,anne ,soulard1 ,charles ,franks and the ,online ,distributed ,proofreading ,team4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,education ,,educational ,,practice ,,and ,,progress ,,considered ,,as ,a ,,phase ,,of ,,the ,,development ,,and ,,spread ,,of ,,western ,,civilization ,,by ,,ellwood ,p4 ,,cubberley ,,to ,,my ,,wife ,,for ,,thirty ,,years ,,best ,,of ,,companions ,,in ,,both ,,work ,,and ,,play ,,preface ,the present volume1 as well as the companion volume of ,readings1 arose out of a practical situation4 ,twenty-two years ago1 on entering ,stanford ,university as a ,professor of ,education and being given the history of the subject to teach1 ,i found it necessary1 almost from the first1 to begin the construction of a ,syllabus of ,lectures which would permit of my teaching the subject more as a phase of the history of the rise and progress of our ,western civilization than would any existing text4 ,through such a study it is possible to give1 better than by any other means1 that vision of world progress which throws such a flood of light over all our educational efforts4 ,the ,syllabus grew1 was made to include detailed citations to historical literature1 and in #aijb was published in book form4 ,in #aije a second and an enlarged edition was issued1 #a and these volumes for a time formed the basis for classwork and reading in a number of institutions1 and1 though now out of print1 may still be found in many libraries4 ,at the same time ,i began the collection of a series of short1 illustrative sources for my students to read4 ,it had been my intention1 after the publication of the second edition of the ,syllabus1 to expand the outline into a ,text ,book which would embody my ideas as to what university students should be given as to the history of the work in which they were engaged4 ,i felt then1 and still feel1 that the history of education1 properly conceived and presented1 should occupy an important place in the training of an educational leader4 ,two things now happened which for some time turned me aside from my original purpose4 ,the first was the publication1 late in #aije1 of ,paul ,monroe's very comprehensive and scholarly ,text ,book in the ,history of ,education1 and the second was that1 with the expansion of the work in education in the university with which ,i was connected1 and the addition of new men to the department1 the general history of education was for a time turned over to another to teach4 ,i then began1 instead1 the development of that introductory course in education1 dealing entirely with ,american educational history and problems1 out of which grew my ,public ,education in the ,united ,states4 ,the second half of the academic year #aiaj-aa ,i acted as visiting ,lecturer on the ,history of ,education at both ,harvard ,university and ,radcliffe ,college1 and while serving in this capacity ,i began work on what has finally evolved into the present volume1 together with the accompanying book of illustrative ,readings4 ,other duties1 and a deep interest in problems of school administration1 largely engaged my energies and writing time until some three years ago1 when1 in rearranging courses at the university1 it seemed desirable that ,i should again take over the instruction in the general history of education4 ,since then ,i have pushed through1 as rapidly as conditions would permit1 the organization of the parallel book of sources and documents1 and the present volume of text4 ,in doing so ,i have not tried to prepare another history of educational theories4 ,of such we already have a sufficient number4 ,instead1 ,i have tried to prepare a history of the progress and practice and organization of education itself1 and to give to such a history its proper setting as a phase of the history of the development and spread of our ,western civilization4 ,i have especially tried to present such a picture of the rise1 struggle for existence1 growth1 and recent great expansion of the idea of the improvability of the race and the elevation and emancipation of the individual through education as would be most illuminating and useful to students of the subject4 ,to this end ,i have traced the great forward steps in the emancipation of the intellect of man1 and the efforts to perpetuate the progress made through the organization of educational institutions to pass on to others what had been attained4 ,i have also tried to give a proper setting to the great historic forces which have shaped and moulded human progress1 and have made the evolution of modern state school systems and the world-wide spread of ,western civilization both possible and inevitable4 ,to this end ,i have tried to hold to the main lines of the story1 and have in consequence omitted reference to many theorists and reformers and events and schools which doubtless were important in their land and time1 but the influence of which on the main current of educational progress was1 after all1 but small4 ,for such omission ,i have no apology to make4 ,in their place ,i have introduced a record of world events and forces1 not included in the usual history of education1 which to me seem important as having contributed materially to the shaping and directing of intellectual and educational progress4 ,while in the treatment major emphasis has been given to modern times1 ,i have nevertheless tried to show how all modern education has been after all a development1 a culmination1 a flowering-out of forces and impulses which go far back in history for their origin4 ,in a civilization such as we of to-day enjoy1 with roots so deeply embedded in the past as is ours1 any adequate understanding of world practices and of present-day world problems in education calls for some tracing of development to give proper background and perspective4 ,the rise of modern state school systems1 the variations in types found to-day in different lands1 the new conceptions of the educational purpose1 the rise of science study1 the new functions which the school has recently assumed1 the world- wide sweep of modern educational ideas1 the rise of many entirely new types of schools and training within the past century--these and many other features of modern educational practice in progressive nations are better understood if viewed in the light of their proper historical setting4 ,standing as we are to-day on the threshold of a new era1 and with a strong tendency manifest to look only to the future and to ignore the past1 the need for sound educational perspective on the part of the leaders in both school and state is given new emphasis4 ,to give greater concreteness to the presentation1 maps1 diagrams1 and pictures1 as commonly found in standard historical works1 have been used to an extent not before employed in writings on the history of education4 ,to give still greater concreteness to the presentation ,i have built up a parallel volume of ,readings1 containing a large collection of illustrative source material designed to back up the historical record of educational development and progress as presented in this volume4 ,the selections have been fully cross-referenced 7,r4 #abi2 ,r4 #agf2 etc47 in the pages of the ,text4 ,depending1 as ,i have1 so largely on the companion volume for the necessary supplemental readings1 ,i have reduced the chapter bibliographies to a very few of the most valuable and most commonly found references4 ,to add to the teaching value of the book there has been appended to each chapter a series of questions for discussion1 bearing on the ,text1 and another series of questions bearing on the ,readings to be found in the companion volume4 ,in this form it is hoped that the ,text will be found good in teaching organization2 that the treatment may prove to be of such practical value that it will contribute materially to relieve the history of education from much of the criticism which the devotion in the past to the history of educational theory has brought upon it2 and that the two volumes which have been prepared may be of real service in restoring the subject to the position of importance it deserves to hold1 for mature students of educational practice1 as the interpreter of world progress as expressed in one of its highest creative forms4 ,,ellwood ,p4 ,,cubberley ,stanford ,university1 ,cal4 ,september #d1 #aibj ,,contents ,,introduction3 ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,our ,,civilization ,,part ,i ,,the ,,ancient ,,world ,,foundation ,,elements ,,of ,,our ,,western ,,civilization ,,greece--,,rome--,,christianity ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,old ,,greek ,,education ,i4 ,,greece ,,and ,,its ,,people ,,ii4 ,,early ,,education ,,in ,,greece ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,later ,,greek ,,education ,,iii4 ,,the ,,new ,,greek ,,education ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,education ,,and ,,work ,,of ,,rome ,i4 ,,the ,,romans ,,and ,,their ,,mission ,,ii4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,home ,,education ,,iii4 ,,the ,,transition ,,to ,,school ,,education ,,iv4 ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,as ,,finally ,,established ,v4 ,,rome',s ,,contribution ,,to ,,civilization ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,contribution ,,of ,,christianity ,i4 ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,victory ,,of ,,christianity ,,ii4 ,,educational ,,and ,,governmental ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,church ,,iii4 ,,what ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,started ,,with ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,mediaeval ,,world ,,the ,,deluge ,,of ,,barbarism2 ,,the ,,mediaeval ,,struggle ,,to ,,preserve ,,and ,,re,,stablish ,,civilization ,,chapter ,v4 ,,new ,,peoples ,,in ,,the ,,empire ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages ,i4 ,,condition ,,and ,,preservation ,,of ,,learning ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages ,i4 ,,schools ,,established ,,and ,,instruction ,,provided ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,influences ,,tending ,,toward ,a ,,revival ,,of ,,learning ,i4 ,,moslem ,,learning ,,from ,,spain ,,ii4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,scholastic ,,theology ,,iii4 ,,law ,,and ,,medicine ,,as ,,new ,,studies ,,iv4 ,,other ,,new ,,influences ,,and ,,movements ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,universities ,,part ,,iii ,,the ,,transition ,,from ,,mediaeval ,,to ,,modern ,,attitudes ,,the ,,recovery ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,learning2 ,,the ,,reawakening ,,of ,,scholarship2 ,,and ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,religious ,,and ,,scientific ,,inquiry ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,learning ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,educational ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,learning ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,revolt ,,against ,,authority ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,educational ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,revolts ,i4 ,,among ,,lutherans ,,and ,,anglicans ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,educational ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,revolts ,,ii4 ,,among ,,calvinists ,,and ,,catholics ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,educational ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,revolts ,,iii4 ,,the ,,reformation ,,and ,,american ,,education ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,scientific ,,inquiry ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,new ,,scientific ,,method ,,and ,,the ,,schools ,i4 ,,humanistic ,,realism ,,ii4 ,,social ,,realism ,,iii4 ,,sense ,,realism ,,iv4 ,,realism ,,and ,,the ,,schools ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,by ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century ,i4 ,,pre-,,eighteenth-,,century ,,educational ,,theories ,,ii4 ,,mid-,,eighteenth-,,century ,,educational ,,conditions ,,part ,,iv ,,modern ,,times ,,the ,,abolition ,,of ,,privilege2 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,democracy2 ,a ,,new ,,theory ,,for ,,education ,,evolved2 ,,the ,,state ,,takes ,,over ,,the ,,school ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,eighteenth ,a ,,transition ,,century ,i4 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,benevolent ,,despots ,,of ,,continental ,,europe ,,ii4 ,,the ,,unsatisfied ,,demand ,,for ,,reform ,,in ,,france ,,iii4 ,,england ,,the ,,first ,,democratic ,,nation ,,iv4 ,,institution ,,of ,,constitutional ,,government ,,and ,,religious ,,freedom ,,in ,,america ,v4 ,,the ,,french ,,revolution ,,sweeps ,,away ,,ancient ,,abuses ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,national ,,education ,i4 ,,new ,,conceptions ,,of ,,the ,,educational ,,purpose ,,ii4 ,,the ,,new ,,state ,,theory ,,in ,,france ,,iii4 ,,the ,,new ,,state ,,theory ,,in ,,america ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,a ,,new ,,theory ,,and ,,subject-,,matter ,,for ,,the ,,elementary ,,school ,i4 ,,the ,,new ,,theory ,,stated ,,ii4 ,,german ,,attempts ,,to ,,work ,,out ,a ,,new ,,theory ,,iii4 ,,the ,,work ,,and ,,influence ,,of ,,pestalozzi ,,iv4 ,,redirection ,,of ,,the ,,elementary ,,school ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,national ,,organization ,,in ,,prussia ,i4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,national ,,organization ,,ii4 ,a ,,state ,,school ,,system ,,at ,,last ,,created ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,national ,,organization ,,in ,,france ,,and ,,italy ,i4 ,,national ,,organization ,,in ,,france ,,ii4 ,,national ,,organization ,,in ,,italy ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,national ,,organization ,,in ,,england ,i4 ,,the ,,charitable-,,voluntary ,,beginnings ,,ii4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,philanthropic ,,effort 7#ahjj-cc7 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,national ,,education ,,iv4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,a ,,national ,,system ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,awakening ,,an ,,educational ,,consciousness ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,i4 ,,early ,,national ,,attitudes ,,and ,,interests ,,ii4 ,,awakening ,,an ,,educational ,,consciousness ,,iii4 ,,social1 ,,political1 ,,and ,,economic ,,influences ,,iv4 ,,alignment ,,of ,,interests1 ,,and ,,propaganda ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,american ,,battle ,,for ,,free ,,state ,,schools ,i4 ,,the ,,battle ,,for ,,tax ,,support ,,ii4 ,,the ,,battle ,,to ,,eliminate ,,the ,,pauper-,,school ,,idea ,,iii4 ,,the ,,battle ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,schools ,,entirely ,,free ,,iv4 ,,the ,,battle ,,to ,,establish ,,school ,,supervision ,v4 ,,the ,,battle ,,to ,,eliminate ,,sectarianism ,,vi4 ,,the ,,battle ,,to ,,establish ,,the ,,american ,,high ,,school ,,vii4 ,,the ,,state ,,university ,,crowns ,,the ,,system ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,education ,,becomes ,a ,,great ,,national ,,tool ,i4 ,,spread ,,of ,,the ,,state-,,control ,,idea ,,ii4 ,,new ,,modifying ,,forces ,,iii4 ,,effect ,,of ,,these ,,changes ,,on ,,education ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,new ,,conceptions ,,of ,,the ,,educational ,,process ,i4 ,,the ,,psychological ,,organization ,,of ,,elementary ,,instruction ,,ii4 ,,new ,,ideas ,,from ,,herbartian ,,sources ,,iii4 ,,the ,,kindergarten1 ,,play1 ,,and ,,manual ,,activities ,,iv4 ,,the ,,addition ,,of ,,science ,,study ,v4 ,,social ,,meaning ,,of ,,these ,,changes ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,new ,,tendencies ,,and ,,expansions ,i4 ,,political ,,ii4 ,,scientific ,,iii4 ,,vocational ,,iv4 ,,sociological ,v4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,organization ,,of ,,education ,,conclusion3 ,,the ,,future ,,list ,,of ,,plates #a4 ,,the ,,cloisters ,,of ,a ,,monastery1 ,,near ,,florence1 ,,italy #b4 ,,the ,,library ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,saint ,,wallberg1 ,,at ,,zutphen1 ,,holland #c4 ,,saint ,,thomas ,,aquinas #d4 ,a ,,lecture ,,on ,,theology ,,by ,,albertus ,,magnus #e4 ,,stratford-,,on-,,avon ,,grammar ,,school #f4 ,,educational ,,leaders ,,in ,,protestant ,,germany #g4 ,,the ,,free ,,school ,,at ,,harrow #h4 ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,jesuit ,,schools ,,in ,,northern ,,territory ,,by ,,the ,,year #agbe #i4 ,,two ,,tablets ,,on ,,the ,,west ,,gateway ,,at ,,harvard ,,university #aj4 ,,john ,,amos ,,comenius 7#aeib-afgj7 #aa4 ,,johann ,,heinrich ,,pestalozzi #ab4 ,,fellenberg',s ,,institute ,,at ,,hofwyl #ac4 ,,two ,,leaders ,,in ,,the ,,regeneration ,,of ,,prussia #ad4 ,,francois ,,pierre ,,guillaume ,,guizot 7#aghg-ahgd7 #ae4 ,,john ,,pounds' ,,ragged ,,school ,,at ,,portsmouth #af4 ,,an ,,english ,,village ,,voluntary ,,school #ag4 ,,two ,,leaders ,,in ,,the ,,educational ,,awakening ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states #ah4 ,,two ,,leaders ,,in ,,the ,,reorganization ,,of ,,educational ,,theory ,,list ,,of ,,figures #a4 ,,the ,,greek ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,world #b4 ,,ancient ,,greece ,,and ,,the ,,aegean ,,world #c4 ,,the ,,city-,,state ,,of ,,attica #d4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,population ,,of ,,athens ,,and ,,attica1 ,,about #dcj ,b4,c4 #e4 ,a ,,greek ,,boy #f4 ,,an ,,athenian ,,inscription #g4 ,,greek ,,writing-,,materials #h4 ,a ,,greek ,,counting-,,board #i4 ,,an ,,athenian ,,school #aj4 ,,greek ,,school ,,lessons #aa4 ,,ground-,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,gymnasium ,,at ,,ephesos1 ,,in ,,asia ,,minor #ab4 ,,socrates 7#dfi-cii ,b4,c47 #ac4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,greek ,,university #ad4 ,,the ,,greek ,,university ,,world #ae4 ,,the ,,known ,,world ,,about #aej ,a4,d4 #af4 ,,the ,,early ,,peoples ,,of ,,italy1 ,,and ,,the ,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,power #ag4 ,,the ,,principal ,,roman ,,roads #ah4 ,,the ,,great ,,extent ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire #ai4 ,a ,,roman ,,father ,,instructing ,,his ,,son #bj4 ,,cato ,,the ,,elder 7#bcd-adh ,b4,c47 #ba4 ,,roman ,,writing-,,materials #bb4 ,a ,,roman ,,counting-,,board #bc4 ,a ,,roman ,,primary ,,school #bd4 ,a ,,roman ,,school ,,of ,,rhetoric #be4 ,,the ,,roman ,,voluntary ,,educational ,,system1 ,,as ,,finally ,,evolved #bf4 ,,origin ,,of ,,our ,,alphabet #bg4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,christianity ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,fourth ,,century #bh4 ,a ,,bishop #bi4 ,a ,,benedictine ,,monk1 ,,abbot1 ,,and ,,abbess #cj4 ,,showing ,,the ,,final ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,empire ,,and ,,the ,,church #ca4 ,a ,,bodyguard ,,of ,,germans #cb4 ,,the ,,german ,,migrations #cc4 ,,the ,,known ,,world ,,in #hjj #cd4 ,a ,,german ,,war ,,chief #ce4 ,,romans ,,destroying ,a ,,german ,,village #cf4 ,a ,,page ,,of ,,the ,,gothic ,,gospels #cg4 ,a ,,typical ,,monastery ,,of ,,southern ,,europe #ch4 ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view ,,of ,a ,,medieval ,,monastery #ci4 ,,initial ,,letter ,,from ,,an ,,old ,,manuscript #dj4 ,a ,,monk ,,in ,a ,,scriptorium #da4 ,,charlemagne',s ,,empire1 ,,and ,,the ,,important ,,monasteries ,,of ,,the ,,time #db4 ,,where ,,the ,,danes ,,ravaged ,,england #dc4 ,,an ,,outer ,,monastic ,,school #dd4 ,,the ,,mediaeval ,,system ,,of ,,education ,,summarized #de4 ,a ,,school3 ,a ,,lesson ,,in ,,grammar #df4 ,,an ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,world #dg4 ,,an ,,early ,,church ,,musician #dh4 ,a ,,squire ,,being ,,knighted #di4 ,a ,,knight ,,of ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,crusade #ej4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages #ea4 ,,showing ,,centers ,,of ,,moslem ,,learning #eb4 ,,aristotle #ec4 ,,the ,,cathedral ,,of ,,notre ,,dame1 ,,at ,,paris #ed4 ,,the ,,city-,,states ,,of ,,northern ,,italy #ee4 ,,fragment ,,from ,,the ,,recovered ,,digest ,,of ,,justinian #ef4 ,,the ,,father ,,of ,,medicine1 ,,hippocrates ,,of ,,cos #eg4 ,a ,,pilgrim ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages #eh4 ,a ,,typical ,,mediaeval ,,town 7,,prussian7 #ei4 ,,the ,,educational ,,pyramid #fj4 ,,trade ,,routes ,,and ,,commercial ,,cities #fa4 ,,showing ,,location ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,universities ,,founded ,,before #afjj #fb4 ,,seal ,,of ,a ,,doctor1 ,,university ,,of ,,paris #fc4 ,,new ,,college1 ,,at ,,oxford #fd4 ,a ,,lecture ,,on ,,civil ,,law ,,by ,,guillaume ,,benedicti #fe4 ,,library ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,leyden1 ,,in ,,holland #ff4 ,a ,,university ,,disputation #fg4 ,a ,,university ,,lecture ,,and ,,lecture ,,room #fh4 ,,petrarch 7#acjd-gd7 #fi4 ,,boccaccio 7#acac-ge7 #gj4 ,,demetrius ,,chalcondyles 7#adbd-aeaa7 #ga4 ,,bookcase ,,and ,,desk ,,in ,,the ,,medicean ,,library ,,at ,,florence #gb4 ,,two ,,early ,,northern ,,humanists #gc4 ,,an ,,early ,,sixteenth-,,century ,,press #gd4 ,,an ,,early ,,specimen ,,of ,,caxton',s ,,printing #ge4 ,,the ,,world ,,as ,,known ,,to ,,christian ,,europe ,,before ,,columbus #gf4 ,,saint ,,antoninus ,,and ,,his ,,scholars #gg4 ,,two ,,early ,,italian ,,humanist ,,educators #gh4 ,,guillaume ,,budaeus 7#adfg-aedj7 #gi4 ,,coll,,ge ,,de ,,france #hj4 ,,johann ,,reuchlin 7#adee-aebb7 #ha4 ,,johann ,,sturm 7#aejg-hi7 #hb4 ,,desiderius ,,erasmus 7#adfg-aecf7 #hc4 ,,saint ,,paul',s ,,school1 ,,london #hd4 ,,giggleswick ,,grammar ,,school #he4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,modern ,,studies #hf4 ,,john ,,wycliffe 7#acbj8-hd7 #hg4 ,,religious ,,warfare ,,in ,,bohemia #hh4 ,,showing ,,the ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,revolts #hi4 ,,huldreich ,,zwingli 7#adhg-aeca7 #ij4 ,,john ,,calvin 7#aeji-fd7 #ia4 ,a ,,french ,,protestant 7c4 #afjj7 #ib4 ,,two ,,early ,,vernacular ,,schools #ic4 ,,the ,,first ,,page ,,of ,,wycliffe',s ,,bible #id4 ,,luther ,,giving ,,instruction #ie4 ,,johannes ,,bugenhagen 7#adhe-aeeh7 #if4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,german ,,state ,,school ,,control #ig4 ,a ,,chained ,,bible #ih4 ,a ,,french ,,school ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century #ii4 ,a ,,dutch ,,village ,,school #ajj4 ,,john ,,knox 7#aeje8-gb7 #aja4 ,,ignatius ,,de ,,loyola 7#adia-aeef7 #ajb4 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,jesuit ,,schoolroom #ajc4 ,,an ,,ursuline #ajd4 ,a ,,school ,,of ,,la ,,salle ,,at ,,paris1 #afhh #aje4 ,,the ,,brothers ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,schools ,,by #agib #ajf4 ,,tendencies ,,in ,,educational ,,development ,,in ,,europe1 #aejj ,,to #agjj #ajg4 ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,religious ,,settlements ,,in ,,america #ajh4 ,,homes ,,of ,,the ,,pilgrims1 ,,and ,,their ,,route ,,to ,,america #aji4 ,,new ,,england ,,settlements1 #affj #aaj4 ,,the ,,boston ,,latin ,,grammar ,,school #aaa4 ,,where ,,yale ,,college ,,was ,,founded #aab4 ,,an ,,old ,,quaker ,,meeting-,,house ,,and ,,school ,,at ,,lampeter1 ,,pennsylvania #aac4 ,,nicholas ,,kopernik 7,,copernicus7 7#adgc-aedc7 #aad4 ,,tycho ,,brake 7#aedf-afja7 #aae4 ,,galileo ,,galilei 7#aefd-afdb7 #aaf4 ,,sir ,,isaac ,,newton 7#afdb-agbg7 #aag4 ,,william ,,harvey 7#aegh-afeg7 #aah4 ,,francis ,,bacon 7#aefa-afbf7 #aai4 ,,the ,,loss ,,and ,,recovery ,,of ,,the ,,sciences #abj4 ,,ren ,,descartes 7#aeif-afej7 #aba4 ,,francois ,,rabelais 7#adhc-aeec7 #abb4 ,,john ,,milton 7#afjh-gd7 #abc4 ,,michel ,,de ,,montaigne 7#aecc-ib7 #abd4 ,,john ,,locke 7#afcb-agjd7 #abe4 ,,an ,,academie ,,des ,,armes #abf4 ,a ,,sample ,,page ,,from ,,the ,,orbis ,,pictus #abg4 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,page ,,from ,a ,,latin-,,english ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,vestibulum #abh4 ,,augustus ,,hermann ,,francke 7#affc-agbg7 #abi4 ,a ,,french ,,school ,,before ,,the ,,revolution #acj4 ,a ,,horn ,,book #aca4 ,,the ,,westminster ,,catechism #acb4 ,,thomas ,,dilworth 78-#aghj7 #acc4 ,,frontispiece ,,to ,,noah ,,webster',s ,,american ,,spelling ,,book #acd4 ,,title-,,page ,,of ,,hodder',s ,,arithmetic #ace4 ,a ,,christian ,,brothers ,,school #acf4 ,,an ,,english ,,dame ,,school #acg4 ,,gravel ,,lane ,,charity-,,school1 ,,southwark #ach4 ,a ,,charity-,,school ,,girl ,,in ,,uniform #aci4 ,a ,,charity-,,school ,,boy ,,in ,,uniform #adj4 ,,advertisement ,,for ,a ,,teacher ,,to ,,let #ada4 ,a ,,school ,,whipping-,,post #adb4 ,,an ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,german ,,school #adc4 ,,children ,,as ,,miniature ,,adults #add4 ,a ,,pennsylvania ,,academy #ade4 ,,frederick ,,the ,,great #adf4 ,,maria ,,theresa #adg4 ,,montesquieu 7#afhi-agee7 #adh4 ,,turgot 7#agbg-ha7 #adi4 ,,voltaire 7#afid-aggh7 #aej4 ,,diderot 7#agac-hd7 #aea4 ,,john ,,wesley 7#agjg-hb7 #aeb4 ,,nationality ,,of ,,the ,,white ,,population1 ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,family ,,names ,,in ,,the ,,census ,,of #agij #aec4 ,,the ,,states-,,general ,,in ,,session ,,at ,,versailles #aed4 ,,rousseau 7#agab-gh7 #aee4 ,,la ,,chalotais 7#agja-hc7 #aef4 ,,rolland 7#agcd-ic7 #aeg4 ,,count ,,de ,,mirabeau 7#agdi-ia7 #aeh4 ,,talleyrand 7#ageh-ahch7 #aei4 ,,condorcet 7#agdc-id7 #afj4 ,,the ,,institute ,,of ,,france #afa4 ,,lakanal 7#agfb-ahde7 #afb4 ,,thomas ,,jefferson 7#agdc-ahbf7 #afc4 ,,the ,,rousseau ,,monument ,,at ,,geneva #afd4 ,,basedow 7#agbc-ij7 #afe4 ,,immanuel ,,kant 7#agbd-ahjd7 #aff4 ,,the ,,scene ,,of ,,pestalozzi',s ,,labors #afg4 ,,fellenberg 7#agga-ahdd7 #afh4 ,,the ,,school ,,of ,a ,,handworker #afi4 ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,prussia1 #agdj-hf #agj4 ,a ,,german ,,late ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,school #aga4 ,,dinter 7#agfj-ahca7 #agb4 ,,diesterweg 7#agij-ahff7 #agc4 ,,the ,,prussian ,,state ,,school ,,system ,,created #agd4 ,,an ,,old ,,foundation ,,transformed #age4 ,,count ,,de ,,fourcroy 7#agee-ahji7 #agf4 ,,victor ,,cousin 7#agib-ahfg7 #agg4 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,main ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,state ,,school ,,system #agh4 ,,europe ,,in #ahaj #agi4 ,,the ,,unification ,,of ,,italy1 ,,since #ahdh #ahj4 ,,count ,,of ,,cavour 7#ahaj-fa7 #aha4 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,main ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,italian ,,state ,,school ,,system #ahb4 ,a ,,ragged-,,school ,,pupil #ahc4 ,,adam ,,smith 7#agbc-ij7 #ahd4 ,,the ,,reverend ,t4 ,r4 ,,malthus 7#agff-ahcd7 #ahe4 ,,the ,,creators ,,of ,,the ,,monitorial ,,system #ahf4 ,,the ,,lancastrian ,,model ,,school ,,in ,,borough ,,road1 ,,south-,,ware1 ,,london #ahg4 ,,monitors ,,teaching ,,reading ,,at ,,stations #ahh4 ,,proper ,,monitorial-,,school ,,positions #ahi4 ,,robert ,,owen 7#agga-aheh7 #aij4 ,,lord ,,brougham 7#aggh-ahfh7 #aia4 ,,an ,,english ,,village ,,school ,,in #ahdj #aib4 ,,expenditure ,,from ,,the ,,education ,,grants1 #ahci-gj #aic4 ,,lord ,t4 ,b4 ,,macaulay 7#ahjj-ei7 #aid4 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,school ,,boards ,,in ,,providing ,,school ,,accommodations #aie4 ,,the ,,english ,,educational ,,system ,,as ,,finally ,,evolved #aif4 ,,the ,,first ,,schoolhouse ,,built ,,by ,,the ,,free ,,school ,,society ,,in ,,new ,,york ,,city #aig4 ,,model ,,school ,,building ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,school ,,society #aih4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,essential ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,public ,,school ,,system #aii4 ,,dates ,,of ,,the ,,granting ,,of ,,full ,,manhood ,,suffrage #bjj4 ,,the ,,first ,,free ,,public ,,school ,,in ,,detroit #bja4 ,,the ,,pennsylvania ,,school ,,elections ,,of #ahce #bjb4 ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,referendum ,,of #ahej #bjc4 ,,status ,,of ,,school ,,supervision ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,by #ahfa #bjd4 ,a ,,typical ,,new ,,england ,,academy #bje4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,secondary ,,schools ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states #bjf4 ,,the ,,first ,,high ,,school ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states #bjg4 ,,high ,,schools ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,by #ahfj #bjh4 ,,colleges ,,and ,,universities ,,established ,,by #ahfj #bji4 ,,the ,,american ,,educational ,,ladder #baj4 ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,denmark #baa4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,literacy ,,in ,,europe ,,by ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century #bab4 ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,the ,,argentine ,,republic #bac4 ,,the ,,japanese ,,two-,,class ,,school ,,system #bad4 ,,the ,,chinese ,,educational ,,ladder #bae4 ,,baron ,,justus ,,von ,,liebig 7#ahjc-gc7 #baf4 ,,charles ,,darwin 7#ahji-hb7 #bag4 ,,louis ,,pasteur 7#ahbb-ie7 #bah4 ,,man ,,power ,,before ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,steam #bai4 ,,threshing ,,wheat ,a ,,century ,,ago #bbj4 ,a ,,city ,,water-,,supply1 ,,about #ahcj #bba4 ,,the ,,great ,,trade ,,routes ,,of ,,the ,,modern ,,world #bbb4 ,,an ,,example ,,of ,,the ,,shifting ,,of ,,occupations #bbc4 ,,the ,,philippine ,,school ,,system #bbd4 ,,the ,,first ,,modern ,,normal ,,school #bbe4 ,,teacher-,,training ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,by #ahfj #bbf4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,elementary-,,school ,,curriculum1 ,,and ,,of ,,methods ,,of ,,teaching #bbg4 ,,an ,,usher ,,and ,,his ,,class #bbh4 ,,redirected ,,manual ,,training #bbi4 ,,herbert ,,spencer 7#ahbj-aijc7 #bcj4 ,,thomas ,h4 ,,huxley 7#ahbe-ie7 #bca4 ,a ,,reorganized ,,kindergarten #bcb4 ,,the ,,peking ,,union ,,medical ,,college #bcc4 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,trades ,,in ,,modern ,,industry #bcd4 ,,school ,,attendance ,,of ,,american ,,children1 ,,fourteen ,,to ,,twenty ,,years ,,of ,,age #bce4 ,,abb ,,de ,l',p,e 7#agab-hi7 #bcf4 ,,the ,,reverend ,,thomas ,h4 ,,gallaudet ,,teaching ,,the ,,deaf ,,and ,,dumb #bcg4 ,,educational ,,institutions ,,maintained ,,by ,,the ,,state #bch4 ,,karl ,,georg ,,von ,,raumer 7#aghc-ahfe7 #bci4 ,,the ,,established ,,and ,,experimental ,,nations ,,of ,,europe #bdj4 ,,the ,,educational ,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,future ,,general ,,bibliography ,in addition to the ,list of ,readings and the ,supplemental ,references given in the chapter bibliographies1 the following works1 not cited in the chapter bibliographies1 will be found in most libraries and may be consulted1 on all points to which they are likely to apply1 for additional material3 ,i4 ,,general ,,histories ,,of ,,education #a4 ,davidson1 ,thomas4 ,history of ,education4 #bib pp4 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 ,good on the interpretation of the larger movements of history4 99#b4 ,monroe1 ,paul4 ,text ,book in the ,history of ,education4 #ggb pp4 ,new ,york1 #aije4 ,our most complete and scholarly history of education4 ,this volume should be consulted freely4 ,see analytical table of contents4 #c4 ,munroe1 ,jas4 ,p4 ,the ,educational ,ideal4 #bfb pp4 ,boston1 #ahie4 ,contains very good short chapters on the educational reformers4 99#d4 ,graves1 ,f4 ,p4 ,a ,history of ,education4 #c vols4 ,new ,york1 #aiji- #ac4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,before the ,middle ,ages4 #cjd pp4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,during the ,middle ,ages4 #cad pp4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,in ,modern ,times4 #daj pp4 ,these volumes contain valuable supplementary material1 and good chapter bibliographies4 #e4 ,hart1 ,j4 ,k4 ,democracy in ,education4 #dah pp4 ,new ,york1 #aiah4 ,an interpretation of educational progress4 #f4 ,quick1 ,r4 ,h4 ,essays on ,educational ,reformers4 #ejh pp4 #b;d ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahij4 ,a series of well-written essays on the work of the theorists in education since the time of the ,renaissance4 99#g4 ,parker1 ,s4 ,c4 ,the ,history of ,modern ,elementary ,education4 #ejf pp4 ,boston1 #aiab4 ,an excellent treatise on the development of the theory for our modern elementary school1 with some good descriptions of modern practice4 ,,ii4 ,,general ,,bibliographies ,,of ,,education #a4 ,cubberley1 ,e4 ,p4 ,syllabus of ,lectures on the ,history of ,education4 #ceh pp4 ,new ,york4 ,first ed41 #aijb2 #b;d ed41 #aije4 ,gives detailed and classified bibliographies for all phases of the subject4 ,now out of print1 but may be found in most normal school and college libraries1 and many public libraries4 ,,iii4 ,,cyclopaedias 99#a4 ,monroe1 ,paul1 ,editor4 ,cyclopedia of ,education4 #e vols4 ,new ,york1 #aiaa-ac4 ,the most important ,cyclopaedia of ,education in print4 ,contains excellent articles on all historical points and events1 with good selected bibliographies4 ,a work that should be in all libraries1 and freely consulted in using this ,text4 ,its historical articles are too numerous to cite in the chapter bibliographies1 but1 due to the alphabetical arrangement and good cross-referencing1 they may be found easily4 99#b4 ,encylopaedia ,britannica4 #aath ed41 #bi vols4 ,cambridge1 #aiaj-aa4 ,contains numerous important articles on all types of historical topics1 and excellent biographical sketches4 ,should be consulted freely in using this ,text4 ,,iv4 ,,magazines 99#a4 ,barnard's ,american ,journal of ,education4 ,edited by ,henry ,barnard4 #ca vols4 ,hartford1 #ahee-ha4 ,reprinted1 ,syracuse1 #aijb4 ,index to the #ca vols4 published by the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 ,washington1 #ahib4 ,a wonderful mine of all kinds of historical and educational information1 and should be consulted freely on all points relating to ,european or ,american educational history4 ,in the chapter bibliographies1 as above1 the most important references are indicated with an asterisk 79974 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,education ,,introduction ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,our ,,civilization ,the ,civilization which we of to-day enjoy is a very complex thing1 made up of many different contributions1 some large and some small1 from people in many different lands and different ages4 ,to trace all these contributions back to their sources would be a task impossible of accomplishment1 and1 while specific parts would be interesting1 for our purposes they would not be important4 ,especially would it not be profitable for us to attempt to trace the development of minor features1 or to go back to the rudimentary civilizations of primitive peoples4 ,the early development of civilization among the ,chinese1 the ,hindoos1 the ,persians1 the ,egyptians1 or the ,american ,indians all alike present features which to some form a very interesting study1 but our western civilization does not go back to these as sources1 and consequently they need not concern us in the study we are about to begin4 ,while we have obtained the alphabet from the ,phoenicians and some of our mathematical and scientific developments through the medium of the ,mohammedans1 the real sources of our present-day civilization lie elsewhere1 and these minor sources will be referred to but briefly and only as they influenced the course of western progress4 ,the civilization which we now know and enjoy has come down to us from four main sources4 ,the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 and the ,christians laid the foundations1 and in the order named1 and the study of the early history of our western civilization is a study of the work and the blending of these three main forces4 ,it is upon these three foundation stones1 superimposed upon one another1 that our modern ,european and ,american civilization has been developed4 ,the ,germanic tribes1 overrunning the boundaries of the ,roman ,empire in the fourth and fifth centuries1 added another new force of largest future significance1 and one which profoundly modified all subsequent progress and development4 ,to these four main sources we have made many additions in modern times1 building an entirely new superstructure on the old foundations1 but the groundwork of our civilization is composed of these four foundation elements4 ,for these reasons a history of even modern education almost of necessity goes back1 briefly at least1 to the work and contributions of these ancient peoples4 ,starting1 then1 with the work of the ,greeks1 we shall state briefly the contributions to the stream of civilization which have come down to us from each of the important historic peoples or groups or forces1 and shall trace the blending and assimilating processes of the centuries4 ,while describing briefly the educational institutions and ideas of the different peoples1 we shall be far less concerned1 as we progress down the centuries1 with the educational and philosophical theories advanced by thinkers among them than with what was actually done1 and with the lasting contributions which they made to our educational practices and to our present-day civilization4 ,the work of ,greece lies at the bottom and1 in a sense1 was the most important of all the earlier contributions to our education and civilization4 ,these people1 known as ,hellenes1 were the pioneers of western civilization4 ,their position in the ancient world is well shown on the map reproduced opposite4 ,to the ,east lay the older political despotisms1 with their caste-type and intellectually stagnant organization of society1 and to the ,north and ,west a little-known region inhabited by barbarian tribes4 ,it was in such a world that our western civilization had its birth4 ,these ,greeks1 and especially the ,athenian ,greeks1 represented an entirely new spirit in the world4 ,in place of the repression of all individuality1 and the stagnant conditions of society that had characterized the civilizations before them1 they developed a civilization characterized by individual freedom and opportunity1 and for the first time in world history a premium was placed on personal and political initiative4 ,in time this new western spirit was challenged by the older eastern type of civilization4 ,long foreseeing the danger1 and in fear of what might happen1 the little ,greek ,states had developed educational systems in part designed to prepare their citizens for what might come4 ,finally1 in a series of memorable battles1 the ,greeks1 led by ,athens1 broke the dread power of the ,persian name and made the future of this new type of civilization secure4 ,at ,marathon1 ,salamis1 and ,plataea the fate of our western civilization trembled in the balance4 ,now followed the great creative period in ,greek life1 during which the ,athenian ,greeks matured and developed a literature1 philosophy1 and art which were to be enjoyed not only by themselves1 but by all western peoples since their time4 ,in these lines of culture the world will forever remain debtor to this small but active and creative people4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4 ,,the ,,early ,,greek ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,world ,the ,world according to ,hecataeus1 a geographer of ,miletus1 ,asia ,minor4 ,hecataeus was the first ,greek traveler and geographer4 ,the map dates from about #ejj ,b4,c4 ,the next great source of our western civilization was the work of ,rome4 ,like the ,greeks1 the ,romans also occupied a peninsula jutting southward into the ,mediterranean1 but in most respects they were far different in type4 ,unlike the active1 imaginative1 artistic1 and creative ,greeks1 the ,romans were a practical1 concrete1 unimaginative1 and executive people4 ,energy1 personality1 and executive power were in greatest demand among them4 ,the work of ,rome was political1 governmental1 and legal--not artistic or intellectual4 ,rome was strong where ,greece was weak1 and weak where ,greece was strong4 ,as a result the two peoples supplemented one another well in laying the foundations for our western civilization4 ,the conquests of ,greece were intellectual2 those of ,rome legal and governmental4 ,rome absorbed and amalgamated the whole ancient world into one ,empire1 to which she gave a common language1 dress1 manners1 religion1 literature1 and political and legal institutions4 ,adopting ,greek learning and educational practices as her own1 she spread them throughout the then-known world4 ,by her political organization she so fixed ,roman ideas as to law and government throughout the ,empire that ,christianity built firmly on the ,roman foundations1 and the ,german barbarians1 who later swept over the ,empire1 could neither destroy nor obliterate them4 ,the ,roman conquest of the world thus decisively influenced the whole course of western history1 spread and perpetuated ,greek ideas1 and ultimately saved the world from a great disaster4 ,to ,rome1 then1 we are indebted most of all for ideas as to government1 and for the introduction of law and order into an unruly world4 ,in all the intervening centuries between ancient ,rome and ourselves1 and in spite of many wars and repeated onslaughts of barbarism1 ,roman governmental law still influences and guides our conduct1 and this influence is even yet extending to other lands and other peoples4 ,we are also indebted to ,rome for many practical skills and for important engineering knowledge1 which was saved and passed on to ,western ,europe through the medium of the monks4 ,on the other side of the picture1 the recent great ,world ,war1 with all its awful destruction of life and property1 and injury to the orderly progress of civilization1 may be traced directly to the ,roman idea of world empire and the sway of one imperial government1 imposing its rule and its culture on the rest of mankind4 ,into this ,roman ,empire1 united and made one by ,roman arms and government1 came the first of the modern forces in the ancient world--that of ,christianity--the third great foundation element in our western civilization4 ,embracing in its early development many ,greek philosophical ideas1 building securely on the ,roman governmental organization1 and with its new message for a decaying world1 ,christianity forms the connecting link between the ancient and modern civilizations4 ,taking the conception of one ,god which the ,jewish tribes of the ,east had developed1 ,christianity changed and expanded this in such a way as to make it a dominant idea in the world4 ,exalting the teachings of the fatherhood of ,god1 the brotherhood of man1 the future life1 and the need for preparation for a hereafter1 ,christianity introduced a new type of religion and offered a new hope to the poor and oppressed of the ancient world4 ,in so doing a new ethical force of first importance was added to the effective energies of mankind1 and a basis for the education of all was laid1 for the first time1 in the history of the world4 ,christianity came at just the right time not only to impart new energy and hopefulness to a decadent ancient civilization1 but also to meet1 conquer1 and in time civilize the barbarian hordes from the ,north which overwhelmed the ,roman ,empire4 ,a new and youthful race of ,german barbarians now appeared upon the scene1 with resulting ravage and destruction1 and anarchy and ignorance1 and long centuries ensued during which ancient civilization fell prey to savage violence and superstition4 ,progress ceased in the ancient world4 ,the creative power of antiquity seemed exhausted4 ,the digestive and assimilative powers of the old world seemed gone4 ,greek was forgotten4 ,latin was corrupted4 ,knowledge of the arts and sciences was lost4 ,schools disappeared4 ,only the ,christian ,church remained to save civilization from the wreck1 and it1 too1 was almost submerged in the barbaric flood4 ,it took ten centuries partially to civilize1 educate1 and mould into homogeneous units this heterogeneous horde of new peoples4 ,during this long period it required the strongest energies of the few who understood to preserve the civilization of the past for the enjoyment and use of a modern world4 ,yet these barbarian ,germans1 great as was the havoc they wrought at first1 in time contributed much to the stream of our modern civilization4 ,they brought new conceptions of individual worth and freedom into a world thoroughly impregnated with the ancient idea of the dominance of the ,state over the individual4 ,the popular assembly1 an elective king1 and an independent and developing system of law were contributions of first importance which these peoples brought4 ,the individual man and not the ,state was1 with them1 the important unit in society4 ,in the hands of the ,angles and ,saxons1 particularly1 but also among the ,celts1 ,franks1 ,helvetii1 and ,belgae1 this idea of individual freedom and of the subordination of the ,state to the individual has borne large fruit in modern times in the self-governing ,states of ,france1 ,switzerland1 ,belgium1 ,england and the ,english self-governing dominions1 and in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,after much experimenting it now seems certain that the ,anglo- ,saxon type of self-government1 as developed first in ,england and further expanded in the ,united ,states1 seems destined to be the type of government in future to rule the world4 ,it took ,europe almost ten centuries to recover from the effects of the invasion of barbarism which the last two centuries of the ,roman ,empire witnessed1 to save itself a little later from ,mohammedan conquest1 and to pick up the lost threads of the ancient life and begin again the work of civilization4 ,finally1 however1 this was accomplished1 largely as a result of the labor of monks and missionaries4 ,the barbarians were in time induced to settle down to an agricultural life1 to accept ,christianity in name at least1 and to yield a more or less grudging obedience to monk and priest that they might thereby escape the torments of a world to come4 ,slowly the monasteries and the churches1 aided here and there by far- sighted kings1 worked at the restoration of books and learning1 and finally1 first in ,italy1 and later in the nations evolved from the tribes that had raided the ,empire1 there came a period of awakening and rediscovery which led to the development of the early university foundations1 a wonderful revival of ancient learning1 a great expansion of men's thoughts1 a great religious awakening1 a wonderful period of world exploration and discovery1 the founding of new nations in new lands1 the reawakening of the spirit of scientific inquiry1 the rise of the democratic spirit1 and the evolution of our modern civilization4 ,by the end of the eleventh century it was clear that the long battle for the preservation of civilization had been won1 but it was not until the fourteenth century that the ,revival of ,learning in ,italy gave clear evidence of the rise of the modern spirit4 ,by the year #aejj much had been accomplished1 and the new modern questioning spirit of the ,italian ,revival was making progress in many directions4 ,most of the old learning had been recovered2 the printing-press had been invented1 and was at work multiplying books2 the study of ,greek and ,hebrew had been revived in the western world2 trade and commerce had begun2 the cities and the universities which had arisen had become centers of a new life2 a new sea route to ,india had been found and was in use2 ,columbus had discovered a new world2 the ,church was more tolerant of new ideas than it had been for centuries2 and thought was being awakened in the western world to a degree that had not taken place since the days of ancient ,rome4 ,the world seemed about ready for rapid advances in many directions1 and great progress in learning1 education1 government1 art1 commerce1 and invention seemed almost within its grasp4 ,instead1 there soon opened the most bitter and vindictive religious conflict the world has ever known2 western ,christian civilization was torn asunder2 a century of religious warfare ensued2 and this was followed by other centuries of hatred and intolerance and suspicion awakened by the great conflict4 ,still1 out of this conflict1 though it for a time checked the orderly development of civilization1 much important educational progress was ultimately to come4 ,in promulgating the doctrine that the authority of the ,bible in religious matters is superior to the authority of the ,church1 the basis for the elementary school for the masses of the people1 and in consequence the education of all1 was laid4 ,this meant the creation of an entirely new type of school--the elementary1 for the masses1 and taught in the native tongue--to supplement the ,latin secondary schools which had been an outgrowth of the revival of ancient learning1 and the still earlier cathedral and monastery schools of the ,church4 ,the modern elementary vernacular school may then be said to be essentially a product of the ,protestant ,reformation4 ,this is true in a special sense among those peoples which embraced some form of the ,lutheran or ,calvinistic faiths4 ,these were the ,germans1 ,moravians1 ,swedes1 ,norwegians1 ,finns1 ,danes1 ,dutch1 ,walloons1 ,swiss1 ,scotch1 ,scotch-,irish1 ,french ,huguenots1 and the ,english ,puritans4 ,as the ,renaissance gave a new emphasis to the development of secondary schools by supplying them with a large amount of new subject-matter and a new motive1 so the ,reformation movement gave a new motive for the education of children not intended for the service of the ,state or the ,church1 and the development of elementary vernacular schools was the result4 ,only in ,england1 of all the revolting countries1 did this ,protestant conception as to the necessity of education for salvation fail to take deep root1 with the result that elementary education in ,england awaited the new political and social and industrial impulses of the latter half of the nineteenth century for its real development4 ,the rise of the questioning and inferring spirit in the ,italian ,renaissance marked the beginnings of the transition from mediaeval to modern attitudes1 and one of the most important outgrowths of this was the rise of scientific inquiry which in time followed4 ,this meant the application of human reason to the investigation of the phenomena of nature1 with all that this eventually implied4 ,this1 slowly to be sure1 turned the energies of mankind in a new direction1 led to the substitution of inquiry and patient experimentation for assumption and disputation1 and in time produced a scientific and industrial revolution which has changed the whole nature of the older problems4 ,the scientific spirit has to-day come to dominate all lines of human thinking1 and the applications of scientific principles have1 in the past century1 completely changed almost all the conditions surrounding human life4 ,applied to education1 this new spirit has transformed the instruction and the methods of the schools1 led to the creation of entirely new types of educational institutions1 and introduced entirely new aims and methods and purposes into the educational process4 ,from inquiry into religious matters and inquiry into the phenomena of nature1 it was but a short and a natural step to inquiry into the nature and functions of government4 ,this led to a critical questioning of the old established order1 the rise of new types of intellectual inquiry1 the growth of a consciousness of national problems1 and the bringing to the front of questions of political interest to a degree unknown since the days of ancient ,rome4 ,the eighteenth century marks1 in these directions1 a sharp turning-point in human thinking1 and the end of mediaevalism and the ushering in of modern forms of intellectual liberty4 ,the eighteenth century1 too1 witnessed a culmination of a long series of progressive changes which had been under way for centuries1 and the flood time of a slowly but steadily rising tide of protest against the enslavement of the intellect and the limitation of natural human liberties by either ,church or ,state4 ,the flood of individualism which characterized the second half of the eighteenth century demanded outlet1 and1 denied1 it rose and swept away ancient privileges1 abuses1 and barriers--religious1 intellectual1 social1 and political--and opened the way for the marked progress in all lines which characterized the nineteenth century4 ,out of this new spirit was to come the ,american and the ,french ,revolutions1 the establishment of constitutional liberty and religious freedom1 the beginnings of the abolition of privilege1 the rise of democracy1 a great extension of educational advantages1 and the transfer of the control of the school from the ,church to the ,state that the national welfare might be better promoted thereby4 ,now arose the modern conception of the school as the great constructive instrument of the ,state1 and a new individual and national theory as to both the nature and the purpose of education was advanced4 ,schools were declared to be essentially civil affairs2 their purpose was asserted to be to promote the common welfare and advance the interests of the political ,state2 ministers of education began to be appointed by the ,state to take over and exercise control2 the citizen supplanted the ecclesiastic in the organization of education and the supervision of classroom teaching2 the instruction in the school was changed in direction1 and in time vastly broadened in scope2 and the education of all now came to be conceived of as a birthright of the child of every citizen4 ,since the middle of the nineteenth century a great world movement for the realization of these new aims1 through the taking-over of education from religious bodies and the establishment of state-controlled school systems1 has taken place4 ,this movement is still going on4 ,beginning in the nations which were earliest in the front of the struggle to preserve and extend what was so well begun by little ,greece and ,imperial ,rome1 the state- control conception of education has1 in the past three quarters of a century1 spread to every continent on the globe4 ,for ages a ,church and private affair1 of no particular concern to government and of importance to but a relatively small number of the people1 education has to-day become1 with the rise and spread of modern ideas as to human freedom1 political equality1 and industrial progress1 a prime essential to the maintenance of good government and the promotion of national welfare1 and it is now so recognized by progressive nations everywhere4 ,with the spread of the state-control idea as to education have also gone western ideas as to government1 human rights1 social obligations1 political equality1 pure and applied science1 trade1 industry1 transportation1 intellectual and moral improvement1 and humanitarian influences which are rapidly transforming and modernizing not only less progressive western nations1 but ancient civilizations as well1 and along the lines so slowly and so painfully worked out by the inheritors of the conceptions of human freedom first thought out in little ,greece1 and those of political equality and government under law so well worked out by ancient ,rome1 ,western civilization thus promises to become the dominant force in world civilization and human progress1 with general education as its agent and greatest constructive force4 ,such is a brief outline sketch of the history of the rise and spread and progress of our western civilization1 as expressed in the history of the progress of education1 and as we shall trace it in much more detail in the chapters which are to follow4 ,the road that man has traveled from the days when might made right1 and when children had no claims which the ,state or parents were bound to respect1 to a time when the child is regarded as of first importance1 and adults represented in the ,state declare by law that the child shall be protected and shall have abundant educational advantages1 is a long road and at times a very crooked one4 ,its ups and downs and forward movements have been those of the progress of the race1 and in consequence a history of educational progress must be in part a history of the progress of civilization itself4 ,human civilization1 though1 represents a more or less orderly evolution1 and the education of man stands as one of the highest expressions of a belief in the improvability of the race of which mankind is capable4 ,it is such a development that we propose to trace1 and1 having now sketched the broader outlines of the treatment1 we next turn to a filling- in of the details1 and begin with the ,ancient ,world and the first foundation element as found in the little ,city-,states of ancient ,greece4 ,,part ,i ,,the ,,ancient ,,world ,,the ,,foundation ,,elements ,,of ,,our ,,western ,,civilization ,,greece--,,rome--,,christianity ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,old ,,greek ,,education ,i4 ,,greece ,,and ,,its ,,people ,,the ,,land4 ,ancient ,greece1 or ,hellas as the ,greeks called their homeland1 was but a small country4 ,the map given below shows the ,aegean world superimposed on the ,states of the old ,northwest ,territory1 from which it may be seen that the ,greek mainland was a little less than half as large as the ,state of ,illinois4 ,greece proper was about the size of the ,state of ,west ,virginia1 but it was a much more mountainous land4 ,no spot in ,greece was over forty miles from the sea4 ,attica1 where a most wonderful intellectual life arose and flourished for centuries1 and whose contributions to civilization were the chief glory of ,greece1 was smaller than two average-size ,illinois counties1 and about two thirds the size of the little ,state of ,rhode ,island4 #a ,the country was sparsely populated1 except in a few of the ,city-,states1 and probably did not1 at its most prosperous period1 contain much more than a million and a half of people-- citizens1 foreigners1 and slaves included4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,ancient ,,greece ,,and ,,the ,,aegean ,,world ,superimposed on the ,east-,north-,central ,group of ,american ,states1 to show relative size4 ,dotted lines indicate the boundaries of the ,american ,states--,illinois1 ,indiana1 ,kentucky1 etc4 ,all of ,greece will be seen to be a little less than half the size of the ,state of ,illinois1 the ,aegean ,sea about the size of the ,state of ,indiana1 and ,attica not quite so large as two average-size ,illinois counties4 ,the land was rough and mountainous1 and deeply indented by the sea4 ,the climate and vegetation were not greatly unlike the climate and vegetation of ,southern ,california4 ,pine and fir on the mountain-slopes1 and figs1 olives1 oranges1 lemons1 and grapes on the hillsides and plains below1 were characteristic of the land4 ,fishing1 agriculture1 and the raising of cattle and sheep were the important industries4 ,a temperate1 bracing climate1 short1 mild winters1 and a long1 dry summer gave an opportunity for the development of this wonderful civilization4 ,like ,southern ,california or ,florida in winter1 it was essentially an out-of-doors country4 ,the high mountains to the rear1 the sun-steeped skies1 and the brilliant sea in front were alike the beauty of the land and the inspiration of the people4 ,especially was this true of ,attica1 which had the seashore1 the plain1 the high mountains1 and everywhere magnificent views through an atmosphere of remarkable clearness4 ,a land of incomparable beauty and charm1 it is little wonder that the ,greek citizen1 and the ,athenian in particular1 took pride in and loved his country1 and was willing to spend much time in preparing himself to govern and defend it4 ,,the ,,government4 ,politically1 ,greece was composed of a number of independent ,city-,states of small size4 ,they had been settled by early tribes1 which originally held the land in common4 ,attica1 with its approximately seven hundred square miles of territory1 was an average-size ,city-,state4 ,the central city1 the surrounding farming and grazing lands1 and the coastal regions all taken together1 formed the ,state1 the citizens of which--city-residents1 farmers1 herdsmen1 and fishermen--controlled the government4 ,there were in all some twenty of these ,city-,states in mainland ,greece1 the most important of which were ,attica1 of which ,athens was the central city2 ,laconia1 of which ,sparta was the central city2 and ,boeotia1 of which ,thebes was the central city4 ,some of the ,states developed democracies1 of which class ,athens became the most notable example1 while some were governed as oligarchies4 ,of all the different ,states but few played any conspicuous part in the history of ,greece4 ,of these few ,attica stands clearly above them all as the leader in thought and art and the most progressive in government4 ,here1 truly1 was a most wonderful people1 and it is with ,attica that the student of the history of education is most concerned4 ,the best of all ,greece was there4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,the ,,city-,,state ,,of ,,attica ,the little ,city-,states of ,greece1 as has just been said1 were independent ,states1 just like modern nations4 ,while all the ,greeks regarded themselves as tribes of a single family1 descended from a common ancestor1 ,hellen1 and the bonds of a common race1 language1 and religion tended to unite them into a sort of brotherhood1 the different ,city-,states were held apart by their tribal origins1 by narrow political sympathies1 and by petty laws4 ,a citizen of one city1 for example1 was an alien in another1 and could not hold property or marry in a city not his own4 ,such attitudes and laws were but natural1 the time and age considered4 ,sometimes1 in case of great danger1 as at the time of the ,persian invasions 7#dib-dgi ,b4,c471 a number of the ,states would combine to form a defensive league2 at other times they made war on one another4 ,the federal principle1 such as we know it in the ,united ,states in our state and national governments1 never came into play4 ,at different times ,athens1 ,sparta1 and ,thebes aspired to the leadership of ,greece and tried to unite the little ,states into a ,hellenic ,nation1 but the mutual jealousies and the extreme individualism of the people1 coupled with the isolation of the ,states and the difficulties of intercommunication through the mountain passes1 stood in the way of any permanent union4 #b ,what ,rome later accomplished with relative ease and on a large scale1 ,greece was unable to do on even a small scale4 ,a lack of capacity to unite for coperative undertakings seemed to be a fatal weakness of the ,greek character4 ,,the ,,people4 ,the ,greeks were among the first of the ,european peoples to attain to any high degree of civilization4 ,their story runs back almost to the dawn of recorded history4 ,as early as #cejj ,b4,c4 they were in an advanced stone age1 and by #bejj ,b4,c4 had reached the age of bronze4 ,the destruction of ,homer's ,troy dates back to #abjj ,b4,c41 and the ,homeric poems to #aajj ,b4,c41 while an earlier ,troy 7,schliemann's second city7 goes back to #bdjj ,b4,c4 ,this history concerns the mainland of ,asia ,minor4 ,by #ajjj ,b4,c4 the southern peninsula of ,greece had been colonized1 between #ijj and #hjj ,b4,c4 ,attica and other portions of upper ,greece had been settled1 and by #fej ,b4,c4 ,greek colonization had extended to many parts of the ,mediterranean4 #c ,the lower part of the ,greek peninsula1 known as ,laconia1 was settled by the ,dorian branch of the ,greek family1 a practical1 forceful1 but a wholly unimaginative people4 ,sparta was their most important city4 ,to the north were the ,ionic ,greeks1 a many-sided and a highly imaginative people4 ,athens was their chief city4 ,in the settlement of ,laconia the ,spartans imposed themselves as an army of occupation on the original inhabitants1 whom they compelled to pay tribute to them1 and established a military monarchy in southern ,greece4 ,the people of ,attica1 on the other hand1 absorbed into their own body the few earlier settlers of the ,attic plain4 ,they also established a monarchy1 but1 being a people more capable of progress1 this later evolved into a democracy4 ,the people of ,attica were in consequence a somewhat mixed race1 which possibly in part accounts for their greater intellectual ability and versatility4 #d ,it accounts1 though1 only in part4 ,climate1 beautiful surroundings1 and contact with the outside world probably also contributed something1 but the real basis underneath was the very superior quality of the people of ,attica4 ,in some way1 just how we do not know1 these people came to be endowed with a superior genius and the rather unusual ability to make those progressive changes in living and government which enabled them to make the most of their surroundings and opportunities1 and to advance while others stood still4 ,far more than other ,greeks1 the people of ,attica were imaginative1 original1 versatile1 adaptable1 progressive1 endowed with rare mental ability1 keenly sensitive to beauty in nature and art1 and possessed of a wonderful sense of proportion and a capacity for moderation in all things4 ,only on such an assumption can we account for their marvelous achievements in art1 philosophy1 literature1 and science at this very early period in the development of the civilization of the world4 ,,classes ,,in ,,the ,,population4 ,greece1 as was the ancient world in general1 was built politically on the dominant power of a ruling class4 ,in consequence1 all of course could not become citizens of the ,state1 even after a democracy had been evolved4 ,citizenship came with birth and proper education1 and1 before #eji ,b4,c41 foreigners were seldom admitted to privileges in the ,state4 ,only a male citizen might hold office1 protect himself in the courts1 own land1 or attend the public assemblies4 ,only a citizen1 too1 could participate in the religious festivals and rites1 for religion was an affair of the ruling families of the ,state4 ,in consequence1 family1 religion1 and citizenship were all bound up together1 and education and training were chiefly for citizenship and religious 7moral7 ends4 ,even more1 citizenship everywhere in the earlier period was a degree to be attained to only after proper education and preliminary military and political training4 ,this not only made some form of education necessary1 but confined educational advantages to male youths of proper birth4 ,there was of course no purpose in educating any others4 #e ,from ,figure #d it will be seen what a small percentage of the total population this included4 ,education in ,greece was essentially the education of the children of the ruling class to perpetuate the rule of that class4 ,attica almost alone among the ,greek ,states adopted anything approaching a liberal attitude toward the foreign-born2 in ,sparta1 and generally elsewhere in ,greece1 they were looked upon with deep suspicion4 ,as a result most of the foreign residents of ,greece were to be found in ,athens1 or its neighboring port city 7the ,piraeus71 attracted there by the hospitality of the people and the intellectual or commercial advantages of these cities4 ,after ,athens had become the center of world thought1 many foreigners took up their residence in the city because of the importance of its intellectual life4 ,foreigners1 though1 they remained up to #eji ,b4,c4 7,see page #dj47 ,only rarely before this date1 and then only for some conspicuous act of patriotism1 and by special vote of the citizens1 was a foreigner admitted to citizenship4 ,unlike ,rome1 which received those of alien birth freely into its citizenship1 and opened up to them large opportunities of every kind1 the ,greeks persistently refused to assimilate the foreign-born4 ,regarding themselves as a superior people1 descended from the gods1 they held themselves apart rather exclusively as above other peoples4 ,this kept the blood pure1 but1 from the standpoint of world usefulness1 it was a serious defect in ,greek life4 #f ,beneath both citizens and foreign residents was a great foundation mass of working slaves1 who rendered all types of menial and intellectual services4 ,sailors1 household servants1 field workers1 clerks in shops and offices1 accountants1 and pedagogues were among the more common occupations of slaves in ,greece4 ,many of these had been citizens and learned men of other ,city-,states or countries1 but had been carried off as captives in some war4 ,this was a common practice in the ancient world1 slavery being the lot of alien conquered people almost without exception4 ,the composition of ,attica1 just before the outbreak of the ,peloponnesian ,war 7#dca ,b4,c47 is shown in ,figure #d4 ,the great number of slaves and foreigners is clearly seen1 even though the citizenship had by this time been greatly extended4 ,in ,sparta and in other ,city-,states somewhat similar conditions prevailed as to numbers #g but there the slaves 7,helots7 occupied a lower status than in ,athens1 being in reality serfs1 tied to and being sold with the land1 and having no rights which a citizen was bound to respect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,population ,,of ,,athens ,,and ,,attica1 ,,about #dcj ,b4,c4 7,after ,gulick7 ,education1 then1 being only for the male children of citizens1 and citizenship a degree to be attained to on the basis of education and training1 let us next see in what that education consisted1 and what were its most prominent characteristics and results4 ,,ii4 ,,early ,,education ,,in ,,greece ,some form of education that would train the son of the citizen for participation in the religious observances and duties of a citizen of the ,state1 and would prepare the ,state for defense against outward enemies1 was everywhere in ,greece recognized as a public necessity1 though its provision1 nature1 and extent varied in the different ,city-,states4 ,we have clear information only as to ,sparta and ,athens1 and will consider only these two as types4 ,sparta is interesting as representing the old ,greek tribal training1 from which ,sparta never progressed4 ,many of the other ,greek ,city-,states probably maintained a system of training much like that of ,sparta4 ,such educational systems stand as undesirable examples of extreme state socialism1 contributed little to our western civilization1 and need not detain us long4 ,it was ,athens1 and a few other ,city-,states which followed her example1 which presented the best of ,greece and passed on to the modern world what was most valuable for civilization4 #a4 ,education in ,sparta ,,the ,,people4 ,the system of training which was maintained in ,sparta was in part a reflection of the character of the people1 and in part a result of its geographical location4 ,a warlike people by nature1 the ,spartans were for long regarded as the ablest fighters in ,greece4 ,laconia1 their home1 was a plain surrounded by mountains4 ,they represented but a small percentage of the total population1 which they held in subjection to them by their military power4 #h ,the slaves 7,helots7 were often troublesome1 and were held in check by many kinds of questionable practices4 ,education for citizenship with the ,spartans meant education for usefulness in an intensely military ,state1 where preparedness was a prerequisite to safety4 ,strength1 courage1 endurance1 cunning1 patriotism1 and obedience were the virtues most highly prized1 while the humane1 literary1 and artistic sentiments were neglected 7,r4 ,i74 ,aristotle well expressed it when he said that ,sparta prepared and trained for war1 and in peace rusted like a sword in its scabbard4 ,,the ,,educational ,,system4 ,at birth the child was examined by a council of elders 7,r4 ,i71 and if it did not appear to be a promising child it was exposed to die in the mountains4 ,if kept1 the mother had charge of the child until seven if a boy1 and still longer if a girl4 ,at the beginning of the eighth year1 and until the boy reached the age of eighteen1 he lived in a public barrack1 where he was given little except physical drill and instruction in the ,spartan virtues4 ,his food and clothing were scant and his bed hard4 ,each older man was a teacher4 ,running1 leaping1 boxing1 wrestling1 military music1 military drill1 ball-playing1 the use of the spear1 fighting1 stealing1 and laconic speech and demeanor constituted the course of study4 ,from eighteen to twenty was spent in professional training for war1 and frequently the youth was publicly whipped to develop his courage and endurance4 ,for the next ten years--that is1 until he was thirty years old--he was in the army at some frontier post4 ,at thirty the young man was admitted to full citizenship and compelled to marry1 though continuing to live at the public barrack and spending his energies in training boys 7,r4 #a74 ,women and girls were given gymnastic training to make them strong and capable of bearing strong children4 ,the family was virtually suppressed in the interests of defense and war4 #i ,the intellectual training consisted chiefly in committing to memory the ,laws of ,lycurgus1 learning a few selections from ,homer1 and listening to the conversation of the older men4 ,as might naturally be supposed1 ,sparta contributed little of anything to art1 literature1 science1 philosophy1 or government4 ,she left to the world some splendid examples of heroism1 as for example the sacrifice of ,leonidas and his ,spartans to hold the pass at ,thermopylae1 and a warning example of the brutalizing effect on a people of excessive devotion to military training4 ,it is a pleasure to turn from this dark picture to the wonderful 7for the time7 educational system that was gradually developed at ,athens4 #b4 ,the old ,athenian education ,,schools ,,and ,,teachers4 ,athenian education divides itself naturally into two divisions--the old ,athenian training which prevailed up to about the time of the close of the ,persian ,wars 7#dgi ,b4,c47 and was an outgrowth of earlier tribal observances and practices1 and later ,athenian education1 which characterized the period of maximum greatness of ,athens and afterward4 ,we shall describe these briefly1 in order4 ,the state military socialism of ,sparta made no headway in more democratic ,attica4 ,the citizens were too individualistic1 and did their own thinking too well to permit the establishment of any such plan4 ,while education was a necessity for citizenship1 and the degree could not be obtained without it1 the ,state nevertheless left every citizen free to make his own arrangements for the education of his sons1 or to omit such education if he saw fit4 ,only instruction in reading1 writing1 music1 and gymnastics were required4 ,if family pride1 and the sense of obligation of a parent and a citizen were not sufficient to force the father to educate his son1 the son was then by law freed from the necessity of supporting his father in his old age4 ,the ,state supervised education1 but did not establish it4 ,the teachers were private teachers1 and derived their livelihood from fees4 ,these naturally varied much with the kind of teacher and the wealth of the parent1 much as private lessons in music or dancing do to-day4 ,as was common in antiquity1 the teachers occupied but a low social position 7,r4 #e71 and only in the higher schools of ,athens was their standing of any importance4 ,greek literature contains many passages which show the low social status of the schoolmaster4 #aj ,schools were open from dawn to dark4 ,the school discipline was severe1 the rod being freely used both in the school and in the home4 ,there were no ,saturday and ,sunday holidays or long vacations1 such as we know1 but about ninety festival and other state holidays served to break the continuity of instruction 7,r4 #c74 ,the schoolrooms were provided by the teachers1 and were wholly lacking in teaching equipment1 in any modern sense of the term4 ,however1 but little was needed4 ,the instruction was largely individual instruction1 the boy coming1 usually in charge of an old slave known as a pedagogue1 to receive or recite his lessons4 ,the teaching process was essentially a telling and a learning-by-heart procedure4 ,for the earlier years there were two schools which boys attended--the music and literary school1 and a school for physical training4 ,boys probably spent part of the day at one school and part at the other1 though this is not certain4 ,they may have attended the two schools on alternate days4 ,from sixteen to eighteen1 if his parents were able1 the boy attended a state-supported gymnasium1 where an advanced type of physical training was given4 ,as this was preparatory for the next two years of army service1 the gymnasia were supported by the ,state more as preparedness measures than as educational institutions1 though they partook of the nature of both4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,a ,,greek ,,boy ,,early ,,childhood4 ,as at ,sparta the infant was examined at birth1 but the father1 and not a council of citizens1 decided whether or not it was to be exposed or preserved4 ,three ceremonies1 of ancient tribal origin1 marked the recognition and acceptance of the child4 ,the first took place five days after birth1 when the child was carried around the family hearth by the nurse1 followed by the household in procession4 ,this ceremony1 followed by a feast1 was designed to place the child forever under the care of the family gods4 ,on the tenth day the child was named by the father1 who then formally recognized the child as his own and committed himself to its rearing and education4 ,the third ceremony took place at the autumn family festival1 when all children born during the preceding year were presented to the father's clansmen1 who decided1 by vote1 whether or not the boy or girl was the legitimate and lawful child of ,athenian parents4 ,if approved1 the child's name was entered on the registry of the clan1 and he might then aspire to citizenship and inherit property from his parent 7,r4 #d74 ,up to the age of seven both boys and girls grew up together in the home1 under the care of the nurse and mother1 engaging in much the same games and sports as do children anywhere4 ,from the first they were carefully disciplined for good behavior and for the establishment of self-control 7,r4 #c74 ,after the age of seven the boy and girl parted company in the matter of their education1 the girl remaining closely secluded in the home 7women and children were usually confined to the upper floor of the house7 and being instructed in the household arts by her mother1 while the boy went to different teachers for his education4 ,probably many girls learned to read and write from their mothers or nurses1 and the daughters of well- to-do citizens learned to spin1 weave1 sew1 and embroider4 ,music was also a common accomplishment of women4 #aa ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,the ,,grammatist4 ,a ,greek boy1 unlike a modern school child1 did not go to one teacher4 ,instead he had at least two teachers1 and sometimes three4 ,to the grammatist1 who was doubtless an evolution from an earlier tribal scribe1 he went to learn to read and write and count4 ,the grammatist represented the earliest or primary teacher4 ,to the music teacher1 who probably at first taught reading and writing also1 he went for his instruction in music and literature4 ,finally1 to the palaestra he went for instruction in physical training 7,r4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,an ,,athenian ,,inscription ,a decree of the ,council and ,assembly1 dating from about #dej ,b4,c4 ,note the difficulty of trying to read without any punctuation1 and with only capital letters4 ,reading was taught by first learning the letters1 then syllables1 and finally words4 #ab ,plaques of baked earth1 on which the alphabet was written1 like the more modern horn-book 7see ,figure #acj71 were frequently used4 #ac ,the ease with which modern children learn to read was unknown in ,greece4 ,reading was very difficult to learn1 as accentuation1 punctuation1 spacing between words1 and small letters had not as yet been introduced4 ,as a result the study required much time1 #ad and much personal ingenuity had to be exercised in determining the meaning of a sentence4 ,the inscription shown in ,figure #f will illustrate the difficulties quite well4 ,the ,athenian accent1 too1 was hard to acquire4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,greek ,,writing-,,materials ,the pupil learned to write by first tracing1 with the stylus1 letters cut in wax tablets1 and later by copying exercises set for him by his teacher1 using the wax tablet and writing on his knee4 ,still later the pupil learned to write with ink on papyrus or parchment1 though1 due to the cost of parchment in ancient times1 this was not greatly used4 ,slates and paper were of course unknown in ,greece4 ,there was little need for arithmetic1 and but little was taught4 ,arithmetic such as we teach would have been impossible with their cumbrous system of notation4 #ae ,only the elements of counting were taught1 the ,greek using his fingers or a counting-board1 such as is shown in ,figure #h1 to do his simple reckoning4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h ,a ,,greek ,,counting-,,board ,pebbles of different size or color were used for thousands1 hundreds1 tens1 and units4 ,their position on the board gave them their values4 ,the board now shows the total #ae1cgi4 ,,great ,,importance ,,of ,,reading ,,and ,,literature4 ,after the pupil had learned to read1 much attention was given to accentuation and articulation1 in order to secure beautiful reading4 ,still more1 in reading or reciting1 the parts were acted out4 ,the ,greeks were a nation of actors1 and the recitations in the schools and the acting in the theaters gave plenty of opportunity for expression4 ,there were no schoolbooks1 as we know them4 ,the master dictated and the pupils wrote down1 or1 not uncommonly1 learned by heart what the master dictated4 ,ink and parchment were now used1 the boy making his own schoolbooks4 ,homer was the first and the great reading book of the ,greeks1 the ,iliad and the ,odyssey being the ,bible of the ,greek people4 ,then followed ,hesiod1 ,theognis1 the ,greek poets1 and the fables of ,aesop4 #af ,reading1 declamation1 and music were closely interrelated4 ,to appeal to the emotions and to stir the will along moral and civic lines was a fundamental purpose of the instruction 7,r4 #e74 ,a modern writer well characterizes the ancient instruction in literature in the following words3 ,by making the works of the great poets of the ,greek people the material of their education1 the ,athenians attained a variety of objects difficult of attainment by any other one means4 ,the fact is1 the ancient poetry of ,greece1 with its finished form1 its heroic tales and characters1 its accounts of peoples far removed in time and space1 its manliness and pathos1 its directness and simplicity1 its piety and wisdom1 its respect for law and order1 combined with its admiration for personal initiative and worth1 furnished1 in the hands of a careful and genial teacher1 a material for a complete education such as could not well be matched even in our own day4 ,what instruction in ethics1 politics1 social life1 and manly bearing could not find a fitting vehicle in the ,homeric poems1 not to speak of the geography1 the grammar1 the literary criticism1 and the history which the comprehension of them involved8 ,into what a wholesome1 unsentimental1 free world did these poems introduce the imaginative ,greek boy6 ,what splendid ideals of manhood and womanhood did they hold up for his admiration and imitation6 ,from ,hesiod he would learn all that he needed to know about his gods and their relation to him and his people4 ,from the elegiac poets he would derive a fund of political and social wisdom1 and an impetus to patriotism1 which would go far to make him a good man and a good citizen4 ,from the iambic poets he would learn to express with energy his indignation at meanness1 feebleness1 wrong1 and tyranny1 while from the lyric poets he would learn the language suitable to every genial feeling and impulse of the human heart4 ,and in reciting or singing all these1 how would his power of terse1 idiomatic expression1 his sense of poetic beauty and his ear for rhythm and music be developed6 ,with what a treasure of examples of every virtue and vice1 and with what a fund of epigrammatic expression would his memory be furnished6 ,how familiar he would be with the character and ideals of his nation1 how deeply in sympathy with them6 ,and all this was possible even before the introduction of letters4 ,with this event a new era in education begins4 ,the boy now not only learns and declaims his ,homer1 and sings his ,simonides or ,sappho2 he learns also to write down their verses from dictation1 and so at once to read and to write4 ,this1 indeed1 was the way in which these two 7to us7 fundamental arts were acquired4 ,as soon as the boy could trace with his finger in sand1 or scratch with a stylus on wax1 the forms of the letters1 and combine them into syllables and words1 he began to write poetry from his master's dictation4 ,the writing-lesson of to-day was the reading1 recitation1 or singing-lesson of to-morrow4 ,every boy made his own reading book1 and1 if he found it illegible1 and stumbled in reading1 he had only himself to blame4 ,the ,greeks1 and especially the ,athenians1 laid the greatest stress on reading well1 reciting well1 and singing well1 and the youth who could not do all three was looked upon as uncultured4 ,nor could he hide his want of culture1 since young men were continually called upon1 both at home and at more or less public gatherings1 to perform their part in the social entertainment4 #ag ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,an ,,athenian ,,school ,from a cup discovered at ,caere1 signed by the painter ,duris1 and now in the ,museum of ,berlin4 ,a ,,lesson ,,in ,,music ,,and ,,language ,explanation3 ,at the right is the paidagogos2 he is seated1 and turns his head to look at his pupil1 who is standing before his master4 ,the latter holds a writing-tablet and a stylus2 he is perhaps correcting a task4 ,at the left a pupil is taking a music lesson4 ,on the wall are hung a roll of manuscript1 a folded writing- tablet1 a lyre1 and an unknown cross-shaped object4 ,a ,,lesson ,,in ,,music ,,and ,,poetry ,explanation3 ,at the right sits1 cross- legged1 the paidagogos1 who has just brought in his pupil4 ,the boy stands before the teacher of poetry and recites his lesson4 ,the master1 in a chair1 holds in his hand a roll which he is unfolding1 upon which we see ,greek letters4 ,above these three figures we see on the wall a cup1 a lyre1 and a leather case of flutes4 ,to the bag is attached the small box containing mouthpieces of different kinds for the flutes4 ,farther on a pupil is receiving a lesson in music4 ,the master and pupil are both seated on seats without backs4 ,the master1 with head erect1 looks at the pupil who1 bent over his lyre1 seems absorbed in his playing4 ,above are hanging a basket1 a lyre1 and a cup4 ,on the wall is an inscription in ,greek4 ,,the ,,music ,,school4 ,the teacher in this school gradually separated himself from the grammatist1 and often the two were found in adjoining rooms in the same school4 ,in his functions he succeeded the wandering poet or minstrel of earlier times4 ,music teachers were common in all the ,city- ,states of ,greece4 ,to this teacher the boy went at first to recite his poetry1 and after the thirteenth year for a special music course4 ,the teacher was known as a citharist1 and the instrument usually used was the seven-stringed lyre4 ,this resembled somewhat our modern guitar4 ,the flute was also used somewhat1 but never grew into much favor1 partly because it tended to excite rather than soothe1 and partly because of the contortions of the face to which its playing gave rise4 ,rhythm1 melody1 and the feeling for measure and time were important in instruction1 whose office was to soothe1 purge1 and harmonize man within and make him fit for moral instruction through the poetry with which their music was ever associated4 ,instead of being a distinct art1 as with us1 and taught by itself1 music with the ,greeks was always subsidiary to the expression of the spirit of their literature1 and in aim it was for moral-training ends4 #ah ,both ,aristotle and ,plato advocate state control of school music to insure sound moral results4 ,inferior as their music was to present-day music1 it exerted an influence over their lives which it is difficult for an ,american teacher to appreciate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,greek ,,school ,,lessons ,,the ,,singing ,,lesson ,the boy is singing1 to the accompaniment of a flute4 ,on the wall hangs a bag of flutes4 ,,the ,,literature ,,lesson ,the boy is reciting1 while the teacher follows him on a roll of manuscript4 ,the first lessons taught the use of the instrument1 and the simple chants of the religious services were learned4 ,as soon as the pupil knew how to play1 the master taught him to render the works of the great lyric poets of ,greece4 ,poetry and music together thus formed a single art4 ,at thirteen a special music course began which lasted until sixteen1 but which only the sons of the more well-to-do citizens attended4 ,every boy1 though1 learned some music1 not that he might be a musician1 but that he might be musical and able to perform his part at social gatherings and participate in the religious services of the ,state4 ,professional playing was left to slaves and foreigners1 and was deemed unworthy a free man and a citizen4 ,professionalism in either music or athletics was regarded as disgraceful4 ,the purpose of both activities was harmonious personal development1 which the ,greeks believed contributed to moral worth4 ,,the ,,palaestra2 ,,gymnastics4 ,very unlike our modern education1 fully one half of a boy's school life1 from eight to sixteen1 was given to sports and games in another school under different teachers1 known as the palaestra4 ,the work began gradually1 but by fifteen had taken precedence over other studies4 ,as in music1 harmonious physical development and moral ends were held to be of fundamental importance4 ,the standards of success were far from our modern standards4 ,to win the game was of little significance2 the important thing was to do the part gracefully and1 for the person concerned1 well4 ,to attain to a graceful and dignified carriage of the body1 good physical health1 perfect control of the temper1 and to develop quickness of perception1 self-possession1 ease1 and skill in the games were the aims--not mere strength or athletic prowess 7,r4 #b74 ,only a few were allowed to train for participation in the ,olympian games4 ,the work began with children's games1 contests in running1 and ball games of various kinds4 ,deportment--how to get up1 walk1 sit1 and how to achieve easy manners--was taught by the masters4 ,after the pupils came to be a little older there was a definite course of study1 which included1 in succession3 7#a7 leaping and jumping1 for general bodily and lung development2 7#b7 running contests1 for agility and endurance2 7#c7 throwing the discus1 #ai for arm exercise2 7#d7 casting the javelin1 for bodily poise and cordination of movement1 as well as for future use in hunting2 7#e7 boxing and wrestling1 for quickness1 agility1 endurance1 and the control of the temper and passions4 ,swimming and dancing were also included for all1 dancing being a slow and graceful movement of the body to music1 to develop grace of motion and beauty of form1 and to exercise the whole human being1 body and soul4 ,the minuet and some of our folk- dancing are our nearest approach to the ,greek type of dancing1 though still not like it4 ,the modern partner dance was unknown in ancient ,greece4 ,the exercises were performed in classes1 or in small groups4 ,they took place in the open air1 and on a dirt or sandy floor4 ,they were accompanied by music--usually the flute1 played by a paid performer4 ,a number of teachers looked after the boys1 examining them physically1 supervising the exercises1 directing the work1 and giving various forms of instruction4 ,,the ,,gymnasial ,,training1 ,,sixteen ,,to ,,eighteen4 ,up to this point the education provided was a private and a family affair4 ,in the home and in the school the boy had now been trained to be a gentleman1 to revere the gods1 to be moral and upright according to ,greek standards1 and in addition he had been given that training in reading1 writing1 music1 and athletic exercises that the ,state required parents to furnish4 ,it is certain that many boys1 whose parents could ill afford further expense for schooling1 were allowed to quit the schools at from thirteen to fifteen4 ,those who expected to become full citizens1 however1 and to be a part of the government and hold office1 were required to continue until twenty years of age4 ,two years more were spent in schooling1 largely athletic1 and two years additional in military service4 ,of this additional training1 if his parents chose and could afford it1 the ,state now took control4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4 ,,ground-,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,gymnasium ,,at ,,ephesos1 ,,in ,,asia ,,minor ,explanation3 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 pillared corridors1 or portico2 ,d1 an open space1 possibly a palaestra1 evidently intended to supply the peristylium2 ,e1 a long1 narrow hall used for games of ball2 ,f1 a large hall with seats2 ,g1 in which was suspended a sack filled with chaff for the use of boxers2 ,h1 where the young men sprinkled themselves with dust2 ,i1 the cold bath2 ,k1 where the wrestling-master anointed the bodies of the contestants2 ,l1 the cooling-off room2 ,m1 the furnace-room2 ,n1 the vapor bath2 #j1 the dry- sweating apartment2 ,p1 the hot bath2 ,q1 ,q'1 rooms for games1 for the keepers1 or for other uses2 ,r1 ,r'1 covered stadia1 for use in bad weather2 ,s1 ,s1 ,s1 ,s1 ,s1 rows of seats1 looking upon ,t1 the uncovered stadium2 ,u1 groves1 with seats and walks among the trees2 ,v1 ,v'1 recessed seats for the use of philosophers1 rhetoricians1 and others4 ,for the years from sixteen to eighteen the boy attended a state gymnasium1 of which two were erected outside of ,athens by the ,state1 in groves of trees1 in #eij ,b4,c4 ,others were erected later in other parts of ,greece4 ,figure #aa shows the ground plan of one of these gymnasia1 and a study of the explanation of the plan will reveal the nature of these establishments4 ,the boy now had for teachers a number of gymnasts of ability4 ,the old exercises of the palaestra were continued1 but running1 wrestling1 and boxing were much emphasized4 ,the youth learned to run in armor1 while wrestling and boxing became more severe4 ,he also learned to ride a horse1 to drive a chariot1 to sing and dance in the public choruses1 and to participate in the public state and religious processions4 ,still more1 the youth now passed from the supervision of a family pedagogue to the supervision of the ,state4 ,for the first time in his life he was now free to go where he desired about the city2 to frequent the streets1 market-place1 and theater2 to listen to debates and jury trials1 and to witness the great games2 and to mix with men in the streets and to mingle somewhat in public affairs4 ,he saw little of girls1 except his sisters1 but formed deep friendships with other young men of his age4 #bj ,aside from a requirement that he learn the laws of the ,state1 his education during this period was entirely physical and civic4 ,if he abused his liberty he was taken in hand by public officials charged with the supervision of public morals4 ,he was1 however1 still regarded as a minor1 and his father 7or guardian7 was held responsible for his public behavior4 ,,the ,,citizen-,,cadet ,,years1 ,,eighteen ,,to ,,twenty4 ,the supervision of the ,state during the preceding two years had in a way been joint with that of his father2 now the ,state took complete control4 ,at the age of eighteen his father took him before the proper authorities of his district or ward in the city1 and presented him as a candidate for citizenship4 ,he was examined morally and physically1 and if sound1 and if the records showed that he was the legitimate son of a citizen1 his name was entered on the register of his ward as a prospective member of it 7,r4 #d74 ,his long hair was now cut1 he donned the black garb of the citizen1 was presented to the people along with others at a public ceremony1 was publicly armed with a spear and a shield1 and then1 proceeding to one of the shrines of the city1 on a height overlooking it1 he solemnly took the ,ephebic oath3 ,i will never disgrace these sacred arms1 nor desert my companion in the ranks4 ,i will fight for temples and public property1 both alone and with many4 ,i will transmit my fatherland1 not only not less1 but greater and better1 than it was transmitted to me4 ,i will obey the magistrates who may at any time be in power4 ,i will observe both the existing laws and those which the people may unanimously hereafter make1 and1 if any person seek to annul the laws or to set them at naught1 ,i will do my best to prevent him1 and will defend them both alone and with many4 ,i will honor the religion of my fathers4 ,and ,i call to witness ,aglauros1 ,enyalios1 ,ares1 ,zeus1 ,thallo1 ,auxo1 and ,hegemone4 ,he was now an ,ephebos1 or citizen-cadet1 with still two years of severe training ahead of him before he could take up the full duties of citizenship4 ,the first year he spent in and near ,athens1 learning to be a soldier4 ,he did what recruits do almost everywhere--drill1 camp in the open1 learn the army methods and discipline1 and march in public processions and take part in religious festivals4 ,this first year was much like that of new troops in camp being worked into real soldiers4 ,at the end of the year there was a public drill and inspection of the cadets1 after which they were sent to the frontier4 ,it was now his business to come to know his country thoroughly--its topography1 roads1 springs1 seashores1 and mountain passes4 ,he also assisted in enforcing law and order throughout the country districts1 as a sort of a state constabulary or rural police4 ,at the end of this second year of practical training the second examination was held1 the cadet was now admitted to full citizenship1 and passed to the ranks of a trained citizen in the reserve army of defense1 as does a boy in ,switzerland to-day 7,r4 #d74 ,,results ,,under ,,the ,,old ,,greek ,,system4 ,such was the educational system which was in time evolved from the earlier tribal practices of the citizens of old ,athens4 ,if we consider ,sparta as representing the earlier tribal education of the ,greek peoples1 we see how far the ,athenians1 due to their wonderful ability to make progress1 were able to advance beyond this earlier type of preparation for citizenship 7,r4 #e74 ,not only did ,athens surpass all ,greece1 but1 for the first time in the history of the world1 we find here1 expressing itself in the education of the young1 the modern western1 individualistic and democratic spirit1 as opposed to the deadening caste and governmental systems of the ,east4 ,here first we find a free people living under political conditions which favored liberty1 culture1 and intellectual growth1 and using their liberty to advance the culture and the knowledge of the people 7,r4 #f74 ,here also we find1 for the first time1 the thinkers of the ,state deeply concerned with the education of the youth of the ,state1 and viewing education as a necessity to make life worth living and secure the ,state from dangers1 both within and without4 ,to prepare men by a severe but simple and honest training to fear the gods1 to do honest work1 to despise comfort and vice1 to obey the laws1 to respect their neighbors and themselves1 and to reverence the wisdom of their race1 was the aim of this old education4 ,the schooling for citizenship was rigid1 almost puritanical1 but it produced wonderful results1 both in peace and in war4 #ba ,men thus trained guided the destinies of ,athens during some two centuries1 and the despotism of the ,east as represented by ,persia could not defeat them at ,marathon1 ,salamis1 and ,plataea4 ,,the ,,simple ,,and ,,effective ,,curriculum4 ,the simplicity of the curriculum was one of its marked features4 ,in a manner seldom witnessed in the world's educational history1 the ,greeks used their religion1 literature1 government1 and the natural activities of young men to impart an education of wonderful effectiveness4 #bb ,the subjects we have valued so highly for training were to them unknown4 ,they taught no arithmetic or grammar1 no science1 no drawing1 no higher mathematics1 and no foreign tongue4 ,music1 the literature and religion of their own people1 careful physical training1 and instruction in the duties and practices of citizenship constituted the entire curriculum4 ,it was an education by doing2 not one of learning from books4 ,that it was an attractive type of education there is abundant testimony by the ,greeks themselves4 ,we have not as yet come to value physical education as did the ,greeks1 nor are we nearly so successful in our moral education1 despite the aid of the ,christian religion which they did not know4 ,it was1 to be sure1 class education1 and limited to but a small fraction of the total population4 ,in it girls had no share4 ,there were many features of ,greek life1 too1 that are repugnant to modern conceptions4 ,yet1 despite these limitations1 the old education of ,athens still stands as one of the most successful in its results of any system of education which has been evolved in the history of the world4 ,considering its time and place in the history of the world and that it was a development for which there were nowhere any precedents1 it represented a very wonderful evolution4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,why are imaginative ability and many-sided natures such valuable characteristics for any people8 #b4 ,why is the ability to make progressive changes1 possessed so markedly by the ,athenian ,greeks1 an important personal or racial characteristic8 #c4 ,are the ,athenian characteristics1 stated in the middle of page #ai1 characteristics capable of development by training1 or are they native1 or both8 #d4 ,how do you explain the ,greek failure to achieve political unity8 #e4 ,would education for citizenship with us to-day possess the same defects as in ancient ,greece8 ,why8 ,do we give an equivalent training8 #f4 ,which is the better attitude for a nation to assume toward the foreigner--the ,greek1 or the ,american8 ,why8 #g4 ,why does a state military socialism1 such as prevailed at ,sparta1 tend to produce a people of mediocre intellectual capacity8 #h4 ,how do you account for the ,athenian ,state leaving literary and musical education to private initiative1 but supporting state gymnasia8 #i4 ,would the ,athenian method of instruction have been possible had all children in the ,state been given an education8 ,why8 #aj4 ,how did the education of an ,athenian girl differ from that of a girl in the early ,american colonies8 #aa4 ,why did the ,greek boy need three teachers1 whereas the ,american boy is taught all and more by one primary teacher8 #ab4 ,contrast the ,greek method of instruction in music1 and the purposes of the instruction1 with our own4 #ac4 ,how could we incorporate into our school instruction some of the important aspects of ,greek instruction in music8 #ad4 ,what do you think of the contentions of ,aristotle and ,plato that the ,state should control school music as a means of securing sound moral instruction8 #ae4 ,does the ,greek idea that a harmonious personal development contributes to moral worth appeal to you8 ,why8 #af4 ,contrast the ,greek ideal as to athletic training with the conception of athletics held by an average ,american schoolboy4 #ag4 ,contrast the education of a ,greek boy at sixteen with that of an ,american boy at the same age4 #ah4 ,contrast the emphasis placed on expression as a method in teaching in the schools of ,athens and of the ,united ,states4 #ai4 ,do the needs of modern society and industrial life warrant the greater emphasis we place on learning from books1 as opposed to the learning by doing of the ,greeks8 #bj4 ,compare the compulsory-school period of the ,greeks with our own4 ,if we were to add some form of compulsory military training1 for all youths between eighteen and twenty1 and as a preparedness measure1 would we approach still more nearly the ,greek requirements8 #ba4 ,explain how the ,athenian ,greeks reconciled the idea of social service to the ,state with the idea of individual liberty1 through a form of education which developed personality4 ,compare this with our ,american ideal4 #bb4 ,the ,greek schoolboy had no long summer vacation1 as do ,american children4 ,is there any special reason why we need it more than did they8 #bc4 ,do we believe that virtue can be taught in the way the ,hellenic peoples did8 ,do we carry such a belief into practice8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #a4 ,plutarch3 ,ancient ,education in ,sparta4 #b4 ,plato3 ,an ,athenian ,schoolboy's ,life4 #c4 ,lucian3 ,an ,athenian ,schoolboy's ,day4 #d4 ,aristotle3 ,athenian ,citizenship and the ,ephebic ,years4 #e4 ,freeman3 ,sparta and ,athens compared4 #f4 ,thucydides3 ,athenian ,education summarized4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,describe and characterize the ,laws which ,lycurgus framed for ,spartan training 7#a74 #b4 ,describe and characterize the instruction of the ,ireus at ,sparta4 ,compare with the training given among the best of the ,american ,indian tribes 7#a74 #c4 ,contrast the type of education given an ,athenian and a ,spartan boy1 as to nature and purpose and character 7#a and #b74 #d4 ,what degree of ,state supervision of education is indicated by ,plato 7#b78 ,by ,freeman 7#e78 #e4 ,compare an ,athenian school day as described by ,lucian 7#c7 with a school day in a modern ,gary-type school4 #f4 ,compare the ,ephebic years of an ,athenian youth 7#d7 with those of a ,spartan youth 7#a74 #g4 ,what were some of the chief defects of ,athenian schools 7#e78 #h4 ,what was the position of the ,state in the matter of the education of youth 7#e78 #i4 ,what were the great merits of the ,athenian educational and political system of training 7#f78 7,for ,,supplemental ,,references1 see following chapter47 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,later ,,greek ,,education ,,iii4 ,,the ,,new ,,greek ,,education ,,political ,,events3 ,,the ,,golden ,,age ,,of ,,greece4 ,the ,battle of ,marathon 7#dij ,b4,c47 has long been considered one of the decisive battles of the world4 ,had the despotism of the ,east triumphed here1 and in the subsequent campaign that ended in the defeat of the ,persian fleet at ,salamis 7#dhj ,b4,c47 and of the ,persian army at ,plataea 7#dgi ,b4,c471 the whole history of our western world would have been different4 ,the result of the war with ,persia was the triumph of this new western democratic civilization1 prepared and schooled for great national emergencies by a severe but effective training1 over the uneducated hordes led to battle by the autocracy of the ,east4 ,this was the first1 but not the last1 of the many battles which western democracy and civilization has had to fight to avoid being crushed by autocracy and despotism4 ,marathon broke the dread spell of the ,persian name and freed the more progressive ,greeks to pursue their intellectual and political development4 ,above all it revealed the strength and power of the ,athenians to themselves1 and in the half-century following the most wonderful political1 literary1 and artistic development the world had ever known ensued1 and the highest products of ,greek civilization were attained4 ,attica had braved everything for the common cause of ,greece1 even to leaving ,athens to be burned by the invader1 and for the next fifty years she held the position of political as well as cultural preminence among the ,greek ,city-,states4 ,athens now became the world center of wealth and refinement and the home of art and literature 7,r4 #g71 and her influence along cultural lines1 due in part to her mastery of the sea and her growing commerce1 was now extended throughout the ,mediterranean world4 ,from #dgi to #dca ,b4,c4 was the ,golden ,age of ,greece1 and during this short period ,athens gave birth to more great men--poets1 artists1 statesmen1 and philosophers--than all the world beside had produced #a in any period of equal length4 ,then1 largely as a result of the growing jealousy of military ,sparta came that cruel and vindictive civil strife1 known as the ,peloponnesian ,war1 which desolated ,greece1 left ,athens a wreck of her former self1 permanently lowered the moral tone of the ,greek people1 and impaired beyond recovery the intellectual and artistic life of ,hellas4 ,for many centuries ,athens continued to be a center of intellectual achievement1 and to spread her culture throughout a new and a different world1 but her power as a ,state had been impaired forever by a revengeful war between those who should have been friends and allies in the cause of civilization4 ,,transition ,,from ,,old ,,to ,,the ,,new4 ,as early as #eji ,b4,c4 a new constitution had admitted all the free inhabitants of ,attica to citizenship1 and the result was a rapid increase in the prestige1 property1 and culture of ,athens4 ,citizenship was now open to the commercial classes1 and no longer restricted to a small1 properly born1 and properly educated class4 ,wealth now became important in giving leisure to the citizen1 and was no longer looked down upon as it had been in the earlier period4 ,after the ,peloponnesian ,war the predominance of ,attica among the ,greek ,states1 the growth of commerce1 the constant interchange of embassies1 the travel overseas of ,athenian citizens1 and the presence of many foreigners in the ,state all alike led to a tolerance of new ideas and a criticism of old ones which before had been unknown4 ,a leisure class now arose1 and personal interest came to have a larger place than before1 with a consequent change in the earlier conceptions as to the duty of the citizen to the ,state4 ,literature lost much of its earlier religious character1 and the religious basis of morality #b began to be replaced by that of reason4 ,philosophy was now called upon to furnish a practical guide for life to replace the old religious basis4 ,a new philosophy in which man was the measure of all things arose1 and its teachers came to have large followings4 ,the old search for an explanation of the world of matter #c was now replaced by an attempt to explain the world of ideas and emotions1 with a resulting evolution of the sciences of philosophy1 ethics1 and logic4 ,it was a period of great intellectual as well as political change and expansion1 and in consequence the old education1 which had answered well the needs of a primitive and isolated community1 now found itself but poorly adapted to meet the larger needs of the new cosmopolitan ,state4 #d ,the result was a material change in the old education to adapt it to the needs of the new ,athens1 now become the intellectual center of the civilized world4 ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,education4 ,a number of changes in the character of the old education were now gradually introduced4 ,the rigid drill of the earlier period began to be replaced by an easier and a more pleasurable type of training4 ,gymnastics for personal enjoyment began to replace drill for the service of the ,state1 and was much less rigid in type4 ,the old authors1 who had rendered important service in the education of youth1 began to be replaced by more modern writers1 with a distinct loss of the earlier religious and moral force4 ,new musical instruments1 giving a softer and more pleasurable effect1 took the place of the seven-stringed lyre1 and complicated music replaced the simple ,doric airs of the earlier period4 ,education became much more individual1 literary1 and theoretical4 ,geometry and drawing were introduced as new studies4 ,grammar and rhetoric began to be studied1 discussion was introduced1 and a certain glibness of speech began to be prized4 ,the citizen-cadet years1 from sixteen to twenty1 formerly devoted to rather rigorous physical training1 were now changed to school work of an intellectual type4 ,,new ,,teachers2 ,,the ,,sophists4 ,new teachers1 known as ,sophists1 who professed to be able to train men for a political career1 #e began to offer a more practical course designed to prepare boys for the newer type of state service4 ,these in time drew many ,ephebes into their private schools1 where the chief studies were on the content1 form1 and practical use of the ,greek language4 ,rhetoric and grammar before long became the master studies of this new period1 as they were felt to prepare boys better for the new political and intellectual life of ,hellas than did the older type of training4 ,in the schools of the ,sophists boys now spent their time in forming phrases1 choosing words1 examining grammatical structure1 and learning how to secure rhetorical effect4 ,many of these new teachers made most extravagant claims for their instruction 7,r4 #h7 and drew much ridicule from the champions of the older type of education1 but within a century they had thoroughly established themselves1 and had permanently changed the character of the earlier ,greek education4 ,by #cej ,b4,c4 we find that ,greek school education had been differentiated into three divisions1 as follows3 #a4 ,primary education1 covering the years from seven or eight to thirteen1 and embracing reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 and chanting4 ,the teacher of this school came to be known as a grammatist4 #b4 ,secondary education1 covering the years from thirteen to sixteen1 and embracing geometry1 drawing1 and a special music course4 ,later on some grammar and rhetoric were introduced into this school4 ,the teacher of this school came to be known as a grammaticus4 #c4 ,higher or university education1 covering the years after sixteen4 ,,the ,,flood ,,of ,,individualism4 ,this period of artistic and intellectual brilliancy of ,greece following the ,peloponnesian ,war marked the beginning of the end of ,greece politically4 ,the war was a blow to the strength of ,greece from which the different ,states never recovered4 ,greece was bled white by this needless civil strife4 ,the tendencies toward individualism in education were symptomatic of tendencies in all forms of social and political life4 ,the philosophers--,xenophon1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle--proposed ideal remedies for the evils of the ,state1 #f but in vain4 ,the old ideal of citizenship died out4 ,service to the ,state became purely subordinate to personal pleasure and advancement4 ,irreverence and a scoffing attitude became ruling tendencies4 ,family morality decayed4 ,the ,state in time became corrupt and nerveless4 ,finally1 in #cch ,b4,c41 ,philip of ,macedon became master of ,greece1 and annexed it to the world empire which he and his son ,alexander created4 ,still later1 in #adf ,b4,c41 the new world power to the west1 ,rome1 conquered ,greece and made of it a ,roman province4 ,though dead politically1 there now occurred the unusual spectacle of captive ,greece taking captive her rude conqueror1 and spreading ,greek art1 literature1 philosophy1 science1 and ,greek ideas throughout the ,mediterranean world4 ,it was the ,greek higher learning that now became predominant and exerted such great influence on the future of our world civilization4 ,it remains now to trace briefly the development and spread of this higher learning1 and to point out how thoroughly it modified the thinking of the future4 ,,new ,,schools2 ,,socrates4 ,in the beginning each ,sophist teacher was a free lance1 and taught what he would and in the manner he thought best4 ,many of them made extraordinary efforts to attract students and win popular approval and fees4 ,plato represents the ,sophist ,protagoras as saying1 with reference to a youth ambitious for success in political life1 ,if he comes to me he will learn that which he comes to learn4 ,at first the instruction was largely individual1 but later classes were organized4 ,isocrates1 who lived from #dcf to #cch ,b4,c41 organized the instruction for the first time into a well-graded sequence of studies1 with definite aims and work 7,r4 #h74 ,he shifted the emphasis in instruction from training for success in argumentation1 to training to think clearly and to express ideas properly4 ,his pupils were unusually successful1 and his school did much to add to the fame of ,athens as an intellectual center4 ,from his work sprang a large number of so called ,rhetorical ,schools1 much like our better private schools and academies1 offering to those ,ephebes who could afford to attend a very good preparation for participation in the public life of the period4 ,in contrast with the ,sophists1 a series of schools of philosophy also arose in ,athens4 ,these in a way were the outgrowth of the work of ,socrates4 ,accepting the ,sophists' dictum that man is the measure of all things1 he tried to turn youths from the baser individualism of the ,sophists of his day to the larger general truths which measure the life of a true man4 ,in particular he tried to show that the greatest of all arts-- the art of living a good life--called for correct individual thinking and a knowledge of the right4 ,know thyself was his great guiding principle4 ,his emphasis was on the problems of everyday morality4 ,frankly accepting the change from the old education as a change that could not be avoided1 he sought to formulate a new basis for education in personal morality and virtue1 and as a substitute for the old training for service to the ,state4 ,he taught by conversation1 engaging men in argument as he met them in the street1 and showing to them their ignorance 7,r4 #i74 ,even in ,athens1 where free speech was enjoyed more than anywhere else in the world at that time1 such a shrewd questioner would naturally make enemies1 and in #cii ,b4,c4 at the age of seventy-one1 he was condemned to death by the ,athenian populace on the charge of impiety and corrupting the youth of ,athens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab ,,socrates 7#dfi-cii ,b4,c47 7,after a marble bust in the ,vatican ,gallery1 at ,rome7 ,socrates' greatest disciple was a citizen of wealth by the name of ,plato1 who had abandoned a political career for the charms of philosophy1 and to him we owe our chief information as to the work and aims of ,socrates4 ,in #chf ,b4,c4 he founded the ,academy1 where he passed almost forty years in lecturing and writing4 ,his school1 which formed a model for others1 consisted of a union of teachers and students who possessed in common a chapel1 library1 lecture-rooms1 and living-rooms4 ,philosophy1 mathematics1 and science were taught1 and women as well as men were admitted4 ,other schools of importance in ,athens were the ,lyceum1 founded in #cce ,b4,c4 by a foreign-born pupil of ,plato's by the name of ,aristotle1 who did a remarkable work in organizing the known knowledge of his time2 #g the school of the ,stoics1 founded by ,zeno in #cjh ,b4,c42 and the school of the ,epicureans1 founded by ,epicurus in #cjf ,b4,c4 ,each of these schools offered a philosophical solution of the problem of life1 and ,plato and ,aristotle wrote treatises on education as well4 ,each school evolved into a form of religious brotherhood which perpetuated the organization after the death of the master4 ,in time these became largely schools for expounding the philosophy of the founder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,greek ,,university ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,athens4 ,coincident with the founding of these schools and the political events we have previously recorded1 certain further changes in ,athenian education were taking place4 ,the character of the changes in the education before the age of sixteen we have described4 ,as a result in part of the development of the schools of the ,sophists1 which were in themselves only attempts to meet fundamental changes in ,athenian life1 the education of youths after sixteen tended to become literary1 rather than physical and military4 ,the ,ephebic period of service 7from eighteen to twenty7 was at first reduced from two years to one1 and after the ,macedonian conquest1 in #cch ,b4,c41 when there was no longer an ,athenian ,state to serve or protect1 the entire period of training was made optional4 ,the ,ephebic corps was now opened to foreigners1 and in time became merely a fashionable semi-military group4 ,instead of the military training1 attendance at the lectures of the philosophical schools was now required1 and attendance at the rhetorical schools was optional4 ,later the philosophical schools were granted public support by the ,athenian ,assembly1 professorships were created over which the ,assembly exercised supervision1 the rhetorical and philosophical schools were gradually merged1 the study years were extended from two to six1 or seven1 a form of university life as regards both students and professors was developed1 and what has since been termed ,the ,university of ,athens was evolved4 ,figure #ac shows how this evolution took place4 ,as ,athens lost in political power her citizens turned their attention to making their city a center of world learning4 ,this may be said to have been accomplished by #bjj ,b4,c4 ,though ,greece had long since become a ,macedonian province1 and was soon to pass under the control of ,rome1 the so-called ,university of ,athens was widely known and much frequented for the next three hundred years1 and continued in existence until finally closed1 as a center of pagan thought1 by the edict of the ,roman-,christian ,emperor1 ,justinian1 in #ebi ,a4,d4 ,though reduced to the rank of a ,roman provincial town1 ,athens long continued to be a city of letters and a center of philosophic and scientific instruction4 ,,spread ,,and ,,influence ,,of ,,greek ,,higher ,,education4 ,alexander the ,great rendered a very important service in uniting the western ,orient and the eastern ,mediterranean into a common world empire1 and in establishing therein a common language1 literature1 philosophy1 a common interest1 and a common body of scientific knowledge and law4 ,it was his hope to create a new empire1 in which the distinction between ,european and ,asiatic should pass away4 ,no less than seventy cities were established with a view to holding his empire together4 ,these served to spread ,hellenic culture4 ,greek schools1 ,greek theaters1 ,greek baths1 and ,greek institutions of every type were to be found in practically all of them1 and the ,greek tongue was heard in them all4 ,with ,alexander the ,great the history of ,greek life1 culture1 and learning merges into that of the history of the ancient world4 ,everywhere throughout the new empire ,greek philosophers and scientists1 architects and artists1 merchants and colonists1 followed behind the ,macedonian armies1 spreading ,greek civilization and becoming the teachers of an enlarged world4 #h ,greek cities stretched from the ,nile to the ,indus1 and dotted the shores of the ,black and the ,caspian seas4 ,the ,greek language1 once the tongue of a petty people1 grew to be a universal language of culture1 spoken even by barbarian lips1 and the art1 the science1 the literature1 the principles of politics and philosophy1 developed in isolation by the ,greek mind1 henceforth became the heritage of many nations4 #i ,greek universities were established at ,pergamum and ,tarsus in ,asia ,minor2 at ,rhodes on the island of that name in the ,aegean2 and at the newly founded city of ,alexandria in ,egypt4 ,antioch1 in ,syria1 became another important center of ,greek influence and learning4 ,a large library was developed at ,pergamum1 and it was here that writing on prepared skins of animals #aj was begun1 from which the term parchment 7originally per- gament7 comes4 ,it was also at ,pergamum that ,galen 7born c4 #acj ,a4,d47 organized what was then known of medical science1 and his work remained the standard treatise for more than a thousand years4 ,rhodes became a famous center for instruction in oratory4 ,during ,roman days many eminent men1 among whom were ,cassius1 ,caesar1 and ,cicero1 studied oratory here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad ,,the ,,greek ,,university ,,world ,,mingling ,,of ,,orient ,,and ,,occident ,,at ,,alexandria4 ,the most famous of all these ,greek institutions1 however1 was the ,university of ,alexandria1 which gradually sapped ,athens as a center of learning and became the intellectual capital of the world4 ,the greatest library of manuscripts the world had ever known was collected together here4 #aa ,it is said to have numbered over #gjj1jjj volumes4 ,these included ,greek1 ,jewish1 ,egyptian1 and ,oriental works4 ,in connection with the library was the museum1 where men of letters and investigators were supported at royal expense4 ,these two constituted an institution so like a university that it has been given that name4 ,alexandria became not only a great center of learning1 but1 still more important1 the chief mingling place for ,greek1 ,jew1 ,egyptian1 ,roman1 and ,oriental1 and here ,greek philosophy1 ,hebrew and ,christian religion1 and ,oriental faith and philosophy met and mixed4 ,it was this mingled civilization and culture1 all tinged through and through with the ,greek1 with which the ,romans came in contact as they pushed their conquering armies into the eastern ,mediterranean 7,r4 #aj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,the ,,known ,,world ,,about #aej ,a4,d4 ,a map by ,ptolemy1 geographer and astronomer at ,alexandria4 ,compare this with the map on page #d1 and note the progress in geographical discovery which had been made during the intervening centuries4 ,,character ,,of ,,alexandrian ,,learning4 ,the great advances in knowledge made at ,alexandria were in mathematics1 geography1 and science4 ,the method of scientific investigation worked out by ,aristotle at ,athens was introduced and used4 ,instead of speculating as to phenomena and causes1 as had been the earlier ,greek practice1 observation and experiment now became the rule4 ,euclid 7c4 #cbc-bhc ,b4,c47 opened a school at ,alexandria as early as #cjj ,b4,c41 and there worked out the geometry which is still used in our schools4 ,archimedes 7#bhg-bab ,b4,c471 who studied under ,euclid1 made many important discoveries and advances in mechanics and physics4 ,eratosthenes 7#bbf-aif ,b4,c471 librarian at ,alexandria1 is famous as a geographer #ab and astronomer1 and made some studies in geology as well4 ,ptolemy 7b482 d4 #afh ,a4,d47 here completed his ,mechanism of the ,heavens 7,syntaxis7 in #ach ,a4,d41 and this became the standard astronomy in ,europe for nearly fifteen hundred years1 while his geography was used in the schools until well into the fifteenth century4 ,the map of the known world1 shown in ,figure #ae1 was made by him4 ,hipparcus1 the ,newton of the ,greeks1 studied the heavens both at ,alexandria and ,rhodes1 and counted the stars and arranged them in constellations4 ,many advances also were made in the study of medicine1 the ,alexandrian schools having charts1 models1 and dissecting rooms for the study of the human body1 ,the functions of the brain1 nerves1 and heart were worked out there4 ,except in science and mathematics1 though1 the creative ability of the earlier ,greeks was now largely absent4 ,research1 organization1 and comment upon what had previously been done rather was the rule4 ,still much important work was done here4 ,books were collected1 copied1 and preserved1 and texts were edited and purified from errors4 ,here grammar1 criticism1 prosody1 and mythology were first developed into sciences4 ,the study of archaeology was begun1 and the first dictionaries were made4 ,the translation of the ,hebrew ,scriptures into ,greek was begun for the benefit of the ,alexandrian ,jews who had forgotten their ,mother tongue1 this being the origin of the famous ,septuagint #ac version of the ,old ,testament4 ,it is owing to these ,alexandrian scholars1 also1 that we now possess the theory of ,greek accents1 and have good texts of ,homer and other ,greek writers4 ,,alexandria ,,sapped ,,in ,,turn4 ,in #cj ,b4,c4 ,alexandria1 too1 came under ,roman rule and was1 in turn1 gradually sapped by ,rome4 ,greek influence continued1 but the interest became largely philosophical4 ,ultimately ,alexandria became the seat of a metaphysical school of ,christian theology1 and the scene of bitter religious controversies4 ,in #ccj ,a4,d41 ,constantinople was founded on the site of the earlier ,byzantium1 and soon thereafter ,greek scholars transferred their interest to it and made it a new center of ,greek learning4 ,there ,greek science1 literature1 and philosophy were preserved for ten centuries1 and later handed back to a ,europe just awakening from the long intellectual night of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in #fdj ,a4,d4 ,alexandria was taken by the ,mohammedans1 and the university ceased to exist4 ,the great library was destroyed1 furnishing1 it is said1 fuel sufficient for four thousand public baths for a period of six months1 and ,greek learning was extinguished in the western world4 ,,our ,,debt ,,to ,,hellas4 ,as a political power the ,greek ,states left the world nothing of importance4 ,as a people they were too individualistic1 and seemed to have a strange inability to unite for political purposes4 ,to the new power slowly forming to the westward--,rome--was left the important task1 which the ,greek people were never able to accomplish1 of uniting civilization into one political whole4 ,the world conquest that ,greece made was intellectual4 ,as a result1 her contribution to civilization was artistic1 literary1 philosophical1 and scientific1 but not political4 ,the ,athenian ,greeks were a highly artistic and imaginative rather than a practical people4 ,they spent their energy on other matters than government and conquest4 ,as a result the world will be forever indebted to them for an art and a literature of incomparable beauty and richness which still charms mankind2 a philosophy which deeply influenced the early ,christian religion1 and has ever since tinged the thinking of the western world2 and for many important beginnings in scientific knowledge which were lost for ages to a world that had no interest in or use for science4 ,so deeply has our whole western civilization been tinctured by ,greek thought that one enthusiastic writer has exclaimed1--,except the blind forces of ,nature1 nothing moves in this world which is not ,greek in its origin4 #ad 7,r4 #aa7 ,in education proper the old ,athenian education offers us many lessons of importance that we of to-day may well heed4 ,in the emphasis they placed on moral worth1 education of the body as well as the mind1 and moderation in all things1 they were much ahead of us4 ,their schools became a type for the cities of the entire ,mediterranean world1 being found from the ,black ,sea south to the ,persian ,gulf and westward to ,spain4 ,when ,rome became a world empire the ,greek school system was adopted1 and in modified form became dominant in ,rome and throughout the provinces1 while the universities of the ,greek cities for long furnished the highest form of education for ambitious ,roman youths4 ,in this way ,greek influence was spread throughout the ,mediterranean world4 ,the higher learning of the ,greeks1 preserved first at ,athens and ,alexandria1 and later at ,constantinople1 was finally handed back to the western world at the time of the ,italian ,revival of ,learning1 after ,europe had in part recovered from the effects of the barbarian deluge which followed the downfall of ,rome4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,try to picture what might have been the result for western civilization had the small and newly-developed democratic civilization of ,greece been crushed by the ,persians at the time they overran the ,greek peninsula4 #b4 ,do periods of great political1 commercial1 and intellectual expansion usually subject old systems of morality and education to severe strain8 ,illustrate4 #c4 ,why was the change in the type of ,athenian education during the ,ephebic years a natural and even a necessary one for the new ,athens8 #d4 ,do you understand that the system of training before the ,ephebic years was also seriously changed1 or was the change largely a re-shaping and extension of the education of youths after sixteen8 #e4 ,were the ,sophists a good addition to the ,athenian instructing force1 or not8 ,why8 #f4 ,how may a ,state establish a corrective for such a flood of individualism as overwhelmed ,greece1 and still allow individual educational initiative and progress8 #g4 ,do we as a nation face danger from the flood of individualism we have encouraged in the past8 ,how is our problem like and unlike that of ,athens after the ,peloponnesian ,war8 #h4 ,what is the place in ,greek life and thought of the ideal treatises on education written by ,xenophon1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle1 after the flood of individualism had set in8 #i4 ,in what ways was the conquest of ,alexander good for world civilization8 #aj4 ,of what importance is it1 in the history of our western civilization1 that ,greek thought had so thoroughly permeated the eastern ,mediterranean world before ,roman armies conquered the region8 #aa4 ,picture for yourself the great intellectual advances of the ,greeks by contrasting the tribal preparedness-type of education of the early ,greek ,states and the learning possessed by the scholars of the ,university at ,alexandria4 #ab4 ,compare the spread of ,greek language and knowledge throughout the eastern ,mediterranean world1 following the conquests of ,alexander1 with the spread of the ,english language and ideas as to government throughout the modern world4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #g4 ,wilkins3 ,athens in the ,time of ,pericles4 #h4 ,isocrates3 ,the ,instruction of the ,sophists4 #i4 ,xenophon3 ,an ,example of ,socratic ,teaching4 #aj4 ,draper3 ,the ,schools of ,alexandria4 #aa4 ,butcher3 ,what we ,owe to ,greece4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,characterize the many educational influences of ,athens1 as pictured by ,wilkins 7#g74 #b4 ,were the evils of the ,sophist teachers1 which ,isocrates points out 7#h71 natural ones8 ,compare with teachers of vocal training to-day4 #c4 ,what would be necessary for the proper training of one for eloquence8 ,could any ,sophist teacher have trained anyone8 #d4 ,would it be possible to-day for any one city to become such a center of the world's intellectual life as did ,alexandria 7#aj78 ,why8 #e4 ,could the ,socratic method 7#i7 be applied to instruction in psychology1 ethics1 history1 and science equally well8 ,why8 ,to what class of subjects is the ,socratic quiz applicable8 #f4 ,how do you account for the fact that the wonderful promise of ,alexandrian science was not fulfilled8 #g4 ,state our debt to the ,greeks 7#aa74 ,,supplemental ,,references ,the most important references are indicated by an 99 99 ,bevan1 ,j4 ,o4 ,university ,life in ,olden ,time4 99 ,butcher1 ,s4 ,h4 ,some ,aspects of the ,greek ,genius4 99 ,davidson1 ,thos4 ,aristotle1 and ,ancient ,educational ,ideals4 99 ,freeman1 ,k4 ,j4 ,schools of ,hellas4 ,gulick1 ,c4 ,b4 ,the ,life of the ,ancient ,greeks4 99 ,kingsley1 ,chas4 ,alexandria and her ,schools4 ,laurie1 ,s4 ,s4 ,historical ,survey of ,pre-,christian ,education4 99 ,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p4 ,old ,greek ,education4 ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e4 ,history of ,classical ,scholarship1 vol4 ,i4 ,walden1 ,john ,w4 ,h4 ,the ,universities of ,ancient ,greece4 ,wilkins1 ,a4 ,s4 ,national ,education in ,greece in the ,fourth ,century1 ,b4,c4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,education ,,and ,,work ,,of ,,rome ,i4 ,,the ,,romans ,,and ,,their ,,mission ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,state4 ,about the time that the ,hellenes1 in the ,city-,states of the ,greek peninsula1 had brought their civilization to its ,golden ,age1 another branch of the great ,aryan race1 which had previously settled in the ,italian peninsula1 had begun the creation of a new civilization there which was destined to become extended and powerful4 ,at the beginning of recorded history we find a number of tribes of this branch of the ,aryan race settled in different parts of ,italy1 as is shown in ,figure #af4 ,slowly1 but gradually1 the smallest of these divisions1 the ,latins1 extended its rule over the other tribes1 and finally over the ,greek settlements to the south and the ,gauls to the north1 so that by #bja ,b4,c4 the entire ,italian peninsula had become subject to the ,city-,state government at ,rome4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,the ,,early ,,peoples ,,of ,,italy1 ,,and ,,the ,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,power ,in #eji ,b4,c4 ,attica opened her citizenship to all free inhabitants1 and half a century later the ,golden ,age of ,greece was in full swing4 ,by #cch ,b4,c4 ,greece's glory had departed4 ,philip of ,macedon had become master1 and its political freedom was over4 ,by #bfd ,b4,c4 the center of ,greek life and thought had been transferred to ,alexandria1 and ,rome's great expansion had begun4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,,the ,,principal ,,roman ,,roads ,by a wise policy of tolerance1 patience1 conciliation1 and assimilation the ,latins gradually became the masters of all ,italy4 ,unlike the ,greek ,city-,states1 ,rome seemed to possess a natural genius for the art of government4 ,upon the people she conquered she bestowed the great gift of ,roman citizenship1 and she attached them to her by granting local government to their towns and by interfering as little as possible with their local manners1 speech1 habits1 and institutions4 ,by founding colonies among them and by building excellent military roads to them1 she insured her rule1 and by kindly and generous treatment she bound the different ,italian peoples ever closer and closer to the central government at ,rome4 ,by a most wonderful understanding of the psychology of other peoples1 new in the world before the work of ,rome1 and not seen again until the work of the ,english in the nineteenth century1 ,rome gradually assimilated the peoples of the ,italian peninsula and in time amalgamated them into a single ,roman race4 ,in speech1 customs1 manners1 and finally in blood she ,romanized the different tribes and brought them under her leadership4 ,later this same process was extended to ,spain1 ,gaul1 and even to far-off ,britain4 ,a ,,concrete1 ,,practical ,,people4 ,the ,roman people were a concrete1 practical1 constructive nation of farmers and herdsmen 7,r4 #ad71 merchants and soldiers1 governors and executives4 ,the whole of the early struggle of the ,latins to extend their rule and absorb the other tribes of the peninsula called for practical rulers--warriors who were at the same time constructive statesmen and executives who possessed power and insight1 energy1 and personality4 ,the long struggle for political and social rights1 #a carried on by the common people 7plebeians7 with the ruling class 7patricians71 tended early to shape their government along rough but practical lines1 #b and to elevate law and orderly procedure among the people4 ,the later extension of the ,empire to include many distant lands--how vast the ,roman ,empire finally became may be seen from the map on the following page--called still more for a combination of force1 leadership1 tolerance1 patience1 executive power1 and insight into the psychology of subject people to hold such a vast empire together4 ,only a great1 creative people1 working along very practical lines1 could have used and used so well the opportunity which came to ,rome #c ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,,the ,,great ,,extent ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,the map shows the ,roman ,empire as it was by the end of the first century ,a4,d41 and the tribes shown beyond the frontier are as they were at the beginning of the fourth century ,a4,d4 ,it was #bejj miles1 air line1 from the eastern end of the ,black ,sea to the western coasts of ,spain1 #adjj miles from ,rome to ,palestine1 and #aajj miles from ,rome to northern ,britain4 ,to maintain order in this vast area ,rome depended on the loyalty of her subjects1 the strength of her armies1 her military roads1 and a messenger service by horse1 yet throughout this vast area she imposed her law and a unified government for centuries4 ,,the ,,great ,,mission ,,of ,,rome4 ,had ,rome tried to impose her rule and her ways and her mode of thought on her subject people1 and to reduce them to complete subjection to her1 as the modern ,german and ,austrian ,empires1 for example1 tried to do with the peoples who came under their control1 the ,roman ,empire could never have been created1 and what would have saved civilization from complete destruction during the period of the barbarian invasions is hard to see4 ,instead1 ,rome treated her subjects as her friends1 and not as conquered peoples2 led them to see that their interests were identical with hers2 gave them large local independence and freedom in government1 under her strong control of general affairs2 opened up her citizenship #d and the line of promotion in the ,state to her provincials2 #e and won them to the peace and good order which she everywhere imposed by the advantages she offered through a common language1 common law1 common coinage1 common commercial arrangements1 common state service1 and the common treatment of all citizens of every race4 #f ,in consequence1 the provincial was willingly absorbed into the common ,roman race #g--;absorbed in dress1 manners1 religion1 political and legal institutions1 family names1 and1 most important of all1 in language4 ,as a result1 race pride and the native tongues very largely disappeared1 and ,latin became the spoken language of all except the lower classes throughout the whole of the ,western ,empire4 ,only in the eastern ,mediterranean1 where the ,hellenic tongue and the ,hellenic civilization still dominated1 did the ,latin language make but little headway1 and here ,rome had the good sense not to try to impose her speech or her culture4 ,instead she absorbed the culture of the ,east1 while the ,east accepted in return the ,roman government and ,roman law1 and ,latin in time became the language of the courts and of government4 ,having stated thus briefly the most prominent characteristics of the ,roman people1 and indicated their great work for civilization1 let us turn back and trace the development of such educational system as existed among them1 see in what it consisted1 how it modified the life and habits of thinking of the ,roman people1 and what educational organization or traditions ,rome passed on to western civilization4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,home ,,education ,,the ,,early ,,romans ,,and ,,their ,,training4 ,in the early history of the ,romans there were no schools1 and it was not until about #cjj ,b4,c4 that even primary schools began to develop4 ,what education was needed was imparted in the home or in the field and in the camp1 and was of a very simple type4 ,certain virtues were demanded--modesty1 firmness1 prudence1 piety1 courage1 seriousness1 and regard for duty--and these were instilled both by precept and example4 ,each home was a center of the religious life1 and of civic virtue and authority4 ,in it the father was a high priest1 with power of life and death over wife and children4 ,he alone conversed with the gods and prepared the sacrifices4 ,the wife and mother1 however1 held a high place in the home and in the training of the children1 the marriage tie being regarded as very sacred4 ,she also occupied a respected position in society1 and was complete mistress of the house 7,r4 #ag74 ,the religion of the city was an outgrowth of that of the home4 ,virtue1 courage1 duty1 justice--these became the great civic virtues4 ,their religion1 both family and state1 lacked the beauty and stately ceremonial of the ,greeks1 lacked that lofty faith and aspiration after virtue that characterized the ,hebrew and the later ,christian faith1 was singularly wanting in awe and mystery1 and was formal and mechanical and practical #h in character1 but it exercised a great influence on these early peoples and on their conceptions of their duty to the ,state4 ,the father trained the son for the practical duties of a man and a citizen2 the mother trained the daughter to become a good housekeeper1 wife1 and mother4 ,morality1 character1 obedience to parents and to the ,state1 and whole-hearted service were emphasized4 ,the boy's father taught him to read1 write1 and count4 ,stories of those who had done great deeds for the ,state were told1 and martial songs were learned and sung4 ,after #dej ,b4,c4 every boy had to learn the ,laws of the ,twelve ,tables 7,r4 #ab71 and be able to explain their meaning 7,r4 #ac74 ,as the boy grew older he followed his father in the fields and in the public place and listened to the conversation of men4 #i ,if the son of a patrician he naturally learned much more from his father1 by reason of his larger knowledge and larger contact with men of affairs and public business1 than if he were the son of a plebeian4 ,through games as a boy1 and later in the exercises of the fields and the camps1 the boy gained what physical training he received4 #aj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,a ,,roman ,,father ,,instructing ,,his ,,son 7,from a ,roman ,sarcophagus7 ,,education ,,by ,,doing4 ,it was largely an education by doing1 as was that of the old ,greek period1 though entirely different in character4 ,either by apprenticeship to the soldier1 farmer1 or statesman1 or by participation in the activities of a citizen1 was the training needed imparted4 ,its purpose was to produce good fathers1 citizens1 and soldiers4 #aa ,its ideals were found in the real and practical needs of a small ,state1 where the ability to care for one's self was a necessary virtue4 ,to be healthy and strong1 to reverence the gods and the institutions of the ,state1 to obey his parents and the laws1 to be proud of his family connections and his ancestors1 to be brave and efficient in war1 to know how to farm or to manage a business1 were the aims and ends of this early training4 ,it produced a nation of citizens who willingly subordinated themselves to the interests of the ,state1 #ab a nation of warriors who brought all ,italy under their rule1 a calculating1 practical people who believed themselves destined to become the conquerors and rulers of the world1 and a reserved and proud race1 trained to govern and to do business1 but not possessed of lofty ideals or large enthusiasms in life 7,rs4 #ae1 #af74 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,transition ,,to ,,school ,,education ,,beginnings ,,of ,,school ,,education4 ,up to about #cjj ,b4,c4 education had been entirely in the home1 and in the activities of the fields and the ,state4 ,it was a period of personal valor and stern civic virtue1 in a rather primitive type of society1 as yet but little in contact with the outside world1 and little need of any other type of training had been felt4 ,by the end of the third century ,b4,c41 the influence of contact with the ,greek cities of southern ,italy and ,sicily 7,magna ,graecia71 and the influence of the extensive conquests of ,alexander the ,great in the eastern ,mediterranean 7#ccd-cbc ,b4,c471 had begun to be felt in ,italy4 ,by that time ,greek had become the language of commerce and diplomacy throughout the ,mediterranean1 and ,greek scholars and tradesmen had begun to frequent ,rome4 ,by #cjc ,b4,c4 it seems certain that a few private teachers had set up primary schools at ,rome to supplement the home training1 and had begun the introduction of the pedagogue as a fashionable adjunct to attract attention to their schools4 ,these schools1 however1 were only a fad at first1 and were patronized only by a few of the wealthy citizens4 ,up to about #bej ,b4,c41 at least1 ,roman education remained substantially as it had been in the preceding centuries4 ,reading1 writing1 declamation1 chanting1 and the ,laws of the ,twelve ,tables still constituted the subject-matter of instruction1 and the old virtues continued to be emphasized4 ,by the middle of the third century ,b4,c4 ,rome had expanded its rule to include nearly all the ,italian peninsula 7see ,figure #af71 and was transforming itself politically from a little rural ,city-,state into an ,empire1 with large world relationships4 ,a knowledge of ,greek now came to be demanded both for diplomatic and for business reasons1 and the need of a larger culture1 to correspond with the increased importance of the ,state1 began to be felt by the wealthier and better-educated classes4 ,greek scholars1 brought in as captured slaves from the ,greek colonies of southern ,italy1 soon began to be extensively employed as teachers and as secretaries4 ,about #bcc ,b4,c41 ,livius ,andronicus1 who had been brought to ,rome as a slave when ,tarentum1 one of the ,greek cities of southern ,italy1 was captured1 #ac and who later had obtained his freedom1 made a translation of the ,odyssey into ,latin1 and became a teacher of ,latin and ,greek at ,rome4 ,this had a wonderful effect in developing schools and a literary atmosphere at ,rome4 ,the ,odyssey at once became the great school textbook1 in time supplanting the ,twelve ,tables1 and literary and school education now rapidly developed4 ,the ,latin language became crystallized in form1 and other ,greek works were soon translated4 ,the beginnings of a native ,latin literature were now made4 ,greek higher schools were opened1 many ,greek teachers and slaves offered instruction1 and the ,hellenic scheme of culture1 as it had previously developed in ,attica1 soon became the fashion at ,rome4 ,,changes ,,in ,,national ,,ideals4 ,the second century ,b4,c4 was even more a period of rapid change in all phases and aspects of ,roman life4 ,during this century ,rome became a world empire1 annexing ,spain1 ,carthage1 ,illyria1 and ,greece1 and during the century that followed she subjugated northern ,africa1 ,egypt1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,gaul to the ,elbe and the ,danube 7see ,figure #ah74 ,rome soon became mistress of the whole ,mediterranean world4 ,her ships plied the seas1 her armies and governors ruled the land4 ,the introduction of wealth1 luxuries1 and slaves from the new provinces1 which followed their capture1 soon had a very demoralizing influence upon the people4 ,private and public religion and morality rapidly declined2 religion came to be an empty ceremonial2 divorce became common2 wealth and influence ruled the ,state2 slaves became very cheap and abundant1 and were used for almost every type of service4 ,from a land of farmers of small farms1 sturdy and self-supporting1 who lived simply1 reared large families1 feared the gods1 respected the ,state1 and made an honest living1 it became a land of great estates and wealthy men1 and the self-respecting peasantry were transformed into soldiers for foreign wars1 or joined the rabble in the streets of ,rome4 #ad ,wealth became the great desideratum1 and the great avenue to this was through the public service1 either as army commanders and governors1 or as public men who could sway the multitude and command votes and influence4 ,manifestly the old type of education was not intended to meet such needs1 and now in ,rome1 as previously in ,athens1 a complete transformation in the system of training for the young took place4 ,the imaginative and creative ,athenians1 when confronted by a great change in national ideals1 evolved a new type of education adapted to the new needs of the time2 the unimaginative and practical ,romans merely adopted that which the ,athenians had created4 ,,the ,,hellenization ,,of ,,rome4 ,the result was the ,hellenization of the intellectual life of ,rome1 making complete the ,hellenization of the ,mediterranean world4 ,after the fall of ,greece1 in #adf ,b4,c41 a great influx of educated ,greeks took place4 ,as the ,latin poet ,horace expressed it3 ,captive ,greece took captive her rude conqueror1 ,and brought the arts to ,latium4 ,so completely did the ,greek educational system seem to meet the needs of the changed ,roman ,state that at first the ,greek schools were adopted bodily--,greek language1 pedagogue1 higher schools of rhetoric and philosophy1 and all--and the schools were in reality ,greek schools but slightly modified to meet the needs of ,rome4 ,gymnasia were erected1 and wealthy ,romans1 as well as youths1 began to spend their leisure in studying ,greek and in trying to learn gymnastic exercises4 ,in time the national pride and practical sense of the ,romans led them to open so-called culture schools of their own1 modeled after the ,greek4 ,the ,latin language then replaced the ,greek as the vehicle of instruction1 though ,greek was still studied extensively1 and ,rome began the development of a system of private-school instruction possessing some elements that were native to ,roman life and ,roman needs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,cato ,,the ,,elder 7#bcd-adi ,b4,c47 ,,struggle ,,against1 ,,and ,,final ,,victory4 ,that this great change in national ideals and in educational practice was accepted without protest should not be imagined4 ,plutarch and other writers appealed to the family as the center for all true education4 ,cato the elder1 who died in #adi ,b4,c41 labored hard to stem the ,hellenic tide4 ,he wrote the first ,roman book on education1 in part to show what education a good citizen needed as an orator1 husbandman1 jurist1 and warrior1 and in part as a protest against ,hellenic innovations4 ,in #afg ,b4,c41 the first library was founded in ,rome1 with books brought from ,greece by the conqueror ,paulus ,emilius4 ,in #afa ,b4,c41 the ,roman ,senate directed the ,praetor to see that no philosophers or rhetoricians be suffered in ,rome 7,r4 #bj a71 but the edict could not be enforced4 ,in #ib ,b4,c41 the ,censors issued an edict expressing their disapproval of such schools 7,r4 #bj b74 ,by #ajj ,b4,c41 the ,hellenic victory was complete1 and the ,graeco-,roman school system had taken form4 ,in #bg ,b4,c41 ,rome ceased to be a ,republic and became an ,empire1 and under the ,emperors the professors of the new learning were encouraged and protected1 higher schools were established in the provinces1 literature and philosophy were opened as possible careers1 and the ,greek language1 literature1 and learning were spread1 under ,roman imperial protection1 to every corner of the then civilized world4 ,this victory of ,hellenic thought and learning at ,rome1 viewed in the light of the future history of the civilization of the world1 was an event of large importance4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,as ,,finally ,,established ,,the ,,ludus1 ,,or ,,primary ,,school4 ,the elementary school1 known as the ludus1 or ludus literarum1 the teacher of which was known as a ludi magister1 was the beginning or primary school of the scheme as finally evolved4 ,this corresponded to the school of the ,athenian grammatist1 and like it the instruction consisted of reading1 writing1 and counting4 ,these schools were open to both sexes1 but were chiefly frequented by boys4 ,they were entered at the age of seven1 sometimes six1 and covered the period up to twelve4 ,reading and writing were taught by much the same methods as in the ,greek schools1 and approximately the same writing materials were used4 ,something of the same difficulty was experienced also in mastering the reading art 7,r4 #ba74 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 a ,greek historian who lived in ,rome for twenty-two years1 during the first century ,b4,c41 has left us a clear description of the ,roman method of teaching reading3 ,when we learned to read was it not necessary at first to know the name of the letters1 their shape1 their value in syllables1 their differences1 then the words and their case1 their quantity long or short1 their accent1 and the rest8 ,arrived at this point we began to read and write1 slowly at first and syllable by syllable4 ,some time afterwards1 the forms being sufficiently engraved on our memory1 we read more cursorily1 in the elementary book1 then in all sorts of books1 finally with incredible quickness and without making any mistake4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,,roman ,,writing-,,materials4 ,inkstand1 pen1 letter1 box of manuscripts1 wax tablets1 stylus4 ,writing seems rather to have followed reading1 and1 as in the ,greek schools1 the pupils copied down from dictation and made their own books 7dictata74 ,literature received no such emphasis in the elementary schools of ,rome as in those of the ,greeks1 and the palaestra of the ,greeks was not reproduced at ,rome4 ,due in part to the practical character of the ,roman people1 to the established habit of keeping careful household accounts1 to the difficulties of their system of calculation1 #ae to the practice of finger reckoning1 and to the vast commercial and financial interests that the ,romans formed throughout the world which they conquered1 arithmetic became a subject of fundamental importance in their schools1 and much time was given to securing perfection in calculation and finger reckoning4 #af ,hence it occupied a place of large importance in the primary school4 ,an abacus or counting-board was used1 similar to the one shown in ,figure #bb1 and ,horace mentions a bag of stones 7calculi7 as a part of a schoolboy's equipment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,a ,,roman ,,counting-,,board4 ,pebbles were used1 those nearest the numbered dividing partition being counted4 ,each pebble above when moved downward counted five of those in the same division below4 ,the board now shows #h1gfj1bed4 ,,the ,,ludi ,,magister4 ,the ludi magister at ,rome held a position even less enviable than that held by the grammatist at ,athens4 ,the starveling ,greek1 who was glad to barter his knowledge for the certainty of a good dinner1 was sneered at by many ,roman writers4 ,many slaves were engaged in this type of instruction1 bringing in fees for their owners4 ,it was not regarded as of importance that the teachers of these schools be of high grade4 ,the establishment of and attendance at these primary schools was wholly voluntary1 and the children in them probably represented but a small percentage of those of school age in the total population4 ,these schools became quite common in the ,italian cities1 and in time were found in the provincial cities of the ,empire as well4 ,they remained1 however1 entirely private-adventure undertakings1 the ,state doing nothing toward encouraging their establishment1 supervising the instruction in them1 or requiring attendance at them4 ,they were in no sense free schools1 nor were the prices for instruction fixed1 as in our private schools of to-day4 ,instead1 the pupil made a present to the master1 usually at some understood rate1 though some masters left the size of the fee to the liberality of their pupils4 #ag ,the pedagogue1 copied from ,greece1 was nearly always an old or infirm slave of the family4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,a ,,roman ,,primary ,,school7,ludus7 7,from a fresco found at ,herculaneum74 ,this shows a school held in a portico of a house4 ,the schools were held anywhere--in a portico 7see ,figure #bc71 in a shed or booth in front of a house1 in a store1 or in a recessed corner shut in by curtains4 ,a chair for the master1 benches for the pupils1 an outer room for cloaks and for the pedagogues to wait in1 and a bundle of rods 7ferula7 constituted the necessary equipment4 ,the pupils brought with them boxes containing writing-materials1 book-rolls1 and reckoning-stones4 ,schools began early in the morning1 pupils in winter going with lanterns to their tasks4 ,there was much flogging of children1 and in ,martial we find an angry epigram which he addressed to a schoolmaster who disturbed his sleep 7,r4 #bc a74 ,,the ,,secondary ,,schools4 ,secondary or ,latin grammar schools1 under a grammaticus1 and covering instruction from the age of twelve to sixteen1 had become clearly differentiated from the primary schools under a ludi magister by the time of the death of ,cato1 #adi ,b4,c4 ,at first this higher instruction began in the form of private tutors1 probably in the homes of the wealthy1 and ,greek was the language taught4 ,by the beginning of the first century ,b4,c41 however1 ,latin secondary schools began to arise1 and in time these too spread to all the important cities of the ,empire4 ,attendance at them was wholly voluntary1 and was confined entirely to the children of the well-to-do classes4 ,the teachers were ,greeks1 or ,latins who had been trained by the ,greeks4 ,each teacher taught as he wished1 but the schools throughout the ,empire came to be much the same in character4 ,the course of study consisted chiefly of instruction in grammar and literature1 the purpose being to secure such a mastery of the ,latin language and ,greek and ,latin literatures as might be most helpful in giving that broader culture now recognized as the mark of an educated man1 and in preparing the young ,roman to take up the life of an orator and public official 7,r4 #bd74 ,both ,greek and ,latin secondary schools were in existence1 and ,quintilian1 the foremost ,roman writer on educational practice1 recommends attendance at the ,greek school first4 ,grammar was studied first1 and was intended to develop correctness in the use of speech4 ,with its careful study of words1 phonetic changes1 drill on inflections1 and practice in composing and paragraphing1 this made a strong appeal to the practical ,roman and became a favorite study4 ,literature followed1 and was intended to develop an appreciation for literary style1 elevate thought1 expand one's knowledge1 and1 by memorization and repetition1 to train the powers of expression4 ,the method practiced was much as follows3 ,the selection was carefully read first by the teacher1 and then by the pupils4 #ah ,after the reading the selection was gone over again and the historical1 geographical1 and mythological allusions were carefully explained by the teacher4 #ai ,the text was next critically examined1 to point out where and how it might be improved and its expressions strengthened1 and much paraphrasing of it was engaged in4 ,finally the study of the selection was rounded out by a judgment--that is1 a critical estimate of the work1 a characterization of the author's style1 and a resume of his chief merits and defects4 ,the foundations were here laid for ,grammar and ,rhetoric as the great studies of the ,middle ,ages4 ,homer and ,menander were the favorite authors in ,greek1 and ,vergil1 ,horace1 ,sallust1 and ,livy in ,latin1 with much use of ,aesop's ,fables for work in composition4 ,the pupils made their own books from dictation1 though in later years educated slave labor became so cheap that the copying and sale of books was organized into a business at ,rome1 and it was possible for the children of wealthy parents to own their own books4 ,grammar1 composition1 elocution1 ethics1 history1 mythology1 and geography were all comprehended in the instruction in grammar and literature in the secondary schools4 ,a little music was added at times1 to help the pupil intone his reading and declamation4 ,a little geometry and astronomy were also included1 for their practical applications4 ,the athletic exercises of the ,greeks were rejected1 as contributing to immorality and being a waste of time and strength4 ,in a sense these schools were finishing schools for ,roman youths who went to any school at all1 much as are our high schools of to-day for the great bulk of ,american children4 ,the schools were better housed than those of the ludi1 and the masters were of a better quality and received larger fees4 ,like the elementary schools1 the ,state exercised no supervision or control over these schools or the teachers or pupils in them4 ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,rhetoric4 ,up to this point the schools established had been for practical and useful information 7the primary schools7 or cultural 7the grammar or secondary schools74 ,on top of these a higher and professional type of school was next developed1 to train youths in rhetoric and oratory1 preparatory to the great professions of law and public life at ,rome4 #bj ,these schools were direct descendants of the ,greek rhetorical schools1 which evolved from the schools of the ,sophists4 ,suetonius #ba tells us that3 ,rhetoric1 also1 as well as grammar1 was not introduced amongst us till a late period1 and with still more difficulty1 inasmuch as we find that1 at times1 the practice of it was even prohibited4 #bb 444 ,however1 by slow degrees1 rhetoric manifested itself to be a useful and honorable study1 and many persons devoted themselves to it both as a means of defense and of acquiring a reputation4 ,in consequence1 public favor was so much attracted to the study of rhetoric that a vast number of professional and learned men devoted themselves to it2 and it flourished to such a degree that some of them raised themselves by it to the rank of senators and to the highest offices4 ,these schools1 the teachers of which were known as rhetors1 furnished a type of education representing a sort of collegiate education for the period4 ,they were oratorical in purpose1 because the orator had become the ,roman ideal of a well-educated man 7,r4 #bd74 ,during the life of the ,republic the orator found many opportunities for the constructive use of his ability1 and all young men ambitious to enter law or politics found the training of these schools a necessary prerequisite4 ,they were attended for two or three years by boys over sixteen1 but only the wealthier and more aristocratic families could afford to send their boys to them4 ,in addition to oratorical and some legal training1 these schools included a further linguistic and literary training1 some mathematical and scientific knowledge1 and even some philosophy4 ,the famous ,seven ,liberal ,arts of the ,middle ,ages--,grammar1 ,rhetoric1 and ,dialectic2 ,music1 ,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 and ,astronomy--all seem to have been included in the instruction of these schools4 #bc ,the great studies1 though1 were the first three and some ,law1 ,music being studied largely to help with gestures and to train the voice1 ,geometry to aid in settling lawsuits relating to land1 ,dialectic 7logic7 to aid in detecting fallacies1 and ,astronomy to understand the movements of the heavenly bodies and the references of literary writers4 #bd ,there was much work in debate and in the declamation of ethical and political material the fine distinctions in ,roman ,law and ,ethics were brought out1 #be and there was much drill in preparing and delivering speeches and much attention given to the factors involved in the preparation and delivery of a successful oration 7,r4 #be74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,a ,,roman ,,school ,,of ,,rhetoric4 ,this picture1 which has been drawn from a description1 shows a much better type of school than that of the ludi4 ,these schools became very popular as institutions of higher learning1 and continued so even after the later ,emperors1 by seizing the power of the ,state1 had taken away the inspiration that comes from a love of freedom and had thus deprived the rhetorical art of practical value4 ,the work of the schools then became highly stilted and artificial in character1 and oratory then came to be cultivated largely as a fine art4 #bf ,men educated in these schools came to boast that they could speak with equal effectiveness on either side of any question1 and the art came to depend on the use of many and big words and on the manners of the stage4 ,such ideals naturally destroyed the value of these schools1 and stopped intellectual progress so far as they contributed to it4 ,much was done by the later ,emperors to encourage these schools1 and they too came to exist in almost every provincial city in the ,empire4 ,often they were supported by the cities in which they were located4 ,the ,emperor ,vespasian1 about #ge ,a4,d4 began the practice of paying1 from the ,imperial ,treasury1 the salaries of grammarians and rhetoricians #bg at ,rome4 ,antoninus ,pius1 who ruled as ,emperor from #ach to #afa ,a4,d41 extended payment to the provinces1 gave to these teachers the privileges of the senatorial class1 and a certain number in each city were exempted from payment of taxes1 support of soldiers1 and obligations to military service4 ,other ,emperors extended these special privileges 7,r4 #bf7 which became the basis for the special rights afterwards granted to the ,christian clergy 7,r4 #ch7 and1 still later1 to teachers in the universities 7,rs4 #aja-jd74 ,,university ,,learning4 ,roman youths desiring still further training could now journey to the eastward and attend the ,greek universities 7see ,figure #ad74 ,a few did so1 much as ,american students in the middle of the nineteenth century went to ,germany for higher study4 ,athens and ,rhodes were most favored4 ,brutus1 ,horace1 and ,cicero1 among others1 studied at ,athens2 ,caesar1 ,cicero1 and ,cassius at ,rhodes4 ,later ,alexandria was in favor4 ,in a library founded in the ,temple of ,peace by ,vespasian 7ruled #fi to #gi ,a4,d47 the ,university at ,rome had its origin1 and in time this developed into an institution with professors in law1 medicine1 architecture1 mathematics and mechanics1 and grammar and rhetoric in both the ,latin and ,greek languages4 ,in this many youths from provincial cities came to study4 ,the lines of instruction represented nothing1 however1 in the way of scientific investigation or creative thought2 the instruction was formal and dogmatic1 being largely a further elaboration of what had previously been well done by the ,greeks4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,educational ,,system ,,developed4 ,such was the educational system which was finally evolved to meet the new cultural needs of the ,roman ,empire4 ,in all its foundation elements it was ,greek4 ,having borrowed--conquered one might almost say--,greek religion1 philosophy1 literature1 and learning1 the ,romans naturally borrowed also the school system that had been evolved to impart this culture4 ,never before or since has any people adapted so completely to their own needs the system of educational training evolved by another4 ,to the ,greek basis some distinctively ,roman elements were added to adapt it better to the peculiar needs of their own people1 while on the other hand many of the finer ,greek characteristics were omitted entirely4 ,having once adopted the ,greek plan1 the constructive ,roman mind organized it into a system superior to the original1 but in so doing formalized it more than the ,greeks had ever done 7,r4 #ai74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,the ,,roman ,,voluntary ,,educational ,,system1 ,,as ,,finally ,,evolved ,that the system afforded an opportunity to wealthy ,romans to obtain for their children some understanding and appreciation of the culture of the ,greek world with which their ,empire was now in contact1 and answered fairly well the preparatory needs along political and governmental lines of those ,romans who could afford to educate their boys for such careers1 can hardly be doubted 7,r4 #bb74 ,roman writers on education1 especially ,cicero 7,r4 #bd7 and ,quintilian 7,r4 #be71 give us abundant testimony as to the value and usefulness of the system evolved in the training of orators and men for the public service4 ,in the provinces1 too1 we know that the schools were very useful in inculcating ,roman traditions and in helping the ,romans to assimilate the sons of local princes and leaders4 #bh ,during the days of the ,republic the schools were naturally more useful than after the establishment of the ,empire1 and especially after the later ,emperors had stamped out many of the political and civic liberties for the enjoyment of which the schools prepared4 ,on the other hand1 the schools reached but a small1 selected class of youths1 trained for only the political career1 and cannot be considered as ever having been general or as having educated any more than a small percentage of the future citizens of the ,state4 ,many of the important lines of activity in which the ,romans engaged1 and which to-day are regarded as monuments to their constructive skill and practical genius1 such as architectural achievements1 the building of roads and aqueducts1 the many skilled trades1 and the large commercial undertakings1 these schools did nothing to prepare youths for4 ,the ,state1 unlike ,athens1 never required education of any one1 did not make what was offered a preparation for citizenship1 and made no attempt to regulate either teachers or instruction until late in the history of the ,empire4 ,education at ,rome was from the first purely a private- adventure affair1 most nearly analogous with us to instruction in music and dancing4 ,those who found the education offered of any value could take it and pay for it2 those who did not could let it alone4 ,a few did the former1 the great mass of the ,romans the latter4 ,for the great slave class that developed at ,rome there was1 of course1 no education at all4 ,,results ,,on ,,roman ,,life ,,and ,,government4 ,still1 out of this private and tuition system of schools many capable political leaders and executives came--men who exercised great influence on the history of the ,state1 fought out her political battles1 organized and directed her government at home and in the provinces1 and helped build up that great scheme of government and law and order which was ,rome's most significant contribution to future civilization4 #bi ,it was in this direction1 and in practical and constructive work along engineering and architectural lines1 that ,rome excelled4 ,the ,roman genius for government and law and order and constructive undertakings must be classed1 in importance for the future of civilization in the world1 along with the ability of ,greece in literature and philosophy and art4 ,if1 says ,professor ,adams1 as is sometimes said1 that in the course of history there is no literature which rivals the ,greek except the ,english1 it is perhaps even more true that the ,anglo- ,saxon is the only race which can be placed beside the ,romans in creative power and in politics4 ,the conquest of the known world by this practical and constructive people could not have otherwise than decisively influenced the whole course of human history1 and1 coming at the time in world affairs that it did1 the influence on all future civilization of the work of ,rome has been profound4 ,the great political fact which dominated all the ,middle ,ages1 and shaped the religion and government and civilization of the time1 was the fact that the ,roman ,empire had been and had done its work so well4 ,v4 ,,rome',s ,,contribution ,,to ,,civilization ,,greece ,,and ,,rome ,,contrasted4 ,the contrast between the ,greeks and the ,romans is marked in almost every particular4 ,the ,greeks were an imaginative1 subjective1 artistic1 and idealistic people1 with little administrative ability and few practical tendencies4 ,the ,romans1 on the other hand1 were an unimaginative1 concrete1 practical1 and constructive nation4 ,greece made its great contribution to world civilization in literature and philosophy and art2 ,rome in law and order and government4 ,the ,greeks lived a life of aesthetic enjoyment of the beautiful in nature and art1 and their basis for estimating the worth of a thing was intellectual and artistic2 to the ,romans the aesthetic and the beautiful made little appeal1 and their basis for estimating the worth of a thing was utilitarian4 ,the ,greeks worshiped the beautiful and the good1 and tried to enjoy life rationally and nobly1 while the ,romans worshiped force and effectiveness1 and lived by rule and authority4 ,the ,greeks thought in personal terms of government and virtue and happiness1 while the ,romans thought in general terms of law and duty1 and their happiness was rather in present denial for future gain than in any immediate enjoyment4 ,as a result the ,romans developed no great scholarly or literary atmosphere1 as the ,greeks had done at ,athens1 ,they built up no great speculative philosophies1 and framed no great theories of government4 ,even their literature was1 in part1 an imitation of the ,greek1 though possessing many elements of native strength and beauty4 ,they were a people who knew how to accomplish results rather than to speculate about means and ends4 ,usefulness and effectiveness were with them the criteria of the worth of any idea or project4 ,they subdued and annexed an empire1 they gave law and order to a primitive world1 they civilized and ,romanized barbarian tribes1 they built roads connecting all parts of their ,empire that were the best the world had ever known1 their aqueducts and bridges were wonders of engineering skill1 their public buildings and monuments still excite admiration and envy1 in many of the skilled trades they developed tools and processes of large future usefulness1 and their agriculture was the best the world had known up to that time4 ,they were strong where the ,greeks were weak1 and weak where the ,greeks were strong4 ,by reason of this difference the two peoples supplemented one another well in the work of laying the foundations upon which our modern civilization has been built4 ,greece created the intellectual and aesthetic ideals and the culture for our life1 while ,rome developed the political institutions under which ideals may be realized and culture may be enjoyed4 ,from the ,greeks and ,hebrews our modern life has drawn its great inspirations and its ideals for life1 while from the ,romans we have derived our ideals as to government and obedience to law4 ,one may say that the ,romans as a people specialized in government1 law1 order1 and constructive practical undertakings1 and bequeathed to posterity a wonderful inheritance in governmental forms1 legal codes1 commercial processes1 and engineering undertakings1 while the ,greeks left to us a philosophy1 literature1 art1 and a world culture which the civilized world will never cease to enjoy4 ,the ,greeks were an imaginative1 impulsive1 and a joyous people2 the ,romans sedate1 severe1 and superior to the ,greeks in persistence and moral force4 ,the ,greeks were ever young2 the ,romans were always grown and serious men4 ,,rome',s ,,great ,,contribution4 ,rome's great contribution1 then1 was along the lines just indicated4 ,to this1 the school system which became established in the ,roman ,state contributed only indirectly and but little4 ,the unification of the ancient world into one ,empire1 with a common body of traditions1 practices1 coinage1 speech1 and law1 which made the triumph of ,christianity possible2 the formulation of a body of law #cj which barbarian tribes accepted1 which was studied throughout the ,middle ,ages1 which formed the basis of the legal system of the mediaeval ,church1 and which has largely influenced modern practice2 the development of a language from which many modern tongues have been derived1 and which has modified all western languages2 and the perfection of an alphabet which has become the common property of all nations whose civilization has been derived from the ,greek and ,roman--these constitute the chief contributions of ,rome to modern civilization4 ,roman city government1 too1 had been established throughout all the provincial cities1 and this remained after the ,empire had passed away4 ,the municipal corporation1 with its charter of rights1 has ever since been a fixed idea in the western world4 ,roman law1 organized into a compact code1 and studied in the law schools of the ,middle ,ages1 has modified our modern ideas and practices to a degree we scarcely realize4 ,it was accepted by the ,german rulers as a permanent thing after they had overrun the ,empire1 and it remained as the law of the courts wherever ,roman subjects were tried4 ,preserved and codified at ,constantinople under ,justinian in the sixth century1 and re-introduced into western ,europe when the study of law was revived in the newly founded universities in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 ,roman law has greatly modified all modern legal practices and has become the basis of the legal systems of a number of modern states4 #ca ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,origin ,,of ,,our ,,alphabet ,the ,german type1 like the so-called ,old ,english 7see ,fig4 #de71 illustrates the corruption of letter forms through the copying of manuscripts during the ,middle ,ages4 ,of all the ,roman contributions to modern civilization perhaps the one that most completely permeates all our modern life is their alphabet and speech4 ,figure #bf shows how our modern alphabet goes back to the old ,roman1 which they obtained from the ,greek colonies in southern ,italy1 and which the ,greeks obtained from the still earlier ,phoenicians4 ,this alphabet has become the common property of almost all the civilized world4 #cb ,in speech1 the ,french1 ,spanish1 ,portuguese1 and ,italian tongues go back directly to the ,latin1 and these are the tongues of ,mexico and ,south ,america as well4 ,the ,english language1 which is spoken throughout a large part of the civilized world1 and by one third of its inhabitants1 has also received so many additions from ,romanic sources that we to-day scarcely utter a sentence without using some word once used by the citizens of ancient ,rome4 ,among the smaller but nevertheless important contributions which we owe to ,rome1 and which were passed on to mediaeval and modern ,europe1 should be mentioned certain practical knowledge in agriculture and the mechanic arts2 many inventions and acquired skills in the arts and trades2 an organized sea and land trade and commerce2 cleared and improved lands1 good houses1 roads and bridges2 great architectural and engineering remains1 scattered all through the provinces2 the beginnings of the transformation of the slave into the serf1 from which the great body of freemen of modern ,europe later were evolved2 and certain educational conceptions and practices which later profoundly influenced educational methods and procedure4 ,how large these contributions were we shall appreciate better as we proceed with our history4 ,of the negative contributions1 the most dangerous has been the idea of the rule of one imperial government1 which has inspired the autocratic governments of modern ,europe to try to imitate the world-wide rule of ,imperial ,rome4 ,,the ,,way ,,paved ,,for ,,christianity4 ,it was the great civilizing and unifying work of the ,roman ,state that paved the way for the next great contribution to the foundations of the structure of our modern civilization--the contribution of ,christianity4 ,had ,italy never been consolidated2 had the barbarian tribes to the north never been conquered and ,romanized2 had ,spain and ,africa and the eastern ,mediterranean never known the rule of ,rome2 had the ,latin language never become the speech of the then civilized peoples2 had ,roman armies never imposed law and order throughout an unruly world2 had ,roman governors and courts never established common rights and security2 had ,roman municipal government never come to be the common type in the cities of the provinces2 had ,roman schools in the provincial cities never trained the foreign citizen in ,roman ways and to think ,roman thoughts2 had ,rome never established free trade and intercourse throughout her ,empire2 had ,rome never developed processes and skills in agriculture and the creative arts2 had there been no ,roman roads and common coinage2 and had ,rome not done dozens of other important things to unify and civilize ,europe and reduce it to law and order1 it is hard to imagine the chaos that would have resulted when the ,empire gave way to the barbarian hordes which finally overwhelmed it4 ,where we should have been to-day in the upward march of civilization1 without the work of ,rome1 it is impossible to say4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,contrast the ,romans as a colonizing power with the modern ,germans4 ,the ,english4 ,the ,french4 #b4 ,at what period in our national development did home education with us occupy substantially the same place as it did in ,rome before #cjj ,b4,c48 ,in what respects was the education given boys and girls similar8 ,different8 #c4 ,what was the most marked advance over the ,greeks in the early ,roman training8 #d4 ,contrast the education of the ,athenian1 ,spartan1 and ,roman boy1 during the early period in each ,state4 #e4 ,to what extent does early ,roman education indicate the importance of the parent and of study of biography in the education of the young8 #f4 ,was the change in character of the education of ,roman youths1 after the expansion of the ,roman ,state and the establishment of world contacts1 preventable1 or was it a necessary evolution8 ,why8 ,have we ever experienced similar changes8 #g4 ,as a ,state increases in importance and enlarges its world contacts1 is a correspondingly longer training and enlarged culture necessary at home8 #h4 ,what idea do you get as to the extent to which the ,latinized ,odyssey was read from the fact that the ,latin language was crystallized in form shortly after the translation was made8 #i4 ,what does the rapid adoption of the ,greek educational system1 and the later evolution of a native educational system out of it1 indicate as to the nature of ,roman expansion8 #aj4 ,was the introduction of the ,greek pedagogue as a fashionable adjunct natural8 ,why8 #aa4 ,why is a period of very rapid expansion in a ,state likely to be demoralizing8 ,how may the demoralization incident to such expansion be anticipated and minimized8 #ab4 ,why does the coming of large landed estates introduce important social problems8 ,have we the beginnings of a social problem of this type8 ,what correctives have we that ,rome did not have8 #ac4 ,state the economic changes which hastened the introduction of a new type of higher training at ,rome4 #ad4 ,was the ,hellenization of ,rome which ensued a good thing8 ,why8 #ae4 ,how do you account for ,rome not developing a state school system in the period of great national need and change1 instead of leaving the matter to private initiative8 ,do you understand that any large percentage of youths in the ,roman ,state ever attended any school8 #af4 ,why do older people usually oppose changes in school work manifestly needed to meet changing national demands8 #ag4 ,compare the difficulties met with in learning to read ,greek and ,latin4 ,either and ,english4 #ah4 ,how do you account for the much smaller emphasis on literature and music in the elementary instruction at ,rome than at ,athens8 ,how for the much larger emphasis on formal grammar in the secondary schools at ,rome8 #ai4 ,what subjects of study as we now know them were included in the ,roman study of grammar and rhetoric8 #bj4 ,how do you explain the greater emphasis placed by the ,romans on secondary education than on elementary education8 #ba4 ,what particular ,roman need did the higher schools of oratory and rhetoric supply8 #bb4 ,what does the exclusive devotion of these schools to such studies indicate as to professional opportunities at ,rome8 #bc4 ,how do you account for the continuance of these schools in favor1 and for the aid and encouragement they received from the later ,emperors1 when the very nature of the ,empire in large part destroyed the careers for which they trained8 #bd4 ,compare ,rome and the ,united ,states in their attitudes toward foreign- born peoples4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #ab4 ,the ,laws of the ,twelve ,tables4 #ac4 ,cicero3 ,importance of the ,twelve ,tables in ,education4 #ad4 ,schreiber3 ,a ,roman ,farmer's ,calendar4 #ae4 ,polybius3 ,the ,roman ,character4 #af4 ,mommsen3 ,the ,grave and ,severe ,character of the ,earlier ,romans4 #ag4 ,epitaph3 ,the ,education of ,girls4 #ah4 ,marcus ,aurelius3 ,the ,old ,roman ,education described4 #ai4 ,tacitus3 ,the ,old and the ,new ,education contrasted4 #bj4 ,suetonius3 ,attempts to ,prohibit the ,introduction of ,greek ,higher ,learning4 7a7 ,decree of the ,roman ,senate1 #afa ,b4,c4 7b7 ,decree of the ,censor1 #ib ,b4,c4 #ba4 ,vergil3 ,difficulty experienced in ,learning to ,read4 #bb4 ,horace3 ,the ,education given by a ,father4 #bc4 ,martial3 ,the ,ludi ,magister4 7a7 ,to the ,master of a ,noisy ,school4 7b7 ,to a ,schoolmaster4 #bd4 ,cicero3 ,oratory the ,aim of ,education4 #be4 ,quintilian3 ,on ,oratory4 #bf4 ,constantine3 ,privileges granted to ,physicians and ,teachers4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,give reasons why the ,laws of the ,twelve ,tables 7#ab7 were considered of such fundamental importance 7#ac7 in the education of the early ,roman boy8 ,how do you explain their being supplanted later by the ,latinized ,odyssey8 #b4 ,what does the ,farmer's ,calendar 7#ad7 reveal as to the character of ,roman life8 #c4 ,contrast the ,roman character 7#ae1 #af7 with that of the ,athenian4 #d4 ,compare the education of a ,roman matron1 as revealed by the epitaph 7#ag71 with that of a girl in later ,american colonial times4 #e4 ,after reading ,marcus ,aurelius 7#ah7 and ,tacitus 7#ai71 what is your judgment as to the relative merits of the old and the new education3 7a7 as a means of training youths8 7b7 as adapted to the changed conditions of ,imperial ,rome8 #f4 ,how do you account for the attempts of the conservative officials of the ,state to prohibit the introduction of ,greek higher schools 7#bj a-b7 proving so unsuccessful8 #g4 ,compare the difficulties involved in learning to read ,greek 7,fig4 #f7 and ,latin 7#ba74 ,either and ,english4 #h4 ,what type of higher educational advantages does the selection from ,horace 7#bb7 indicate as prevailing in ,roman cities8 ,compare with present- day advanced education4 #i4 ,what do ,martial's ,epigrams to the ,roman schoolmasters 7#bc a-b7 indicate as to the nature of the schools1 school discipline1 and social status of the ,roman primary teacher8 #aj4 ,do the selections from ,cicero 7#bd7 and ,quintilian 7#be7 satisfy you that oratory was a sufficiently broad idea for the higher education of youths under the ,empire8 ,why8 #aa4 ,what does the decree of ,constantine 7#bf7 indicate as to the social status of the higher teachers under the ,empire8 ,,supplementary ,,references ,abbott1 ,f4 ,f4 ,society and ,politics in ,ancient ,rome4 99 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b4 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages4 ,anderson1 ,l4 ,f4 ,some ,facts regarding ,vocational ,education among the ,greeks and ,romans2 in ,school ,review1 vol4 #bj1 pp4 #aia-bja4 99 ,clarke1 ,geo4 ,education of ,children at ,rome4 99 ,dill1 ,sam'l4 ,roman ,society in the ,last ,century of the ,western ,empire4 99 ,laurie1 ,s4 ,s4 ,historical ,survey of ,pre-,christian ,education4 ,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p4 ,the ,silver ,age of the ,greek ,world4 ,ross1 ,c4 ,f4 ,the ,strength and ,weakness of ,roman ,education2 in ,school and ,society1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #deg-fc4 ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e4 ,history of ,classical ,scholarship1 vol4 i4 ,thorndike1 ,lynn4 ,history of ,mediaeval ,europe4 ,westermann1 ,w4 ,l4 ,vocational ,training in ,antiquity2 in ,school ,review1 vol4 #bb1 pp4 #fja-aj4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,contribution ,,of ,,christianity ,i4 ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,victory ,,of ,,christianity ,,religions ,,in ,,the ,,roman ,,world4 ,as was stated in the preceding chapter 7p4 #eh71 the ,roman state religion was an outgrowth of the religion of the home4 ,just as there had been a number of fireside deities1 who were supposed to preside over the different activities of the home1 so there were many state deities who were supposed to preside over the different activities of the ,state4 ,in addition1 the ,romans exhibited toward the religions of all other peoples that same tolerance and willingness to borrow which they exhibited in so many other matters4 ,certain ,greek deities were taken over and temples erected to them in ,rome1 and new deities1 to guard over such functions as health1 fortune1 peace1 concord1 sowing1 reaping1 etc41 were established4 #a ,extreme tolerance also was shown toward the special religions of other peoples who had been brought within the ,empire1 and certain oriental divinities had even been admitted and given their place in ,rome4 ,like many other features of ,roman life1 their religion was essentially of a practical nature1 dealing with the affairs of everyday life1 and having little or no relation to personal morality4 #b ,it promised no rewards or punishments or hopes for a future life1 but rather1 by uniting all citizens in a common reverence and fear of certain deities1 helped to unify the ,empire and hold it together4 ,after the death of ,augustus 7#ad ,a4,d471 the ,roman ,senate deified the ,emperor and enrolled his name among the gods1 and ,emperor worship was added to their ceremonies4 ,this naturally spread rapidly throughout the ,empire1 tended to unite all classes in allegiance to the central government at ,rome1 and seemed to form the basis for a universal religion for a universal empire4 ,,feeling ,,the ,,need ,,for ,,something ,,more4 ,as an educated class arose in ,rome1 this mixture of diverse divinities failed to satisfy2 the ,roman religion1 made up as it was of state and parental duties and precautions1 lost with them its force2 and the religious ceremonies of the home and the ,state lost for them their meaning4 ,the mechanical repetition of prayers and sacrifices made no appeal to the emotions or to the moral nature of individuals1 and offered no spiritual joy or consolation as to a life beyond4 ,the educated ,greeks before had had this same feeling1 and had indulged in much speculation as to the moral nature of man4 ,many educated ,romans now turned to the ,greek philosophers for some more philosophical explanation of the great mystery of life and death4 ,of all the philosophies developed in the philosophical schools of ,athens1 the one that made the deepest appeal to the practical ,roman mind was that of the ,stoics1 founded by ,zeno1 #cjh ,b4,c4 ,virtue1 claimed the ,stoics1 consists in so living that one's life is in accordance with that ,universal ,reason which rules the world4 ,riches1 position1 fame1 success--these count for but little4 ,he who trains himself to be above grief1 hope1 joy1 fear1 and the ills of life--be he slave or peasant or king--may be happy because he is virtuous4 ,reason1 rather than the feelings1 is the proper rule of life4 ,the ,stoics also preached the brotherhood of man1 and to a degree expressed a humble reliance on a providence which controlled affairs4 ,this philosophy in a way met the need for a religion among the better-educated ,romans1 and made considerable headway during the early days of the ,empire4 #c ,while serving as a sort of religion for those capable of embracing it1 it was too intellectual to reach more than a few1 and was not adapted to become a universal religion for all sorts and conditions of men4 ,what was needed was a new moral philosophy or religion that would touch all mankind4 ,to do this it must appeal to the emotions more than to the intellect4 ,such a religion was at this time taking shape and gathering force and strength in a remote corner of the ,empire4 ,,where ,,this ,,new ,,religion ,,arose4 ,far to the eastern end of the ,mediterranean there had long lived a branch of the ,semitic race1 which had developed a national character and made a contribution of first importance to the religious thought of the world4 ,these were the ,hebrew people who1 leaving ,egypt about #aejj ,b4,c41 in the ,exodus1 had come to inhabit the land of ,canaan1 south of ,phoenicia and east and north of ,egypt4 ,from a wandering1 pastoral people they had gradually changed to a settled1 agricultural people1 and had begun the development of a regular ,state4 ,unwilling1 however1 to bear the burdens of a political ,state1 and objecting to taxation1 a standing army1 and forced labor for the ,state1 the nationality which promised at one time fell to pieces1 and the land was overrun by hostile neighbors and the people put under the yoke4 ,after a sad and tempestuous history1 which culminated in the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,romans in #gj ,a4,d41 the inhabitants were sold into slavery and dispersed throughout the ,roman ,empire4 ,these people developed no great ,state1 and made no contributions to government or science or art4 ,their contribution was along religious lines1 and so magnificent and uplifting is their religious literature that it is certain to last for all time4 ,alone among all eastern people they early evolved the idea of one omnipotent ,god4 ,the religion that they developed declared man to be the child of ,god1 erected personal morality and service to ,god as the rule of life1 and asserted a life beyond the grave4 ,it was about these ideas that the whole energy of the people concentrated1 and religion became the central thought of their lives4 ,this religion1 unlike the other religions of the ,mediterranean world1 emphasized duty to ,god1 service1 personal morality1 chastity1 honesty1 and truth as its essential elements4 ,the ,law of ,moses became the law of the land4 ,woman was elevated to a new place in the life of the ancient world4 #d ,children became sacred in the eyes of the people4 ,their literary contribution1 the ,old ,testament--written by a series of patriarchs1 lawgivers1 prophets1 and priests--pictures1 often in sublime language1 the various migrations1 deliverances1 calamities1 and religious hopes1 aspirations1 and experiences of this ,chosen ,people4 ,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,this ,,people4 ,just before their country was overrun and they were carried captive to ,babylon1 in #ehh ,b4,c41 the ,pentateuch #e had been reduced to writing and made an authoritative code of laws for the people4 ,this served as a bond of union among them during the exile1 and after their return to ,palestine1 in #ech ,b4,c41 the study and observance of this law became the most important duty of their lives4 ,the synagogue was established in every village for its exposition1 where twice on every ,sabbath day the people were to gather to hear the law expounded4 ,a race of ,scribes1 or scripture scholars1 also arose to teach the law1 as well as means for educating additional scribes4 ,they were to interpret the law1 and to apply it to the daily lives of the people4 ,as the law was a combination of religious1 ceremonial1 civil1 and sanitary law1 these scribes became both teachers and judges for the people4 ,in time they became the depositaries of all learning1 superseded the priesthood1 and became the leaders 7rabbins1 whence rabbi7 of the people4 ,the voice of the rabbi is the voice of ,god1 says the ,talmud1 a collection of ,hebrew customs and traditions1 with comments and interpretations1 written by the rabbis after #gj ,b4,c4 ,by most ,jews this is held to be next in sacredness to the ,old ,testament 7,r4 #bg74 ,realizing1 after the return from captivity1 that the future existence of the ,hebrew people would depend1 not upon their military strength1 but upon their moral unity1 and that this must be based upon the careful training of each child in the traditions of his fathers1 the leaders of the people began the evolution of a religious school system to meet the national need4 ,realizing1 too1 that parents could not be depended upon in all cases to provide this instruction1 the leaders provided it and made it compulsory4 ,great open-air ,bible classes were organized at first1 and these were gradually extended to all the villages of the country4 ,elementary schools were developed later and attached to the synagogues1 and finally1 in #fd ,a4,d41 the high priest1 ,joshua ben ,gamala1 ordered the establishment of an elementary school in every village1 made attendance compulsory for all male children1 and provided for a combined type of religious and household instruction at home for all girls4 ,reading1 writing1 counting1 the history of the ,chosen ,people1 the poetry of the ,psalms1 the ,law of the ,pentateuch1 and a part of the ,talmud constituted the subject-matter of instruction4 ,the instruction was largely oral1 and learning by heart was the common teaching plan4 ,the child was taught the ,law of his fathers1 trained to make holiness a rule of his life and to subordinate his will to that of the one ,god1 and commanded to revere his teachers 7,r4 #bg7 and uphold the traditions of his people4 ,after the destruction of ,jerusalem 7#gj ,a4,d47 and the scatterment of the people1 the school instruction was naturally more or less disrupted1 but in one way or another the ,hebrew people have ever since managed to keep up the training of rabbis and the instruction of the young in the ,law and the traditions of their people1 and as a consequence of this instruction we have to-day the interesting result of a homogeneous people who1 for over eighteen centuries1 have had no national existence1 and who have been scattered and persecuted as have no other people4 ,history offers us no better example of the salvation of a people by means of the compulsory education of all4 ,,the ,,new ,,christian ,,faith4 ,it was into this ,hebrew race that ,jesus was born1 #f and there he lived1 learned1 taught1 made his disciples1 and was crucified4 ,building on the old ,hebrew moral law and the importance of the personal life1 ,jesus made his appeal to the individual1 and sought the moral regeneration of society through the moral regeneration of individual men and women4 ,this idea of individuality and of personal souls worth saving was a new idea in a world where the submergence of the individual in the ,state had everywhere up to that time been the rule4 ,even the ,hebrews1 in their great desire to perpetuate their race and faith1 had suppressed and absorbed the individual in their religious ,state4 ,the teachings of ,jesus1 on the other hand1 with their emphasis on charity1 sympathy1 self-sacrifice1 and the brotherhood of all men1 tended to obliterate nationality1 while the emphasis they gave to the future life1 for which life here was but a preparation1 tended to subordinate the interests of the ,state and withdraw the concern of men from worldly affairs4 ,in a series of simple sermons1 ,jesus set forth the basis of this new faith which he1 and after him his disciples1 offered to the world4 ,at the time of his crucifixion his disciples numbered scarcely one hundred persons4 ,for some years after his death his disciples remained in ,jerusalem1 preaching that he was the ,messiah or ,christ1 whom the ,hebrew people had long expected1 and making converts to the idea4 ,later in ,samaria1 ,damascus1 and ,antioch they made additional converts among the ,jews4 ,up to this point the ,christians had been careful to keep up all the old ,jewish customs1 and it was even doubted at first whether any but ,jews could properly be admitted to the new faith4 ,a new convert1 ,saul of ,tarsus1 a ,jew who had studied in the ,greek university there and who afterwards became the ,apostle ,paul1 did much to open the new faith to the ,gentiles1 as the men of other nations were known4 ,speaking ,greek1 and being versed in ,greek philosophy1 and especially ,stoicism1 he gave thirty years of most effective service to the establishment of ,christian churches #g in ,asia ,minor1 ,macedonia1 ,greece 7,r4 #bi71 and ,italy 7,r4 #bh74 ,his work was so important that he has often been called the second founder of the ,christian ,church4 ,,the ,,challenge ,,of ,,christianity4 ,into a ,roman world that had already passed the zenith of its greatness came this new ,christian faith1 challenging almost everything for which the ,roman world had stood4 ,in place of ,roman citizenship and service to the ,state as the purpose of life1 the ,christians set up the importance of the life to come4 ,instead of pleasure and happiness and the satisfaction of the senses as personal ends1 the ,christians preached denial of all these things for the greater joy of a future life4 ,in a society built on a huge basis of slavery and filled with social classes1 the ,christians proclaimed the equality of all men before ,god4 ,to a nation in which family life had become corrupt1 infidelity and divorce common1 and infanticide a prevailing practice1 the ,christians proclaimed the sacredness of the marriage tie and the family life1 and the exposure of infants as simple murder4 ,in place of the subjection of the individual to the ,state1 the ,christians demanded the subjection of the individual only to ,god4 ,in place of a union of ,state and religion1 the ,christians demanded the complete separation of the two and the subordination of the ,state to the ,church4 ,unlike all other religions that ,rome had absorbed1 the ,christians refused to be accepted on any other than exclusive terms4 ,the worship of all other gods the ,christians held to be sinful idol-worship1 a deadly sin in the eyes of ,god1 and they were willing to give up their lives rather than perform the simplest rite of what they termed pagan worship 7,r4 #bh74 ,to the deified ,emperor the ,christians naturally could not bend the knee 7,rs4 #cj b1 #ca a-b1 #cd74 ,at first the new faith attracted but little attention from anybody of education or influence4 ,its converts were few during the first century1 and these largely from among the lowest social classes in the ,empire4 ,workmen and slaves1 and women rather than men1 constituted the large majority of the early converts to the new faith4 ,the character of its missionaries #h also was against it1 and its challenge of almost all that characterized the higher social and governmental life of ,rome was certain to make its progress difficult1 and in time to awaken powerful opposition #i to it4 ,yet1 notwithstanding all these obstacles1 its progress was relatively rapid4 ,,the ,,victory ,,of ,,christianity4 ,by the close of the first century there were ,christian churches throughout most of ,judea and ,asia ,minor1 and in parts of ,greece and ,macedonia4 ,during the second century other churches were established in ,asia ,minor1 in ,greece1 and along the ,black ,sea1 and at a few places in ,italy and ,france2 and before four centuries had elapsed from the crucifixion ,christian churches had been established throughout almost all the ,roman world4 ,this is well shown by the map on the opposite page4 ,the message of hope that ,christianity had to offer to all2 the simplicity of its organization and teachings2 the great appeal which it made to the emotional side of human life2 the hope of a future life of reward for the burdens of this which it extended to all who were weary and heavy laden2 the positiveness of conviction of its apostles and followers2 and the completeness with which it satisfied the religious need and longings of the time1 first among the poor and among women and later among educated men--all helped the new faith to win its way4 ,the unity in that ,rome had everywhere established2 #aj the ,roman peace 7pax ,romana7 that ,rome had everywhere imposed2 the spread of the ,greek and ,latin languages and ideas throughout the ,mediterranean world2 the right of freedom of travel and speech enjoyed by a ,roman citizen1 and of which ,saint ,paul and others on their travels took advantage2 #aa the scatterment of ,jews throughout the ,empire1 after the destruction of ,jerusalem in #gj ,a4,d4--all these elements also helped4 ,,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,christianity ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,fourth ,,century ,that ,christianity made its headway unmolested must not be supposed4 ,while at first the tendency of educated ,romans and of the government was to ignore or tolerate it1 its challenge was so direct and provocative that this attitude could not long continue4 ,under the ,emperor ,claudius 7#da-ed ,a4,d47 all the ,jews who were continually making disturbances at the instigation of one ,chrestus were unsuccessfully ordered banished from ,rome4 ,in the reign of the ,emperor ,nero1 in #fd ,a4,d41 many horrible tortures were inflicted on this as yet small sect4 ,it was not1 however1 till later1 when the continued refusal of the ,christians to offer sacrifices to the ,emperor brought them under the law as disloyal 7,r4 #cj a7 subjects1 that they began to be much punished for their faith 7,r4 #ca a-b74 ,the times were bad and were going from bad to worse1 and the feelings of many were that the adverse conditions in the ,empire--war1 famine1 floods1 pestilence1 and barbarian inroads--were due to the neglect of the old state religion and to the tolerance extended the vast organized defiance of the law by the ,christians4 ,in the first century they had been largely ignored4 ,in the second1 in some places1 they were punished4 ,in the third century1 impelled by the calamities of the ,state and the urging of those who would restore the national religion to its earlier position1 the ,emperors were gradually driven to a series of heavy persecutions of the sect 7,r4 #cj a74 ,but it had now become too late4 ,the blood of the martyrs proved to be the seed of the ,church 7,r4 #ce74 ,the last great persecution under the ,emperor ,diocletian1 in #cjc 7,r4 #cc71 ended in virtual failure4 ,in #caa the ,emperor ,galerius placed ,christianity on a plane of equality with other forms of worship 7,r4 #cf74 ,in #cac ,constantine made it in part the official religion of the ,state #ab and ordered freedom of worship