still supposed to move in perfect circles round the sun2 for besides the fact that this hypothesis agrees very well with observation1 there is a simplicity in the circle which leads philosophers to believe that nature would adopt it in preference to any more complicated curve4 ,has it not been found that all apparent deviation from simplicity was in reality due to the fact that our point of view is a movable one1 and does not this lead us to believe that the truth will be found in a circular orbit8 #gj4 ,while such speculations are indulged in1 ,tycho ,brahe is busy with his instruments4 ,he is a thoroughly accurate man of science1 and makes most excellent observations of the various planets4 ,these are ultimately discussed by ,kepler1 who finds that the planets do not move round the sun in circles1 but in ellipses1 having the sun in one focus4 ,he finds too that any one planet describes areas which are proportional to the times of description2 while the squares of the periodic times of the various planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun4 ,these are ,kepler's laws2 they are yet1 however1 only empirical4 ,we know them to be true1 but we cannot tell why they should be as they are and not otherwise4 #ga4 ,it was reserved for the genius of ,newton to show us why the planets should obey these laws1 and to reduce the planetary system under the domain of ordinary mechanics4 ,he succeeded in showing that every mass of matter attracts every other mass with a force which is directly proportional to the product of the masses1 and inversely proportional to the square of the distance1 and that this universal force accounts1 not only for ,kepler's laws of planetary motion but1 for the orbit of the moon1 as well as for that of a projectile discharged near the surface of the earth4 #gb4 ,if we now pause for a moment1 and review the progress of this investigation1 we shall see that it began with a disposition to regard simplicity of motion as the test of truth1 and when the ,copernican system showed that our point of view is a movable one1 it was at first thought that this would explain all departures from absolute simplicity4 ,but ,tycho ,brahe and ,kepler soon showed that the planets do not move in circles1 and we now know that their motions1 as well as that of the moon1 can only be represented by curves of extreme complexity4 ,simplicity of motion has disappeared1 but it has been replaced by simplicity of inter-relation between the various members of the system which are supposed to attract each other according to a simple and definite law4 ,this law may be supposed to contain in itself implicitly all the various and complicated motions of the solar system4 ,if applied to the past it will enable us to ascertain the exact date of the antient historical eclipses2 if applied to the future it will enable us to foretell all but catastrophic astronomical occurrences4 #gc4 ,let us now turn to another branch of the same subject4 ,when ,galileo first applied his telescope to the sun1 he discovered the existence of sun-spots4 ,their solar origin was however for some time disputed1 the schoolmen of that day1 holding resolutely to the dicta of ,aristotle1 being indisposed to believe that there could possibly be any imperfection in the sun4 ,the telescope alone was in fault4 ,there was even a sermon preached on ,galileo1 the text of which was #8,viri ,galili1 quid statis in coelum spectantes8' ,however1 as time went on1 observation showed that spots were unmistakably solar phenomena1 and these very imperfections are made use of by modern science to obtain for us information regarding the chemical and physical structure of our luminary4 ,it also appears that the position and size of these spots depend upon the positions of the planets ,mercury and ,venus1 and this as well as other phenomena indicate the existence of some mysterious bond between the sun and the various members of his system1 possibly other than the law of gravitation1 as we now understand it1 can express4#ca ,in fine1 simplicity of relation threatens to disappear1 just as simplicity of motion disappeared before it4 #gd4 ,nevertheless in this triumphal march the progress has always been from the less to the more perfect1 from the glimmering of early dawn to the clear morning light1 if not to the bright beams of the noon-day sun4 ,temporary obstacles have appeared only to be surmounted1 and like ,augustine's ladder to constitute a platform from which a higher and more comprehensive view might be obtained4 ,difficulties too1 other than physical1--struggles1 weariness1 opposition--have been encountered and overcome1 nor has there been anything like a grave defeat1 or the production of permanent confusion4 ,the concluding words of the ,te ,deum have been abundantly fulfilled in the experience of the astronomer4 ,he has trusted in ,god1 and he has never been confounded4 #ge4 ,here then we have an instance of what is meant by ,continuity4 ,it does not imply an easy progress1 or a smooth level road2 it is consistent with a temporary halt1 perhaps not even inconsistent with a temporary break-down1 or with momentary despair4 ,we are met by difficulties of many kinds--the rock1 the tangled growth1 the swamp1 the thick darkness1 but never by the abyss4 ,nothing has occurred to convince us that our path has been absolutely wrong from the very commencement1 and that we must altogether retrace our steps2 and the same thing holds in other problems besides those of astronomy4 ,once we have accumulated sufficient trustworthy evidence to show us that we are in the right way1 we are never afterwards irretrievably defeated4 ,before proceeding further1 let us here notice a peculiarity which1 if it be clearly exhibited in the progress of astronomy1 is yet by no means confined to that science1 but appears to be characteristic of all physical knowledge4 ,things are so arranged and the intellect of man is so constituted that we are led in the progress of science to recognise certain laws which appear at first sight to hold exactly1 or which1 in other words1 have the appearance of absolute truths4 ,as time passes on1 and our instruments become more delicate1 while our observations with them are multiplied1 signs begin to show themselves of very slight deviations from exactitude in these laws4 ,meanwhile1 these approximate expressions of truth during the long ages 7it may be7 through which they have been believed1 have taken such a hold upon the minds of men that all signs of their imperfect exactitude are at first utterly discredited4 ,ultimately1 however1 it is by means of these slight discrepancies that we are led forward to higher generalisations4 ,this was well pointed out by ,sir ,j4 ,herschel in his ,discourse on the ,study of ,natural ,philosophy4 ,in fine1 does not something analogous to the principle of continuity prevent us from supposing that we can ever arrive at the ultimate expression of truth on any1 however limited1 subject8 ,whenever1 therefore1 the language in which any scientific truth is embodied appears to us to savour too much of the absolute1 is it not a proper and hopeful task to endeavour to break this down8 ,it is on this account that we welcome all attempts to modify the expression of the law of gravitation1 which1 as our knowledge of it stands at present1 seems to present too much of the appearance of an absolute and final truth4#cb #gf4 ,our readers will now perhaps wish to have an example of what we should term a breach of ,continuity1--this is easily given4 ,let us suppose for instance that the sun1 moon1 and stars were to move about in strange and fantastic orbits during one day1 after which they returned to their previous courses4 ,here we should have an excellent example of a breach of ,continuity1 for even if things were so arranged as to prevent physical disaster1 it is evident that the whole intelligent universe would be plunged into irretrievable mental confusion4 ,never again could it be said that astronomy is competent to explain the varied motions of the heavenly bodies4 ,the observers would lay down their instruments1 and the mathematicians their calculations1 and the science would come to an end4 ,other examples of a breach of ,continuity may be as easily imagined4 ,suppose for instance that the gold of the world were to disappear for six hours and then return to it again1--should we not have all the social relations of men as well as their conceptions of matter thrown into irretrievable confusion8 ,this would not1 however1 be due to the mere fact that something had disappeared from the visible universe4 ,individual consciousness we have seen is seemingly in the habit of doing so and again reappearing1 and we do not trouble ourselves much about it4 ,continuity1 in fine1 does not preclude the occurrence of strange1 abrupt1 unforeseen events in the history of the universe1 but only of such events as must finally and for ever put to confusion the intelligent beings who regard them4 #gg4 ,it thus appears that1 assuming the existence of a ,supreme ,governor of the universe1 the principle of ,continuity may be said to be the definite expression in words of our trust that ,he will not put us to permanent intellectual confusion1 and we can easily conceive similar expressions of trust with reference to the other faculties of man4 ,our subject may therefore be approached from other points of view1 and other arguments may be used founded on the principle that of two or more alternatives that one is to be selected which puts our faculties to the least confusion4 ,but it is dangerous to speculate much further upon such subjects2 the path is so easy1 like the #8pleasant1 green lane' spoken of by ,ignorance in the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 that it cannot but soon lead us into certain hopeless realms4#cc #gh4 ,let us now endeavour to apply this principle to a preliminary discussion of the miraculous events which are alleged to have taken place in connection with the life of ,christ4 ,we may certainly begin by assuming that had these events been ordinary ones no doubt would have been entertained regarding their actual occurrence2 it is not1 however1 our province to discuss the historical evidence in favour of ,christianity4 ,now1 until of late years1 the divines who have asserted the actual occurrence of these events have for the most part attached to this assertion a hypothesis of their own1 representing the events in question as due to absolute interferences of the ,divine ,governor with his usual physical procedure4 ,each was thus supposed to represent in its physical aspect something which could not possibly be deduced from that which went before or that which followed after4 ,it was not exactly asserted that they were arbitrary events1 or that they were not the results of purpose1 but only that the purpose of which they were the accomplishment could not be carried out without some physical break4 ,in fine1 with the view of removing spiritual confusion1 intellectual confusion was introduced1 as being the lesser evil of the two4 ,thus1 if he submits to be guided by such interpreters1 each intelligent being will for ever continue to be baffled in any attempt to explain these phenomena1 because they are said to have no physical relation to anything that went before or that followed after4 ,in fine1 they are made to form a universe within a universe1 a portion cut off by an insurmountable barrier from the domain of scientific inquiry4 #gi4 ,it is not enough to say that we cannot see any foundation for this hypothesis introduced by certain theologians regarding these events4 ,it is certainly necessary to add1 as we have already done 7,art4 #cf71 that such a method of regarding them is essentially opposed to the genius of ,christianity4 ,whatever may be thought of the person of ,christ1 it cannot for a moment be said that ,he was above law4 ,he speaks of himself1 and is spoken of by the apostles1 as bound in all respects by the laws of the universe4 ,nor will it suffice to say that ,he obeyed the moral and spiritual1 but broke occasionally the physical1 laws of the universe1 or had them broken for ,him4 ,in fine1 we conceive that the ,new ,testament plainly asserts that what ,christ accomplished was not in defiance of law1 but in fulfilment of it2 and that ,his ability to do so much was simply due to the fact that ,his position with reference to the universe was different from that of any other man4 #hj4 ,of late years1 however1 a vastly better method of explanation has been introduced4 ,charles ,babbage1 the designer of the well-known calculating engine1 showed 7in a very remarkable book which he called a ninth ,bridgewater treatise7 that it would be possible to design and construct a machine which1 after having worked for a long time according to a particular method of procedure1 should suddenly manifest a single breach in its method1 and then resume and for ever afterwards keep to its original law4 ,he argued from this that an apparent breach in the physical procedure of the universe is quite consistent with the fundamental idea of law4 ,jevons also1 commenting upon these speculations of ,babbage1 remarks thus in his ,principles of ,science 7vol4 ii4 p4 #dch71 #8,if such occurrences can be designed and foreseen by a human artist1 it is surely within the capacity of the ,divine artist to provide for similar changes of law in the mechanism of the atom1 or the construction of the heavens4' #ha4 ,while we think that this is a very distinct and important advance upon the old idea1 we venture to pronounce it altogether incomplete without some further explanation and modification4 ,the power of the ,divine ,being is surely unlimited1 but1 nevertheless1 we have perfect trust that ,god1 whom we believe to have given us intelligence1 will work in such a way as not to put us to permanent intellectual confusion4 ,yet even on this hypothesis1 and with this trust1 a single apparent exception to the usual procedure may be supposed to occur1 if it be allowed that this may be made use of in order to deduce from it the great general law of working which includes both the usual course and the apparent exception4 ,but it appears obvious to us that if the exception be of such a nature that it must for ever confound all the intelligences of the universe who regard it1 then we gain nothing by the supposition that it was allowed for in the secret counsels of ,god4 #hb4 ,undoubtedly we cannot permit certain events to be set aside by merely human authority as questions into which it is deemed irreligious1 unprofitable1 or useless for our reason to pry2 nay1 we are tempted to advance even further than this1 and to assert that it constitutes our duty as well as our privilege to do our best to grasp the meaning of all events which come before us4 ,does not the material upon which the intellect of man is intended to work include all occurrences1 of whatever nature1 upon earth--that earth which man is commanded to subdue--a command equivalent to victory8 #hc4 ,we have now indicated with sufficient clearness the fault we have to find with the theological position as it stood until recently1--let us next briefly allude to the position of the extreme school of science4 ,ignoring all but the visible universe1 and applying the principle of ,continuity to its phenomena1 the members of this school were indubitably led to most important generalisations regarding the method of working of that great system4 ,they even drove back with much success1 and very properly1 certain detachments of theologians who had occupied portions of the field in an unwarrantable manner4 ,so far the ,genius whom they had summoned up appeared to be the very principle of order4 ,but things wore a different complexion as time went on4 ,it was fancied that historical ,christianity must disappear1 and that the belief in the reality of a future state must follow after it4 ,they were surrendered4 ,but it was extremely startling when the ,genius invoked1 not content with what he had already devoured1 broadly hinted that the whole visible universe would furnish an acceptable sacrifice1--then even the most extreme partisans of the school began at length to be alarmed4 ,it was too much to be borne1 that a ,genius summoned up in the very name of order should turn out to be a demon so insatiate as this6 ,must the whole visible universe1 indeed1 arrive at such a state as to be totally unfit for the habitation of living beings8 ,the individual they were content to sacrifice1 perhaps even the race1 but they would spare the universe4 ,undoubtedly1 if it be possible to pity men who could so easily dispense with ,christianity and immortality1 they had at length got themselves into a deplorable dilemma4 ,for the principle they had invoked was absolutely without pity1 and in the most heartless manner continued to point towards the sacrifice of the visible universe4 ,this1 they were told1 was only a huge fire1 and must ultimately burn itself out4 ,nothing would be left but the ashes1--the dead and worthless body of the present system4 #hd4 ,no wonder1 then1 that these men should be startled at their conclusion1 and try somehow to evade it4 ,such an attempt was actually made1 and a gleam of lurid light seemed for a moment to illuminate the thick darkness conjured up by the hypothesis4 ,it was conjectured that the visible universe might in reality be infinite1 even if the number of stars be not so1 and that such a universe might last from eternity to eternity1 and if it might not be supposed that such a system could continuously and without interruption afford a habitation for animated beings1 yet it might do so discontinuously and by fits and starts1 its available energy being recruited by repeated collisions1 extending in a series from eternity to eternity4 ,the life of whole systems1 perhaps even of whole galaxies1 would thus disappear1 to be replaced after myriads of ages by the feeble beginnings of an entirely new order of things4 ,such a hypothesis no doubt contemplates a ceaseless change1 and satisfies so far the requirements of energy4 ,but while the structures built are perishable1 the stones out of which they are built--the atoms--are supposed to be eternal4 ,it is this eternity of the atom which vitiates the hypothesis1 for we shall show in the sequel that this is a doctrine which can only be held by ignoring the fundamental principles of scientific inquiry4 ,indeed we can hardly escape from the conclusion that the visible universe must in matter1 as well as in transformable energy1 come to an end4 ,but the principle of ,continuity upon which all such arguments are based still demanding a continuance of the universe1 we are forced to believe that there is something beyond that which is visible1 or that1 to use the words of an old writer 7which we have inscribed on our title-page71--#8the things which are seen are temporal1 but the things which are not seen are eternal4' #he4 ,looking back instead of forward--to the origin of this visible universe1 rather than to its end1 we are brought even more definitely to a similar conclusion4 ,it is perfectly certain1 as we shall afterwards see1 that the visible universe must have had a beginning in time2 but if it be all that exists1 then the first abrupt manifestation of it is as truly a break of continuity as its final overthrow4 ,it may sound strange to some of our readers to be told that it is the duty of the man of science to push back the ,great ,first ,cause in time as far as possible2 nevertheless1 this accurately represents the part in the universe which he is called upon to play4 ,we dig into the crust of the earth and find therein stratified deposits containing fossil forms1 and we may either suppose that ,god created these as they are1 or that they came into their place through the operation of natural forces1 and represent the relics of an antient world of life2 the latter of these is undoubtedly the scientific hypothesis4 ,the only other hypothesis is that of certain writers belonging to the ,church of ,rome1 who asserted that the devil put the fossils there4 ,or1 again1 we may suppose that ,god created the sun1 placed the earth and the other planets in their present orbits1 and gave them the requisite velocities1 all at once1 or that the solar system gradually condensed into its present state from a chaotic mass of nebulous material2 certainly1 again1 the latter is the scientific hypothesis4 ,in like manner1 if we can suppose any phenomenon1 any conditioned order of things1 antecedent to the appearance of the visible universe1 we have gained a step4 ,in fact1 we conceive it to be the duty of the man of science to treat the original production of the visible universe just in the same way as he would any other phenomenon4 ,it is no doubt a very large thing1 but we must not be terrified at mere bigness1--we must mete out the same scientific measure to all events1 whether they be great or small4 ,we therefore welcome a hypothesis like that of ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1#cd which regards the primordial atoms of the visible universe as vortices somehow produced in a pre-existing perfect fluid1 provided that such a hypothesis is otherwise tenable4 #hf4 ,let not any of our readers regard this process as an attempt to drive the ,creator out of the field altogether1 for this is most assuredly not the case4 ,is it less reverent to regard the universe as an illimitable avenue which leads up to ,god1 than to look upon it as a limited area bounded by an impenetrable wall1 which1 if we could only pierce it1 would admit us at once into the presence of the ,eternal8 ,in fine1 we do not hesitate to assert that the visible universe cannot comprehend the whole works of ,god1 because it had its beginning in time1 and will also come to an end4 ,perhaps1 indeed1 it forms only an infinitesimal portion of that stupendous whole which is alone entitled to be called ,,the ,,universe4 #hg4 ,we thus see that the extreme scientific school1 as well as the old theological school1 have erred in their conclusions1 because they have neither of them loyally followed the principle of ,continuity4 ,the theologians1 regarding 7like the antient philosopher7 matter and its laws with contempt1 have without scruple assumed that frequent invasions of these laws could be consistent with a tenable hypothesis4 ,on the other hand1 the extreme scientific school1 when they were brought by the principle of ,continuity into such a position that their next logical step should have been the realisation of the unseen1 failed to take it1 and have suffered grievously in consequence4 #hh4 ,it remains now1 before concluding this chapter1 to sketch briefly the application of the principle of ,continuity to the problem we have in hand4 ,there are three conceivable suppositions with reference to individual existence after death4 ,it may be regarded as the result of a transference from one grade of being to another in the present visible universe2 or secondly1 of a transference from the visible universe to some other order of things intimately connected with it2 or lastly1 we may conceive it to represent the result of a transference from the present visible universe to an order of things entirely unconnected with it4 #hi4 ,this last hypothesis may however be very speedily disposed of if we are to maintain the principle of ,continuity4 ,we have seen that one of the requisites for conscious individual existence is an organ connecting the individual with the past4 ,now1 were we to suppose a transference of living beings from the present visible universe to an order of things otherwise entirely unconnected with it1 this would be a manifest breach of the law of ,continuity4 ,imagine the utter confusion into which this present universe would be plunged1 if a set of inhabitants were transferred into it having organs connecting them with a past existence in an entirely different universe4 ,a confusion precisely similar would be occasioned by carrying out a transfer according to the hypothesis in question2 so that we are able at once to reduce our suppositions to two3 the first involving a transference from one grade to another of the visible universe1 and the second a transference from the visible universe to some other order of things intimately connected with it4 #ij4 ,in what precedes1 we have argued by anticipation that the present visible universe will become effete2 but in the following chapters it will be necessary to maintain this assertion by a minute examination of those laws which represent the course of things observed in the present universe4 ,in other words1 we must settle the fitness or unfitness of the present visible universe before we proceed to discuss our second hypothesis4 #ia4 ,but whether the transfer be supposed to take place in the visible universe1 or from it to another intimately connected with it1 the subject in either case is certainly one on which we may legitimately employ our reasoning faculties4 ,so far indeed is the subject from being one which it will be utterly and for ever useless to discuss1 that it has become our duty as well as our privilege to make the attempt1 in the perfect trust that time will inevitably bring truth with it4 ,we think that this fact has been too much overlooked by those whom we may term the moderate school of scientific thinkers4 ,not denying the possibility of a future state1 they have yet shrunk from all attempts to investigate its conditions4 ,we are in hopes that a perusal of this volume will lead these writers to see that the subject is one which may be profitably discussed4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,present ,,physical ,,universe4 444 1 1 4-- 4 4 #8,the cloud-capp'd towers1 the gorgeous palaces1 ,the solemn temples1 the great globe itself1 ,yea1 all which it inherit1 shall dissolve2 ,and1 like this insubstantial pageant1 faded1 ,leave not a rack behind4'--,,shakespeare1 ,tempest4 #8,all worldly shapes shall melt in gloom1 ,the sun himself must die ,before this mortal shall assume ,his immortality4'--,,campbell4 #ib4 ,having in the last chapter briefly indicated the nature of the proposition which we intend to bring forward1 we must next study1 as a preliminary to further discussion1 what science tells us about the present physical universe3 what are the general laws to which it is now subject2 when and what must have been its beginning2 when and what will be its inevitable end4 ,we have been driven into becoming accustomed to the phrase1 #8the material universe1' which is generally used in a sense absolutely identical with that which we have chosen as the title of this chapter4 ,we shall soon see that the term is a very inapt one1 inasmuch as matter is 7though it may sound paradoxical to say so7 the less important half of the material of the physical universe4 ,in the present chapter we shall still further restrict ourselves by omitting1 as far as possible1 any reference to life 7even in its lowest aspect71 and we likewise defer to a future chapter our account of the more reasonable speculations which have been advanced with regard to the intimate structure of matter and ether4 #ic4 ,it is only within the last thirty or forty years that there has gradually dawned upon the minds of scientific men the conviction that there is something besides matter or stuff in the physical universe1 something which has at least as much claim as matter to recognition as an objective reality1 though1 of course1 far less directly obvious to our senses as such1 and therefore much later in being detected4 ,so long as men spoke of light1 heat1 electricity1 etc41 as imponderables1 they merely avoided or put aside the difficulty4 ,when they attempted to rank them as matter1--heat1 for instance1 as caloric1--they at once fell into errors1 from which a closer scrutiny of experimental results would assuredly have saved them4 ,the idea of substance or stuff as necessary to objective existence very naturally arises from ordinary observations on matter2 and as there could be little doubt of the physical reality of heat1 light1 etc41 these were in early times at once set down as matter4 ,fire1 in fact 7including1 it is to be presumed1 everything which involved either heat or flame1 real or apparent71 was in early times one of the four so-called elements4 ,in those days the sun was supposed to be only a great fire2 a lightning-flash1 an aurora1 or a comet1 was merely a flame2 in other words1 the essence of all these was the element fire1 or1 as it was later called1 caloric4 ,the sun1 except when he appeared as the spreader of pestilence1 was the beneficent fire1 as were also some of the planets2 the lightning1 the comet1 even the moon and ,saturn1 were baleful fires4 ,this endeavour to assign a substantive existence to every phenomenon is1 of course1 perfectly natural2 but on that very account excessively likely to be wrong4 ,humanum est errare comes with quite as much heart-felt conviction of its truth from the lips of the honest ,pagan as from those of the ,christian believer2 though perhaps its meaning may be considerably less extended in the former than in the latter case4 #id4 ,but1 before discussing what is that something else besides stuff which has an objective though not a substantive#ce existence1 let us in the first place inquire into the grounds of our belief1 that matter itself has a real existence external to us2 that1 in fact1 the so-called evidence of our senses is not a mere delusion4 ,there is a strong temptation to be metaphysical here1 but we will endeavour to resist it4 ,now physical science furnishes us with the following among many other arguments in proof of the reality of the external universe3-- ,experience of the most varied kind consistently shows us that we cannot produce or destroy even the smallest quantity of matter4 ,exercise our greatest powers of imagination1 do with it what we please1 we cannot make our senses indicate to us an increase or diminution in a given quantity of what we call matter4 ,we find it so far amenable to our control that we can alter its arrangement1 form1 density1 state of aggregation1 temperature1 etc42 nay1 by so approximating it to other matter as to produce a chemical combination1 we may entirely transform its appearance and properties1--all but one3 its mass or quantity is completely beyond our control4 ,measure it by what process we please1 by the #8muscular sense1' by weight1 anyhow1 there it is1 altogether independent of us1 laughing our efforts to scorn6 ,can this be a mere mental idea which the mind that conceived it 7or1 at all events1 in some way received the conception of it7 is unable to destroy8 ,but there is one other argument on this point which must be mentioned4 ,not only do our own senses invariably indicate to us the impossibility of altering the quantity of matter1 but the senses of all men alike point to the same quantity1 quality1 and collocation of matter in the earth and external to the earth4 ,whence this extraordinary agreement between the evidences of the senses in different men1 when the minds are so different8 ,our conviction then of the objective reality of matter 7at least from the point of view of the ,natural ,philosopher7 is based upon the experimental truth that we can neither increase nor diminish its quantity1 in fact on what we may conveniently for our present purpose call the ,conservation of ,matter4 #ie4 ,here let us pause for a moment to compare together this view of matter and the definition of the laws of the universe1 which we have already given4 ,the laws of the universe we defined 7,art4 #ed7 to be the laws according to which the beings in the universe are trammelled by the ,governor thereof as regards time1 space1 and sensation4 ,now1 it may be asked1 is this definition consistent with a belief in the objective reality of matter8 ,our reply is1 that to our minds the two are in perfect accordance4 ,we do not here intend to enter into any metaphysical discussion4 ,it is enough for us to say that our practical working certainty of the reality of matter depends upon the facts1 firstly1 that it offers resistance to our imagination and our will1 and1 secondly1 that in particular it offers absolute resistance to all attempts to change its quantity4 ,we shall soon see that experiment teaches us that both properties belong to something else4 #if4 ,returning from this digression let us therefore assume that the objective reality of the external universe has been proved1 and that this reality is strongly impressed upon us in virtue of that principle which we have called the conservation of matter4 ,but as soon as we grant this1 we are obliged by our reason1 however little our senses may incline us to it1 or rather however much they may dispose us against it1 to allow objective reality to whatever else may be found to be in the same sense conserved4 7,we have here italicised these four words for a reason which will afterwards appear47 ,this is a question which deserves and must secure careful consideration4 #ig4 ,in abstract dynamics several things are said and mathematically proved by deductions from experiment to be conserved1 but one only of these in the strict sense in which we have spoken of the conservation of matter4 ,we will examine them briefly1 and our non-mathematical readers must pardon us if we make use of certain technical expressions belonging to the domain of mathematical physics4 ,it is absolutely essential that the reader should have clear notions on these points1 for there is widespread confusion and error as to the meaning even of so simple and elementary a term as #8force4' ,he will often find it used indifferently in either of two senses which have no connection whatever with one another2 and unless he completely gets over this abuse of language he need not hope to be able to follow the present portion of our preliminary argument4 ,force proper is a pull1 push1 weight1 pressure1 etc41 and can be measured1 in the vernacular of engineers1 as equivalent to so many pounds weight2 but the unjustifiable use of the word applies it to work done by a force1 so many pounds raised so many feet1 i4e4 force overcome through a space4 ,two such things are of different kinds1 and cannot possibly be compared together4 ,they differ in fact in precisely the same way as length or breadth differs from superficial area1 i4e4 as a linear foot differs from a square foot6 ,and the modern abuse of the word is more outrageous1 alike to science and to common sense1 than would be the attempt to assign the height of a mountain in acres6 ,for the absurdity does not end even here4 ,we have1 as yet1 absolutely no proof whatever that force proper has objective existence4 ,in all probability there is no such thing as force 7which is suggested to us by the impressions of our muscular sense71 any more than there is such a thing as ,sound1 or ,light1 which are mere names for physical impressions produced upon special nerves by the energy of undulatory motions of certain media4 ,the term1 however1 is a very convenient one for the rate of transference or transformation of energy per unit of length in a given direction4 7#a47 ,conservation of ,momentum4--,what is understood by this is a mere direct consequence of ,newton's first interpretation of his ,third ,law of ,motion1 viz41 that ,action and ,reaction are equal and opposite4 ,in this first interpretation ,newton tells us to consider actions and reactions as forces proper1 or 7their equivalents7 quantities of motion4 ,this is the term employed by ,newton2 but we now designate it momentum1 and measure it by the product of the mass and the velocity of a body4 ,stated in its simplest form1 this law asserts that the momentum of a system of bodies1 measured in any direction whatever1 is not altered by their mutual action1 whether that action be of the nature of traction1 attraction1 repulsion1 or impact4 ,and we see at once from this third law of motion that it must be so1 because the change of momentum1 in any direction1 of any one part of the system1 per unit of time1 is the measure of the force acting on that part in that direction4 ,whatever momentum in this particular direction is gained by one member of the system must have been lost by other members1 but not from their whole momentum1 merely from the part of it in this direction4 ,it thus appears that the 7algebraic7 sum of the momenta generated by the mutual actions of the system is zero4 ,these momenta are in fact directed magnitudes 7like the forces of which they are the measure71 and are therefore capable of cancelling one another when their numerical amounts are equal and their directions are opposite4 ,in this sense the conservation is of the same nature as that of the imagined electric or magnetic fluids1 where no portion whatever of one kind can be produced without the simultaneous appearance of an equal quantity of the other1 a quantity just capable of neutralising it4 ,this is obviously not in any sense analogous to the ,conservation of ,matter of which we have just spoken4 ,as an illustration take a loaded cannon4 ,before firing1 neither cannon nor ball had momentum4 ,after firing1 the ball has a certain momentum1 the cannon 7in virtue of its recoil7 an equal and opposite momentum4 ,if we could exactly reverse the motions of the cannon and ball just as they separate1 the impact between them would just reduce each to rest1 and no momentum would be left4 ,considered separately after the discharge1 each has momentum1 but in the complete system of cannon and ball there is no momentum--there being equal quantities of positive and negative1 in the same line4 ,in fact momentum cannot be produced or destroyed in any system as a whole4 ,this is the ,conservation referred to4 ,it is as if a man always when he received a sum of money fell to the same amount in debt--the state of his affairs1 as shown by his books1 would of course not be altered4 7#b47 ,conservation of ,moment of ,momentum4--,here we deal with quantities of the order of the moments of forces about an axis1 i4e4 couples in ,poinsot's sense4 ,these also are directed magnitudes depending for their conservation upon the first interpretation of ,newton's third law1 and therefore the same remarks apply to them as to the preceding4 7#c47 ,conservation of ,vis ,viva4--,vis viva is the old name for energy of motion or the consequent power of doing work4 ,we now deal with quantities which cannot possess direction1 because they are essentially products of pairs of quantities similarly directed1 and are therefore all to be treated as of the same algebraic sign1 or rather 7to adopt the language of ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,hamilton7 as signless quantities4 ,with such there can of course be no cancelling4 ,to make our meaning clear1 let us consider upon what vis viva depends4 ,it depends upon and is proportional to the product of the mass into the square of the velocity4 ,compare1 or rather contrast1 this with the definition of momentum given above1 and it will be seen that vis viva is the product of the momentum and the velocity4 ,now mass is of course a signless quantity2 evidently we cannot have negative mass4 ,then with regard to the square of the velocity1 this will be positive whether the velocity be positive or negative1 whether it be in one direction or the opposite4 ,vis viva1 therefore1 or energy of motion1 is something which is not affected with the sign of direction1 or1 as we have already said1 it is a signless quantity4 ,it is found to be convenient to measure it as half the product of the moving mass into the square of its velocity4 ,so measured1 it is now called 7see #ii7 kinetic energy4 ,now to our cannon again4 ,before firing there is no vis viva of either cannon or ball4 ,after firing each has vis viva1 but that of the ball is greater than that of the cannon in the proportion in which the cannon's mass exceeds that of the ball4 ,and the system as a whole has vis viva though it has no momentum4 ,if1 as before1 we could reverse the motions of cannon and ball1 then1 even when they impinged1 the vis viva would not be lost4 ,as will presently be seen1 it would be employed in heating both the impinging bodies4 #ih4 ,we have said that the energy which a body contains--its vis viva--its power of doing work1 is independent of the direction in which it is moving2 and1 further1 that while the mass is the same1 it is proportional to the square of the velocity4 ,for instance1 we may measure the energy of a cannon-ball or of an arrow by the distance it will carry itself up against the force of gravity1 represented by its own weight1 when shot vertically upwards1 and we find that with a double velocity it will go four times as high4 ,or we may point the cannon horizontally1 and measure the energy of the same ball by the number of planks of oak wood which it can penetrate1 and we shall find that a ball with double the velocity will penetrate nearly four times as many as one with the single velocity4 ,all such experiments concur together in convincing us that the energy of the ball is independent of the direction in which the cannon is pointed1 and is proportional to the square of the velocity1 so that a double velocity will give a fourfold energy4 #ii4 ,we have just now spoken about a cannon-ball fired into the air against the force of gravity4 ,such a ball1 as it mounts1 will each moment lose part of its velocity1 until it finally comes to a standstill1 after which it will begin to descend4 ,when it is just turning it is perfectly harmless1 and if we were standing on the top of a cliff to which it had just reached1 we might without danger catch it in our arms and lodge it on the cliff4 ,its energy has apparently disappeared4 ,let us1 however1 see whether this is really true or not4 ,it was fired up at us1 let us say1 by a foe at the bottom of the cliff1 and the thought occurs to us to drop it down upon him again1 which we do with great success1 for he is smashed to pieces by the ball4 ,in truth1 dynamics informs us that such a ball will again strike the ground with a velocity1 and therefore with an energy precisely equal to that with which it was originally projected upwards4 ,now1 when at the top of the cliff1 if it had not the energy due to actual motion1 it had nevertheless some sort of energy due to its elevated position1 for it had obviously the power of doing work4 ,a pond of still water1 unless it can fall1 i4e4 unless it has what is technically called a #8head1' is of no use in driving a water-wheel4 ,the head1 or the power of descending1 gives it a store of dormant energy1 which becomes active as the water gradually descends4 ,and the same amount of work may be obtained 7by means of a turbine for instance7 from a small quantity of water1 provided it has a great #8head1' as can be obtained 7by means of an ordinary overshot or breast wheel7 from water with far less head1 provided it be supplied in proportionally greater quantity4 ,we thus recognise two forms of energy which change into one another1 the one due to actual motion and the other to position2 the former of these is generally called kinetic1 and the latter potential energy4 ,all this appears to have been clearly perceived by ,newton1 who gave it as a second interpretation of his ,third ,law of ,motion4 ,his statement is equivalent1 in modern language1 to the following3#cf--,work done on any system of bodies has its equivalent in the form of work done against friction1 molecular forces1 or gravity1 if there be no acceleration2 but if there be acceleration1 part of the work is expended in overcoming resistance to acceleration1 and the additional kinetic energy developed is equivalent to the work so spent4 #ajj4 ,thus ,newton expressly tells us 7though not in these words7 that we are to include in the same category work done by or against a force--whether that force be due to gravity1 friction1 or molecular action 7such as elasticity1 for instance71 or even to acceleration4 7a47 ,when work is done against gravity1 as in lifting a mass from the ground1 we have just seen that it is 7as it were7 stored up in the raised mass2 we can recover it at any time by letting the mass descend4 ,thus it is that we furnish a clock with motive power sufficient to keep it going for a week in spite of friction and other resistance1 by simply winding up its weights4 7b47 ,when work is done against molecular forces1 we have a similar storing up1 as1 for instance1 in drawing a bow or in winding up a watch4 7c47 ,when work is done against the inertia of a body1 i4e4 to accelerate its velocity1 ,newton's definitions show that the additional kinetic energy so produced is equal to the work so spent4 7d47 ,in abstract dynamics we simply consider as lost the work spent against friction4 ,in ,newton's time it was not known what became of it4 #aja4 ,leaving out1 then1 for the present1 the fourth alternative1 we see that whatever work is spent1 we must1 according to ,newton1 even in abstract dynamics recognise that it is not lost1 but only transformed into an equivalent quantity stored up for future use1 either in a quiescent form 7as1 for instance1 the potential energy of a raised weight or bent spring71 or in an active form 7as the kinetic energy of a moving mass74 ,here1 then1 at last1 we recognise the same sort of conservation as that which we found in matter4 ,but the statement so far is defective1 as we have seen1 in one particular4 ,what becomes of work spent in overcoming friction8 or what becomes of the energy of the blacksmith's hammer after it has struck the anvil8 ,to this experiment alone can give the answer4 ,let us see what it has told us4 ,man has been called a reasoning animal1 a laughing animal1 etc41 according to the momentary whim or humour of the classifier2 but he is perhaps still more definitely separated from all other animals when specified as the #8cooking animal4' ,now1 it has always appeared to us as something little short of marvellous that1 even for the high purpose of cooking his food1 or of inflicting exquisite torture on a vanquished foe1 savage man should ever have hit upon the process of procuring fire by friction4 ,considering his condition1 and comparing his opportunities and his success with those of even our greatest modern physicists1 we cannot but look upon this as one of the very greatest and most notable discoveries ever made in physics4 ,all the more notable1 too1 from the fact that a man like ,newton1 though of course aware of it1 absolutely missed its significance even at the very moment when it alone was wanted to fill a serious lacuna in one of his grandest and most important practical generalisations4 ,the missing link was all but supplied by ,rumford and ,davy at the very end of last century4 ,rumford's boiling of water by the heat generated in the boring of a cannon1 and ,davy's melting of ice by friction in vacuo1 were each conclusively demonstrative alike of the non-materiality of heat and of the ultimate fate of work spent in friction1 which is thus seen to be converted into heat2 or at least these experiments could easily have been made demonstrative by very slight additions to1 or modifications of1 their author's methods or reasoning4 ,but the exact and formal enuntiation of the equivalence of heat and work required to fill the lacuna in ,newton's statement was first given by ,davy in #ahab4 #ajb4 ,let us here pause for a moment and contemplate the position to which the solution of our problem had even then attained4 ,visible kinetic energy1 such as that of a cannon-ball shot upwards1 is transformed as it rises into visible potential energy4 ,as the ball descends its energy is retransformed from the potential into the kinetic variety until1 when it is about to strike the earth1 it has1 or rather would have if there were no atmosphere1 as much kinetic energy as it had when it was first shot upwards4 ,when the ball has once struck the earth its kinetic energy of visible motion is changed by impact into that kinetic energy of invisible motion of its particles which is called heat2 and1 generally speaking1 in all cases of friction1 percussion1 and atmospheric resistance we have a change of visible energy into heat1 as for instance when a railway train is stopped by the action of the brake1 when a blacksmith strikes the anvil with his hammer1 when a cannon-ball moves through and heats the air1 or when a meteorite or falling-star is rendered incandescent by the resistance it meets with even in the higher and rarer strata of the atmosphere4 ,we had thus come to the stage of regarding heat as a species of molecular energy into which visible energy is often transformed1 and very soon afterwards it came to be perceived that there were other forms of molecular energy besides heat--some of these being potential and some kinetic4 ,thus two substances may possess mutual chemical affinity when separated from each other1 just as a raised stone tends to fall again to the earth1 and we obtain a form of potential energy in the one case as truly as in the other4 ,when1 for instance1 we have carbon or coal in our cellars or our mines1 and oxygen in the air1 we are in possession of a store of chemical potential energy upon which we can draw at any moment and change it during the process of combustion from the potential to the kinetic form4 ,again1 in a current of electricity we have no doubt a species of kinetic energy1 although it still puzzles men of science to say what form of invisible motion such a current implies4 ,from all this1 without being further perplexed with scientific details1 our readers will perceive that there are many different forms1 some of them potential1 and others of them kinetic1 in which energy may appear4 ,while we were thus grasping the fact that energy can appear under various forms1 we were also beginning to perceive that it had great powers of transmutation--going about from one form to another1 and ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,grove did good work at this stage of the inquiry in bringing together the various cases of such transmutations in his work on the ,correlation of the ,physical ,forces4 ,in spite of this1 it was left for ,joule and ,colding1 who worked almost simultaneously and by well-devised experimental methods from about the year #ahdj1 independently to discover1 and by degrees to enuntiate1 by means of arguments founded on the only admissible basis--experiment1 the grand law of the ,conservation of ,energy4 ,in its most general form1 the statement of the conservation of energy is merely a completed version of the passage we have already quoted from ,newton2 and the experimental discoveries of ,rumford and ,davy1 extended and completed by ,joule and ,colding1 allow us now to put ,newton's second or alternative interpretation of his ,third ,law of ,motion into the modern statement of the ,conservation of ,energy4 ,in any system of bodies whatever1 to which no energy is communicated by external bodies1 and which parts with no energy to external bodies1 the sum of the various potential and kinetic energies remains for ever unaltered4 ,in other words1 while the one form of energy becomes changed into the other1--potential into kinetic and kinetic into potential1 or one species of either into another2--yet each change represents at once a creation of one kind of energy and a simultaneous and equal annihilation of another1 the total energy present1 as we have already said1 remaining for ever unaltered4 #ajc4 ,taking as our #8system of bodies' the whole physical universe1 we now see that1 according to the test we have already laid down1 energy has as much claim to be regarded as an objective reality as matter itself4 ,but the forms of statement are most markedly different for the two4 ,we before spoke of the quantity of matter without qualification1 but we now speak of the sum of the two kinds of energy4 ,let us think for a moment of this1 and we see that whereas 7to our present knowledge1 at least7 matter is always the same1 though it may be masked in various combinations1 energy is constantly changing the form in which it presents itself4 ,the one is like the eternal1 unchangeable ,fate or ,necessitas of the antients2 the other is ,proteus himself in the variety and rapidity of its transformations4 1 1 1 ' ' ' ' 1 ' ' ' 4#cg #ajd4 ,and again1 energy is of use to us solely because it is constantly being transformed4 ,when the sluice is shut1 or the fire put out1 the machinery stops2 when a man cannot digest his food1 he breaks down altogether4 ,coal in itself1 except on account of an occasional fossil it may contain1 or its still somewhat uncertain mode of formation1 or 7to take a lower point of view7 as a material for ornament1 is a very useless thing indeed3 its grand value consists in its chemical affinity1 in virtue of which it possesses great potential energy as regards the oxygen of the air1 which can very easily be transformed into its equivalent in heat4 #8,keep your powder dry' is merely one way of saying #8preserve the ready transformability of your energy4' ,in fact1 if we think for a moment over what has just been said1 to the effect that the only real things in the physical universe are matter and energy1 and that of these matter is simply passive1 it is obvious that all the physical changes which take place1 including those which are inseparably associated with the thoughts as well as the actions of living beings1 are merely transformations of energy4 ,thus it is an inquiry of the very utmost importance as regards the present universe3 ,are all forms of energy equally susceptible of transformation8 ,to see the importance of this question1 the reader has only to reflect that if there be any one form of energy less readily or less completely transformable than the others1 and if transformations constantly go on1 more and more of the whole energy of the universe will inevitably sink into this lower grade as time advances4 ,hence the whole possibility of transformation must steadily grow less and less2 in scientific language1 though the quantity of energy remains for ever unchanged1 its availability steadily decreases4 #aje4 ,now1 every one knows a case in which there may be an unlimited amount of energy present1 no part of which is available for transformation4 ,it is the simple one of heat in a number of bodies1 when all are at the same temperature4 ,to obtain work from heat we must have hotter and colder bodies1 to correspond1 as it were1 with the boiler and condenser of a heat-engine2 and just as we can get no work from still water if it be all at the same level1 i4e4 if no part of it can fall1 so in like manner we can get no work from heat unless part of it can fall from a higher to a lower temperature4 ,this is a remark of the very utmost consequence to our argument1 and must therefore be fully elucidated4 ,unfortunately it is not as yet possible to do this without introducing a good many scientific technicalities which are unsuited to the great majority of readers4 ,in the next eight sections we endeavour to explain it as simply as we can4 ,the reader who cannot easily follow us may pass1 without break of continuity in the argument1 at once to ,art4 #aad4 99 #ajf4 ,the first step in the investigation of the transformation of heat into work was taken by ,sadi ,carnot in #ahbd3 a step which has recently been found of inestimable value in every branch of modern physical science4 ,he devised a method of startling originality for the purpose of attacking this special question of the production of work from heat4 ,his inferences from its application were not all correct2 this was due however to no fault of the method1 but to the fact that he unfortunately assumed 7though with caution1 and under a protest almost amounting to an assertion of the opposite7 the materiality of heat4 ,his method embraces two perfectly new ideas3-- 7#a47 ,that1 at least with our present knowledge1 no inference is possible as to the relation between heat and work1 until the heated or working substance is brought back1 after a complete ,cycle of operations1 to its initial physical state4 ,obvious as this statement1 once made1 is1 it was altogether ignored 7twenty years after ,carnot7 by ,sguin and ,mayer1 whom some authors still persist in setting forth as the founders of the dynamical theory of heat4 ,their speculations were entirely vitiated by their violation of this principle4 7#b47 ,that an engine whose cycle of operations is reversible is a perfect engine1 that is to say1 gives the greatest possible amount of work from a given quantity of heat with any assigned temperatures of boiler and condenser4 ,the term reversible is not here used in the popular sense in which a mere reversal of the direction of motion of each part is contemplated1 i4e4 what would be more properly termed #8backing1' it is used in the higher sense of taking an engine which converts a certain quantity of the heat spent on it into work1 while it lets the rest down from the boiler to the condenser1 and then spending upon it the same amount of work with the result of taking back the heat from the condenser1 adding thereto the heat-equivalent of the work so spent1 and thus restoring the whole of its original loss in heat to the boiler2 simply in fact reversing all the results of the direct action4#ch 99 #ajg4 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 in #ahdh1 was the first to recall attention to the work of ,carnot1 after ,colding and ,joule had published their experimental discoveries2 and he pointed out that the action of the reversible engine gave what had been up to that time vainly sought1 an absolute definition of temperature--a definition1 that is1 altogether independent of the properties of any particular species of matter4 ,in fact it is obvious that as reversibility in the sense we have just explained is the stamp of perfection in a heat-engine1 all reversible engines1 whatever be the working substance1 will1 under the same circumstances1 that is to say1 with the same temperatures of boiler and condenser1 convert the same fraction of the heat spent on them into work4 ,this1 of course1 still leaves wide scope for choice of a definition of temperature3 but that finally determined on by ,thomson was chosen 7in consequence of a hint from some experimental results of ,joule7 so as to make the absolute measurement agree nearly with that of the long-familiar air-thermometer4 ,it therefore stands as follows3-- ,the heat taken in by a perfect engine is to the heat given out by it in the same proportion as the absolute temperature of the boiler to that of the condenser4 ,of course it is hardly necessary to state that it is only the excess of the heat taken in over that given out by any engine that can have been converted into available work4 ,this follows at once from the conservation of energy4 ,experiments carried on by ,joule and ,thomson#ci together have shown that the absolute zero of temperature is nearly #bgd below zero of the centigrade scale2 so that on the absolute scale the temperature of melting ice is #bgd1 while that of water boiling under the standard pressure is #cgd4 99 #ajh4 ,in #ahdi ,james ,thomson made a very remarkable application of ,carnot's reasoning1 the first of a series of such applications which have since done immense service in the extension of almost every branch of physics4 ,he showed in fact that1 because water expands in the act of freezing1 the melting point of ice must be lowered by pressure4 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson in the same year verified this deduction1 to its numerical details1 by direct experiment4 ,trifling as the predicted and measured effect appears 7one degree centigrade for each #bjjj lbs4 additional pressure per square inch71 there can now be no doubt that it goes at least very far to explain the varied effects of the extraordinary plasticity of glacier-ice so beautifully made out by the direct measurements of ,forbes4 99 #aji4 ,we have said that ,carnot unfortunately based his reasoning on the assumed materiality 7and therefore indestructibility7 of heat4 ,it therefore became a question of great importance to find how properly to adapt his methods to the true theory4 ,james ,thomson's verified prediction had already given a correct and absolutely new physical result from ,carnot's principles4 ,how then must we get rid of his false assumption8 ,clausius attempted this in #ahej1 but his method is based solely upon the observed fact that in general heat tends from hotter to colder bodies4 ,this we know is not always the case1 for a fine wire may be made red-hot by the current from a thermo-electric battery 7of a sufficient number of pairs7 where ice and boiling water alone are used to cool and heat the alternate junctions4 ,here heat certainly passes from colder bodies to a hotter one4 ,clausius1 no doubt1 several years later1 extended his original statement1 so as to make it stand thus3--,heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body4 ,we do not consider even this sufficiently obvious for an axiom1 were it certainly true1 but1 as will be seen presently1 it is not4 ,in fact the so-called axiom is constantly being violated1 though on a very small scale1 in every mass of gas4 99 #aaj4 ,it was ,sir ,w4 ,thomson#dj who 7in #ahea7 first correctly adapted ,carnot's magnificently original methods to the true theory of heat2 and it is especially noteworthy to remark how1 even at that early time1 he saw the full danger of attempting to lay down anything too definite on the subject4 ,the following is the axiom he gives3-- #8,it is impossible by means of inanimate material agency to derive mechanical effect from any portion of matter by cooling it below the temperature of the coldest of the surrounding objects4' ,but he appends the following guarded note3-- #8,if this axiom be denied for all temperatures1 it would have to be admitted that a self-acting machine might be set to work and produce mechanical effect by cooling the sea or earth1 with no limit but the total loss of heat from the earth and sea1 or1 in reality1 from the whole material world4' ,the full importance of this will appear presently4 ,to those who can accept ,thomson's axiom with the explanation appended to it1 ,carnot's proposition that a reversible engine is perfect 7in the sense of being the best possible7 is demonstrated at once1 as follows1 ex absurdo4 ,suppose there could be an engine1 ,m1 more perfect than a reversible engine1 ,n4 ,set the two to work together as a compound engine1 ,m letting down heat from boiler to condenser1 and doing work2 ,n spending work in pumping back again the heat to the boiler4 ,if ,n be made to restore to the boiler at every stroke exactly what ,m takes from it1 the compound engine will do external work1 for1 by hypothesis1 ,m is more perfect than ,n4 ,whence does the work come8 ,not from the boiler1 for it remains as it was4 ,hence ,n must take more heat from the condenser than ,m gives it2 i4e4 you get work by cooling the condenser4 ,carry the reasoning a little further1 and we see that if the excess of work given by ,m were spent upon ,n1 and thus no work on the whole either spent or given out1 the condenser would be still further cooled1 and the boiler heated6 ,this1 to most people1 would seem to imply an ample reductio ad absurdum4 ,but ,clerk-,maxwell has shown it to be physically possible1 and has thus thoroughly justified ,thomson's caution about his axiom4 ,as this is a point of very great importance1 we offer no excuse for treating it pretty fully4 99 #aaa4 ,clerk-,maxwell's reasoning is given as depending upon the molecular theory of gases1 but the only necessity for so restricting it appears to be that we thereby connect the reasoning more directly with ,heat1 which1 on this theory1 is supposed to be the energy of motion of the molecules of the gas4 ,the illustration1 however1 is more general1 and at the same time more simple1 if we do not at first refer either to heat or to the molecular hypothesis of the constitution of gases1 but treat the question simply as one concerning the possible motions of a number of little material particles4 ,assume1 then1 that a great number of small equal spherical particles of matter are enclosed in a vessel of any form1 and assume further that 7either by collision or by repulsive force7 each of these has the power of rebounding from another or from the wall of the vessel1 as if it were elastic1 and had unit co-efficient of restitution1#da as defined in treatises on natural philosophy4 ,then it can be shown1 as a matter of direct calculation1 that--start these particles as we please1 in all sorts of directions1 and with velocities as varied as we please--after a time1 which will be shorter as the number of particles is greater1 a sort of permanent state will be arrived at in which a certain law of distribution of velocity prevails among the particles 7the same law as that of the ,probability of ,error1 as it is technically called71 the greater number of them having nearly the mean square velocity1 and those which have much less or more than that being fewer and fewer as the defect or excess is greater4 ,the tendency is to an average distribution of these varieties of velocity throughout the vessel1 and the impacts on the sides will thus be nearly the same on every square inch of its surface4 ,after this there is--always provided the particles be sufficiently numerous--no perceptible change in the statistics of the group1 except in so far as concerns individual particles1 which may sometimes be moving with great1 sometimes with very small1 velocity1 but which1 in the long-run1 will far more often be moving with the mean square velocity1 or at least some velocity very near it4 ,hence1 in no part of the vessel will the average energy be sensibly greater than in another1 and therefore 7so far as the contents of the vessel alone are concerned7 there is no possibility of getting work from them4 ,but by enlisting in our service conceivable finite beings 7imagined by ,clerk-,maxwell1 and called demons by ,thomson71 it would be possible materially to alter this state of things1 even although these beings should do absolutely no work4 99 #aab4 ,for suppose a firm partition1 full of little doors 7themselves without mass7 to be placed so as to divide the vessel into two1 and set a demon at each door1 with instructions to open it for an instant whenever he sees he can thereby let a quick-moving particle escape from the first compartment to the second1 or a slow-moving particle from the second into the first4 ,then1 because the tendency is not to a uniform distribution of velocity among the particles1 but to a distribution which involves quicker and slower in certain proportions1 we may imagine this process to be carried on long enough to make a considerable difference in the average velocities of the particles in the two compartments1 though the numbers of particles in each compartment may remain almost unchanged4 ,the consequence will of course be a greater pressure per square inch on the walls of the second compartment than of the first2 and thus1 if the partition wall were moveable1 a certain amount of work might be obtained by allowing it to move4 ,thus a group of particles originally incapable1 without external assistance1 of doing work1 may be rendered capable of doing work by mere guidance applied by finite intelligence4 99 #aac4 ,now let us refer for a moment to the molecular theory of gases1 and we see that what the demons 7without any expenditure of work1 each being1 so far as he is required1 virtually a combination of two intelligent perfect engines1 one working direct1 the other reversed7 have guided the gas to do1 is to transfer heat from a colder to a hotter portion of the gas4 ,the only reason why this does not occur without the assistance of demons 7at least to an extent1 or for a length of time1 sufficient to produce a sensible effect7 lies in the enormous number of particles per cubic inch in even the most rarefied gas4 ,hence1 solely because of the excessive numbers and minuteness of the particles of matter1 the one chance of escape from ,carnot's proposition is denied us1 and therefore we must allow that1 so far as the physical universe is concerned1 a reversible heat-engine is the best possible4 ,but if a reversible heat-engine be the best possible1 then the principle which we have italicised in ,art4 #ajg must hold good1 and from this it follows that only a portion of the heat passing through a perfect engine can be transformed into useful work unless the condenser of the engine be at the absolute zero of temperature--a condition which can never be attained4 #aad4 ,it thus appears that at each transformation of heat-energy into work a large portion is degraded1 while only a small portion is transformed into work4 ,so that while it is very easy to change all of our mechanical or useful energy into heat1 it is only possible to transform a portion of this heat-energy back again into work4 ,after each change too the heat becomes more and more dissipated or degraded1 that is1 less and less available for any future transformation4 ,in other words1 the tendency of heat is towards equalisation2 heat is par excellence the communist of our universe1 and it will no doubt ultimately bring the present system to an end4 ,the visible universe may with perfect truth be compared to a vast heat-engine1 and this is the reason why we have brought such engines so prominently before our readers4 ,the sun is the furnace or source of high-temperature heat of our system1 just as the stars are for other systems1 and the energy which is essential to our existence is derived from the heat which the sun radiates1 and represents only an excessively minute portion of that heat4 ,but while the sun thus supplies us with energy he is himself getting colder1 and must ultimately1 by radiation into space1 part with the life-sustaining power which he at present possesses4 ,besides the inevitable cooling of the sun we must also suppose that owing to something analogous to ethereal friction#db the earth and the other planets of our system will be drawn spirally nearer and nearer to the sun1 and will at length be engulfed in his mass4 ,in each case there will be1 as the result of the collision1 the conversion of visible energy into heat1 and a partial and temporary restoration of the power of the sun4 ,at length1 however1 this process will have come to an end1 and he will be extinguished until1 after long but not immeasurable ages1 by means of the same ethereal friction his black mass is brought into contact with that of one or more of his nearer neighbours4 #aae4 ,not much further need we dilate on this4 ,it is absolutely certain that life1 so far as it is physical1 depends essentially upon transformations of energy2 it is also absolutely certain that age after age the possibility of such transformations is becoming less and less2 and1 so far as we yet know1 the final state of the present universe must be an aggregation 7into one mass7 of all the matter it contains1 i4e4 the potential energy gone1 and a practically useless state of kinetic energy1 i4e4 uniform temperature throughout that mass4 ,but the present potential energy of the solar system is so enormous1 approaching in fact possibly to what in our helplessness we call infinite1 that it may supply for absolutely incalculable future ages what is required for the physical existence of life4 ,again1 the fall together1 from the distance of ,sirius let us say1 of the sun and an equal star would at once supply the sun with at least as much energy for future radiation to possible planets as could possibly have been acquired by his own materials in their original falling together from practically infinite diffusion as a cloud of stones or dust1 or a nebula2 so that it is certain that1 if the present physical laws remain long enough in operation1 there will be 7at immense intervals of time7 mighty catastrophes due to the crashing together of defunct suns--the smashing of the greater part of each into nebulous dust surrounding the remainder1 which will form an intensely heated nucleus--then1 possibly1 the formation of a new and larger set of planets with a proportionately larger and hotter sun1 a solar system on a far grander scale than the present4 ,and so on1 growing in grandeur but diminishing in number till the exhaustion of energy is complete1 and after that eternal rest1 so far at least as visible motion is concerned4#dc #aaf4 ,the study of the necessary future has prepared us for an inquiry into the long remote past4 ,just as the present discrete stellar systems must finally come together1 so the materials which now form them must have originally been widely separate4 ,our modern knowledge enables us to look back with almost certitude to the time when there was nothing but gravitating matter and its potential energy throughout the expanse of space--ready1 as slight local differences of distribution predisposed it1 to break up into portions1 each converging to one or more nuclei of its own1 and thus forming in time separate solar or stellar systems4 ,we have thus reached the beginning as well as the end of the present visible universe1 and have come to the conclusion that it began in time and will in time come to an end4 ,immortality is therefore impossible in such a universe4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,matter ,,and ,,ether4 #8,felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas1 atque metus omnis et inexorabile fatum subjecit pedibus1 strepitumque ,acherontis avari4' ,,vergil4 #8,who shall tempt with wandering feet ,the dark1 unbottomed1 infinite abyss1 ,and through the palpable obscure find out ,his uncouth way2 or spread his airy flight ,over the vast abrupt1 ere he arrive ,the happy isle8'--,,milton1 ,paradise ,lost4 #aag4 ,the next portion of the preliminary inquiry necessary to our concluding argument is that which relates to the intimate nature of matter2 and more especially of that very wonderful form of matter which is the vehicle of all the energy we receive from the sun1 as it is that of all the information we obtain about the position1 motion1 nature1 mass1 condition1 and properties of the almost infinitely more distant bodies1 which are scattered through cosmical space4 ,in other words1 we have hitherto spoken only of the laws of working of the machine called the physical universe2 let us now endeavour to study the structure of the materials of which it is composed4 #aah4 ,various hypotheses have been proposed as to the ultimate nature of matter4 ,to give even a general account of all the less absurd of these would require a large volume1 so we content ourselves with a few of the more reasonable or historically more important4 7#a47 ,the foremost place must of course be taken by the old ,greek notion of the ,atom4 ,the outlines of the atomic theory were laid down very precisely by ,democritus and ,leukippus 7circa #djj ,b4,c471 who taught that the whole universe is made up of empty space and eternal atoms1 differing only in form 7as and 71 order 7as and 71 and posture 7as and 74 ,the atoms are endued with a primitive motion in virtue of their weight1 and1 clashing together1 produce vortices from which the world is formed4 ,the gradual progress of this whirl of atoms brings similar elements together1 as in the sifting of grain1 and so the atoms are sorted into homogeneous groups4 ,the great weakness of this theory lay in the very false ideas then held as to the nature of motion by weight1 which was supposed to be necessarily in parallel lines1 and with a velocity greater for heavy than for light bodies4 ,the difficulty which arose from this notion led ,epicurus to give to the atoms a perfectly arbitrary and capricious side movement1 as well as the rectilineal motion due to their weight1 and thus1 in his school1 the theory became really a metaphysical one1 reducing the order of the universe to pure chance4 ,it is such a medley of physical speculations1 with metaphysical notions1 that we find in the greatest exponent of the system1 the #8poet philosopher' ,lucretius4 ,with the help of ,munro's splendid edition of the text of ,lucretius1 and his very valuable translation and notes1 it is now a comparatively easy matter to give a concise summary of the principal points of this most remarkable early physical speculation4 ,in attempting to do so we will endeavour1 so far as we can1 to bear in mind the awful but too often disregarded warning given by the poet himself3-- #8,omnia enim stolidi magis admirantur amantque1 inversis qu sub verbis latitantia cernunt1 veraque constituunt qu belle tangere possunt auris et lepido qu sunt fucata sonore4'#dd #aai4 ,as the purpose of the poem of ,lucretius is the establishment of the very opposite of our present theme1 we must consider a good deal more of his work than the mere properties of atoms4 ,lucretius tells us that his object is to dispel the fear of the gods1 which he supposes to arise simply from the fact that there are so many things which men do not yet understand1 and therefore imagine to be effected by divine power4 ,religion1 which crushes human life prostrate upon earth1 is1 he says1 now put under foot2 and the great victory achieved by his ,greek instructor over the immeasurable universe 7in finding what can and what cannot come into being7 brings us level with heaven4 ,his followers are not to fancy that there is any sin in this2 on the contrary1 religion has perpetually been the cause of sinful deeds4 ,there is1 however1 danger of their relapse1 for the terror-speaking seers may once more overcome them4 ,but if men could only be convinced that the soul is born and perishes with us1 then they would be able to take their ease1 and withstand alike religious scruples and threatenings of the seers4 ,for this purpose we must find out what mind and soul consist of1 and how everything on earth proceeds2 and if we can do this1 we may1 of course1 dispense with the gods4 #abj4 ,,first1 then1 nothing comes from nothing1 which seems to be meant in the sense that there is a physical cause for everything2 at least all the examples which are adduced in proof of the statement are mere instances of what might be conceived to happen if there were no fixed determining physical law or cause4 ,but the author is obscure on this point1 for he sometimes makes us inclined to think that he is virtually only asserting the eternal1 unchangeable1 existence of the atom1--the #8first beginning of things4' ,as a corollary to this1 of course1 nature does not annihilate things1 but dissolves them back into their first bodies4 ,the same negative proof is here attempted4 ,nothing is lost1 but nature can beget nothing till she is recruited by the death of something else4 ,then1 to reconcile the reader to the invisibility of these first bodies1 he is shown how nature works by invisible things1 as wind and moisture2 how marriage-rings and paving-stones1 ploughshares and statues1 are worn away without the loss of any visible particles4 ,nature1 therefore1 works by unseen bodies4 ,smell1 heat1 cold1 etc41 must consist of a bodily nature1 because they affect the senses2 for nothing but body can touch and be touched4 #aba4 ,but1 ,,secondly1 there is also void in things1 else they would be jammed together1 and unable to move4 ,it is false to say that things may move in a plenum3 as1 when a fish presses on1 it leaves room behind it1 into which the water may stream2 for on what side can the scaly creature move forwards unless the waters have first made room2 and on what side can the waters give place so long as the fish cannot move8 7,this of course is metaphysics1 and is altogether absurd4 ,it is the old story of the immovable body receiving the irresistible blow47 ,hence there cannot be motion unless there be void to allow of a start4 ,dripping of water in caves1 the passage of food throughout the whole of the body of an animal1 the fact that buds and fruit of trees are nourished from the root1 voices heard through walls1 cold penetrating the very bones1 all are proofs that there