for all4 ,he and succeeding ,emperors gradually extended to the ,christian clergy a long list of important privileges 7,r4 #ch7 and exemptions1 #ac analogous to those formerly enjoyed by the teachers of rhetoric under the ,empire 7,r4 #bf71 and likewise began the policy1 so liberally followed later1 of endowing the ,church4 ,in #cia the ,emperor ,theodosius forbade all pagan worship1 thus making the victory of ,christianity complete4 ,in less than four centuries from the birth of its founder the ,christian faith had won control of the great ,empire in which it originated4 ,in #ebi the ,emperor ,justinian ordered the closing of all pagan schools1 and the ,university of ,athens1 which had remained the center of pagan thought after the success of ,christianity1 closed its doors4 ,the victory was now complete4 ,,the ,,contribution ,,of ,,christianity4 ,we have now before us the third great contribution upon which our modern civilization has been built4 ,to the great contributions of ,greece and ,rome1 which we have previously studied1 there now was added1 and added at a most opportune time1 the contribution of ,christianity4 ,in taking the ,jewish idea of one ,god and freeing it from the narrow tribal limitations to which it had before been subject1 ,christianity made possible its general acceptance1 first in the ,roman world1 and later in the ,mohammedan world4 #ad ,with this was introduced the doctrine of the fatherhood of ,god and his love for man1 the equality before ,god of all men and of the two sexes1 and the sacredness of each individual in the eyes of the ,father4 ,an entirely new conception of the individual was proclaimed to the world1 and an entirely new ethical code was promulgated4 ,the duty of all to make their lives conform to these new conceptions was asserted4 ,these ideas imparted to ancient society a new hopefulness and a new energy which were not only of great importance in dealing with the downfall of civilization and the deluge of barbarism which were impending1 but which have been of prime importance during all succeeding centuries4 ,in time the church organization which was developed gradually absorbed all other forms of government1 and became virtually the ,state during the long period of darkness known as the ,middle ,ages4 ,it remains now to sketch briefly how the ,church organized itself and became powerful enough to perform its great task during the ,middle ,ages1 what educational agencies it developed1 and to what extent these were useful4 ,,ii4 ,,educational ,,and ,,governmental ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,church ,,schooling ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,church2 ,,catechumenal ,,instruction4 ,the early churches were bound together by no formal bond of union1 and felt little need for such4 ,it was the belief of many that ,christ would soon return and the world would end1 hence there was little necessity for organization4 ,there was also almost no system of belief4 ,an acknowledgment of ,god as the ,father1 a repentance for past sins1 a godly life1 and a desire to be saved were about all that was expected of any one4 #ae ,the chief concern was the moral regeneration of society through the moral regeneration of converts4 ,to accomplish this1 in face of the practices of ,roman society1 a process of instruction and a period of probation for those wishing to join the faith soon became necessary4 ,jews1 pagans1 and the children of believers were thereafter alike subjected to this before full acceptance into the ,church4 ,at stated times during the week the probationers met for instruction in morality and in the psalmody of the ,church 7,r4 #ci74 ,these two subjects constituted almost the entire instruction1 the period of probation covering two or three years4 ,the teachers were merely the older and abler members of the congregation4 ,this personal instruction became common everywhere in the early ,church1 and the training was known as catechumenal1 that is1 rudimentary1 instruction4 ,two sets of catechumenal lectures have survived1 which give an idea as to the nature of the instruction4 ,they cover the essentials of church practice and the religious life 7,,rs4 #ci1 #dj74 ,it was dropped entirely in the conversion of the barbarian tribes4 ,this instruction1 and the preaching of the elders 7presbyters1 who later evolved into priests71 constituted the formal schooling of the early converts to ,christianity in ,italy and the ,east4 ,such instruction was never known in ,england1 and but little in ,gaul4 ,the life in the ,church made a moral and emotional1 rather than an intellectual appeal4 ,in fact the early ,christians felt but little need for the type of intellectual education provided by the ,roman schools1 and the character of the educated society about them1 as they saw it1 did not make them wish for the so-called pagan learning4 ,even if the parents of converts wished to provide additional educational advantages for their children1 what could they do8 ,a modern author states well the predicament of such ,christian parents1 when he says3 ,all the schools were pagan4 ,not only were all the ceremonies of the official faith--and more especially the festivals of ,minerva1 who was the patroness of masters and pupils--celebrated at regular intervals in the schools1 but the children were taught reading out of books saturated with the old mythology4 ,there the ,christian child made his first acquaintance with the deities of ,olympus4 ,he ran the danger of imbibing ideas entirely contrary to those which he had received at home4 ,the fables he had learned to detest in his own home were explained1 elucidated1 and held up to his admiration every day by his masters4 ,was it right to put him thus into two schools of thought8 ,what could be done that he might be educated1 like every one else1 and yet not run the risk of losing his faith8 #af ,,catechetical ,,schools4 ,after ,christianity had begun to make converts among the more serious-minded and better-educated citizens of the ,roman ,empire1 the need for more than rudimentary instruction in the principles of the church life began to be felt4 ,especially was this the case in the places where ,christian workers came in contact with the best scholars of the ,hellenic learning1 and particularly at ,alexandria1 ,athens1 and the cities of ,asia ,minor4 ,the speculative ,greek would not be satisfied with the simple1 unorganized faith of the early ,christians4 ,he wanted to understand it as a system of thought1 and asked many questions that were hard to answer4 ,to meet the critical inquiry of learned ,greeks1 it became desirable that the clergy of the ,church1 in the ,east at least1 should be equipped with a training similar to that of their critics4 ,as a result there was finally evolved1 first at ,alexandria1 and later at other places in the ,empire1 training schools for the leaders of the ,church4 ,these came to be known as catechetical schools1 from their oral questioning method of instruction1 and this term was later applied to elementary religious instruction 7whence catechism7 throughout western ,europe4 ,pantaenus1 a converted ,greek ,stoic1 who became head of the catechumenal instruction at ,alexandria1 in #agi ,a4,d41 brought to the training of future ,christian leaders the strength of ,greek learning and ,greek philosophic thought4 ,he and his successors1 ,clement and ,origen1 developed here an important school of ,christian theology where ,greek learning was used to interpret the ,scriptures and train leaders for the service of the ,church4 ,similar schools were opened at ,antioch1 ,edessa1 ,nisibis1 and ,caesarea 7,see ,map1 p4 #hi71 and these developed into a rudimentary form of theological schools for the education of the eastern ,christian clergy4 ,in these schools ,christian faith and doctrine were formulated into a sort of system1 the whole being tinctured through and through with ,greek philosophic thought4 ,out of these schools came some of the great ,fathers of the early ,church2 men who strove to uphold the pagan learning and reconcile ,christianity and ,greek philosophic thinking4 #ag ,,rejection ,,of ,,pagan ,,learning ,,in ,,the ,,west4 ,in the ,west1 where the leaders of the ,church came from the less philosophic and more practical ,roman stock1 and where the contact with a decadent society wakened a greater reaction1 the tendency was to reject the ,hellenic learning1 and to depend more upon emotional faith and the enforcement of a moral life4 ,by the close of the third century the hostility to the pagan schools and to the ,hellenic learning had here become pronounced 7,r4 #da74 ,even the ,fathers of the ,latin ,church1 the greatest of whom had been teachers of oratory or rhetoric in ,roman schools before their conversion1 #ah gradually came to reject the pagan learning as undesirable for ,christians and in a large degree as a robbery from ,god4 ,saint ,augustine1 in his ,confessions1 hopes that ,god may forgive him for having enjoyed ,vergil4 ,jerome's dream #ai was known and quoted throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,tertullian1 in his ,prescription against ,heresies1 exclaims3 ,what indeed has ,athens to do with ,jerusalem8 ,what concord is there between the ,academy and the ,church8 ,what between heretics and ,christians8444 ,away with all attempts to produce a mottled ,christianity of ,stoic1 ,platonic1 and dialectic composition4 ,gregory the ,great1 ,pope of the ,church from #eij to #fjd1 and who had been well educated as a youth in the surviving ,roman-type schools1 turned bitterly against the whole of pagan learning4 ,i am strongly of the opinion1 he says1 that it is an indignity that the words of the oracle of ,heaven should be restrained by the rules of ,donatus 7grammar74 ,in a letter to the ,bishop of ,vienne he berates him for giving instruction in grammar1 concluding with--the praise of ,christ cannot lie in one mouth with the praise of ,jupiter4 ,consider yourself what a crime it is for bishops to recite what would be improper for religiously-minded laymen4 ,as a result ,hellenic learning declined rapidly in importance in the ,west as the ,church attained supremacy1 and finally1 in #dja1 the ,council of ,carthage1 largely at the instigation of ,saint ,augustine1 forbade the clergy to read any pagan author4 ,in time ,greek learning largely died out in the ,west1 and was for a time almost entirely lost4 ,even the ,greek language was forgotten1 and was not known again in the ,west for nearly a thousand years4 #bj ,,the ,,church ,,perfects ,a ,,strong ,,organization4 ,as was previously stated 7p4 #ib71 but little need was felt during the first two centuries for a system of belief or church government4 ,as the expected return of ,christ did not take place1 and as the need for a formulation of belief and a system of government began to be felt1 the next step was the development of these features4 ,the system of belief and the ceremonials of worship finally evolved are more the products of ,greek thought and practices of the ,east1 while the form of organization and government is derived more from ,roman sources4 ,in the second century the ,old ,testament was translated into ,greek at ,alexandria1 and the ,apostles' ,creed was formulated4 ,during the third century the writings deemed sacred were organized into the ,new ,testament1 also in ,greek4 ,in #cbe the first ,general ,council of the ,church was held at ,nicaea1 in ,asia ,minor4 ,it formulated the ,nicene ,creed 7,r4 #db71 and twenty canons or laws for the government of the ,church4 ,a second ,general ,council1 held at ,constantinople in #cha1 revised the ,nicene ,creed and adopted additional canons4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,a ,,bishop ,seventh ,century 7,santo ,venanzio1 ,rome7 ,the great organizing genius of the western branch of the ,church was ,saint ,augustine 7#ced-dcj74 ,he gave to the ,western or ,latin ,church1 then beginning to take on its separate existence1 the body of doctrine needed to enable it to put into shape the things for which it stood4 ,the system of theology evolved before the separation of the eastern and western branches of the ,church was not so finished and so finely speculative as that of the ,greek branch1 but was more practical1 more clearly legal1 and more systematically organized4 ,the influence of ,rome was strong also in the organization of the system of government finally adopted for the ,church4 ,there being no other model1 the ,roman governmental system was copied4 ,the bishop of a city corresponded to the ,roman municipal officials2 the archbishop of a territory to the governor of a province2 and the patriarch to the ruler of a division of the ,empire4 ,as ,rome had been a universal ,empire1 and as the city of ,rome had been the chief governing city1 #ba the idea of a universal ,church was natural and the supremacy of the ,bishop of ,rome was gradually asserted and determined4 #bb ,a ,,state ,,within ,a ,,state4 ,there was thus developed in the ,west1 as it were a ,state within a ,state4 ,that is1 within the ,roman ,empire1 with its ,emperor1 provincial governors1 and municipal officials1 governing the people and drawing their power from the ,roman ,senate and imperial authority1 there was also gradually developed another ,state1 consisting of those who had accepted the ,christian faith1 and who rendered their chief allegiance1 through priest1 bishop1 and archbishop1 to a central head of the ,church who owed allegiance to no earthly ruler4 ,that ,christianity1 viewed from the governmental point of view1 was a serious element of weakness in the ,roman ,state and helped its downfall1 there can be no question4 ,in the eastern part of the ,empire the ,church was always much more closely identified with the ,state4 ,fortunately for civilization1 before the ,roman ,empire had fallen and the impending barbarian deluge had descended1 the ,christian ,church had succeeded in formulating a unifying belief and a form of government capable of commanding respect and of enforcing authority1 and was fast taking over the power of the ,state itself4 ,,the ,,cathedral ,,or ,,episcopal ,,schools4 ,the first churches throughout the ,empire were in the cities1 and made their early converts there4 #bc ,gradually these important cities evolved into the residences of a supervising priest or bishop1 the territory became known as a bishopric1 and the church as a cathedral church4 ,in time1 also1 some of the outlying territory was organized into parishes1 and churches were established in these4 ,these were made tributary to and placed under the direction of the bishop of the large central city4 ,to supply clergy for these outlying parishes came to be one of the functions of the bishop1 and1 to insure properly trained clergy and to provide for promotions in the clerical ranks1 schools of a rudimentary type were established in connection with the cathedral churches4 ,these came to be known as cathedral1 or episcopal schools4 ,at first they were probably under the immediate charge of the bishop1 but later1 as his functions increased1 the school was placed under a special teacher1 known as a ,scholasticus1 or ,magister ,scholarum1 who directed the cathedral school1 assisted the bishop1 and trained the future clergy4 ,as the pagan secondary schools died out1 these cathedral schools1 together with the monastic schools which were later founded1 gradually replaced the pagan schools as the important educational institutions of the western world4 ,in these two types of schools the religious leaders of the early ,middle ,ages were trained4 ,,the ,,monastic ,,organization4 ,in the early days of ,christianity1 it will be remembered 7p4 #hg71 the ,christian convert held himself apart from the wicked world all about him1 and had little to do with the society or the government of his time4 ,he regarded the ,church as having no relationship to the ,state4 ,as the ,church grew stronger1 however1 and became a ,state within a ,state1 the ,christian took a larger and larger part in the world around him1 and in time came to be distinguished from other men by his profession of the ,christian religion rather than by any other mark4 ,many of the early bishops were men of great political sagacity1 fully capable of realizing to the full the political opportunities1 afforded by their position1 to strengthen the power of the ,church4 ,it was the work of men of this type that created the temporal power of the ,church1 and made of it an institution capable of commanding respect and enforcing its decisions4 ,to some of the early ,christians this life did not appeal4 ,to them holiness was associated with a complete withdrawal from contact with this sinful world and all its activities4 ,some betook themselves to the desert1 others to the forests or mountains1 and others shut themselves up alone that they might be undisturbed in their religious meditations4 ,to such devoted souls monasticism1 a scheme of living brought into the ,christian world from the ,east1 made a strong appeal4 ,it provided that such men should live together in brotherhoods1 renouncing the world1 taking vows of poverty1 chastity1 and obedience1 and devoting their lives to hard labor and the mortification of the flesh that the soul might be exalted and made beautiful4 ,the members lived alone in individual cells1 but came together for meals1 prayer1 and religious service4 ,as early as #ccj a monastery had been organized on the island of ,tebernae1 in the ,nile4 ,about #cej ,saint ,basil introduced monasticism into ,asia ,minor1 where it flourished greatly4 ,in #cgj the ,basilian order was founded4 ,the monastic idea was soon transferred to the ,west1 a monastery being established at ,rome probably as early as #cdj4 ,the monastery of ,saint ,victor1 at ,marseilles1 was founded by ,cassian in #djd1 and this type of monastery and monastic rule was introduced into ,gaul1 about #dae4 ,the monastery of ,lerins 7off ,cannes1 in southern ,france7 was established in #dje4 ,during the fifth century a rapid extension of monastic foundations took place in western ,europe1 particularly along the valleys of the ,rhone and the ,loire in ,gaul4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,a ,,benedictine ,,monk1 ,,abbot1 ,,and ,,abbess 7,from a thirteenth-century manuscript7 ,in #ebi ,saint ,benedict1 a ,roman of wealth who fled from the corruption of his city1 founded the monastery of ,monte ,cassino1 south of ,rome1 and established a form of government1 or rule of daily life1 which was gradually adopted by nearly all the monasteries of the ,west4 ,in time ,europe came to be dotted with thousands of these establishments1 many of which were large and expensive institutions both to found and to maintain4 #bd ,by the time the barbarian invasions were in full swing monasticism had become an established institution of the ,christian ,church4 ,nunneries for women also were established early4 ,a letter from ,saint ,jerome to ,marcella1 a ,roman matron1 in #chb1 in which he says that no high-born lady at ,rome had made profession of the monastic life 444 or had ventured 444 publicly to call herself a nun1 would seem to imply that such institutions had already been established in ,rome4 ,,monastic ,,schools4 ,poverty1 chastity1 obedience1 labor1 and religious devotion were the essential features of a monastic life4 ,the ,rule of ,saint ,benedict 7,r4 #dc7 organized in a practical way the efforts of those who took the vows4 ,in a series of seventy-three rules which he laid down1 covering all phases of monastic life1 the most important from the standpoint of posterity was the forty-eighth1 prescribing at least seven hours of daily labor and two hours of reading for all able to bear the load4 ,from that part of the rule requiring regular manual labor the monks became the most expert farmers and craftsmen of the early ,middle ,ages1 while to the requirement of daily reading we owe in large part the development of the school and the preservation of learning in the ,west during the long intellectual night of the mediaeval period 7,r4 #dd74 ,into these monastic institutions the oblati1 that is1 those who wished to become monks1 were received as early as the age of twelve1 and occasionally earlier 7,r4 #ec a74 ,the final vows 7,r4 #ec b7 could not be taken until eighteen1 so during this period the novice was taught to work and to read and write1 given instruction in church music1 and taught to calculate the church festivals and to do simple reckoning4 ,in time some condensed and carefully edited compendium of the elements of classical learning was also studied1 and still later a more elaborate type of instruction was developed in some of the monasteries4 ,this1 however1 belongs to a later division of this history1 and further description of church and monastic education will be deferred until we study the intellectual life of the ,middle ,ages4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,girls4 ,aside from the general instruction in the practices of the church and home instruction in the work of a woman1 there was but little provision made for the education of girls not desiring to join a convent or nunnery4 ,a few1 however1 obtained a limited amount of intellectual training4 ,the letter of ,saint ,jerome to the ,roman lady ,paula 7,r4 #de71 regarding the education of her daughter1 is a very important document in the history of early ,christian education for girls4 ,dating from #djc1 it outlines the type of training a young girl should be given who was to be properly educated in ,christian faith and properly consecrated to ,god4 ,what he outlined was education for nunneries1 a number of which had been founded in the ,east and a few in the ,west4 ,in the ,west these institutions later experienced an extensive development1 and offered the chief opportunity for any intellectual education for women during the whole of the ,middle ,ages4 ,,iii4 ,,what ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,started ,,with ,,what ,,the ,,church ,,brought ,,to ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,from a small and purely spiritual organization1 devoting its energies to exhortation and to the moral regeneration of mankind1 and without creed or form of government1 as the ,christian ,church was in the first two centuries of its development1 we have traced the organization of a body of doctrine1 the perfection of a strong system of church government1 and the development of a very limited educational system designed merely to train leaders for its service4 ,we have also shown how it added to its early ecclesiastical organization a strong governmental organization1 became a ,state within a ,state1 and gradually came to direct the ,state itself4 ,it was thus ready1 when the virtual separation of the ,roman ,empire into an eastern and western division took place1 in #cie1 and when the western division finally fell before the barbarian onslaughts1 to take up in a way the work of the ,state1 force the barbarian hordes to acknowledge its power1 and begin the process of civilizing these new tribes and building up once more a civilization in the western world4 ,in addition to its spiritual and political power1 the ,church also had developed1 in its catechumenal instruction and in the cathedral and monastic schools1 a very meager form of an educational system for the training of its future leaders and servants4 ,a great change had now taken place in the nature of education as a preparation for life1 and intellectual education1 in the sense that it was known and understood in ,greece and ,rome1 was not to be known again in the western world for almost a thousand years4 ,the distinguishing characteristic of the centuries which follow1 up to the ,revival of ,learning1 are1 first1 a struggle against very adverse odds to prevent civilization from disappearing entirely1 and later a struggle to build up new foundations upon which world civilization might begin once more where it had left off in ,greece and ,rome4 ,,the ,,three ,,great ,,contributions ,,from ,,the ,,ancient ,,world4 ,thus1 before the ,middle ,ages began1 the three great contributions of the ancient world which were to form the foundations of our future western civilization had been made4 ,greece gave the world an art and a philosophy and a literature of great charm and beauty1 the most advanced intellectual and aesthetic ideas that civilization has inherited1 and developed an educational system of wonderful effectiveness--one that in its higher development in time took captive the entire ,mediterranean world and profoundly modified all later thinking4 ,rome was the organizing and legal genius of the ancient world1 as ,greece was the literary and philosophical4 ,to ,rome we are especially indebted for out conceptions of law1 order1 and government1 and for the ability to make practical and carry into effect the ideals of other peoples4 ,to the ,hebrews we are indebted for the world's loftiest conceptions of ,god1 religious faith1 and moral responsibility1 and to ,christianity and the ,church we are indebted for making these ideas universal in the ,roman ,empire and forcing them on a barbaric world4 ,all these great foundations of our western civilization have not come down to us directly4 ,the hostility to pagan learning that developed on the part of the ,latin ,fathers2 the establishment of an eastern capital for the ,empire at ,constantinople1 in #cbh2 the virtual division of the ,empire into an ,east and ,west1 in #cie2 and the final division of the ,christian ,church into a ,western ,latin and an ,eastern ,greek ,church1 which was gradually effected1 finally drove ,greek philosophy and learning and the ,greek language from the western world4 ,greek was not to be known again in the ,west for hundreds of years4 ,fortunately the ,eastern ,church was more tolerant of pagan learning than was the ,western1 and was better able to withstand conquest by barbarian tribes4 ,in consequence what the ,greeks had done was preserved at ,constantinople until ,europe had once more become sufficiently civilized and tolerant to understand and appreciate it4 ,hellenic learning was then handed back to western ,europe1 first through the medium of the ,saracens1 and then in that great ,revival of ,learning which we know as the ,renaissance4 ,of the ,latin literature and learning much was lost1 and much was preserved almost by accident in the monasteries of mediaeval ,europe4 ,even the ,church itself was seriously deflected from its earlier purpose and teachings during the long period of barbarism and general ignorance through which it passed1 and only in modern times has it tried to come back to the spirit of the teachings of its founder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,,showing ,,the ,,final ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,empire ,,and ,,the ,,church ,the map also shows conditions as they were in ,europe at the end of the fourth century ,a4,d4 ,syria1 ,egypt1 ,africa1 and a portion of ,asia ,minor were overwhelmed by the ,saracens in the seventh century and became ,mohammedan1 but ,constantinople held out until #adec4 ,the eastern division eventually gave rise to the ,greek ,catholic ,church of ,greece1 the ,balkans1 and ,russia1 while the western division became the ,roman ,catholic ,church of western ,europe4 ,at ,constantinople ,greek learning was preserved until the ,west was again ready to receive it4 ,the ,eastern ,empire for a time retained control of ,sicily and southern ,italy 7the old ,magna ,graecia71 but eventually these were absorbed by western or ,latin ,christianity4 ,,the ,,future ,,story4 ,for the long period of intellectual stagnation which now followed1 the educational story is briefly told4 ,but little formal education was needed1 and that of but one main type4 ,it was only after the ,church had won its victory over the barbarian hordes1 and had built up the foundations upon which a new civilization could be developed1 that education in any broad and liberal sense was again needed4 ,this required nearly a thousand years of laborious and painful effort4 ,then1 when schools again became possible and learning again began to be demanded1 education had to begin again with the few at the top1 and the contributions of ,greece and ,rome had to be recovered and put into usable form as a basis upon which to build4 ,it is only very recently that it has become possible to extend education to all4 ,in ,part ,,ii we shall next trace briefly the intellectual life of the ,middle ,ages1 and the reawakening1 and in ,part ,,iii we shall1 among other things1 point out the deep and lasting influence of the work of these ancient civilizations on our modern educational thoughts and practices4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,point out the many advantages of a universal religion for such a universal ,empire as ,rome developed1 and the advantages of ,emperor worship for such an ,empire4 #b4 ,what do modern nations have that is much akin to ,emperor worship8 #c4 ,explain why ,stoicism made such an appeal to the better-educated classes at ,rome4 #d4 ,why is an emotional faith better adapted to the mass of people than an intellectual one8 #e4 ,explain how the ,hebrew scribes1 administering such a mixed body of laws1 naturally came to be both teachers and judges for the people4 #f4 ,illustrate how the ,hebrew tradition that the moral and spiritual unity of a people is stronger than armed force has been shown to be true in history4 #g4 ,what great lessons may we draw from the work of the ,hebrews in maintaining a national unity through compulsory education8 #h4 ,why was ,jesus' idea as to the importance of the individual destined to make such slow headway in the world8 ,what is the status of the idea to-day 7a7 in ,china8 7b7 in ,germany8 7c7 in ,england8 7d7 in the ,united ,states8 ,is the idea necessarily opposed to nationality or even to a strong state government8 #i4 ,show how the political ,church1 itself the ,state1 was the natural outcome during the ,middle ,ages of the teachings of the early ,christians as to the relationship of ,church and ,state4 #aj4 ,is it to be wondered that the ,romans were finally led to persecute the vast organized defiance of law by the ,christians8 #aa4 ,show how the ,christian idea of the equality and responsibility of all gave the citizen a new place in the ,state4 #ab4 ,state the reasons for the gradually increasing lack of sympathy and understanding between the eastern and western ,fathers of the ,church1 and which finally led to the division of the ,church4 #ac4 ,explain what is meant by a ,state within a ,state as applied to the ,church of the third and fourth centuries4 ,did this prove to be a good thing for the future of civilization8 ,why8 #ad4 ,would ,rome probably have been better able to withstand the barbarian invasions if ,christianity had not arisen1 or not8 ,why8 #ae4 ,show how the ,christian attitude toward pagan learning tended to stop schools and destroy the accumulated learning4 #af4 ,what was the effect of the ,christian attitude toward the care of the body1 on scientific and medical knowledge1 and on education8 ,was the ,christian or the pagan attitude more nearly like that of modern times8 #ag4 ,why did the emphasis on form of belief1 in the third and fourth centuries1 come to supersede the emphasis on personal virtues and simple faith of the first and second centuries8 #ah4 ,compare the work of the ,sunday ,school of to-day with the catechumenal instruction of the early ,christians4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #bg4 ,the ,talmud3 ,educational ,maxims from4 #bh4 ,saint ,paul3 ,epistle to the ,romans4 #bi4 ,saint ,paul3 ,to the ,athenians4 #cj4 ,the ,crimes of the ,christians4 7a7 ,minucius ,felix3 ,the ,roman ,point of ,view4 7b7 ,tertullian3 ,the ,christian ,point of ,view4 #ca4 ,persecution of the ,christians as ,disloyal ,subjects of the ,empire4 7a7 ,pliny to ,trajan4 7b7 ,trajan to ,pliny4 #cb4 ,tertullian3 ,effect of the ,persecutions4 #cc4 ,eusebius3 ,edicts of ,diocletian against the ,christians4 #cd4 ,workman3 ,certificate of having ,sacrificed to the ,pagan ,gods4 #ce4 ,kingsley3 ,the ,empire and ,christianity in ,conflict4 #cf4 ,lactantius3 ,the ,edict of ,toleration by ,galerius4 #cg4 ,theodosian ,code3 ,the ,faith of ,catholic ,christians4 #ch4 ,theodosian ,code3 ,privileges and ,immunities granted the ,clergy4 #ci4 ,apostolic ,constitutions3 ,how the ,catechumens are to be instructed4 #dj4 ,leach3 ,catechumenal ,schools of the ,early ,church4 #da4 ,apostolic ,constitutions3 ,christians should abstain from all ,heathen ,books4 #db4 ,the ,nicene ,creed of #cbe ,a4,d4 #dc4 ,saint ,benedict3 ,extracts from the ,rule of4 #dd4 ,lanfranc3 ,enforcing ,lenten ,reading in the ,monasteries4 #de4 ,saint ,jerome3 ,letter on the ,education of ,girls4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,characterize the type of education to be provided and the status of the teacher1 as shown in the selections from the ,talmud 7#bg74 ,compare with ,rome4 ,with ,athens4 #b4 ,characterize the attitude of ,saint ,paul toward the ,romans 7#bh74 ,does his description of ,athens 7#bi7 tally with the description of the ,athenians given in the text8 #c4 ,was it possible for the ,roman and the ,christian to understand one another1 thinking as they did in such different terms 7#cj a-b78 #d4 ,considering ,pliny and ,trajan 7#ca a-b7 as ,roman officials1 with the ,roman point of view1 and taking into account the time in the history of world civilization1 would you say that they were quite tolerant of rebels within the ,state8 #e4 ,compare the privileges and immunities granted the clergy 7#ch7 with the privileges previously given by ,constantine to physicians and teachers 7#bf74 #f4 ,characterize the irrepressible conflict as pictured by ,kingsley 7#ce74 ,name a few other somewhat similar conflicts in world history4 #g4 ,outline the type of instruction for catechumens as directed in the ,apostolic ,constitutions 7#ci74 #h4 ,what would have been the effect of the continued rejection of secular books called for in the ,apostolic ,constitutions 7#da78 #i4 ,what was the governmental advantage of the adoption of the ,nicene ,creed 7#db78 #aj4 ,why did the rule of ,saint ,benedict 7#dc7 requiring readings and study lead to the copying and preservation of manuscripts8 #aa4 ,what does the selection from ,lanfranc 7#dd7 indicate as to the state of monastic learning8 #ab4 ,was there anything pedagogically sound about the letter of ,saint ,jerome 7#de7 on the education of girls8 ,discuss4 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,dill1 ,sam'l4 ,roman ,society in the ,last ,century of the ,western ,empire4 ,fisher1 ,geo4 ,p4 ,beginnings of ,christianity4 99 ,fisher1 ,geo4 ,p4 ,history of the ,christian ,church4 99 ,hatch1 ,edw4 ,influence of ,greek ,ideas and ,usages upon the ,christian ,church4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhh47 ,hodgson1 ,geraldine4 ,primitive ,church ,education4 ,kretzmann1 ,p4 ,e4 ,education among the ,jews4 ,mac,cabe1 ,joseph4 ,saint ,augustine4 99 ,monro1 ,d4 ,c4 and ,sellery1 ,g4 ,e4 ,mediaeval ,civilization4 99 ,swift1 ,f4 ,h4 ,education in ,ancient ,israel to #gj ,a4,d4 ,taylor1 ,h4 ,o4 ,classical ,heritage of the ,middle ,ages4 ,wishart1 ,a4 ,w4 ,short ,history of ,monks and ,monasticism4 ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,mediaeval ,,world ,,the ,,deluge ,,of ,,barbarism ,,the ,,mediaeval ,,struggle ,,to ,,preserve ,,and ,,re,,stablish ,,civilization ,,chapter ,v ,,new ,,peoples ,,in ,,the ,,empire ,,the ,,weakened ,,empire4 ,though the first and second centuries ,a4,d4 have often been called one of the happiest ages in all human history1 due to a succession of good ,emperors and peace and quiet throughout the ,roman world1 #a the reign of the last of the good ,emperors1 ,marcus ,aurelius 7#afa-ahj ,a4,d471 may be regarded as clearly marking a turning-point in the history of ,roman society4 ,before his reign ,rome was ascendant1 prosperous1 powerful2 during his reign the ,empire was beset by many difficulties-- pestilence1 floods1 famine1 troubles with the ,christians1 and heavy ,german inroads--to which it had not before been accustomed2 and after his reign the ,empire was distinctly on the defensive and the decline4 ,though the elements contributing to this change in national destiny had their origin in the changes in the character of the national life at least two centuries earlier1 it was not until now that the ,empire began to feel seriously the effects of these changes in a lowered vitality and a weakened power of resistance4 ,the virtues of the citizens of the early days of the ,republic1 trained according to the old ideas1 had gradually given way in the face of the vices and corruption which beset and sapped the life of the upper and ruling classes in the later ,empire4 ,the failure of ,rome to put its provincial government on any honest and efficient civil-service basis1 the failure of the ,state to establish and direct an educational system capable of serving as a corrective of dangerous national tendencies1 the lack of a guiding national faith1 the gradual admission of so many ,germans into the ,empire1 the great extent and demoralizing influence of slavery #b--;all contributed to that loss of national strength and resisting power which was now becoming increasingly evident4 ,other contributing elements of importance were the almost complete obliteration of the peasantry by the creation of great landed estates and cattle ranches worked by slaves1 in place of the small farms of earlier days2 the increase of the poor in the cities1 and the declining birth-rate2 the introduction of large numbers of barbarians as farmers and soldiers2 and the demoralization of the city rabble by political leaders in need of votes4 ,captured slaves performed almost every service1 and a lavish display of wealth on the part of a few came to be a characteristic feature of city life4 #c ,the great middle1 commercial1 and professional classes were still prosperous and contented1 but luxury1 imported vices1 slavery1 political corruption1 and new ideals #d had gradually sapped the old national vitality and destroyed the resisting power of the ,state in the face of a great national calamity4 ,rome now stood1 much like the shell of a fine old tree1 apparently in good condition1 but in reality ready to fall before the blast because it had been allowed to become rotten at the heart4 ,sooner or later the boundaries of the ,empire1 which had held against the pressure from without for so long1 were destined to be broken and the barbarian deluge from the north and east would pour over the ,empire4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,a ,,bodyguard ,,of ,,germans ,a relief from the ,column of ,marcus ,aurelius1 at ,rome1 erected to celebrate his victories over the ,marcomanni1 and other ,german tribes4 ,,the ,,boundaries ,,of ,,the ,,empire ,,are ,,broken4 ,while temporary extensions of territory had at times been made beyond the ,rhine and the ,danube1 these rivers had finally come to be the established boundaries of the ,empire on the north1 and behind these rivers the ,teutonic barbarians1 or ,germani1 as the ,romans called them1 had by force been kept4 ,to do even this the ,romans had been obliged to admit bands of ,germans into the ,empire1 and had taken them into the ,roman army as allies1 making use of their great love for fighting to hold other ,german tribes in check4 ,in #aff ,a4,d4 the plague1 brought back by soldiers returning from the ,east1 carried off approximately half the population of ,italy4 ,this same year the ,marcomanni 7see ,figure #ah71 a former friendly tribe1 invaded the ,empire as far as the head of the ,adriatic ,sea1 and it required thirteen years of warfare to put them back behind the ,danube4 ,even this was accomplished only by the aid of friendly ,german tribes4 ,from this time on the ,empire was more or less on the defensive1 with the barbarian tribes to the north casting increasingly longing eyes toward a place in the sun and the rich plunder that lay to the south1 and frequently breaking over the boundaries4 ,rome1 though1 was still strong enough to put them back again4 ,in #bge ,a4,d41 after a five years' struggle1 the ,eastern ,emperor gave the province of ,dacia1 to the south of the ,danube1 to the ,visigoths1 in an effort to buy them off from further invasion and warfare4 ,this eased the pressure for another century4 ,in #cgh ,a4,d41 now pressed on by the terrible ,huns from behind1 the ,visigoths1 as a body1 invaded the ,eastern ,empire1 and in the ,battle of ,adrianople1 near ,constantinople1 defeated the ,roman army1 slew the ,roman ,emperor1 definitely broke the boundaries of the ,empire1 and they and the ,ostrogoths now moved southward and settled in ,moesia and ,thrace4 ,the ,germans at ,adrianople learned that they could beat the ,roman legions1 and from this time on it was they1 and not the ,romans1 who named the terms of ransom and the price of peace4 ,a few years later1 under ,alaric1 the ,visigoths invaded ,greece1 then turned westward through ,illyria to the valley of the ,po1 in northern ,italy1 which they reached in the year #djj4 ,in #daj the great calamity came when they captured and sacked ,rome4 ,the effect produced on the ,roman world by the fall of the ,eternal ,city1 as the news of the almost incredible disaster penetrated to the remote provinces1 was profound 7,r4 #dh74 ,for eight hundred years ,rome had not been touched by foreign hands1 and now it had been captured and plundered by barbarian hordes4 ,it seemed to many as though the end of the world were approaching4 ,the ,visigoths now turned west once more1 carrying with them the beautiful sister of the ,emperor as a captive bride of the chief1 and finally settled in ,spain and southern ,gaul1 which provinces were thenceforth lost to ,rome4 ,this was the first of the great permanent inroads into the ,empire1 and from now on ,roman resistance seemed powerless to stop the flood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,,the ,,german ,,migrations ,the barriers of the ,empire along the ,rhine and the ,danube now are broken down4 ,take a pencil and trace the route followed by each of these peoples4 ,a ,,period ,,of ,,tribal ,,movements4 ,the ,hunnish pressure also started the ,vandals and ,suevi1 and within fifty years they had been able to move across ,germany1 ,france1 and ,spain1 plundering the cities on their way4 ,finally they crossed to the northern coast of ,africa1 where they became noted as the great sea pirates of the ,mediterranean4 ,in #dee they crossed back to ,italy1 and ,rome was sacked for the second time by barbarian hordes4 ,the ,huns1 under the leadership of ,attila1 the so-called ,scourge of ,god1 now moved in and ravaged ,gaul 7#dea7 and northern ,italy 7#deb71 and then1 at the intercession of the ,roman ,pope ,leo1 were induced by a ransom price to return to the lower ,danube1 where they have since remained4 ,in #dgf the barbarian soldiers of the ,empire1 tired of camp life and demanding land on which they too might settle1 rose in revolt1 displaced the last of the ,western ,emperors1 and elevated ,odovacar1 a tribesman from the north1 as ruler in his stead4 ,the ,western ,roman ,empire was now at an end4 ,in #dic ,theodoric1 ,king of the ,ostrogoths1 became king of ,italy4 ,between #ddc and #dhe the ,angles1 ,saxons1 and ,jutes left their earlier homes in what is now ,denmark and northwestern ,germany1 and overran eastern and southern ,britain4 ,in #dhf the ,franks1 a great nation living along the lower ,rhine1 began to move1 and within two generations had overrun almost all of ,gaul4 ,in #ehf the ,lombards invaded and settled the valleys of northern ,italy1 displacing the ,ostrogoths there4 ,slavic tribes now moved into the ,eastern ,empire--,serbs and ,bulgars--and settled in ,moesia and ,thrace4 ,southeastern ,europe thus became ,slavic-,greek1 as western ,europe had become ,teutonic-,latin4 ,figure #cb shows the results of these different migrations up to about #ejj ,a4,d4 ,,europe ,,to ,,be ,,teutonic-,,latin4 ,in the seventh century another great wave of people1 of a different racial stock and religion--,semitic and ,mohammedan-- starting from ,arabia and along the shores of the ,red ,sea1 swept rapidly through ,egypt and ,africa and across into ,spain and ,france4 ,for a time it looked as though they might overrun all western ,europe and bring the ,german tribes under subjection4 ,fortunately they were definitely stopped and decisively defeated by the ,franks1 in the great ,battle of ,tours1 in #gcb4 ,they also overran ,syria and ,persia1 but were held in check in ,asia ,minor by the ,eastern ,empire1 which did not completely succumb to barbarian inroads until ,constantinople was taken by the ,turks1 in #adec4 ,the importance of the result1 to the future of our western civilization1 of this battle in the ,west can hardly be overestimated4 ,the future of ,european government1 law1 education1 and civilization was settled on that ,saturday afternoon in ,october1 on the battle plains of ,tours4 #e ,it was a struggle for mastery and dominion between the ,aryan and ,semitic races1 between the ,christian and ,mohammedan religions1 between the forces representing order on the one side and destruction on the other1 and between races destined to succeed to the civilization of ,greece and ,rome and a race representing oriental despotism and static conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,,the ,,known ,,world ,,in #hjj ,this map shows the great extent of the ,mohammedan conquests4 ,the part marked as ,european ,heathen was added to ,christianity within the next few centuries1 and became a part of our ,latin-,teutonic or western civilization4 ,driven back across the ,pyrenees by the ,franks1 these people settled in ,spain2 later developed there1 for a short period1 a for-the-time remarkable civilization1 but one that only slightly influenced the current of ,european development2 and then disappeared as a force in our western development and progress4 ,we shall meet them again a little later1 but only for a little while1 and then they concern our western development no more4 ,our interest from now on lies with the ,teutonic-,latin peoples of western ,europe1 for it is through them that our western civilization has been worked out and has come down to us4 ,,who ,,these ,,invaders ,,were4 ,a long-continued series of tribal migrations1 unsurpassed before in history1 had brought a large number of new peoples within the boundaries of the old ,empire4 ,they finally came so fast that they could not have been assimilated even in the best days of ,rome1 and now the assimilative and digestive powers of ,rome were gone4 ,tall1 huge of limb1 white-skinned1 flaxen-haired1 with fierce blue eyes1 and clad in skins and rude cloths1 they seemed like giants to the short1 small1 dark- skinned people of the ,italian peninsula4 ,quarrelsome2 delighting in fighting and gambling2 given to drunkenness and gluttonous eating2 possessed of a rude polytheistic religion in which ,woden1 the war god1 held the first place1 and ,valhalla was a heaven for those killed in battle2 living in rude villages in the forest1 and maintaining themselves by hunting and fishing--it is not to be wondered that ,rome dreaded the coming of these forest barbarians 7,r4 #df74 ,illustration3 ,,fig #cd4 ,a ,,german ,,war ,,chief ,restored1 and rather idealized 7,from the ,muse d',artillerie at ,paris7 ,the tribes nearest the ,rhine and the ,danube had taken on a little civilization from long contact with the ,romans1 but those farther away were savage and unorganized 7,rs4 #df1 #dg74 ,in general they represented a degree of civilization not particularly different from that of the better ,american ,indians in our colonial period1 #f though possessing a much larger ability to learn4 ,the two terrible centuries which brought these new peoples into the ,empire were marked by unspeakable disorder and frightful destruction4 ,it was the most complete catastrophe that had ever befallen civilized society4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,romans ,,destroying ,a ,,german ,,village 7,from the ,column of ,marcus ,aurelius1 at ,rome7 ,note the circular huts of reeds1 without windows1 and with but a single door4 ,,they ,,settle ,,down ,,within ,,the ,,empire4 ,finally1 after a period of wandering and plundering1 each of these new peoples settled down within the ,empire as rulers over the numerically larger native ,roman population1 and slowly began to turn from hunting to a rude type of farming4 ,for three or four centuries after the invasions ceased1 though1 ,europe presented a dreary spectacle of ignorance1 lawlessness1 and violence4 ,force reigned where law and order had once been supreme4 ,work largely ceased1 because there was no security for the results of labor4 ,the ,roman schools gradually died out1 in part because of pagan hostility 7all pagan schools were closed by imperial edict in #ebi ,a4,d471 and in part because they no longer ministered to any real need4 ,the church and the monastery schools alone remained1 the instruction in these was meager indeed1 and they served almost entirely the special needs of the priestly and monastic classes4 ,the ,latin language was corrupted and modified into spoken dialects1 and the written language died out except with the monks and the clergy4 ,even here it became greatly corrupted4 ,art perished1 and science disappeared4 ,the former ,roman skill in handicrafts was largely lost4 ,roads and bridges were left without repair4 ,commerce and intercourse almost ceased4 ,the cities decayed1 and many were entirely destroyed 7,r4 #di74 ,the new ruling class was ignorant--few could read or write their names-- and they cared little for the learning of ,greece and ,rome4 ,much of what was excellent in the ancient civilizations died out because these new peoples were as yet too ignorant to understand or use it1 and what was preserved was due to the work of others than themselves4 ,it was with such people and on such a basis that it was necessary for whatever constructive forces still remained to begin again the task of building up new foundations for a future ,european civilization4 ,this was the work of centuries1 and during the period the lamp of learning almost went out4 ,,barbarian ,,and ,,roman ,,in ,,contact4 ,civilization was saved from almost complete destruction chiefly by reason of the long and substantial work which ,rome had done in organizing and governing and unifying the ,empire2 by the relatively slow and gradual coming of the different tribes2 and by the thorough organization of the governing side of the ,christian ,church1 which had been effected before the ,empire was finally overrun and ,roman government ceased4 ,in unifying the government of the ,empire and establishing a common law1 language1 and traditions1 and in early beginning the process of receiving barbarians into the ,empire and educating them in her ways and her schools1 #g ,rome rendered the western world a service of inestimable importance and one which did much to prepare the way for the reception and assimilation of the invaders4 #h ,in the cities1 which remained ,roman in spirit even after their rulers had changed1 and where the ,roman population greatly preponderated even after the invaders had come1 some of the old culture and handicrafts were kept up1 and in the cities of southern ,europe the municipal form of city government was retained4 ,roman law still applied to trials of ,roman citizens1 and many ,roman governmental forms passed over to the invader chiefly because he knew no other4 ,the old ,roman population for long continued to furnish the clergy1 and these1 because of their ability to read and write1 also became the secretaries and advisers of their rude ,teutonic overlords4 ,in one capacity or another they persuaded the leaders of the tribes to adopt1 not only ,christianity1 but many of the customs and practices of the old civilization as well4 ,these various influences helped to assimilate and educate the newcomers1 and to save something of the old civilization for the future4 ,being strong1 sturdy1 and full of youthful energy1 and with a large capacity for learning1 the civilizing process1 though long and difficult1 was easier than it might otherwise have been1 and because of their strength and vigor these new races in time infused new life and energy into every land from ,spain to eastern ,europe 7,r4 #ej74 ,the most powerful force with which the barbarians came in contact1 though1 and the one which did most to reduce them to civilization1 was the ,christian ,church4 ,organized1 as we have seen1 after the ,roman governmental model1 and as a ,state within a ,state1 the ,church gained in strength as the ,roman government grew weaker1 and was ready to assume governmental authority when ,rome could no longer exert it4 ,the barbarians here encountered an organization stronger than force and greater than kings1 #i which they must either accept and make terms with or absolutely destroy4 ,as all the tribes1 though heathen1 possessed some form of spirit or nature worship or heathen gods1 which served as a basis for understanding the appeal of the ,church1 the result was the ultimate victory1 and the ,christianizing1 in name at least1 of all the barbarian tribes4 ,this was the first step in the long process of civilizing and educating them4 ,,the ,,impress ,,of ,,christianity ,,upon ,,them4 ,the importance of the services rendered by bishops1 priests1 and monks during what are known as the ,dark ,ages can hardly be overestimated4 ,in the face of might they upheld the right of the ,church and its representatives to command obedience and respect4 #aj ,the ,christian priest gradually forced the barbarian chief to do his will1 though at times he refused to be awed into submission1 murdered the priest1 and sacked the sacred edifice4 ,that the ,church lost much of its early purity of worship1 and adopted many practices fitted to the needs of the time1 but not consistent with real religion1 there can be no question4 ,in time the ,church gained much from the mixture of these new peoples among the old1 as they infused new vigor and energy into the blood of the old races1 but the immediate effect was quite otherwise4 ,the ,church itself was paganized1 but the barbarians were in time ,christianized4 ,priests and missionaries went among the heathen tribes and labored for their conversion4 ,of course the leaders were sought out first1 and often the conversion of a chieftain was made by first converting his wife4 ,after the chieftain had been won the minor leaders in time followed4 ,the lesson of the cross was proclaimed1 and the softening and restraining influences of the ,christian faith were exerted on the barbarian4 ,it was1 however1 a long and weary road to restore even a semblance of the order and respect for life and property which had prevailed under ,roman rule4 ,one of the most interesting of all the conversions was that made by the ,bishop ,ulphilas 7c4 #cac-chc7 among the ,visigoths1 before they moved westward from their original home north of the ,danube1 in what is now southwestern ,russia4 ,ulphilas was made bishop and sent among them in #cdc1 and spent the remainder of his life in laboring with them4 ,he devised an alphabet for them1 based on the ,greek1 and gave them a written language into which he translated for them the ,bible1 or rather large portions of it4 ,in the translation he omitted the two books of ,kings and the two ,samuels1 that the people might not find in them a further stimulus to their great warlike activity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,a ,,page ,,of ,,the ,,gothic ,,gospels 7reduced7 ,one of the treasures of the library of the ,university or ,upsala1 in ,sweden1 is a manuscript of this translation by ,bishop ,ulphilas4 ,greek letters1 with a few ,runic signs were used to represent ,gothic sounds4 ,the word rune comes from a ,gothic word meaning mystery4 ,to the primitive ,germans it seemed a mysterious thing that a series of marks could express thought4 ,christianity had been carried early to ,great ,britain by ,roman missionaries1 and in #ddj ,saint ,patrick converted the ,irish4 ,in #efc ,saint ,columba crossed to ,scotland1 founded the monastery at ,iona1 and began the conversion of the ,scots4 ,after the ,angles and ,saxons and ,jutes had overrun eastern and southern ,britain there was a period of several generations during which this portion of the island was given over to ,teutonic heathenism4 ,in #eig ,saint ,augustine1 the ,apostle to the ,english1 landed in ,kent and began the conversion of the people1 that year succeeding in converting ,ethelbert1 ,king of ,kent4 ,in #fbf ,edwin1 ,king of ,northumbria1 was converted1 and in #fce the ,english of ,wessex accepted ,christianity4 ,the ,english at once became strong supporters of the ,christian faith1 and in #hgh they forced the invading ,danes to accept ,christianity as one of the conditions of the ,peace of ,wedmore4 7,see ,map1 ,figure #db47 ,in #dif ,clovis1 ,king of the ,franks1 and three thousand of his followers were baptized1 following a vow and a victory in battle2 #aa in #ehg ,recarred1 ,king of the ,goths in ,spain1 was won over2 and in #fha the ,south ,saxons accepted ,christianity4 ,the ,germans of ,bavaria and ,thuringia were finally won over by about #gdj4 ,charlemagne repeatedly forced the northern ,saxons to accept ,christianity1 between #ggb and #hjd1 when the final submission of this ,german tribe took place4 ,finally1 in the tenth century1 ,rollo1 ,duke of the ,normans1 was won 7#iab72 ,boleslav ,,ii1 ,king of the ,bohemians1 in #ifg2 and the ,hungarians in #igb4 ,in the tenth century the ,slavs were converted to the ,eastern or ,greek type of ,christianity1 and ,poland1 ,norway1 and ,sweden to the ,western or ,roman type4 ,the last people to be converted were the ,prussians1 a half-,slavic tribe inhabiting ,east ,prussia and ,lithuania1 along the eastern ,baltic1 who were not brought to accept ,christianity1 in name1 until near the middle of the thirteenth century1 though efforts were begun with them as early as #ijj4 ,as late as #abcj they were still offering human sacrifices to their heathen gods to secure their favor1 but soon after this date they were forced to a nominal acceptance of ,christianity as a result of conquest by the ,teutonic ,knights4 ,it was thus a thousand years after its foundation before ,europe had accepted in name the ,christian faith4 ,to change a nominal acceptance to some semblance of a reality has been the work of the succeeding centuries4 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,during ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,everywhere throughout the old ,empire1 and far into the forest depths of barbarian lands1 went bishops1 priests1 and missionaries1 and there parishes were organized1 rude churches arose1 and the process of educating the fighting tribesmen in the ways of civilized life was carried out4 ,it was not by schools of learning1 but by faith and ceremonial that the ,church educated and guided her children into the type she approved4 ,schools for other than monks and clergy for a time were not needed1 and such practically died out4 ,the ,church and its offices took the place of education and exercised a wholesome and restraining influence over both young and old throughout the long period of the ,middle ,ages4 ,these the ,church in time taught the barbarian to respect4 ,the great educational work of the ,church during this period of insecurity and ignorance has seldom been better stated than in the following words by ,draper3 ,of the great ecclesiastics1 many had risen from the humblest ranks of society1 and these men1 true to their democratic instincts1 were often found to be the inflexible supporters of right against might4 ,eventually coming to be the depositaries of the knowledge that then existed1 they opposed intellect to brute force1 in many instances successfully1 and by the example of the organization of the ,church1 which was essentially republican1 they showed how representative systems may be introduced into the ,state4 ,nor was it over communities and nations that the ,church displayed her chief power4 ,never in the world before was there such a system4 ,from her central seat at ,rome1 her all-seeing eye1 like that of ,providence itself1 could equally take in a hemisphere at a glance1 or examine the private life of any individual4 ,her boundless influences enveloped kings in their palaces1 and relieved the beggar at the monastery gate4 ,in all ,europe there was not a man too obscure1 too insignificant1 or too desolate for her4 ,surrounded by her solemnities1 every one received his name at her altar2 her bells chimed at his marriage1 her knell tolled at his funeral4 ,she extorted from him the secrets of his life at her confessionals1 and punished his faults by her penances4 ,in his hour of sickness and trouble her servants sought him out1 teaching him1 by her exquisite litanies and prayers1 to place his reliance on ,god1 or strengthening him for the trials of life by the example of the holy and just4 ,her prayers had an efficacy to give repose to the souls of his dead4 ,when1 even to his friends1 his lifeless body had become an offense1 in the name of ,god she received it into her consecrated ground1 and under her shadow he rested till the great reckoning-day4 ,from little better than a slave she raised his wife to be his equal1 and1 forbidding him to have more than one1 met her recompense for those noble deeds in a firm friend at every fireside4 ,discountenancing all impure love1 she put round that fireside the children of one mother1 and made that mother little less than sacred in their eyes4 ,in ages of lawlessness and rapine1 among people but a step above savages1 she vindicated the inviolability of her precincts against the hand of power1 and made her temples a refuge and sanctuary for the despairing and oppressed4 ,truly she was the shadow of a great rock in many a weary land4 #ab4 ,,the ,,civilizing ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,monasteries4 ,no less important than the ,church and its clergy was the work of the monasteries and their monks in building up a basis for a new civilization4 ,these1 too1 were founded all over ,europe4 ,to make a map of western ,europe showing the monasteries established by #hjj ,a4,d4 would be to cover the map with a series of dots4 #ac ,the importance of their work is better understood when we remember that the ,germans had never lived in cities1 and did not settle in them on entering the ,empire4 ,the monasteries1 too1 were seldom established in towns4 ,their sites were in the river valleys and in the forests 7,r4 #fi71 and the monks became the pioneers in clearing the land and preparing the way for agriculture and civilization4 ,not infrequently a swamp was taken and drained4 ,the ,middle-,age period was essentially a period of settlement of the land and of agricultural development1 and the monks lived on the land and among a people just passing through the earliest stages of settled and civilized life4 ,in a way the inheritors of the agricultural and handicraft knowledge of the ,romans1 the monks became the most skillful artisans and farmers to be found1 and from them these arts in time reached the developing peasantry around them4 ,their work and services have been well summed up by the same author just quoted1 as follows3 ,it was mainly by the monasteries that to the peasant class of ,europe was pointed out the way of civilization4 ,the devotions and charities2 the austerities of the brethren2 their abstemious meal2 their meager clothing1 the cheapest of the country in which they lived2 their shaven heads1 or the cowl which shut out the sight of sinful objects2 the long staff in their hands2 their naked feet and legs2 their passing forth on their journeys by twos1 each a watch on his brother2 the prohibitions against eating outside of the wall of the monastery1 which had its own mill1 its own bakehouse1 and whatever was needed in an abstemious domestic economy 7,figure #ch72 their silent hospitality to the wayfarer1 who was refreshed in a separate apartment2 the lands around their buildings turned from a wilderness into a garden1 and1 above all1 labor exalted and ennobled by their holy hands1 and celibacy1 forever1 in the eye of the vulgar1 a proof of separation from the world and a sacrifice to heaven--these were the things that arrested the attention of the barbarians of ,europe1 and led them on to civilization4 #ad ,,the ,,problem ,,faced ,,by ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,that the lamp of learning burned low during this period of assimilation is no cause for wonder4 ,recovery from such a deluge of barbarism on a weakened society is not easy4 ,in fact the recovery was a long and slow process1 occupying nearly the whole of a thousand years4 ,the problem which faced the ,church1 as the sole surviving force capable of exerting any constructive influence1 was that of changing the barbarism and anarchy of the sixth century1 with its low standards of living and lack of humane ideals1 into the intelligent1 progressive civilization of the fifteenth century4 ,this was the work of the ,middle ,ages1 and largely the work of the ,christian ,church4 ,it was not a period of progress1 but one of assimilation1 so that a common western civilization might in time be developed out of the diverse and hostile elements mixed together by the rude force of circumstances4 ,the enfeebled ,roman race was to be reinvigorated by mixture with the youthful and vigorous ,germans 7,r4 #ej72 to the institutions of ancient society were to be added certain social and political institutions of the ,germanic peoples2 all were to be brought under the rule of a common ,christian ,church2 and finally1 when these people had become sufficiently civilized and educated to enable them to understand and appreciate1 nearly every achievement of the ,greeks and the ,romans in thought1 science1 law1 and the practical arts was to be recovered and made a part of our western civilization4 ,in this chapter we have dealt largely with the great fundamental movements which have so deeply influenced the course of human history4 ,in the chapters which immediately follow we shall tell how learning was preserved during the period and what facilities for education actually existed2 trace the more important efforts made to restablish schools and learning2 and finally describe the culmination of the process of absorbing and educating the ,germans in the civilization they had conquered that came in the great period of recovery of the ancient learning and civilization--the age of the ,renaissance4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,do the peculiar problems of assimilation of the foreign-born1 revealed to us by the ,world ,war1 put us in a somewhat similar position to ,rome under the ,empire as relates to the need of a guiding national faith8 #b4 ,outline how ,rome might have been helped and strengthened by a national school system under state control4 #c4 ,outline how our state school systems could be made much more effective as national instruments by the infusion into their instruction of a strong national faith4 #d4 ,try to picture the results upon our civilization had western ,europe become ,mohammedan4 #e4 ,the movement of new peoples into the ,roman ,empire was much slower than has been the immigration of foreign peoples into the ,united ,states1 since #ahdj4 ,why the difference in assimilative power8 #f4 ,how do you think the ,roman provinces and ,italy1 after the tribes from the ,north had settled down within the ,empire1 compared with ,mexico after the years of revolution with peons and brigands in control8 ,with ,russia1 after the destruction wrought by the ,bolshevists8 #g4 ,explain the importance of the long civilizing and educating work of ,rome among the ,german tribes1 in preparing the means for the preservation of ,roman institutions after the downfall of the ,roman government4 #h4 ,what does the fact that ,roman institutions and ,roman thinking continued and profoundly modified mediaeval life indicate as to the nature of ,roman government and the ,roman power of assimilation8 #i4 ,though ,rome never instituted a state school system1 was there not after all large educational work done by the government through its intelligent administration8 #aj4 ,show how the breakdown of ,roman government and ,roman institutions was naturally more complete in ,gaul than in northern ,italy1 and more complete in northern than in central or southern ,italy1 and hence how ,roman civilization was naturally preserved in larger measure in the cities of ,italy than elsewhere4 #aa4 ,show how the ,christian ,church1 too1 could not have completely dispensed with ,roman letters and ,roman civilization1 had it desired to do so1 but was forced of necessity to preserve and pass on important portions of the civilization of ,rome4 #ab4 ,what do you think would have been the effect on the future of civilization had the barbarian tribes overrun ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,greece during the ,age of ,pericles8 #ac4 ,what modern analogies do we have to the civilizing work of the monks and clergy during the ,middle ,ages8 #ad4 ,picture the work of the monasteries in handing on to western ,europe the arts and handicrafts and skilled occupations of ,rome4 ,cite some examples4 #ae4 ,what civilizing problem1 somewhat comparable to that of barbarian ,europe1 have we faced in our national history8 ,why have we been able to obtain results so much more rapidly8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #df4 ,caesar3 ,the ,hunting ,germans and their ,fighting ,ways4 #dg4 ,tacitus3 ,the ,germans and their ,domestic ,habits4 #dh4 ,dill3 ,effect on the ,roman ,world of the ,news of the ,sacking of ,rome by ,alaric4 #di4 ,giry and ,reville3 ,fate of the ,old ,roman ,towns4 #ej4 ,kingsley3 ,the ,invaders1 and what they brought4 #ea4 ,general ,form for a ,grant of ,immunity to a ,bishop4 #eb4 ,charlemagne3 ,powers and ,immunities granted to the ,monastery of ,saint ,marcellus4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,state the differences