is void as well as body4 ,also when one thing is as large as another1 but yet lighter1 there must be more void in it4 #abb4 ,,third4 ,there can be no third thing besides body and void4 ,for if it be to the smallest extent tangible1 it is body2 if not1 it is void4 #abc4 ,,fourth4 ,bodies are either first beginnings of things 7atoms71 or a union of such4 ,any thing which can be broken or crushed1 or which can transmit heat or electricity1 is partly body and partly void4 ,hence body cannot be crushed1 and #8therefore first beginnings are of solid singleness1 and in no other way can they have been preserved through ages during infinite time past1 in order to reproduce things4' #abd4 ,,fifth4 ,if there be no limit to breakage1 nothing could be reproduced2 for reproduction is slower than decay1 and therefore the breaking of infinite past ages would have produced a state of things incompatible with the reproduction of anything within finite time4 ,hence there exists a least in things4 ,this cannot be soft1 else it would consist partly of void1 and be therefore breakable4 ,first beginnings1 then1 are strong in solid singleness4 ,hence the unreason of those who held fire to be the matter of things1 for what surer test can we have than the senses whereby to note truth and falsehood6 ,the doctrine called that of ,homomeria by ,anaxagoras is folly1--his notion1 to wit1 that everything is made up of little parts the same as itself--bones of little bones1 flesh of little fleshes1 etc4 ,for thus corn and other food1 which go to nourish our blood1 must be in part composed of blood1 and must therefore bleed when crushed by the formidable force of the millstone6 #abe4 ,,sixth4 ,are the atoms infinite in number1 and is the void in which they move unlimited8 ,both questions are answered in the affirmative1 but the proof given is metaphysical and altogether ridiculous1 though it contains a fragmentary passage of real merit1 hinting at ,le ,sage's explanation 7presently to be given7 of the cause of gravity4 ,one illustration of it must suffice3--#8,nature keeps the sum of things from setting any limit to itself1 since she compels body to be ended by void1 and void in turn by body2' so that either by the alternation of the two1 or by the infinite extension of one if the other do not bound it1 immeasurable space must be filled4 ,if1 for instance1 body were finite1 and void infinite1 matter would in a very short time be scattered and borne along in the mighty void2 or1 rather1 could never have been brought together4 ,this agrees with an idea which is propounded in the second book1 as to the velocity which the atoms have given them 7he does not say how or whence71 and which enables them to cohere for a time and then to break up again1 as everything wanes4 ,those whose close-tangled shapes hold them fast together form enduring stone and unyielding iron1 others spring far off and rebound1 leaving great spaces between2 #8these furnish us with thin air and bright sunlight4' ,shortly afterwards1 we are told that the velocity of the first beginnings when passing through empty void must be greater than that of sunlight6 ,we need not trouble ourselves here with ,lucretius's speculations as to the formation of tangible bodies from a vertical downpour of atoms1 which1 unlike drops of rain1 now and then swerve from their courses so as to clash together1 save to mention that he affirms that1 even if he did not know what atoms are1 he could be sure1 from its defects1 that the world was not made for us by divine power4 #abf4 ,,seventh4 ,this1 one of the most important points of the whole theory1 is entirely ignored by some good commentators1 and by others who have more or less closely followed them3--,the first beginnings of things have different shapes1 but the number of shapes is finite4 #abg4 ,,eighth4 ,the first beginnings which have a like shape1 one with another1 are infinite in number4 ,that is1 there is a finite number of kinds of atoms1 but an infinite number of each kind4 #abh4 ,,ninth4 ,nothing whose nature is apparent to sense consists of one kind of first beginnings 7only74 #abi4 ,we need not trouble ourselves with his notion of the smallness1 smoothness1 and roundness of the atoms which make up the mind1 qualities which he arrives at from the rapidity with which the mind originates and works out a suggestion1 contrasting here the mobility of water with the viscosity of honey4 ,nor his proof 7by the non-diminution of the weight and dimensions of the body at death71 that the whole mass of the mind must be exceedingly small4 ,but we may quote1 in two of its many forms1 his constant reiteration of the unreasonableness of the fear of death1 and his philosophic mode of overcoming it3-- #8,some wear themselves to death for the sake of statues and a name4 ,and often to such a degree1 through dread of death1 does hate of life and of the sight of daylight seize upon mortals1 that they consider self-murder with a sorrowing heart1 quite forgetting that this fear is the source of their cares 7this fear which urges men to every sin71 prompts this one to put all shame to rout1 another to burst asunder the bonds of friendship2 and1 in fine1 to overturn duty from its very base1 since often ere now men have betrayed country and dear parents in seeking to shun the ,acherusian quarters4 ,for1 even as children are flurried and dread all things in the thick darkness1 thus we in the daylight fear at times things not a whit more to be dreaded than what children shudder at in the dark1 and fancy sure to be4 ,this terror1 therefore1 and darkness of mind must be dispelled1 not by the rays of the sun and glittering shafts of day1 but by the aspect and law of nature4' ,book ,,iii4 #gh4 #8,now no more shall thy house admit thee with glad welcome1 nor a most virtuous wife and sweet children run to be the first to snatch kisses1 and touch thy heart with silent joy4 ,no more mayest thou be prosperous in thy doings1 a safeguard to thine own4 ,one disastrous day has taken from thee1 luckless man1 in luckless wise1 all the many prizes of life4 ,this do men say2 but add not thereto3 8,and now no longer does any craving for these things beset thee withal40 ,for if they could rightly perceive this in thought1 and follow up the thought in words1 they would release themselves from great distress and apprehension of mind4 ,thou1 even as now thou art1 sunk in the sleep of death1 shalt continue so to be in all time to come1 freed from all distressing pains2 but we1 with a sorrow that would not be sated1 wept for thee1 when close by thou didst turn to an ashen hue on thy appalling funeral pile1 and no length of days shall pluck from our hearts our ever-enduring grief4 ,this question1 therefore1 should be asked of this speaker1 what there is in it so passing bitter1 if it come in the end to sleep and rest1 that any one should pine in never-ending sorrow4' ,book ,,iii4 #hid4 #acj4 ,to conclude1 there is a great deal in ,lucretius 7whether his own or derived from others does not matter to us7 which is of considerable value1 even from a modern scientific point of view1 though1 of course1 of far greater value from the point of view of the student of development4 ,but his attempted proofs are for the most part absurd1 based1 as they generally are1 upon mere metaphysical speculations and altogether preposterous analogies4 #aca4 7#b47 ,boscovich and others endeavoured to dispense with the atom altogether1 substituting in its place the conception 7which mathematicians often find useful7 of a mere geometrical point1 which is a centre of force1 as it is called4 ,here we get rid of the idea of substance entirely1 but we preserve 7all but inertia7 those external relations by which alone the atom is capable of making known its presence4 ,even so great an experimental philosopher as ,faraday may be quoted as1 to some extent at least1 agreeing with this notion4 ,it seems to us1 however1 that this is the embodiment of an over-refinement of speculation1 surrounded on almost all sides by the gravest difficulties4 ,it may suffice merely to mention again the property of mass1 or inertia1 which ,faraday himself seemed to look upon as the one essential characteristic of matter1 and which we can hardly bring ourselves to associate with the absence of what we understand by substance4 #acb4 7#c47 ,another speculation leads us to imagine matter as not ultimately atomic--as1 in fact1 infinitely divisible4 ,but1 if it be so1 it must 7in order that various elementary physical facts may be capable of explanation7 be practically continuous but intensely heterogeneous4 ,that solid or liquid matter has a grained structure of not infinitely small dimensions is proved by many simple and generally known facts2 among others by the separation of white light into its constituent colours when refracted through a prism1 by the phenomena of capillarity1 and by those of contact electricity4 ,if such heterogeneity were only pronounced enough1 it appears that the law of gravitation would be capable of accounting for at least the greater number of effects at present attributed to the so-called molecular forces and the force of chemical affinity4 ,here1 however1 we are met by the grand difficulty1 that of accounting for gravitation4 ,and the only attempt at explanation of gravitation-attraction1 which can be called even plausible1 can only1 with very great straining1 be made compatible with this idea of the nature of matter4 #acc4 7#d47 ,the fourth and most recent speculation revives the atom 7in the literal sense of the word71 but not #8strong in solid singleness' like those contemplated by ,lucretius1--much rather yielding to the least external force1 and thus escaping from the knife or wriggling round it1 so that it cannot be cut1--not1 however1 on account of its hardness1 but on account of its mobility1 which makes it impossible for the knife to get at it4 ,this is the vortex-atom theory of ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 dimly foreshadowed in the writings of ,hobbes1 ,malebranche1 and others1 but only made distinctly conceivable in very recent times by the hydrokinetic researches of ,helmholtz4 ,helmholtz1 in #aheh1 first successfully attacked the equations of motion of an incompressible frictionless fluid1 without introducing the great simplification which had been adopted by his predecessors1 and which consisted in supposing the motion to be non-rotational4 ,he proved1 among other valuable results1 that those portions of the fluid which at any time possess rotation preserve it for ever1 and are thus as it were marked off from the others2 also that these portions must be arranged in filaments whose direction is at each point the axis of rotation1 and that the filaments are either endless1 i4e4 form closed curves 7whether knotted or not71 or terminate in the free surface of the fluid4 ,hence ,sir ,william ,thomson's idea that what we call matter may consist of the rotating portions of a perfect fluid1 which continuously fills space4 ,this definition involves the necessity of a creative act for the production or destruction of the smallest portion of matter1 because rotation can only be produced or destroyed by us in a fluid in virtue of its viscosity 7or internal friction71 and in a perfect fluid there is nothing of the kind4 #acd4 ,of course it may be objected to this theory that it merely shifts the difficulty one step further back1--after all1 explaining what we call matter by certain motions of something which1 as it must have inertia1 it would appear we are bound to call matter also4 ,we have been careful to mention this 7latest7 speculation as to the nature of matter for three reasons3 #ast1 because we shall have to make considerable use of it in the course of our argument1 for purposes of illustration2 #b;d1 because it shows one way of at once thoroughly accounting for the conservation of tangible matter2 #c;d1 because it shows the possibility of forming an idea of a true atom which shall not require1 even for perfect elasticity1 the inconceivable quality of perfect hardness necessary to the atom of ,lucretius4 ,in fact1 the few words which we have given above about ,helmholtz's investigations show that1 to cut a vortex-atom1 it would be necessary to give a free surface to the perfect fluid which on this theory is supposed to fill space1 i4e4 virtually to sever space itself6 ,this suggestion of ,thomson's promises to be very valuable from one point of view at least1 viz41 the extension and improvement of mathematical methods2 for in the treatment of its very elements it requires the application of the most powerful of hitherto invented processes1 and even with their aid1 the mutual action of two ring-vortices 7the simplest possible space-form7 has not yet been investigated except in the special cases of symmetrical disposition about an axis4 ,hence we are at present altogether unable to decide or even to guess whether this idea will or will not pass with credit some of the most elementary examinations to which a theory of the ultimate nature of matter must of course be subjected4 #ace4 ,take them for what they are worth4 ,the four forms of speculation we have just sketched represent the most plausible guesses yet propounded as to the ultimate nature of matter1 the second being probably because the most artificial and the most arbitrary1 the most completely developed4 ,for in it the representation is self-contained as it were2 it does not base itself upon extraneous postulates1 as of ultimate hard particles 7of what871 nor upon vortex motion 7of what8 again71 nor1 finally1 upon mere intense heterogeneity 7of what8 once more71 as do the other three4 ,but we naturally object to it as refining away altogether the idea of stuff or substance which the mind seems to require as something underlying the notion of anything which is found to be directly capable of affecting our senses4 #acf4 ,the reader who has followed us so far1 must now see that our notions of the nature of matter are1 at best1 but hazy4 ,we know1 it is true1 a great many of its properties very exactly1 so much so indeed1 as to be able to deduce from them mathematically an immense variety of consequences which subsequent experiment shows to be correct1 at least within the limits of accuracy of our methods of observation and measurement4 ,but as to what it is we know no more than ,democritus or ,lucretius did1 though as to what it may be or may not be we are perhaps considerably better prepared with an opinion than they could possibly be4 #acg4 ,we have seen in the preceding chapter that energy is never found separate from matter1 so that we might1 with perfect propriety1 define matter as the seat or vehicle of energy--that which is essential to the existence of the known forms of energy1 without which1 therefore1 there could be no transformations of energy1 and therefore no life such as we now know it4 #ach4 ,the transformability of a given amount of energy1 or1 at least1 the mode of its transformation1 often depends in a very curious manner upon the relative quantity of matter with which it is associated4 ,we have already seen this in the case of heat4 ,for1 when a given quantity of heat is associated with a small quantity of matter1 it is at a high temperature1 and has great availability1 but its temperature1 and therefore its availability1 become lower as the quantity of matter with which it is associated is increased4 ,it is possible that radiant heat and light owe their high availability to the very small density of the luminiferous ether4 ,but it is not of heat alone that this statement is true4 ,the same thing holds with regard to other forms of energy1 even the very simplest forms of visible kinetic energy for instance4 ,a pillow or bolster 7stuffed with eider-down1 let us say7 of #cj lbs4 weight1 and moving at #aj feet per second--i4e4 as if it had fallen from a height of considerably less than two feet1--has nearly the same energy as a pellet of ,no4 #a shot when it leaves the muzzle of a fowling-piece4 ,how different the quality of these equal quantities even of energy of the same kind6 ,for1 delivered horizontally1 the one would correspond to a staggering push which few men could resist if it came unexpectedly2 while the other would scarcely affect one's equilibrium1 though it might easily kill by penetrating a vital organ4 ,in the brutal pastimes of the last generation1 as we now in our advanced humanitarianism call them1 this was well known as the difference between the effects of a slow knock-down blow by a heavy-weight1 and a #8punishing facer' from a feather-weight4 ,alas for the good old times6 for our comparison1 apt as it is1 is too probably thrown away on the degenerate inhabitants of 7once7 merry ,england1 erewhile the home of the #8,miller1' with his honest quarterstaff1 of jolly and chivalrous wrestlers1 boxers1 and bowmen1 now the hell of running-kicks1 garrotting1 gouging1#de and stabbing4 ,aetas parentum1 pejor avis1 tulit nos nequiores1 mox daturos progeniem vitiosiorem4 ,the dissipation of energy is a great fact in a moral as well as in a physical sense4 ,in those good old times men fought with men1--irrepressible energy1 rather than any sordid passion or uncontrolled vice1 constantly pulling the trigger6 ,now creatures in the likeness of men vent their despicable passions in murderous assaults upon women and children4 ,but science hints at an effectual cure4 ,it is probable that before many years have passed1 electricity1 which by some mysterious means enables our nerves to call our muscles into play1 will be called upon by an enlightened legislature to solve this desperate social problem4 ,imprisonment has been tried in vain1 and1 besides1 it involves great and needless expense4 ,the #8cat1' though thoroughly appropriate1 is objected to as tending to brutalise 767 the patient1 and render murder not unlikely4 ,no such objections can be urged against the use of electricity in any of its many forms4 ,for it can easily be applied so as to produce for the requisite time1 and for that only1 and under the direction of skilled physicists and physiologists1 absolutely indescribable torture 7unaccompanied by wound or even bruise71 thrilling through every fibre of the frame of such miscreants4 #aci4 ,after inertia1 which is not accounted for by any of the hypotheses as to the ultimate nature of matter which we have just given1 the most general property of matter which we recognise is that of universal gravitation1 in virtue of which portions of matter1 if situated at a distance from one another1 are possessed of potential energy4 ,we are apt to hold exaggerated notions of the immense power of gravity2 but a little consideration will show us that it is in reality one of the most trivial of the forces to which matter is directly or indirectly subject4 ,think for a moment of the fundamental experiments in electricity and magnetism1 known to men for far more than #bjjj years1--the lifting of light bodies in general by rubbed amber1 and of iron filings by a loadstone4 ,to produce the same effects by gravitation-attraction1--at least if the attracting body had the moderate dimensions of a hand-specimen of amber or loadstone1--we should require it to be of so dense a material as to weigh at the very least #a1jjj1jjj1jjj lbs41 instead of 7as usual7 a mere fraction of a pound4 ,hence it is at once obvious that the imposing nature of the force of gravity1 as usually compared with other attractive forces1 is due not to its superior qualitative magnitude1 but to the enormous masses of the bodies which exercise it4 ,in fact1 the excessively delicate ,torsion-balance of ,michell was absolutely requisite to demonstrate1 much more to measure1 the mutual attraction between a large and a small leaden sphere4 ,and 7unless the third of the hypotheses as to the nature of matter above given be correct1 in which case the form of our statement would require modification7 small or even moderately large pieces of matter are held together entirely by cohesion1 gravitation being absolutely insensible2 though in a huge mass like the earth1 the force exerted by one hemisphere on the other 7i4e4 the force which would be called into play to prevent its being split in two7 depends mainly upon gravitation1 in comparison with whose enormous amount even a cohesive force of #ejj lbs4 weight per square inch over a circular surface of #djjj miles radius sinks into utter insignificance6#df #adj4 ,one only of the many hypotheses which have been advanced to explain the cause of gravitation has succeeded in passing the first preliminary tests4 ,of course1 the assumption of action at a distance may be made to account for anything2 but it is impossible 7as ,newton long ago pointed out in his celebrated letters to ,bentley7 for any one #8who has in philosophical matters a competent faculty of thinking' for a moment to admit the possibility of such action4 ,hence we have but two ways of accounting for gravitation3--either it is due to differences of pressure in a substance continuously filling all space1 except where matter displaces it 7871 or it is due to impacts1 in some respects analogous to those of the particles of a gas which have been found to be capable of accounting for gaseous pressure4 ,now1 all attempts as yet made to connect it with the luminiferous ether1 or the medium required to explain electric and magnetic distance-action1 have completely failed2 so that we are apparently driven to the impact theory as the only tenable one4 #ada4 ,to this theory ,le ,sage of ,geneva devoted a singularly acute mind during the whole of his exceptionally long life2 but1 for all that1 his posthumous tract on the subject is but little in advance of the results he had arrived at in his eighteenth year4 ,he assumes the existence of ultra-mundane corpuscles2 in infinite numbers1 even compared with those of the particles of matter2 of dimensions excessively small1 but flying about in all directions with velocities enormously great4 ,portions of gross matter virtually screen one another to a certain extent from the pressure due to this perpetual rain of corpuscles2 but only on the sides turned towards one another4 ,hence a lone body would be equally battered on all sides2 but the introduction of a second mass interferes with this arrangement1 and diminishes the pressure on the side next it4 ,it is easy to show that the amount of this diminution1 for given small masses1 is inversely as the square of their relative distance4 ,but when larger masses are taken account of1 this diminution of pressure will not be 7as gravity is7 directly as the quantities of matter present1 unless the further assumption is made that matter1 whether by the great distance between its particles1 or by the cage-like form of these particles1 is almost perfectly permeable to the corpuscles2 so that1 practically1 the corpuscles rain upon each of the interior particles of a mass as freely as if it had been alone in space4 ,some of the postulates of this theory are hard to grant1 and there is additional difficulty as to the mode in which the supply of energy of the corpuscles is to be kept up4 ,to enter into details on this subject is not in accordance with our plan4 ,we therefore refer the reader to ,sir ,w4 ,thomson's account of ,le ,sage's theory 7,proc4 ,r4,s4,e41 #ahga71 and his suggestions for its improvement1 based upon his theory of vortex-atoms4#dg #adb4 ,but we must make one remark4 ,if ,le ,sage's theory1 or anything of a similar nature1 be at all a representation of the mechanism of gravitation1 a fatal blow is dealt to the notion of the tranquil form of power we have called potential energy4 ,not that there will cease to be a profound difference in kind between it and ordinary kinetic energy2 but that ,,both must come henceforth to be regarded as kinetic4 ,what we now call kinetic energy is that of visible motions1 also of motions of the smaller parts of bodies1 and of the luminiferous ether1 etc41 each of these being more refined1 as it were1 than the preceding4 ,but if ,le ,sage's theory be true1 potential energy of gravitation is a kinetic form still further refined than any of these4 ,and the conservation of energy may perhaps once more be completely and accurately expressed as the conservation of vis viva1 though the term will of course have then a meaning incomparably more extensive than its original one4 #adc4 ,but1 in speculations like these1 we have soared far beyond that which may be called the first refinement on ordinary gross matter2 i4e4 the luminiferous1 probably also the electric and magnetic1 medium1 provisionally the ,ether4 ,to the consideration of its principal properties we now turn our attention4 ,these are1 at first sight at least1 of an apparently incongruous character2 for1 from one point of view1 the ether appears as a fluid1 from another as an elastic solid4 ,nothing is more certainly established in physical astronomy than the excessive minuteness of the resistance offered by the ether to the planetary motions1 if1 indeed1 there be such a resistance at all appretiable1 even when the velocity is1 as in the case of the earth1 somewhere about #ajj1jjj feet per second6 ,on the other hand1 we learn from physical optics that light1 transmitted with a velocity of #ahh1jjj miles per second1 depends upon transverse disturbances of some kind or other2 while several optical phenomena indicate that a disturbance of the nature of compression 7if such be possible7 would be transmitted with velocity almost infinitely great1 in comparison even with this enormous velocity4 #add4 ,stokes1 however1 has given a very ingenious illustration which enables us to see that such an extraordinary combination of apparently irreconcilable properties is by no means without analogy1 even in common matter4 ,he takes the case of a solution of glue1 or isinglass1 or jelly1 in different relative amounts of water4 ,when the quantity of water is small1 we have the elastic solid2 when large1 a liquid little different from water4 ,and ,stokes shows that it is excessively improbable that there is any definite intermediate stage which we could assign as that at which the transition from the solid to the liquid takes place4 ,of course1 any such analogy must necessarily be excessively imperfect2 but a great deal is gained by our being able to trace even a very imperfect analogy in a case like this4 #ade4 ,the ether1 in fact1 must be distorted as well as displaced by matter passing through it2 but any distortion of the nature of a shear1 such as would give rise in water to vortex-motion accompanied by friction 7the whole energy being thus ultimately frittered down into heat71 would in the ether be handed on at once1 as vibratory motion1 with the velocity of light4 ,thus vortex-motion of the ether may be conceived to be impossible1 simply in consequence of the minuteness of its density in comparison with the great tangential force called into play by a shear2 and a body moving in it with a velocity not so great as that of light would thus not have eddies in its wake1 as in an ordinary fluid1 but1 on the contrary1 would be a source of radiation1 even although there may have been no heating either of the body or of the medium it is displacing1 paradoxical as this result may appear4 ,in this connection it is hardly possible to avoid quoting ,milton--though there may be a suspicion of something analogous to a pun3-- #8,the grinding sword with discontinuous wound ,passed through him--but the ethereal substance closed ,not long divisible4' #adf4 ,sir ,william ,thomson has endeavoured to obtain at least an inferior limit to the density of the ether in planetary space4 ,his method is based upon the measurements by ,pouillet and ,herschel of the whole amount of radiant energy received from the sun by a given amount of terrestrial surface in a given time1 and upon an assumption that the extreme amplitude of distortion of the ether in any radiation is small compared with the length of a wave4 ,in this way he finds that1 as a cubic mile of the ether near the earth contains about #ab1jjj foot-pounds of radiant solar energy1 the mass of the ether in that cubic mile must be at least #a_/a1jjj1jjj1jjj of a pound4#dh ,to show that this is not by any means a surprisingly small quantity he compares it with the mass of a cubic mile of air at a distance of only a few radii from the earth's surface 7supposing that the atmosphere extends so far2 which1 by the way1 the recent calculations of the velocities of the particles of a gas render exceedingly improbable74 ,this1 he finds1 will be probably represented by a fraction of a pound having unit for a numerator and #cbi places of figures in the denominator666 #adg4 ,in a very remarkable paper by ,struve1#di an attempt was made to settle the question1 ,is the ether perfectly transparent8 or1 as we may now put it1 ,is any radiant energy absorbed by the ether1 whether to produce other forms of energy1 or to be dissipated by radiation in all directions8 ,long ago it had been pointed out by ,olbers and others1 that if the stars be infinite in number1 and be distributed with anything roughly approximating to an average density through infinite space1 the sky ought1 night and day1 to be all over of a brightness of the same order as that of the sun4 ,is the number of stars1 then1 finite2 or does the ether absorb their light8 ,now1 it need not in the least surprise us to find that the number of stars is finite1 even though matter be infinite in quantity1 and distributed with something like uniformity through infinite space4 ,for only a finite portion of it may yet have fallen together so as to produce incandescent bodies2 or1 the other extreme1 only a finite portion of it may be left incandescent4 ,either of these altogether different hypotheses is perfectly reasonable and scientifically justifiable2 so that1 from this point of view1 we are not at present likely to obtain any information4 ,struve's reasoning1 which1 by the way1 is not accepted by ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 introduces another consideration1 viz41 the number of stars of each visible magnitude4 ,to apply this3 suppose for a moment we make the assumption 7actually measured values of annual parallax show it is certainly at best a very rough one7 that the brighter stars are the nearer1 and that a set of stars1 on the average one-fourth as bright as another set1 are on the average twice as far off1 etc4 ,a great deal of what we know to be certainly false is here assumed as true1 but it is possible that the general accuracy of the results of the reasoning from it may not be thereby much affected4 ,on the supposition of a sort of rough uniformity of distribution through space1 we can easily calculate approximately what ought to be the relative numbers of the stars1 classed by astronomers as of the various different magnitudes1 once we have obtained 7as it is not difficult to do7 an estimate of the relative brightness of typical stars of these 7arbitrary7 magnitudes4 ,from their brightness we calculate at once their relative distances1 and thence 7according to our hypothesis of approximately uniform distribution7 what ought to be the relative numbers of each magnitude4 ,when this is done1 it appears that there is a great excess of the calculated over the observed numbers1 at least for telescopic stars1 and the greater the smaller the magnitude4 ,this is the gist of ,struve's method1 and he arrives at the result that the light of stars of the sixth magnitude 7the smallest visible to an ordinary unaided eye1 and whose average distance from us is supposed to be somewhere about ninefold that of stars of the first magnitude7 loses about eight per cent4 in its passage to the earth4 ,thus the light of stars of the first magnitude does not lose so much as one per cent42 but1 on the other hand1 stars of the ninth magnitude are enfeebled to the extent of about #cj per cent4 ,struve shows that1 if his result is to be accepted1 ,w4 ,herschel's idea that his #dj-;foot telescope would show him stars seven times farther off than those visible with the #aj-;foot1 was erroneous4 ,he would1 in fact1 have been able to see little more than twice as far4 ,it will be obvious now that an enormous increase of the so-called space-penetrating power of a telescope gives it in reality but a very feeble additional advantage1 in fact1 that1 if there be absorption by the ether1 we have already instruments capable of showing us1 at the very least1 half of the whole number of stars which any conceivable improvement of telescopes would enable us to see4 #adh4 ,it would be out of place here to speculate on what becomes of the light thus supposed to be absorbed1 for we have as yet no experimental bases on which to reason4 ,we have not the least idea1 for instance1 what is the effect of change of temperature in the luminiferous ether4 ,that it is practically incompressible we know2 it is quite probable that it may not be sensibly compressed 7if it be subject to gravity1 of which we have no proof7 even by the attraction of the mass of the whole earth--though1 so great is the intensity of molecular or cohesive attraction1 we may easily conceive that in the interior of bodies the ether may be considerably compressed4 ,and it is not improbable that the ether1 as a whole1 may have1 in virtue of its internal forces1 a property 7akin1 as it were1 to a liquid film7 such that the gravitation action1 which appears to be between particles of matter1 may merely be the visible result of a tendency to a minimum of some affection of the fluid in which they are immersed4 ,regard the ether as we please1 there can be no doubt that its properties are of a much higher order in the arcana of nature than those of tangible matter4 ,and as even the high-priests of science still find the latter far beyond their comprehension1 except in numerous but minute and often isolated particulars1 it would not become us to speculate further4 ,it is sufficient for our purpose to know from what the ether certainly does that it is capable of vastly more than any one has yet ventured to guess4 #adi4 ,if we review the attempts recorded in this chapter we see how the scientific mind is led from the visible and tangible to the invisible and intangible4 ,in the first place1 we know that one body1 such as the sun1 can part with its radiant energy to another body1 such as the earth1 and observation and experiment alike lead us to acknowledge a stage in which the energy has left the one body and has not yet arrived at the other4 ,but we have already seen that energy is always found associated with matter1 never by itself4 ,in fact we have spoken of matter as the #8vehicle of energy4' ,hence it necessarily follows that there is something between the sun and earth capable of moving and transmitting energy1 and therefore1 from the very conception of energy1 possessing mass--this something we agree to call the ethereal medium4 ,again1 we know that different masses of visible matter attract one another apparently at a distance4 ,our first attempt to analyse the nature of this force leads to the question3--,does it proceed from the surfaces of the attracting bodies1 or does it penetrate their entire mass8 ,this question was answered by ,newton1 who came to the conclusion that every particle of matter attracts every other particle with a force proportional to the product of their masses1 and inversely proportional to the square of their distances4 ,but this drives the mystery of gravitation only from the mass to the particle1 and here the same sort of questions again occur4 ,a particle as truly as a mass occupies space1 and we wish to know whether gravitation force proceeds from the surface of the particle or from its interior4 #aej4 ,we likewise wish to know how this force is communicated between one particle and another8 ,before we can solve these questions we must have some definite conception of the nature of a particle and of the constitution of the surrounding medium4 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 as we have seen1 has attempted to advance towards the nature of an atom or particle in his supposition that atoms are vortex-rings generated out of a perfect fluid filling all space4 ,while1 however1 this conception accounts for some of the properties of an atom it does not at all directly account for anything like gravitation1 and hence he adopts in addition the hypothesis of ultra-mundane corpuscles1 which he supposes to be only a finer form of vortices4 #aea4 ,there is1 however1 one objection to the precise form of vortex-ring hypothesis introduced by ,thomson which from our point of view is very strong4 ,the act by which the atom was produced must surely on this hypothesis have been an act of creation in time 7,art4 #acc71 that is to say1 an act impressed upon the universe from without1 and it must therefore have denoted a breach of continuity 7,art4 #he72 for if the antecedent of the visible universe be nothing but a perfect fluid1 can we imagine it capable of originating such a development in virtue of its own inherent properties1 and without some external act implying a breach of continuity8--we think most assuredly not4 ,in the production of the vortex-atom from a perfect fluid we are driven at once to the unconditioned--to the ,great ,first ,cause2 it is1 in fine1 an act of creation and not of development4 ,but from our point of view 7,art4 #hf7 creation belongs to eternity and development to time1 and we are therefore induced at least to modify the hypothesis so as to make it consistent with this view4 ,we cannot1 in fact1 if we agree to hold at the same time the principle of unbroken continuity and the vortex-ring theory of formation of the visible universe1 regard the material whose rotating parts are ordinary matter as an absolutely perfect fluid4 #aeb4 ,this way of regarding this supposed material is strengthened by the fact that the hypothesis which seems most likely to account for gravitation presumes the existence of ultra-mundane corpuscles3 and the observations of ,struve upon the extinction of starlight tend 7whatever they are worth7 towards the same conclusion1 since the absorption of light is more compatible with a corpuscular constitution than with that of a perfect fluid4 ,finally1 the mere fact that the velocity of light is finite1 tends also in the same direction4 ,but if the visible universe be developed from a material which is not a perfect fluid1 then the argument deduced by ,sir ,w4 ,thomson in favour of the eternity of ordinary matter disappears1 since this eternity depends upon the perfect fluidity of that out of which it was developed4 ,in fine1 if we suppose the material universe to be composed of a series of vortex-rings developed from something which is not a perfect fluid1 it will be ephemeral1 just as the smoke-ring which we develop from air1 or that which we develop from water1 is ephemeral1 the only difference being in duration1 these lasting only for a few seconds1 and the others it may be for billions of years4 #aec4 ,in our last chapter1 we came to the conclusion that the available energy of the visible universe will ultimately be appropriated by the ether1 and we may now perhaps imagine1 that as a separate existence itself the visible universe will ultimately disappear1 so that we shall have no huge useless inert mass existing in far remote ages to remind the passer-by of a species of matter which will then have become long since out of date and functionally effete4 ,why should not the universe bury its dead out of sight8#ej ,,chapter ,v4 ,,development4 #8,are ,god and ,nature then at strife1 ,that ,nature lends such evil dreams8 ,so careful of the type she seems1 ,so careless of the single life2 99 99 99 99 99 #88,so careful of the type08 but no1 ,from scarped cliff and quarried stone ,she cries1 8,a thousand types are gone3 ,i care for nothing1 all shall go40'--,,tennyson4 #8,all nature is but art1 unknown to thee2 ,all chance1 direction1 which thou canst not see1 ,all discord1 harmony not understood2 ,all partial evil1 universal good2 ,and spite of pride1 in erring reason's spite1 ,one truth is clear1 whatever is1 is right4'--,,pope4 #aed4 ,in the two preceding ,chapters we have dwelt upon the laws of energy and the ultimate constitution of matter2 in other words1 we have discussed the laws according to which the machine called the visible universe works1 as well as the probable nature of the material of which it is composed4 ,we have in this process 7,arts4 #hf1 #aea7 come to the conclusion that the visible universe has been developed out of the invisible4 ,once developed1 it has its own laws of action which we may discover1--laws which at present appear to be invariably followed1 as far at least as our strictly scientific experience can inform us4 ,in fine1 the visible universe is that which we are in a position to observe2 gaining an insight into its present method of working1 and trying also to reply to the very interesting question1 ,has it always worked in its present manner1 or has there ever been any apparent break8 ,let us therefore consider this visible universe immediately after its production1 and endeavour to become acquainted with the course of its development4 ,what did it do8 ,was it1 or was it not1 entirely left to itself1 and to what may be termed the natural laws impressed upon it when it was produced8 ,or1 if the results of our inquiry seem to show that it was not entirely left to itself1 when1 to what extent1 and for what purposes1 has there been and is there interference proceeding from the unseen8 ,in replying to these questions1 let us1 for the sake of convenience1 consider development under the three following heads1 viz41 77 ,chemical or ,stuff ,development1 77 ,globe ,development1 77 ,life ,development4 #aee4 ,beginning with chemical or stuff development1 we come at once to a very interesting and important question4 ,assuming that the atoms of the present universe were developed from the invisible1 were different kinds of atoms thus developed1 or were they all of one kind8 ,to this question the chemist of last century would have replied1 that undoubtedly there were many kinds of primeval atoms1 and then would follow a formidable list of all these various substances which he was unable to decompose4 ,the chemist of thirty or forty years later would still have replied to the question in the same way1 but he would probably have furnished a different list of primeval elements less formidable in number4 ,if the chemist of forty years ago had been asked1 he would have furnished a list of perhaps fifty simple substances2 but then1 probably1 the minimum would have been reached2 for ask the chemist of to-day1 and he will furnish a list of sixty-four so-called elements4 #aef4 ,but while the number of as yet undecomposed bodies is slowly increasing by fresh discoveries1 chemists are beginning to speculate as to the possibility that these so-called elements may be in reality nothing more than combinations differing in numbers and in tactical arrangement1 of some one kind of primordial atoms4 ,this idea was first entertained by ,dr4 ,prout1 the well-known physician and chemist4 ,he pointed out that the atomic weights of the various so-called elements are very nearly all multiples of the half of that of hydrogen1 so that the various elements may possibly be looked upon as formed by a grouping together of certain atoms of half the mass of the hydrogen atom4 ,m4 ,stas1 the distinguished ,belgian chemist1 instituted a laborious series of experiments with the view of testing this doctrine4 ,he came to the conclusion that the atomic weights of the various elements were not precisely multiples of the half of that of hydrogen1 there being greater differences than could possibly be accounted for by errors of experiment4 ,his researches1 however1 seemed to show that in many cases there was a very near approach to ,prout's imagined law4 ,but in no case does the discrepance appear to us greatly to exceed what may easily be attributed to unavoidable impurities in the substances operated on2 say only those due to the condensation of gases in the pores of solids1 which 7in certain cases at least7 is known to amount to a very considerable quantity4 #aeg4 ,from another point of view there appears to be evidence in favour of the so-called elementary bodies being built up1 as more or less complex arrangements of one1 or at most a few1 simpler kinds of matter4 ,there are certain groups or families amongst these elements of such a nature that the various members of one family appear to be related to each other1 in the same way as the corresponding members of another family4 ,this clearly points to some sort of community of origin1 and thus favours the idea that the elements are in reality composite structures4 ,but the great difficulty felt by those who have favoured this idea has been the apparent impossibility of decomposing such family groups4 ,thus fluorine1 chlorine1 bromine1 and iodine1 while they appear to be related to one another in some peculiar manner1 have yet apparently resisted all attempts at decomposition1 and there are other similar instances which might easily be named4 #aeh4 ,it has1 however1 at the same time1 come to be recognised1 that heat of high temperature is a very powerful decomposing agent1 and that its office is by no means limited to causing the separation from one another of the molecules of a substance1 as1 for instance1 when it separates the molecules of water-substance or ,h#b,o from one another1 as in forming water from ice1 or steam from water4 ,it is now understood that high-temperature heat has also the power of separating the atomic constituents of a single molecule from each other1 so that at an extremely high temperature not only would water be driven into steam1 but steam driven into oxygen and hydrogen4 ,we are already familiar with many instances of this power possessed by high-temperature heat2 thus we see carbonate of lime decomposed by the heat of the kiln into lime and carbonic-acid gas4 ,we see also that at the high temperatures which accompany the electric spark almost all compounds are momentarily decomposed1 if we may judge by the spectrum of the light which is given out4 ,carrying on this line of thought1 we are led to imagine that1 could we obtain higher temperatures than those now at our disposal1 we might decompose some of those substances which at present seem to be elements4 #aei4 ,lockyer1 in his astronomical researches1 has recently started this question4 ,he argues that in the sun and stars1 and more especially in the whiter stars1 there are temperatures very much higher than any which have been here produced4 ,he assumes too that simplicity of constitution accompanies a simple spectrum1 an hypothesis which is consistent with the fact that compounds as a rule give spectra much more complicated than those of simple substances4 ,now it is a curious circumstance that the atmospheres of some of the whiter stars1 such as ,sirius1 do not appear to contain anything but hydrogen2 at least we have no indication that they do2 other stars1 again1 of less whiteness1 in addition to hydrogen1 have such substances as iron1 sodium1 etc41 while yellow1 orange1 and blood-red stars and variable stars1 appear to contain in their atmospheres substances which are compounds4 ,if then it be true that as a rule the atmospheres of the whiter stars contain the fewer elements and those of smallest atomic weight1 and that as stars diminish in whiteness their atmospheres rise in complexity of structure1 in fine1 if we have reason to associate together whiteness and simplicity1 this undoubtedly tells in favour of the power of high-temperature heat to split up the so-called elements4 ,we conclude the whiter stars to be the hotter stars1 from the fact that their spectra contain a greater proportion of the more refrangible rays than do those of yellow or red stars4 ,in fine1 a speculation of this nature is not to be summarily dismissed1 but ought to be retained as a working hypothesis which may in time throw great light on the ultimate constitution of the chemical elements4 ,is it fanciful to suppose that the passage prefixed to ,chapter ,,iii4 may refer to this1 since 7literally translated7 it stands--#8444 the elements1 intensely heated1 shall be broken up4444'8 #afj4 ,let us now turn to globe development4 ,we have alluded to this already while discussing the energy of the universe4 ,in doing so we came to the conclusion that the original state of the visible universe was a diffused or chaotic state1 in which the various particles were widely separated from one another1 but exerting on one another gravitating force1 and therefore possessed of potential energy4 ,as these particles came together1 impinged on one another1 or gathered into groups1 this potential energy was gradually transformed into the energy of heat and into that of visible motion4 ,we may thus imagine the cooling and 7except under very strict conditions of original distribution7 necessarily revolving matter in course of time to have thrown off certain parts of itself which would thereafter form satellites or planetary attendants1 while the central mass would form the sun4 ,we have here1 in fact1 the development hypothesis of ,kant and ,laplace1 and it is greatly in favour of the truth of this hypothesis that all the planetary motions of the solar system are nearly in one plane1 and also that1 looking down on the system from above that plane1 all these motions are seen to be in one and the same direction4 #afa4 ,assuming1 therefore1 that the solar system and1 pari passu1 the other sidereal systems have been formed in this way1 it is very easy to see why the central mass should be so much hotter than its attendants4 ,two causes would conduce to this4 ,in the first place1 assuming that the heat of a mass is due to the rushing together of its particles under the force of gravitation1 the velocities would be much greater for the central mass1 and hence the amount of heat 7per unit of mass1 i4e4 the temperature7 developed would be greater also4 ,in the next place1 the body being a large one would cool less rapidly than its attendant planets4 ,these two causes thus combine to render the largest bodies of the universe ever since their aggregation 7and still more now7 the hottest1 so that the same body which forms the gravitating centre of the system becomes1 when required1 also the dispenser of light and heat4 #afb4 ,now1 without speculating about the nature or extent of the ethereal medium1 we may be sure of two things4 ,in the first place1 all but an exceedingly small fraction of the light and heat of the sun and stars goes out into space and does not return to them again1 or in other words1 the sun and stars are slowly cooling4 ,to restore to the sun every instant its losses by radiation1 the whole celestial vault would have to radiate as powerfully as the sun does--in which case the earth and planets would very soon acquire 7at their surfaces7 the sun's temperature4 ,in the next place1 the visible motion of the large bodies of the universe is gradually being stopped by something which may be denominated ethereal friction4 ,it follows from this that our own sun will gradually lose his brilliancy1 and that our earth will gradually lose its orbital energy and approach the sun in a path of slowly contracting spiral convolutions4 ,at last it will become entangled with the sun1 and the result will be the conversion of the remaining orbital energy into heat1 after which the two bodies will remain one4 ,thus the tendency is that the sun shall ultimately absorb the various planets of the system1 his heat and energy being recruited by the process4 ,now1 let us imagine that the same processes are simultaneously going on in one of the nearer fixed stars1 say for instance in ,sirius4 ,after unimaginable ages these two stars1 the ,sun and ,sirius1 having each long since swallowed up his attendants1 but being nevertheless exhausted in heat-energy on account of radiation into space1 may be imagined to be travelling towards one another1 slowly at first1 but afterwards with an accelerated motion4 ,they will at last approach each other with a great velocity1 and finally form one system4 ,ultimately the two will rush together and form one mass1 the orbital energy of each 7or rather that portion of this energy which remains after ethereal friction7 being converted into heat1 and the matter being1 in consequence1 probably partly smashed into mere dust1 and partly evaporated and transformed into a gaseous1 nebulous condition4 ,ages pass away1 and the large double mass ultimately shares the same fate that long since overtook the single masses which composed it2 that is to say1 it shrinks and throws off planets1 but gives out the greater part of its light and heat into space and gradually becomes cold and dark1 until at length it comes to form one of the constituents of a still more stupendous collision1 and has its temperature raised once again by the conversion of visible energy into heat4 #afc4 ,our readers will remark how1 by a process of this kind1 the primordial potential energy of the visible universe is gradually converted into light and heat1 and how this light and heat are ultimately dissipated into space4 ,they will also remark that1 as the process goes on1 the masses of the universe become larger and larger4 ,in fine1 the dissipation of the energy of the visible universe proceeds1 pari passu1 with the aggregation of mass4 ,the very fact1 therefore1 that the large masses of the visible universe are of finite size1 is sufficient to assure us that the process cannot have been going on for ever2 or1 in other words1 that the visible universe must have had its origin in time1 and we may conclude that if the visible universe be finite in mass the process will ultimately come to an end4 ,all this is what would take place1 provided we allow the indestructibility of ordinary matter2 but we may perhaps suppose 7,art4 #aec7 that the very material of the visible universe will ultimately vanish into the invisible4 #afd4 ,there is one peculiarity of the process of development just described1 which we beg our readers to note4 ,we have supposed the visible universe1 after its production1 to have been left to its own laws2 that is to say1 to certain so-called inorganic agencies1 which for want of better knowledge we for the present call forces1 in virtue of which its development took place4#ea ,at the very first there may have been only one kind of primordial atom1 or1 to use another expression1 absolute simplicity of material4 ,as1 however1 the various atoms approached each other1 in virtue of the forces with which they were endowed1 other and more complicated structures took the place of the perfectly simple primordial stuff4 ,various kinds of molecules were produced at various temperatures1 and these ultimately came together to produce globes or worlds1 some of them comparatively small1 others very large4 ,thus the progress is from the regular to the irregular4 ,and we find a similar progress when we consider the inorganic development of our own world4 ,the action of water rounds pebbles1 but it rounds them irregularly2 it produces soil1 but the soil is irregular in the size of its grains1 and variable in constitution4 ,wherever what may be termed the brute forces of nature are left to themselves1 this is always the result3 not so1 however1 when organisms are concerned in the development4 ,two living things of the same family are more like each other than two grains of sand or than two particles of soil4 ,the eggs of birds of the same family1 the corresponding feathers of similar birds1 the ants from the same ant-hill1 all form groups whose members have a very strong likeness to each other4 ,we find this likeness still more marked when we regard certain products of human industry4 ,let us take1 for instance1 coins from the same die1 or bullets from the same mould1 or impressions from the same engraved plate1 and we at once perceive the striking difference between products developed through inorganic means and those developed through an intelligent agent designing uniformity4 #afe4 ,let us now proceed to consider life development4 ,let us imagine that the primeval atoms have long since come together1 various chemical substances being the result4 ,and let us further imagine that these various substances have long since gathered themselves into worlds1 of various sizes at first2 but that these worlds have gradually cooled down1 until one of them1 the ,earth1 let us say1 has at length reached conditions under which life 7such as we know it7 becomes possible4 ,accordingly life makes its appearance2 not the life that now is1 but something much ruder and simpler4 ,but in process of time we find quite a different order of organised beings2 a higher and more complete type has appeared1 and the type continues to rise until it culminates in the production of man1 a being endowed with intelligence1 and capable of reasoning upon the phenomena around him4 ,now1 if man reviews these organised forms which exist on the earth side by side with himself1 he perceives at once that a number of individuals possess certain characteristics in common1 and he gives expression to this experience by saying that these individuals are all of one species4 #8,when we call a group of animals or of plants a species1' says ,professor ,huxley1#eb #8we may imply thereby1 either that all these animals or plants have some common peculiarity of form or structure2 or we may mean that they possess some common functional character4 ,that part of biological science which deals with form and structure is called ,morphology2 that which concerns itself with function1 ,physiology4 ,so that we may conveniently speak of these two senses1 or aspects1 of 8species0--the one as morphological1 the other as physiological4444 ,thus horses form a species1 because the group of animals to which that name is applied is distinguished from all others in the world by the following constantly associated characters3--,they have1 #a4 a vertebral column2 #b4 mammae2 #c4 a placental embryo2 #d4 four legs2 #e4 a single well-developed toe in each foot1 provided with a hoof2 #f4 a bushy tail2 and #g4 callosities on the inner sides of both the fore and the hind legs4 ,the asses1 again1 form a distinct species1 because1 with the same characters1 as far as the fifth in the above list1 all asses have tufted tails1 and have callosities only on the inner side of the fore legs4' ,but very often the morphological peculiarities of a species are more easily recognised than expressed4 ,no one1 for instance1 would fail to rank the horse as one species and the ass as another1 even while ignorant of some of those specific peculiarities which the naturalist selects as conveying the best scientific account of their difference4 #aff4 ,let us now regard the question of species from its physiological point of view4 ,suppose that two individuals1 ,a and ,b1 of different sexes1 breed freely together1 producing offspring1 and that two individuals1 ,c and ,d1 do the like4 ,now1 if the offspring of ,a and ,b is capable of breeding freely with that of ,c and ,d1 producing offspring1 generation after generation1 then ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 and ,d may be said to belong to the same physiological species4 ,to take an illustration borrowed from ,professor ,huxley3 let us imagine that ,a is an ,arab1 and ,b a dray-horse2 also that ,c is a dray-horse1 and ,d an ,arab4 ,now the progeny of these two pairs will all be mongrels1 holding a position intermediate between that of the ,arab and the dray-horse2 but they will be perfectly fertile amongst themselves when matched together4 ,we therefore conclude that the dray-horse and the ,arab are not distinct physiological species1 but only varieties of the same species4 ,again1 let ,a be a horse and ,b an ass1 also let ,c be an ass and ,d a horse4 ,the pairs will still have offspring1 and these will be mules1 having a character intermediate between that of the horse and that of the ass2 but1 on the other hand1 these mules will not be able to breed together amongst themselves so as to produce offspring4 ,we are therefore justified in asserting that a horse and an ass are of different physiological species4 ,if we should ever attempt to pair together animals much more unlike each other than the horse and the ass1 we should simply fail4 ,they will not come together1 and we cannot tell whether1 if they did1 they would be capable of producing progeny4 ,we may therefore conclude that1 as matter of fact1 there are certain well-marked physiological species that will not breed with each other at all1 while there are other species also physiologically distinct1 but not so markedly separated from each other1 that may be brought to breed together1 their offspring being infertile4 #afg4 ,the most apparent conclusion to be deduced from these facts would be that of the invariability of species1 and of the impossibility of its transmutation--the infertility of hybrids being the law which prevents any such transmutation from taking place4 ,and as the physiological species cannot be made different the apparent conclusion is that in times past they have been always the same as they are now4 ,if this be allowed1 it follows that inasmuch as they took their origin in time1 they must have originally been produced very much as they are at the present moment1--a separate act of production being required for each species1 or rather two separate acts for each species4 ,this position has always been regarded as a stronghold by a certain class of theological thinkers1 and they have resented the attempts of men of science to obtain any other explanation of the origin of species4 ,men of science have1 on the other hand1 asserted their right to discuss this question with the same freedom as any other4 ,our point of view is somewhat different from that of either of these two parties4 ,we think it is not so much the right or privilege as the bounden duty of the man of science to put back the direct interference of the ,great ,first ,cause--the unconditioned--as far as he possibly can in time4 ,this is the intellectual or rather theoretical work which he is called upon to do--the post that has been assigned to him in the economy of the universe4 ,if1 then1 two possible theories of the production of any phenomenon are presented to the man of science1 one of these implying the immediate operation of the unconditioned1 and the other the operation of some cause existing in the universe1 we conceive that he is called upon by the most profound obligations of his nature and work to choose the second in preference to the first4 ,but we have already sufficiently discussed this question in a previous part of this book 7,art4 #he74 #afh4 ,when we examine closely into the phenomena of life we find that side by side with the general law1 that like produces like1 there is a tendency to minor variations4 ,thus we have already agreed to consider dray-horses and ,arabs as varieties of the species horse2 and in like manner pouters1 carriers1 fan-tails1 and tumblers are all varieties of the species rock-pigeon4 ,we are therefore led to ask how such varieties were originally produced1 and how they become perpetuated after their production4 ,now it is well known that there occurs occasionally an accountable variation1 so marked in its nature as to be worthy of historical record4 ,two very interesting and instructive instances of this are given by ,professor ,huxley1 and we take the liberty of quoting these in the ,professor's own words3-- #8,the first of them is that of the 8,ancon10 or 8,otter0 sheep1 of which a careful account is given by ,colonel ,david ,humphreys1 ,f4,r4,s41 in a letter to ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 published in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahac4 ,it appears that one ,seth ,wright1 the proprietor of a farm on the banks of the ,charles ,river in ,massachusetts1 possessed a flock of fifteen ewes and a ram of the ordinary kind4 ,in the year #agia1 one of the ewes presented her owner with a male lamb differing1 for no assignable reason1 from its parents by a proportionally long body and short bandy legs1 whence it was unable to emulate its relatives in those sportive leaps over the neighbours' fences1 in which they were in the habit of indulging1 much to the good farmer's vexation4 99 99 99 99 99 #8,with the 'cuteness characteristic of their nation1 the neighbours of the ,massachusetts farmer imagined it would be an excellent thing if all his sheep were imbued with the stay-at-home tendencies enforced by nature upon the newly arrived ram1 and they advised ,wright to kill the old patriarch of his fold1 and install the ,ancon ram in his place4 ,the result justified their sagacious anticipations4444 ,the young lambs were almost always either pure ,ancons or pure ordinary sheep4 ,but when sufficient ,ancon sheep were obtained to interbreed with one another it was found that the offspring was always pure ,ancon4' #8,the second case is that detailed by a no less unexceptionable authority than ,raumur1 in his ,art de faire clore les ,poulets4 ,a ,maltese couple named ,kelleia1 whose hands and feet were constructed upon the ordinary human model1 had born to them a son1 ,gratio1 who possessed six perfectly moveable fingers on each hand1 and six toes1 not quite so well formed1 on each foot4 ,no cause could be assigned for the appearance of this unusual variety of the human species4 ,but however they may have arisen1 what especially interests us is to remark that1 once in existence1 varieties obey the fundamental law of reproduction1 that like tends to produce like1 and their offspring exemplify it by tending to exhibit the same deviation from the parental stock as themselves4 ,indeed1 there seems to be in many instances a prepotent influence about a newly arisen variety which gives it what we may call an unfair advantage over the normal descendants from the same stock4 ,this is strikingly exemplified by the case of ,gratio ,kelleia1 who married a woman with the ordinary pentadactyle extremities and had by her four children1 ,salvator1 ,george1 ,andr1 and ,marie4 ,of these children ,salvator1 the eldest boy1 had six fingers and six toes1 like his father2 the second and third1 also boys1 had five fingers and five toes1 like their mother1 though the hands and feet of ,george were slightly deformed2 the last1 a girl1 had five fingers and five toes1 but the thumbs were slightly deformed4 ,the variety thus reproduced itself purely in the eldest1 while the normal type reproduced itself purely in the third1 and almost purely in the second and last2 so that it would seem1 at first1 as if the normal type were more powerful than the variety4 ,but all these children grew up and intermarried with normal wives and husbands1 and then note what took place--,salvator had four children1 three of whom exhibited the hexadactyle members of their grandfather and father1 while the youngest had the pentadactyle limbs of the mother and grandmother2 so that here1 notwithstanding a double pentadactyle dilution of the blood the hexadactyle variety had the best of it4 ,the same prepotency of the variety was still more markedly exemplified in the progeny of two of the other children1 ,marie and ,george4 ,marie 7whose thumbs only were deformed7 gave birth to a boy with six toes1 and three other normally formed children2 but ,george1 who was not quite so pure a pentadactyle1 begot1 first1 two girls1 each of whom had six fingers and toes2 then a girl with six fingers on each hand1 and six toes on the right foot1 but only five toes on the left2 and lastly1 a boy with only five fingers and toes4 ,in these instances1 therefore1 the variety1 as it were1 leaped over one generation to reproduce itself in full force in the next4 ,finally1 the purely pentadactyle ,andr was the father of many children1 not one of whom departed from the normal parental type4' #afi4 ,the instances now quoted illustrate two things4 ,both tell us how varieties arise1 we may say spontaneously1 or in other words we cannot tell how2 and the former instance1 that of the ,ancon breed1 shows us moreover that such varieties when they do occur may be rendered permanent by means of artificial selection4 ,if the six-fingered descendants of ,gratio ,kelleia had been forced to intermarry amongst themselves it is highly probable that we should have had a permanent hexadactyle variety of the human race4 ,it has likewise been shown by ,charles ,darwin that the pouter1 the fan-tail1 the carrier1 and the tumbler are all varieties of the common rock-pigeon4 #agj4 ,it thus appears that permanent varieties may be produced by artificial selection4 ,now ,darwin and ,wallace have brought before us the very great fact that similar changes can also be produced by natural selection4 ,to illustrate this1 let us imagine a slight variety to arise spontaneously1 we do not know how4 ,having arisen there is a #8prepotent influence' about it which enables it to secure a considerable proportion of offspring having its own characteristics4 ,now1 suppose that the characteristics are such as to adapt the individuals possessing them more perfectly to the conditions of nature which surround them4 ,when1 by breeding amongst themselves1 the new variety is rendered permanent1 the members of this variety will1 therefore1 have an advantage over their elder brethren so far as certain conditions of nature are concerned1 will in fact succeed better in the struggle for existence1 and will ultimately displace the elder branches4 ,thus the struggle for existence bears to natural selection the same relation as man bears to artificial selection4 #aga4 ,we now come to the real point of difficulty1 or at least the unproved point1 in the ,darwinian hypothesis4 ,we may cross one race with another1 but we do not obtain1 so far as we know1 those phenomena of infertility which are exhibited when we cross distinct species with each other4 ,the ,ancon sheep were perfectly fertile when matched with their elder brethren1 and the dray-horse and the ,arab1 or the pouter and the tumbler1 breed together as easily as if they were of the same race4 ,but if we cannot produce infertility1 how can we apply the results of artificial selection to account for the origin of species8 ,this difficulty is met by ,darwin and his followers in this way3--#8,it is not as yet proved1' says ,professor ,huxley1 #8that a race ever exhibits1 when crossed with another race of the same species1 those phenomena of hybridisation which are exhibited by many species when crossed with other species4 ,on the other hand1 not only is it not proved that all species give rise to hybrids infertile inter se1 but there is much reason to believe that1 in crossing1 species exhibit every gradation from perfect sterility to perfect fertility4' ,this appears to carry weight2 the old theory went with a leap from perfect fertility to perfect sterility1 and did not contemplate the possibility of a continuous gradation from the one extreme to the other2 at least its argument was founded upon the neglect of such a gradation4 ,but if there be a gradation of this kind1 it follows that infertility will merely represent the results of crossing two species whose functional characteristics are very different from each other2 and1 on the other hand1 the reason why artificially produced varieties are not infertile when crossed with one another may only be that the experiment has not been continued long enough4 ,time1 in fact1 is the essential requisite in all such attempts to imitate nature4 #agb4 ,in connection with this subject1 ,mr4 ,darwin has remarked that certain plants are more fertile with the pollen of another species than with their own2 and ,professor ,huxley tells us that there are certain fuci whose male element will fertilise the ovule of a plant of distinct species1 while the males of the latter species are ineffective with the females of the first4 ,so obscure in some of its branches is the working of the reproductive system4 ,again1 the following remark by ,mr4 ,darwin is very suggestive3-- #8,first crosses between forms known to be varieties1 or sufficiently alike to be considered as varieties1 and their mongrel offspring1 are very generally1 but not quite universally1 fertile4 ,nor is this nearly general and perfect fertility surprising1 when we remember how liable we are to argue in a circle with respect to varieties in a state of nature2 and when we remember that the greater number of varieties have been produced under domestication1 by the selection of mere external differences1 and not of differences in the reproductive system4 ,in all other respects1 excluding fertility1 there is a close general resemblance between hybrids and mongrels4' #agc4 ,the result of all these speculations is to render it probable that there may be in nature1 give it time enough1 a process which leads to the transmutation of species4 ,the accumulation of successive differences1 each representing some element of success in the struggle for life1 may easily be imagined to be capable of producing1 in the course of ages1 a very great change4 ,reasoning out this hypothesis1 the more advanced followers of ,mr4 ,darwin do not hesitate to describe all the varieties of living things1 including man1 as the results of development from some primordial germ taking place throughout the course of immeasurable ages4 ,and ,mr4 ,darwin himself1 in his work on the ,descent of ,man1 lays great stress on the occurrence of homologous structures in man and the lower animals1 as well as on the development in man of rudimentary structures1 which are either absolutely useless to their possessor1 or of very slight service indeed1 but which appear to serve as an index of the various stages through which the human species has passed in its progress upwards from lower forms of life4 #agd4 ,mr4 ,wallace1 however1 sees in the production of man the intervention of an external will4 ,he remarks that the lowest types of savages are in possession of a brain1 and of capacities far beyond any use to which they could apply them in their present condition1 and that therefore they could not have been evolved from the mere necessities of their environments4 #age4 ,finally1 ,professor ,huxley imagines the possibility of the ,darwinian hypothesis requiring modification4 ,alluding to the assumed circularity of the planetary orbits which followed the establishment of the ,copernican hypothesis 7,art4 #fi71 he remarks3-- #8,but the planetary orbits turned out to be not quite circular after all1 and1 grand as was the service ,copernicus rendered to science1 ,kepler and ,newton had to come after him4 ,what if the orbit of ,darwinism should be a little too circular8 ,what if species should offer residual phenomena1 here and there1 not explicable by natural selection8 ,twenty years hence naturalists may be in a position to say whether this is1 or is not1 the case2 but in either event they will owe the author of 8,the ,origin of ,species0 an immense debt of gratitude4' #agf4 ,we will defer to our last chapter some further remarks on ,mr4 ,darwin's hypothesis4 ,meanwhile1 before concluding1 let us briefly allude to the original production of living things on our globe4 ,it may1 perhaps1 eventually be possible by means of a hypothesis of evolution1 to account for the great variety of living forms on the supposition of a single primordial germ to begin with2 but the difficulty still remains how to account for this germ4 ,it is against all true scientific experience that life can appear without the intervention of a living antecedent4 ,how then are we to explain the production of the primordial germ8 ,the difficulty of doing so from our point of view would appear to be unusually great1 for we have come to the conclusion that1 as a matter of scientific principle1 we cannot admit any such breach of continuity as a pure act of creation in time would imply4 ,if1 then1 a pure act of creation in time be an inadmissible hypothesis1 and if the hypothesis of ,abiogenesis be equally inadmissible1 our readers may well ask how are we to surmount the difficulty4 ,for our reply to this question1 we must once more beg to refer them to our concluding chapter4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,speculations ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,possibility ,,of ,,superior ,,intelligences ,,tn ,,the ,,visible ,,universe4 #8,the earth hath bubbles1 as the water has1 ,and these are of them4'--,,shakespeare1 ,macbeth4 #agg4 ,our readers are now aware from what we have said in ,chapter ,,ii4 that the two great requisites for organised existence are1 in the first place1 an organ of memory1 giving the individual a hold upon the past1 and secondly1 the possibility of varied action in the present1 and that unless these two things are fulfilled life is simply inconceivable4 ,again1 in ,chapters ,,iii41 ,,iv41 and ,v4 we have sufficiently discussed the visible universe and its potentialities4 ,we have seen that although at present it contains the essential requisites for organised existence1 yet1 in the remote future1 a time will necessarily arrive when1 through a degradation of the ,energy of this universe1 or at least of one part of it1 that variety of motion which is essential to life will be unattainable4 ,immortality is1 therefore1 impossible or hardly possible in such a universe2 but even allowing all this to be the case1 it is at least conceivable that man may be at death drafted off into some superior rank of being connected with the present universe1 and thence ultimately removed into a new order of things when the present universe shall have become effete4 ,let us now1 therefore1 very briefly discuss the question as to the possibility of intelligences superior to man existing in the present visible universe4 ,and1 in order to commence this inquiry1 let us analyse with some minuteness the physical source of that peculiarity which the present universe possesses1 in virtue of which it affords living beings the means of a varied existence4 ,whence is all this power derived8 ,how comes it about that a living being possesses that abruptness and spontaneity of action which peculiarly characterise it8 ,in fine1 let us consider the exact position of life in the present physical universe4 #agh4 ,now1 in the first place1 it is well known that equilibrium may be of two kinds1 stable and unstable1 and if we take an egg balanced on its end at the edge of a table as an example of mechanical instability1 we shall see that it #8depends upon some external impulse so infinitesimally small as to elude our observation whether the egg shall fall upon the floor and give rise to a comparatively large transmutation of energy1 or whether it shall fall upon the table and give rise to a transmutation comparatively small4'#ec ,but1 just as there are other forces besides gravity1 so there are other varieties of instability besides that which we treat of in mechanics4 ,we may1 for instance1 have molecular instability1 such as characterises water cooled below the freezing point1 or a supersaturated solution of ,glauber's salt1 where the advent of the smallest possible crystal of ice or of ,glauber's salt is sufficient to bring about a marked molecular change in the liquid1 which immediately becomes thick with deposited crystals2 or again1 we may have chemical instability in which the slightest impulse of any kind may determine a chemical change1 just as in mechanical instability the slightest possible impulse may determine a mechanical change4 ,thus fulminating silver or nitroglycerine are familiar examples of chemical instability in which the slightest blow or the smallest spark may be sufficient to bring about an instantaneous and violent generation of heated gas4 #agi4 ,again1 all machines--that is to say1 all material systems--must necessarily be of two kinds1 one of which makes use of the stable forces of nature and the other of the unstable4 ,the following