in character ,caesar observes 7#df7 between the ,gauls to the west of the ,rhine and the ,germans to the east4 #b4 ,what ,german characteristics that ,tacitus describes 7#dg7 would prove good additions to ,roman life8 #c4 ,do the emotions of ,saint ,jerome on hearing of the sacking of ,rome 7#dh7 reveal anything as to the extent to which the ,roman had become a ,churchman and the ,churchman a ,roman8 ,illustrate4 #d4 ,is it probable that a quarter-century of ,bolsheviki rule in ,russia would produce results comparable to those described by ,giry and ,rville 7#di78 #e4 ,is ,kingsley right in stating 7#ej7 that the best elements of all the modern ,european peoples came from the barbarian invaders8 ,state what seem to you to be the important contributions of barbarian invader1 ,roman1 and ,churchman4 #f4 ,do the grants of privileges and immunities shown in the general form 7#ea7;and the specific form 7#eb7 seem to follow naturally from the earlier grants to physicians and teachers 7#bf7 and to the clergy 7#ch78 ,point out the relationship4 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b4 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages4 ,church1 ,r4 ,w4 ,the ,beginnings of the ,middle ,ages4 ,kingsley1 ,chas4 ,the ,roman and ,teuton4 99 ,thorndike1 ,lynn4 ,history of ,mediaeval ,europe4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages #a ,i4 ,,condition ,,and ,,preservation ,,of ,,learning ,,the ,,low ,,intellectual ,,level4 ,as was stated in the preceding chapter1 the lamp of learning burned low throughout the most of western ,europe during the period of assimilation and partial civilization of the barbarian tribes4 ,the western portion of the ,roman ,empire had been overrun1 and rude ,germanic chieftains were establishing1 by the law of might1 new kingdoms on the ruins of the old4 ,the ,germanic tribes had no intellectual life of their own to contribute1 and no intellectual tastes to be ministered unto4 ,with the destruction of cities and towns and country villas1 with their artistic and literary collections1 much that represented the old culture was obliterated1 #b and books became more and more scarce4 #c ,the destruction was gradual1 but by the beginning of the seventh century the loss had become great4 ,the ,roman schools also gradually died out as the need for an education which prepared for government and gave a knowledge of ,roman law passed away1 and the type of education approved by the ,church was left in complete control of the field4 ,as the security and leisure needed for study disappeared1 and as the only use for learning was now in the service of the ,church1 education became limited to the narrow lines which offered such preparation and to the few who needed it4 ,amid the ruins of the ancient civilization the ,church stood as the only conservative and regenerative force1 and naturally what learning remained passed into its hands and under its control4 ,the result of all these influences and happenings was that by the beginning of the seventh century ,christian ,europe had reached a very low intellectual level1 and during the seventh and eighth centuries conditions grew worse instead of better4 ,only in ,england and ,ireland1 as will be pointed out a little later1 and in a few ,italian cities1 was there anything of consequence of the old ,roman learning preserved4 ,on the ,continent there was little general learning1 even among the clergy 7,r4 #fd a74 ,many of the priests were woefully ignorant1 #d and the ,latin writings of the time contain many inaccuracies and corruptions which reveal the low standard of learning even among the better educated of the clerical class4 ,the ,church itself was seriously affected by the prevailing ignorance of the period1 and incorporated into its system of government and worship many barbarous customs and practices of which it was a long time in ridding itself4 ,so great had become the ignorance and superstition of the time1 among priests1 monks1 and the people2 so much had religion taken on the worship of saints and relics and shrines2 and so much had the ,church developed the sensuous and symbolic1 that religion had in reality become a crude polytheism instead of the simple monotheistic faith of the early ,church4 ,along scientific lines especially the loss was very great4 ,scientific ideas as to natural phenomena disappeared1 and crude and childish ideas as to natural forces came to prevail4 ,as if barbarian chiefs and robber bands were not enough1 popular imagination peopled the world with demons1 goblins1 and dragons1 and all sorts of superstitions and supernatural happenings were recorded4 ,intercommunication largely ceased2 trade and commerce died out2 the accumulated wealth of the past was destroyed2 and the old knowledge of the known world became badly distorted1 as is evidenced by the many crude mediaeval maps4 7,see ,figure #df47 ,the only scholarship of the time1 if such it might be called1 was the little needed by the ,church to provide for and maintain its government and worship4 ,almost everything that we to-day mean by civilization in that age was found within the protecting walls of monastery or church1 and these institutions were at first too busy building up the foundations upon which a future culture might rest to spend much time in preserving learning1 much less in advancing it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,a ,,typical ,,monastery of ,,southern ,,europe ,,the ,,monasteries ,,develop ,,schools4 ,in this age of perpetual lawlessness and disorder the one opportunity for a life of repose and scholarly contemplation lay in the monasteries4 ,here the rule of might and force was absent 7,r4 #eb71 and the timid1 the devout1 and the studiously inclined here found a refuge from the turbulence and brutality of a rude civilization4 ,the early monasteries1 and especially the monastery of ,saint ,victor1 at ,marseilles1 founded by ,cassian in #djd1 had represented a culmination of the western feeling of antagonism to all ancient learning1 but with the founding of ,monte ,cassino by ,saint ,benedict1 in #ebi ,a4,d41 and the promulgation of the ,benedictine rule 7,r4 #dc71 a more liberal attitude was shown4 #e ,this rule was adopted generally by the monasteries throughout what is now ,italy1 ,spain1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,england1 and the ,benedictine became the type for the monks of the early ,middle ,ages4 ,to this order we are largely indebted for the copying of books and the preservation of learning throughout the mediaeval period4 ,the #dhth rule of ,saint ,benedict1 it will be remembered 7,r4 #dc71 had imposed reading and study as a part of the daily duty of every monk1 but had said nothing about schools4 ,subsequent regulations issued by superiors had aimed at the better enforcement of this rule 7,r4 #dd71 that the monks might lead devout lives and know the ,bible and the sacred writings of the ,church4 ,imposed at first as a matter of education and discipline for the monks1 this rule ultimately led to the establishment of schools and the development of a system of monastic instruction4 ,as youths were received at an early age #f into the monasteries to prepare for a monastic life1 it was necessary that they be taught to read if they were later to use the sacred books4 ,this led to the duty of instructing novices1 which marks the beginning of monastic instruction for those within the walls4 ,as books were scarce and at the same time necessary1 and the only way to get new ones was to copy from old ones1 the monasteries were soon led to take up the work once carried on by the publishing houses of ancient ,rome1 and in much the same way4 ,this made writing necessary1 and the novices had to be instructed carefully in this1 as well as in reading4 #g ,the chants and music of the ,church called for instruction of the novices in music1 and the celebration of ,easter and the fast and festival days of the ,church called for some rudimentary instruction in numbers and calculation4 ,out of these needs rose the monastery school1 the copying of manuscripts1 and the preservation of books4 ,due to their greater security and quiet the monasteries became the leading teaching institutions of the early part of the ,middle-,age period1 and those who wished their children trained for the service of the ,church gave them to the monasteries 7,r4 #ec a74 ,the development of the monastic schools was largely voluntary1 though from an early date bishops and rulers began urging the monasteries to open schools for boys in connection with their houses1 and schools became in time a regular feature of the monastic organization4 ,from schools only for those intending to take the vows 7oblati71 the instruction was gradually opened1 after the ninth century1 to others 7externi7 not intending to take the vows1 and what came to be known as outer monastic schools were in time developed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view ,,of ,a ,,mediaeval ,,monastery 7,from an engraving by ,viollet-le-,duc1 dated #agah1 of the ,cistercian ,abbey of ,cteaux1 in ,france7 ,this monastery was founded in the forests of what is now northeastern ,france1 in #aaih ,a4,d41 and was the first of a reformed ,benedictine order1 known as ,cistercians4 ,for an explanation of the monastery1 see the opposite page4 7,note3 explanation follows47 ,explanation of the ,monastery opposite3 ,the cross1 by the roadside1 indicates the entrance gate4 ,passing through the orchards and fields1 the traveler reached the outer gate-house4 ,at the almonry 7,c7 food and drink were given out2 on the second floor rooms for the night could be had2 in the little chapel 7,d7 prayers could be said2 and in the stable 7,f7 the traveler's horse could be cared for for the night4 ,an inner gate through 7,e7 opened into an inner court1 around which were the barns1 chicken- yards1 cow-sheds1 etc4 ,the ,abbot lived at ,h4 ,g was a dormitory for the lay brothers who did the heavy work of the monastery1 and who entered the church 7,n7 at the rear through a special doorway 7,s74 ,all of these buildings were considered as outside the monastery proper4 ,inside were the great church 7,n71 with the library 7,p7 in the rear4 ,seven scriptoria are shown on the side of the library building4 ,m was the large dormitory for the monks1 and ,r the infirmary for old and sick brothers4 ,i was the kitchen1 ,k was the dining-hall 7refectory71 and ,l the stairs to the upper dormitory rooms4 ,c and ,e are two cloisters with corridors on the four sides1 somewhat similar to the cloisters shown for the monastery on ,plate ,i4 ,the copying of books often took place in these cloisters1 though a scriptorium was usually found under the library1 the library proper1 as in ,plate #b1 being on the second floor 7,p7 and reached by a winding stair4 ,a wall surrounded the monastery grounds1 and a stream of running water passed through them4 ,the monasteries became the preservers of learning4 ,another need developed the copying of pagan books1 and incidentally the preservation of some of the best of ,roman literature4 ,the language of the ,church very naturally was ,latin1 as it was a direct descendant of ,roman life1 governmental organization1 citizenship1 and education4 ,the writings of the ,fathers of the ,western ,church had all been in ,latin1 and in the fourth century the ,bible had been translated from the ,greek into the ,latin4 ,this edition1 known as the ,vulgate #h ,bible1 became the standard for western ,europe for ten centuries to come4 ,the ,german tribes which had invaded the ,empire had no written languages of their own1 and their spoken dialects differed much from the ,latin speech of those whom they had conquered4 ,latin was thus the language of all those of education1 and naturally continued as the language of the ,church and the monastery for both speech and writing4 ,all books were1 of course1 written in ,latin4 ,under the rude influences and the general ignorance of the period1 though1 the language was easily and rapidly corrupted1 and it became necessary for the monasteries and the churches to have good models of ,latin prose and verse to refer to4 ,these were best found in the old ,latin literary authors--particularly ,caesar1 ,cicero1 and ,vergil4 ,to have these1 due to the great destruction of old books which had taken place during the intervening centuries1 it was necessary to copy these authors1 #i as well as the ,psalter1 the ,missal1 #aj the sacred books1 and the writings of the ,fathers of the ,church 7,rs4 #ee1 #ef74 ,it thus happened that the monasteries unintentionally began to preserve and use the ancient ,roman books1 and from using them at first as models for style1 an interest in their contents was later awakened4 ,while many of the monasteries remained as farming1 charitable1 and ascetic institutions almost exclusively1 and were never noted for their educational work1 a small but increasing number gradually accumulated libraries and became celebrated for their literary activity and for the character of their instruction4 ,the monasteries thus in time became the storehouses of learning1 the publishing houses of the ,middle ,ages 7,rs4 #ed1 #ee1 #ef71 teaching institutions of first importance1 and centers of literary activity and religious thought1 as well as centers for agricultural development1 work in the arts and crafts1 and ,christian hospitality4 ,many developed into large and important institutions 7,r4 #fi74 ,,the ,,copying ,,of ,,manuscripts4 #aa ,the work of the more important monasteries and the monastic churches in copying books was a service to learning of large future significance4 ,while many of the books copied were for the promotion of the religious service1 such as ,missals and ,psalters 7,r4 #ee71 and many others were tales of saints and wearisome comments on the sacred writings1 a few were old classical texts representing the best of ,roman literary work4 ,a few monastic chronicles and histories of importance were composed by the brothers1 and also preserved for us by the copying process4 ,the production of a single book was a task of large proportions1 and explains in part the small number of volumes the monasteries accumulated4 ,after the raids of the ,mohammedans across ,egypt1 in the seventh century1 the supply of ,egyptian papyrus stopped because of the interruption of communications1 and the only writing material during the ,middle ,ages was the skin of sheep or goats or calves4 ,sheepskins were chiefly used1 and a book of size might require a hundred or more skins4 ,these were first soaked in limewater to loosen the hair1 then scraped clean of hair and flesh1 and then carefully stretched on board frames to dry4 ,after they had dried they were again scraped with sharp knives to secure an even thickness1 and then rubbed smooth with pumice and chalk4 ,when finished1 the clean1 shining1 cream-colored skin was known as vellum1 #ab or parchment4 ,this was next cut into pages of the desired size and arranged ready for writing4 ,the larger pieces were used for large books1 such as are shown in ,plate #b1 and the remnants to produce small books4 ,the inks1 too1 had to be prepared1 and the pages ruled4 ,the main writing was done with black1 but the page was frequently bordered with red1 gold1 or some other bright color1 while many beautiful illustrations were inserted by artistic monks4 ,sometimes an initial letter was beautifully embellished1 as is shown in ,figure #ci2 sometimes illustrations were introduced in the body of the page1 of which ,figures #ci and #dj are types2 and sometimes a colored illustration was painted on a sheet of vellum and inserted in the book4 ,figure #dd represents such an illustrated page in an old manuscript4 ,finally1 when completed1 the lettered and illustrated parchment sheets were arranged in order1 sewed together with a deerskin or pigskin string1 bound together between oaken boards and covered with pigskin1 properly lettered in gold1 fitted with metal corners and clasps 7,r4 #eg71 as shown in ,plate #b1 and often chained to their bookrack in the library with heavy iron chains as well4 7,see ,figure #ga and ,plate #b47 ,still further to protect the volume from theft1 an anathema against the thief was usually lettered in the volume 7,r4 #eh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,,initial ,,letter ,,from ,,an ,,old ,,manuscript ,this shows the beautiful work done by some of the nuns and monks in illuminating the books they copied4 ,this was done in colors by a nun1 who pictured her own work in this initial letter ,l4 ,such was the painfully slow method of producing and multiplying books before the advent of printing1 and in days when skill in copying manuscripts was not particularly common1 even among the monks4 ,it required from a few months to a year or more to produce a few copies1 depending on the size and nature of the work1 whereas to-day1 with printing-presses1 five thousand copies of such a book as this can be printed and bound in a few days4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,a ,,monk ,,in ,a ,,scriptorium 7,from an illuminated picture in a manuscript in the ,royal ,library at ,brussels7 ,this picture shows the beautiful work done in illuminating manuscript books by mediaeval writers4 ,each copy was a work of art4 ,this represents a better type of scriptorium than is usually shown4 ,,the ,,scriptorium4 ,an important part of the material equipment of many monasteries1 in consequence1 came to be a scriptorium1 or writing-room1 where the copying of manuscripts could take place undisturbed4 ,in some monasteries one general room was provided1 though it was customary to have a number of small rooms at the side of the library4 ,in the monastery shown in ,figure #ch1 seven small rooms for this purpose are shown built out on one side of the library4 ,sometimes individual cells along a corridor were provided4 ,the advantage of the single room in which a number of monks worked came when an edition of eight or ten copies of a book was to be prepared4 ,one monk could then dictate1 while eight or ten others carefully printed on the skins before them what was dictated by the reader4 #ac ,figure #dj shows a monk at work1 though here he is copying from a book before him4 ,after an edition of eight or ten copies of a book had been prepared and bound the extra copies were sent to neighboring and sometimes distant monasteries1 sometimes in exchange for other books1 and sometimes as gifts to brothers who had longed to read the work 7,r4 #ee74 ,new monasteries were provided with the beginnings of a library in this way1 and churches were supplied with ,missals1 ,psalters1 and other books needed for their services4 ,the writing-room1 or rooms1 came to be a very important place in those monasteries noted for their literary activity4 ,west gives an interesting description of the scriptorium at ,tours1 where the learned ,english monk1 ,alcuin1 was ,abbot from #gif to #hjd1 and which at the time was the principal book-writing monastery in ,frankland4 ,describing ,alcuin's labors to secure books to send to other monasteries in ,charlemagne's kingdom1 he says3 ,we can almost reconstruct the scene4 ,in the intervals between the hours of prayer and the observance of the round of cloister life1 come hours for the copying of books under the presiding genius of ,alcuin4 ,the young monks file into the scriptorium1 and one of them is given the precious parchment volume containing a work of ,bede or ,isidore or ,augustine1 or else some portion of the ,latin ,scriptures1 or even a heathen author4 ,he reads slowly and clearly at a measured rate while all the others seated at their desks take down his words1 and thus perhaps a score of copies are made at once4 ,alcuin's observant eye watches each in turn1 and his correcting hand points out the mistakes in orthography and punctuation4 ,the master of ,charles the ,great1 in that true humility that is the charm of his whole behavior1 makes himself the writing-master of his monks1 stooping to the drudgery of faithfully and gently correcting their many puerile mistakes1 and all for the love of studies and the love of ,christ4 ,under such guidance1 and deeply impressed by the fact that in the copying of a few books they were saving learning and knowledge from perishing1 and thereby offering a service most acceptable to ,god1 the copying in the scriptorium went on in sobriety from day to day4 ,thus were produced those improved copies of books which mark the beginning of a new age in the conserving and transmission of learning4 ,alcuin's anxiety in this regard was not undue1 for the few monasteries where books could be accurately transcribed were as necessary for publication in that time as are the great publishing houses to-day4 #ad ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,,charlemagne',s ,,empire1 ,,and ,,the ,,important ,,monasteries ,,of ,,the ,,time ,charlemagne's empire at his death is shaded darker than other parts of the map4 ,,monastic ,,collection4 ,despite the important work done by a few of the monasteries in preserving and advancing learning1 large collections of books were unknown before the ,revival of ,learning1 in the fourteenth century4 ,the process of book production in itself was very slow1 and many of the volumes produced were later lost through fire1 or pillage by new invaders4 ,during the early days of wood construction a number of monastic and church libraries were burned by accident4 ,in the pillaging of the ,danes and ,northmen on the coasts of ,england and northern ,france1 in the ninth and tenth centuries1 a number of important monastic collections there were lost4 ,in ,italy the ,lombards destroyed some collections in their sixth-century invasion1 and the ,saracens burned some in southern ,italy in the ninth4 ,monte ,cassino1 among other monasteries1 was destroyed by both the ,lombards and the ,saracens4 ,from a number of extant catalogues of old monastic libraries we know that1 even as late as the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 a library of from two to three hundred volumes was large4 #ae ,the catalogues show that most of these were books of a religious nature1 being monastic chronicles1 manuals of devotion1 comments on the ,scriptures1 lives of miracle-working saints1 and books of a similar nature 7,rs4 #ee1 #ef74 ,a few were commentaries on the ancient learning1 or mediaeval textbooks on the great subjects of study of the time 7,r4 #fj74 ,a still smaller number were copies of old classical literary works1 and of the utmost value 7,r4 #eg74 ,,the ,,convents ,,and ,,their ,,schools4 ,the early part of the ,middle ,ages also witnessed a remarkable development of convents for women1 these receiving a special development in ,germanic lands4 ,filled with the same aggressive spirit as the men1 but softened somewhat by ,christianity1 many women of high station among the ,german tribes founded convents and developed institutions of much renown4 ,this provided a rather superior class of women as organizers and directors1 and a conventual life continued1 throughout the entire ,middle ,ages1 to attract an excellent class of women4 ,this will be understood when it is remembered that a conventual life offered to women of intellectual ability and scholarly tastes the one opportunity for an education and a life of learning4 ,the convents1 too1 were much earlier and much more extensively opened for instruction to those not intending to take the vows than was the case with the monasteries1 and1 in consequence1 it became a common practice throughout the ,middle ,ages1 just as it is to-day among ,catholic families1 to send girls to the convent for education and for training in manners and religion4 ,many well-trained women were produced in the convents of ,europe in the period from the sixth to the thirteenth centuries4 ,the instruction consisted of reading1 writing1 and copying ,latin1 as in the monasteries1 as well as music1 weaving and spinning1 and needlework4 ,weaving and spinning had an obvious utilitarian purpose1 and needlework1 in addition to necessary sewing1 was especially useful in the production of altar-cloths and sacred vestments4 ,the copying and illuminating of manuscripts1 music1 and embroidering made a special appeal to women 7,r4 #ef71 and some of the most beautifully copied and illuminated manuscripts of the mediaeval period are products of their skill4 #af ,their contribution to music and art1 as it influenced the life of the time1 was also large4 ,the convent schools reached their highest development about the middle of the thirteenth century1 after which they began to decline in importance1 ,,learning ,,in ,,ireland ,,and ,,britain4 ,as was stated earlier in this chapter1 the one part of western ,europe where something of the old learning was retained during this period was in ,ireland1 and in those parts of ,england which had not been overrun by the ,germanic tribes4 ,christian civilization and monastic life had been introduced into ,ireland probably as early as #dbe ,a4,d41 and probably by monastic missionaries from ,lerins and ,saint ,victor 7see ,figure #da74 ,saint ,patrick preached ,christianity to the ,irish1 about #ddj ,a4,d41 and during the fifth and sixth centuries churches and monasteries were founded in such numbers over ,ireland that the land has been said to have been dotted all over with churches1 monasteries1 and schools4 ,saint ,patrick had been educated in the old ,roman schools1 probably at ,tours when it was still an important ,roman provincial city4 ,other early missionaries had had similar training1 and these1 not sharing the antipathy to pagan learning of the early ,italian church fathers1 had carried ,greek and ,latin languages and learning to ,ireland4 ,here it flourished so well1 largely due to the island being spared from invasion1 that ,ireland remained a center for instruction in ,greek long after it had virtually disappeared elsewhere in western ,christendom4 ,so much was this the case1 says ,sandys1 in his ,history of ,classical ,scholarship1 that if any one knew ,greek it was assumed that he must have come from ,ireland4 ,in #efe ,a4,d41 ,saint ,columba1 an eminent ,irish scholar and religious leader1 crossed over to what is now southwestern ,scotland1 founded there the monastery of ,iona1 and began the conversion of the ,picts4 ,saint ,augustine landed in ,kent in #eig1 and had begun the conversion of the ,angles and ,saxons and ,jutes who had settled in southeastern ,britain1 while shortly afterwards the ,irish monks from ,iona began the conversion of the people of the north of ,britain4 ,the monastery of ,lindisfarne was founded about #fce ,a4,d41 and soon became an important center of religious and classical learning in the north4 ,irish and ,english monks also crossed in numbers to northern ,frankland1 and labored for the conversion of the ,franks and ,saxons4 ,in #ffd ,a4,d41 at a council held at ,whitby1 the ,irish ,church in ,england and the ,roman ,church were united1 and a great enthusiasm for religion and learning swept over the island4 ,in #fgj1 ,theodore of ,tarsus and the ,abbot ,hadrian1 whom ,bede1 the scholar and historian of the early ,english ,church1 describes as men instructed in secular and divine literature both ,greek and ,latin 7,r4 #ei a71 arrived in ,england from southern ,italy and began their work of instructing pupils in ,greek and ,latin 7,r4 #ei b74 ,both taught at ,canterbury1 and raised the cathedral school there to high rank4 ,in #fgd the monastery at ,wearmouth was founded1 and in #fhb its companion ,yarrow4 ,these were endowed with books from ,rome and ,vienne1 and soon became famous for the instruction they provided4 ,it was at the twin monasteries of ,wearmouth and ,yarrow that the ,venerable ,bede 7#fgc-gce71 whose ,ecclesiastical ,history of ,england gives us our chief picture of education in ,britain in his time1 was educated and remained as a lifelong student4 #ag ,as a result of all these efforts a number of northern monasteries1 as well as a few of the cathedral schools1 early became famous for their libraries1 scholars1 and learning4 ,this culture in ,ireland and ,britain was of a much higher standard than that obtaining on the ,continent at the time1 because the classical inheritance there had been less corrupted4 ,,the ,,cathedral ,,school ,,at ,,york4 ,one of the schools which early attained fame was the cathedral school at ,york1 in northern ,england4 ,this had1 by the middle of the eighth century1 come to possess for the time a large library1 and contained most of the important ,latin authors and textbooks then known 7,r4 #fa74 ,in this school1 under the scholasticus ,aelbert1 was trained a youth by the name of ,alcuin1 born in or near ,york1 about #gce ,a4,d4 ,in a poem describing the school 7,r4 #fj71 he gives a good portrayal of the instruction he received1 telling how the learned ,aelbert moistened thirsty hearts with diverse streams of teaching and the varied dews of learning1 and sorted out youths of conspicuous intelligence to whom he gave special attention4 ,alcuin afterward succeeded ,aelbert as scholasticus1 and was widely known as a gifted teacher4 ,well aware of the precarious condition of learning amid such a rude and uncouth society1 he handed on to his pupils the learning he had received1 and imbued them with something of his own love for it and his anxiety for its preservation and advancement4 ,it was this ,alcuin who was soon to give a new impetus to the development of schools and the preservation of learning in ,frankland4 ,,charlemagne ,,and ,,alcuin4 ,in #gfh there came to the throne as king of the great ,frankish nation one of the most distinguished and capable rulers of all time--a man who would have been a commanding personality in any age or land4 ,his ancestors had developed a great kingdom1 and it was his grandfather who had defeated the ,saracens at ,tours 7p4 #aac7 and driven them back over the ,pyrenees into ,spain4 ,this man ,charlemagne easily stands out as one of the greatest figures of all history4 ,for five hundred years before and after him there is no ruler who matched him in insight1 force1 or executive capacity4 ,he is particularly the dominating figure of mediaeval times4 ,born in an age of lawlessness and disorder1 he used every effort to civilize and rule as intelligently as possible the great ,frankish kingdom4 ,wars he waged to civilize and ,christianize the ,saxon tribes of northern ,germany1 to reduce the ,lombards of northern ,italy to order1 and to extend the boundaries of the ,frankish nation4 ,at his death1 in #had1 his kingdom had succeeded to most of the western possessions of the old ,roman ,empire1 including all of what to-day comprises ,france1 ,belgium1 ,holland1 and ,switzerland1 large portions of what is now western ,germany and northern ,italy1 and portions of northern ,spain4 7,see ,figure #da47 ,realizing better than did his bishops and abbots the need for educational facilities for the nobles and clergy1 he early turned his attention to securing teachers capable of giving the needed instruction4 ,these1 though1 were scarce and hard to obtain4 ,after two unsuccessful efforts to obtain a master scholar to become1 as it were1 his minister of education1 he finally succeeded in drawing to his court perhaps the greatest scholar and teacher in all ,england4 ,at ,parma1 in northern ,italy1 ,charlemagne met ,alcuin1 in #gha1 and invited him to leave ,york for ,frankland4 ,after obtaining the consent of his archbishop and king1 ,alcuin accepted1 and arrived1 with three assistants1 at ,charlemagne's court1 in #ghb1 to take up the work of educational propaganda in ,frankland4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #a4 ,,the ,,cloisters ,,of ,a ,,monastery1 ,,near ,,florence1 ,,italy4 ,this monastery1 located on a high hill and resembling a mediaeval fortress as one approaches it1 was founded in #acda by a ,florentine merchant4 ,the picture shows the cloisters and interior court4 ,eighteen cells1 two churches1 and other rooms are entered from the cloisters4 ,a few monks were still in residence there late as #aije1 one of whom is seen1 but the monastery was then in the process of being closed by the ,italian ,government4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #b4 ,,the ,,library ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,saint ,,wallberg1 ,,at ,,zutphen1 ,,holland ,ponderous ,folios for ,scholastics made ,this shows the large oak-bound and chained books as well as a common type of bookrack used in churches and monasteries during the earlier period4 ,the plight in which he found learning was most deplorable1 presenting a marked contrast to conditions in ,england4 ,learning had been almost obliterated during the two centuries of wild disorder from #fjj on4 ,from #fjj to #hej has often been called the darkest period of the ,dark ,ages1 and ,alcuin arrived when ,frankland was at its worst4 ,the monastic and cathedral schools which had been established earlier had in large part been broken up1 and the monasteries had become places for the pensioning of royal favorites and hence had lost their earlier religious zeal and effectiveness4 ,the abbots and bishops possessed but little learning1 and the lower clergy1 recruited largely from bondmen1 were grossly ignorant1 greatly to the injury of the ,church4 ,the copying of books had almost ceased1 and learning was slowly dying out4 ,,the ,,palace ,,school4 ,there had for some time been a form of school connected with the royal court1 known as the palace school1 though the study of letters had played but a small part in it4 ,to the reorganization of this school ,alcuin first addressed himself1 introducing into it elementary instruction in that learning of which he was so fond4 ,the school included the princes and princesses of the royal household1 relatives1 attachs1 courtiers1 and1 not least in importance as pupils1 the king and queen4 ,to meet the needs of such a heterogeneous circle was no easy task4 ,the instruction which ,alcuin provided for the younger members of the circle was largely of the question and answer 7catechetical7 type1 both questions and answers being prepared by ,alcuin beforehand and learned by the pupils4 ,fortunately examples of ,alcuin's instruction have been preserved to us in a dialogue prepared for the instruction of ,pepin1 a son of ,charlemagne1 then sixteen years old 7,r4 #fb74 ,with the older members the questions and answers were oral4 ,for all1 though1 the instruction was of a most elementary nature1 ranging over the elements of the subjects of instruction of the time4 ,poetry1 arithmetic1 astronomy1 the writings of the ,fathers1 and theology are mentioned as having been studied4 ,charlemagne learned to read ,latin1 but is said never to have mastered the art of writing4 ,it was not an easy position for any one to fill4 ,to quote from ,west's description3 #ah ,charles wanted to know everything and to know it at once4 ,his strong1 uncurbed nature eagerly seized on learning1 both as a delight for himself and a means of giving stability to his government1 and so1 while he knew he must be docile1 he was at the same time imperious4 ,alcuin knew how to meet him1 and at need could be either patiently jocular or grave and reproving4 ,thus1 on one occasion when he had been informed of the great learning of ,augustine and ,jerome1 he impatiently demanded of ,alcuin1 ,why can ,i not have twelve clerks such as these8 ,twelve ,augustines and ,jeromes6 and to be made arise at the king's bidding6 ,alcuin was shocked4 ,what6 he discreetly rejoined1 the ,lord of heaven and earth had but two such1 and wouldst thou have twelve8 ,but his personal affection for the king was most unselfish1 and he consequently took great delight in stimulating his desire for learning4444 ,he studied everything ,alcuin set before him1 but had special anxiety to learn all about the moon that was needed to calculate ,easter4 ,with such an eager and impatient pupil as ,charles1 the other scholars were soon inspired to beset ,alcuin with endless puzzling questions1 and there are not wanting evidences that some of them were disposed to levity and even carped at his teachings4 ,but he was indefatigable1 rising with the sun to prepare for teaching4 ,in one of his poetical exercises he says of himself that as soon as the ruddy charioteer of the dawn suffuses the liquid deep with the new light of day1 the old man rubs the sleep of night from his eyes and leaps at once from his couch1 running straightway into the fields of the ancients to pluck their flowers of correct speech and scatter them in sport before his boys4 ,,charlemagne',s ,,proclamations ,,on ,,education4 ,after reorganizing the palace school1 ,alcuin and ,charlemagne turned their attention to the improvement of education among the monks and clergy throughout the realm4 ,the first important service was the preparation and sending out of a carefully collected and edited series of sermons to the churches containing1 in two volumes1 lessons suitable for the whole year and for each separate festival1 and free from error4 ,these ,charlemagne ordered used in the churches 7,r4 #fc74 ,he also says1 we have striven with watchful zeal to advance the cause of learning1 which has been almost forgotten by the negligence of our ancestors2 and1 by our example1 also we invite those whom we can to master the study of the liberal arts1 meaning thereby to incite the bishops and clergy to a study of the learning of the mediaeval time4 ,the volumes and letter were sent out in #ghf1 four years after ,alcuin's arrival at the court4 ,further to aid in the revival of learning1 ,charlemagne1 in #ghg1 imported a number of monks from ,italy1 who were capable of giving instruction in arithmetic1 singing1 and grammar1 and sent them to the principal monasteries to teach4 ,in #ghg the first general proclamation on education of the ,middle ,ages was issued 7,r4 #fd a71 and from it we can infer much as to the state of learning among the monks and clergy of the time4 ,in this document the king gently reproves the abbots of his realm for their illiteracy1 and exhorts them to the study of letters4 ,the signature is ,charlemagne's1 but the hand is ,alcuin's4 ,in it he tells the abbots1 in commenting on the fact that they had sent letters to him telling him that sacred and pious prayers were being offered in his behalf1 that he recognized in most of these letters both correct thoughts and uncouth expressions2 because what pious devotion dictated faithfully to the mind1 the tongue1 uneducated on account of the neglect of study1 was not able to express in a letter without error4 ,he therefore commands the abbots neither to neglect the study of letters1 if they wish to have his favor1 nor to fail to send copies of his letter to all your suffragans and fellow bishops1 and to all the monasteries4 ,two years later 7#ghi7 ,charlemagne supplemented this by a further general admonition 7,r4 #fd b7 to the ministers and clergy of his realm1 exhorting them to live clean and just lives1 and closing with3 ,and let schools be established in which boys may learn to read4 ,correct carefully the ,psalms1 the signs in writing1 the songs1 the calendar1 the grammar1 in each monastery and bishopric1 and the catholic book2 because often some desire to pray to ,god properly1 but they pray badly because of incorrect books4 ,in #hjb he further commanded that laymen shall learn thoroughly the ,creed and the ,lord's ,prayer 7,r4 #fd c74 ,finally1 in his enthusiasm for schools1 ,charlemagne went so far as to direct that every one should send his son to school to study letters1 and that the child should remain at school with all diligence until he should become well instructed in learning4 ,charlemagne1 of course1 was addressing freemen of the court and the official classes4 ,that he ever meant to include the children of the laboring classes1 or that the idea of compulsory education ever entered his head1 may well be doubted4 ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,charlemagne ,,and ,,alcuin4 ,the actual results of the work of ,charlemagne and ,alcuin were1 after all1 rather meager4 ,the difficulties they faced are almost beyond our comprehension4 ,nobles and clergy were alike ignorant and uncouth4 ,there seemed no place to begin4 ,it may be said that by ,charlemagne's work he greatly widened the area of civilization1 created a new ,frankish-,roman ,empire to be the inheritor of the civilization and culture of the old one1 checked the decline in learning and reawakened a desire for study1 and that he began the substitution of ideas for might as a ruling force among the tribes under his rule4 ,that for a time he gave an important impetus to the study of letters1 which resulted in a real revival in the educational work of some of the monasteries and cathedral schools1 seems certain4 ,men knew more of books and wrote better ,latin than before1 and those who wished to learn found it easier to do so4 ,the state of society and the condition of the times1 however1 were against any large success for such an ambitious educational undertaking1 and after the death of ,charlemagne1 the division of his empire1 and the invasions of the ,northmen1 education slowly declined again1 though never to quite the level it had reached when ,charlemagne came to the throne4 ,in a few schools there was no decline1 and these became the centers of learning of the future4 ,charlemagne having substituted merit for favoritism in his realm1 promoting to be bishops and abbots the most learned men of his time1 many of these became zealous workers in the cause of education and did much to keep up and advance learning after his death4 ,among the most able of his helpers was ,theodulf1 ,bishop of ,orleans4 ,he carried out most thoroughly in his diocese the instructions of the king1 giving to his clergy the following directions3 ,let the priests hold schools in the towns and villages1 and if any of the faithful wish to entrust their children to them for the learning of letters1 let them not refuse to receive and teach such children4 ,moreover1 let them teach them from pure affection1 remembering that it is written1 the wise shall shine as the splendor of the firmament1 and they that instruct many in righteousness shall shine as the stars forever and forever4 ,and let them exact no price from the children for their teaching1 nor receive anything from them1 save what their parents may offer voluntarily and from affection4 ,another able assistant was ,alcuin himself1 who1 after fourteen years of strenuous service at ,charlemagne's court1 was rewarded by the king with the office of ,abbot at the monastery of ,saint ,martin1 at ,tours4 ,there he spent the last eight years of his life in teaching1 copying manuscripts1 and writing letters to bishops and abbots regarding the advancement of religion and learning4 ,the work of ,alcuin in directing the copying of manuscripts has been described4 ,in a letter to ,charlemagne1 soon after his appointment1 he reviews his labors1 contrasts the state of learning in ,england and ,frankland1 and appeals to ,charlemagne for books from ,england to copy 7,r4 #fe74 ,so important was his work as a teacher as well that at his death1 in #had1 most of the important educational centers of the kingdom were in the hands of his former pupils4 ,perhaps the most important of all these was ,rabanus ,maurus1 who became head of the monastery school at ,fulda4 ,we shall learn more of him in the next chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,,where ,,the ,,danes ,,ravaged ,,england4 ,,new ,,invasions2 ,,the ,,northmen4 ,five years after ,alcuin went to ,frankland to help ,charlemagne revive learning in his kingdom1 a fresh series of barbarian invasions began with the raiding of the ,english coast by the ,danes4 ,in raid after raid1 extending over nearly a hundred years1 these ,danes gradually overran all of eastern and central ,england from ,london north to beyond ,whitby1 plundering and burning the churches and monasteries1 and destroying books and learning everywhere4 ,by the ,peace of ,wedmore1 effected by ,king ,alfred in #hgh1 the ,danes were finally given about one half of ,england1 and in return agreed to settle down and accept ,christianity4 ,the damage done by these invaders was very large1 and ,king ,alfred1 in his introduction to an ,anglo-,saxon translation of ,pope ,gregory's ,pastoral ,care 7,r4 #ff71 gives a gloomy picture of the destruction wrought to the churches and the decay of learning in ,england4 ,other bands of these ,northmen 7,danes and ,norwegians7 began to prey on the northern coast of ,frankland1 and in the tenth century seized all the coast of what is now northern ,france and down as far as ,paris and ,tours4 ,from ,tours to ,corbie 7see ,figure #da7 churches and monasteries were pillaged and burned1 ,tours and ,corbie with their libraries both perishing4 ,amiens and ,paris were laid siege to1 and disorder reigned throughout northern ,frankland4 ,the ,annals of ,xanten and the ,annals of ,saint ,vaast1 two mediaeval chronicles of importance1 give gloomy pictures of this period4 ,three selections will illustrate3 ,according to their custom the ,northmen plundered ,east and ,west ,frisia and burned 444 towns4444 ,with their boats filled with immense booty1 including both men and goods1 they returned to their own country4 #ai ,the ,normans inflicted much harm in ,frisia and about the ,rhine4 ,a mighty army of them collected by the river ,elbe against the ,saxons1 and some of the ,saxon towns were besieged1 others burned1 and most terribly did they oppress the ,christians4 #bj ,the ,northmen ceased not to take ,christian people captive and kill them1 and to destroy churches and houses and burn villages4 ,through all the streets lay bodies of the clergy1 of laymen1 nobles1 and others1 of women1 children1 and suckling babes4 ,there was no road or place where the dead did not lie1 and all who saw ,christian people slaughtered were filled with sorrow and despair4 #ba ,after much destruction1 ,rollo1 ,duke of the ,normans1 finally accepted ,christianity1 in #iab1 and agreed to settle down in what has ever since been known as ,normandy4 ,from here portions of the invaders afterward passed over to ,england in the ,norman ,conquest of #ajff4 ,this was the last of the great ,german tribes to move1 and after they had raided and plundered and settled down and accepted ,christianity1 western ,europe1 after six centuries of bloodshed and pillage and turmoil and disorder1 was at last ready to begin in earnest the building-up of a new civilization and the restoration of the old learning4 ,,work ,,of ,,alfred ,,in ,,england4 ,the set-back to learning caused by this latest deluge of barbarism was a serious one1 and one from which the land did not recover for a long time4 ,in northern ,frankland and in ,england the results were disastrous4 ,the revival which ,charlemagne had started was checked1 and ,england did not recover from the blow for centuries4 ,even in the parts of ,england not invaded and pillaged1 education sadly declined as a result of nearly a century of struggle against the invaders 7,r4 #ff74 ,alfred1 known to history as ,alfred the ,great1 who ruled as ,english king from #hga to #ija1 made great efforts to revive learning in his kingdom4 ,probably inspired by the example of ,charlemagne1 he established a large palace school 7,r4 #fh71 to the support of which he devoted one eighth of his income2 he imported scholars from ,mercia and ,frankland 7,r4 #fg72 restored many monasteries2 and tried hard to revive schools and encourage learning throughout his realm1 and with some success4 #bb ,with the great decay of the ,latin learning he tried to encourage the use of the native ,anglo-,saxon language1 #bc and to this end translated books from ,latin into ,anglo- ,saxon for his people4 ,in his ,introduction to ,gregory's volume 7,r4 #ff7 he expresses the hope1 ,if we have tranquillity enough1 that all the free- born youth now in ,england1 who are rich enough to be able to devote themselves to it 444 be set to learn 444 ,english writing1 while those who were to continue study should then be taught ,latin4 ,the coming of the ,normans in #ajff1 with the introduction of ,norman-,french as the official language of the court and government1 for a time seriously interfered with the development of that native ,english learning of which ,alfred wrote4 ,in the preceding chapter and in this one we have traced briefly the great invasions1 or migrations1 which took place in western ,europe1 and indicated somewhat the great destruction they wrought within the bounds of the old ,empire4 ,in this chapter we have traced the beginnings of ,christian schools to replace the ones destroyed1 the preservation of learning in the monasteries1 and the efforts of ,charlemagne and ,alfred to revive learning in their kingdoms4 ,in the chapter which follows we shall describe the mediaeval system of education as it had evolved by the twelfth century1 after which we shall be ready to pass to the beginnings of that ,revival of ,learning which ultimately resulted in the rediscovery of the learning of the ancient world4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,picture the gradual dying-out of ,roman learning in the ,western ,empire1 and explain why pagan schools and learning lingered longer in ,britain1 ,ireland1 and ,italy than elsewhere4 #b4 ,at what time was the old ,roman civilization and learning most nearly extinct8 #c4 ,explain how the monasteries were forced to develop schools to maintain any intellectual life4 #d4 ,explain how the copying of manuscripts led to further educational development in the monasteries4 #e4 ,would the convents have tended to attract a higher quality of women than the monasteries did of men8 ,why8 #f4 ,explain why ,greek was known longer in ,ireland and ,britain than elsewhere in the ,west4 #g4 ,what was the relative condition of learning in ,frankland and ,england1 about #ijj ,a4,d48 #h4 ,what light is thrown on the conditions of the civilization of the time by the small permanent success of the efforts of ,charlemagne1 looking toward a revival of learning in ,frankland8 #i4 ,explain how ,latin came naturally to be the language of the ,church1 and of scholarship in western ,europe throughout all the ,middle ,ages4 #aj4 ,after reading the story of the migrations1 and of the fight to save some vestiges of the old civilization1 try to picture what would have been the result had ,rome not built up an ,empire1 and had ,christianity not arisen and conquered4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #ec4 ,migne3 ,forms used in connection with monastery life3 7a7 ,form for offering a ,child to a ,monastery4 7b7 ,the ,monastic ,vow4 7c7 ,letter of ,honorable ,dismissal from a ,monastery4 #ed4 ,abbot ,heriman3 ,the ,copying of ,books at a ,monastery4 #ee4 ,othlonus3 ,work of a ,monk in writing and copying ,books4 #ef4 ,a ,monk3 ,work of a ,nun in copying ,books4 #eg4 ,symonds3 ,scarcity and ,cost of ,books4 #eh4 ,clark3 ,anathemas to protect ,books from ,theft4 #ei4 ,bede3 ,on ,education in ,early ,england4 7a7 ,the ,learning of ,theodore4 7b7 ,theodore's ,work for the ,english ,churches4 7c7 ,how ,albinus succeeded ,abbot ,hadrian4 #fj4 ,alcuin3 ,description of the ,school at ,york4 #fa4 ,alcuin3 ,catalogue of the ,cathedral ,library at ,york4 #fb4 ,alcuin3 ,specimens of the ,palace ,school ,instruction4 #fc4 ,charlemagne3 ,letter sending out a ,collection of ,sermons4 #fd4 ,charlemagne3 ,general ,proclamations as to ,education4 7a7 ,the ,proclamation of #ghg ,a4,d4 7b7 ,general ,admonition of #ghi ,a4,d4 7c7 ,order as to ,learning of #hjb ,a4,d4 #fe4 ,alcuin3 ,letter to ,charlemagne as to ,books and ,learning4 #ff4 ,king ,alfred3 ,state of ,learning in ,england in his ,time4 #fg4 ,asser3 ,alfred obtains ,scholars from ,abroad4 #fh4 ,asser3 ,education of the ,son of ,king ,alfred4 #fi4 ,ninth-,century ,plan of the ,monastery at ,saint ,gall4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,point out the similarity between3 7a7 ,the form for offering a child to a monastery and the monastic vow 7#ec a-b71 and a modern court form for renouncing or adopting a child4 7b7 ,the letter of dismissal from a monastery 7#ec c71 and the modern letter of honorable dismissal of a student from a college or normal school4 #b4 ,compare the type of books copied by the ,abbot of ,saint ,martins 7#ee7 and those copied by the nun at ,wessebrunn 7#ef74 #c4 ,was the evolution of the school-teacher out of the copyist at ,ratisbon 7#ee71 by a specialization of labor1 analogous to the process in more modern times8 #d4 ,explain the mediaeval belief in the effectiveness to protect books from theft of such anathemas as are reproduced in #eh4 #e4 ,what do the selections from ,bede 7#ei a-c7 indicate as to the preservation of the old learning in the cities of southern ,italy8 ,what as to the condition of learning and teaching in ,england in ,bede's day8 #f4 ,what is the status of education indicated by the selections from ,alcuin1 on the cathedral school at ,york 7#fj7 and the palace school instruction of ,pepin 7#fb78 #g4 ,what was the condition of learning among the higher clergy and monks as shown by ,charlemagne's proclamations 7#fd78 #h4 ,what was the extent of the destruction wrought by the ,danes in ,england1 as indicated by ,king ,alfred's ,introduction to ,pope ,gregory's ,pastoral ,care 7#ff71 and his efforts to obtain scholars from abroad 7#fg78 #i4 ,what was the character of the education ,king ,alfred provided for his son 7#fh78 #aj4 ,study out the plan of the monastery of ,saint ,gall 7#fi71 and enumerate the various activities of such a center4 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b4 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages4 99 ,clark1 ,j4 ,w4 ,libraries in the ,medieval and ,renaissance ,period4 99 ,cutts1 ,edw4 ,l4 ,scenes and ,characters of the ,middle ,ages4 99 ,eckenstein1 ,lina4 ,women under ,monasticism4 ,leach1 ,a4 ,f4 ,the ,schools of ,mediaeval ,england4 ,munro1 ,d4 ,c4 and ,sellery1 ,g4 ,e4 ,medieval ,civilization4 ,montalembert1 ,count de4 ,the ,monks of the ,west4 ,taylor1 ,h4 ,o4 ,classical ,heritage of the ,middle ,ages4 ,thorndike1 ,lynn4 ,history of ,mediaeval ,europe4 ,west1 ,a4 ,f4 ,alcuin1 and the ,rise of ,christian ,schools4 99 ,wishart1 ,a4 ,w4 ,short ,history of ,monks and ,monasticism4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages ,,ii4 ,,schools ,,established ,,and ,,instruction ,,provided #a4 ,elementary instruction and schools ,,monastic ,,and ,,conventional ,,schools4 ,in the preceding chapters we found that1 by the tenth century1 the monasteries had developed both inner monastic schools for those intending to take the vows 7oblati71 and outer monastic schools for those not so intending 7externi74 ,the distinction in name was due to the fact that the oblati were from the first considered as belonging to the brotherhood1 participating in the religious services and helping the monks at their work4 ,the others were not so admitted1 and in all monasteries of any size a separate building1 outside the main portion of the monastery 7see ,figure #ch71 was provided for the outer school4 ,a similar classification of instruction had been evolved for the convents4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,,an ,,outer ,,monastic ,,school 7,after an old wood engraving7 ,the instruction in the inner school was meager1 and in the outer school probably even more so4 ,reading1 writing1 music1 simple reckoning1 religious observances1 and rules of conduct constituted the range of instruction4 ,reading was taught by the alphabet method1 as among the ,romans1 and writing by the use of wax tablets and the stylus4 ,much attention was given to ,latin pronunciation1 as had been the practice at ,rome4 ,as ,latin by this time had practically ceased to be a living tongue1 outside the ,church and perhaps in ,central ,italy1 the difficulties of instruction were largely increased4 ,the ,psalter1 or book of ,latin psalms1 was the first reading book1 and this was memorized rather than read4 ,copy- books1 usually wax1 with copies expressing some scriptural injunction1 were used4 ,music1 being of so much importance in the church services1 received much time and attention4 ,in arithmetic1 counting and finger reckoning1 after the ,roman plan1 was taught4 ,latin was used in conversation as much as possible1 some of the old lesson books much resembling conversation books of to-day in the modern languages 7,r4 #ge74 ,special attention seems to have been given to teaching rules of conduct to the oblati1 #a and much corporal punishment was used to facilitate learning4 ,up to the eleventh century this instruction1 meager as it was1 constituted the whole of the preparatory training necessary for the study of theology and a career in the ,church4 ,in the convents similar schools were developed1 though1 as stated in the last chapter1 much more attention was given to the education of those not intending to take the vows4 ,,song ,,and ,,parish ,,schools4 ,in the cathedral churches1 and other larger non- cathedral churches1 the musical part of the service was very important1 and to secure boys for the choir and for other church services these churches organized what came to be known as song schools 7,r4 #gj74 ,in these a number of promising boys were trained in the same studies and in much the same way as were boys in the monastery schools1 except that much more attention was given to the musical instruction4 ,the students in these schools were placed under the precentor 7choir director7 of the cathedral1 or other large church1 the scholasticus confining his attention to the higher or more literary instruction provided4 ,the boys usually were given board1 lodging1 and instruction in return for their services as choristers4 ,as the parish churches in the diocese also came to need boys for their services1 parish schools of a similar nature were in time organized in connection with them4 ,it was out of this need1 and by a very slow and gradual evolution1 that the parish school in western ,europe was developed later on4 ,,chantry ,,schools4 ,still another type of elementary school1 which did not arise until near the latter part of the period under consideration in this chapter1 but which will be enumerated here as descriptive of a type which later became very common1 came through wills1 and the schools came to be known as chantry schools1 or stipendary schools4 ,men1 in dying1 who felt themselves particularly in need of assistance for their misdeeds on earth1 would leave a sum of money to a church to endow a priest1 or sometimes two1 who were to chant masses each day for the repose of their souls4 ,sometimes the property was left to endow a priest to say mass in honor of some special saint1 and frequently of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,as such priests usually felt the need for some other occupation1 some of them began voluntarily to teach the elements of religion and learning to selected boys1 and in time it became common for those leaving money for the prayers to stipulate in the will that the priest should also teach a school4 ,usually a very elementary type of school was provided1 where the children were taught to know the ,lord's ,prayer1 the ,creed1 the ,salutation to the ,virgin1 certain psalms1 to sign themselves rightly with the sign of the cross1 and perhaps to read and write 7,latin74 ,sometimes1 on the contrary1 and especially was this the case later on in ,england1 a grammar school was ordered maintained4 ,after the twelfth century this type of foundation 7,r4 #gc7 became quite common4 #b4 ,advanced instruction ,,cathedral ,,and ,,higher ,,monastic ,,schools4 ,as the song schools developed the cathedral schools were of course freed from the necessity of teaching reading and writing1 and could then develop more advanced instruction4 ,this they did1 as did many of the monasteries1 and to these advanced schools those who felt the need for more training went4 ,as grammar was1 throughout all the early part of the ,middle ,ages1 the first and most important subject of instruction1 the advanced schools came to be known as grammar schools1 as well as cathedral or episcopal schools 7,r4 #gb74 ,the cathedral churches and monasteries of ,england and ,france early became celebrated for the high character of their instruction 7,r4 #ga7 and the type of scholars they produced4 ,all these schools1 though1 suffered a serious set-back during the period of the ,danish and ,norman invasions1 many being totally destroyed4 ,on the continent1 due to the greater deluge of barbarism and the more unsettled condition of society1 more difficulty was experienced in getting cathedral schools established1 as the following decree of the ,lateran ,church ,council of #hbf indicates3 ,complaints have been made that in some places no masters nor endowment for a grammar school is found4 ,therefore all bishops shall bestow all care and diligence1 both for their subjects and for other places in which it shall be found necessary1 to establish masters and teachers who shall assiduously teach grammar schools and the principles of the liberal arts1 because in these chiefly the commandments of ,god are manifest and declared4 ,these two types of advanced schools--the cathedral or episcopal and the monastic--formed what might be called the secondary-school system of the early ,middle ,ages 7,rs4 #gj1 #ga74 ,they were for at least six hundred years the only advanced teaching institutions in western ,europe1 and out of one or the other of these two types of advanced schools came practically all those who attained to leadership in the service of the ,church in either of its two great branches4 ,still more1 out of the impetus given to advanced study by the more important of these schools1 the universities of a later period developed2 and numerous private gifts of lands and money were made to establish grammar schools to supplement the work done by the cathedral and other large church schools4 ,,the ,,seven ,,liberal ,,arts4 ,the advanced studies which were offered in the more important monastery and cathedral schools comprised what came to be known as ,the ,seven ,liberal ,arts #b of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the knowledge contained in these studies1 taught as the advanced instruction of the period1 represents the amount of secular learning which was intentionally preserved by the ,church from neglect and destruction during the period of the barbarian deluges and the reconstruction of society4 ,these ,seven ,liberal ,arts were comprised of two divisions1 known as3 ,i4 ,,the ,,trivium3 7#a7 ,grammar2 7#b7 ,rhetoric2 7#c7 ,dialectic 7,logic74 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,quadrivium3 7#d7 ,arithmetic2 7#e7 ,geometry2 7#f7 ,astronomy2 7#g7 ,music4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,,the ,,medieval ,,system ,,of ,,education ,,summarized ,allegorical representation of the progress and degrees of education1 from an illuminated picture in the #aejh 7,basel7 edition of the ,margarita ,philosophica of ,gregory de ,reisch4 ,the youth1 having mastered the ,hornbook 7,,abc's7 and the rudiments of learning 7reading1 writing1 and the beginnings of music and numbers71 advances toward the temple of knowledge4 ,wisdom is about to place the key in the lock of the door of the temple4 ,on the door is written the word congruitas1 signifying ,grammar4 7,gramaire first hath for to teche to speke upon congruite47 ,on the first and second floors of the temple he studies the ,grammar of ,donatus1 and of ,priscian1 and at the first stage at the left on the third floor he studies the ,logic of ,aristotle1 followed by the ,rhetoric and ,poetry of ,tully1 thus completing the ,trivium4 ,the ,arithmetic of ,boethius also appears on the third floor4 ,on the fourth floor he completes the studies of the ,quadrivium1 taking in order the ,music of ,pythagoras1 ,euclid's ,geometry1 and ,ptolemy's ,astronomy4 ,the student now advances to the study of ,philosophy1 studying successively ,physics1 ,seneca's ,morals1 and the ,theology 7or ,metaphysics7 of ,peter ,lombard1 the last being the goal toward which all has been directed4 ,beyond these came ,ethics or ,metaphysics1 and the greatest of all studies1 ,theology4 ,this last represented the one professional study of the early middle-age period1 and was the goal toward which all the preceding studies had tended4 ,this mediaeval system of education is well summarized in the drawing given on the opposite page1 taken from an illuminated picture inserted in a famous mediaeval manuscript1 recopied at ,basle1 ,switzerland1 in #aejh4 ,not all these studies were taught in every monastery or cathedral school4 ,many of the lesser monasteries and schools offered instruction chiefly in grammar1 and only a little of the studies beyond4 ,others emphasized the ,trivium1 and taught perhaps only a little of the second group4 ,only a few taught the full range of mediaeval learning1 and these were regarded as the great schools of the times 7,r4 #ga74 ,rhabanus ,maurus 7#ggf-hfe71 one of the greatest minds of the ,middle ,ages1 ,abbot for years at ,fulda1 and a mediaeval textbook writer of importance1 has left us a good description of each of the ,seven ,liberal ,arts studies as they were developed in his day1 and their use in the ,christian scheme of education 7,r4 #gd74 ,i4 ,,the ,,trivium ,of the three studies forming the ,trivium1 grammar always came first as the basal subject4 ,no uniformity existed for the other two4 #a4 ,,grammar4 ,the foundation and source of all the ,liberal ,arts was grammar1 it being1 according to ,maurus1 the science which teaches us to explain the poets and historians1 and the art which qualifies us to speak and write correctly 7,r4 #gd a74 ,in the introduction to an improved ,latin grammar1 #c published about #aaai1 grammar is defined as ,the doorkeeper of all the other sciences1 the apt expurgatrix of the stammering tongue1 the servant of logic1 the mistress of rhetoric1 the interpreter of theology1 the relief of medicine1 and the praiseworthy foundation of the whole quadrivium4 ,figure #de1 from one of the earliest books printed in ,english1 also emphasizes the great importance of grammar with the words3 ,wythout whiche science 7s7ycherly alle other sciences in especial ben of lytyl recomme7d74 ,in addition to grammar in the sense we know the study to-day1 grammar in the old ,roman and mediaeval mind also included much of what we know as the analytical side of the study of literature1 such as comparison1 analysis1 versification1 prosody1 word formations1 figures of speech1 and vocal expression 7,r4 #gf74 ,these were considered necessary to enable one to read understandingly the ,holy ,scriptures1 and hence1 though the art be secular1 says ,maurus1 it has nothing unworthy about it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,a ,,school3 ,a ,,lesson ,,in ,,grammar 7,after a woodcut printed by ,caxton in ,the ,mirror of the ,world1 #adha 7874 ,from ,blades' ,life and ,typography of ,william ,caxton1 ii1 ,plate ,,lvi7 ,this is a good example of early ,english printing4 ,can you read it8 ,this ,old ,english1 like the ,german type 7see ,fig4 #bf71 shows the change in ,latin letters which came about with the copying of manuscripts during the ,middle ,ages4 ,after the invention of printing the ,english soon returned to the ,latin forms2 the ,germans are only now doing so4 ,the leading textbook was that of ,donatus1 #d written in the fourth century1 and ,donatus 7donat7 and grammar came to be synonymous terms4 ,the text by ,priscian1 #e written in the sixth century1 was also extensively used4 ,the treatment in each was catechetical in form2 that is1 questions and answers1 which were learned4 ,the text was of course in ,latin1 and the teacher usually had the only copy1 so that the pupils had to learn from memory or copy from dictation4 ,the cost of writing-material usually precluded the latter method4 ,after sufficient ability in grammar had been attained1 simple reading exercises or colloquies 7,r4 #ge71 usually of a religious or moralizing nature1 were introduced1 though where permitted the ,latin authors1 especially ,vergil1 #f were read4 ,at ,saint ,gall1 in ,switzerland1 and at some other places1 many ,latin authors were read2 at ,tours1 on the other hand1 we find the learned ,abbot ,alcuin saying to the monks3 ,the sacred poets are sufficient for you2 there is no reason why you should sully your mind with the rank luxuriance of ,vergil's verse4 #b4 ,,rhetoric4 ,rhetoric1 as defined by ,maurus1 was the art of using secular discourse effectively in the circumstances of daily life1 and enabling the preacher or missionary to put the divine message in eloquent and impressive language 7,r4 #gd b74 ,much of the old ,roman rhetoric had been taken over by grammar1 but in its place was added a certain amount of letter and legal documentary writing4 ,the priest1 it must be remembered1 became the secretary and lawyer of the ,middle ,ages1 as well as the priest1 and upon him devolved the preparation of most of the legal papers of the time1 such as wills1 deeds1 proclamations1 and other formal documents4 ,accordingly the art of letter-writing #g and the preparation of legal documents were made a part of the study of rhetoric1 and some study of both the civil 7worldly7 and canon 7church7 law was gradually introduced4 #c4 ,,dialectic4 ,dialectic1 or logic1 says ,maurus1 is the science of understanding1 and hence the science of sciences 7,r4 #gd c74 ,by means of its aid one was enabled to unmask falsehood1 expose error1 formulate argument1 and draw conclusions accurately4 ,the study was one of preparation for ethics and theology later on4 ,extracts from the works of ,aristotle1 prepared by ,boethius1 and later his complete works1 constituted the texts used4 ,while grammar was the great subject of the seven during all the early ,middle ,ages1 dialectic later came to take its place4 ,after the rise of the universities and the organization of schools of theology1 with theology more of a rational science and less a matter of dogma1 dialectic came to hold first place in importance as a preparation for the disputations of the later ,middle ,ages4 ,theological questions formed the practical exercises1 