quotation from a work on ,energy1 by one of the authors of this book1 will sufficiently explain what is meant3#ed-- #8,when we speak of a structure1 or a machine1 or a system1 we simply mean a number of individual particles associated together in producing some definite result4 ,thus1 the solar system1 a timepiece1 a rifle1 are examples of inanimate machines2 while an animal1 a human being1 an army1 are examples of animated structures or machines4 ,now1 such machines or structures are of two kinds1 which differ from one another not only in the object sought1 but also in the means of attaining that object4 #8,in the first place1 we have structures or machines in which systematic action is the object aimed at1 and in which all the arrangements are of a conservative nature1 the element of instability being avoided as much as possible4 ,the solar system1 a timepiece1 a steam-engine at work1 are examples of such machines1 and the characteristic of all such is their calculability4 ,thus the skilled astronomer can tell1 with the utmost precision1 in what place the moon or the planet ,venus will be found this time next year4 ,or again1 the excellence of a timepiece consists in its various hands pointing accurately in a certain direction after a certain interval of time4 ,in like manner we may safely count upon a steamship making so many knots an hour1 at least while the outward conditions remain the same4 ,in all these cases we make our calculations1 and we are not deceived--the end sought is regularity of action1 and the means employed is a stable arrangement of the forces of nature4 #8,now1 the characteristics of the other class of machines are precisely the reverse4 #8,here the object aimed at is not a regular1 but a sudden and violent1 transmutation of energy1 while the means employed are unstable arrangements of natural forces4 ,a rifle at full-cock1 with a delicate hair-trigger1 is a very good instance of such a machine1 where the slightest touch from without may bring about the explosion of the gunpowder1 and the propulsion of the ball with a very great velocity4 ,now1 such machines are eminently characterised by their incalculability4 #8,it is thus apparent that1 as regards energy1 structures are of two kinds4 ,in one of these1 the object sought is regularity of action1 and the means employed1 a stable arrangement of natural forces2 while in the other1 the end sought is freedom of action1 and a sudden transmutation of energy1 the means employed being an unstable arrangement of natural forces4 #8,the one set of machines are characterised by their calculability--the other by their incalculability4 ,the one set1 when at work1 are not easily put wrong1 while the other set are characterised by great delicacy of construction4' #ahj4 ,having thus defined the two kinds of machines1 let us now see to what extent a living being may be regarded as a machine1 and also to which of these two categories he belongs4 ,what our machines enable us to do is merely to transform energy4 ,our readers are well aware1 by what we have already said 7,art4 #ajb71 that it is just as impossible to create energy as it is to create matter4 ,thus a clock has to be wound up before it will go2 an engine has to be stoked with coal2 a rifle or cannon has to be charged with powder2 and in short1 all machines1 whether delicately constructed or not1 whether calculable or incalculable1 are merely transmuters of energy and not creators of it4 ,to this law the living being is no exception4 ,the creatures of this world 7and it is of such we are now speaking7 are certainly not creators of energy2 but in respect of the great law of the conservation of energy1 such beings must be regarded in the very same light as any other machines4 ,but there is yet another analogy between living beings and inanimate machines4 ,when we study the working of any machine1 we find that each transformation of energy brought about has a material antecedent2 the effect produced has a cause from which it springs1 and this cause is one which we are probably able to recognise from our knowledge of the laws of matter4 ,to take an example3 in a steam-engine the amount of work produced depends upon the amount of heat carried from the boiler to the condenser2 and this amount depends in its turn upon the amount of coal which is burned in the furnace of the engine4 ,in like manner1 the velocity of the bullet which issues from a rifle depends upon the transformation of the energy of the powder2 this in its turn depends upon the explosion of the percussion cap2 this again upon the fall of the trigger2 and lastly this upon the finger of the man who fires the rifle4 ,now1 without attempting to define what life is1 and leaving all speculations regarding it to our last chapter1 we yet think it may safely be said that a living being is analogous to a machine in this particular also4 ,let us take the man who fires the rifle4 ,we can trace back the motion of his forefinger to the contraction of a muscle2 and we can go even further back and connect this contraction with a stimulus sent along the nerves from the brain1 so that a material effect is here seen to be brought about by a material antecedent1 just as truly as in an inanimate machine4 ,indeed1 we may generalise1 and say that1 so far as we can physically investigate a living being1 we may take it for granted that a material effect is due to a strictly material antecedent in his case also4 #aha4 ,we have thus discussed two respects in which a living being is analogous to a machine1 and the next point is to determine which of the two classes of machines most resembles the living being4 ,is he analogous to the solar system1 a steam-engine1 or a clock8 or is he rather analogous to some delicately constructed machine1 such1 for instance1 as a rifle8 ,there can1 we think1 be no doubt that a living being most resembles a delicately constructed machine4 ,for what is the characteristic of such a machine8 ,it is that in it a comparatively great transformation of energy may be brought about by a comparatively small physical antecedent4 ,thus a slight breath of air may determine the fall of the egg off the table1 or a slight tap the explosion of a large quantity of fulminating silver4 ,so in the human being1 a very small and obscure transmutation of energy in the mysterious brain-chamber may determine some very violent motion4 #8,life is not a bully who swaggers out into the open universe1 upsetting the laws of energy in all directions1 but rather a consummate strategist1 who1 sitting in his secret chamber over his wires1 directs the movements of a great army4'#ee #ahb4 ,granting then that a living being is a delicately constructed machine1 the next point is to determine what process of delicacy1 what peculiar arrangement of unstable forces1 is employed in his construction8 ,now it is very easy to perceive that the delicacy in this case is brought about by an unstable arrangement of chemical forces4 ,it is plain that the body of an animal is a chemically unstable product1 and if1 as one consequence of this1 great freedom of action and delicacy are possessed during life1 it is another consequence that the extinction of life is very speedily followed by decay4 ,the body then owes its delicacy to its chemically unstable nature2 to a peculiar collocation of particles which certainly would not1 in virtue of their own merely physical forces1 have united themselves together as we find them in the body4 #ahc4 ,to what1 then1 is due this peculiar grouping of particles in the living body8 ,we reply that it is1 in one sense at least1 derived from the food which is eaten4 ,if animal food is eaten1 it is of course derived from the body of the animal which is consumed4 ,that animal may possibly have derived it from another animal1 but more probably it has been derived in this case direct from the vegetable world4 ,ultimately1 therefore1 it is to this world that we must look as the source of that delicately constructed substance which plays such a wonderful and important part in the animal economy4 ,if we go one link further back in the chain of causation1 we shall be carried from the vegetable world to the sun as the great and ultimate physical source of that high-class energy and delicacy of construction which characterise vegetable products4 ,it is1 in truth1 owing to the actinic rays of our luminary that vegetable tissue is manufactured in the leaves of plants1 the carbonic acid of the air being decomposed1 and oxygen given out1 while the carbon1 united with other substances1 and modified thereby1 is retained by the plant to form part of its substance1 or perchance to become the food of animals4 #ahd4 ,we have therefore now arrived at the conclusion that the delicacy of construction which our frames require is ultimately derived from the sun1 so far at least as the visible universe is concerned4 ,if then we would reply to the question of this chapter1 whether or not there may be beings superior to man connected with this present universe1 let us look abroad and endeavour to ascertain whether there be in this universe any other obvious process of delicacy besides that which characterises the bodies of animals like ourselves4 ,now1 it has been pointed out that1 in the atmospheric changes of this world1 and more particularly of the sun1 we have processes of great delicacy4 ,it is believed that the positions of the planets ,mercury and ,venus affect the behaviour of sun-spots1 and thus determine the conditions of atmospheric changes on the surface of our luminary that are absolutely overwhelming in their magnitude4 ,we have only to reflect that a large sun-spot might swallow up fifty planets like our earth1 and that some of the currents connected with it move at the rate of #ajj miles per second1 in order to realise the enormous scale of these solar outbreaks4 ,again1 it is believed that the state of the solar surface with regard to spots determines the storms of our earth1 so that hurricanes are most numerous in the ,indian ,ocean as well as on the coast of ,america during years of maximum sun-spots4#ef ,but if such results are brought about by the relative positions of the planets of our system1 it is evident that the cause is more analogous to the pulling of the trigger of a cannon ready to go off than to a downright blow4 ,in fact1 a vast transformation of energy in the sun is brought about by some obscure and ill-understood but comparatively trivial cause connected with the position of the nearer planets of our system4 ,we have here a case where the magnitude of the effect is out of all proportion to that of the antecedent2 now this is1 in other words1 the definition of delicacy already given 7,art4 #agi74 ,but1 again1 if delicacy of construction characterise the meteorological changes in the various members of our system1 it is entirely absent from the orbital motions of these bodies4 ,these want that great characteristic of delicacy1 incalculability2 for they are not only pre-eminently calculable1 but are now calculated years beforehand as part of the regular business of the world4 ,on the other hand1 the meteorological changes of our earth and of the sun come upon us with all the abruptness characteristic of delicacy1 and are eminently incalculable4 ,the hurricane and the lightning-flash are processes of ,nature which man has in every age been prone to associate with personal intelligences4 ,he has instinctively recognised the similarity between these abrupt and startling phenomena and the actions of an angry and powerful being4 #ahe4 ,it may no doubt be long since there has been anything like an extensive worship of the powers of nature amongst the civilised nations of the earth1 but there may yet be found1 even at the present day1 especially amongst imaginative races1 and in wild and mountainous regions1 a lingering belief that personal agents are concerned in the more startling natural phenomena4 ,such a belief was extensively prevalent during the middle ages1 and whole volumes might easily be filled with an account of medival superstitions and legends relating to this subject1 sometimes dark and terrible1 and at other times possessing a peculiar and pathetic beauty which does not belong to anything else4 ,the air1 the earth1 and the water have all been peopled with spirits2 some of them friendly to man1 some of them his deadly enemies4 ,they are powerful1 and conscious of their power1 but at the same time profoundly and mournfully aware that they are without a soul4 ,their life depends1 it may be1 upon the continuance of some natural object1 and hence for them there is no immortality4 ,sometimes1 however1 an elemental spirit procures a soul by means of a loving union with one of the human race1 and the beautiful romance of ,undine is built upon this fancy4 ,at other times the reverse happens1 and the soul of the mortal is lost who1 leaving the haunts of men1 associates with these soulless but often amiable and affectionate beings4 #8,the ,forsaken ,merman1' by ,matthew ,arnold1 expresses this fancy in a very beautiful and touching manner3-- #8,children dear1 was it yesterday 7,call once more7 that she went away8 ,once she sate with you and me ,on a red gold throne in the heart of the sea1 ,and the youngest sate on her knee4 ,she comb'd its bright hair1 and she tended it well1 ,when down swung the sound of the far-off bell4 ,she sigh'd1 she look'd up through the clear green sea2 ,she said1 8,i must go1 for my kinsfolk pray ,in the little grey church on the shore to-day4 ',twill be ,easter time in the world--ah me6 ,and ,i lose my poor soul1 ,merman1 here with thee40 ,i said1 8,go up1 dear heart1 through the waves2 ,say thy prayers and come back to the kind sea-caves40 ,she smiled1 she went up through the surf in the bay4 ,children dear1 was it yesterday8' #ahf4 ,a conception1 in some respects analogous to that now mentioned1 but in other respects very different from it1 is that which attributes a soul to the universe2 and it has even been imagined that the whole visible universe forms1 as it were1 one gigantic brain4 ,others again appear inclined to believe that there may be many cosmical intelligences1 each embracing the whole universe1 and therefore interpenetrating one another1 and at the same time taking part in its government by means of such processes of delicacy as those we have mentioned4 #ahg4 ,now1 before proceeding further in the discussion of these speculations1 let us here state more definitely than we have yet done what is the real point in question4 ,it is not so much the possibility of the delicate processes of nature being directed by an intelligent agency2 this is in reality a different question1 and one which will be discussed in our concluding chapter4 ,but the question now before us is1 whether any such agency may be said to belong to the present visible universe8 ,to make our meaning clear3 we know that we ourselves belong to the present visible universe4 ,again1 there are many of us who believe that angelic intelligences are the ministers of ,god's providence4 ,now1 whether this doctrine be true or not 7and we are not now concerned about its truth71 it is evident that such intelligences cannot be said to belong to the present physical universe4 ,the organisation which they possess1 and without which 7,art4 #fa7 we cannot imagine a finite intelligence to exist1 is most assuredly nothing that can be perceived by our bodily senses1 nor can we imagine that their existence is at all dependent on the fate of the visible universe2 in fine1 they do not belong to it4 ,our present question1 therefore1 is whether we can associate the delicate cosmical processes of the visible universe with the operations of intelligences residing in this universe and belonging to it1 and to this question we must assuredly give a negative reply4 #ahh4 ,we entertain no doubt that man and beings at least analogous to man represent the highest order of living things connected with the present visible universe4 ,for1 in the first place1 although there is abundant evidence of delicacy of construction in the cosmical processes of this universe1 there is no evidence of an organisation such as that which observation leads us to associate with the presence of life4 ,in the next place1 whatever view we may entertain of the ,darwinian hypothesis and the relation of man to the lower animals1 there can be no doubt that they are all of a similar physical construction4 ,what physiologists term the matter of life is very much the same in all1 so that the body of any one animal may in general afford food for any other4 ,now1 is it likely that there are two living systems1 absolutely distinct and as different from one another as we can well imagine1 both connected with the visible universe8 ,we think this view would imply such a want of unity in the plan of development as to be absolutely fatal to its reception1 even as a working hypothesis4 ,on these accounts1 therefore1 we do not hesitate to dismiss the conception of a superior order of beings connected with the present physical universe as one which is altogether untenable4 #ahi4 ,if we now turn from the verdict of science to the sacred writings of the ,jews1 we find that one grand idea which pervades the whole of the ,old ,testament is man's absolute superiority and practical sovereignty over all created beings whom he can perceive otherwise than with the mind's eye4 ,he is supreme1 or it is part of his work on earth to become supreme1 over all that can be perceived by his senses1 i4e4 all the visible and tangible world4 ,thus we read in ,gen4 i4 #bh3 #8,and ,god blessed them3 and ,god said unto them1 ,be fruitful1 and multiply1 and replenish the earth1 and subdue it2 and have dominion over the fish of the sea1 and over the fowl of the air1 and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth4' ,again1 we read 7,psalm viii4 #e1 #f73 #8,for thou hast made him a little lower than the angels1 and hast crowned him with glory and honour4 ,thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands2 thou hast put all things under his feet4' ,it appears that the correct reading of the first part of this is1 #8,thou hast made him little less than divine1' etc4 #aij4 ,it is worthy of note that the same idea is still more fully developed in the ,new ,testament1 where it is confessed that1 in one very important respect1 this superiority of man is seen to fail4 ,he has greatly enlarged his powers over nature1 and has by these means much ameliorated the condition of his race2 yet death overtakes him just as remorselessly and as ruthlessly as if he were a savage of no account4 ,he may meet death fearlessly1 conscious that he has at least done something for the good of his fellows4 ,but what does it all amount to8 ,death will ultimately overtake the race just as remorselessly as the individual4 ,now it is this fearful enemy1 this terrible exception to the domination of man1 which ,christ1 as the ,son and type of man1 is commissioned to destroy4 ,thus we read 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #be73 #8,for he must reign1 till he hath put all enemies under his feet4 ,the last enemy that shall be destroyed is death4 ,for he hath put all things under his feet4' ,and presently 7verse #ed7 the apostle breaks forth into the following triumphant and beautiful language3--#8,so when this corruptible shall have put on incorruption1 and this mortal shall have put on immortality1 then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written1 ,death is swallowed up in victory4' ,again we read 7,heb4 ii4 #h73 #8,for in that he put all in subjection under him1 he left nothing that is not put under him4 ,but now we see not yet all things put under him3 but we see ,jesus1 who was made a little lower than the angels for the suffering of death1 crowned with glory and honour2 that he by the grace of ,god should taste death for every man4 ,for it became him1 for whom are all things1 and by whom are all things1 in bringing many sons unto glory1 to make the ,captain of their salvation perfect through sufferings4' ,here again it appears that instead of the phrase #8made a little lower than the angels1' we should read1 #8made for a little time lower than the angels'--i4e4 an idea identical in meaning with the phrase #8made under the law1' the ,old ,testament law being viewed as administered by angels4 ,from this dispensation1 in which cosmical powers come between man and ,god1 ,christ frees us1 by himself for a little time entering into it1 and even under it meeting death4 #aia4 ,from all this we may conclude that both science and religion tell us the same tale4 ,they inform us that man1 and beings similar to man1 are at the head of the visible universe4 ,no doubt religion informs us1 in addition to this1 that there are other beings above man1 but these do not live in the visible universe1 but in that which is unseen and eternal4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,unseen ,,universe4 #8,for ,i reckon1 that the sufferings of this present time are not worthy to be compared with the glory which shall be revealed in us4 ,for the earnest expectation of the creature waiteth for the manifestation of the sons of ,god4'--,,st4 ,,paul 7,rom4 viii4 #ah1 #ai74 #8,rabbi ,jacob said1 8,this world is as it were the anteroom of the world to come4 ,prepare thyself in the anteroom so that thou mayest be fit to enter the banquet-room40'--,mishna1 ,pirke ,aboth1 chap4 iv4 par4 #af4 #8,eternal process moving on ,from state to state the spirit walks1 ,and these are but the shatter'd stalks1 ,or ruin'd chrysalis of one4'--,,tennyson4 #aib4 ,in the preceding chapters we have examined by the light of our present knowledge the possibilities contained in the visible universe4 ,what is it good for in the way of possible immortality8 is the question we have tried to answer4 ,it will have been seen that the reply is eminently unfavourable4 ,if we take the individual man to begin with1 we find that he lives his short tale of years1 and that then the visible machinery which connects him with the past1 as well as that which enables him to act in the present1 falls into ruin and is brought to an end4 ,if any germ or potentiality remains1 it is certainly not connected with the visible order of things4 ,if we next consider the human race we find that the state of advancement to which they have attained is in many respects greatly due to their physical surroundings4 ,coal and iron have been as instrumental in promoting knowledge as ,galileo and ,newton1 but our whole stock of these materials will come to an end4 ,by economy it may be possible to lengthen out the period during which they can be supplied1 but is it not manifest that we are year by year exhausting them as sources of available energy8 ,are we not inevitably led to conclude that our present state cannot last even for a lengthened period1 but will be brought to an end long before the inevitable dissipation of energy shall have rendered our earth unfit for habitation8 #aic4 ,but even supposing that man1 in some form1 is permitted to remain on the earth for a long series of years1 we merely lengthen out the period1 but we cannot escape the final catastrophe4 ,the earth will gradually lose its energy of rotation1 as well as that of revolution round the sun4 ,the sun himself will wax dim and become useless as a source of energy1 until at last the favourable conditions of the present solar system will have quite disappeared4 ,but what happens to our system will happen likewise to the whole visible universe 7,art4 #aaf71 which will1 if finite1 become in time a lifeless mass1 if indeed it be not doomed to utter dissolution4 ,in fine1 it will become old and effete1 no less truly than the individual--it is a glorious garment this visible universe1 but not an immortal one--we must look elsewhere if we are to be clothed with immortality as with a garment4 #aid4 ,now1 if we regard the dissipation of energy which is constantly going on1 we are at first sight forcibly struck with the apparently wasteful character of the arrangements of the visible universe4 ,all but a very small portion of the sun's heat goes day by day into what we call empty space1 and it is only this very small remainder which can be made use of by the various planets for purposes of their own4 ,could anything be more perplexing than this seemingly prodigal expenditure of the very life and essence of our system8 ,that all but a petty fraction of this vast store of high-class energy should be doing nothing but travelling outwards in space at the rate of #ahh1jjj miles per second is hardly conceivable1 especially when the result of it is the inevitable destruction of the visible universe1 unless we imagine this to be infinite1 and so capable of endless degradation4 #aie4 ,if1 however1 we continue to dwell upon this astounding phenomenon1 we begin to perceive that we are not entitled to assert that this luminous energy does nothing but continue to travel outwards4 ,it is perhaps too much to say that ,struve's speculations prove an ethereal absorption1 but they must be taken in connection with other considerations4 ,we have already maintained 7,art4 #aea71 that we cannot regard the ether as a perfect fluid4 ,now it is not easy to suppose that in such a substance all vibratory motion should pass outwards without in the smallest degree becoming absorbed or changing its type4 ,we are prepared doubtless to expect a great difference between the ether and visible matter in this respect1 but can hardly imagine that it is absolutely free from the capacity of altering the type of the energy which passes through it4 ,such a hypothesis appears to us to violate the principle of continuity4 #aif4 ,but we may go even further than luminiferous vibrations which take their rise chiefly at the surfaces of bodies1 and extend our speculations into the interior of substances1 since the law of gravitation assures us that any displacement which takes place in the very heart of the earth will be felt throughout the universe1 and we may even imagine that the same thing will hold true of those molecular motions 7,art4 #ef7 which accompany thought4 ,for every thought we think is accompanied by a displacement and motion of the particles of the brain1 and we may imagine that somehow these motions are propagated throughout the universe4 ,views of this nature were long ago entertained by ,babbage1 and they have since commended themselves to several men of science1 and amongst others to ,jevons4 #8,mr4 ,babbage1' says this author1#eg #8has pointed out#eh that if we had power to follow and detect the minutest effects of any disturbance1 each particle of existing matter must be a register of all that has happened4' #aig4 ,but again1 we are compelled to imagine 7,art4 #bae7 that what we see has originated in the unseen1 and in using this term1 we desire to go back even further than the ether1 which1 according to one hypothesis 7,art4 #aeb71 has given rise to the visible order of things4 ,and again1 we must resort to the unseen not only for the origin of the molecules of the visible universe1 but also for an explanation of the forces which animate these molecules 7,art4 #aej71 and not only so1 but we are always carried back from one order of the unseen to another 7,art4 #bbj74 ,now if this be the case--if ,,the ,,universe be constructed with successive orders of this description connected with one another--it is manifest that no event whatever1 whether we regard its antecedent or its consequent1 can possibly be confined to one order only1 but must spread throughout ,,the ,,entire ,,universe4 #aih4 ,to conclude3 we are thus led to believe that there exists now an invisible order of things intimately connected with the present1 and capable of acting energetically upon it--for1 in truth1 the energy of the present system is to be looked upon as originally derived from the invisible universe1 while the forces which give rise to transmutations of energy probably take their origin in the same region4 ,and it appears to us to be more natural to imagine that a universe of this nature1 which we have reason to think exists1 and is connected by bonds of energy with the visible universe1 is also capable of receiving energy from it1 and of transforming the energy so received4 ,in fine1 it appears to us less likely that by far the larger portion of the high-class energy of the present universe is travelling outwards into space with an immense velocity1 than that it is being gradually transferred into an invisible order of things4 ,this last conclusion is1 however1 more of the nature of a speculation1 and is by no means essential to our argument4 #aii4 ,if we now turn to thought1 we find1 7,art4 #ei7 that1 inasmuch as it affects the substance of the present visible universe1 it produces a material organ of memory4 ,but the motions which accompany thought must originate in and also affect the invisible order of things1 because in the first place the forces which cause those motions are derived from the unseen1 and because1 secondly1 the motions themselves must act upon the unseen1 and thus it follows1 that #8,thought conceived to affect the matter of another universe simultaneously with this may explain a future state' 7see ,anagram1 ,nature1 ,october #ae1 #ahgd74 #bjj4 ,this idea1 however1 requires further development and explanation4 ,let us therefore begin by supposing that we possess a frame1 or the rudiments of a frame1 connecting us with the invisible universe1 which we may call the soul4 ,now each thought we think is accompanied by certain molecular motions and displacements in the brain1 and parts of these1 let us allow1 are in some way stored up in that organ1 so as to produce what may be termed our material or physical memory4 ,other parts of these motions are1 however1 communicated to the invisible body1 and are there stored up1 forming a memory which may be made use of when that body is free to exercise its functions4 #bja4 ,again1 one of the arguments 7,art4 #hd7 which proves the existence of the invisible universe1 demands that it shall be full of energy when the present universe is defunct4 ,we can therefore very well imagine that after death1 when the soul is free to exercise its functions1 it may be replete with energy1 and have eminently the power of action in the present1 retaining also1 as we have shown above1 a hold upon the past1 inasmuch as the memory of past events has been stored up in it1 and thus preserving the two essential requisites 7,art4 #fa7 of a continuous intelligent existence4 #bjb4 ,the conception of an unseen universe is not a new one1 even among men of science4 ,the deservedly famous ,dr4 ,thomas ,young has the following passage in his lectures on ,natural ,philosophy3--#8,besides this porosity1 there is still room for the supposition1 that even the ultimate particles of matter may be permeable to the causes of attractions of various kinds1 especially if those causes are immaterial3 nor is there anything in the unprejudiced study of physical philosophy that can induce us to doubt the existence of immaterial substances2 on the contrary1 we see analogies that lead us almost directly to such an opinion4 ,the electrical fluid is supposed to be essentially different from common matter2 the general medium of light and heat1 according to some1 or the principle of caloric1 according to others1 is equally distinct from it4 ,we see forms of matter1 differing in subtility and mobility1 under the names of solids1 liquids1 and gases2 above these are the semi-material existences1 which produce the phenomena of electricity and magnetism1 and either caloric or a universal ether4 ,higher still1 perhaps1 are the causes of gravitation1 and the immediate agents in attractions of all kinds1 which exhibit some phenomena apparently still more remote from all that is compatible with material bodies4 ,and of these different orders of beings1 the more refined and immaterial appear to pervade freely the grosser4 ,it seems therefore natural to believe that the analogy may be continued still further1 until it rises into existences absolutely immaterial and spiritual4 ,we know not but that thousands of spiritual worlds may exist unseen for ever by human eyes2 nor have we any reason to suppose that even the presence of matter1 in a given spot1 necessarily excludes these existences from it4 ,those who maintain that nature always teems with life1 wherever living beings can be placed1 may therefore speculate with freedom on the possibility of independent worlds2 some existing in different parts of space1 others pervading each other unseen and unknown1 in the same space1 and others again to which space may not be a necessary mode of existence4' #bjc4 ,it may now be desirable to reply by anticipation to certain objections which are likely to be made to the theory we have proposed4 ,let us divide these into three categories--religious1 theological1 and scientific4 ,objection ,first 7,religious74--,it may be said to us1 #8,who are you who are wise beyond what is written8 ,are ye of them to whom it was said of old1 8,eritis sicut ,deus scientes bonum et malum08 ,beware of the words of the great ,apostle of the ,gentiles3-- 4' ,reply4--,as we have already said 7,art4 #ej71 we do not write for those who are so assured of the truth of their religion that they are unable to entertain the smallest objection to it4 ,we write for honest inquirers--for honest doubters1 it may be2--who desire to know what science1 when allowed perfect liberty of thought1 and loyally followed1 has to say upon those points which so much concern us all4 ,we are content in this work to view the universe from the physical standpoint2 you may therefore perchance esteem us of the earth earthy2 nevertheless we think that our strength lies in keeping up a communication with those verities which we all acknowledge4 #bjd4 ,objection ,second 7,theological74--,your idea of the spiritual universe is analogous to that of ,swedenborg1 and we must therefore dismiss it as untrue1 inasmuch as we cannot recognise the assumption of the spiritual body until after the resurrection4 ,reply4--,all that we have done is to remove the scientific objection to a future state1 supposed to be furnished by the principle of ,continuity4 ,we know nothing about the laws of this state1 and conceive it to be quite possible1 if otherwise likely1 that the soul may remain veiled or in abeyance until the resurrection4 ,we maintain only that we are logically constrained to admit the existence of some frame or organ which is not of this earth1 and which survives dissolution--if we regard the principle of ,continuity and the doctrine of a future state as both true4 ,besides1 the analogy of ,paul1 in which the body of the believer at death is compared to a seed put into the ground1 not only implies some sort of continuity1 but also expresses his belief in a present spiritual body4 ,there is1 says the apostle 7observe1 not there shall be71 a spiritual body4 ,again the same apostle tells us 7#b ,corinthians v4 #a71 #8,that if our earthly house of this tabernacle were dissolved1 we have a building of ,god1 a house not made with hands1 eternal in the heavens4' #bje4 ,objection ,third 7,theological74--,your argument will apply to the brute creation as well as to man2 now we cannot recognise the immortality of the brutes4 ,reply4--,as before stated1 we know nothing about the laws of the invisible universe1 except that it is related by bonds of some kind1 possibly of energy1 to the present4 ,all we have attempted has been to remove an objection to the doctrine of immortality which has been wrongly put forth as scientific1 or at least as consistent with scientific knowledge4 #bjf4 ,objection ,fourth 7,theological74--,the reasoning you adopt being founded on the law of continuity1 seems to imply the development of man's frame from those of the inferior animals1 and therefore by implication contradicts the scriptural account of the creation and fall of man4 ,reply4--,we cannot perceive that our reasoning is in the least degree inconsistent with the account of man's origin given in ,scripture4 ,this account implies no doubt a peculiar operation of the invisible universe1 but our reasoning compels us to look in this direction for the origin of certain occurrences4 ,whether the production of man has been the occasion for a peculiar interposition of the unseen it is not within our province to discuss4 ,we can only say that we see no reason from our principles to question the view which asserts that man was made by a peculiar operation out of a pre-existent universe4 #bjg4 ,objection ,fifth 7,theological74--,the resurrection consistent with your theory could not be a resurrection of the same particles as were laid in the grave1 and in this respect it would be dissimilar to that of ,christ4 ,reply4--,a dissimilarity between the two exists under any theory1 for the body of ,christ did not experience corruption1 while the bodies of believers in ,christ are manifestly dissolved by death4 ,we make the following suggestion with much hesitation4 ,what we have to say is founded upon an exceedingly able work by ,edward ,white1 entitled ,life in ,christ1 which has recently been published1 and from which we extract the following passage 7page #bfc73-- #8,but the ,saviour was ,divine4 ,as man1 identified with human nature1 ,he died1 and ,his death became a sin-offering2 as ,god ,he could not die4 ,as man ,he was made 8under the law20 as ,god ,he was above the law laid on creatures4444 ,he arose1 therefore1 as the ,divine ,conqueror of death1 8,god over all1 blessed for evermore10 and was thus 8declared to be the ,son of ,god with power1 according to the ,spirit of holiness1 by ,his resurrection from the dead40--,rom4 i4 #d4 ,he rose1 not 8in the likeness of sinful flesh20 not 8under the law10 but in the character of the 8,lord from heaven10 8our ,lord and our ,god30--not in the image of the 8son of ,adam10 but as the 8,son of the ,highest10 having delivered us from wrath by the death of ,his humanity1 to endow us with immortality through the life of ,his ,divinity4 ,he was no longer 8the man of sorrows10 but ,the ,first and ,the ,last and ,the ,living ,one2 no longer crowned with thorns1 and clothed in a peasant's robe1 but wearing the diadem of the ,lord of the ,universe1 and shining with the supereminent splendours of the ,godhead4' ,if then ,christ died as man1 and was reanimated in virtue of ,his divinity1 the analogy between ,christ1 who is the head1 and believers1 who are ,his body1 will be complete if we suppose that each believer dies as a man1 but is raised up by virtue of the divinity of ,christ1 and inasmuch as the ,head is not present here in ,his glorified bodily form1 so it cannot be supposed that ,his members should at present assume that form4 ,but when ,christ appears again upon earth we are told that ,his members being raised in what is termed the first resurrection will then accompany ,him4 ,and judging from ,s4 ,matthew 7chap4 xxvii4 verse #eb71 something of this kind1 but of a partial nature1 took place when ,christ locally appeared1 after ,his resurrection1 in ,jerusalem4 ,in fine1 the true analogy between ,christ and the believer should prevent us from supposing that while ,christ is absent in ,his glorified body believers should nevertheless assume theirs4 ,now this delay implies the corruption of the believer's body1 and renders us unable to believe that the very same particles will be raised again as in the case of ,christ4 ,but surely no one can suppose1 that if moral and spiritual identity is secured1 the mere material particles can be of any consequence4 #bjh4 ,objection ,sixth 7,scientific74--,if the general principles on which all material organisms are constructed are the same throughout the world1 is not this an argument by analogy that all such organisms have a similar relation to the universe8 ,on what principle then can immortality be assumed to be possible for men while it is denied to brutes8 ,reply4--,when we speak of the general principles on which all organisms are constructed being the same1 we mean that certain chemical and physical laws apply both to man and the brute creation4 ,gravitation and chemical affinity are the same for both4 ,there must also be a similarity in tangible substance1 inasmuch as both co-exist in the same visible world4 ,in fine1 there must be many points in which man is very similar in construction to the lower animals4 ,thus each possesses nerves--each has what may be termed delicacy of construction--the frame of each possesses materials which will burn in the fire4 ,in fine1 not only do strong similarities exist between all animals1 but there are also strong similarities between animals and vegetables4 ,but what are the points of dissimilarity between man and the lower animals8 ,is it not that the latter are utterly incapable of thinking thoughts such as those which form the present subject of discussion8 ,in fine1 the greatest difference between man and the lower animals is not so much in bodily structure as in style of thought4 ,but each thought has no doubt 7,art4 #ei7 a concomitant in the brain4 ,inasmuch therefore as the style of thought is very different in man and in the lower animals1 the physical concomitants of thought must be very different in the two cases4 ,but this is the very region into which science has been as yet utterly unable to penetrate4 ,we have1 however1 strong reason for supposing that in such a region the concomitants of thought would prove to be very different in man and in the brutes4 ,thus the argument tells quite the other way2 and we are entitled to say1 that inasmuch as there are enormous practical differences in thought and the higher kinds of power between man and the lower animals1 so the scientifically perceivable concomitants of these differences would 7if we were able to examine them7 be found extremely different in the two cases4 #bji4 ,objection ,seventh 7,scientific74--,if there be1 as you say1 this duality in the present human frame1 how can the spiritual part remain latent so long as it does8 ,even if trammelled by the grosser substance1 we might expect that at least on rare occasions it should somehow manifest itself4 ,reply4--,as a matter of fact we know that ordinary consciousness can remain latent or inactive for hours1 if not for days1 and then return to us again4 ,there would be force in this objection if it were not true that consciousness is capable of entering into the dormant or quiescent state4 ,again1 it is possible that there have been and that there are occasional manifestations of this spiritual nature4 ,for1 in the ,christian records visible manifestations of the spiritual element1 even in this life1 are asserted to have taken place on rare occasions4 ,but if you have dismissed these manifestations as inconceivable1 you cannot now bring their absence forward as an objection4 #baj4 ,objection ,eighth1 7,scientific74--,your doctrine of immortality does violence to that great principle1 the conservation of energy4 ,for it is manifest that if energy is transferred from the visible into the invisible universe1 its constancy in the present universe can no longer be maintained4 ,reply4--,in reply to this objection we may state that when we assert the conservation of energy it is as a principle applicable under special limitations4 ,for instance1 it is only by assuming the continual passage through ether of a large portion of the energy of the visible universe that the doctrine as at present held can be maintained4 ,now the only addition that our theory suggests is the gradual carriage into the invisible universe of some part at least of the energy of gross matter which is associated with thought4 ,but is even this necessary8 for this supposes thought to originate through the matter of the visible universe1 and then to affect the invisible4 ,but the reverse order of occurrences is quite as tenable1 especially if we suppose with ,le ,sage that the forces which set in motion the molecules of visible matter are derived from the unseen universe4 ,it may safely be said that our hypothesis is not upset1 and never can be upset1 by any experimental conclusion with regard to energy4 #baa4 ,objection ,ninth 7,scientific74--,we cannot understand how individuality is to be preserved in the spiritual world4 ,reply4--,this is no new difficulty4 ,we are as much puzzled by what takes place in our present body as we can be with respect to the spiritual4 ,thus1 let us allow that impressions are stored up in our brains1 which thus form an order connecting us with the past of the visible universe4 ,now thousands1 perhaps even millions1 of such impressions pass into the same organ1 and yet1 by the operation of our will1 we can concentrate our recollection upon a certain event1 and rummage out its details1 along with all its collateral circumstances1 to the exclusion of everything else4 ,but if the brain or something else plays such a wonderful part in the present economy1 is it impossible to imagine that the universe of the future may have even greater individualising powers8 ,is it not very hazardous to assert this or that mode of existence to be impossible in such a wonderful whole as we feel sure the universe must be8 #bab4 ,objection ,tenth 7,scientific74--,even if it be allowed that the invisible universe receives energy from the present1 so that the conservation of energy holds true as a principle1 yet the dissipation of energy must hold true also1 and although the process of decay may be delayed by the storing up of energy in the invisible universe1 it cannot be permanently arrested4 ,ultimately we must believe that every part of the whole universe will be equally supplied with energy1 and in consequence all abrupt living motion will come to an end4 ,reply4--,perhaps the best reply to this objection is to say that the laws of energy are rather generalisations derived from our experience than scientific principles1 like that which we call the ,principle of ,continuity4 ,there would be no permanent confusion of thought introduced if these laws should be found not to hold1 or to hold in a different way1 in the unseen universe4 ,nor can we regard the law of the ,dissipation as equally fundamental with that of the ,conservation of ,energy4 ,what is to prove it in the unseen8 ,we have shown 7,art4 #aab7 how ,clerk-,maxwell's demons 7though essentially finite intelligences7 could be made to restore energy even in the present universe without spending work4 ,much more may of course be expected in a universe free from gross matter4 #bac4 ,objection ,eleventh 7,quasi-,scientific47--,you speak of energy being transferred to the unseen1 so as to store up for each individual a record of his every thought4 ,you have not shown1 as you were bound to do1 how such transferred energy could be definitely localised in the unseen4 ,reply4--,the obligation is entirely the other way4 ,it is you who are bound to show that such localisation is impossible4 ,you quasi-scientific men assert that science disproves all such things4 ,we have shown that ,continuity demands an infinite series of developments4 ,these may be either living or dead4 ,but scientific analogy shows that they bear all the marks of intelligent developments4 ,how can there be any doubt or difficulty about our choice under these circumstances8 ,obviously we cannot accept dead and yet intelligent developments4 ,and although our evidence from analogy may not amount to proof1 it is very strong4 ,yet you objectors virtually assert that you can show its impossibility4 ,do so1 if you can4 ,give us any proof of the impossibility of an organ connecting us with the unseen universe1 or any analogy even apparently against it1 and we shall be glad to receive and consider it4 ,we have no doubt that you will thus help us to strengthen our case4 ,you forget that it is you who are the dogmatists--you who assert that these things are incompatible with scientific knowledge1 but who1 strangely1 do not bring forward any proofs of the truth of your assertions4 ,but in the present case1 it so happens that1 even with ordinary matter1 an infinitely extended medium could be constructed 7as ,clerk-,maxwell has shown71 such that all rays diverging from any point of it whatever shall be brought accurately to a focus at another definite point2 every point of space having thus its definite conjugate4 #bad4 ,having replied to these objections1 let us now endeavour to realise our present position4 ,it is briefly as follows3--,what we have done is to show that a future state is possible1 and to demolish any so-called scientific objection that might be raised against it4 ,the evidence in favour of the doctrine is not derived from us4 ,it comes to us from two sources3 in the first place1 from the statements made concerning ,christ2 and1 in the second place1 from that intense longing for immortality which civilised man has invariably possessed4 ,the case stands thus3 certain evidence from these two sources in favour of our doctrine has been adduced1 but scientific objections have been raised against the possibility of the doctrine itself1 and these we have attempted to overcome4 ,but while we may suppose the scientific objections to the doctrine itself surmounted1 there yet remains an equally strong scientific objection to that portion of the evidence in favour of the doctrine which is derived from the ,christian records4 #8,granting1' it may be said to us1 #8that immortality is possible1 what reason have we1 beyond certain vague yearnings1 for believing it likely8 ,no doubt1 if ,christ rose from the dead1 the probability in favour of it would be very strong2 but we have an objection to the assumed fact of the resurrection of ,christ no less formidable than that which you have overcome with regard to the doctrine of immortality itself4' #bae4 ,we must now proceed to examine the validity of this objection1 and in so doing we find it convenient to approach the problem of the universe not from the side of the future but from that of the past4 ,we have already 7,art4 #he7 defined the principle of ,continuity1 in virtue of which we believe ourselves entitled to discuss every event which occurs in the universe1 without one single exception1 and to deduce from it1 if we can1 the condition of things that preceded the event--this being also in the universe4 ,we have likewise given reasons for believing that the visible universe must have had a beginning in time1 and it may be desirable to recapitulate these here4 ,in the first place1 it is generally allowed by men of science that atoms form the stuff or substance out of which the visible universe is built4 ,why1 then1 it is asked by the materialists1 cannot we suppose these atoms to be infinite in number1 in which case1 as far as energy is concerned1 we may very well suppose this universe to last from eternity to eternity2 and if in addition we may conceive these eternally existing atoms to be in some sense alive1 have we not here a hypothesis which will explain the continuous life of the universe as well as its continuous energy8 ,let us in the meantime reply to the first statement in the hypothesis1 reserving that part of it which concerns life for a future occasion 7,art4 #bdj74 ,our objection to regarding the visible universe as having endured from eternity is threefold4 ,in the first place1 this hypothesis1 to be tenable1 assumes the infinity of the visible universe4 ,this1 however1 is a pure assumption4 ,we may not be able to prove the contrary1 but we perceive no reason why the visible universe should be regarded as infinite4 ,no doubt1 if scientific principle imperatively demanded the eternity of the present visible universe1 we should be compelled to acknowledge its infinity as a consequence2 but we shall see presently that scientific principle leads quite in the opposite direction4 ,so that the weakness of the hypothesis in question is1 that while it is contrary to scientific principle it likewise assumes the infinity of the visible universe1 which is a pure assumption4 ,our second objection is that1 in virtue of the principle of ,continuity1 we are compelled to believe in the infinite depth of nature1 and hold that1 just as we must imagine space and duration to be infinite1 so must we imagine the structural complexity of the universe to be infinite also4 ,to our minds it appears no less false to pronounce eternal that aggregation we call the atom1 than it would be to pronounce eternal 7,art4 #he7 that aggregation we call the sun4 ,all this follows from the principle of ,continuity1 in virtue of which we make scientific progress in the knowledge of things1 and which leads us1 whatever state of things we contemplate1 to look for its antecedent in some previous state of things also in the ,universe4 ,our third objection is that which we have stated in ,art4 #afc4 ,it arises from the belief that the dissipation of the energy of the visible universe proceeds pari passu with the aggregation of mass1 and therefore that since the large masses of the visible universe are of finite size1 we are sure that the process cannot have been going on for ever1 or1 in other words1 the visible universe must have had its origin in time4 #baf4 ,let us therefore apply to that stupendous event1 the production of the visible universe1 not irreverently1 but in hopeful trust1 the principle of ,continuity1 and ask ourselves the question1 ,what state of things also in the universe1 what conceivable antecedent can have given rise to this unparalleled phenomenon--an antecedent1 we need hardly say1 which must have operated from the invisible universe8 ,it is a great and awful phenomenon1 but we must not shrink before size2 we must not be terrified by the magnitude of the event out of reliance upon our principles of discussion4 ,now1 if we regard the appearance of the visible universe1 and approach it as we would any other phenomenon1 we have only two alternatives before us4 ,creation is not one of these1 inasmuch as we are carried by such an act out of the universe altogether4 ,we are1 therefore1 driven to look to some kind of development as the cause of the appearance of the visible universe4 ,this development may either have been through the living or through the dead2 either it was the result of a natural operation of the invisible universe1 or it was brought about by means of intelligence residing in that universe and working through its laws4 ,to determine which of these two alternatives is the more admissible1 we must bear in mind the nature of the production1 and argue about it just as we should argue about anything else4 #bag4 ,now1 this production was1 as far as we can judge1 a sporadic or abrupt act1 and the substance produced1 that is to say the atoms which form the material substratum of the present universe1 bear 7as ,herschel and ,clerk-,maxwell have well said7 from their uniformity of constitution all the marks of being manufactured articles4 ,whether we regard the various elementary atoms as separate productions1 or 7according to ,prout and ,lockyer7 view them as produced by the coming together of some smaller kind of primordial atom--in either case1 and even specially so in the latter case1 we think that they look like manufactured articles4 ,indeed1 we have already shown 7,art4 #afd7 that development without life1 that is to say dead development1 does not tend to produce uniformity of structure in the products which it gives rise to4 #bah4 ,thus the argument is in favour of the production of the visible universe by means of an intelligent agency residing in the invisible universe4 ,but again let us realise the position in which we are placed by the principle of ,continuity--we are led by it not only to regard the invisible universe as having existed before the present one1 but the same principle drives us to acknowledge its existence in some form as a universe from all eternity4 ,now we can readily conceive a universe containing conditioned intelligent beings to have existed before the present2 nay1 to have existed for a time greater than any assignable time1 which is the only way in which our thoughts can approach the eternal4 ,but is it equally easy to conceive a dead universe to have existed in the same way during immeasurable ages8 ,is a dead universe a fully conditioned universe8 ,for1 regarding the laws of the universe as those laws according to which the intelligences of the universe are conditioned by the ,governor thereof1 can we conceive a dead universe to exist permanently without some being to be conditioned8 ,is not this something without meaning1 an unreality--a make-believe8 ,and if it be said that under these circumstances the conception in any form of immeasurable ages of time is unreal1 we may reply by granting it1 and asserting that in such a case we are driven not merely from the fully conditioned to the partially conditioned1 but even to the unconditioned2 in other words1 the hypothesis of a permanently dead universe would hardly appear to satisfy the principle of ,continuity1 which prefers to proceed from one form of the fully conditioned to another4 ,nor is the difficulty removed by the hypothesis that the matter of the unseen universe was always in some simple sense alive1 and that the motions of its various elements were always accompanied with a very simple species of consciousness1 much more simple and rudimentary than any life that we know of here4 ,for to this it may be replied1 how is it possible to conceive that life has remained in this rudimentary form through a past eternity1 and only developed into intelligence since the production of the visible universe8 #bai4 ,for the benefit of our readers we shall now endeavour to review as clearly as we can the point at which we have arrived1 and the steps which have brought us to it4 ,it will be remembered that in our definition 7,art4 #ed7 we agreed to look upon the ,creator--the ,absolute ,one1 as conditioning the universe1 confining the term universe to that which is conditioned4 ,thus we conceive a stone to be in the universe1 we conceive a man to be in the universe1 and to work in it1 but we conceive ,absolute ,deity to be above the universe rather than to work in it in any way analogous to that in which a man works in it4 ,would there not be a confusion of thought if we regarded the same ,person as conditioning and yet conditioned8 ,now1 what the principle of ,continuity demands is an endless development of the conditioned4 ,we claim it as the heritage of intelligence that there shall be an endless vista1 reaching from eternity to eternity1 in each link of which we shall be led only from one form of the conditioned to another1 never from the conditioned to the unconditioned or absolute1 which would be to us no better than an impenetrable intellectual barrier4 ,it has also been seen that in this endless chain of conditioned existence we cannot be satisfied with a make-believe universe1 or one consisting only of dead matter1 but prefer a living intelligent universe1 in other words1 one fully conditioned4 ,finally1 our argument has led us to regard the production of the visible universe as brought about by an intelligent agency residing in the unseen4 #bbj4 ,we have arrived at this result from general principles1 and without any definite theory as to the modus operandi of the intelligent developing agency which resides in the unseen universe4 ,when we keep to well-ascertained principles we are on solid ground1 but when we speculate on the method by which the development is accomplished we enter a very different region1 where the chances are greatly against our particular hypothesis representing the truth4 ,nevertheless1 for the sake of bringing our ideas in a concrete form before the reader1 and for this purpose only1 we will now adopt a definite hypothesis4#ei ,let us begin by supposing an intelligent agent in the present visible universe1--that is to say a man--to be developing vortex-rings--smoke-rings1 let us imagine4 ,now1 these smoke-rings are found to act upon one another1 just as if they were things or existences2 nevertheless their existence is ephemeral1 they last only a few seconds4 ,but let us imagine them to constitute the grossest possible form of material existence4 ,now1 each smoke-ring has in it a multitude of smaller particles of air and smoke1 each of these particles being the molecules of which the present visible universe is composed4 ,these molecules are of a vastly more refined and delicate organisation than the large smoke-ring2 they have lasted many millions of years1 and will perhaps last many millions more4 ,nevertheless1 let us imagine that they had a beginning1 and that they will also come to an end similar to that of the smoke-ring4 ,in fact1 just as the smoke-ring was developed out of ordinary molecules1 so let us imagine ordinary molecules to be developed as vortex-rings out of something much finer and more subtle than themselves1 which we have agreed to call the invisible universe4 ,but we may pursue the same train of thought still further back1 and imagine the entities which constitute the invisible universe immediately preceding ours to be in themselves ephemeral1 although not nearly to the same extent as the atoms of our universe1 and to have been formed in their turn as vortex-rings out of some still subtler and more enduring substance4 ,in fine1 there is no end to such a process1 but we are led on from rank to rank of the order imagined by ,dr4 ,thomas ,young1 or by ,professor ,jevons1 when he says that #8the smallest particle of solid substance may consist of a vast number of systems united in regular order1 each bounded by the other1 communicating with it in some manner yet wholly incomprehensible4' ,our meaning will be made clear by the following diagram4 ,here 7#j7 denotes the evanescent smoke-ring1 7#a7 the visible universe1 7#b7 the invisible universe immediately anterior to the present1 7#c7 that of the next order1 and so on4 ,again1 7#j7 is developed out of 7#a72 7#a7 is developed out of 7#b72 7#b7 out of 7#c72 7#c7 out of 7#d71 and so on4 ,further1 7#a7 both precedes and follows 7#j7 in point of duration1 while 7#b7 bears a similar relation to 7#a71 7#c7 to 7#b71 and so on4 ,illustration3 7,five concentric rings marked #j to #d7 ,again1 the material substance of 7#j7 is a phenomenon of that of 7#a71 that of 7#a7 a phenomenon of that of 7#b71 and so on4 ,go back as far as we choose1 we are only led from one phenomenon to another2 so that1 as far as their essential nature is concerned1 all are equally phenomenal1 and the mind cannot repose in any order as its ultimate haven of thought1 but is driven inexorably forward to look for something different4 ,we see too1 that1 as far as energy is concerned1 that of 7#a7 is greater than that of 7#j71 inasmuch as 7#a7 develops 7#j71 that of 7#b7 greater than that of 7#a71 inasmuch as 7#b7 develops 7#a71 and so on4 ,therefore1 if we go infinitely far back1 we shall be led to a universe possessing infinite energy1 and of which the intelligent developing agency possesses infinite energy4 ,it will also be seen that1 inasmuch as all these various orders exist together at the present moment1 the energy of their sum must be infinite1 and this energy will never come to an end4 ,in other words1 the ,great ,whole is infinite in energy1 and will last from eternity to eternity4 ,if merely to prevent1 in future1 the possibility of a mistake which has already been made by some of our critics1 including even ,professor ,clifford1 it may be well to sketch here very briefly another and quite different concrete illustration of our idea4 ,just as points are the terminations of lines1 lines the boundaries of surfaces1 and surfaces the boundaries of portions of space of three dimensions3--so we may suppose our 7essentially three-dimensional7 matter to be the mere skin or boundary of an ,unseen whose matter has four dimensions4 ,and1 just as there is a peculiar molecular difference between the surface-film and the rest of a mass of liquid--wherever such a surface-film exists1 even in the smallest air-bubble--so the matter of our present universe may be regarded as produced by mere rents or cracks in that of the ,unseen4 ,but this may itself consist of four-dimension boundaries of the five-dimensional matter of a higher ,unseen1 and so on4 ,we might even try to explain by this how it is that so very little of the nature of definite description of the ,unseen is given1 even by a learned man like ,paul--for the notion of four dimensions would have been totally unintelligible to any one eighteen hundred years ago4 ,and just as he says he heard in the third heaven #8unspeakable words which it is not possible for a man to utter1' so he may have seen things which language was incompetent to describe4 ,but on this hypothesis1 as on the former1 reflection leads us to the ultimate conception of an infinite series of ,universes1 each depending on another1 and possessing of course among them an infinite store of energy4 ,before concluding this article we would desire to reply to two objections which have been made to our book4 ,it has been alleged by some that we advocate the doctrine of the past eternity of stuff or material4 ,we therefore take this opportunity of stating that the ,principle of ,continuity as upheld by us has reference solely to the intellectual faculties4 ,we are led1 for instance1 by this principle to assert that the process of production of the visible universe must have been of such a nature as to be comprehensible more or less to the higher intelligences of the universe4 ,but we are not led to assert the eternity of stuff or matter1 for that would denote an unauthorised application to the invisible universe of the experimental law of the conservation of matter1 which belongs entirely to the present system of things4 ,again1 it has been objected that we advocate an ethereal future state4 ,to this we reply that our principles do not lead us to assert that the ether must play some important part in our future bodies1 for our knowledge of things is vastly too limited to enable us to come to any such conclusion4 #bba4 ,let us here pause for a moment and consider the position into which science has brought us4 ,we are led by scientific logic to an unseen1 and by scientific analogy to the spirituality of this unseen4 ,in fine1 our conclusion is1 that the visible universe has been developed by an intelligence resident in the ,unseen4 ,of the nature of this intelligent agency we are profoundly ignorant as far as ,science is concerned4 ,so far as ,science can inform us1 it may consist of a multitude of beings1 as the ,gnostics have supposed1 or of one ,supreme ,intelligence1 as is generally believed by the followers of ,christ4 ,as scientific men we are absolutely ignorant of the subject4 ,nor can we easily conceive information to be attainable except by means of some trustworthy communication between the beings resident in the ,unseen and ourselves4 ,it is absolutely and utterly hopeless to expect any light on this point from mere scientific reasoning4 ,can scientific reasoning tell us what kind of life we shall find in the interior of ,africa1 or in ,new ,guinea1 or at the ,north ,pole1 before explorers have been there1 and if this be so1 is it not utterly absurd to imagine that we can know anything regarding the spiritual inhabitants of the unseen1 unless we either go to them or they come to us8 ,it is therefore of supreme importance for us to know whether there has been any such communication4 ,it would be affectation in us not to say that if there be any such trustworthy communication1 we believe it will be found in the ,christian records4 ,it has been said to us by our critics1 #8,what have you to do with these records8' ,to this we reply1 ,not perhaps so much as a professed theologian1 but still something4 ,there is a well-known record1 which claims to give us the history of a communication with the spiritual intelligences of the unseen4 ,if true1 it must of course teach us many things which science is utterly incompetent to reveal4 ,nevertheless it is the object of this book to prove that science alone gives us by logic and analogy combined a certain insight into this most interesting and mysterious region4 ,working our way upwards1 we have reached by the principle of ,continuity certain regions4 ,working their way downwards1 the ,christian records have reached these same regions of thought4 ,now if our scientific logic be correct1 and if the ,christian records be trustworthy1 we should expect the two accounts of this common region to be consistent with one another4 ,let us here therefore inquire what the ,christian records say regarding this mysterious1 infinitely energetic1 intelligent developing agency residing in the universe1 and therefore in some sense conditioned1 to which we have been led by scientific analogy4 #bbb4 ,these records1 as they are interpreted by the majority of the disciples of ,christ1 are believed to lead to a conception of the ,godhead1 in which there is a plurality of persons but a unity of substance4 ,it ought1 however1 to be remembered that here the word person does not mean the same thing as it does when applied to ourselves1 but only denotes some distinction which may be regarded as best expressed by this word4 ,our idea of person or individual is derived solely from our experience in the position which we occupy in the universe4 ,the first ,person in this ,trinity1 ,god the ,father1 is represented as the unapproachable ,creator--the ,being in virtue of whom all things exist4 ,thus it is said 7,john i4 #ah71 #8,no man hath seen ,god at any time2 the only begotten ,son which is in the bosom of the ,father1 he hath declared him4' ,again1 ,paul tells us 7,rom4 xi4 #cf71 #8,for of him and through him and to him are all things4' ,also 7#a ,cor4 viii4 #f71 #8,but to us there is but one ,god1 the ,father1 of whom are all things1 and we to him 7 72 and one ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 by whom are all things1 and we by him4' ,also 7,eph4 iv4 #f71 #8,one ,god and ,father of all1 who is above all1 and through all1 and in all4' ,also 7#a ,timothy vi4 #af71 #8,who only hath immortality1 dwelling in the light which no man can approach unto2 whom no man hath seen1 nor can see4' #bbc4 ,again1 of the second ,person of the ,trinity we are told1 in addition to what we gather from the expressions just quoted 7,john i4 #a71 #8,in the beginning was the ,word1 and the ,word was with ,god1 and the ,word was ,god4 ,the same was in the beginning with ,god4 ,all things were made by him1 and without him was not any thing made that was made4' ,again 7#b ,cor4 v4 #aj73 #8,for we must all appear before the judgment seat of ,christ4' ,again 7,col4 i4 #ae73 #8,who is the image of the invisible ,god1 the first-born of every creature3 for in him were all things created that are in heaven1 and that are in earth1 visible and invisible1 whether they be thrones1 or dominions1 or principalities1 or powers4' ,again 7,heb4 i4 #a73 #8,god1 who at sundry times1 and in divers manners1 spoke in time past unto the fathers by the prophets1 hath in these last days spoken unto us by his ,son1 whom he hath appointed heir of all things1 by whom also he made the worlds4' #bbd4 ,it is1 we believe1 a prevalent idea among theologians that these passages indicate1 in the first place1 the existence of an unapproachable ,creator--the unconditioned ,one who is spoken of as ,god the ,father2 and that they also indicate the existence of another ,being of the same substance as the ,father1 but different in person1 who has agreed to develop the will of the ,father1 and thus in some mysterious sense to submit to conditions and to enter into the universe4#fj ,the relation of this ,being to the ,father is expressed in ,hebrews#fa in the words of the ,psalmist1 #8,then said ,i1 ,lo1 ,i come3 in the volume of the book it is written of me1 ,i delight to do thy will1 ,o my ,god3 yea1 thy law is within my heart4' ,in fine1 such a ,being would represent that conditioned1 yet infinitely powerful developing agent1 to which the universe1 objectively considered1 appears to lead up4 ,his work is twofold1 for1 in the first place1 he develops the various universes or orders of being2 and secondly1 in some mysterious way ,he becomes ,himself the type and pattern of each order1 the representative of ,deity1 so far as the beings of that order can comprehend1 especially manifesting such divine qualities as could not otherwise be intelligibly presented to their minds4 ,such a being is therefore1 in virtue of ,his office1 the ,king of angels and ruler of the invisible universe1 and to him the term ,lord in the poem of ,job is supposed to apply 7,job i4 #f73 #8,now there was a day when the ,sons of ,god came to present themselves before the ,lord1 and ,satan came also among them4' #bbe4 ,it would thus appear that what may be termed the ,christian theory of development has a twofold aspect1 a descent and an ascent2 the descent of the ,son of ,god through the various grades of existence1 and the consequent ascent of the intelligences of each led up by him to a higher level1--a stooping on the part of the developing ,being1 in order that there may be a mounting up on the part of the developed4 ,thus it is said 7,john iii4 #ac71 #8,and no man hath ascended up to heaven1 but he that came down from heaven1 even the ,son of man which is in heaven4' ,again 7,eph4 iv4 #i73 #8,now that he ascended1 what is it but that he also descended first into the lower parts of the earth8 ,he that descended is the same also that ascended up far above all heavens1 that he might fill all things4' #bbf4 ,it is naturally in accordance with these views that the ,angelic ,host should be represented as taking an intelligent interest1 even if they did not1 as the ,gnostics thought1 take an active part1 in the creation of the visible universe4 ,thus the ,lord is represented as asking ,job 7,job xxxviii4 #d71 #8,where wast thou when ,i laid the foundations of the earth8 declare1 if thou hast understanding4 ,who hath laid the measures thereof1 if thou knowest8 or who hath stretched the line upon it8 ,whereupon are the foundations thereof fastened8 or who laid the corner-stone thereof1 when the morning-stars sang together1 and all the sons of ,god shouted for joy8' #bbg4 ,it is also in accordance with these views that the same hierarchy should take an intelligent interest in the life of ,christ4 ,thus we read 7,luke ii4 #ac71 #8,and suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising ,god1 and saying1 ,glory to ,god in the highest1 and on earth peace1 good-will toward men4' ,and again 7#a ,timothy iii4 #af73 #8,and without controversy great is the mystery of godliness3 ,god was manifest in the flesh1 justified in the ,spirit1 seen of angels1 preached unto the ,gentiles1 believed on in the world1 received up into glory4' #bbh4 ,it will be remarked that the views which we have now put before our readers have been developed more especially from the objective point of view1 and that our reasoning has been founded on the principle of ,continuity as applied to the outward universe4 ,in truth we seem to get a much firmer and more tangible hold on the objective element of the universe1 that is to say1 on energy 7,art4 #ajc71 than we can on intelligence and life4 ,for if we approach our individual consciousness it is very manifest that we have no well-founded principle wherewith to guide our speculations similar to the principle of ,continuity2 for this1 if we had it1 would at once inform us whether the doctrine of immortality is true or false4 ,we know very well that the universe will remain after we are laid in the grave1 but some of us are not equally certain whether we ourselves shall then continue to exist4 ,thus there appears to be a difficulty which we see at present no means of surmounting in dealing with individual consciousness4 ,but while the continuance of individual life is enveloped in mystery1 it is believed that we have obtained hold of a general principle regarding the distribution of life not greatly inferior in breadth and generality to the law of ,continuity4 ,we mean the principle that life proceeds from life1 or1 to speak more accurately1 that a conditioned living thing proceeds only from a conditioned living thing4 ,that dead matter cannot produce a living organism is the universal experience of the most eminent physiologists4#fb ,in fact1 the law of ,biogenesis is justly regarded by ,professor ,huxley and others as the great principle underlying all the phenomena of organised existence4 ,professor ,roscoe1 again1 approaching the subject from the chemical point of view1 says1 speaking of red blood corpuscles1 #8,we have not been able1 and the evidence at present rather goes to show that there is not much hope of our being able1 to construct these granules artificially2 and the question is in this position1 that so far as science has progressed at present we have not been able to obtain any organism without the intervention of some sort of previously existing germ4' #bbi4 ,if we assume the truth of this principle it appears to lead us directly to infer that life is not merely a species of energy1 or a phenomenon of matter4 ,for we have seen 7,art4 #ajc7 that the great characteristic of all energy is its transmutability--its ,protean power of passing from one form to another4 ,we may no doubt produce large quantities of electricity by means of an electrified nucleus1 but we can do the same without any such nucleus--we can make unlimited steel magnets by the help of one piece of loadstone1 but we can do this even more effectually by means of a galvanic battery--we may produce fire from a spark1 but we can obtain it without a spark4 ,life1 however1 can be produced from life only1 and this law would seem to give an indication that the solution of the mystery is not to be found by considering life as merely a species of energy4 ,it is some time since we gave up the idea that life could generate energy2 it now seems that we must give up the idea that energy can generate life4 #bcj4 ,in preceding chapters we have given our readers a sketch of the methods according to which men of science imagine that evolution has been carried out in the universe of energy and in that of life4 ,in both worlds the principle of ,continuity requires that in endeavouring to account for the origin of phenomena we shall not resort to the hypothesis of separate creations1 that we shall not pass over from the conditioned to the unconditioned2 and ,darwin1 ,wallace1 and their followers have1 as we have shown1 endeavoured to prove that processes still pursued by nature are sufficient in a great measure1 if not entirely1 to account for the present development of organised existence without the necessity of resorting to separate creations4 ,darwin especially imagines that all the present organisms1 including man1 may have been derived by the process of natural selection from a single primordial germ4 ,when1 however1 the backward process has reached this germ1 an insuperable difficulty presents itself4 ,how was this germ produced8 ,all really scientific experience tells us that life can be produced from a living antecedent only2 what then was the antecedent of this germ8 ,hypotheses have no doubt been started1 but we cannot regard them in any other light than as an acknowledgment of a difficulty which cannot be overcome4 ,we appear to have reached an impenetrable barrier similar to that which stood in our way when we contemplated the production of the visible universe4 ,and precisely as we felt compelled by the logic of scientific process to deal with this first barrier1 so we must likewise assert for ourselves with becoming reverence a similar freedom of action in dealing with the second4 ,therefore1 if life be one of the things of the universe1 if the assumption of a creation of life in time be inadmissible1 and if it be contrary to all experience to allow the possibility of the production of life from antecedents not possessing life1 we are entitled1 even in such a case as the present1 