and the schools doing most in dialectic attracted many students because of this4 ,these three studies1 constituting the ,trivium1 based as they were directly on the old ,roman learning and schools1 contained more that was within the teaching knowledge of the time than did the subjects of the ,quadrivium1 and also subject-matter which was much more in demand4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,quadrivium ,the trivial studies1 in most cases before the thirteenth century1 sufficed to prepare for the study of theology1 though those few who desired to prepare thoroughly also studied the subjects of the quadrivium4 ,in schools not offering instruction in this advanced group some of the elements of its four studies were often taught from the textbooks in use for the ,trivium4 ,particularly was this the case during the early ,middle ,ages1 when the knowledge of arithmetic1 geometry1 and astronomy possessed by western ,europe was exceedingly small4 ,no regular order in the study of the subjects of this group was followed4 #d4 ,,arithmetic4 ,naturally little could be done in this subject as long as the ,roman system of notation was in use 7see footnote1 i1 p4 #fd71 and the ,arabic notation was not known in western ,christian ,europe until the beginning of the thirteenth century1 and was not much used for two or three centuries later4 ,so far as arithmetic was taught before that time1 it was but little in advance of that given to novitiates in the monasteries1 except that much attention was devoted to an absurd study of the properties of numbers1 #h and to the uses of arithmetic in determining church days1 calculating the date of ,easter1 and interpreting passages in the ,scriptures involving measurements 7,r4 #gd d74 ,the textbook by ,rhabanus ,maurus ,on ,reckoning1 issued in #hbj1 is largely in dialogue 7catechetical7 form1 and is devoted to describing the properties of numbers1 odd1 even1 perfect1 imperfect1 composite1 plane1 solid1 cardinal1 ordinal1 adverbial1 distributive1 multiple1 denunciative1 etc42 to pointing out the scriptural significance of number2 #i and to an elaborate explanation of finger reckoning1 after the old ,roman plan 7see p4 #fe74 ,near the end of the tenth century ,gerbert1 #aj afterwards ,pope ,sylvester ,,ii1 devised a simple abacus-form for expressing numbers1 simple enough in itself1 but regarded as wonderful in its day4 ,this greatly simplified calculation1 and made work with large numbers possible4 ,he also devised an easier form for large divisions4 ,gerbert's form for expressing numbers may be shown from the following simple sum in addition3 ,arabic ,form ,roman ,form ,gerbert's ,form ,m ,c ,x ,i #abjd ,,mcciv ,i ,,ii ,,iv #ech ,,dxxxviii ,v ,,iii ,,viii #bdee ,,mmcccclv ,,ii ,,iv ,v ,v #fai ,,dcxix ,,vi ,i ,,ix ----- --------- ------------------- #dhaf ,,mmmmdcccxvi ,,iv ,,viii ,i ,,vi ,no study of arithmetic of importance was possible1 however1 until the introduction of ,arabic notation and the use of the zero4 #e4 ,,geometry4 ,this study consisted almost entirely of geography and reasoning as to geometrical forms until the tenth century1 when ,boethius' work on ,geometry1 containing some extracts from ,euclid1 was discovered by ,gerbert4 ,the geography of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa also was studied1 as treated in the textbooks of the time1 and a little about plants and animals as well was introduced4 ,the nature of the geographic instruction may be inferred from ,figure #df1 which reproduces one of the best world maps of the day4 ,the main geographical features of the known world can be made out from this1 but many of the mediaeval maps are utterly unintelligible4 ,to illustrate the reasoning as to geometrical forms which preceded the finding of ,euclid we quote from ,maurus1 who says that the science of geometry found realization also at the building of the tabernacle and the temple2 and that the same measuring rod1 circles1 spheres1 hemispheres1 quadrangles1 and other figures were employed4 ,the knowledge of all this brings to him1 who is occupied with it1 no small gain for his spiritual culture4 7,r4 #gd e74 ,after ,gerbert's time some geometry proper and the elements of land surveying were introduced4 ,the real study of geometry in ,europe1 however1 dates from the twelfth century1 when ,euclid was translated into ,latin from the ,arabic4 #f4 ,,astronomy4 ,in astronomy the chief purpose of the instruction was to explain the seasons and the motions of the planets1 to set forth the wonders of the visible creation1 and to enable the priests to fix the time of ,easter and all other festivals and holy days1 and to announce to the congregation the proper celebration of them4 7,r4 #gd g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,,an ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,world 7,from a tenth-century map in the ,british ,museum7 ,this is one of the better maps of the period4 ,note the mixture of ,biblical and classical geography 7,bethlehem1 ,jerusalem1 ,pillars of ,hercules71 and the animal life 7lion7 introduced in the upper corner4 ,the ,mediterranean ,sea in the center1 the ,greek islands1 the ,british isles1 the ,italian peninsula1 the ,nile1 and the northern ,african coast are easily recognized4 ,western ,europe1 the best-known part of the world at that time1 is very poorly done4 ,even after ,ptolemy's ,mechanism of the ,heavens 7p4 #di7 and ,aristotle's ,on the ,heavens had filtered across the ,pyrenees from the ,saracens1 in the eleventh century1 the ,ptolemaic theory of a flat earth located at the center of the heavenly bodies and around which they all revolved1 while a very pleasing theological conception1 was absolutely fatal to any instruction in astronomy worth while and to any astronomical advance4 ,all mediaeval astronomy1 too1 was saturated with astrology1 as the selection on the motion of the heavenly bodies reproduced from ,bartholomew ,anglicus shows 7,r4 #gg b71 and the supernatural was invoked to explain such phenomena as meteors1 comets1 and eclipses4 ,the ,copernican theory of the motion of the heavenly bodies was not published until #aedc1 and all our modern ideas date from that time4 ,physics was often taught as a part of the instruction in astronomy1 and consisted of lessons on the properties of matter 7,r4 #gg a7 and some of the simple principles of dynamics4 ,little else of what we to-day know as physics was then known4 #g4 ,,music4 ,unlike the other studies of the ,quadrivium1 the instruction in music was quite extensive1 and from early times a good course in musical theory was taught 7,r4 #gd f74 ,boethius' ,de ,musica1 written at the beginning of the sixth century1 was the text used4 ,music entered into so many activities of the ,church that much naturally was made of it4 ,the organ1 too1 is an old instrument1 going back to the second century ,b4,c41 and the organ with a keyboard to the close of the eleventh century4 ,this instrument added much to the value of the music course1 and the hymns composed by ,christian musicians form an important part of our musical heritage4 #aa ,the cathedral school at ,metz and the monastery at ,saint ,gall became famous as musical centers1 and of the work of one of the teachers of music at ,saint ,gall 7,notker7 it was written by his biographer3 ,through different hymns1 sequences1 tropes1 and litanies1 through different songs and melodies as well as through ecclesiastical science1 the pupils of this man made the church of ,god famous not merely in ,alemannia1 but everywhere from sea to sea4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,,an ,,early ,,church ,,musician 7,from a fourteenth-century manuscript1 now in the ,british ,museum7 ,,the ,,great ,,textbooks ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,while the textbooks mentioned under the description of each of the ,liberal ,arts formed the basis of the instruction given1 most of the instruction before the twelfth century was not given from editions of the original works1 but from abridged compendiums4 ,six of these were so famous and so widely used that each deserves a few words of description4 #a4 ,the ,marriage of ,mercury and ,philology1 written by ,martianus ,capella1 between #daj and #dbg ,a4,d41 was the first of the five great mediaeval textbooks4 ,mercury1 desiring to marry1 finally settles on the learned maiden ,philology1 and the seven bridesmaids--,grammar1 ,dialectic1 ,rhetoric1 ,geometry1 ,arithmetic1 ,astronomy1 and ,music--enter in turn at the ceremony and tell who they are and what they represent4 ,the speeches of the seven maidens summarized the ancient learning in each subject4 ,this textbook was more widely used during the ,middle ,ages than any other book4 #b4 ,boethius 7#dge-ebd7 was another important mediaeval textbook writer1 having prepared textbooks on dialectic1 arithmetic1 geometry1 music1 and ethics4 ,nearly all of what the ,middle ,ages knew of ,aristotle's ,logic and ,ethics1 and of the writings of ,plato1 were contained in the texts he wrote4 ,his ,de ,musica was used in the universities as a textbook until near the middle of the eighteenth century4 #c4 ,cassiodorus #ab 7c4 #dij-ehe71 in his ,on the ,liberal ,arts and ,sciences1 prepared a digest of each of the ,seven ,liberal ,arts for monastic use1 fixing the number at seven by scriptural authority4 #ac #d4 ,isidore1 ,bishop of ,seville 7c4 #egj-fcf71 under the title of ,etymologies or ,origines1 prepared an encyclopaedia of the ancient learning for the use of the monks and clergy which was intended to be a summary of all knowledge worth knowing4 ,while he drew his knowledge from the writings of the ,greeks and ,romans1 with many of which he was familiar1 contrary to the attitude of ,cassiodorus he forbade the monks and clergy to make any use of them whatever4 ,cassiodorus was still in part a ,roman2 ,isidore was a full mediaeval4 #e4 ,alcuin1 a learned scholar of the eighth century1 whom we met in the preceding chapter 7p4 #adj71 wrote treatises on the studies of the ,trivium and on astronomy which were used in many schools in ,frankland4 #f4 ,maurus4 ,in #hai the learned monk of ,fulda1 ,rhabanus ,maurus1 a pupil of ,alcuin1 issued his volume ,on the ,instruction of the ,clergy1 in the third part of which he describes the uses and the subject-matter of each of the ,arts 7,r4 #gd74 ,he also wrote texts on grammar and astronomy1 and in #hdd issued an encyclopaedia1 ,de ,universo1 based largely on the work of ,isidore1 but supplemented from other sources4 ,these were the great textbooks for the study of the ,trivium and the ,quadrivium throughout all the early ,middle ,ages4 ,considering that they were in manuscript form and were in one volume1 #ad their extent and scope can be imagined4 ,the teacher usually had or had access to a copy1 though even a teacher's books in that day were few in number 7,r4 #gh74 ,pupils had no books at all4 ,these great texts were composed of brief extracts1 bits of miscellaneous information1 and lists of names4 ,their style was uninviting4 ,they were at best a mere shell1 compared with the ,greek and ,roman knowledge which had been lost4 ,some of these books were in question-and-answer 7catechetical7 form4 ,their purpose was not to stimulate thinking1 but to transmit that modicum of secular knowledge needed for the service of the ,church and as a preparation for the study of the theological writings4 ,for nearly eight hundred years education was static1 the only purpose of instruction being to transmit to the next generation what the preceding one had known4 ,for such a period such textbooks answered the purpose fairly well4 #c4 ,training of the nobility ,,tenth-,,century ,,conditions4 ,following the death of ,charlemagne and the break-up of the empire held together by him1 a period of organized anarchy followed in western ,europe4 ,authority broke down more completely than before1 and ,europe1 for protection1 was forced to organize itself into a great number of small defensive groups4 ,serfs1 #ae freemen lacking land1 and small landowners alike came to depend on some nobleman for protection1 and this nobleman in turn upon some lord or overlord4 ,for this protection military service was rendered in return4 ,the lord lived in his castle1 and the peasantry worked his land and supported him1 fighting his battles if the need arose4 ,this condition of society was known as feudalism1 and the feudal relations of lord and vassal came to be the prevailing governmental organization of the period4 ,feudalism was at best an organized anarchy1 suited to rude and barbarous times1 but so well was it adapted to existing conditions that it became the prevailing form of government1 and continued as such until a better order of society could be evolved4 ,with the invention of gunpowder1 the rise of cities and industries1 the evolution of modern ,states by the consolidation of numbers of these feudal governments1 and the establishment of order and civilization1 feudalism passed out with the passing of the conditions which gave rise to it4 ,from the end of the ninth to the middle of the thirteenth centuries it was the dominant form of government4 ,the life of the nobility under the feudal rgime gave a certain picturesqueness to what was otherwise an age of lawlessness and disorder4 ,the chief occupation of a noble was fighting1 either in his own quarrel or that of his overlord4 ,it is hard for us to-day to realize how much fighting went on then4 ,much was said about honor1 but quarrels were easily started1 and oaths were poorly kept4 ,it was a day of personal feuds and private warfare1 and every noble thought it his right to wage war on his neighbor at any time1 without asking the consent of any one4 #af ,as a preparation for actual warfare a series of mimic encounters1 known as tournaments1 were held1 in which it often happened that knights were killed4 ,in these encounters mounted knights charged one another with spear and lance1 performing feats similar to those of actual warfare4 ,this was the great amusement of the period1 compared with which the ,german duel1 the ,mexican bullfight1 or the ,american game of football are mild sports4 ,the other diversions of the knights and nobles were hunting1 hawking1 feasting1 drinking1 making love1 minstrelsy1 and chess4 ,intellectual ability formed no part of their accomplishments1 and a knowledge of reading and writing was commonly regarded as effeminate4 ,to take this carousing1 fighting1 pillaging1 ravaging1 destructive1 and murderous instinct1 so strong by nature among the ,germanic tribes1 and refine it and in time use it to some better purpose1 and in so doing to increasingly civilize these ,germanic lords and overlords1 was the problem which faced the ,church and all interested in establishing an orderly society in ,europe4 ,as a means of checking this outlawry the ,church established and tried to enforce the ,truce of ,god 7,r4 #gi71 and as a partial means of educating the nobility to some better conception of a purpose in life the ,church aided in the development of the education of chivalry1 the first secular form of education in western ,europe since the days of ,rome1 and added its sanction to it after it arose4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,chivalry4 ,this form of education was an evolution4 ,it began during the latter part of the ninth century and the early part of the tenth1 reached its maximum greatness during the period of the ,crusades 7twelfth century71 and passed out of existence by the sixteenth4 ,the period of the ,crusades was the heroic age of chivalry4 ,the system of education which gradually developed for the children of the nobility may be briefly described as follows3 #a4 ,page4 ,up to the age of seven or eight the youth was trained at home1 by his mother4 ,he played to develop strength1 was taught the meaning of obedience1 trained in politeness and courtesy1 and his religious education was begun4 ,after this1 usually at seven1 he was sent to the court of some other noble1 usually his father's superior in the feudal scale1 though in case of kings and feudal lords of large importance the children remained at home and were trained in the palace school4 ,from seven to fourteen the boy was known as a page4 ,he was in particular attached to some lady1 who supervised his education in religion1 music1 courtesy1 gallantry1 the etiquette of love and honor1 and taught him to play chess and other games4 ,he was usually taught to read and write the vernacular language1 and was sometimes given a little instruction in reading ,latin4 #ag ,to the lord he rendered much personal service such as messenger1 servant at meals1 and attention to guests4 ,by the men he was trained in running1 boxing1 wrestling1 riding1 swimming1 and the use of light weapons4 #b4 ,squire4 ,at fourteen or fifteen he became a squire4 ,while continuing to serve his lady1 with whom he was still in company1 and continuing to render personal service in the castle1 the squire became in particular the personal servant and bodyguard of the lord or knight4 ,he was in a sense a valet for him1 making his bed1 caring for his clothes1 helping him to dress1 and looking after him at night and when sick4 ,he also groomed his horse1 looked after his weapons1 and attended and protected him on the field of combat or in battle4 ,he himself learned to hunt1 to handle shield and spear1 to ride in armor1 to meet his opponent1 and to fight with sword and battle-axe4 ,as he approached the age of twenty-one1 he chose his lady- love1 who was older than he and who might be married1 to whom he swore ever to be devoted1 even though he married some one else4 ,he also learned to rhyme1 #ah to make songs1 sing1 dance1 play the harp1 and observe the ceremonials of the ,church4 ,girls were given this instruction along with the boys1 but naturally their training placed its emphasis upon household duties1 service1 good manners1 conversational ability1 music1 and religion4 #c4 ,knight4 ,at twenty-one the boy was knighted1 and of this the ,church made an impressive ceremonial4 ,after fasting1 confession1 a night of vigil in armor spent at the altar in holy meditation1 and communion in the morning1 the ceremony of dubbing the squire a knight took place in the presence of the court4 ,he gave his sword to the priest1 who blest it upon the altar4 ,he then took the oath to defend the ,church1 to attack the wicked1 to respect the priesthood1 to protect women and the poor1 to preserve the country in tranquillity1 and to shed his blood1 even to its last drop1 in behalf of his brethren4 ,the priest then returned him the sword which he had blessed1 charging him to protect the widows and orphans1 to restore and preserve the desolate1 to revenge the wronged1 and to confirm the virtuous4 ,he then knelt before his lord1 who1 drawing his own sword and holding it over him1 said3 ,in the name of ,god1 of our ,lady1 of thy patron ,saint1 and of ,saint ,michael and ,saint ,george1 ,i dub thee knight2 be brave 7touching him with the sword on one shoulder71 be bold 7on the other shoulder71 be loyal 7on the head74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,a ,,squire ,,being ,,knighted 7,from an old manuscript7 ,,the ,,chivalric ,,ideals4 ,such1 briefly stated1 was the education of chivalry4 ,the cathedral and monastery schools not meeting the needs of the nobility1 the castle school was evolved4 ,there was little that was intellectual about the training given--few books1 and no training in ,latin4 ,instead1 the native language was emphasized1 and squires in ,england frequently learned to speak ,french4 ,it was essentially an education for secular ends1 and prepared not only for active participation in the feuds and warfare of the time1 but also for the ,seven ,perfections of the ,middle ,ages3 7#a7 ,riding1 7#b7 ,swimming1 7#c7 ,archery1 7#d7 ,fencing1 7#e7 ,hunting1 7#f7 ,whist or ,chess1 and 7#g7 ,rhyming4 ,it also represents the first type of schooling in the ,middle ,ages designed to prepare for life here1 rather than hereafter4 ,for the nobility it was a discipline1 just as the ,seven ,liberal ,arts was a discipline for the monks and clergy4 ,out of it later on was evolved the education of a gentleman as distinct from that of a scholar4 ,that such training had a civilizing effect on the nobility of the time cannot be doubted4 ,through it the ,church exercised a restraining and civilizing influence on a rude1 quarrelsome1 and impetuous people1 who resented restraints and who had no use for intellectual discipline4 ,it developed the ability to work together for common ends1 personal loyalty1 and a sense of honor in an age when these were much-needed traits1 and the ideal of a life of regulated service in place of one of lawless gratification was set up4 ,what monasticism had done for the religious life in dignifying labor and service1 chivalry did for secular life4 ,the ,ten ,commandments of chivalry1 7#a7 to pray1 7#b7 to avoid sin1 7#c7 to defend the ,church1 7#d7 to protect widows and orphans1 7#e7 to travel1 7#f7 to wage loyal war1 7#g7 to fight for his ,lady1 7#h7 to defend the right1 7#i7 to love his ,god1 and 7#aj7 to listen to good and true men1 while not often followed1 were valuable precepts to uphold in that age and time4 ,in the great ,crusades movement of the twelfth century the ,church consecrated the military prowess and restless energy of the nobility to her service1 but after this wave had passed chivalry became formal and stilted and rapidly declined in importance 7,r4 #hj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,a ,,knight ,,of ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,crusade 7,from a manuscript in the ,british ,museum7 #d4 ,professional study ,as the one professional study of the entire early ,middle-,age period1 and the one study which absorbed the intellectual energy of the one learned class1 the evolution of the study of ,theology possesses particular interest for us4 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,theology4 ,during the earlier part of the period under consideration the preparatory study necessary for service in the ,church was small1 and very elementary in character4 ,the elements of reading1 writing1 reckoning1 and music1 as taught to oblati in the monasteries1 sufficed4 ,as knowledge increased a little the study of grammar at first1 and later all the studies of the ,trivium came to be common as preparatory study1 while those who made the best preparation added the subjects of the ,quadrivium4 ,ethics1 or metaphysics1 taught largely from the digest of ,aristotle's ,ethics prepared in the sixth century by ,boethius1 was the text for this study until about #abjj1 when ,aristotle's ,metaphysics1 ,physics1 ,psychology1 and ,ethics were re-introduced into ,europe from ,saracen sources 7,r4 #hg74 ,the theological course proper experienced a similar development4 ,at first1 as we saw in chapter ,v1 there were but few principles of belief1 and the church organization was exceedingly simple4 ,in #cbe ,a4,d4 the ,nicene ,creed was formulated 7p4 #if71 and the first twenty canons 7rules7 adopted for the government of the clergy4 ,with the translation of the ,bible into the ,latin language 7,vulgate1 fourth century71 the writings of the early ,latin ,fathers1 and additional canons and expressions of belief adopted at subsequent church councils1 an increasing amount relating to belief1 church organization1 and pastoral duties needed to be imparted to new members of the clergy4 ,still1 up to the eleventh century at least1 the theological course remained quite meager4 ,in a tenth-century account the following description of the theological course of the time is given3 #ai #a4 ,elements of grammar and the first part of ,donatus4 #b4 ,repeated readings of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 #c4 ,mass prayers4 #d4 ,rules of the ,church as to time reckoning4 #e4 ,decrees of the ,church ,councils4 #f4 ,rules of penance4 #g4 ,prescriptions for church services4 #h4 ,worldly laws4 #i4 ,collections of homilies 7sermons74 #aj4 ,tractates on the ,epistles and ,gospels4 #aa4 ,lives of the ,saints4 #ab4 ,church music4 ,it will be seen from this tenth-century course of theological study that it was based on reading1 writing1 and reckoning1 and a little music as preparatory studies2 that it began with the first of the subjects of the ,trivium1 which was studied only in part2 and that its purpose was to impart needed information as to dogma1 church practices1 canon 7church7 law1 and such civil 7worldly7 law as would be needed by the priest in discharging his functions as the notary and lawyer of the age4 ,there is no suggestion of the study of ,theology as a science1 based on evidences1 logic1 and ethics4 ,such study was not then known1 and would not have been tolerated4 ,there were no other professions to study for4 ,,systematic ,,instruction ,,begins4 ,about #aade ,peter the ,lombard published his ,book of ,sentences1 and this worked a revolution in the teaching of the subject4 ,in topics1 arrangement1 and method of treatment the book marked a great advance1 and became the standard textbook in ,theology for a long time4 ,it did much to change the study of ,theology from dogmas to a scientific subject1 and made possible schools of ,theology in the universities now about to arise4 ,in the thirteenth century it was made the official textbook at both the universities of ,oxford and ,paris4 ,the studies of dialectic and ethics were raised to a new plane of importance by the publication of this book4 ,by the close of the twelfth century the interest of the ,church in a better-trained clergy had grown to such an extent that theological instruction was ordered established wherever there was an ,archbishop4 ,in a decree issued by ,pope ,innocent ,,iii and the ,general ,council it was ordered3 ,in every cathedral or other church of sufficient means1 a master ought to be elected by the prelate or chapter1 and the income of a prebend assigned to him1 and in every metropolitan church a theologian also ought to be elected4 ,and if the church is not rich enough to provide a grammarian and a theologian1 it shall provide for the theologian from the revenues of his church1 and cause provision to be made for the grammarian in some church of his city or diocese4 #bj ,we also1 in the early thirteenth century1 find bishops enforcing theological training on future priests by orders of which the following is a type3 ,hugh of ,scawby1 clerk1 presented by ,nigel ,costentin to the church of 7,potter7 ,hanworth1 was admitted and canonically instituted in it as parson1 on condition that he comes to the next orders to be ordained subdeacon4 ,but on account of the insufficiency of his grammar1 the lord bishop ordered him on pain of loss of his benefice to attend school4 ,and the ,dean of ,wyville was ordered to induct him into corporal possession of the said church in form aforesaid1 and to inform the lord bishop if he does not attend school4 #ba #e4 ,characteristics of mediaeval education ,,foundations ,,laid ,,for ,a ,,new ,,order4 ,the education which we have just described covers the period from the time of the downfall of ,rome to the twelfth or the thirteenth century4 ,it represents what the ,church evolved to replace that which it and the barbarians had destroyed4 ,meager as it still was1 after seven or eight centuries of effort1 it nevertheless presents certain clearly marked lines of development4 ,the beginnings of a new ,christian civilization among the tribes which had invaded and overrun the old ,roman ,empire are evident1 and1 toward the latter part of the ,middle ,ages1 we note the development of a number of centers of learning 7,r4 #ga7 and the beginnings of that specialization of knowledge 7church doctrine1 classical learning1 music1 logic and ethics1 theology71 at different church and monastery schools1 which promised much for the future of learning4 ,we also notice1 and will see the same evidence in the following chapter1 the beginnings of a class of scholarly men1 though the scholarship is very limited in scope and along lines thoroughly approved by the ,church4 ,in education proper1 in the sense that we understand it1 the schools provided were still for a very limited class1 and secondary rather than elementary in nature4 ,they were intended to meet the needs of an institution rather than of a people1 and to prepare those who studied in them for service to that institution4 ,that institution1 too1 had concentrated its efforts on preparing its members for life in another world1 and not for life or service in this4 ,there were as yet no independent schools or scholars1 the monks and clergy represented the one learned class1 ,theology was the one professional study1 the ability to read and write was not regarded by noble or commoner as of any particular importance1 and all book knowledge was in a language which the people did not understand when they heard it and could not read4 ,society was as yet composed of three classes--feudal warriors1 who spent their time in amusements or fighting1 and who had evolved a form of knightly training for their children2 privileged priests and monks and nuns1 who controlled all book learning and opportunities for professional advancement2 and the great mass of working peasants1 engaged chiefly in agriculture1 and belonging to and helping to fight the battles of their protecting lord4 ,for these peasants there was as yet no education aside from what the ,church gave through her watchful oversight and her religious services 7,r4 #ha71 and but little leisure1 freedom1 wealth1 security1 or economic need to make such education possible or desirable4 ,moreover1 the other-worldly attitude of the ,church made such education seem unnecessary4 ,it was still the education of a few for institutional purposes1 though here and there1 by the close of the twelfth century1 the ,church was beginning to urge its members to provide some education for their children 7,r4 #hb71 and the world was at last getting ready for the evolution of the independent scholar1 and soon would be ready for the evolution of schools to meet secular needs4 ,,repressive ,,attitude ,,of ,,the ,,mediaeval ,,church4 ,the great work of the ,church during this period1 as we see it to-day1 was to assimilate and sufficiently civilize the barbarians to make possible a new civilization1 based on knowledge and reason rather than force4 ,to this end the ,church had interposed her authority against barbarian force1 and had slowly won the contest4 ,almost of necessity the ,church had been compelled to insist upon her way1 and this type of absolutism in church government had been extended to most other matters4 ,the ,bible1 or rather the interpretations of it which church councils1 popes1 bishops1 and theological writers had made1 became authoritative1 and disobedience or doubt became sinful in the eyes of the ,church4 #bb ,the ,scriptures were made the authority for everything1 and interpretations the most fantastic were made of scriptural verses4 ,unquestioning belief was extended to many other matters1 with the result that tales the most wonderful were recounted and believed4 ,to question1 to doubt1 to disbelieve--these were among the deadly sins of the early ,middle ,ages4 ,this attitude of mind undoubtedly had its value in assimilating and civilizing the barbarians1 and probably was a necessity at the time1 but it was bad for the future of the ,church as an institution1 and utterly opposed to scientific inquiry and intellectual progress4 ,monroe well expresses the situation which came to exist when he says3 ,the validity of any statement1 the actuality of any alleged instance1 came to be determined1 not by any application of rationalistic principle1 not by inherent plausibility1 not by actual inquiry into the facts of the case1 but by its agreement with religious feelings or beliefs1 its effect in furthering the influence of the ,church or the reputation of a saint--in general1 by its relationship to matters of faith4 ,thus it happens that the chronicles of the monks and the lives of the saints1 charming and interesting as they are in their navet1 their simplicity1 their trustful credulity1 and their pictures of a life and an attitude of mind so remote from ours1 are filled with incidents given as facts that test the greatest faith1 strain the most vivid imagination1 and shock that innate respect for reality1 that it is the purpose of modern education to inculcate4 #bc ,this authoritative and repressive attitude of the ,church expressed itself in many ways4 ,the teaching of the period is an excellent example of this influence4 ,the instruction in the so-called ,seven ,liberal ,arts remained unchanged throughout a period of half a dozen centuries--so much accumulated knowledge passed on as a legacy to succeeding generations4 ,it represented mere instruction2 not education4 ,as a recent writer has well expressed it1 the whole knowledge and culture contained in the ,seven ,liberal ,arts remained like a substance in suspension in a medium incapable of absorbing it2 unchanged throughout the whole mediaeval period4 ,inquiry or doubt in religious matters was not tolerated1 and scientific inquiry and investigation ceased to exist4 ,the notable scientific advances of the ,greeks1 their literature and philosophy1 and particularly their genius for free inquiry and investigation1 no longer influenced a world dominated by an institution preparing its children only for life in a world to come4 ,not until the world could shake off this mediaeval attitude toward scientific inquiry and make possible honest doubt was any real intellectual progress possible4 ,in a rough1 general way the turn in the tide came about the beginning of the twelfth century1 and for the next five centuries the ,church was increasingly busy trying1 like ,king ,canute of old1 to stop the waves of free inquiry and scientific doubt from rising higher against the bulwarks it had erected4 ,,the ,,mediaeval ,,educational ,,system4 ,the educational system which the ,church had developed by #abjj continued unchanged in its essential features until after the great awakening known as the ,revival of ,learning1 or ,renaissance4 ,this system we have just sketched4 ,for instruction in the elements of learning we have the inner and outer monastery and convent schools1 and1 in connection with the churches1 song schools1 and chantry or stipendary schools4 ,in these last we have the beginnings of the parish school for instruction in the elements of learning and the fundamentals of faith for the children of the faithful4 ,in the monasteries1 convents1 and in connection with the cathedral churches we have the secondary instruction fairly well organized with the ,trivium and the ,quadrivium as the basis4 ,at the close of the period under consideration in this chapter a few privately endowed grammar schools were just beginning to be founded to supplement the work of the cathedral schools 7,,rs4 #ada-adc74 ,in some of the inner monastery schools and a few of the cathedral schools we also have the beginnings of higher instruction1 with theology as the one professional subject and the one learned career4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages ,the relative weight of the lines indicates approximate development4 ,the lines along which educational evolution took place in the later ,middle ,ages are here clearly marked out4 ,all these schools1 too1 were completely under the control of the ,church4 ,there were no private schools or teachers before about #abjj4 ,only the chivalric education was under the control of princes or kings1 and even this the ,church kept under its supervision4 ,the ,church was still the ,state1 to a large degree1 and the ,church1 unlike ,greece or ,rome1 took the education of the young upon itself as one of its most important functions4 ,the schools taught what the ,church approved1 and the instruction was for religious and church ends4 ,the monks who gave instruction in the monasteries were responsible to the ,abbot1 who was in turn responsible to the head of the order and through him to the ,pope at ,rome4 ,similarly the scholasticus in the cathedral school and the precentor in the song school were both responsible to the ,bishop1 and again through ,archbishop and ,cardinal to the ,pope4 ,,the ,,first ,,teacher',s ,,certificates ,,and ,,school ,,supervision4 ,toward the latter part of the period under consideration in this chapter an interesting development in church school administration took place4 ,as the cathedral and song schools increased assistant teachers were needed1 and the scholasticus and precentor gradually withdrew from instruction and became the supervisors of instruction1 or rather the principals of their respective schools4 ,as song or parish schools were established in the parishes of the diocese teachers for these were needed1 and the scholasticus and precentor extended their authority and supervision over these1 just as the ,bishop had done much earlier 7p4 #ig7 over the training and appointment of priests4 ,by #aaej we have1 clearly evolved1 the system of central supervision of the training of all teachers in the diocese through the issuing1 for the first time in ,europe1 of licenses to teach 7,r4 #hc74 ,the system was finally put into legal form by a decree adopted by a general council of the ,church at ,rome1 in #aagi1 which required that the scholasticus should have authority to superintend all the schoolmasters of the diocese and grant them licenses without which none should presume to teach1 and that nothing be exacted for licenses to teach issued by him1 thus stopping the charging of fees for their issuance4 ,the precentor1 in a similar manner1 claimed and often secured supervision of all elementary1 and especially all song-school instruction4 ,teachers were also required to take an oath of fealty and obedience 7,r4 #hd b74 ,as a result of centuries of evolution we thus find1 by #abjj1 a limited but powerful church school system1 with centralized control and supervision of instruction1 diocesan licenses to teach1 and a curriculum adapted to the needs of the institution in control of the schools4 ,we also note the beginnings of secular instruction in the training of the nobility for life's service1 though even this is approved and sanctioned by the ,church4 ,the centralized religious control thus established continued until the nineteenth century1 and still exists to a more or less important degree in the school systems of ,italy1 the old ,austro-,hungarian ,states1 ,germany1 ,england1 and some other western nations4 ,as we shall see later on1 one of the big battles in the process of developing state school systems has come through the attempt of the ,state to substitute its own organization for this religious monopoly of instruction4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,outline the instruction in an inner monastery school4 #b4 ,show how the mediaeval parish school naturally developed as an offshoot of the cathedral schools1 and was supplemented later by the endowed chantry schools4 #c4 ,what effect did the development of song-school instruction have on the instruction in the cathedral schools8 #d4 ,why was it difficult to develop good cathedral schools during the early ,middle ,ages8 #e4 ,about how much training would be represented to-day by the ,seven ,liberal ,arts1 7a7 assuming the body of knowledge then known8 7b7 assuming the body of knowledge for each subject known to-day8 #f4 ,what great subject of study has been developed out of one part of the study of mediaeval rhetoric8 #g4 ,why would dialectic naturally not be of much importance1 so long as instruction in theology was dogmatic and not a matter of thinking8 #h4 ,characterize the instruction in arithmetic1 geometry1 and geography during the early ,middle ,ages4 ,would we consider such knowledge as of any value8 ,explain the attention given to such instruction4 #i4 ,what great modern subjects of study have been developed out of the mediaeval subjects of arithmetic1 geometry1 and astronomy8 #aj4 ,compare the knowledge of mediaevals and moderns in 7a7 geography1 7b7 astronomy4 #aa4 ,what does the fact that the few great textbooks were in use for so many centuries indicate as to the character of educational progress during the ,middle ,ages8 #ab4 ,was the ,church wise in adopting and sanctifying the education of chivalry8 ,why8 #ac4 ,what important contributions to world progress came out of chivalric education8 #ad4 ,what ideals and practices from chivalry have been retained and are still in use to-day8 ,does the ,boy ,scouts movement embody any of the chivalric ideas and training8 #ae4 ,compare the education of the body by the ,greeks and under chivalry4 #af4 ,compare the ,athenian ephebic oath with the vows of chivalry4 #ag4 ,picture the present world transferred back to a time when theology was the one profession4 #ah4 ,what educational theory1 conscious or unconscious1 formed the basis for mediaeval education and instruction8 #ai4 ,explain why the ,church1 after six or seven centuries of effort1 still provided schools only for preparation for its own service4 #bj4 ,what does the lack of independent scholars during the ,middle ,ages indicate as to possible leisure8 #ba4 ,was the attitude of ,anselm a perfectly natural one for the ,middle ,ages8 ,can progress be made with such an attitude dominant8 #bb4 ,contrast the deadly sins of the ,middle ,ages with present-day conceptions as to education4 #bc4 ,contrast the purposes of mediaeval education and the education of to- day4 #bd4 ,when ,greece and ,rome offered no precedents1 how did the ,church come to so fully develop and control the education which was provided8 #be4 ,compare the supervisory work of a modern county superintendent with that of a scholasticus of a mediaeval cathedral4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #gj4 ,leach3 ,song and ,grammar ,schools in ,england4 #ga4 ,mullinger3 ,the ,episcopal and ,monastic ,schools4 #gb4 ,statutes3 ,the ,school at ,salisbury ,cathedral4 #gc4 ,aldwincle3 ,foundation ,grant for a ,chantry ,school4 #gd4 ,maurus3 ,the ,seven ,liberal ,arts4 #ge4 ,leach3 ,a ,mediaeval ,latin ,colloquy4 #gf4 ,quintilian3 ,on the ,importance of the ,study of ,grammar4 #gg4 ,anglicus3 ,the ,elements1 and the ,planets4 7a7 ,of the ,elements4 7b7 ,of ,double ,moving of the ,planets4 #gh4 ,cott3 ,a ,tenth ,century ,schoolmaster's ,books4 #gi4 ,archbishop of ,cologne3 ,the ,truce of ,god4 #hj4 ,gautier3 ,how the ,church used ,chivalry4 #ha4 ,draper3 ,educational ,influences of the ,church ,services4 #hb4 ,winchester ,diocesan ,council3 ,how the ,church urged that the ,elements of ,religious ,education be given4 #hc4 ,lincoln ,cathedral3 ,licenses required to teach ,song4 #hd4 ,english ,forms3 ,appointment and ,oath of a ,grammar-,school ,master4 7a7 ,northallerton3 ,appointment of a master of ,song and ,grammar4 7b7 ,archdeacon of ,ely3 ,oath of a ,grammar-,school ,master to4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,distinguish between song and grammar schools 7#gj71 and state what was taught in each4 ,do we have any modern analogy to the same teacher teaching both schools1 as was sometimes done8 #b4 ,distinguish between monastic and episcopal 7cathedral7 schools 7#ga74 ,when was the great era of each8 ,how do you explain the change in relative importance of the two8 #c4 ,explain the process of evolution of a parish school out of a chantry school4 #d4 ,what was the nature of the cathedral school at ,salisbury 7#gb78 #e4 ,what type of a school was provided for in the ,aldwincle chantry 7#gc78 ,why was it not until after the twelfth century that the endowing of schools 7#gc7 began to supersede the endowing of priests1 churches1 and monasteries8 #f4 ,how do you explain the need for so many years to master the ,seven ,liberal ,arts 7#gd78 #g4 ,into what subjects of study have we broken up the old subject of grammar1 as described by ,quintilian 7#gf71 and how have we distributed them throughout our school system8 ,is technical grammar at present taught in the best possible place8 #h4 ,what stage in scientific knowledge do the selections from ,anglicus 7#gg a-b7 indicate8 ,what rate of scientific progress is indicated by its translation and length of use8 #i4 ,what scope of knowledge is represented in the library 7#gh7 of the tenth-century schoolmaster8 ,what does the list indicate as to the state of learning of the time8 #aj4 ,picture the manners and morals of a time which called for the proclamation of a ,truce of ,god 7#gi74 ,would the rate of progress of civilization and the rate of elimination of warfare up to then1 and since1 indicate that the ,church has been very successful in imposing its will8 #aa4 ,show how ,chivalry was made a great asset to the ,church 7#hj74 #ab4 ,how do you explain the much greater simplicity of the church service of modern ,protestant churches than that of the ,roman 7#ha7 or ,greek ,catholic churches8 #ac4 ,explain the form of mild compulsion toward learning which the diocesan council of ,winchester 7#hb7 attempted to institute4 #ad4 ,is the modern state teacher's certificate a natural outgrowth of the mediaeval licenses 7#hc7 to teach grammar and song8 ,why did the ,church insist on these when ,rome had not required such8 #ae4 ,show how the modern oath of office of a teacher1 and the possibility of dismissal for insubordination1 is a natural development from the oath of fealty and obedience 7#hd b7 of the mediaeval teacher8 ,is this true also for our modern notices of appointment 7#hd a78 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,abelson1 ,paul4 ,the ,seven ,liberal ,arts4 ,addison1 ,julia de ,w4 ,arts and ,crafts in the ,middle ,ages4 ,besant1 ,w4 ,the ,story of ,king ,alfred4 99 ,clark1 ,j4 ,w4 ,the ,care of ,books4 ,davidson1 ,thomas4 ,the ,seven ,liberal ,arts2 in ,educational ,review1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dfg-gc4 7,also in his ,aristotle47 ,mombert1 ,j4 ,i4 ,history of ,charles the ,great4 99 ,mullinger1 ,j4 ,b4 ,the ,schools of ,charles the ,great4 ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e4 ,history of ,classical ,scholarship1 vol4 ,i4 ,scheffel1 ,victor4 ,ekkehard4 7,historical novel of monastic life47 ,steele1 ,philip4 ,mediaeval ,lore4 7,anglicus' ,cyclopaedia47 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,influences ,,tending ,,toward ,a ,,revival ,,of ,,learning ,i4 ,,moslem ,,learning ,,from ,,spain ,,the ,,mohammedans ,,in ,,spain4 ,it will be recalled that in chapter ,v we mentioned briefly the ,mohammedan migrations of the seventh century1 and said that we should meet them again a little later on as one of the minor forces in the development of our western civilization4 ,after their defeat at ,tours 7#gcb7 the ,mohammedans retired into ,spain1 mixed with the ,iberian- ,roman-,visigothic peoples inhabiting the peninsula1 and began to develop a civilization there4 ,figure #cc 7p4 #aad7 shows how much of the world the ,mohammedans had overrun by #hjj ,a4,d41 and how much of ,spain was in their possession4 ,in ,spain they developed a skillful agriculture 7,r4 #he71 as1 in lands as hot and dry as ,spain1 all agriculture to be successful must be4 ,they introduced irrigation1 gave special attention to the breeding of horses and cattle1 and developed garden and orchard fruits4 ,to them western ,europe is indebted for the introduction of many of its orchard fruits1 useful plants1 and garden vegetables1 as well as for a number of important manufacturing processes4 ,the orange1 lemon1 peach1 apricot1 and mulberry trees2 the spinach1 artichoke1 and asparagus among vegetables2 cotton1 rice1 sugar cane1 and hemp among useful plants2 the culture of the silkworm1 and the manufacture of silk and cotton garments2 the manufacture of paper from cotton1 and the making of morocco leather--these are among our debts to these people4 ,though many of the above had been known to antiquity1 they had been lost during the barbarian invasions and were restored only through their re-introduction by the ,moslems4 ,,great ,,absorptive ,,power ,,for ,,learning4 ,the original ,arabians themselves were not a well-educated people4 ,before the time of ,mohammed we have practically no records as to any education among them4 ,when in their religious conquests they overran ,syria 7see ,map1 p4 #ajc71 they came in contact with the survivals of that wonderful ,greek civilization and learning1 and this they absorbed with greatest avidity4 ,it will be recalled1 too1 that in chapter ,,iv 7p4 #id71 it was stated that the early ,christians developed very important catechetical schools in ,egypt and ,syria1 and especially at ,alexandria1 ,antioch1 ,edessa1 ,nisibis1 ,harran1 and ,caesarea4 #a 7,see ,figure #bg1 p4 #hi47 ,it was also stated that the ,christian instruction imparted at these eastern schools was tinctured through and through with ,greek learning and ,greek philosophic thought4 ,here monasteries also were developed in numbers1 and ,syrian monks had for centuries been busy translating ,greek authors into ,syriac4 ,it was also stated 7p4 #id7 that the ,eastern or ,greek division of the ,christian ,church1 of which ,constantinople became the central city1 was more liberal toward ,greek learning than was the ,western or ,latin division of the ,church4 ,by the fifth century1 though1 due in part to the breakdown of government1 the increasing barbarity of the age1 and the greater control of all thinking by the ,church1 the ,eastern ,church lost somewhat of its earlier tolerance4 ,in #dca the ,church ,council of ,ephesus put a ban on the ,hellenized form of ,christian theology advocated by ,nestorius1 then ,patriarch of ,constantinople1 and drove him and his followers1 known as ,nestorian ,christians1 from the city4 ,these ,nestorians now fled to the old ,syrian cities1 which early had been so hospitable to ,greek learning and thinking4 #b ,being now beyond the reach of ,christian intolerance and in a friendly atmosphere1 they remained there1 developing excellent higher schools of the old ,greek type1 and there the ,mohammedans found them when they overran ,syria1 in #fce ,a4,d4 ,mohammedanism now came in contact with an educated people1 as it did also in ,babylonia 7#fcg71 in ,assyria 7#fdj71 and in ,egypt 7#fdb71 and the need of a better statement of the somewhat crude faith now became evident4 ,the same process now took place as had occurred earlier with ,christianity4 ,the ,nestorian ,christians and the ,syrian monks became the scholars for the ,mohammedans1 and the ,mohammedan faith was clothed in ,greek forms and received a thorough tincturing of ,greek philosophic thought4 ,within a century they had translated from ,syriac into ,arabic1 or from the original ,greek1 much of the old ,greek learning in philosophy1 science1 and medicine1 and the cities of ,syria1 and in particular their capital1 ,damascus1 became renowned for their learning4 ,in #gfj ,bagdad1 on the ,tigris1 was founded1 and superseded ,damascus as the capital4 ,extending eastward1 these people were soon busy absorbing ,hindu mathematical knowledge1 obtaining from them 7c4 #hjj7 the so-called ,arabic notation and algebra4 ,,they ,,develop ,,schools ,,and ,,advance ,,learning4 ,in #ghf ,haroun-al-,raschid became ,caliph at ,bagdad1 and he and his son made it an intellectual center of first importance4 ,in all the known world probably no city1 not even ,constantinople1 during the latter part of the eighth century and most of the ninth1 could vie with ,bagdad as a center of learning4 ,basra1 ,kufa1 and other eastern cities were also noted places4 ,schools were opened in connection with the mosques 7churches71 a university after the old ,greek model was founded1 a large library was organized1 and an observatory was built4 ,large numbers of students thronged the city1 learned ,greeks and ,jews taught in the schools1 and a number of advances on the scientific work done by the ,greeks were made4 ,a degree of the earth's surface #c was measured on the shores of the ,red ,sea2 the obliquity of the ecliptic was determined 7c4 #hcj72 astronomical tables were calculated2 algebra and trigonometry were perfected2 discoveries in chemistry not known in ,europe until toward the end of the eighteenth century1 and advances in physics for which western ,europe waited for ,newton 7#afdb-agbg71 were made2 and in medicine and surgery their work was not duplicated until the early nineteenth century4 ,their scholars wrote dictionaries1 lexicons1 cyclopaedias1 and pharmacopoeias of merit 7,r4 #hf74 ,this eastern learning was now gradually carried to ,spain by traveling ,mohammedan scholars1 and there the energy of conquest was gradually turned to the development of schools and learning4 ,by #ijj a good civilization and intellectual life had been developed in ,spain1 and before #ajjj the teaching in ,spain1 especially along ,greek philosophical lines1 had become sufficiently known to attract a few adventurous monks from ,christian ,europe4 ,gerbert 7#iec-ajjc71 afterward ,pope ,sylvester ,,ii 7p4 #aei71 was one of the first to study there1 though for this he was accused of having transactions with the ,devil1 and when he died suddenly at fifty1 four years after having been elevated to the ,papacy1 monks over ,europe are recorded as having crossed themselves and muttered that the ,devil had now claimed his reward4 ,a monk from ,monte ,cassino also studied at ,bagdad1 and brought back some of the eastern learning to his monastery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,,showing ,,centers ,,of ,,moslem ,,learning ,,mohammedan ,,reaction ,,sends ,,scholars ,,to ,,spain4 ,the great intellectual development at ,bagdad was in part due to the patronage of a few caliphs of large vision1 and was of relatively short duration4 ,the religious enthusiasts among the ,mohammedans were in reality but little more zealous for ,hellenic learning than the ,fathers of the ,western ,church had been4 ,finally1 about #ajej1 they obtained the upper hand and succeeded in driving out the ,hellenic ,mohammedans1 just as the ,eastern ,christians had driven out the ,nestorians1 and these scholars of the ,east now fled to northern ,africa and to ,spain4 #d ,almost at once a marked further development in the intellectual life of ,spain took place4 ,in ,cordova1 ,granada1 ,toledo1 and ,seville strong universities were developed1 where ,jews and ,hellenized ,mohammedans taught the learning of the ,east1 and made further advances in the sciences and mathematics4 ,physics1 chemistry1 astronomy1 mathematics1 physiology1 medicine1 and surgery were the great subjects of study4 ,greek philosophy also was taught4 ,they developed schools and large libraries1 taught geography from globes1 studied astronomy in observatories1 counted time by pendulum clocks1 invented the compass and gunpowder1 developed hospitals1 and taught medicine and surgery in schools 7,r4 #hf74 ,their cities were equally noteworthy for their magnificent palaces1 #e mosques1 public baths1 market-places1 aqueducts1 and paved and lighted streets--things unknown in ,christian ,europe for centuries to come 7,r4 #he74 ,it became fashionable for wealthy men to become patrons of learning1 and to collect large libraries and place them at the disposal of scholars1 thus revealing interests in marked contrast to those of the fighting nobility of ,christian ,europe4 ,,their ,,influence ,,on ,,western ,,europe4 ,western ,europe of the tenth to the twelfth centuries presented a dreary contrast1 in almost every particular1 to the brilliant life of southern ,spain4 ,just emerging from barbarism1 it was still in an age of general disorder and of the simplest religious faith4 #f ,the age of reason and of scientific experiment as a means of arriving at truth had not yet dawned1 and would not do so for centuries to come4 ,monks and clerics1 representing the one learned class1 regarded this ,moslem science as black art1 and in consequence ,europe1 centuries later1 had slowly to rediscover the scientific knowledge which might have been had for the taking4 ,only the book science of ,aristotle would the ,church accept1 and even this only after some hesitation 7,rs4 #hi1 #ij74 ,western ,europe had1 however1 advanced far enough through the study of the ,seven ,liberal ,arts to desire corrected and additional texts of the earlier classical writers1 particularly ,aristotle1 and also to be willing to accept some of the mathematical knowledge of these ,saracens4 ,it was here that the ,moslem learning in ,spain helped in the intellectual awakening of the rest of ,europe4 ,adelhard1 an ,english monk1 studied at ,cordova about #aabj1 and took back with him some knowledge of arithmetic1 algebra1 and geometry4 ,his ,euclid was in general use in the universities by #acjj4 ,gerard of ,cremona1 in ,lombardy 7#aaad-aahg71 who studied at ,toledo a little later1 rendered a similar service for ,italy4 ,he also translated many works from the ,arabic1 including ,ptolemy's ,almagest 7p4 #di71 a book of astronomical tables1 and ,alhazen's 7,spanish scholar1 c4 #aajj7 book on ,optics4 ,other monks studied in the ,spanish cities during the twelfth century1 a few of whom brought back translations of importance4 ,frederick ,,ii #g employed a staff of ,jewish physicians to translate ,arabic works into ,latin1 but1 due to his continual war against the ,pope and his final outlawry by the ,church1 his work possessed less significance than it otherwise might have done4 ,among the books thus translated was the medical textbook of ,avicenna 7#ihj-ajcg71 based in turn on the ,greek works by ,galen and ,hippocrates of ,cos 7p4 #aig74 ,this book described ailments and their treatment in detail1 became the standard textbook in the medical faculties of the universities1 and was used until the seventeenth century4 ,another ,moslem whose translated writings had great influence on ,europe was ,averros 7#aabf-aaih7 who tried to unite the philosophy of ,aristotle with ,mohammedanism 7,r4 #hh74 ,his influence on the thinkers of the later ,middle ,ages was large1 he being regarded as the greatest commentator on ,aristotle from the days of ,rome to the time of the ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,,aristotle ,what ,europe obtained through ,moslem sources which it prized most1 though1 was the commentary on ,aristotle by ,averros and the works of ,aristotle 7,r4 #hh74 ,the list of the books of ,aristotle in use in the mediaeval universities by #acjj 7,r4 #hg7 reveals the great importance of the additions made4 ,by the middle of the twelfth century ,aristotle's ,ethics1 ,metaphysics1 ,physics1 and ,psychology1 as well as some of his minor works1 had been translated into ,latin and were beginning to be made available for study4 ,the translation route through which these works had been derived was a roundabout one--,greek1 ,syriac1 ,arabic1 ,castilian1 ,latin--and hence the translations could not be very accurate1 but they sufficed for the needs of ,europe until the original ,greek versions were recovered when the ,venetians and ,crusaders took and sacked ,constantinople1 in #abjd4 ,these were then translated directly into the ,latin4 ,western ,europe also was ready to use the ,arabic 7,hindu7 system of notation1 the elements of algebra1 ,euclid's geometry1 and ,ptolemy's work on the motion of the heavens4 ,these contributions western ,europe was ready for2 the larger scientific knowledge of the ,saracens1 their pharmacopoeias1 dictionaries1 cyclopaedias1 histories1 and biographies1 it was not yet ready to receive4 ,one other influence crept in from these peoples which was of large future importance--the music and light literature and love songs of ,spain4 ,there had been developed in this sunny land a life of light gayety1 chivalrous gallantry1 elegant courtesies1 and poetic and musical charm1 and this gradually found its way across the ,pyrenees4 ,at first it affected ,provence and ,languedoc1 in southern ,france1 then ,sicily and ,italy1 and finally the gay contagion of lute and mandolin and love songs spread throughout all western ,europe4 ,a race of troubadours and minnesingers arose1 singing in the vernacular1 traveling about the country1 and being entertained in castle halls4 ,lordlyng listneth to my tale ,which is merryr than the nightengale won admission at any castle gate4 ,out of these genial but not orthodox beginnings the polite literature of modern ,europe arose4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,scholastic ,,theology ,,the ,,eleventh ,,century ,a ,,turning ,,point4 ,by the end of the eleventh century a distinct turning-point had been reached in the struggle to save civilization from perishing4 ,from this time on it was clear that the battle had been won1 and that a new ,christian civilization would in time arise in western ,europe4 ,much still remained to be done1 and centuries of effort would be required1 but the ,church1 almost for the first time in more than six hundred years1 felt that it could now pause to organize and systematize its faith4 ,the invasions and destruction of the ,northmen had at last ceased1 the ,mohammedan conquests were over1 almost the last of the ,germanic tribes in ,europe had settled down and had accepted ,christianity1 #h and the fighting nobility of ,europe were being held somewhat in restraint by the might of the ,church1 the ,truce of ,god 7,r4 #gi71 and the softening influence of chivalric education 7,r4 #hj74 ,there were many evidences1 too1 by the end of the eleventh century1 that the western ,christian world1 after the long intellectual night1 was soon to awaken to a new intellectual life4 ,the twelfth century1 in particular1 was a period when it was evident that some new leaven was at work4 ,up to about the close of the eleventh century western ,europe had been living in an age of simple faith4 ,the ,christian world everywhere lay under a veil of faith1 illusion1 and childish prepossession4 ,the mysteries of ,christianity and the many inconsistencies of its teachings and beliefs were accepted with childlike docility1 and the ,church had felt little call to organize1 to systematize1 or to explain4 ,here and there1 to be sure1 some questioning monk or cleric had raised questions over matters #i of faith which his reason could not explain1 and had1 perhaps1 for a time disturbed the peace of orthodoxy1 but a statement somewhat similar to that made by ,anselm of ,canterbury 7footnote1 p4 #agc71 as to the precedence of faith over reason1 had usually been sufficient to silence all inquiry4 ,once1 in the latter part of the eleventh century1 when a great discussion as to the nature of knowledge had taken place among the leaders of the ,church1 a church council had been called to pass upon and give final settlement to the questions raised4 #aj ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,inquiry4 ,as the cathedral schools grew in importance as teaching institutions1 and came to have many teachers and students1 a few of them became noted as places where good instruction was imparted and great teachers were to be found4 ,canterbury in ,england1 ,paris and ,chartres in ,france1 and several of the cities in northern ,italy early were noted for the quality of their instruction4 ,the great teachers and the keenest students of the time were to be found in the cathedral schools in these places1 and the monastic schools now lost their earlier importance as teaching institutions4 ,by the twelfth century they had been completely superseded as important teaching centers by the rapidly developing cathedral schools4 ,to these more important cathedral schools students now came from long distances to study under some noted teacher4 ,says ,mc,cabe3 #aa ,the scholastic fever which was soon to influence the youth of ,europe1 had already set in4 ,you could not travel far over the rough roads of ,france without meeting some footsore scholar1 making for the nearest large monastery or cathedral town4 ,robbers1 frequently in the service of the lord of the land1 infested every province4 ,it was safest to don the coarse frieze tunic of the pilgrim1 without pockets1 sling your little wax tablets and stylus at your girdle1 strap a wallet of bread and herbs and salt on your back1 and laugh at the nervous folk who peeped out from their coaches over a hedge of pikes and daggers4 ,few monasteries refused a meal or a rough bed to the wandering scholar4 ,rarely was any fee exacted for the lesson given4 ,the cathedral school in connection with the church of ,notre ,dame #ab became especially famous for its teachers of the ,liberal ,arts 7particularly ,dialectic7 and of ,theology1 and to this school1 just as the eleventh century was drawing to a close1 came a youth1 then barely twenty years of age1 who is generally regarded as having been the keenest scholar of the twelfth century4 ,his brilliant intellect soon enabled him to refute the instruction of his teachers and to vanquish them in debate4 ,his name was ,abelard4 ,before long he himself became a teacher of ,grammar and ,logic at ,paris1 and later of ,theology1 and1 so widely had he read1 so clearly did he appeal to the reason of his hearers1 and so incisive was his teaching1 that he attracted large numbers of students to his lectures4 ,to assist in his teaching of ,theology he prepared a little textbook1 ,sic et ,non 7,yea and ,nay71 in which he raised for debate many questions as to church teachings 7,r4 #ia b71 such as ,that faith is based on reason1 or not4 ,in the introduction to this textbook he held that constant and frequent questioning is the first key to wisdom 7,r4 #ia a74 ,his method was to give the authorities on both sides1 but to render no decision4 ,his boldness in raising such questions for debate was new1 and his failure to give the students a decision was quite unusual1 while his claim that reason was antecedent to faith was startling4 ,even after being driven from ,paris1 in part because of this boldness and in part because of a most unfortunate incident which deservedly ruined his career in the ,church1 students in numbers followed him to his retreat and listened to his teachings4 ,his method of instruction was for the time so unusual and his spirit of inquiry so searching that he stimulated many a young mind to a new type of thinking4 ,one of his pupils was ,peter the ,lombard 7p4 #aga71 who completely redirected the teaching of theology with his ,book of ,sentences 7c4 #aade7--,this was based largely on ,abelard's method1 except that a positive and orthodox decision was presented for each question raised4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,,the ,,cathedral ,,of ,,notre ,,dame1 ,,at ,,paris ,the present cathedral was begun in #aafc1 consecrated in #aahb1 and completed in the thirteenth century4 ,it is built on an island in the ,seine1 and on the site of a church built in the fourth century4 ,the little community which grew up about the cathedral church formed the nucleus about which the city of ,paris eventually grew4 ,this cathedral front1 with its statues and beautiful carving1 formed a type much followed during the great period of cathedral-building 7thirteenth century7 in ,europe4 ,the school in connection with this cathedral early became famous4 ,what took place at ,paris also took place1 though generally on a smaller scale1 at many other cathedral and monastery schools of western ,europe4 ,the spirit of inquiry had at last been awakened1 the ,church was being respectfully challenged by its children to prove its faith1 and the learning of the ,saracens in ,spain1 which now began to filter across the ,pyrenees1 added to the strength of their challenge4 ,returning pilgrims and crusaders 7,first ,crusade1 #ajii7 also began to ask for an explanation of the doubts which had come to them from the contact with ,greek and ,arab in the ,east4 ,a desire for a philosophy which would explain the mysteries and contradictions of the ,christian faith found expression among the scholars of the time4 ,in the larger cathedral schools1 at least1 it became common to discuss the doctrines of the ,church with much freedom4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,scholastic ,,theology4 ,the ,church1 in a very intelligent and commendable manner1 prepared to meet and use this new spirit in the organization1 systematization1 and restatement of its faith and doctrine1 and the great era of ,scholasticism #ac now arose4 ,during the latter part of the twelfth and in the thirteenth century ,scholasticism was at its height2 after that1 its work being done1 it rapidly declined as an educational force1 and the new universities inherited the spirit which had given rise to its labors4 ,with the new emphasis now placed on reasoning1 ,dialectic or ,logic superseded ,grammar as the great subject of study1 and logical analysis was now applied to the problems of religion4 ,the ,church adopted and guided the movement1 and the schools of the time turned their energy into directions approved by it4 ,aristotle also was in time adopted by the ,church1 after the translation of his principal works had been effected 7,rs4 #hg1 #ij71 and his philosophy was made a bulwark for ,christian doctrine throughout the remainder of the ,middle ,ages4 ,for the next four centuries ,aristotle thoroughly dominated all philosophic thinking4 #ad ,the great development and use of logical analysis now produced many keen and subtle minds1 who worked intensively a narrow and limited field of thought4 ,the result was a thorough reorganization and restatement of the theology of the ,church4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #c4 ,,saint ,,thomas ,,aquinas ,this was the work of ,scholasticism4 ,the movement was not characterized by the evolution of new doctrines1 but by a systematization and organization into good teaching form of what had grown up during the preceding thousand years4 ,to a large degree it was also an accommodation of the old theology to the new ,aristotelian philosophy which had recently been brought back to western ,europe1 and the statement of the ,christian doctrines in good philosophic form4 ,,the ,,organizing ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,schoolmen4 ,peter the ,lombard 7#aajj-aafj71 whose ,book of ,sentences1 mentioned above1 had so completely changed the character of the instruction in ,theology1 began this work of theological reorganization4 ,albert the ,great 7,albertus ,magnus1 #aaic-abhj7 was the first of the great ,schoolmen1 and has been termed the organizing intellect of the ,middle ,ages4 ,he was a ,german ,dominican monk #ae1 born in ,swabia1 and educated in the schools of ,paris1 ,padua1 and ,bologna4 ,later he became a celebrated teacher at ,paris and ,cologne4 ,he was the first to state the philosophy of ,aristotle in systematic form1 and was noted as an exponent of the work of ,peter the ,lombard4 ,thomas ,aquinas 7c4 #abbe-abgd71 the greatest and most influential scholastic philosopher of the ,middle ,ages1 studied first at ,monte ,cassino and ,naples1 and then at ,paris and ,cologne1 under ,albertus ,magnus4 ,he later became a noted teacher of ,philosophy and ,theology at ,rome1 ,bologna1 ,viterbo1 ,perugia1 and ,naples4 ,under him ,scholasticism came to its highest development in his harmonizing the new ,aristotelianism with the doctrines of the ,church4 ,his class teaching was based on ,aristotle1 #af the ,vulgate ,bible1 and ,peter the ,lombard's ,book of ,sentences4 ,during the last three years of his life he wrote his ,summa ,theologiae1 a book which has ever since been accepted as an authoritative statement of the doctrines of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,the character of the organization made by ,peter the ,lombard and ,thomas ,aquinas may be seen from an examination of their method of presentation1 which was dogmatic in form and similar in the textbooks of each4 ,the field of ,christian ,theology was divided out into parts1 heads1 subheads1 etc41 in a way that would cover the subject1 and a group of problems1 each dealing with some doctrinal point1 was then presented under each4 ,the problem was first stated in the text4 ,next the authorities and arguments for each solution other than that considered as orthodox were presented and confuted1 in order4 ,the orthodox solution was next presented1 the arguments and authorities for such solution quoted1 and the objections to the correct solution presented and refuted 7,r4 #aeb74 ,,results ,,of ,,their ,,work4 ,the work of the ,schoolmen was to organize and present in systematic and dogmatic form the teachings of the ,church 7,r4 #ib74 ,this they did exceedingly well1 and the result was a thorough organization of ,theology as a teaching subject4 ,they did little to extend knowledge1 and nothing at all to apply it to the problems of nature and man4 ,their work was abstract and philosophical instead1 dealing wholly with theological questions4 ,the purpose was to lay down principles1 and to offer a training in analysis1 comparison1 classification1 and deduction which would prepare learned and subtle defenders of the faith of the ,church4 ,so successful were the ,schoolmen in their efforts that instruction in ,theology was raised by their work to a new position of importance1 and a new interest in theological scholarship and general learning was awakened which helped not a little to deflect many strong spirits from a life of warfare to a life of study4 ,they made the problems of learning seem much more worth while1 and their work helped to create a more tolerant attitude toward the supporters of either side of debatable questions by revealing so clearly that there are two sides to every question4 ,this new learning1 new interest in learning1 and new spirit of tolerance the rising universities inherited4 ,,iii4 ,,law ,,and ,,medicine ,,as ,,new ,,studies ,,the ,,old ,,roman ,,cities4 ,the old ,roman ,empire1 it will be remembered1 came to be largely a collection of provincial cities4 ,these were the centers of ,roman civilization and culture4 ,after the downfall of the governing power of ,rome1 the great highways were no longer repaired1 brigandage became common1 trade and intercourse largely ceased1 and the provincial cities which were not destroyed in the barbarian invasions declined in population and number1 passing under the control of their bishops who long ruled them as feudal lords4 ,during the long period of disorder many of the old ,roman cities entirely disappeared 7,r4 #di74 ,only in ,italy1 and particularly in northern ,italy1 did these old cities retain anything of their earlier municipal life1 or anything worth mentioning of their former industry and commerce4 ,but even here they lost most of their earlier importance as centers of culture and trade1 becoming merely ecclesiastical towns4 ,after the death of ,charlemagne1 the break-up of his empire1 and the institution of feudal conditions1 the cities and towns declined still more in importance1 and few of any size remained4 ,in ,italy feudalism never attained the strength it did in northern ,europe4 ,throughout all the early ,middle ,ages the cities there retained something of their old privileges1 though ruled by prince-bishops residing in them4 ,they also retained something of the old ,roman civilization1 and ,roman legal usages and some knowledge of ,roman law never quite died out4 ,in other respects they much resembled mediaeval cities elsewhere4 ,,reestablishment ,,of ,,the ,,holy ,,roman ,,empire4 ,after the disintegration of ,charlemagne's empire1 the portion of it now known as ,germany broke up into fragments1 largely independent of one another1 and full of fight and pride4 ,the result there was continual and pitiless warfare4 ,this1 coupled with the raids of the ,northmen along the northern coast and the ,magyars on the east1 led to the election of a king in #iai 7,henry the ,fowler7 who could establish some semblance of unity and order4 ,by #ifa the ,german duchies and small principalities had been so consolidated that a succeeding king 7,otto ,i7 felt himself able to attempt to restablish the ,holy ,roman ,empire by subjugating ,italy and annexing it as an appendage under ,german rule4 ,he descended into ,italy 7#ifa71 subjugated the cities1 overthrew the ,papacy1 created a pope to his liking1 and restablished the old ,empire1 in name at least4 ,for a century the ,german rule was nominal1 but with the outbreak of the conflict in the eleventh century between king and pope over the question of which one should invest the bishops with their authority 7known as the investiture conflict1 #ajge-aabb71 ,pope ,gregory ,,vii humbled the ,german king 7,henry ,,iv7 at ,canossa 7#ajgg7 and won a partial success4 ,then followed repeated invasions of ,italy1 and a century and a half of conflicts between pope and king before the dream of universal empire under a ,german feudal king ended in disaster1 and ,italy was freed from ,teutonic rule4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed1 ,,the ,,city-,,states ,,of ,,northern ,,italy ,all of the cities in the valley of the ,po1 except ,turin1 ,pavia1 and ,mantua1 were members of the ,lombard ,league of #aafg4 ,,the ,,italian ,,cities ,,revive ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,roman ,,law4 ,as was stated above1 ,roman legal usages and some knowledge of ,roman law had never quite died out in these ,italian cities4 ,but1 while regarded with reverence1 the law was not much understood1 little study was given to it1 and important parts of it were neglected and forgotten4 ,the struggle with the ruling bishops in the second half of the eleventh century1 and the discussions which arose during the investiture conflict1 caused new attention to be given to legal questions1 and both the study of ,roman 7civil7 and ,church 7canon7 law were revived4 ,the ,italian cities stood with the ,papacy in the struggles with the ,german kings1 and1 in #aafg1 those in the ,valley of the ,po formed what was known as the ,lombard ,league for defense4 ,under the pressure of ,german oppression they now began a careful study of the known ,roman law in an effort to discover some charter1 edict1 or grant of power upon which they could base their claim for independent legal rights4 ,the result was that the study of ,roman law was given an emphasis unknown in ,italy since the days of the old ,empire4 ,what had been preserved during the period of disorder at last came to be understood1 additional books of the law were discovered1 and men suddenly awoke to a realization that what had been before considered as of little value actually contained much that was worth studying1 as well as many principles of importance that were applicable to the conditions and problems of the time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,,fragment ,,from ,,the ,,recovered ,,digest ,,of ,,justinian ,capitals and small letters are here used1 but note the difficulty of reading without spacing or punctuation4 ,the great student and teacher of law of the period was ,irnerius of ,bologna 7c4 #ajgj-aacg71 who began to lecture on the ,code and the ,institutes of ,justinian about #aaaj to #aaae1 and soon attracted large numbers of students to hear his interpretations4 ,about this same time the ,digest1 much the largest and most important part of the old law1 was discovered and made known4 #ag ,this gave clearness to the whole1 as before its discovery the study of ,roman law was like the study of ,aristotle when only parts of the ,organon were known4 ,irnerius and his co-laborers at ,bologna now collected and arranged the entire body of ,roman civil law 7,corpus ,juris ,civilis7 7,r4 #ic71 introduced the ,digest to western ,europe1 and thus made a new contribution of first importance to the list of possible higher studies4 ,law now ceased to be a part of ,rhetoric 7p4 #aeg7 and became a new subject of study1 with a body of material large enough to occupy a student for several years4 ,this was an event of great intellectual significance4 ,a new study was now evolved which offered great possibilities for intellectual activity and the exercise of the critical faculty1 while at the same time showing veneration for authority4 ,law was thus placed alongside ,theology as a professional subject1 and the evolution of the professional lawyer from the priest was now for the first time made possible4 ,,canon ,,law ,,also ,,organized ,,as ,a ,,subject ,,of ,,study4 ,inspired by the revival of the study of civil law1 a monk of ,bologna1 ,gratian by name1 set himself to make a compilation of all the ,church canons which had been enacted since the ,council of ,nicaea 7#cbe7 formulated the first twenty 7p4 #if71 and of the rules for church government as laid down by the church authorities4 ,this he issued in textbook form1 about #aadb1 under the title of ,decretum ,gratiani4 ,so successful were his efforts that his compilation was one of those great textbooks that take the world by storm4 ,it did for canon 7church7 law what the rediscovery of the ,justinian ,code had done for civil law2 that is1 it organized canon law as a new and important teaching subject4 ,the ,decretum of ,gratian was published in three parts1 and was organized after the same plan as ,abelard's ,sic et ,non1 except that ,gratian drew conclusions from the mass of evidence he presented on each topic4 ,it contained #adg ,distinctions 7questions2 cases of church policy71 upon each of which were cited the church canons and the views and decisions of important church authorities4 #ah ,this volume was added to by popes later on1 #ai so that by the fifteenth century a large body of canon law had grown up1 which was known as the ,corpus ,juris ,canonici4 ,canon ,law was thus separated from ,theology and added to ,civil ,law as another new subject of study for both theological and legal students1 and the two subjects of ,canon and ,civil ,law came to constitute the work of the law faculties in the universities which soon arose in western ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,,the ,,father ,,of ,,medicine ,,hippocrates ,,of ,,cos 7#dfj- #cfg8 ,b4,c47 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,medical ,,study4 ,the ,greeks had made some progress in the beginnings of the study of disease 7p4 #dg74 ,aristotle had given some anatomical knowledge in his writings on animals1 and had theorized a little about the functions of the human body4 ,the real founder of medical science1 though1 was ,hippocrates1 of the island of ,cos 7c4 #dfj-cfg ,b4,c471 a contemporary of ,plato4 ,he was the first writer on the subject who attempted to base the practice of the healing art on careful observation and scientific principles4 ,he substituted scientific reason for the wrath of offended deities as the causes of disease1 and tried to offer proper remedies in place of sacrifices and prayers to the gods for cures4 ,his descriptions of diseases were wonderfully accurate1 and his treatments ruled medical practice for ages4 #bj ,he knew1 however1 little as to anatomy4 ,another ,greek writer1 ,galen #ba7aca-bja ,a4,d471 wrote extensively on medicine and left an anatomical account of the human body which was unsurpassed for more than a thousand years4 ,his work was known and used by the ,saracens4 ,avicenna 7#ihj-ajcg71 an eastern ,mohammedan1 wrote a ,canon of ,medicine in which he summarized the work of all earlier writers1 and gave a more minute description of symptoms than any preceding writer had done4 ,these works1 together with a few minor writings by teachers in ,spain and ,salerno1 formed the basis of all medical knowledge until ,vesalius published his ,system of ,human ,anatomy1 in #aedc4 ,the ,roman knowledge of medicine was based almost entirely on that of the ,greeks1 and after the rise of the ,christians1 with their new attitude toward earthly life and contempt for the human body1 the science fell into disrepute and decay4 ,saint ,augustine 7#ced-dcj71 in his great work on ,the ,city of ,god1 speaks with some bitterness of medical men who are called anatomists1 and who with a cruel zeal for science have dissected the bodies of the dead1 and sometimes of sick persons1 who have died under their knives1 and have inhumanly pried into the secrets of the human body to learn the nature of disease and its exact seat1 and how it might be cured4 #bb ,during the early ,middle ,ages the ,greek medical knowledge practically disappeared1 and in its place came the ,christian theories of satanic influence1 diabolic action1 and divine punishment for sin4 ,correspondingly the cures were prayers at shrines and repositories of sacred relics and images1 which were found all over ,europe1 and to which the injured or fever-stricken peasants hied themselves to make offerings and to pray1 and then hope for a miracle4 ,toward the middle of the eleventh century ,salerno1 a small city delightfully situated on the ,italian coast 7see ,map1 p4 #aid71 thirty-four miles south of ,naples1 began to attain some reputation as a health resort4 ,in part this was due to the climate and in part to its mineral springs4 ,southern ,italy had1 more than any other part of western ,europe1 retained touch with old ,greek thought4 ,the works of ,hippocrates and ,galen had been preserved there1 the monks at ,monte ,cassino had made some translations1 and sometime toward the middle of the eleventh century the study of the ,greek medical books was revived here4 ,the ,mohammedan medical work by ,avicenna 7p4 #ahe71 also early became known here in translation4 ,about #ajfe ,constantine of ,carthage1 a converted ,jew and a learned monk1 who had traveled extensively in the ,east #bc and who had been forced to flee from his native city because of a suspicion of black art1 began to lecture at ,salerno on the ,greek and ,mohammedan medical works and the practice of the medical art4 ,in #ajii ,robert1 ,duke of ,normandy1 returning from the ,first ,crusade1 stopped here to be cured of a wound1 and he and his knights later spread the fame of ,salerno all over ,europe4 ,the result was the revival of the study of ,medicine in the ,west1 and ,salerno developed into the first of the medical schools of ,europe4 ,montpellier1 in southern ,france1 also became another early center for the study of ,medicine1 drawing much of its medical knowledge from ,spain4 ,another new subject of professional study was now made possible1 and ,faculties of ,medicine were in time organized in most of the universities as they arose4 ,the instruction1 though1 was chiefly book instruction1 ,galen being the great textbook until the seventeenth century4 ,,iv4 ,,other ,,new ,,influences ,,and ,,movements ,,the ,,crusades4 ,perhaps the most romantic happenings during the ,middle ,ages were that series of adventurous expeditions to the then ,far ,east1 undertaken by the kings and knights of western ,europe in an attempt to reclaim the ,holy ,land from the infidel ,turks1 who in the eleventh century had pushed in and were persecuting ,christian pilgrims journeying to ,jerusalem4 ,for centuries single pilgrims1 small bands of pilgrims1 and sometimes large numbers led by priest or noble1 had journeyed to distant shrines1 to ,rome1 and to the birthplace of the ,saviour1 #bd impelled by pure religious devotion1 a desire to do penance for sin1 or seeking a cure from some disease by prayer and penance4 ,it was the spirit of the age4 ,says ,adams3 #be ,a pilgrimage was 444 in itself a religious act securing merit and reward for the one who performed it1 balancing a certain number for his sins1 and making his escape from the world of torment hereafter more certain4 ,the more distant and more difficult the pilgrimage1 the more meritorious1 especially if it led to such supremely holy places as those which had been sanctified by the presence of ,christ himself4 ,for the man of the world1 for the man who could not1 or would not1 go into monasticism1 the pilgrimage was the one conspicuous act by which he could satisfy the ascetic need1 and gain its rewards4 ,a crusade was a stupendous pilgrimage1 under especially favorable and meritorious conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,a ,,pilgrim ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages 7,from an old manuscript in the ,british ,museum7 ,the ,mohammedan ,arabs who took possession of the ,holy ,land in the seventh century had treated the pilgrims considerately1 but the ,turks were of a different stamp4 ,in #ajga they had defeated the ,eastern ,emperor1 captured all ,asia ,minor1 and had taken possession of the fortress of ,nicaea 7,map1 p4 #ahc71 near ,constantinople4 ,the ,eastern ,emperor now appealed to ,rome for help4 ,in #ajgg the ,turks captured ,jerusalem1 and returning pilgrims soon began to report having experienced great hardships4 ,in #ajie ,pope ,urban1 in a stirring address to the ,council of ,clermont 7,france71 issued a call to the lords1 knights1 and foot soldiers of western ,christendom to cease destroying their fellow ,christians in private warfare1 and to turn their strength of arms against the infidel and rescue the ,holy ,land4 ,the journey was to take the place of penance for sin1 many special privileges were extended to those who went1 and those who died on the journey or in battle with the infidels were promised entrance into heaven4 #bf nobles and peasants1 filled with a desire for adventure and a sense of personal sin1 no surer way of satisfying either was to be found than the long pilgrimage to the ,saviour's tomb4 ,in ,france and ,england the call met with instant response4 ,unfortunately for the future of civilization1 the call met with but small response from the nobles of ,german lands4 ,the ,first ,crusade set out in #ajif4 ,a second went in #aadd1 and a third in #aahg4 ,these were the great ,crusades1 though five others were undertaken during the thirteenth century4 ,jerusalem was taken and lost4 ,the ,christians quarreled with one another and with the ,greeks1 though with the ,saracens they established somewhat friendly relations1 and a mutual respect arose4 ,the armies which went were composed of all kinds of people --lords1 knights1 merchants1 adventurers1 peasants1 outlaws--and a spirit of adventure and a desire for personal gain1 as well as a spirit of religious devotion1 actuated many who went4 ,in #abjd the ,venetians diverted the fourth crusade to the capture of ,constantinople1 and established there an outpost of their great commercial empire4 ,the history of the crusades we do not need to trace4 ,the important matter for our purpose was the results of the movement on the intellectual development of western ,europe4 ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,crusades ,,on ,,western ,,europe4 ,in a sense the ,crusades were an outward manifestation of the great change in thinking and ideals which had begun sometime before in western ,europe4 ,they were at once both a sign and a cause of further change4 ,the old isolation was at last about to end1 and intercommunication and some common ideas and common feelings were being brought about4 ,both those who went and those who remained at home were deeply stirred by the movement4 ,christendom as a great international community1 in which all alike were interested in a common ideal and in a common fight against the infidel1 was a new idea now dawning upon the mass of the people1 whereas before it had been but little understood4 ,the travel to distant lands1 the sight of cities of wealth and power1 and the contact with peoples decidedly superior to themselves in civilization1 not only excited the imagination and led to a broadening of the minds of those who returned1 but served as well to raise the general level of intelligence in western ,europe4 ,some new knowledge also was brought back1 but that was not at the time of great importance4 ,the principal gain came in the elimination forever of thousands of quarreling1 fighting noblemen1 #bg thus giving the kingly power a chance to consolidate holdings and begin the evolution of modern ,states2 in the marked change of attitude toward the old problems2 in the awakening of a new interest in the present world2 in the creation of new interests and new desires among the common people2 in the awakening of a spirit of religious unity and of national consciousness2 and especially in the awakening of a new intellectual life1 which soon found expression in the organization of universities for study and in more extensive travel and geographical exploration than the world had known since the days of ancient ,rome4 ,the greatest of all the results1 however1 came through the revival of trade1 commerce1 manufacturing1 and industry in the rising cities of western ,europe1 with the consequent evolution of a new and important class of merchants1 bankers1 and craftsmen1 who formed a new city class and in time developed a new system of training for themselves and their children4 ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,city ,,life4 ,the old cities of central and northern ,italy1 as was stated above1 continued through the early ,middle ,ages as places of some little local importance4 ,in the eleventh century they overthrew in large part the rule of their ,prince-,bishops1 and became little ,city- ,republics1 much after the old ,greek model4 ,outside of ,italy almost the only cities not destroyed during the period of the barbarian invasions were the episcopal cities1 that is cities which were the residences of bishops4 ,outside of ,italy the present cities of western ,europe either rose on the ruins of former ,roman provincial cities1 or originated about some monastery or castle1 on or adjacent to land at one time owned by monks or feudal lord4 ,an ever-increasing company of peasants1 themselves little more than serfs in the beginning1 huddled together in such places for the protection afforded1 and a walled feudal town eventually resulted 7,r4 #id a74 ,this later1 in one way or another1 secured its freedom from monastic control or feudal lord1 and evolved into the free city we know to-day4 ,originally each little city was a self-sustaining community4 ,the farming and grazing lands lay outside1 while the people were crowded compactly together within the protecting town walls4 ,the need for walls that could be manned for defense1 gates that could shut out the marauder1 the narrow1 dirty streets1 and the lack of any sanitary ideas1 all alike tended to keep the towns small4 #bh ,the insecurity of life1 the constant warfare1 the repeated failures or destruction of crops without and want within1 and the high death-rate from disease1 all kept down the population4 ,a town of a thousand people in the early ,middle ,ages was a place of some importance1 while probably no city outside of ,italy1 excepting ,paris and ,london1 had ten thousand inhabitants before the year #abjj4 ,in all ,england there were but #b1aej1jjj people1 according to the ,domesday ,survey 7#ajhf71 while to- day the city of ,london alone contains nearly three times that number4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,a ,,typical ,,mediaeval ,,town 7,,prussian7 ,all the elements of a typical mediaeval town are seen here--the walls for defense1 the watch-towers1 the churches1 the tall cathedral1 the castle1 and the high houses huddled together4 ,after about the year #ajjj a revival of something like city life begins to be noticeable here and there in the records of the time 7,r4 #id a71 and by #aajj these signs begin to manifest themselves in many places and lands4 ,by #abjj the cities of ,europe were numerous1 though small1 and their importance in the life of the times #bi was rapidly increasing 7,r4 #id b74 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,a ,,city ,,class4 ,as the mediaeval towns increased in size and importance the inhabitants1 being human1 demanded rights4 ,between #aajj and #abjj there were frequent revolts of the people of the mediaeval towns against their feudal overlord1 and frequent demands were made for charters granting privileges to the towns4 ,sometimes these insurrections were put down with a bloody hand4 ,sometimes1 on the contrary1 the overlord granted a charter of rights1 willingly or unwillingly1 and freed the people from obligation to labor on the lands in return for a fixed money payment4 ,sometimes the king himself granted the inhabitants a charter by way of curbing the power of the local feudal lord or bishop4 ,the towns became exceedingly skillful in playing off lord against bishop1 and the king against both4 ,in ,england1 ,flanders1 ,france1 and ,germany some of the towns had become wealthy enough to purchase their freedom and a charter at some time when their feudal overlord was particularly in need of money4 ,these charters1 or birth certificates for the towns1 were carefully drawn and officially sealed documents of great value1 and were highly prized as evidences of local liberty4 ,the document created a free town1 and gave to the inhabitants certain specified rights as to self-government1 the election of magistrates--aldermen1 mayor1 burgomaster--the levying and payment of taxes1 and the military service to be rendered4 ,before the evolution of strong national governments these charters created hundreds of what were virtually little ,city-,states throughout ,europe 7,r4 #ie74 ,in these towns a new estate or class of people was now created 7,r4 #if71 in between the ruling bishops and lords on the one hand and the peasants tilling the land on the other4 ,these were the citizens--freemen1 bourgeoisie1 burghers4 ,out of this new class of city dwellers new social orders--merchants1 bankers1 tradesmen1 artisans1 and craftsmen--in time arose1 and these new orders soon demanded rights and obtained some form of education for their children4 ,the guild or apprenticeship education which early developed in the cities to meet the needs of artisans and craftsmen 7,r4 #ii71 and the burgh or city schools of ,europe1 which began to develop in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 were the educational results of the rise of cities and the evolution of these new social classes4 ,the time would soon be ripe for the mysteries of learning to be passed somewhat farther down the educational pyramid1 and new classes in society would begin the mastery of its symbols4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,,the ,,educational ,,pyramid 7,from ,smith1 ,w4 ,r41 ,educational ,sociology1 p4 #agf7 ,the concave pyramid suggests comparative numbers4 ,formal education began at the top1 and has slowly worked downward4 ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,commerce4 ,the first city of mediaeval ,europe to obtain commercial prominence was ,venice4 ,she early sold salt and fish obtained from the lagoons to the ,lombards in the ,valley of the ,po1 and sent trading ships to the ,greek ,east4 ,by the year #ajjj ,venetian ships were bringing the luxuries and riches of the ,orient to ,venice1 and the city soon became a great trading center4 ,there the partially civilized ,christian knight spent splendidly1 and the ,bohemian1 ,german1 and ,hunnish lords came #cj to buy such of the luxuries of the ,east as they could afford4 ,by #aajj ,venice was a free ,city-,state1 the mistress of the ,adriatic1 and the trade of the ,east with ,christian ,europe passed over her wharves4 ,from the ,crusades she profited greatly1 carrying knights eastward in the great fleet she had developed1 and carpets1 fabrics1 perfumes1 spices1 dyes1 drugs1 silks1 and precious stones on the return voyage4 ,from ,tana and ,trebizond her traders penetrated far into the interior4 ,her ships and merchants held the ,golden ,east in fee4 ,by #adjj she was the wealthiest and most powerful city in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,,trade ,,routes ,,and ,,commercial ,,cities ,genoa in time became the great rival of ,venice4 ,marseilles also developed a large trade in the ,mediterranean and with the north4 ,from these three cities trade routes ran to the cities of ,flanders1 ,england1 and ,germany1 as is shown in the map below4 ,by the thirteenth century1 ,augsburg1 ,nuremburg1 ,magdeburg1 ,hamburg1 ,lbeck1 ,bremen1 ,antwerp1 ,ghent1 ,ypres1 ,bruges1 and ,london were developing into great commercial cities4 ,despite bad roads1 bad bridges1 #ca bad inns1 robber knights and bandits1 the commerce once carried on by ,rome with her provinces was reviving4 ,great fairs1 or yearly markets1 came to be held in the large interior towns1 to which merchants came from near and far to display and exchange their wares1 and1 still more important1 from the standpoint of advancing general education1 to exchange ideas and experiences4 ,the luxuries displayed at these markets by traveling merchants from the south--salt1 pepper1 spices1 sugar1 drugs1 dyestuffs1 glass beads1 glassware1 table implements1 perfumes1 ornaments1 underwear1 articles of dress1 silks1 velvets1 carpets1 rugs--dazzled and astounded the simple townspeople of western ,europe4 ,these fairs became educational forces of a high order4 ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,industry ,,and ,,banking4 ,the trading of articles at seaports and at the interior city fairs came first1 and this soon worked a revolution in industry4 ,instead of agriculture being almost the only occupation1 and the feeding of the local population the only purpose1 with only such arts and industries practiced as were needed to supply the wants of the townsmen1 it now became possible to create a surplus to barter at the fairs for luxuries from the outside4 ,local industries1 heretofore of but little importance1 now developed into trades1 and the manufacture of articles for outside sale was begun4 ,at first manufacturing was very limited in scope1 and confined largely to local handicrafts or the imitation of imported articles1 but later new and important industries arose--the glass industry in ,venice1 the gold and silver industry of ,florence1 the weaving industry at ,mainz and ,erfurt1 and the wool industry of ,flanders4 ,the craftsman and artisan1 as well as the merchant and trader1 were now developed in the towns1 and soon became important members of the new social order4 ,as serfs and villeins #cb were set free from the land #cc they came to the towns1 adding more members to the new industrial classes 7,r4 #if74 ,from #abjj on there was a great revival of industry in western ,europe1 and by #aejj merchants and craftsmen had won back the place once held by merchants and craftsmen in ,roman life and trade4 ,at ,florence a banking class arose1 and instead of barter1 banks and the use of money and credit were developed4 ,from ,florence this system gradually extended to the other commercial cities4 ,gradually the mediaeval objection to the taking of interest for the use of money1 which the ,church had forbidden in the early ,middle ,ages as usury and wicked1 was overcome1 and ,italian bankers and merchants led the world in the establishment of that credit which has made modern trade and industry possible4 ,with money once more in general use as a measure of value1 the ,arabic system of notation in use for commercial transactions1 and credit at reasonable interest rates provided as a basis for finance1 an era in trade and commerce and manufacturing set in unknown since the days of ,roman rule4 ,order1 security1 and a wider extension of educational advantages now were needed1 and nothing contributed more to securing these than the growth of wealth and manufacturing industries in the towns1 and the extension of commerce and the use of money throughout the country4 ,nothing tends so powerfully to demand or secure these things as the possession of wealth among a people4 ,,education ,,for ,,these ,,new ,,social ,,classes4 ,with the evolution of these new social classes an extension of education took place through the formation of guilds4 #cd ,the merchants of the ,middle ,ages traded1 not as individuals1 nor as subjects of a ,state which protected them1 for there were as yet no such ,states1 but as members of the guild of merchants of their town1 or as members of a trading company4 ,later1 towns united to form trading confederations1 of which the ,hanseatic ,league of northern ,germany was a conspicuous example4 ,these burgher merchant guilds became wealthy and important socially2 #ce they were chartered by kings and given trading privileges analogous to those of a modern corporation 7,r4 #ie72 they elbowed their way into affairs of ,state1 and in time took over in large part the city governments2 they obtained education for themselves1 and fought with the church authorities for the creation of independent burgh schools2 #cf they began to read books1 and books in the vernacular began to be written for them2 #cg they in time vied with the clergy and the nobility in their patronage of learning2 they everywhere stood with the kings and princes to compel feudal lords to stop warfare and plundering and to submit to law and order2 #ch and they entertained royal personages and drew nobles1 clergy1 and gentry into their honorary membership1 thus serving as an important agency in breaking down the social-class exclusiveness of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in these guilds1 which were self-governing bodies debating questions and deciding policies and actions1 much elementary political training was given their members which proved of large importance at a later time4 ,in the same way the craft guilds rendered a large educational service to the small merchant and worker1 as they provided the technical and social education of such during the later period of the ,middle ,ages and in early modern times1 and protected their members from oppression in an age when oppression was the rule4 ,with the revival of trade and industry craft guilds arose all over western ,europe4 ,one of the first of these was the candle-makers' guild1 organized at ,paris in #ajfa4 ,soon after we find large numbers of guilds--masons1 shoemakers1 harness-makers1 bakers1 smiths1 wool-combers1 tanners1 saddlers1 spurriers1 weavers1 goldsmiths1 pewterers1 carpenters1 leather-workers1 cloth-workers1 pinners1 fishmongers1 butchers1 barbers--all organized on much the same plan4 ,these were the working-men's fraternities or labor unions of mediaeval ,europe4 ,each trade or craft became organized as a city guild1 composed of the masters1 journeymen 7paid workmen71 and apprentices4 ,the great mediaeval document1 a charter of rights guaranteeing protection1 was usually obtained4 ,the guild for each trade laid down rules for the number and training of apprentices1 #ci the conditions under which a journeyman could become a master1 #dj rules for conducting the trade1 standards to be maintained in workmanship1 prices to be charged1 and dues and obligations of members 7,r4 #ig74 ,they supervised work in their craft1 cared for the sick1 buried the dead1 and looked after the widows and orphans4 ,often they provided one or more priests of their own to minister to the families of their craft1 and gradually the custom arose of having the priest also teach something of the rudiments of religion and learning to the children of the members4 ,in time money and lands were set aside or left for such purposes1 and a form of chantry school1 which later evolved into a regular school1 often with instruction in higher studies added1 was created for the children of members #da of the guild 7,r4 #ih74 ,,apprenticeship ,,education4 ,for centuries after the revival of trade and industry all manufacturing was on a small scale1 and in the home-industry stage4 ,there was1 of course1 no machinery1 and only the simple tools known from ancient times were used4 ,in a first-floor room at the back1 master1 journeymen1 and apprentices working together made the articles which were sold by the master or the master's wife and daughter in the room in front4 ,the manufacturer and merchant were one4 ,apprentices were bound to a master for a term of years 7,r4 #ii71 often paying for the training and education to be received1 and the master boarded and lodged both the apprentices and the paid workmen in the family rooms above the shop and store4 ,the form of apprenticeship education and training which thus developed1 from an educational point of view1 forms for us the important feature of the history of these craft guilds4 ,with the subdivision of labor and the development of new trades the craft-guild idea was extended to the new occupations1 and a steady stream of rural labor flowing to the towns was absorbed by them and taught the elements of social usages1 self- government1 and the mastery of a trade4 ,throughout all the long period up to the nineteenth century this apprenticeship education in a trade and in self-government constituted almost the entire formal education the worker with his hands received4 ,the sons of the barbarian invaders1 as well as their knightly brothers1 at last were busy learning the great lessons of industry1 coperation1 and personal loyalty4 ,here begins1 for western ,europe1 the nobility of labor--the long pedigree of toil4 ,so well in fact did this apprentice system of training and education meet the needs of the time that it persisted1 as was said above1 well into the nineteenth century 7,rs4 #bjj1 #bja1 #bdb1 #bdc71 being displaced only by modern power machinery and systematized factory methods4 ,during the later ,middle ,ages and in modern times it rendered an important educational service2 in the later nineteenth century it became such an obstacle to educational and industrial progress that it has had to be supplemented or replaced by systematic vocational education4 ,,influence ,,of ,,these ,,new ,,movements4 ,we thus see1 by the end of the twelfth century1 a number of new influences in western ,europe which point to an intellectual awakening and to the rise of a new educated class1 separate from the monks and clergy on the one hand or the nobility on the other1 and to the awakening of ,europe to a new attitude toward life4 ,saracen learning1 filtering across from ,spain1 had added materially to the knowledge ,europe previously had1 and had stimulated new intellectual interests4 ,scholasticism had begun its great work of reorganizing and systematizing theology1 which was destined to free philosophy1 hitherto regarded as a dangerous foe or a suspected ally1 from theology and to remake entirely the teaching of the subject4 ,civil and canon law had been created as wholly new professional subjects1 and the beginnings of the teaching of medicine had been made4 ,instead of the old ,seven ,liberal ,arts and a very limited course of professional study for the clerical office being the entire curriculum1 and ,theology the one professional subject1 we now find1 by the beginning of the thirteenth century1 a number of new and important professional subjects of large future significance--subjects destined to break the monopoly of theological study and put an end to logistic hair-splitting4 ,the next step in the history of education came in the development of institutions where thinking and teaching could be carried on free from civil or ecclesiastical control1 with the consequent rise of an independent learned class in western ,europe4 ,this came with the rise of the universities1 to which we next turn1 and out of which in time arose the future independent scholarship of ,europe1 ,america1 and the world in general4 ,we also discover a series of new movements1 connected with the ,crusades1 the rise of cities1 and the revival of trade and industry1 all of which clearly mark the close of the dark period of the ,middle ,ages4 ,we note1 too1 the evolution of new social classes--a new ,estate--destined in time to eclipse in importance both priest and noble and to become for long the ruling classes of the modern world4 ,we also note the beginnings of an important independent system of education for the hand-workers which sufficed until the days of steam1 machinery1 and the evolution of the factory system4 ,the eleventh and twelfth centuries were turning-points of great significance in the history of our western civilization1 and with the opening of the wonderful thirteenth century the western world is well headed toward a new life and modern ways of thinking4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,why is it that a strong religious control is never favorable to originality in thinking8 #b4 ,show how the work of the ,nestorian ,christians for the ,mohammedan faith was another example of the ,hellenization of the ancient world4 #c4 ,would it be possible for any people anywhere in the world today to make such advances as were made at ,bagdad1 in the late eighth and early ninth centuries1 without such work permanently influencing the course of civilization and learning everywhere8 ,to what is the difference due8 #d4 ,what were the chief obstacles to ,europe adopting at once the learning from ,mohammedan ,spain1 instead of waiting centuries to discover this learning independently8 #e4 ,why did ,aristotle's work seem of much greater value to the mediaeval scholar than the ,moslem science8 ,what are the relative values to-day8 #f4 ,why should the light literature of ,spain be spoken of as a gay contagion8 ,did this ,christian attitude toward fiction and poetry continue long8 #g4 ,in what ways was the ,sic et ,non of ,abelard a complete break with mediaeval traditions8 #h4 ,how did the fact that ,dialectic 7,logic7 now became the great subject of study in itself denote a marked intellectual advance8 ,what was the significance of the prominence of this study for the future of thinking8 #i4 ,what was the effect on inquiry and individual thinking of the method of presentation used by ,saint ,thomas ,aquinas in his ,summa ,theologica8 #aj4 ,how do you explain the all-absorbing interest in scholasticism during the greater part of a century8 #aa4 ,state the significance1 for the future1 of the revival of the study of ,roman law3 7a7 intellectually2 7b7 in shaping future civilization4 #ab4 ,how do you explain the ,christian attitude toward disease1 and the scientific treatment of it8 ,has that attitude entirely passed away8 ,illustrate4 #ac4 ,why was it such a good thing for the future of civilization in ,england and ,france that so many of its nobility perished in the ,crusades8 #ad4 ,state a number of ways in which the ,crusade movements had a beneficial effect on western ,europe4 #ae4 ,show how the revival of commerce was an educative and a civilizing influence of large importance4 #af4 ,would the organization of commerce and banking1 and the establishment of the sanctity of obligations in a country1 be one important measure of the civilization to which that country had attained8 ,illustrate4 #ag4 ,show how the development of industry and commerce and the accumulation of wealth tend to promote order and security1 and to extend educational advantages4 #ah4 ,contrast a mediaeval guild and a modern labor union4 ,a guild and a modern fraternal and benevolent society4 #ai4 ,why did apprenticeship education continue so long with so little change1 when it is now so rapidly being superseded8 #bj4 ,does the rise of a new ,estate in society indicate a period of slow or rapid change8 ,why is such an evolution of importance for education and civilization8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #he4 ,draper3 ,the ,moslem ,civilization in ,spain4 #hf4 ,draper3 ,learning among the ,moslems in ,spain4 #hg4 ,norton3 ,works of ,aristotle known by #acjj4 #hh4 ,averros3 ,on ,aristotle's ,greatness4 #hi4 ,roger ,bacon3 ,how ,aristotle was received at ,oxford4 #ij4 ,statutes3 ,how ,aristotle was received at ,paris4 7a7 ,decree of ,church ,council1 #abaj ,a4,d4 7b7 ,statutes of ,papal ,legate1 #abae ,a4,d4 7c7 ,statutes of ,pope ,gregory1 #abca ,a4,d4 7d7 ,statutes of the ,masters of ,arts1 #abed ,a4,d4 #ia4 ,cousin3 ,abelard's ,sic et ,non4 7a7 ,from the ,introduction4 7b7 ,types of ,questions raised for ,debate4 #ib4 ,rashdall3 ,the ,great ,work of the ,schoolmen4 #ic4 ,justinian3 ,preface to the ,justinian ,code4 #id4 ,giry and ,rville3 ,the ,early ,mediaeval ,town4 7a7 ,to the ,eleventh ,century4 7b7 ,by the ,thirteenth ,century4 #ie4 ,gross3 ,an ,english ,town ,charter4 #if4 ,london3 ,oath of a ,new ,freeman in a ,mediaeval ,town4 #ig4 ,riley3 ,ordinances of the ,white-,tawyers' ,guild4 #ih4 ,state ,report3 ,school of the ,guild of ,saint ,nicholas4 #ii4 ,england1 #acif3 ,a ,mediaeval ,indenture of ,apprenticeship4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,contrast the state of civilization in ,spain and the rest of ,europe about #aajj 7#he1 #hf74 #b4 ,considering ,aristotle's great intellectual worth 7#hh7 and work 7#hg71 is it to be wondered that the mediaevals regarded him with such reverence8 #c4 ,do we today accept ,abelard's premise 7#ia a7 as to attaining wisdom8 ,would his questions 7#ia b7 excite much interest to-day8 #d4 ,how do you explain the change in attitude toward him shown by the successive statutes enacted 7#ij a-d7 for the ,university of ,paris8 #e4 ,would the extract from ,roger ,bacon 7#hi7 lead you to think him a man ahead of the times in which he lived8 ,why8 #f4 ,did scholasticism represent the innocent intellectual activity1 from the ,church point of view1 pictured by ,rashdall 7#ib78 #g4 ,what were the main things ,justinian hoped to accomplish by the preparation of the great ,code1 as set forth in the ,preface 7#ic78 #h4 ,characterize the mediaeval town by the eleventh century 7#id a74 ,what was the nature of the progress from that time to the thirteenth century 7#id b78 #i4 ,what were the chief privileges contained in the town charter of ,walling-ford 7#ie71 and what position does it indicate was held by the guild-merchant therein8 #aj4 ,what does the oath of a freeman 7#if7 indicate as to social conditions8 #aa4 ,state the chief regulations imposed on its members by the ,white- ,tawyers' ,guild 7#ig74 ,compare these regulations with those of a modern labor union1 such as the plumbers4 ,with a fraternal order1 such as the ,masons4 #ab4 ,what is indicated as to the educational advantages provided by the ,guild of ,saint ,nicholas1 in the city of ,worcester1 by the extract 7#ih7 taken from the ,report of the ,king's ,commissioner8 #ac4 ,does a comparison of ,readings #ii1 #bja1 and #bdb indicate a static condition of apprenticeship education for centuries8 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b4 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages4 ,ameer1 ,ali4 ,a ,short ,history of the ,saracens4 99 ,ashley1 ,w4 ,j4 ,introduction to ,english ,economic ,history4 ,cutts1 ,edw4 ,l4 ,scenes and ,characters of the ,middle ,ages4 99 ,gautier1 ,lon4 ,chivalry4 99 ,giry1 ,a41 and ,rville1 ,a4 ,emancipation of the ,mediaeval ,towns4 ,hibbert1 ,f4 ,a4 ,influence and ,development of ,english ,guilds4 99 ,hume1 ,m4 ,a4 ,s4 ,the ,spanish ,people4 99 ,lavisse1 ,ernest4 ,mediaeval ,commerce and ,industry4 99 ,mac,cabe1 ,jos4 ,peter ,abelard4 99 ,munro1 ,d4 ,c41 and ,sellery1 ,g4 ,e4 ,mediaeval ,civilization4 ,poole1 ,r4 ,l4 ,illustrations of ,mediaeval ,thought4 99 ,rashdall1 ,h4 ,universities of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 vol4 ,i4 ,routledge1 ,r4 ,popular ,history of ,science4 ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e4 ,history of ,classical ,scholarship1 vol4 i4 ,scott1 ,j4 ,f4 ,historical ,essays on ,apprenticeship and ,vocational ,education4 7,england47 99 ,sedgwick1 ,w4 ,j41 and ,tyler1 ,h4 ,w4 ,a ,short ,history of ,science4 ,taylor1 ,h4 ,c4 ,the ,mediaeval ,mind4 ,thorndike1 ,lynn4 ,history of ,mediaeval ,europe4 ,townsend1 ,w4 ,j4 ,the ,great ,schoolmen of the ,middle ,ages4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,universities ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,studium ,,generale4 ,in the preceding chapter we described briefly the new movement toward association which characterized the eleventh and the twelfth centuries--the municipal movement1 the merchant guilds1 the trade guilds1 etc4 ,these were doing for civil life what monasticism had earlier done for the religious life4 ,they were collections of like-minded men1 who united themselves into associations or guilds for mutual benefit1 protection1 advancement1 and self-government within the limits of their city1 business1 trade1 or occupation4 ,this tendency toward association1 in the days when state government was weak or in its infancy1 was one of the marked features of the transition time from the early period of the ,middle ,ages1 when the ,church was virtually the ,state1 to the later period of the ,middle ,ages1 when the authority of the ,church in secular matters was beginning to weaken1 modern nations were beginning to form1 and an interest in worldly affairs was beginning to replace the previous inordinate interest in the world to come4 ,we also noted in the preceding chapters that certain cathedral and monastery schools1 but especially the cathedral schools1 #a stimulated by the new interest in ,dialectic1 were developing into much more than local teaching institutions designed to afford a supply of priests of some little education for the parishes of the bishopric4 ,once ,york and later ,canterbury1 in ,england1 had had teachers who attracted students from other bishoprics4 ,paris had for long been a famous center for the study of the ,liberal ,arts and of ,theology4 ,saint ,gall had become noted for its music4 ,theologians coming from ,paris 7#aafg-fh7 had given a new impetus to study among the monks at ,oxford4 ,a series of political events in northern ,italy had given emphasis to the study of law in many cities1 and the ,moslems in ,spain had stimulated the schools there and in southern ,france to a study of medicine and ,aristotelian science4 ,rome was for long a noted center for study4 ,gradually these places came to be known as studia publica1 or studia generalia1 meaning by this a generally recognized place of study1 where lectures were open to any one1 to students of all countries and of all conditions4 #b ,traveling students came to these places from afar to hear some noted teacher read and comment on the famous textbooks of the time4 ,from the first both teachers and students had been considered as members of the clergy1 and hence had enjoyed the privileges and immunities extended to that class1 but1 now that the students were becoming so numerous and were traveling so far1 some additional grant of protection was felt to be desirable4 ,accordingly the ,emperor ,frederick ,barbarossa1 #c in #aaeh1 issued a general proclamation of privileges and protection 7,r4 #aja74 ,in this he ordered that teachers and students traveling to the places in which the studies are carried on should be protected from unjust arrest1 should be permitted to dwell in security1 and in case of suit should be tried before their professors or the bishop of the city4 ,this document marks the beginning of a long series of rights and privileges granted to the teachers and students of the universities now in process of evolution in western ,europe4 ,,the ,,university ,,evolution4 ,the development of a university out of a cathedral or some other form of school represented1 in the ,middle ,ages1 a long local evolution4 ,universities were not founded then as they are to- day4 ,a teacher of some reputation drew around him a constantly increasing body of students4 ,other teachers of ability1 finding a student body already there1 also set up their chairs and began to teach4 ,other teachers and more students came4 ,in this way a studium was created4 ,about these teachers in time collected other university servants-- bedells1 librarians1 lower officials1 preparers of parchment1 scribes1 illuminators of parchment1 and others who serve it1 as ,count ,rupert enumerated them in the ,charter of ,foundation granted1 in #achf1 to ,heidelberg 7,r4 #ajc74 ,at ,salerno1 as we have already seen 7p4 #aii71 medical instruction arose around the work of ,constantine of ,carthage and the medicinal springs found in the vicinity4 ,students journeyed there from many lands1 and licenses to practice the medical art were granted there as early as #aacg4 ,at ,bologna1 we have also seen 7p4 #aie71 the work of ,irnerius and ,gratian early made this a great center for the study of civil and canon law1 and their pupils spread the taste for these new subjects throughout ,europe4 ,paris for two centuries had been a center for the study of the ,arts and of ,theology1 and a succession of famous teachers--,william of ,champeaux1 ,abelard1 ,peter the ,lombard--had taught there4 ,so important was the theological teaching there that ,paris has been termed the ,sinai of instruction of the ,middle ,ages4 ,by the beginning of the thirteenth century both students and teachers had become so numerous1 at a number of places in western ,europe1 that they began to adopt the favorite mediaeval practice and organized themselves into associations1 or guilds1 for further protection from extortion and oppression and for greater freedom from regulation by the ,church4 ,they now sought and obtained additional privileges for themselves1 and1 in particular1 the great mediaeval document--a charter of rights and privileges4 #d ,as both teachers and students were for long regarded as clerici the charters were usually sought from the ,pope1 but in some cases they were obtained from the king4 #e ,these associations of scholars1 or teachers1 or both1 born of the need of companionship which men who cultivate their intelligence feel1 sought to perform the same functions for those who studied and taught that the merchant and craft guilds were performing for their members4 ,the ruling idea was association for protection1 and to secure freedom for discussion and study2 the obtaining of corporate rights and responsibilities2 and the organization of a system of apprenticeship1 based on study and developing through journeyman into mastership1 #f as attested by an examination and the license to teach4 ,in the rise of these teacher and student guilds #g we have the beginnings of the universities of western ,europe1 and their organization into chartered teaching groups 7,r4 #ajj7 was simply another phase of that great movement toward the association of like-minded men for worldly purposes which began to sweep over the rising cities in the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 #h ,the term universitas1 or university1 which came in time to be applied to these associations of masters and apprentices in study1 was a general ,roman legal term1 practically equivalent to our modern word corporation4 ,at first it was applied to any association1 and when used with reference to teachers and scholars was so stated4 ,thus1 in addressing the masters and students at ,paris1 ,pope ,innocent1 in #abje1 writes3 ,universis magistris et scholaribus ,parisiensibus1 that is1 to the corporation of masters and scholars at ,paris4 ,later the term university became restricted to the meaning which we give it to-day4 ,the university mothers4 ,though this movement for association and the development of advanced study had manifested itself in a number of places by the close of the twelfth century1 two places in particular led all the others and became types which were followed in charters and in new creations4 ,these were ,bologna and ,paris4 #i ,after one or the other of these two nearly all the universities of western ,europe were modeled4 ,bologna or ,paris1 or one of their immediate children1 served as a pattern4 ,thus ,bologna was the university mother for almost all the ,italian universities2 for ,montpellier and ,grenoble in southern ,france2 for some of the ,spanish universities2 and for ,glasgow1 ,upsala1 ,cracow1 and for the ,law ,faculty at ,oxford4 ,paris was the university mother for ,oxford1 and through her ,cambridge2 for most of the northern ,french universities2 for the university of ,toulouse1 which in turn became the mother for other southern ,french and northern ,spanish universities2 for ,lisbon and ,coimbra in ,portugal2 for the early ,german universities at ,prague1 ,vienna1 ,cologne1 and ,heidelberg2 and through ,cologne for ,copenhagen4 ,through one of the colleges at ,cambridge--,emmanuel--she became1 indirectly1 the mother of a new ,cambridge in ,america--,harvard--founded in #afcf4 ,figure #fa shows the location of the chief universities founded before #afjj4 ,viewed from the standpoint of instruction1 ,paris was followed almost entirely in ,theology1 and ,bologna in ,law1 while the three centers which most influenced the development of instruction in medicine were ,salerno1 ,montpellier1 and ,salamanca4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,,showing ,,location ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,universities ,,founded ,,before #afjj ,while the earlier universities gradually arose as the result of a long local evolution1 it in time became common for others to be founded by a migration of professors from an older university to some cathedral city having a developing studium4 ,in the days when a university consisted chiefly of master and students1 when lectures could be held in any kind of a building or collection of buildings1 and when there were no libraries1 laboratories1 campus1 or other university property to tie down an institution1 it was easy to migrate4 ,thus1 in #abji1 the school at ,cambridge was created a university by a secession of masters from ,oxford1 much as bees swarm from a hive4 ,sienna1 ,padua1 ,reggio1 ,vicenza1 ,arezzo resulted from swarmings from ,bologna2 and ,vercelli from ,vicenza4 ,in #abbh1 after a student riot at ,paris which provoked reprisals from the city1 many of the masters and students went to the studium towns of ,angers1 ,orleans1 and ,rheims1 and universities were established at the first two4 ,migrations from ,prague helped establish many of the ,german universities4 ,in this way the university organization was spread over ,europe4 ,in #abjj there were but six studia generalia which can be considered as having evolved into universities--,salerno1 ,bologna1 and ,reggio1 in ,italy2 ,paris and ,montpellier1 in ,france2 and ,oxford1 in ,england4 ,by #acjj eight more had evolved in ,italy1 three more in ,france1 ,cambridge in ,england1 and five in ,spain and ,portugal4 ,by #adjj twenty-two additional universities had developed1 five of which were in ,german lands1 and by #aejj thirty-five more had been founded1 making a total of eighty4 ,by #afjj the total had been raised to one hundred and eight 7,r4 #ajj1 for list by countries1 dates1 and method of founding74 ,some of these 7approximately thirty7 afterwards died1 while in the following centuries additional ones were created4 #aj ,,privileges ,,and ,,immunities ,,granted4 ,the grant of privileges to physicians and teachers made by the ,emperor ,constantine1 in #ccc ,a4,d4 7,r4 #bf71 and the privileges and immunities granted to the clergy 7clerici7 by the early ,christian ,roman ,emperors 7,r4 #ch71 doubtless formed a basis for the many grants of special privileges made to the professors and students in the early universities4 ,the document promulgated by ,frederick ,barbarossa1 in #aaeh 7,r4 #aja71 began the granting of privileges to the studia generalia1 and this was followed by numerous other grants4 ,the grant to students of freedom from trial by the city authorities1 and the obligation of every citizen of ,paris to seize any one seen striking a student1 granted by ,philip ,augustus1 in #abjj 7,r4 #ajb71 is another example1 widely followed1 of the bestowal of large privileges4 ,count ,rupert ,i1 in founding the ,university of ,heidelberg1 in #achf1 granted many privileges1 exempted the students from any duty1 levy1 imposts1 tolls1 excises1 or other exactions whatever while coming to1 studying at1 or returning home from the university 7,r4 #ajc74 ,the exemption from taxation 7,r4 #ajd7 became a matter of form1 and was afterwards followed in the chartering of ,american colleges 7,r4 #ahg74 ,exemption from military service also was granted4 ,so valuable an asset was a university to a city1 and so easy was it for a university to move almost overnight1 that cities often1 and at times even nations1 encouraged not only the founding of universities1 but also the migration of both faculties and students4 ,an interesting case of a city bidding for the presence of a university is that of ,vercelli 7,r4 #aje71 which made a binding agreement1 as a part of the city charter1 whereby the city agreed with a body of masters and students swarming from ,padua to loan the students money at lower than the regular rates1 to see that there was plenty of food in the markets at no increase in prices1 and to protect the students from injustice4 ,an instance of bidding by a ,state is the case of ,cambridge1 which obtained quite an addition by the coming of striking ,paris masters and students in #abbi1 in response to the pledge of ,king ,henry ,,iii 7,r4 #aji71 who humbly sympathized with them for their sufferings at ,paris1 and promised them that if they would come to our kingdom of ,england and remain there to study he would assign to them cities1 boroughs1 towns1 whatsoever you may wish to select1 and in every fitting way will cause you to rejoice in a state of liberty and tranquillity4 ,one of the most important privileges which the universities early obtained1 and a rather singular one at that1 was the right of cessatio1 which meant the right to stop lectures and go on a strike as a means of enforcing a redress of grievances against either town or church authority 7,r4 #ajg74 ,this right was for long jealously guarded by the university1 and frequently used to defend itself from the smallest encroachments on its freedom to teach1 study1 and discipline the members of its guild as it saw fit1 and often the right not to discipline them at all4 ,often the cessatio was invoked on very trivial grounds1 as in the case of the ,oxford cessatio of #abji 7,r4 #ajh71 the ,paris cessatio of #abbi 7,r4 #aji71 and the numerous other cessationes which for two centuries #aa repeatedly disturbed the continuity of instruction at ,paris4 ,,degrees ,,in ,,the ,,guild4 ,the most important of the university rights1 however1 was the right to examine and license its own teachers 7,r4 #aaj71 and to grant the license to teach 7,rs4 #aaa1 #aab74 ,founded as the universities were after the guild model1 they were primarily places for the taking of apprentices in the ,arts1 developing them into journeymen and masters1 and certifying to their proficiency in the teaching craft4 #ab ,their purpose at first was to prepare teachers1 and the giving of instruction to students for cultural ends1 or a professional training for practical use aside from teaching the subject1 was a later development4 ,accordingly it came about in time that1 after a number of years of study in the ,arts under some master1 a student was permitted to present himself for a test as to his ability to define words1 determine the meaning of phrases1 and read the ordinary ,latin texts in ,grammar1 ,rhetoric1 and ,logic 7the ,trivium71 to the satisfaction of other masters than his own4 ,in ,england this test came to be known by the term determine4 ,its passage was equivalent to advancing from apprenticeship to the ranks of a journeyman1 and the successful candidate might now be permitted to assist the master1 or even give some elementary instruction himself while continuing his studies4 ,he now became an assistant or companion1 and by the fourteenth century was known as a baccalaureus1 a term used in the ,church1 in chivalry1 and in the guilds1 and which meant a beginner4 ,there was at first1 though1 no thought of establishing an examination and a new degree for the completion of this first step in studies4 ,the bachelor's degree was a later development1 sought at first by those not intending to teach1 and eventually erected into a separate degree4 ,when the student had finally heard a sufficient number of courses1 as required by the statutes of his guild1 he might present himself for examination for the teaching license4 ,this was a public trial1 and took the form of a public disputation on some stated thesis1 in the presence of the masters1 and against all comers4 ,it was the student's masterpiece1 analogous to the masterpiece of any other guild1 and he submitted it to a jury of the masters of his craft4 #ac ,upon his masterpiece being adjudged satisfactory1 he also became a master in his craft1 was now able to define and dispute1 was formally admitted to the highest rank in the teaching guild1 might have a seal1 and was variously known as master1 doctor1 or professor1 all of which were once synonymous terms4 #ad ,if he wished to prepare himself for teaching one of the professional subjects he studied still further1 usually for a number of years1 in one of the professional faculties1 and in time he was declared to be a ,doctor of ,law1 or ,medicine1 or of ,theology4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #fb4 ,,seal ,,of ,a ,,doctor1 ,,university ,,of ,,paris ,,the ,,teaching ,,faculties4 ,the students for a long time grouped themselves for better protection 7and aggression7 according to the nation from which they came1 #ae and each nation elected a councilor to look after the interests of its members4 ,between the different nations there were constant quarrels1 insults were passed back and forth1 and much bad blood engendered4 #af ,on the side of the masters the organization was by teaching subjects1 and into what came to be known as faculties4 #ag ,thus there came to be four faculties in a fully organized mediaeval university1 representing the four great divisions of knowledge which had been evolved--,arts1 ,law1 ,medicine1 and ,theology4 ,each faculty elected a dean1 and the deans and councilors elected a rector1 who was the head or president of the university4 ,the chancellor1 the successor of the cathedral school scholasticus1 was usually appointed by the ,pope and represented the ,church1 and a long struggle ensued between the rector and the chancellor to see who should be the chief authority in the university4 ,the rector was ultimately victorious1 and the position of chancellor became largely an honorary position of no real importance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,,new ,,college1 ,,at ,,oxford ,one of the oldest of the ,oxford colleges1 having been founded in #acgi4 ,the picture shows the chapel1 cloisters 7consecrated in #adjj71 and a tall tower1 once forming a part of the ,oxford city walls4 ,note the similarity of this early college to a monastery1 as in ,plate #a4 ,the ,arts ,faculty was the successor of the old cathedral-school instruction in the ,seven ,liberal ,arts1 and was found in practically all the universities4 ,the ,law ,faculty embraced civil and canon law1 as worked out at ,bologna4 ,the ,medical ,faculty taught the knowledge of the medical art1 as worked out at ,salerno and ,montpellier4 ,the ,theological ,faculty1 the most important of the four1 prepared learned men for the service of the ,church1 and was for some two centuries controlled by the scholastics4 ,the ,arts ,faculty was preparatory to the other three4 ,as ,latin was the language of the classroom1 and all the texts were ,latin texts1 a reading and speaking knowledge of ,latin was necessary before coming to the university to study4 ,this was obtained from a study of the first of the ,seven ,arts-- ,grammar--in some monastery1 cathedral1 or other type of school4 ,thus a knowledge of ,latin formed practically the sole requirement for admission to the mediaeval university1 and continued to be the chief admission requirement in our universities up to the nineteenth century 7,r4 #ahf a74 ,in ,europe it is still of great importance as a preparatory subject1 but in ,south ,american countries it is not required at all4 ,very few of the universities1 in the beginning1 had all four of these faculties4 ,the very nature of the evolution of the earlier ones precluded this4 ,thus ,bologna had developed into a studium generale from its prominence in law1 and was virtually constituted a university in #aaeh1 but it did not add ,medicine until #acaf1 or ,theology until #acfj4 ,paris began sometime before #abjj as an arts school1 ,theology with some instruction in ,canon ,law was added by #abjh1 a ,law ,faculty in #abga1 and a ,medical ,faculty in #abgd4 ,montpellier began as a medical school sometime in the twelfth century4 ,law followed a little later1 a teacher from ,bologna setting up his chair there4 ,arts was organized by #abdb4 ,a sort of theological school began in #abfc1 but it was not chartered as a faculty until #adba4 ,so it was with many of the early universities4 ,these four traditional faculties were well established by the fourteenth century1 and continued as the typical form of university organization until