to make use of this conclusion derived from experience1 and are thus forced to contemplate an antecedent possessing life and giving life to this primordial germ1--an antecedent in the universe1 not out of it1--conditioned1 not unconditioned4 ,now1 what is the meaning of this conclusion8 ,in the first place1 it does not mean that the antecedent to the primordial germ must be a like germ1 for we know from experience that while life is always produced from life1 like is by no means always produced from like4 ,in this case more especially the living antecedent must be in the invisible universe1 and therefore altogether different from the germ4 #bca4 ,if we now turn once more to the ,christian system1 we find that it recognises such an antecedent as an agent in the universe4 ,he is styled the ,lord1 and ,giver of ,life4 ,the third ,person of the ,trinity is regarded in this system as working in the universe1 and therefore in some sense as conditioned4 ,one of ,his functions consists in distributing and developing this principle of life1 which we are forced to regard as one of the things of the universe2 just as the second ,person of the ,trinity is regarded as developing the objective phenomena of the universe4 ,thus one has entered from everlasting into the universe1 in order to develop it objectively1 while the other has also entered from everlasting into the universe1 in order to develop its subjective elements1 life and intelligence4 ,thus we read 7,gen4 i4 #b71 #8,and the earth was without form1 and void2 and darkness was upon the face of the deep3 and the ,spirit of ,god moved upon the face of the waters2' implying1 we may imagine1 a peculiar operation of this ,spirit preceding the advent of life into the world4 ,again1 when in the fulness of time1 ,christ1 the developing agent1 made ,his appearance here1 and submitted to the trammels of a human nature1 this appearance was preceded by an operation of the same ,spirit4 #bcb4 ,it may here be desirable to discuss somewhat fully the position of life in the universe1 as we are constrained to view it in virtue of the scientifically established principles of biogenesis4 ,if then the matter of this present visible universe be not capable of itself1 that is to say1 in virtue of the forces and qualities with which it has been endowed1 of generating life2 but if we must look to the unseen universe for the origin of life1 this would appear to show that the peculiar collocation of matter which accompanies the operations of life is not a mere grouping of particles of the visible universe1 but implies likewise some peculiarity in the connection of these with the unseen universe4 ,may it not denote in fact some peculiarity of structure extending to the unseen8 ,in fine1 to go a step further1 may not life denote a peculiarity of structure which is handed over not merely from one stage to another--from the invisible to the visible--but which rises upwards from the very lowest structural depths of the material of the universe1 this material being regarded as possessed of an infinitely complex structure such as we have pictured to our readers in a previous part of this chapter 7,art4 #bbj74 ,if we suppose any such peculiarity to accompany life we cannot fail at once to see the impossibility of its originating in the visible universe alone4 #bcc4 ,again1 it is well known to many of our readers that discussions have frequently arisen regarding the peculiar place and function of life in the universe4 ,what is its relation to energy8 it certainly does not create energy--what then does it do8 ,one way of replying to this question is indicated in the following passage1 which we quote at length from an article on #8,the ,atomic ,theory of ,lucretius1' in the ,north ,british ,review for ,march #ahfh3-- #8,it is a principle of mechanics that a force acting at right angles to the direction in which a body is moving does no work1 although it may continually and continuously alter the direction in which the body moves4 ,no power1 no energy1 is required to deflect a bullet from its path1 provided the deflecting force acts always at right angles to that path4444 #8,if you believe in free-will and in atoms1 you have two courses open to you4 ,the first alternative may be put as follows3 ,something which is not atoms must be allowed an existence1 and must be supposed capable of acting on the atoms4 ,the atoms may1 as ,democritus believed1 build up a huge mechanical structure1 each wheel of which drives its neighbour in one long inevitable sequence of causation2 but you may assume that beyond this ever-grinding wheelwork there exists a power not subject to but partly master of the machine2 you may believe that man possesses such a power1 and if so1 no better conception of the manner of its action could be devised than the idea of its deflecting the atoms in their onward path to the right or left of that line in which they would naturally move4 ,the will1 if it so acted1 would add nothing sensible to nor take anything sensible from the energy of the universe4 ,the modern believer in free-will will probably adopt this view1 which is certainly consistent with observation1 although not proved by it4 ,such a power of moulding circumstances1 of turning the torrent to the right1 where it shall fertilise1 or to the left1 where it shall overwhelm1 but in nowise of arresting the torrent1 adding nothing to it1 taking nothing from it1--such is precisely the apparent action of man's will2 and though we must allow that possibly the deflecting action does but result from some smaller subtler stream of circumstance1 yet if we may trust to our direct perception of free-will1 the above theory1 involving a power in man beyond that of atoms1 would probably be our choice4444 #8,we cannot hope that natural science will ever lend the least assistance towards answering the ,free-will and ,necessity question4 ,the doctrines of the indestructibility of matter and of the conservation of energy seem at first sight to help the ,necessitarians1 for they might argue that if free-will acts it must add something to or take something from the physical universe1 and if experiment shows that nothing of the kind occurs1 away goes free-will2 but this argument is worthless1 for if mind or will simply deflects matter as it moves1 it may produce all the consequences claimed by the ,wilful school1 and yet it will neither add energy nor matter to the universe4' #bcd4 ,now there appears to us to be a very serious objection to this mode of regarding the position of life1 unless it be somewhat modified4 ,let us take one of the visible masses of this present universe1 such as a planet4 ,suppose for a moment that instead of being attracted to a fixed and visible centre of force such as the sun1 it is bound to an invisible and vagrant centre1 the only condition imposed upon whose irregularities is that it shall always move in such a manner that there shall be neither creation nor destruction of energy4 ,we have only to imagine for a moment such a universe in order to realise the inextricable confusion into which its intelligent inhabitants would be plunged by the operation of a viewless and unaccountable agency of this nature4 ,no doubt the hypothesis regarding life1 which we have quoted above1 limits this mode of action to the molecular motions of matter1 but if our line of argument has been followed throughout1 the reader will probably acknowledge that the superior intelligences of the universe may have the same appretiation of molecular motions that we have of those of large masses4 ,now they would in turn be put to inextricable confusion by the advent of an unperceivable1 and1 from the nature of the case1 irresponsible force entitled will operating towards the deflection of these molecular motions1 even although the energy of the universe should remain the same4 ,we think that ,professor ,huxley and some others who have opposed this mode of regarding the position of life have been somewhat unjustly blamed4 ,they have driven the operation of the mystery called life or will out of the objective universe1 out of that portion of things which is capable of being scientifically studied by intelligence1 and in so doing they have most assuredly done right4 ,the mistake made 7whether by this party or by their adversaries7 lies in imagining that by such a process they completely get rid of a thing so driven before them1 and that it thus disappears from the universe altogether4 ,it does no such thing4 ,it merely disappears from that small circle of light which we may call the universe of scientific perception4 ,but the greater the circle of light 7to adopt the words of ,dr4 ,chalmers71 the greater the circumference of darkness1 and the mystery which has been driven before us looms in the darkness that surrounds this circle1 growing more mysterious and more tremendous as the circumference is increased4 ,in fine1 we have already remarked that the position of the scientific man is to clear a space before him from which all mystery shall be driven away1 and in which there shall be nothing but matter and energy subject to certain definite laws which he can comprehend4 ,there are however three great mysteries 7a trinity of mysteries7 which elude1 and will for ever elude1 his grasp1 and these will persistently hover around the border of this cleared and illuminated circle1--they are the mystery of the soul's domicile1 in other words1 of the universe objectively viewed2 the mystery of life and intelligence2 and the mystery of ,god1--and these three are one4 #bce4 ,but in this latter statement we have transgressed the limits of our inquiry1 and are content to be driven back4 ,suffice it to say that these three gigantic mysteries will persistently hover around the illuminated circle1 or1 to speak more properly1 the illuminated sphere of scientific thought1 of which duration1 extension1 and structural complexity may be regarded as the three independent co-ordinates in terms of each of which the process of development goes on simultaneously as the boundary of the sphere is enlarged4 ,within this sphere we have only that which can be grasped by ,physical ,science1 but we are not therefore to infer that matter and the laws of matter have a reality and a permanence denied to intelligence4 ,it is rather because they are at the bottom of the list--are in fact the simplest and lowest of the three--that they are capable of being most readily grasped by the finite intelligences of the universe4 ,the following words of ,professor ,stokes1 in his presidential address to the ,british ,association at ,exeter1 occur to us as very clearly embodying this thought3-- #8,admitting to the full as highly probable1 though not completely demonstrated1 the applicability to living beings of the laws which have been ascertained with reference to dead matter1 ,i feel constrained at the same time to admit the existence of a mysterious something lying beyond1 a something sui generis1 which ,i regard1 not as balancing and suspending the ordinary physical laws1 but as working with them and through them to the attainment of a designed end4 ,what this something which we call life may be is a profound mystery4444 ,when from the phenomena of life we pass on to those of mind1 we enter a region still more profoundly mysterious4 ,we can readily imagine that we may here be dealing with phenomena altogether transcending those of mere life1 in some such way as those of life transcend1 as ,i have endeavoured to infer1 those of chemistry and molecular attractions1 or as the laws of chemical affinity in their turn transcend those of mere mechanics4 ,science can be expected to do but little to aid us here1 since the instrument of research is itself the object of investigation4 ,it can but enlighten us as to the depths of our ignorance1 and lead us to look to a higher aid for that which most nearly concerns our well-being4' #bcf4 ,in fine1 the physical properties of matter form the alphabet which is put into our hands by ,god1 the study of which will1 if properly conducted1 enable us more perfectly to read that ,great ,book which we call the ,universe4 ,we have begun to recognise some of the chief letters of this alphabet1 and even to put them two and two together2 and1 like an intelligent but somewhat conceited child1 we are very proud of our achievement4 ,like such a child we have not yet1 however1 completely grasped the fact that these letters are only symbols1 but look upon them with intense awe as the great thing in the world1 meaning of course our world4 ,we look with a sort of adoration towards those pages in which there are words of two syllables1 and are ready to fall down at the feet of that older and wiser child who has penetrated into the depths of such profound mysteries4 ,our belief is that all knowledge is made for the alphabet just as the little musician believes that all music is made for the piano4 #bcg4 ,life1 then1 whatever be its nature1 may be supposed to penetrate into the structural depths of the universe4 ,its seat is in a region inaccessible to human inquiry1 and equally inaccessible1 we may well suppose1 to the inquiries of the higher created intelligences4 ,intimations of its presence are no doubt constantly emerging from this region of thick darkness into the objective universe1 but when they have reached it they obey the ordinary laws of phenomena1 according to which a material effect implies a material antecedent4 ,notwithstanding all this1 life exists just as surely as the ,deity exists4 ,for we have subjected both these mysteries to the same process1 and have found it as difficult to rid ourselves of the one as of the other4 ,we have driven the creative operation of the ,great ,first ,cause into the durational depths of the universe1--into the eternity of the past1--but for all that we have not got rid of ,god4 ,in like manner we have driven the mystery of life into the structural depths of the universe1--that region of thick darkness which no created eye is able to pierce1--but we have not got rid of life1 nor are we likely to do so4 ,before concluding this digression upon the place of life1 let us briefly review the attempts made to account for the origin of life by those who have yet fallen short of the scientific conception of an ,unseen ,universe4 #bch4 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson has gone further than any one else in such inquiries4 ,we have already alluded to his attempt to explain the origin of the material universe by the vortex-ring hypothesis1 and also to his other attempt to explain gravitation by the modification of the hypothesis of ultra-mundane corpuscles4 ,if we add to these his attempt to explain the origin of life as consistently as possible with the principle of ,continuity1 we think it must be acknowledged that he is a true pioneer in such inquiries as those of this volume as well as in the more ordinary branches of ,physical ,science4 ,the explanation of the origin of life proposed by ,sir ,w4 ,thomson had also occurred independently to ,professor ,helmholtz4 ,this latter physicist1 in an article on the use and abuse of the deductive method in ,physical ,science1#fc tells us very clearly what led himself1 and no doubt ,sir ,w4 ,thomson likewise1 to suggest the meteoric hypothesis as a possible way of accounting for the origin of terrestrial life3--#8,if failure attends all our efforts to obtain a generation of organisms from lifeless matter1 it seems to me 7says ,professor ,helmholtz7 a thoroughly correct procedure to inquire whether there has ever been an origination of life1 or whether it is not as old as matter1 and whether its germs1 borne from one world to another1 have not been developed wherever they have found a favourable soil4' #bci4 ,we have already sufficiently pointed out that the man of science objects to separate creations1 and that1 in consequence1 he tries to explain the present terrestrial life by means of a single primordial germ4 ,but the difficulty still remains regarding the original appearance of this germ4 ,now1 according to the meteoric hypothesis1 this germ may have been wafted to us from some other world1 or its fragments1 and thus one act of creation of life might possibly serve for many worlds4 ,if therefore this hypothesis were otherwise tenable it would diminish the difficulty implied by separate creations1 but would it entirely remove it8 ,we doubt this very much4 ,for1 in the first place1 as far as we can judge 7,art4 #afc7 the visible universe--the universe of worlds--is not eternal1 while however the invisible universe1 or that which we may for illustration at least associate with the ethereal medium1 is necessarily eternal4 ,the visible universe must have had its origin in time 7,art4 #aaf71 no doubt from a nebulous condition4 ,but in this condition it can hardly have been fit for the reception of life4 ,life must therefore have been created afterwards4 ,we have thus at least two separate creations1 both taking place in time--the one of matter and the other of life4 ,and even if it were possible1 which it is not1 to get over one of the difficulties attending this hypothesis1 that of creation in time1 by regarding the visible universe as eternal2 yet even then we must regard matter and life as implying two separate creative acts if we assume the nebulous hypothesis to be true4 ,for if x denote the date of the advent of life1 and x a that of the advent of matter1 a being a constant quantity1 the two operations cannot be made simultaneous by merely increasing the value of x without limit4 ,now this is what we mean by eternity1 and therefore we cannot help thinking that this want of simultaneity implies a defect in this mode of viewing the origin of things4 #bdj4 ,yet another hypothesis has been produced1 which starts with the assumption that all matter is in some simple sense alive4 ,looking upon the atom as the essential thing in the universe1 the various motions of the atom are by this school supposed to be accompanied by a species of consciousness inconceivably simple4 ,under certain circumstances this eternal and immortal consciousness is supposed to be consistent with that which we call the life of the individual1 while under other circumstances these two lives are not consistent with one another4 ,the individual then dies1 but nevertheless the simple immortal lives of the atoms which compose his body remain attached to them as truly as before4 ,there is no disappearance of anything from the universe1 only the mode in which the simple immortal life becomes manifested has undergone a change of expression1 just as energy may be supposed to undergo a change without disappearing4 ,it is thought by the members of this school that such a hypothesis satisfies the ,principle of ,continuity more fully than any other4 ,for1 looking at things from the old point of view1 we see that certain atoms are concerned in the manifestation of consciousness1 as for instance the particles of our brains1 while certain other atoms are not so concerned1 as for instance the inorganic matter we see around us4 ,here then1 it is argued1 we have a breach of the ,principle of ,continuity1 inasmuch as certain things of the universe 7brain-particles7 have a function assigned to them in their association with consciousness1 which other things 7gold1 silver1 etc47 do not possess in any measure1 if the distinction between organic and inorganic be an essential one4 ,to avert this breach1 it is essential that all matter should be considered as in some sense alive4 ,it is furthermore argued1 that by this hypothesis there is no difficulty in accounting for the introduction of life1 inasmuch as life always accompanies matter1 the mode of manifestation of the one being regulated by the mode of collocation of the other4 #bda4 ,now it appears to us that this school of thought is justified in declining to accept a hypothesis which attributes to certain substances of the universe a power which is entirely wanting in others1 or that gives to the same substance at one time a fundamental power or property that is entirely wanting at another4 ,it is not so much the premiss as the conclusion of this school to which we object4 ,for let us consider for a moment what is implied in the astounding inference that the atom is the true abode of immortal life in the universe1 and that its life is of an extremely simple kind4 ,it implies1 in the first place1 that the atom is eternal1 and to this we object4 ,it implies1 in the next place1 that the atom is extremely simple in its constitution1 and to this we object4 ,it implies1 thirdly1 that for the antecedents of the motions of the atom it is unnecessary to resort to anything beyond the atom itself1 and to this we object4 #bdb4 ,we have in other places sufficiently set forth our objection to regarding the atom either as eternal or as extremely simple in constitution1 let us now state our objection to regarding the motions of the atom 7in this generalisation7 apart from the surrounding universe4 ,our objection is1 that in order to conceive the nature of the forces by which atoms act upon each other1 we are driven at once1 if not to the very hypothesis of ,le ,sage1 at least to something which implies the existence and agency of the ,unseen ,universe4 ,but when once we have taken this step1 we are not permitted to rest1 for another journey is before us1 and after that another1 and so on4 ,in fine1 there is no end to the process1 and no halting-place for the mind1 except in the belief that the universe as a whole participates in every motion which takes place even in the smallest of atoms4#fd ,undoubtedly as regards certain practical scientific results1 it is allowable to regard the atom as a thing by itself1 and to sum up the apparent actions of the various atoms as if each were independent of everything else4 ,but when we come to a generalisation so fundamental as this hypothesis regarding life1 we are forced to ask whether the apparent and visible action of atoms on one another is really everything which takes place1 and then we find1 as we have just shown1 that we are driven at once into the ,unseen ,universe1 and thence into an endless complexity of antecedent4 ,in fine1 we conclude that inasmuch as the universe in its various orders participates in every conceivable motion1 the consciousness which accompanies this motion cannot logically be confined to the apparently moving body or atom1 but must in some sense extend to the ,unseen ,universe in its various orders4 ,but this is only another way of expressing the conclusions at which we have already arrived1 for 7of course7 if we imagine a ,divine ,agency to be resident in the universe1 we cannot but suppose that every motion of any kind is accompanied with a consciousness of this ,divine ,agency4 ,in fine1 we maintain that what we are driven to is not an under-life resident in the atom1 but rather1 to adopt the words of a recent writer1 a ,divine over-life in which we live and move and have our being4 #bdc4 ,here it is desirable to consider what we gain by this hypothesis4 ,our gain is simply in the way in which we regard the functions of matter1 and a little reflection will convince us that neither form of this hypothesis1 whether we hold by an under- or an over-life1 will enable us to explain the introduction of life into the visible universe by natural laws alone1 and without resorting to some peculiar action of the unseen4 ,as a matter of fact we are led by science to receive the law of ,biogenesis as expressing the present order of the world4 ,but the introduction of life into the world does not become more consistent with this law by virtue of an hypothesis which associates a consciousness of some sort with every motion of the universe4 ,it still remains a fact as much as ever1 that there is a marked distinction between the living and the dead--the organic and the inorganic4 ,and it still remains true that1 as a matter of universal scientific experience1 a living thing can only be produced from a living thing1 and that the inorganic forces of the visible universe can by no means generate life4 ,in fine1 our hypothesis1 in which the material as well as the life of the visible universe are regarded as having been developed from the ,unseen1 in which they had existed from ,eternity1 appears to us to present the only available method of avoiding a break of continuity1 if at the same time we are to accept loyally the indications given by observation and experiment4 ,it may be said 7just as anything else may be said7 that the visible universe is eternal1 and that it has the power of originating life2 but both statements are surely opposed to the results of observation and experiment4 ,now we must be content in such matters as these to be guided by probabilities1 and it certainly appears most probable that the visible universe is not eternal1 and that it has not the power of originating life4 ,in fine1 life as well as matter comes to us from the ,unseen ,universe4 #bdd4 ,let us here again pause for a moment and review the position which we have reached4 ,by taking the universe as we find it1 and regarding each occurrence in it1 without exception1 as something upon which it was meant that we should exercise our intellects1 we are led at once to the principle of ,continuity1 which asserts that we shall never be carried from the conditioned to the unconditioned1 but only from one order of the fully conditioned to another4 ,two great laws come before us3 the one of which is the ,conservation of ,mass and of ,energy2 that is to say1 conservation of the objective element of the universe2 while the other is the law of ,biogenesis1 in virtue of which the appearance of a living ,being in the universe denotes the existence of an antecedent possessing life4 ,we are led from these two great laws1 as well as from the principle of ,continuity1 to regard1 as at least the most probable solution1 that there is an intelligent ,agent operating in the universe1 one of whose functions it is to develop the universe objectively considered2 and also that there is an intelligent ,agent1 one of whose functions it is to develop intelligence and life4 ,perhaps we ought rather to say that1 if we are not driven to this very conclusion1 it appears at least to be that which most simply and naturally satisfies the principle of ,continuity4 ,but this conclusion hardly differs from the ,christian doctrine2 or1 to speak properly1 the conclusion1 so far as it goes1 appears to agree with the ,christian doctrine4 ,in fine1 we are led to regard it as one of the great merits of the ,christian system1 that its doctrine is pre-eminently one of intellectual liberty1 and that while theologians on the one hand1 and men of science on the other1 have each erected their barriers to inquiry1 the early ,christian records acknowledge no such barrier1 but on the contrary assert the most perfect freedom for all the powers of man4 #bde4 ,we have now reached a stage from which we can very easily dispose of any scientific difficulty regarding miracles4 ,for if the invisible was able to produce the present visible universe with all its energy1 it could of course1 a fortiori1 very easily produce such transmutations of energy from the one universe into the other as would account for the events which took place in ,judea4 ,those events are therefore no longer to be regarded as absolute breaks of continuity1 a thing which we have agreed to consider impossible1 but only as the result of a peculiar action of the invisible upon the visible universe4 ,when we dig up an ant-hill1 we perform an operation which1 to the inhabitants of the hill1 is mysteriously perplexing1 far transcending their experience1 but we know very well that the whole affair happens without any breach of continuity of the laws of the universe4 ,in like manner1 the scientific difficulty with regard to miracles will1 we think1 entirely disappear1 if our view of the invisible universe be accepted1 or indeed if any view be accepted which implies the presence in it of living beings much more powerful than ourselves4 ,it is of course assumed that the visible and invisible are and have been constantly in a state of intimate mutual relation4 #bdf4 ,we have as yet only replied to the scientific objection1 but there are other objections which might be raised4 ,thus1 for instance1 it might be said1 ,what occasion was there for the interference implied in miracles8 ,and again1 ,is the historical testimony in favour of their occurrence conclusive8 ,we must leave the last objection to be replied to by the historian2 but with respect to the former1 it appears to us as almost self-evident that ,christ1 if ,he came to us from the invisible world1 could hardly 7with reverence be it spoken7 have done so without some peculiar sort of communication being established between the two worlds4 ,no doubt we may well imagine that the acts of interference in virtue of this communication were strictly limited2 and in proof of this conclusion we may cite the fact that what did occur was sufficiently startling to have secured the ear of humanity ever since1 but not sufficiently overwhelming to preclude the exercise of individual faith4 ,the very fact of there being sincere sceptics proves1 we think1 the limited extent of these interferences4#fe ,and we must remember1 on the other hand1 that it is quite possible to accept fully the truth of a statement without the slightest influence resulting as regards modification of our course of action4 ,perhaps the most terrible portion of the ,new ,testament is the passage 7,james ii4 #ai71 #8the demons also believe1 and tremble4' #bdg4 ,we have now considered miracles1 or those apparent breaks of continuity which have been furnished by history1 but our readers are already well aware that equally formidable breaks are brought before us by science4 ,there is1 to begin with1 that formidable phenomenon1 the production in time of the visible universe4 ,secondly1 there is a break hardly less formidable1 the original production of life2 and there is1 thirdly1 that break recognised by ,wallace and his school of natural history1 which seems to have occurred at the first production of man4 ,greatly as we are indebted to ,darwin1 ,huxley1 and those who have prominently advocated the possibility of the present system of things' having been developed by forces and operations such as we see before us1 it must be regarded by us1 and we think it is regarded by them1 as a defect in their system1 that these breaks remain unaccounted for4 ,our readers will now1 however1 if we mistake not1 perceive what is the real source of the perplexity felt by the school of evolutionists4 ,it is that they have been unable to regard an interference of the invisible universe in any other light than as an absolute break of continuity2 and holding with justice to the principle of continuity1 they have been unable to do more than acknowledge these difficulties and allow them to remain4 ,but from our point of view these difficulties are by no means impenetrable barriers1 barring for ever the progress of research4 ,on the contrary1 we assert that1 if approached with sufficient boldness1 and examined with sufficient care1 they will be found to contain avenues leading up to the invisible universe1 and directing our inquiries thitherwards4 ,there may be possibly other apparent breaks or barriers1 but these appear to be the best established2 and1 with these exceptions1 we may suppose that the visible universe1 in so far as we are capable of investigating it1 has been left to develop itself in accordance with those laws of energy which we see in operation at the present day4 ,in fine1 the visible universe was plainly intended to be something which we are capable of investigating1 and the few apparent breaks are in reality so many partially concealed avenues leading up to the unseen4 #bdh4 ,our readers must not however infer from what we have now said1 that we do not recognise any present points of contact between us and the invisible4 ,there may possibly be 7but even of this we are not quite sure7 no points of apparent interference between the two1 so that the man of science cannot say1--,here is a break2--but nevertheless there may be a close and vital union between the two universes1 in those regions into which investigation cannot penetrate1 and who shall say that the laws of these regions do not admit of the objective efficacy of prayer8 ,there may be an action of the invisible world upon the individual mind1 and there is no reason why there should not also be an action upon the visible universe1 by means of those processes of delicacy which1 as we have already seen1 obtain in that quarter 7,art4 #ahd74 ,neither the one action nor the other would be detected by science1 unless we except certain providential occurrences1 which are generally1 however1 better recognised by the individuals to whom they refer than by the world at large4 ,and just as reversibility 7,art4 #aac7 is the stamp of perfection in the inanimate engine1 so a similar reversibility may be the stamp of perfection in the living man4 ,he ought to live for the unseen--to carry into it something which may not be wholly unacceptable4 ,but1 in order to enable him to do this1 the unseen must also work upon him1 and its influences must pervade his spiritual nature4 ,thus a life for the unseen through the unseen is to be regarded as the only perfect life4 #bdi4 ,in fine1 the unseen may have a very wide field of influence1 but from its very nature its working is not discernible1 or at least easily discernible1 by the eye of sense1 and we are therefore led to consult the ,christian records for otherwise unattainable information regarding the reality of a present influence exercised by the invisible universe upon ours4 ,in the first place1 we have the following words of ,christ himself 7,matt4 xiii4 #da73 #8,the ,son of man shall send forth his angels1 and they shall gather out of his kingdom all things that offend1 and them which do iniquity1 and shall cast them into a furnace of fire3 there shall be wailing and gnashing of teeth4' ,again 7,matt4 xxv4 #ca73 #8,when the ,son of man shall come in his glory1 and all the holy angels with him1 then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory3 and before him shall be gathered all nations2 and he shall separate them one from another1 as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats4' ,again 7,matt4 xxvi4 #ec71 speaking to ,peter3 #8,thinkest thou that ,i cannot now pray to my ,father1 and he shall presently give me more than twelve legions of angels8' ,furthermore1 we read 7,heb4 i4 #ad73 #8,are they not all ministering spirits1 sent forth to minister for them who shall be heirs of salvation8' ,these passages 7and many more might be quoted7 would appear to show that1 according to the ,scriptures1 the angels take a very prominent part in the administration of the universe under the direction of the ,son of ,god4 ,they are his ministers1 his messengers1 who execute his decrees and perform his errands1 whether of mercy or of justice4 ,therefore it is said of ,christ1 #8,thou art the ,king of angels2' and of himself in his glorified state1 speaking to his disciples1 ,christ says 7,matt4 xxviii4 #ah73 #8,all power is given unto me in heaven and in earth4 ,go ye therefore1 and teach all nations1 baptising them in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost1 teaching them to observe all things whatsoever ,i have commanded you2 and1 lo1 ,i am with you alway1 even unto the end of the world4' ,let us close these quotations by one from the ,old ,testament--#b ,kings vi4 #ae-ag3 #8,and when the servant of the man of ,god was risen early1 and gone forth1 behold1 an host encompassed the city both with horses and chariots3 and his servant said unto him1 ,alas1 my master6 how shall we do8 ,and he answered1 ,fear not2 for they that be with us are more than they that be with them4 ,and ,elisha prayed1 and said1 ,lord1 ,i pray thee1 open his eyes1 that he may see4 ,and the ,lord opened the eyes of the young man3 and he saw3 and1 behold1 the mountain was full of horses and chariots of fire round about ,elisha4' ,finally1 it is the belief of a large portion of the ,christian ,church that the ,spirit of ,god dwells in and acts upon the souls of believers4 ,this action represents the influence which reaches the soul of man from the unseen1 enabling him to live for the unseen4 #bej4 ,we have in our opening chapter quoted a very remarkable passage from ,swedenborg upon the particular nature of ,god's providence4 ,let us now hear what the ,scriptures say upon the same subject4 ,christ tells us 7,luke xii4 #f73 #8,are not five sparrows sold for two farthings1 and not one of them is forgotten before ,god8 ,but even the very hairs of your head are all numbered4 ,fear not therefore3 ye are of more value than many sparrows4' ,again1 ,st4 ,paul tells us 7,rom4 viii4 #bh73 #8,and we know that all things work together for good to them that love ,god1 to them who are called according to his purpose4' ,also 7,rom4 viii4 #ch73 #8,for ,i am persuaded1 that neither death1 nor life1 nor angels1 nor principalities1 nor powers1 nor things present1 nor things to come1 nor height1 nor depth1 nor any other creature1 shall be able to separate us from the love of ,god1 which is in ,christ ,jesus our ,lord4' #bea4 ,we think it may be concluded from all these passages that the doctrine of a particular providence is taught in the ,scriptures4 ,nevertheless it is one of the hardest things to understand how this doctrine can be made consistent with the working out of general laws which1 so far as we can study them1 appear to have no reference whatever to individuals4 ,this was a difficulty intensely felt by the late ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,he says1 in a work published after his death3-- #8,for how stands the fact8 ,that1 next to the greatness of these cosmic forces1 the quality which most forcibly strikes every one who does not avert his eyes from it is their perfect and absolute recklessness4 ,they go straight to their end without regarding what or whom they crush on the road4 ,optimists1 in their attempts to prove that 8whatever is1 is right10 are obliged to maintain1 not that ,nature ever turns one step from her path to avoid trampling us into destruction1 but that it would be very unreasonable in us to expect that she should4 ,pope's 8,shall gravitation cease when you go by80 may be a just rebuke to any one who should be so silly as to expect common human morality from ,nature4 ,but if the question were between two men1 instead of between a man and a natural phenomenon1 that triumphant apostrophe would be thought a rare piece of impudence4 ,a man who should persist in hurling stones or firing cannon when another man 8goes by10 and1 having killed him1 should urge a similar plea in exculpation1 would very deservedly be found guilty of murder4 ,in sober truth1 nearly all the things which men are hanged or imprisoned for doing to one another are ,nature's every-day performances4' ,this objection to belief in the reality of the government of ,god has been clothed in very eloquent language in a sermon by the ,rev4 ,james ,martineau3--#8,the battle of existence' 7he tells us1 putting himself for the moment into the position of ,mill and his school7 #8rages through all time and in every field2 and its rule is to give no quarter--to despatch the maimed1 to overtake the halt1 to trip up the blind1 and drive the fugitive host over the precipice into the sea4' ,in very beautiful language the poet ,tennyson1 after proposing the same riddle1 replies to it thus3-- #8,are ,god and ,nature then at strife ,that ,nature lends such evil dreams8 ,so careful of the type she seems1 ,so careless of the single life2 99 99 99 99 99 8,so careful of the type08 but no4 ,from scarped cliff and quarried stone ,she cries1 ,a thousand types are gone3 ,i care for nothing3 all shall go4 99 99 99 99 99 ,o life as futile1 then1 as frail6 ,o for thy voice to soothe and bless6 ,what hope of answer or redress8 ,behind the veil1 behind the veil4' ,in another passage of equal beauty the same poet expresses his conviction #8,that nothing walks with aimless feet3 ,that not one life shall be destroy'd ,or cast as rubbish to the void1 ,when ,god hath made the pile complete4 ,that not a worm is cloven in vain2 ,that not a moth with vain desire ,is shrivel'd in a fruitless fire1 ,or but subserves another's gain4' ,professor ,jevons1 again1 in his ,principles of ,science 7vol4 ii4 p4 #dfh7 alludes in the following terms to this difficulty3--#8,the hypothesis1 that there is a ,creator1 at once all-powerful and all-benevolent1 is surrounded1 as it must seem to every candid investigator1 with difficulties verging closely upon logical contradiction4 ,the existence of the smallest amount of pain and evil would seem to show that ,he is either not perfectly benevolent1 or not all-powerful4 ,no one can have lived long without experiencing sorrowful events of which the significance is inexplicable4 ,but if we cannot succeed in avoiding contradiction in our notions of elementary geometry1 can we expect that the ultimate purposes of existence shall present themselves to us with perfect clearness8 ,i can see nothing to forbid the notion that in a higher state of intelligence much that is now obscure may become clear4 ,we perpetually find ourselves in the position of finite minds attempting infinite problems1 and can we be sure that where we see contradiction an infinite intelligence might not discover perfect logical harmony8' #beb4 ,before we leave this subject there is one consideration which ought not to be forgotten4 ,it is evident that the development of the visible universe is of such a nature that we can understand it1 and to a great extent explain it by means of laws and processes with which we are familiar3 nay1 the order of the universe is something which it is our very duty to investigate4 ,but the result of our inquiry is1 and can only be1 the appretiation of general laws of action4 ,the working out of these laws can have1 from this point of view1 no possible reference to individual interests4 ,if gravity acted sometimes1 and at other times refrained from acting1 we could derive no certain information from our experience2 we could not advance in art or science1 and should infallibly be plunged into speedy confusion4 ,nevertheless1 it is not impossible that the occurrences which take place through the action of gravity may1 after all1 be so arranged as to have reference to the real welfare of individuals1 although this reference may not be apparent because we are not in a position to recognise it1 and it is not intended that we should do so1 at least in this life4 ,the ability to do so would be a very dangerous gift1 and would go far to upset the present economy4 ,we know very little about the bearings of events on our own best interests1 and nothing at all about their bearings on those of our neighbour4 ,we may1 however1 believe with ,jevons1 that in a future state the adaptation between the two may become apparent to us1 even if we do not ourselves become instruments in bringing this adaptation about4 #bec4 ,the outcome of all these speculations would thus lead us to regard the ,christian system as affording a full scope for development in all respects1 whether of the universe or of the individual4 ,its law is pre-eminently that of liberty1 and it has conducted us to the conclusion that the doctrine of the ,trinity1 or something analogous to it1 forms1 as it were1 the avenue through which the universe itself leads us up to the conception of the infinite and eternal ,one4 ,nevertheless1 not a few of our readers may be disinclined to entertain any precise conception of the ,divine nature4 ,neither atheists nor theists1 they simply dismiss the ,deity as being quite above their comprehension1 and all doctrines founded upon definite conceptions of the ,deity1 as superstructures without foundation4 ,now1 the results regarding a future state at which we have arrived are1 as we think1 and as we have said in our introduction1 capable of being very nearly1 if not altogether1 detached from all conceptions regarding the ,divine essence4 ,we have merely to take the universe as it is1 and1 adopting the principle of ,continuity1 insist upon an endless chain of events1 all fully conditioned1 however far we go either backwards or forwards4 ,this process leads us at once to the conception of an invisible universe1 and to see that immortality is possible without a break of continuity4 ,we have1 however1 no physical proof in favour of it1 unless we allow that ,christ rose from the dead4 ,but it will be admitted that1 if ,christ rose from the dead1 a future state becomes more than possible2 it becomes probable2 and we do not see that this conclusion is1 in itself1 greatly modified by differences in our mode of regarding the exact nature of ,christ4 ,again1 the production of the visible universe in time leads us1 by the principle of ,continuity1 to the conception of a fully conditioned intelligent universe1 existing prior to the production of the visible4 ,and furthermore1 we are induced by our argument 7,art4 #bah7 to regard the production of the visible universe as the work of an intelligent agency residing in the invisible4 ,if1 then1 such an agency could produce the visible universe1 it could certainly accomplish the resurrection of ,christ1 without any break of continuity1 so far as the whole universe is concerned4 #bed4 ,the joys of the ,christian ,heaven are celebrated in ,hymns which are frequently very beautiful1 even if they do not mount to the sublimity of the ancient ,hebrew ode4 ,one of the finest of these is the free translation by ,pope of the ,latin 7not originally ,christian7 ode standing at the commencement of this volume4 ,it runs thus3-- #8,vital spark of heavenly flame6 ,quit1 oh1 quit this mortal frame6 ,trembling1 hoping1 ling'ring1 flying6 ,oh1 the pain1 the bliss of dying6 ,cease1 fond ,nature1 cease thy strife1 ,and let me languish into life6 ,hark6 they whisper--angels say1 8,sister spirit1 come away60 ,what is this absorbs me quite2 ,steals my senses1 shuts my sight2 ,drowns my spirits1 draws my breath8 ,tell me1 my soul1 can this be--death8 ,the world recedes6 it disappears6 ,heaven opens to my eyes6--my ears ,with sounds seraphic ring3 ,lend1 lend your wings6 ,i mount6 ,i fly6 ,o ,grave6 where is thy victory8 ,o ,death6 where is thy sting8' ,many specimens might be given if our object were to collect together the ,christian ,hymns relating to ,heaven4 ,sometimes1 too1 we have beautiful descriptions not in verse1 and ,bunyan's account of the reception of ,christian and ,hopeful at the ,celestial ,city will at once occur to the reader as not inferior in the claims of true poetry to anything that we have in verse4 #bee4 ,now1 if we analyse such hymns of joy1 we find in them two prominent chords1 one or other of which is always struck4 ,the first expresses the ,christian's sense of relief from sorrow and death1 and the second his joy in the anticipated presence of ,christ--his intense desire to behold the ,king in his beauty4 ,these chords are struck together by ,st4 ,john1 when he says 7,rev4 xxi4 #c1 #d71 #8,and ,i heard a great voice out of heaven saying1 ,behold1 the tabernacle of ,god is with men1 and he will dwell with them1 and they shall be his people1 and ,god himself shall be with them1 and be their ,god4 ,and ,god shall wipe away all tears from their eyes2 and there shall be no more death1 neither sorrow1 nor crying1 neither shall there be any more pain3 for the former things are passed away4' ,in other respects the descriptions of the ,christian heaven are no doubt figurative4 ,they are intended for ,christians of all ages of the world1 and have hardly any reference to the material conditions of life in a future state4 ,these could not be apprehended by believers #ahjj years ago1 inasmuch as we can hardly be said to grasp them now4 ,nevertheless there is one direction in which we do think we are able to obtain a glimpse into the conditions of this future life4 #bef4 ,one of the most prominent characteristics of even the well-directed human mind is its insatiable curiosity4 ,how intensely anxious we all are to realise the conditions of the life of our forefathers in the ruder and earlier times2 how interested in every scrap of intelligence which reaches us from the dead old world6 ,how interested too in any light thrown upon the civilisation which preceded these old times6 ,what would not any man give for half an hour with ,socrates or ,plato8 what would he not give1 be he ,christian or unbeliever1 to have pictured out vividly and truly before him some episode in the life of ,christ8 ,in a tedious1 toilsome1 tantalising1 roundabout way we do indeed get some passing glimpses into these ancient historical ages4 ,the earth is not unlike the human brain1 in that it contains in itself certain memories of the past3 and1 just as we rummage out and hunt up in our brains old memories1 so do the historian and the antiquary search about in the earth for that memory which it retains of those distant but glorious ages4 ,but the universe1 no less than the individual1 has another memory besides the material one1 and we have endeavoured 7,art4 #aif7 to convince our readers that nothing is really lost1 the past being always present in the universe4 ,if this be the case1 it may readily be conceived that this universal memory may by some process of exaltation and intensification1 or as it were by some relay battery of the universe1 be occasionally quickened into such a life that the individual in the future and glorified state may be enabled 7through the power of the ,lord7 to realise scenes that happened in the far distant past4 ,for if so much can be accomplished with a thing so little plastic as the material memory of the earth1 what may not be done with that infinitely more plastic form of existence which we term the world to come8 #beg4 ,again1 if in this present world we have great difficulty in realising our own past1 we have even greater difficulty in realising what is at this very moment taking place in remote parts of the present visible universe4 ,astronomers and ,physicists agree that life is possible in the planet ,mars1 and it is quite likely that intelligent beings analogous to ourselves exist at the present moment on the surface of that planet1 but we shall never in this life know for certain anything about them4 ,there is an insurmountable barrier to physical inquiry as great as if ,mars belonged to the unseen universe1 instead of being1 what he is in reality1 our next-door neighbour in the present4 ,now1 may not this barrier be removed in the future state8 ,this has been a favourite topic with scientific theologians1 and we believe that all who have speculated on the conditions of a future life have unanimously agreed that we shall have much greater freedom of motion in the world to come4 ,there can be no doubt that our relations to time and space will then be greatly altered and enlarged4 ,men shall run to and fro in the universe1 and knowledge shall be increased4 #beh4 ,but yet the picture is not altogether one of intellectual brightness and beauty4 ,it wears also a moral aspect1 and upon this almost exclusively the ,christian records dwell4 ,we are told in these records that nothing is forgotten4 ,christ tells us 7,st4 ,luke viii4 #ag71 #8,nothing is secret1 that shall not be made manifest2 neither anything hid1 that shall not be known and come abroad4' ,and again ,st4 ,john tells us 7,rev4 xx4 #ab71 #8,i saw the dead1 small and great1 stand before ,god3 and the books were opened2 and another book was opened1 which is the book of life3 and the dead were judged out of those things which were written in the books1 according to their works4' ,this thought has been developed by the ,rev4 ,alexander ,macleod1 ,d4,d41 in a work entitled ,our own ,lives the ,books of ,judgment4 ,this author points out that in many cases it may not be even necessary to appeal to the universe for the record which is therein written1 for this is sufficiently stamped upon the body itself1 and he then draws a vivid and lurid picture of the sensual man in whom the mortal body is like a parchment written within and without--a truly mournful and terrible record of the deeds done in the body4 ,but if all this is possible with an organism possessing so little plasticity as the natural body1 and where the wish of the individual is to preserve a respectable exterior1 what must be the case in the soul#ff of such a man8--#8,if they do these things in a green tree1 what shall be done in the dry8' ,what a hideous and horrible likeness must not that foul thing have that issues forth from the #8grave and gate of ,death' into the presence of the ,unseen and ,eternal8 #bei4 ,it is extremely striking to read in this connection the following extract from ,plato's ,gorgias4 ,we quote from ,jowett's translation4 ,socrates is the speaker3-- #8,this is a tale1 ,callicles1 which ,i have heard and believe1 and from which ,i draw the following inferences3 ,death1 if ,i am right1 is in the first place the separation from one another of two things1 soul and body2--this1 and nothing else4 ,and after they are separated they retain their several characteristics1 which are much the same as in life2 the body has the same nature and ways and affections1 all clearly discernible2 for example1 he who by nature or training1 or both1 was a tall man while he was alive1 will remain as he was after he is dead2 and the fat man will remain fat2 and so on3 and the dead man1 who in life had a fancy to have flowing hair1 will have flowing hair4 ,and if he was marked with the whip and had the prints of the scourge1 or of wounds in him while he was alive1 you might see the same in the dead body2 and if his limbs were broken or misshapen while he was alive1 the same appearance would be visible in the dead4 ,and1 in a word1 whatever was the habit of the body during life would be distinguishable after death1 either perfectly or in a great measure and for a time4 ,and ,i should infer that this is equally true of the soul1 ,callicles2 when the man is stripped of the body all the natural or acquired affections of the soul are laid open to view4 ,and when they come to the judge1 as those from ,asia came to ,rhadamanthus1 he places them near him and inspects them quite impartially1 not knowing whose the soul is3 perhaps he may lay hands on the soul of the great king1 or of some other king or potentate1 who has no soundness in him1 but his soul is marked with the whip1 and is full of the prints and scars of perjuries1 and of wrongs which have been plastered into him by each action1 and he is all crooked with falsehood and imposture1 because he has lived without truth4 ,him ,rhadamanthus beholds1 full of all deformity and disproportion1 which is caused by licence and luxury and insolence and incontinence1 and despatches him ignominiously to his prison1 and there he undergoes the punishment which he deserves4' #bfj4 ,as1 in ,eastern monarchies1 a veil was sometimes cast over the face of the guilty2#fg so in the ,new ,testament the veil of darkness is drawn over the fate of the lost soul who falls into the hands of the living ,god4 #8,and when the king came in to see the guests1 he saw there a man which had not on a wedding-garment3 and he saith unto him1 ,friend1 how camest thou in hither1 not having a wedding-garment8 ,and he was speechless4 ,then said the king to the servants1 ,bind him hand and foot1 and take him away1 and cast him into outer darkness2 there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth4'#fh ,we greatly question whether any school of theologians have succeeded in throwing a single ray of real light into this mysterious region4#fi ,our readers are well aware that there are three such schools4 ,one of these contemplates the eternity of punishment physical1 mental1 or both2 another the final salvation of all men2 while a third expects the annihilation of the wicked in ,gehenna4 ,now while it is entirely without our province to enter into these discussions1 we may yet be permitted to point out that1 as it appears to us1 the principle of ,continuity demands not merely one state1 but rather an eternal and infinite succession of states1 in order to constitute true immortality4 ,the precise conditions of such an immortality it is not for us to discuss4 ,under any school of theological thought a glorious immortality implies the ultimate union1 morally and spiritually1 of the individual with the ,divine over-life1 while the fate of the impenitent must surely be something so awful that language fails to bring it fully before the mind4 #bfa4 ,but this graphic and powerful picture of the fate of the lost fared as badly as other ,new ,testament conceptions when it fell into the hands of the materialists of the middle ages4 ,its meaning was entirely altered1 and the ,christian ,hell1 instead of being the ,gehenna of the ,universe1 where all its garbage and filth is consumed1 was changed into a region shut in by adamantine walls and full of impossible physical fires--the ,devil being the chief stoker4 ,the one idea is awful1 while the other is simply grotesque4 ,an antient ,jew who had occasion to pass by the valley of ,hinnom1 and whose senses were invaded by the sights and smells of that doleful region1 must have entertained a conception of the ,hell described by ,christ as different as possible from that which has reached us from the middle ages1 and to which some even of the readers of this book may have been accustomed in their earlier years4 ,the reader who desires to know something of the more than fiendish malignity with which human beings 7mainly ,christian ministers7 have improved upon the solemn but markedly reserved language of ,scripture on such points has only to refer to the ,inferno4 ,perhaps the hideous realism of ,dor's illustrations will of itself be enough for him4 ,if not1 a very few lines of the original cannot fail to suffice4 ,perch' io dissi3--,maestro1 esti tormenti ,cresceranno ei dopo la gran sentenza1 ,o fien minori1 o saran si cocenti8 ,ed egli a me3--,ritorna a tua scienza1 ,che vuol1 quanto la cosa pi perfetta1 ,pi senta 'l bene1 e cos la doglienza4 ,tutto che questa gente maledetta ,in vera perfezion giammai non vada1 ,di l1 pi che di qua1 essere aspetta4#gj ,since the time of ,dante many attempts have been made1 unsuccessfully1 by men without his genius1 to import additional horror4 ,to some extent no doubt ,christ's description of the ,universal ,gehenna must be regarded as figurative1 but yet we do not think that the sayings of ,christ with regard to the unseen world ought to be looked upon as nothing more than pure figures of speech4 ,we feel assured that the principle of ,continuity cries out against such an interpretation--may they not rather be descriptions of what takes place in the unseen universe brought home to our minds by means of perfectly true comparisons with the processes and things of this present universe which they most resemble8 ,and just as1 in the visible universe1 there is apparently an enormous and inexplicable waste of germs1 seeds1 and eggs of all kinds1 which die simply because they are useless--analogy would lead us to conclude that something similar1 and to at least as enormous an extent1 happens in the ,unseen with the germs of spiritual frames4 ,the caterpillar which has not chosen a secure place of refuge in which to assume the chrysalis form does not live to become a perfect insect4 ,the seeds that fell by the wayside1 though scattered by an intelligent sower1 were devoured by the birds of the air4 #8,let every one of them pass away1 like the untimely birth of a woman1 that they may not see the sun4' #8,for many are called1 but few chosen4'#ga #bfb4 ,thus the ,christian ,gehenna bears to the ,unseen ,universe precisely the same relation as the ,gehenna of the ,jews did to the city of ,jerusalem2 and just as the fire was always kept up and the worm ever active in the one1 so are we forced to contemplate an enduring process in the other4 ,for we cannot easily agree with those who would limit the existence of evil to the present world4 ,we know now that the matter of the whole of the visible universe is of a piece with that which we recognise here1 and the beings of other worlds must apparently be subject to accidental occurrences from their relation with the outer universe in the same way as we are4 ,but if there be accident1 must there not be pain and death8 ,now these are naturally associated in our minds with the presence of moral evil4 ,we are thus drawn1 if not forced1 to surmise that the dark thread known as evil is one which is very deeply woven into that garment of ,god which is called the ,universe4 ,in fine1 just as the arguments of this chapter lead us to regard the whole ,universe#gb as eternal1 so in like manner are we led to surmise that evil is eternal1 and therefore we cannot easily imagine the ,universe without its ,gehenna1 where the worm dieth not1 and the fire is not quenched4 ,the process at all events would seem to us to be most probably an enduring one4 ,many passages of the ,new ,testament1 however1 seem to point to a continuity of moral development in the unseen universe1 a development whose climax is to be reached when the last enemy1 death1 is destroyed in ,gehenna4 #bfc4 ,but it is fruitless to expect that ,science should throw any light upon that greatest of all mysteries--the origin of evil4 ,we have now come to a region where we must suffer ourselves to be led solely by the light which is given us in the ,christian ,records4 ,and while here we would quote from a very remarkable work on the ,lord's ,prayer#gc by the ,rev4 ,charles ,parsons ,reichel1 ,b4,d41 which exhibits in a singularly clear light the testimony given by ,scripture1 as well as the fruitlessness of all attempts to obtain information from any other quarter4 ,our first extract relates to the personality of #8,the ,evil ,one3'-- #8,in refutation' 7says the writer7 #8of the objections that have been urged against the personal existence of the ,adversary1 this one observation is quite enough3 that of the world of spirits we cannot possibly know anything save by direct revelation4 ,it is beyond the domain of the senses2 it is beyond the cognisance of reason4 ,a man born blind might therefore as rationally attempt to disprove by a process of reasoning the existence of a sense of which he can know nothing except by testimony1 as we attempt by a process of reasoning to disprove the existence of a spirit of whose existence we can know nothing save by testimony4 ,the only point to be ascertained in either case is whether the testimony be sufficient4 ,if the testimony of ,scripture be deemed sufficient1 then ,i cannot see that it is possible to deny the ,personal existence of ,satan any more than that of ,god4 ,how ,satan exists1 or where at the present time1 or how his power avails1 as we are told it does1 to contrive and suggest temptations to the mind of man2 and to what extent he is aware of what is passing in men's minds1 so as to adapt his suggestions to their weakness1 we are not told1 and do not therefore know4 ,but our not being told the manner in which his power is exercised and brought to bear1 is no proof of the unreality of that fearful ,being who is everywhere in the ,new ,testament exhibited as the adversary of ,god and goodness1 whether in the individual1 or in the development of the human race4' ,the next passage is one which all of us may study with much advantage4 ,it refers to temptation3-- #8,every risk incurred unnecessarily for the sake of exhibiting our trust in ,god1 every unusual or unnecessary act done merely or chiefly for the purpose of displaying our privileges or our conviction1 or of attracting attention and admiration1 every stepping out of the plain1 unadorned1 and unadmired path of simple duty1 is a phase of it4' 99 99 99 99 99 #8,why ,god should permit any of his creatures to be tempted is a question we can no more answer than we can that question of which indeed it is but a case1 why ,god should permit evil to exist at all4 ,but we know that evil does exist2 and we know too that temptation does exist4 ,that evil was first introduced into the world by a ,being who goes under the name of ,satan or the ,adversary 7#b ,cor4 xi4 #c7 we are told3 that this ,being endeavoured first to seduce1 and afterwards to menace our ,saviour into evil2 and that he is constantly engaged in tempting us as he tempted ,christ1 we are also told4' 99 99 99 99 99 #8,and the true rendering of the last clause in ,christ's own prayer would seem to intimate that the same ,being is also busy in suggesting temptations to every follower of ,christ--8,lead us not into temptation1 but deliver us from the ,evil ,one40' #bfd4 ,but we must now draw to a close2 first of all1 however1 let us briefly sum up the results of our discussion4 ,the great scientific principle which we have made use of has been the ,law of ,continuity4 ,this simply means that the whole universe is of a piece2 that it is something which an intelligent being is capable of understanding1 not completely nor all at once1 but better and better the more he studies it4 ,in this great whole which we call the ,universe there is no impenetrable barrier to the intellectual development of the individual4 ,death is not such a barrier1 whether we contemplate it in others1 or whether we experience it ourselves4 ,and the same continuity which has been insisted on with reference to our intellectual conceptions of the universe applies1 we have little doubt1 to the other faculties of man1 and to other regions of thought4 ,when we regard the universe from this point of view we are led to a scientific conception of it which is1 we have seen1 strikingly analogous to the system which is presented to us in the ,christian religion4 ,for not only are the nebulous beginning and fiery termination of the present visible universe indicated in the ,christian records1 but a constitution and power are therein assigned to the ,unseen ,universe strikingly analogous to those at which we arrive by a legitimate scientific process4 #bfe4 ,our readers are now in a position to perceive the result of questioning science in this manner1 and of abandoning ourselves without mistrust or hesitation to the guidance of legitimate principles4 ,it is that science so developed1 instead of appearing antagonistic to the claims of ,christianity1 is in reality its most efficient supporter2 and that the burden of showing how the early ,christians got hold of a constitution of the unseen universe1 altogether different from any other cosmogony1 but similar to that which modern science proclaims1 is transferred to the shoulders of the opponents of ,christianity4 #bff4 ,for the present we would only add that the principle1 of the aid of which we have availed ourselves1 is not a mere theological weapon1 but will1 we believe1 ultimately prove a most powerful scientific auxiliary4 ,already we have used it in our endeavour to modify the most probable hypothesis which has been formed concerning the ultimate constitution of matter4 ,the truth is1 that science and religion neither are nor can be two fields of knowledge with no possible communication between them4 ,such a hypothesis is simply absurd4 ,there is undoubtedly an avenue leading from the one to the other1 but this avenue is through the unseen universe1 and unfortunately it has been walled up and ticketed with #8,no road this way1' professedly alike in the name of science at the one end1 and in the name of religion at the other4 ,we are in hopes that when this region of thought comes to be further examined it may lead to some common ground on which followers of science on the one hand1 and of revealed religion on the other1 may meet together and recognise each other's claims without any sacrifice of the spirit of independence1 or any diminution of self-respect4 ,entertaining these views we shall welcome with sincere pleasure any remarks or criticism on these speculations of ours1 whether by the leaders of scientific thought or by those of religious inquiry4 ,it must never be forgotten that1 whether we take the scientific or the religious point of view1 one great object of our life in the visible universe is obviously to learn2 and that 7as human beings are constituted7 advance in learning necessarily implies a high purpose kept steadily before us1 and a continuous and arduous pursuit4 ,for1 as we are told in the ,first ,epistle of ,john1 #8,this is the victory which overcometh the world1 even our faith4' 444 ,edinburgh ,university ,press3 ,,thomas ,,and ,,archibald ,,constable1 ,,printers ,,to ,,her ,,majesty ,,footnotes3 #a ,it will be seen from our last chapter that we have used by preference the word ,soul to represent that which survives death both in the righteous and the wicked4 #b ,see also ,job xxi4 #ad1 #ae4 #c ,see ,westminster ,sermons1 by the ,rev4 ,charles ,kingsley4 #d ,wilkinson4 #e ,wilkinson4 #f ,exod4 vi4 #b4 #g ,gen4 xix4 #ab4 #h ,lectures on the ,jewish ,church4 #i ,dan4 xii4 #b4 #aj ,dan4 xii4 #ac4 #aa #b ,macc4 vii4 #ad4 #ab ,wars of the ,jews1 ,,ii4 viii4 #ad4 #ac ,essays on some of the ,peculiarities of the ,christian ,religion4 #ad ,phdrus1 quoted by ,wilkinson4 #ae ,chips from a ,german ,workshop4 #af #a ,cor4 xv4 #ce4 #ag ,ps4 cii4 #be4 #ah #b ,cor4 iv4 #ah4 #ai #b ,pet4 iii4 #aj4 #bj ,rev4 xx4 #aa4 #ba ,see footnote to ,art4 #bbd4 #bb ,john v4 #cj4 #bc ,gal4 iv4 #d4 #bd ,john viii4 #bh4 #be ,see ,professor ,huxley's ,birmingham ,lecture4 #bf ,life and ,writings of ,swedenborg by ,william ,white4 #bg ,we are aware that a certain class of thinkers regard all matter and combinations of matter as in some unexplained sense alive4 ,we will discuss this doctrine in another place2 meanwhile it must be understood that we do not here allude to this peculiar life1 which from its very conception must exist as truly in a dead body as in a living one2 what we are discussing at present is individual consciousness of the ordinary recognised type4 #bh ,as will be seen in ,chap4 ,,iii41 the more important half of the realities of the physical world are forms of ,energy1 which cannot exist except when associated with ,matter4 ,we mention this merely in a footnote now1 as we do not wish to diverge too far from our present line of argument4 #bi ,a very striking analogy to this will be found in ,chapter ,,iii41 where it is shown that energy of visible motion often disappears by transformation into the dormant or latent energy of position4 #cj ,see ,essay on this subject by the ,hon4 ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,grove1 in his book on ,the ,correlation of ,physical ,forces4 #ca ,see ,contributions to ,solar ,physics1 by ,de la ,rue1 ,stewart1 and ,loewy4 #cb ,in ,chap4 ,,iv4 the reader will see that the only attempt to explain the mechanism of gravitation1 which can be called even hopeful1 does not give rigorously the law of the inverse square of the distance4 #cc #8,i hope all will be well4 ,and1 as for the gate you talk of1 all the world knows that it is a great way off our country4 ,i cannot think that any man in all our parts doth so much as know the way to it2 nor need they matter whether they do or no1 since we have1 as you see1 a fine1 pleasant1 green lane1 that comes down from our country1 the next way into the way4' #cd ,this is discussed in ,chapter ,,iv4 below4 #ce ,it is hardly needful to inform our readers that the word substance is used in this chapter in the ordinary sense4 #cf ,see ,thomson and ,tait's ,natural ,philosophy1 #bfi2 or ,tait's ,thermodynamics1 #ia4 #cg ,thus paraphrased for us3-- ,nature1 bewildering in diversity1 ,of marvels ,marvel most inscrutable1 ,like ,proteus1 altereth her shape and mould2 ,but ,fate remaineth ever immovable1 ,and1 changeless in persistency1 outwears ,the ,time of men1 the gods' ,eternity4 #ch ,for a more complete statement of ,carnot's work see ,tait1 ,recent ,advances in ,physical ,science1 #ahgf4 #ci ,they virtually showed that in a perfect steam-engine with pressure equal to #8one atmosphere' in its boiler1 and with its condenser at the temperature of melting ice1 the ratio of the heat taken in to the heat given out is #acfe to #a4 ,hence if the difference between the numbers is to be #ajj1 these must be #cgd1 #bgd4--,phil4 ,trans41 #ahed4 #dj ,see ,tait1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahgb1 ,i4 #cch1 #eaf2 ,,ii4 #bdj4 #da ,thomson and ,tait's ,natural ,philosophy1 #cjj2 or ,tait and ,steele's ,dynamics of a ,particle1 #c;d ed4 #bii4 #db ,stewart and ,tait on the ,heating of a ,disk by ,rotation in vacuo 7,proceedings of the ,royal ,society74 ,see also ,stewart's ,elementary ,treatise on ,heat1 #c;d edition1 ,art4 #chg 7,clarendon ,press ,series74 #dc ,if the visible universe be imagined to be infinite1 we should have 7following out our line of thought7 infinitely large masses separated from each other by infinite distances1 appearing for infinite ages in the liquid and solid states1 and thence transformed by means of infinite collisions into the gaseous condition in which they will remain for another infinite series of ages4 ,is there much gained by this conception8 #dd i4 #fda4 ,thus rendered by ,munro3--#8,for fools admire and like all things the more which they perceive to be concealed under involved language1 and determine things to be true which can prettily tickle the ears and are varnished over with finely sounding phrase4' #de ,this has been spoken of as an exaggeration4 ,we hope it may be so2 but when it was written 7in the winter of #ahgd7 the newspapers were full of the sickening details of the gouging of an old man by a gang of miners1 who afterwards filled the sockets with quicklime6 ,these human fiends are probably already at liberty1 having had their few months of simple imprisonment6 #df ,tait1 ,proc4 ,r4,s4,e41 #ahgd-e4 #dg ,see also the extremely interesting article ,atom1 by ,clerk-,maxwell1 in the #ith ed4 of the ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 #dh ,here it is important to observe that the speculations of ,sir ,w4 ,thomson with regard to the density of the ,ether assign only the inferior limit of that density4 ,the real density may possibly be very much greater4 #di tudes d',astronomie ,stellaire1 #ahdg4 #ej ,in ,art4 #adh we made a suggestion that gravitation might be the visible result of a tendency to a minimum of some affection of the fluid in which atoms are immersed4 ,the exertion of gravitating force might thus be associated with a change in the constitution of visible things1 and might perhaps point to an ultimate dying out1 just as the radiation from the sun1 which obeys the same formal law as that of gravity1 points to a dying out of our luminary4 ,if this be conceivable1 the really trivial nature of gravitating force 7,art4 #aci7 might come to be associated with the extraordinary persistence of the present state of things4 #ea ,the words #8left to its own laws' must not be taken too literally4 ,we ought perhaps rather to say1 the procedure of the ,governor of the visible universe is at present such as to indicate uniformity of physical laws1 while1 on the other hand1 ,his procedure when producing the universe indicated an intelligent agent designing uniformity of product4 #eb ,lay ,sermons1 ,essays1 and ,reviews4 #ec ,stewart on the ,conservation of ,energy4 #ed ,stewart on the ,conservation of ,energy4 #ee ,stewart on the ,conservation of ,energy4 #ef ,see ,meldrum on the ,periodicity of ,rainfall4 #eg ,principles of ,science1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dee4 #eh ,so-called ,ninth ,bridgewater ,treatise4 #ei ,it is surely unnecessary to inform our readers that we adopt this hypothesis1 not because we imagine it to have any inherent probability1 but simply as a concrete mode of bringing development before the understanding4 #fj ,we are not here opposing the theological doctrine that the ,universe is in the ,son of ,god4 ,in fact1 when we contemplate any past phase of the ,universe1 we are driven to look upon this as having been previously developed by the ,son of ,god1 who doubtless also sustains it4 ,this therefore represents the theological doctrine1 nevertheless it will at once be acknowledged that we may speak of ,christ as being in the ,universe4 #fa ,heb4 x4 #g4 #fb ,see a specially interesting and exhaustive paper by ,lister 7,trans4 ,r4 ,s4 ,e41 #ahgd-e74 ,a very clear analysis of it is given by ,crum ,brown 7,proc4 ,r4 ,s4 ,e41 #ahge74 #fc ,nature1 ,january #ad1 #ahge4 #fd ,the ,rev4 ,james ,martineau has1 we perceive1 taken up a similar line of argument4 7,see ,art4 on #8,modern ,materialism1' ,contemporary ,review1 ,february #ahgf47 #fe ,see ,sermon preached at ,belfast by ,dr4 ,reichel1 ,august #bc1 #ahgd4 #ff ,those who believe that the ,new ,testament asserts the annihilation of the wicked in ,gehenna1 of course hold that only the just obtain the spiritual body4 ,but we have no definite term for the body as it shall be 7in the ,hades of the ,new ,testament7 between death and the resurrection4 ,it is probable that the want of such a term is due to the fact that the authors of our recognised version have unfortunately rendered both ,hades and ,gehenna indifferently by the word ,hell1 itself a term from ,scandinavian mythology4 #fg #8,as the word went out of the king's mouth1 they covered ,haman's face4'--,esther vii4 #h4 #fh ,st4 ,matthew xxii4 #aa-ac4 ,see1 however1 also ,luke xiii4 #bh1 where the true meaning obviously is #8while ye are being cast out4' ,there are other obvious mistranslations in our version2 such as for instance that of ,mark ix4 #dc1 where for #8the fire that cannot be put out' we have #8the fire that never shall be quenched4' ,it is to be hoped that the revised version will be such as to give readers ignorant of ,greek a thoroughly correct idea of the meaning of the original1 most especially on points of such awful importance as this4 #fi ,the extent of our knowledge1 or rather of our ignorance1 on this subject has been happily rendered by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,irons1 when he states that all we are authorised to infer is that retribution will be morally complete4 #gj ,the sense is as follows3--,master1 said ,i1 will these torments increase after the great judgment1 will they be less1 or equally severe8 ,he replied--,go back to your scholastic learning1 which tells you that the more perfect the being the more he feels both pleasure and pain4 ,and1 although these accursed ones can never reach full perfection1 they expect to be more perfect after than before 7the judgment74 #ga ,we ought perhaps to inform our readers that what we have here said refers to that particular state after the present--the dying out of which1 in consequence of voluntary separation from its centre of life and energy1 has been called the second death4 ,whether this dying out is equivalent to absolute annihilation is a point which we do not pretend to discuss4 #gb ,including in it a state of things like the present physical universe2 not1 however1 the very things that now exist1 these being evanescent in energy at least1 if not also in material4 #gc ,cambridge1 ,macmillan1 #ahee4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,some hyphens in words have been silently removed1 some added1 when a predominant preference was found in the original book4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,pg #gh3 #8tell us' replaced by #8tells us'4 ,pg #aae3 #8' replaced by #8'4 ,pg #aah3 #8first to recal' replaced by #8first to recall'4 ,pg #aej3 #8,the griding sword' replaced by #8,the grinding sword'4 ,pg #bje3 #8in the charracter' replaced by #8in the character'4 ,pg #bac3 #8its continous energy' replaced by #8its continuous energy'4 ,pg #bbg3 #8,john iii4 #af' replaced by #8,john iii4 #ac'4 ,pg #bdc3 #8school of thought are' replaced by #8school of thought is'4 ,footnote #dd1 ,pg #aca3 #8tickle the the ears' replaced by #8tickle the ears'4