modern times4 ,with the great university development and the great multiplication of subjects of study which characterized the nineteenth century1 many new faculties and schools and colleges have had to be created1 particularly in the ,united ,states1 in response to new modern demands4 #ah ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,instruction4 ,the teaching material in each faculty was much as we have already indicated4 ,after the recovery of the works of ,aristotle he came to dominate the instruction in the ,faculty of ,arts4 #ai ,the ,statutes of ,paris1 in #abed1 giving the books to be read for the ,a4,b4 and the ,a4,m4 degrees 7,r4 #aac71 show how fully ,aristotle had been adopted there as the basis for instruction in ,logic1 ,ethics1 and ,natural ,philosophy by that time4 ,the books required for these two degrees at ,leipzig1 in #adaj 7,r4 #aad71 show a much better-balanced course of instruction1 though the time requirements given for each subject show how largely ,aristotle predominated there also4 ,oxford 7,r4 #aae7 kept up better the traditions of the earlier ,seven ,liberal ,arts in its requirements1 and classified the new works of ,aristotle in three additional philosophies--natural1 moral1 and metaphysical4 ,from four to seven years were required to complete the arts course1 though the tendency was to reduce the length of the arts course as secondary schools below the university were evolved4 #bj ,in the ,law ,faculty1 after ,theology the largest and most important of all the faculties in the mediaeval university1 the ,corpus ,juris ,civilis of ,justinian 7p4 #aie7 and the ,decretum of ,gratian 7p4 #aif7 were the textbooks read1 with perhaps a little more practical work in discussion than in ,arts or ,medicine4 ,the ,oxford course of study in both ,civil and ,canon ,law 7,r4 #aaf b-c7 gives a good idea as to what was required for degrees in one of the best of the early law faculties4 ,in the ,medical ,faculty a variety of books--translations of ,hippocrates 7p4 #aig71 ,galen 7p4 #aih71 ,avicenna 7p4 #aih71 and the works of certain writers at ,salerno and ,jewish and ,moslem writers in ,spain--were read and lectured on4 ,the list of medical books used at ,montpellier1 #ba in #acdj1 which at that time was the foremost place for medical instruction in western ,europe1 shows the book-nature and the extent of the instruction given at the leading school of medicine of the time4 ,it was1 moreover1 customary at ,montpellier for the senior students to spend a summer in visiting the sick and doing practical work4 ,we have here the merest beginnings of clinical instruction and hospital service1 and at this stage medical instruction remained until quite modern times4 ,the medical courses at ,paris 7,r4 #aag7 and ,oxford 7,r4 #aaf d7 were less satisfactory1 only book instruction being required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,a ,,lecture ,,on ,,civil ,,law ,,by ,,guillaume ,,benedicti 7,after a sixteenth-century wood engraving1 now in the ,national ,library1 ,paris1 ,cabinet of ,designs7 ,both ,law and ,medicine were so dominated by the scholastic ideal and methods that neither accomplished what might have been possible in a freer atmosphere4 ,in the ,theological ,faculty the ,sentences of ,peter ,lombard 7p4 #ahi7 and the ,summa ,theologiae of ,thomas ,aquinas 7p4 #aia7 were the textbooks used4 ,the ,bible was at first also used somewhat1 but later came to be largely overshadowed by the other books and by philosophical discussions and debates on all kinds of hair-splitting questions1 kept carefully within the limits prescribed by the ,church4 ,the requirements at ,oxford 7,r4 #aaf a7 give the course of instruction in one of the best of the theological faculties of the time4 ,the teachers were scholastics1 and scholastic methods and ideals everywhere prevailed4 ,roger ,bacon's 7#abad-abid7 criticism of this type of theological study 7,r4 #aah71 which he calls horse loads1 not at all in consonance with the most holy text of ,god1 and philosophical1 both in substance and method1 gives an idea of the kind of instruction which came to prevail in the theological faculties under the dominance of the scholastic philosophers4 ,years of study were required in each of these three professional faculties1 as is shown by the statement of requirements as given for ,montpellier1 ,paris 7,r4 #aag71 and ,oxford 7,r4 #aaf a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,,library ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,leyden1 ,,in ,,holland 7,after an engraving by ,j4 ,c4 ,woudanus1 dated #afaj7 ,this shows well the chained books1 and a common type of bookcase in use in monasteries1 churches1 and higher schools4 ,counting #ce books to the case1 this shows a library of #ce volumes on mathematics2 #gj volumes each on literature1 philosophy1 and medicine2 #adj volumes of historical books2 #age volumes on civil and canon law2 and #afj volumes on theology1 or a total of #ggj volumes--a good-sized library for the time4 ,,methods ,,of ,,instruction4 ,a very important reason why so long a period of study was required in each of the professional faculties1 as well as in the ,faculty of ,arts1 is to be found in the lack of textbooks and the methods of instruction followed4 ,while the standard textbooks were becoming much more common1 due to much copying and the long-continued use of the same texts1 they were still expensive and not owned by many4 #bb ,illustration3 ,,plate #d4 ,a ,,lecture ,,on ,,theology ,,by ,,albertus ,,magnus ,an illuminated picture in a manuscript of #acaj1 now in the royal collection of copper engravings1 at ,berlin4 ,the master in his chair is here shown reading to his students4 ,to provide a loan collection of theological books for poor students we find1 in #abga1 a gift by will to the ,university of ,paris 7,r4 #aai7 of a private library1 containing twenty-seven books4 ,even if the students possessed books1 the master read #bc and commented from his gloss at great length on the texts being studied4 ,besides the mere text each teacher had a gloss or commentary for it--that is1 a mass of explanatory notes1 summaries1 cross-references1 opinions by others1 and objections to the statements of the text4 ,the gloss was a book in itself1 often larger than the text1 and these standard glosses1 #bd or commentaries1 were used in the university instruction for centuries4 ,in ,theology and ,canon ,law they were particularly extensive4 ,all instruction1 too1 was in ,latin4 ,the professor read from the ,latin text and gloss1 repeating as necessary1 and to this the student listened4 ,sometimes he read so slowly that the text could be copied1 but in #acee this method was prohibited at ,paris 7,r4 #aba71 and students who tried to force the masters to follow it by shouting or whistling or raising a din1 or by throwing stones1 were to be suspended for a year4 ,the first step in the instruction was a minute and subtle analysis of the text itself1 in which each line was dissected1 analyzed1 and paraphrased1 and the comments on the text by various authors were set forth4 ,next all passages capable of two interpretations were thrown into the form of a question2 pro and contra1 after the manner of ,abelard4 ,the arguments on each side were advanced1 and the lecturer's conclusion set forth and defended4 ,the text was thus worked over day after day in minute detail4 ,having as yet but little to teach1 the masters made the most of what they had4 ,a good example of the mediaeval plan of university instruction is found in the announcement of ,odofredus1 a distinguished teacher of ,law at ,bologna1 about the middle of the thirteenth century1 which ,rashdall thinks is equally applicable to methods in other subjects4 ,odofredus says3 ,first1 ,i shall give you summaries of each title before ,i proceed to the text2 secondly1 ,i shall give you as clear and explicit a statement as ,i can of the purport of each ,law 7included in the title72 thirdly1 ,i shall read the text with a view to correcting it2 fourthly1 ,i shall briefly repeat the contents of the ,law2 fifthly1 ,i shall solve apparent contradictions1 adding any general principles of ,law 7to be extracted from the passage71 and any distinctions and subtle and useful problems arising out of the ,law with their solutions1 as far as the ,divine ,providence shall enable me4 ,and if any ,law shall seem deserving1 by reason of its celebrity or difficulty1 of a ,repetition1 ,i shall reserve it for an evening ,repetition4 ,it will be seen that both students and professors were bound to the text1 as were the teachers of the ,seven ,liberal ,arts in the cathedral schools before them4 ,there was no appeal to the imagination1 still less to observation1 experiment1 or experience4 ,each generation taught what it had learned1 except that from time to time some thinker made a new organization1 or some new body of knowledge was unearthed and added4 ,another method much used was the debate1 or disputation1 and participation in a number of these was required for degrees 7,r4 #aaf74 ,these disputations were logical contests1 not unlike a modern debate1 in which the students took sides1 cited authorities1 and summarized arguments1 all in ,latin4 ,sometimes a student gave an exhibition in which he debated both sides of a question1 and summarized the argument1 after the manner of the professors4 ,as a corrective to the memorization of lectures and texts1 these disputations served a useful purpose in awakening intellectual vigor and logical keenness4 ,they were very popular until into the sixteenth century1 when new subject-matter and new ways of thinking offered new opportunities for the exercise of the intellect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,a ,,university ,,disputation 7,from ,fick's ,auf ,deutschland's ,hhen ,schulen7 ,in teaching equipment there was almost nothing at first1 and but little for centuries to come4 ,laboratories1 workshops1 gymnasia1 good buildings and classrooms--all alike were equally unknown4 ,time schedules of lectures 7,rs4 #abb1 #abc7 came in but slowly1 in such matters each professor being a free lance4 ,nor were there any libraries at first1 though in time these developed4 ,for a long time books were both expensive and scarce 7,rs4 #gh1 #aai1 #abj74 ,after the invention of printing 7first book printed in #adef71 university libraries increased rapidly and soon became the chief feature of the university equipment4 ,figure #fe shows the library of the ,university of ,leyden1 in ,holland1 thirty-five years after its foundation1 and about one hundred and fifty years after the beginnings of printing4 ,it shows a rather large increase in the size of book collections #be after the introduction of printing1 and a good library organization4 ,,illustration3 ,,fig #fg4 ,a ,,university ,,lecture ,,and ,,lecture ,,room 7,from a woodcut printed at ,strassburg1 #afjh7 ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,training ,,given4 ,measured in terms of modern standards the instruction was undoubtedly poor1 unnecessarily drawn out1 and the educational value low4 ,we could now teach as much information1 and in a better manner1 in but a fraction of the time then required4 ,viewed also by the standards of instruction in the higher schools of ,greece and ,rome the conditions were almost equally bad4 ,viewed1 though1 from the standpoint of what had prevailed in western ,europe during the dark period of the early ,middle ,ages1 it represented a marked advance in method and content--except in pure literature1 where there was an undoubted decline due to the absorbing interest in ,dialectic--and it particularly marked a new spirit1 as nearly critical as the times would allow4 ,despite the heterogeneous and but partially civilized student body1 youthful and but poorly prepared for study1 the drunkenness and fighting1 the lack of books and equipment1 the large classes and the poor teaching methods1 and the small amount of knowledge which formed the grist for their mills and which they ground exceeding small1 these new universities held within themselves1 almost in embryo form1 the largest promise for the intellectual future of western ,europe which had appeared since the days of the old universities of the ,hellenic world 7,r4 #abd74 ,in these new institutions knowledge was not only preserved and transmitted1 but was in time to be tremendously advanced and extended4 ,they were the first organizations to break the monopoly of the ,church in learning and teaching2 they were the centers to which all new knowledge gravitated2 under their shadow thousands of young men found intellectual companionship and in their classrooms intellectual stimulation2 and in encouraging laborious subtlety1 heroic industry1 and intense application1 even though on very limited subject-matter1 and in training men to think and work rather than to enjoy 7,r4 #abd71 they were preparing for the time when western ,europe should awaken to the riches of ,greece and ,rome and to a new type of intellectual life of its own4 ,from these beginnings the university organization has persisted and grown and expanded1 and to-day stands1 the ,synagogue and the ,catholic ,church alone excepted1 as the oldest organized institution of human society4 ,the manifest tendency of the universities toward speculation1 though for long within limits approved by the ,church1 was ultimately to awaken inquiry1 investigation1 rational thinking1 and to bring forth the modern spirit4 ,the preservation and transmission of knowledge was by the university organization transferred from the monastery to the school1 from monks to doctors1 and from the ,church to a body of logically trained men1 only nominally members of the clerici4 ,their successors would in time entirely break away from connections with either ,church or ,state1 and stand forth as the independent thinkers and scholars in the arts1 sciences1 professions1 and even in ,theology4 ,university graduates in ,medicine would in time wage a long struggle against bigotry to lay the foundations of modern medicine4 ,graduates in ,law would contend with kings and feudal lords for larger privileges for the as yet lowly common man1 and would help to usher in a period of greater political equality4 ,the university schools of ,theology were in time to send forth the keenest critics of the practices of the ,church4 ,out of the university cloisters were to come the men--,dante1 ,petrarch1 ,wycliffe1 ,huss1 ,luther1 ,calvin1 ,copernicus1 ,galileo1 ,newton--who were to usher in the modern spirit4 ,the universities as a public force4 ,almost from the first the universities availed themselves of their privileges and proclaimed a bold independence4 ,the freedom from arrest and trial by the civil authorities for petty offenses1 or even for murder1 and the right to go on a strike if in any way interfered with1 were but beginnings in independence in an age when such independence seemed important4 ,these rights were in time given up1 #bf and in their place the much more important rights of liberty to study as truth seemed to lead1 freedom in teaching as the master saw the truth1 and the right to express themselves as an institution on public questions which seemed to concern them1 were slowly but definitely taken on in place of the earlier privileges4 ,virtually a new type of members of society--a new ,estate--was evolved1 ranking with ,church1 ,state1 and nobility1 and this new ,estate soon began to express itself in no uncertain tones on matters which concerned both ,church and ,state4 ,the universities were democratic in organization and became democratic in spirit1 representing a heretofore unknown and unexpressed public opinion in western ,europe4 ,they did not wait to be asked2 they gave their opinions unsolicited4 ,the authority of the ,university of ,paris1 writes one contemporary1 has risen to such a height that it is necessary to satisfy it1 no matter on what conditions4 ,the university wanted to meddle with the government of the ,pope1 the ,king1 and everything else1 writes another4 ,we find ,paris intervening repeatedly in both church and state affairs1 #bg and representing ,french nationality before it had come into being1 as the so- called ,holy ,roman ,empire represented the ,germans1 and the ,papacy represented the ,italians4 ,in ,montpellier1 professors of ,law were considered as knights1 and after twenty years of practice they became counts4 ,in ,bologna we find the professors of ,law one of the three assemblies of the city4 ,oxford1 ,cambridge1 ,paris1 and the ,scottish universities were given representation in ,parliament4 ,the ,german universities were from the first prominent in political affairs1 and in the reformation struggle of the early sixteenth century they were the battle-grounds4 ,in an age of oppression these university organizations stood for freedom4 ,in an age of force they began the substitution of reason4 ,in the centuries from the end of the ,dark ,ages to the ,reformation they were the homes of free thought4 ,they early assumed national character and proclaimed a bold independence4 ,questions of ,state and ,church they discussed with a freedom before unknown4 ,they presented their grievances to both kings and popes1 from both they obtained new privileges1 to both they freely offered their advice1 and sometimes both were forced to do their bidding4 ,at times important questions of ,state1 such as the divorce of ,philip of ,france and that of ,henry ,,viii of ,england1 were submitted to them for decision4 ,they were not infrequently called upon to pass upon questions of doctrine or heresy4 ,kings and princes1 says ,rashdall1 in an excellent summary as to the value and influence of the mediaeval university instruction 7,r4 #abd71 found their statesmen and men of business in the universities1 most often1 no doubt1 among those trained in the practical science of ,law4 ,talleyrand is said to have asserted that their theologians made the best diplomats4 ,for the first time since the downfall of ,rome the administration of human affairs was now placed once more in the hands of educated men4 ,by the interchange of students from all lands and their hospitality1 such as it was1 to the stranger1 the universities tended to break down barriers and to prepare ,europe for larger intercourse and for more of a common life4 ,on the masses of the people1 of course1 they had little or no influence1 and could not have for centuries to come4 ,their greatest work1 as has been the case with universities ever since their foundation1 was that of drawing to their classrooms the brightest minds of the times1 the most capable and the most industrious1 and out of this young raw material training the leaders of the future in ,church and ,state4 ,educationally1 one of their most important services was in creating a surplus of teachers in the ,arts who had to find a market for their abilities in the rising secondary schools4 ,these developed rapidly after #abjj1 and to these we owe a somewhat more general diffusion of the little learning and the intellectual training of the time4 ,in preparing future leaders for ,state and ,church in law1 theology1 and teaching1 the universities1 though sometimes opposed and their opinions ignored1 nevertheless contributed materially to the making and moulding of national history4 ,the first great result of their work in training leaders we see in the ,renaissance movement of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 to which we next turn4 ,in this movement for a revival of the ancient learning1 and the subsequent movements for a purer and a better religious life1 the men trained by the universities were the leaders4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,why would the studia publica tend to attract a different type of scholar than those in the monasteries1 and gradually to supersede them in importance8 #b4 ,show how the mediaeval university was a gradual and natural evolution1 as distinct from a founded university of to-day4 #c4 ,show that the university charter was a first step toward independence from church and state control4 #d4 ,show the relation between the system of apprenticeship developed for student and teacher in a mediaeval university1 and the stages of student and teacher in a university of to-day4 #e4 ,show how the chartered university of the ,middle ,ages was an association of like-minded men for worldly purposes4 #f4 ,to what university mother does ,harvard go back1 ultimately8 #g4 ,show how the ,english and the ,german universities are extreme evolutions from the mediaeval type1 and our ,american universities a combination of the two extremes4 #h4 ,do university professors to-day have privileges akin to those granted professors in a mediaeval university8 #i4 ,what has caused the old ,arts ,faculty to break up into so many groups1 whereas ,law1 ,medicine1 and ,theology have stayed united8 #aj4 ,do universities1 when founded to-day1 usually start with all four of the mediaeval faculties represented8 #aa4 ,which of the professional faculties has changed most in the nature and character of its instruction8 ,why has this been so8 #ab4 ,enumerate a number of different things which have enabled the modern university greatly to shorten the period of instruction8 #ac4 ,aside from differences in teachers1 why are some university subjects today taught much more compactly and economically than other subjects8 #ad4 ,after admitting all the defects of the mediaeval university1 why did the university nevertheless represent so important a development for the future of western civilization8 #ae4 ,what does the long continuance1 without great changes in character1 of the university as an institution indicate as to its usefulness to society8 #af4 ,does the university of to-day play as important a part in the progress of society as it did in the mediaeval times8 ,why8 #ag4 ,is the chief university force to-day exerted directly or indirectly8 ,illustrate4 #ah4 ,what is probably the greatest work of any university1 in any age8 #ai4 ,compare the influence of the mediaeval university1 and the ,greek universities of the ancient world4 #bj4 ,explain the evolution of the ,english college system as an effort to improve discipline1 morals1 and thinking4 ,has it been successful in this8 #ba4 ,show how the mediaeval university put books in the place of things1 whereas the modern university tries to reverse this4 #bb4 ,show how the rise of the universities gave an educated ruling class to ,europe1 even though the nobility may not have attended them4 #bc4 ,show how1 in an age of lawlessness1 the universities symbolized the supremacy of mind over brute force4 #bd4 ,show how the mediaeval universities aided civilization by breaking down1 somewhat1 barriers of nationality and ignorance among peoples4 #be4 ,show how the university stood1 as the crowning effort of its time1 in the slow upward struggle to rebuild civilization on the ruins of what had once been4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #ajj4 ,rashdall and ,minerva3 ,university ,foundations before #afjj4 #aja4 ,fr4 ,barbarossa3 ,privileges for ,students who travel for ,study4 #ajb4 ,philip ,augustus3 ,privileges granted ,students at ,paris4 #ajc4 ,count ,rupert3 ,charter of the ,university of ,heidelberg4 #ajd4 ,philip ,,iv3 ,exemption of ,students and ,masters from ,taxation4 #aje4 ,vercelli3 ,privileges granted to the ,university by the ,city4 #ajf4 ,villani3 ,the ,cost to a ,city of maintaining a ,university4 #ajg4 ,pope ,gregory ,,ix3 ,right to suspend ,lectures 7,cessatio74 #ajh4 ,roger of ,wendover3 a ,cessatio at ,oxford4 #aji4 ,henry ,,iii3 ,england invites ,scholars to leave ,paris4 #aaj4 ,pope ,gregory ,,ix3 ,early ,licensing of ,professors to teach4 #aaa4 ,pope ,nicholas ,,iv3 ,the ,right to grant ,licenses to teach4 #aab4 ,rashdall3 ,a ,university ,license to teach4 #aac4 ,paris ,statutes1 #abed3 ,books required for the ,arts ,degree4 #aad4 ,leipzig ,statutes1 #adaj3 ,books required for the ,arts ,degree4 #aae4 ,oxford ,statutes1 #adjh-ca3 ,books required for the ,arts ,degree4 #aaf4 ,oxford1 ,fourteenth ,century3 ,requirements for the ,professional ,degrees4 7a7 ,in ,theology4 7c7 ,in ,civil ,law4 7b7 ,in ,canon ,law4 7d7 ,in ,medicine4 #aag4 ,paris ,statutes1 #abgj-gd3 ,requirements for the ,medical ,degree4 #aah4 ,roger ,bacon3 ,on the ,teaching of ,theology4 #aai4 ,master ,stephen3 ,books left by ,will to the ,university of ,paris4 #abj4 ,roger ,bacon3 ,the ,scarcity of ,books on ,morals4 #aba4 ,balaeus3 ,methods of ,instruction in the ,arts ,faculty of ,paris4 #abb4 ,toulouse3 ,time-,table of ,lectures in ,arts1 #acji4 #abc4 ,leipzig3 ,time-,table of ,lectures in ,arts1 #aeai4 #abd4 ,rashdall3 ,value and ,influence of the ,mediaeval ,university4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,what does a glance at the page giving the university foundations before #afjj 7#ajj7 show as to the rate and direction of the university movement8 #b4 ,how do you account for the very large privileges granted university students in the early grants 7#aja1 #ajb7 and charters 7#ajc78 ,should a university student to-day have any privileges not given to all citizens8 ,why8 #c4 ,do universities1 when founded to-day1 secure a charter8 ,if so1 from whom1 and what terms are included8 ,do normal schools8 ,what form of a charter1 if any1 has your university or normal school8 #d4 ,compare the freedom from taxation granted to masters and students at ,paris 7#ajd7 with the grant to professors at ,brown ,university 7#ahg;b74 ,was the ,brown ,university grant exceptional1 or common in other ,american foundations8 #e4 ,do any ,american cities to-day maintain colleges or universities1 as did the ,italian cities 7#aje78 ,normal schools8 ,are somewhat similar ends served8 #f4 ,what does the cessatio1 as exercised by the mediaeval university 7#ajg1 #ajh71 indicate as to standards of conduct on the part of teachers and students8 #g4 ,why is the licensing of university professors to teach not followed in our ,american universities8 ,what has taken the place of the license8 ,what did the mediaeval license 7#aaj1 #aaa1 #aab7 really signify8 #h4 ,compare the license to teach 7#aab7 with a modern doctor's diploma4 #i4 ,compare the requirements for the ,arts degree 7#aac1 #aad1 #aae7 with the requirements for the ,baccalaureate degree at a modern university4 #aj4 ,compare the additional length of time for professional degrees 7#aaf1 #aag74 #aa4 ,how do you account for the ,american practice of admitting students to the professional courses without the ,arts course8 ,what is the best ,american practice in this matter to-day1 and what tendencies are observable8 #ab4 ,characterize the medical course at ,paris 7#aag7 from a modern point of view4 #ac4 ,compare the instruction in medicine at ,paris 7#aag7 and ,toulouse 7#abb74 ,how do you account for the superiority shown by one8 ,which one8 #ad4 ,what does the extract from ,roger ,bacon 7#aah7 indicate as to the character of the teaching of ,theology8 #ae4 ,what was the nature and extent of the library of ,master ,stephen 7#aai78 ,compare such a library with that of a scholar of to-day4 #af4 ,show how the ,paris statute as to lecturing 7#aba7 was an attempt at an improvement of the methods of instruction and individual thinking4 #ag4 ,what do the two time-tables reproduced 7#abb1 #abc7 reveal as to the nature of a university day1 and the instruction given8 #ah4 ,show how ,rashdall's statement 7#abd7 that lawyers have been a civilizing agent is true4 ,,supplementary ,,references ,boase1 ,charles ,william4 ,oxford 7,historic ,towns ,series74 ,clark1 ,andrew4 ,the ,colleges at ,oxford4 ,clark1 ,j4 ,w4 ,libraries in the ,medieval and ,renaissance ,periods4 99 ,clark1 ,j4 ,w4 ,the ,care of ,books4 ,corbin1 ,john4 ,an ,american at ,oxford4 99 ,compayr1 ,g4 ,abelard1 and the ,origin and ,early ,history of the ,universities4 99 ,jebb1 ,r4 ,c4 ,the ,work of the ,universities for the ,nation4 ,mullinger1 ,j4 ,b4 ,history of the ,university of ,cambridge4 99 ,norton1 ,a4 #j4 ,readings in the ,history of ,education2 ,medieval ,universities4 99 ,paetow1 ,l4 ,j4 ,the ,arts ,course at ,mediaeval ,universities4 7,univ4 ,ill4 ,studies1 vol4 in1 no4 #g1 ,jan4 #aiaj74 99 ,paulsen1 ,fr4 ,the ,german ,universities4 ,rait1 ,r4 ,s4 ,life of a ,mediaeval ,university4 99 ,rashdall1 ,h4 ,universities of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages4 ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e4 ,history of ,classical ,scholarship1 vol4 ,i4 ,sheldon1 ,henry4 ,student ,life and ,customs4 ,,part ,,iii ,,the ,,transition ,,from ,,mediaeval ,,to ,,modern ,,attitudes ,,the ,,recovery ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,learning ,,the ,,reawakening ,,of ,,scholarship ,,and ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,religious ,,and ,,scientific ,,inquiry ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,learning ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,change4 ,the thirteenth century has often been called the wonderful century of the mediaeval world4 ,it was wonderful largely in that the forces struggling against mediaevalism to evolve the modern spirit here first find clear expression4 ,it was a century of rapid and unmistakable progress in almost every line4 ,by its close great changes were under way which were destined ultimately to shake off the incubus of mediaevalism and to transform ,europe4 ,in many respects1 though1 the fourteenth was a still more wonderful century4 ,the evolution of the universities which we have just traced was one of the most important of these thirteenth-century manifestations4 ,lacking in intellectual material1 but impelled by the new impulses beginning to work in the world1 the scholars of the time went earnestly to work1 by speculative methods1 to organize the dogmatic theology of the ,church into a system of thinking4 ,the result was ,scholasticism4 ,from one point of view the result was barren2 from another it was full of promise for the future4 ,though the workers lacked materials1 were overshadowed by the mediaeval spirit of authority1 and kept their efforts clearly within limits approved by the ,church1 the heroic industry and the in tense application displayed in effecting the organization1 and the logical subtlety developed in discussing the results1 promised much for the future4 ,the rise of university instruction1 and the work of the ,scholastics in organizing the knowledge of the time1 were both a resultant of new influences already at work and a prediction of larger consequences to follow4 ,in a later age1 and with men more emancipated from church control1 the same spirit was destined to burst forth in an effort to discover and reconstruct the historic past4 ,during the thirteenth century1 too1 the new ,estate1 which had come into existence alongside of the clergy and the nobility1 began to assume large importance4 ,the arts-and-crafts guilds were attaining a large development1 and out of this new burgher class the great general public of modern times has in time evolved4 ,trade and industry were increasing in all lands1 and merchants and successful artisans were becoming influential through their newly obtained wealth and rights4 ,the erection of stately churches and town halls1 often beautifully carved and highly ornamented1 was taking place4 ,great cathedrals1 those symphonies in stone1 of which ,notre ,dame 7,figure #ec7 is a good example1 were rising or being further expanded and decorated at many places in western ,europe4 ,mystery and miracle plays had begun to be performed and to attract great attention4 ,in the fourteenth century religious pageants were added4 ,all art was still religion1 but an art was unmistakably arising amid cathedral-building and the setting- forth of the ,christian mysteries1 and before long this was to flower in modern forms of expression in painting1 sculpture1 and the drama4 ,,the ,,new ,,spirit ,,of ,,nationality4 ,the new spirit moving in western ,europe also found expression in the evolution of the modern ,european ,states1 based on the new national feeling4 ,as the kingly power in these was consolidated1 the developing ,states1 each in its own domain1 began to curb the dominion of the universal ,church1 slowly to deprive it of the governmental functions it had assumed and exercised for so long1 and to confine the ,pope and clergy more and more to their original functions as religious agents4 ,the ,papacy as a temporal power passed the maximum period of its greatness early in the thirteenth century2 in the nineteenth century the last vestiges of its temporal power were taken away4 ,new national languages also were coming into being1 and the national epics of the people--the ,cid1 the ,arthurian ,legends1 the ,chansons1 and the ,nibelungen ,lied--were reduced to writing4 ,with the introduction from the ,east1 toward the close of the thirteenth century1 of the process of making paper for writing1 and with the increase of books in the vernacular1 the ,english1 ,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 and ,german languages rapidly took shape4 ,their development was expressive of the new spirit in western ,europe1 as also was the fact that ,dante 7#abfd-acba71 the first literary layman since ,boethius 7d4 #ebd71 wrote his great poem1 ,the ,divine ,comedy1 in his native ,italian instead of in the ,latin which he knew so well--an evidence of independence of large future import4 ,new native literatures were springing forth all over ,europe4 ,beginning with the troubadours in southern ,france 7p4 #ahf71 and taken up by the trouvres in northern ,france and by the minnesingers in ,german lands1 the new poetry of nature and love and joy of living had spread everywhere4 #a ,a new race of men was beginning to sing songs as blithesome and gay as the birds and to express in these songs the joys of the world here below4 ,,transformation ,,of ,,the ,,mediaeval ,,man4 ,the fourteenth century was a period of still more rapid change and transformation4 ,new objects of interest were coming to the front1 and new standards of judgment were being applied4 ,national spirit and a national patriotism were finding expression4 ,the mediaeval man1 with his feeling of personal insignificance1 lack of self-confidence1 no sense of the past behind him1 and no conception of the possibilities of the future before him1 #b was rapidly giving way to the man possessed of the modern spirit--the man of self-confidence1 conscious of his powers1 enjoying life1 feeling his connection with the historic past1 and realizing the potentialities of accomplishment in the world here below4 ,it was the great work of the period of transition1 and especially of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 to effect this change1 to awaken in man a consciousness of his powers1 to give him confidence in himself1 to show him the beauty of the world and the joy of life1 and to make him feel his living connection with the past and the greatness of the future he might create4 #c ,as soon as men began clearly to experience such feelings1 they began to inquire1 and inquiry led to the realization that there had been a great historic past of which they knew but little1 and of which they wanted to know much4 ,when this point had been reached1 western ,europe was ready for a revival of learning4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,in ,,italy4 ,this revival began in ,italy4 ,the ,italians had preserved more of the old ,roman culture than had any other people1 and had been the first to develop a new political and social order and revive the refinements of life after the deluge of barbarism which had engulfed ,europe4 ,they1 too1 had been the first to feel the inadequacy of mediaeval learning to satisfy the intellectual unrest of men conscious of new standards of life4 ,this gave them at least a century of advance over the nations of northern ,europe4 ,the old ,roman life also was nearer to them1 and meant more1 so that a movement for a revival of interest in it attracted to it the finest young minds of central and northern ,italy and inspired in them something closely akin to patriotic fervor4 ,they felt themselves the direct heirs of the political and intellectual eminence of ,imperial ,rome1 and they began the work of restoring to themselves and of trying to understand their inheritance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,,petrarch 7#acjd-gd7 ,the ,morning ,star of the ,renaissance ,in ,petrarch 7#acjd-gd7 we have the beginnings of the movement4 ,he has been called the first modern scholar and man of letters4 ,repudiating the other-worldliness ideal and the scholastic learning of his time1 #d possessed of a deep love for beauty in nature and art1 a delight in travel1 a desire for worldly fame1 a strong historical sense1 and the self-confidence to plan a great constructive work1 he began the task of unearthing the monastic treasures to ascertain what the past had been and known and done4 ,at twenty-nine he made his first great discovery1 at ,lige1 in the form of two previously unknown orations of ,cicero4 ,twelve years later1 at ,verona1 he found half of one of the letters of ,cicero which had been lost for ages4 ,all his life he collected and copied manuscripts4 ,his letter to a friend telling him of his difficulty in getting a work of ,cicero copied1 and his joy in doing the work himself 7,r4 #abe71 is typical of his labors4 ,he began the work of copying and comparing the old classical manuscripts1 and from them reconstructing the past4 ,he also wrote many sonnets1 ballads1 lyrics1 and letters1 all filled with a new modern classical spirit4 ,he also constructed the first modern map of ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,,boccaccio 7#acac-ge7 ,the ,father of ,italian ,prose ,through ,boccaccio1 whom he first met in #acej1 ,petrarch's work was made known in ,florence1 then the wealthiest and most artistic and literary city in the world1 #e and there the new knowledge and method were warmly received4 ,boccaccio equaled ,petrarch in his passion for the ancient writers1 hunting for them wherever he thought they might be found4 ,one of his pupils has left us a melancholy picture of the library at ,monte ,cassino1 as ,boccaccio found it at the time of his visit 7,r4 #abf74 ,he wrote a book of popular tales and romances1 filled with the modern spirit1 which made him the father of ,italian prose as ,dante was of ,italian poetry2 prepared the first dictionaries of classical geography and ,greek mythology2 and was the first western scholar to learn ,greek4 ,in the dim light of learning's dawn they stand1 ,flushed with the first glimpses of a long-lost land4 ,a ,,century ,,of ,,recovery ,,and ,,reconstruction4 ,the work done by these two friends in discovering and editing was taken up by others1 and during the century 7#accc-adcc7 dating from the first great find of ,petrarch the principal additions to ,latin literature were made4 ,the monasteries and castles of ,europe were ransacked in the hope of discovering something new1 or more accurate copies of previously known books4 ,at monasteries and churches as widely separated as ,monte ,cassino1 near ,naples3 ,lodi1 near ,milan2 ,milan1 itself2 and ,vercelli1 in ,italy3 ,saint ,gall and other monasteries1 in ,switzerland3 ,paris2 ,cluny1 near the present city of ,macon2 ,langres1 near the source of the ,marne2 and monasteries in the ,vosges ,mountains1 in ,france3 ,corvey1 in ,westphalia2 and ,hersfeld1 ,cologne1 and ,mainz in ,germany--important finds were made4 #f ,thus widely had the old ,latin authors been scattered1 copied1 and forgotten4 ,in a letter to a friend 7,r4 #abg a7 the enthusiast1 ,poggio ,bracciolini1 tells of finding 7#adaf7 the long-lost ,institutes of ,oratory of ,quintilian1 at ,saint ,gall1 and of copying it for posterity4 ,this1 and the reply of his friend 7,r4 #abg b71 reveal something of the spirit and the emotions of those engaged in the recovery of ,latin literature and the reconstruction of ,roman history4 ,the finds1 though1 while important1 were after all of less value than the spirit which directed the search1 or the careful work which was done in collecting1 comparing1 questioning1 inferring1 criticizing1 and editing corrected texts1 and reconstructing old ,roman life and history4 #g ,we have in this new work a complete break with scholastic methods1 and we see in it the awakening of the modern scientific spirit4 #h ,it was this same critical1 constructive spirit which1 when applied later to ,christian practices1 brought on the ,reformation2 when applied to the problems of the universe1 revealed to men the wonderful world of science2 and when applied to problems of government1 led to the questioning of the theory of the divine right of kings1 and to the evolution of democracy4 ,we have here a modern spirit1 a craving for truth for its own sake1 an awakening of the historical sense1 #i and an appreciation of beauty in literature and nature which was soon to be followed by an appreciation of beauty in art4 ,a worship of classical literature and classical ideas now set in1 of which rich and prosperous ,florence became the center1 with ,venice and ,rome1 as well as a number of the northern ,italian cities1 as centers of more than minor importance4 ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,greek ,,in ,,the ,,west4 ,with the new interest in ,latin literature it was but natural that a revival of the study of ,greek should follow4 ,while a knowledge of ,greek had not absolutely died out in the ,west during the ,middle ,ages1 there were very few scholars who knew anything about it1 and none who could read it4 #aj ,it was natural1 too1 that the revival of it should come first in ,italy4 ,southern ,italy 7,magna ,graecia7 had remained under the ,eastern ,empire and ,greek until its conquest by the ,normans 7#ajda-ga71 and to southern ,italy a few ,greek monks had from time to time migrated4 ,with southern ,italy1 though1 papal ,italy and the western ,christian world seem to have had little contact4 ,in #acci1 and again in #acdb1 a ,greek monk from southern ,italy visited the ,pope1 coming as an ambassador from ,constantinople1 and from him ,petrarch learned the ,greek alphabet4 ,in #acec another envoy brought ,petrarch a copy of ,homer4 ,this he could not read1 but in time 7#acfg7 a poor translation into ,latin was effected4 ,boccaccio studied ,greek1 being the first western scholar to read ,homer in the original4 ,near the end of the fourteenth century it became known in ,florence that ,manuel ,chrysoloras 7c4 #acej-adae71 a ,byzantine of noble birth1 a teacher of rhetoric and philosophy at ,constantinople1 and the most accomplished ,greek scholar of his age1 had arrived in ,venice as an envoy from the ,eastern ,emperor4 ,florentine scholars visited him1 and on his return accompanied him to ,constantinople to learn ,greek4 ,in #acif ,chrysoloras was invited by ,florence to accept an appointment1 in the university there1 to the first chair of ,greek letters in the ,west1 and accepted4 ,from #acif to #adjj he taught ,greek in the rich and stately city of ,florence1 at that time the intellectual and artistic center of ,christendom4 ,for a few years1 beginning in #adjb1 he also taught ,greek at the ,university of ,pavia4 ,he had earlier written a ,catechism of ,greek ,grammar1 and at ,pavia he began a literal rendering of ,plato's ,republic into ,latin4 ,from his visit dates the enthusiasm for the study of ,greek in the ,west4 ,,other ,,greek ,,scholars ,,arrive ,,in ,,italy4 ,chrysoloras returned to ,constantinople for a time1 in #adjc1 and ,guarino of ,verona1 who had been one of his pupils1 accompanied him and spent five years there as a member of his household4 ,when he returned to ,italy he brought with him about fifty manuscripts1 and before his death he had translated a number of them into ,latin4 ,he also prepared a ,greek grammar which superseded that of ,chrysoloras4 ,in #adab he was elected to the chair at ,florence formerly held by ,chrysoloras1 and later he established an important school at ,ferrara1 based largely on instruction in the ,latin and ,greek classics1 which will be referred to again in the next chapter4 ,a rage for ,greek learning and ,greek books now for a time set in4 ,aurispa1 a ,sicilian1 went to ,constantinople1 learned ,greek1 and returned to ,italy1 in #adbb1 with #bch ,greek manuscripts4 ,messer ,filelfo1 of ,padua1 after seven years at ,constantinople1 returned1 in #adbg1 with forty manuscripts and with the grand-niece of ,chrysoloras as his wife4 ,in #addh ,theodorus ,gaza 7c4 #adjj-ge71 a learned ,greek from the city of ,thessalonica1 who had fled from his native city just before its capture by the ,turks 7#adcj71 came to ,ferrara as the first professor of ,greek in the university there4 ,he made many translations1 prepared a very popular ,greek grammar1 and in #adea became professor of philosophy at ,rome4 ,another ,greek of importance was ,demetrius ,chalcondyles of ,athens 7#adbd- #aeaa71 who reached ,italy in #addg4 ,in #adej he became professor of ,greek at ,perugia1 and of his lectures there one of his enthusiastic pupils #aa wrote3 ,a ,greek has just arrived1 who has begun to teach me with great pains1 and ,i to listen to his precepts with incredible pleasure1 because he is a ,greek1 because he is an ,athenian1 and because he is ,demetrius4 ,it seems to me that in him is figured all the wisdom1 the civility1 and the elegance of those so famous and illustrious ancients4 ,merely seeing him you fancy you are looking on ,plato2 far more when you hear him speak4 ,in #adfc ,demetrius transferred to ,padua as professor of ,greek1 and was the first professor of ,greek in a western ,european university to be paid a fixed salary4 ,he also taught for a time at ,milan1 and from #adga to #adia was professor of ,greek at ,florence4 ,a number of other learned ,greeks had reached ,italy prior to the fall of ,constantinople 7#adec7 before the advancing ,turks1 #ab and after its fall many more sought there a new home4 ,many of these found1 on landing1 that their knowledge of ,greek and the possession of a few ,greek books were an open sesame to the learned circles of ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,,demetrius ,,chalcondyles 7#adbd-aeaa7 7,drawn from a picture of a fresco by ,ghirlandajo1 painted in #adij1 on the walls of the church of ,santa ,maria ,novella1 at ,florence7 ,,enthusiasm ,,for ,,the ,,new ,,movement2 ,,libraries ,,and ,,academics ,,founded4 ,the enthusiasm for the recovery and restoration of ancient literature and history which this work awakened among the younger scholars of ,italy can be imagined4 ,while most of the professors in the universities and most of the church officials at first had nothing to do with the new movement1 being wedded to scholastic methods of thinking1 the leaders of the new learning drew about them many of the brightest and most energetic of the young men who came to those universities which were hospitable to the new movement4 #ac ,greek scholars in the university towns were followed by admiring bands of younger students1 #ad who soon took up the work and superseded their masters4 ,academies1 named after the one conducted by ,plato in the groves near ,athens1 whose purpose was to promote literary studies1 were founded in all the important ,italian cities 7,r4 #abi74 ,the members usually ,latinized their names1 and celebrated the ancient festivals4 ,in ,venice a ,greek ,academy was formed in which all the proceedings were in ,greek1 and the members were known by ,greek names4 ,the ,academia of ,aldus1 at ,venice1 of which his celebrated press was a department1 became a veritable university for classical learning1 and to participate in its proceedings scholars came from many lands4 ,it was the curious and enthusiastic ,italians who1 more than the ,greek scholars who taught them the language1 opened up the literature and history of ,athens to the comprehension of the western world4 ,the financial support of the movement came from the wealthy merchant princes1 reigning dukes1 and a few church authorities1 who assisted scholars and spent money most liberally in collecting manuscripts and accumulating books4 ,says ,symonds3 ,never was there a time in the world's history when money was spent more freely upon the collection and preservation of ,,mss41 and when a more complete machinery was put in motion for the sake of securing literary treasures4 ,prince vied with prince1 and eminent burgher with burgher1 in buying books4 ,the commercial correspondents of the ,medici and other great ,florentine houses1 whose banks and discount offices extended over ,europe and the ,levant1 were instructed to purchase relics of antiquity without regard for cost1 and to forward them to ,florence4 ,the most acceptable present that could be sent to a king was a copy of a ,roman historian4 ,the best credentials which a young ,greek arriving from ,byzantium could use to gain the patronage of men like ,palla degli ,strozzi was a fragment of some ancient2 the merchandise insuring the largest profit to a speculator who had special knowledge in such matters was old parchment covered with crabbed characters4 #ae ,cosimo de' ,medici 7#acic-adfd71 a banker and ruler of ,florence1 spent great sums in collecting and copying manuscripts4 ,vespasiano1 a fifteenth- century bookseller of ,florence1 has left us an interesting picture of the work of ,cosimo in founding 7#addd7 the great ,medicean library #af at ,florence 7,r4 #acj7 and of the difficulties of book collecting in the days before the invention of printing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,,bookcase ,,and ,,desk ,,in ,,the ,,medicean ,,library ,,at ,,florence 7,drawn from a photograph7 ,this library was founded in #addd4 ,it contains to-day about #aj1jjj ,greek and ,latin manuscripts1 many of them very rare1 and of a few the only copies known4 ,the building was designed by ,michael ,angelo1 and its construction was begun in #aebe4 ,the bookcases are of about this date4 ,it shows the early method of chaining books to the shelves1 and cataloguing the volumes on the end of each stack4 ,under ,cosimo's grandson1 ,lorenzo the ,magnificent1 who died in #adib1 two expeditions were sent to ,greece to obtain manuscripts for the ,florentine library4 ,vespasiano also describes for us the books collected 7c4 #adge-hj7 for the great ducal library at ,urbino 7,r4 #aca71 the greatest library in the ,christian world at the time of its completion1 and the work of ,pope ,nicholas ,v #ag 7#addg-adee7 in laying the foundations 7#adej7 for the great ,vatican ,library at ,rome 7,r4 #acb74 ,nicholas was an enthusiast in the new movement1 and formed a plan for the translation of all the ,greek writers into ,latin4 ,a later ,pope1 ,leo ,x 7#aeac-aeba71 planned to make ,rome the international center for ,greek learning4 ,,the ,,movement ,,extends ,,to ,,other ,,countries4 ,petrarch made his first great find in #accc1 and up to #adej the ,revival of ,learning1 often termed the ,renaissance1 was entirely an ,italian movement4 ,by that date the great work in ,italy had been done1 and the ,italians were once more in possession of the literature and history of the past4 ,with them the movement was literary1 historical1 and patriotic in purpose and spirit4 ,with them the movement was known as humanism1 from an old ,roman word 7humanitas7 meaning culture1 and this term came to be applied to the new studies in all other lands4 ,in their work with the literatures1 inscriptions1 coins1 and archaeological remains of the ,greeks and ,romans1 their own literature1 history1 mythology1 and political and social life was reconstructed4 ,the methods employed were the methods used in modern science1 and the result was to develop in ,italy a new type of scholar1 possessed of a literary1 artistic1 and historical appreciation unknown since the days of ancient ,rome1 and with the greatest enthusiasm for ,latin as a living language4 ,by the time the revival had culminated in ,italy it began to be heard of north of the ,alps4 ,france was the first country to take up the study of ,greek1 a professorship being established at ,paris in #adeh4 ,there was but little interest in the subject1 however1 or in any of the new studies1 until two events of political importance1 forty years later1 brought ,frenchmen in close touch with what had been done in northern ,italy4 ,in #adid ,charles ,,viii1 of ,france1 claiming ,naples as his possession1 took an army into ,italy1 and forcibly occupied ,rome and ,florence4 ,four years later his successor1 ,louis ,,xii1 claimed ,milan also and seized it and ,naples1 maintaining a ,french court at ,milan from #adih to #aeab4 ,though both these expeditions were unsuccessful1 from a political point of view1 the effect of the direct contact with humanism in its home was lasting4 ,new ideas in architecture1 art1 and learning were carried back to ,france1 ,french scholars traveled to ,italy1 and early in the sixteenth century ,paris became a center for the new humanistic studies4 ,in ,greek1 ,france completely superseded ,italy as the interpreter of ,greek life and literature to the modern world4 ,in #adgc a ,spanish scholar1 ,mebrissensis 7#addd-aebb71 returned home after twenty years in ,italy and introduced ,greek at ,seville1 ,salamanca1 and ,alcal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,,two ,,early ,,northern ,,humanists ,,rudolph ,,agricola 7#addc-he7 ,early ,dutch ,humanist4 ,lectured at ,heidelberg 7,from a contemporary engraving7 ,,thomas ,,linacre 7c4 #adfj-aebd7 ,english ,professor of ,medicine and ,lecturer on ,greek 7,from a portrait in the ,british ,museum7 ,about #adhh ,thomas ,linacre 7c4 #adfj-aebd7 and ,william ,grocyn 7#addf-aead71 two ,oxford graduates1 went to ,florence from ,england1 studying ,greek under ,demetrius ,chalcondyles1 and1 returning1 introduced the new learning at ,oxford4 #ah ,linacre1 as professor of medicine1 translated much of ,galen 7p4 #aih7 from the ,greek1 and he and ,grocyn lectured on ,greek at the ,university4 ,from ,oxford the new learning was transmitted to ,cambridge1 and1 over a century afterward1 to ,harvard in ,america4 ,a third ,oxford man to study ,greek in ,italy was ,john ,colet 7#adfg-aeai71 who studied in ,florence from #adic to #adif1 and returned home an enthusiastic humanist4 ,he was the first ,englishman to attract much attention to the new studies1 and to him is chiefly due their introduction into the ,english secondary school4 ,the first ,german of whom we have any record as having studied in ,italy was ,peter ,luder 7c4 #adae-gd71 who returned in #adef1 and lectured on the new learning at the ,universities of ,heidelberg1 ,erfurt1 and ,leipzig1 but awakened no response4 ,in #adgj ,johann ,wessel 7#adbj-hi7 and in #adgf ,rodolph ,agricola 7#addc-he71 two noted ,dutch scholars1 studied in ,italy4 ,on returning1 ,agricola1 #ai who has been called the ,petrarch of ,german lands1 did much to spread the great inheritance of antiquity and the new civilization to which it had given birth among his uncouth countrymen 7barbari1 he calls them74 ,he made ,heidelberg1 for a time1 a center of humanistic appreciation4 ,johann ,reuchlin 7#adee-aebb71 a ,german by birth1 studied in ,florence and elsewhere in ,italy in #adha to #adij1 and there learned ,hebrew4 ,returning1 he became a professor at ,heidelberg and the father of modern ,hebrew studies4 ,in #aejf he published the first ,hebrew grammar4 ,in #adic the ,university of ,erfurt established a professorship of ,poetry and ,eloquence1 this being the first ,german university to countenance the new learning4 ,in #aebc the first chair of ,greek was established at ,vienna4 ,thus slowly did the revival of learning spread to northern lands4 ,,the ,,revival ,,aided ,,by ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,paper ,,and ,,printing4 ,very fortunately for the spread of the new learning an important process and a great invention now came in at a most opportune time4 ,the process was the manufacture of paper2 the invention that of printing4 ,the manufacture of paper is probably a ,chinese invention1 early obtained by the ,arabs4 ,during the ,mohammedan occupation of ,spain paper mills were set up there1 and a small supply of their paper found its way across the ,pyrenees4 ,the ,christians who drove the ,mohammedans out lost the process1 and it now came back once more from the ,east4 ,by about #abej the ,greeks had obtained the process from ,mohammedan sources1 and in #abgf the first paper mill was set up in ,italy4 ,in #acdj a paper factory was established at ,padua1 and soon thereafter other factories began to make paper at ,florence1 ,bologna1 ,milan1 and ,venice4 ,in #acbj a paper factory was established at ,mainz1 in ,germany1 and in #acij another at ,nuremberg4 ,by #adej paper was in common use and the way was now open for one of the world's greatest inventions4 ,this was the invention of printing4 ,from the difficulty experienced in securing books for the great libraries at ,florence1 ,urbino1 and ,rome1 as we have seen 7,rs4 #acj1 #aca1 #acb71 and the great cost of reproducing single copies of books1 we can see that the work of the humanists of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in ,italy probably would have had but little influence elsewhere but for the invention of printing4 ,to disseminate a new learning involving two great literatures by copying books1 one at a time by hand1 would have prevented instruction in the new subjects becoming general for centuries1 and would have materially retarded the progress of the world4 ,the discovery of the art of printing1 coming when it did1 scattered the new learning over ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,,an ,,early ,,sixteenth-,,century ,,press ,the prynters have founde a crafte to make bokis by brasen letters sette in ordre by a frame4 ,an engraving1 dated #aebj4 ,the man at the right is setting type1 and the one at the lever is making an impression4 ,a number of four-page printed sheets are seen on the table at the right of the press4 ,,spread ,,and ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,press4 ,the dates connected with this new invention and its diffusion over ,europe are3 #adbc4 ,coster of ,harlem made the first engraved single page4 #adch4 ,gutenberg invented movable wooden types4 #adej4 ,schoeffer and ,faust cast first metal type4 #adef4 ,bible printed in ,latin by ,gutenberg and ,faust at ,mainz4 ,this the first complete book printed4 #bj #adeg4 ,the ,mayence ,psalter1 the first dated book1 printed4 #ba #adfb4 ,adolph of ,nassau pillaged ,mainz1 drove out the printers1 and in consequence scattered the art over ,europe4 #adfe4 ,press set up in the ,german monastery of ,subiaco1 in the ,sabine ,mountains1 in ,italy4 #adfg4 ,this press moved to ,rome4 #adfi4 ,presses at ,paris and ,vienna4 #adgj4 ,printing introduced into ,switzerland4 #adga4 ,presses set up at ,florence1 ,milan1 and ,ferrara4 #adgc4 ,printing introduced into ,holland and ,belgium4 #adgd4 ,printing introduced into ,spain4 #adgd-gg4 ,printing introduced into ,england4 ,caxton set up his press in #adgg4 #adgf4 ,first book printed in ,greek at ,milan4 #adij4 ,the ,aldine press established at ,venice1 by ,aldus ,manutius4 #aeja4 ,first ,greek book printed in ,germany1 at ,erfurt4 #aefc4 ,first newspaper established1 in ,venice4 ,inventions traveled but slowly in those days1 yet in time the press was to be found in every country of ,europe4 ,the professional copyists made a great outcry against the innovation2 presses were at first licensed and closely limited in number2 in ,france the ,university of ,paris was given the proceeds of a tax levied on all books printed2 and in ,england the beginnings of the modern copyright are to be seen in the necessity of obtaining a license from the ecclesiastical authorities to be permitted to print a book4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,,an ,,early ,,specimen ,,of ,,caxton',s ,,printing ,in cutting and casting the first type a style of heavy-faced letter1 much like that written by the mediaeval monks--the so-called ,gothic--was used4 ,caxton1 in ,england1 used this at first1 and the ,germans have continued its use up to the present time4 ,the ,italians1 however1 soon devised a type with letters like those used by the old ,romans--the so- called ,roman type1 this type which was soon accepted in all non-,german ,european countries4 ,the ,italians also devised a compressed type--the ,italic--which enabled printers to get more words on a page4 ,venice1 almost from the first1 became the center of the book trade1 and books literally poured from the presses there4 ,by #aejj as many as five thousand editions1 often of as many as a thousand copies to an edition1 had been printed in ,italy4 #bb ,of this number #bhce had been printed in ,venice1 and most of them by the ,aldine press of ,aldus ,manutius1 and edited by the ,academia 7p4 #bej7 connected therewith4 #bc ,by #aejj many books had also been printed in a number of northern cities1 #bd and ,lyons1 ,paris1 ,basel1 ,nuremberg1 ,cologne1 ,leipzig1 and ,london soon became centers of the northern book trade4 ,caxton in ,england soon vied with ,aldus in ,venice as a printer of beautiful books4 ,when we remember that it required fifty-three days 7,sandys7 to make by hand one copy of ,quintilian's ,institutes1 and forty-five copyists twenty-two months to reproduce two hundred volumes for the ,medicean ,library at ,florence 7,r4 #acj71 the enormous importance of an invention which would print rapidly a thousand or more copies of a book1 all exactly alike and free from copyist errors1 can be appreciated4 ,it tremendously cheapened books1 #be made the general use of the textbook method of teaching possible1 and paved the way for a great extension of schools and learning 7,r4 #acd74 ,from now on the press became a formidable rival to the pulpit and the sermon1 and one of the greatest of instruments for human progress and individual liberty4 ,from this time on educational progress was to be much more rapid than it had been in the past4 ,from an educational point of view the invention of printing might almost be taken as marking the close of the mediaeval and the beginning of modern times4 ,,rise ,,of ,,geographical ,,discovery4 ,the new influences awakened by the ,revival of ,learning found expression in other directions4 ,one of these was geographical discovery1 itself an outgrowth of that series of movements known as the ,crusades1 with the accompanying revival of trade and commerce4 ,these led to travel1 exploration1 and discovery4 ,by the latter part of the thirteenth century the most extensive travel which had taken place since the days of ancient ,rome had begun1 and in the next two and a half centuries a great expansion of the known world took place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,,the ,,world ,,as ,,known ,,to ,,christian ,,europe ,,before ,,columbus ,marco ,polo and ,sir ,john ,mandeville made extended travels to the ,orient1 and returning 7,polo returned1 #abie7 described to a wondering ,europe the new lands and peoples they had seen4 ,the ,voyages of ,polo and the ,travels of ,mandeville were widely read4 ,by the beginning of the fourteenth century the compass had been perfected1 in ,naples1 and a great era of exploration had been begun4 ,in #adjb venturesome sailors1 out beyond the ,pillars of ,hercules1 discovered the ,canary ,islands2 in #adai the ,madeira ,islands were reached2 in #adfj the ,cape ,verde ,islands were found2 in #adig ,bartholomew ,diaz rounded the southern tip of ,africa2 and in #adig ,vasco da ,gama discovered the long-hoped-for sea route to ,india4 ,five years later1 sailing westward with the same end in view1 ,columbus discovered the ,american continent4 ,finally1 in #aeai-bb1 ,magellan's ships circumnavigated the globe1 and1 returning safely to ,spain1 proved that the world was round4 ,in #aejg ,waldenseemller published his ,introduction to ,geography1 a book that was widely read1 and one which laid the foundations of this modern study4 ,the effect of these discoveries in broadening the minds of men can be imagined4 ,the religious theories and teachings of the ,middle ,ages as to the world were in large part upset4 ,new races and new peoples had been found1 a round earth instead of a flat one had been proved to exist1 new continents had been discovered1 and new worlds were now ready to be opened up for scientific exploration and colonization4 ,,about #aejj ,a ,,stimulating ,,time4 ,the latter part of the fifteenth century and the earlier part of the sixteenth was a stimulating period in the intellectual development of ,christian ,europe4 ,the ,turks had closed in on ,constantinople 7#adec7 and ended the ,eastern ,empire1 and many ,greek scholars had fled to the ,west4 ,though the ,revival of ,learning had culminated in ,italy1 its influence was still strongly felt in such cities as ,florence and ,venice1 while in ,german lands and in ,england the reform movement awakened by it was at its height4 ,greek and ,hebrew were now taught generally in the northern universities4 ,everywhere the old scholastic learning and methods were being overturned by the new humanism1 and scholastic teachers were being displaced from their positions in the universities and schools4 ,the new humanistic university at ,wittenberg1 founded in #aejb1 was exerting large influence among ,german scholars and attracting to it the brightest young minds in ,german lands4 ,erasmus was the greatest international scholar of the age1 though ably seconded by distinguished humanistic scholars in ,italy1 ,france1 ,england1 the ,low ,countries1 and ,german lands4 ,the court schools of ,italy 7,r4 #ace7 and the municipal colleges of ,france 7,r4 #acf7 were marking out new lines in the education of the select few4 ,colet was founding his reformed grammar school 7#aeaj7 at ,saint ,paul's1 in ,london 7,r4 #ach71 the first of a long line of ,english humanistic grammar schools4 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,raphael1 and ,michael ,angelo were adding new fame to ,italy1 and carrying the ,renaissance movement over into that art which the world has ever since treasured and admired4 ,the ,italian cities1 particularly ,genoa and ,venice1 had become rich from their commerce1 as had many cities in northern lands4 ,everywhere the cities were centers for the new life in western ,christendom4 ,england was rapidly changing from an agricultural to a manufacturing nation4 ,the serf was evolving into a free man all over western ,europe4 ,italian navigators had discovered new sea routes and lands1 and robbed the ocean of its terrors4 ,columbus had discovered a new world1 soon to be peopled and to become the home of a new civilization4 ,magellan had shown that the world was round and poised in space1 instead of flat and surrounded by a circumfluent ocean4 ,the printing-press had been perfected and scattered over ,europe1 and was rapidly multiplying books and creating a new desire to read 7,r4 #acd74 ,the ,church was more tolerant of new ideas than it had been in the past1 or soon was to be for centuries to come4 ,all of these new influences and conditions combined to awaken thought as had not happened before since the days of ancient ,rome4 ,the world seemed about ready for rapid advances in many new directions1 and great progress in learning1 education1 government1 art1 commerce1 and invention seemed almost within grasp4 ,unfortunately the promise was not to be fulfilled1 and the progress that seemed possible in #aejj was soon lost amid the bitterness and hatreds engendered by a great religious conflict1 then about to break1 and which was destined to leave1 for centuries to come1 a legacy of intolerance and suspicion in all lands4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,in what way was the fact that ,dante wrote his ,divine ,comedy in ,italian instead of ,latin an evidence of large independence8 #b4 ,was it a good thing for peace and civilization that the modern languages arose1 instead of all speaking and writing ,latin8 ,why8 #c4 ,of what value to one is a sense of the past behind him1 and a conception of the possibilities of the future before him1 by way of giving perspective and self-confidence8 ,do we have many mediaeval-type people to-day8 #d4 ,show how the work of ,petrarch required a man with a strong historic sense4 #e4 ,show the awakening of the modern scientific spirit in the critical and reconstructive work of the scholars of the ,revival4 #f4 ,of what was the exposure of the forgery of the ,donation of ,constantine a precursor8 #g4 ,contrast the modern and the mediaeval spirit as related to learning4 #h4 ,suppose that we should unexpectedly unearth in ,mexico a vast literature of a very learned and scholarly people who once inhabited the ,united ,states1 and should discover a key by which to read it4 ,would the interest awakened be comparable with that awakened by the revival of ,greek in ,italy8 ,why8 #i4 ,what does the fact that no copy of ,quintilian's ,institutes1 a very famous ,roman book1 was known in ,europe before #adaf indicate as to the destruction of books during the early ,christian period8 #aj4 ,what does the fact that the ,christians knew little about ,greek literature or scholarship for centuries1 and that the awakening was in large part brought about by the pressure of the ,turks on the ,eastern ,empire1 indicate as to intercourse among ,mediterranean peoples during the ,middle ,ages8 #aa4 ,how do you explain the fact that the recovery of the ancient learning was very largely the work of young men1 and that older professors in the universities frequently held aloof from any connection with the movement8 #ab4 ,compare the financial support of the ,revival in ,italy with the support of universities and of scientific undertakings in ,america during recent times4 #ac4 ,explain the long-delayed interest in the ,revival in the northern countries4 #ad4 ,trace the larger steps in the transference of ,greek literature and learning from ,athens1 in the fifth century ,b4,c41 to its arrival at ,harvard1 in ,massachusetts1 in #afcf4 #ae4 ,what was the importance of the rediscovery of ,hebrew8 #af4 ,show how the invention of printing was a revolutionary force of the first magnitude4 #ag4 ,why should a license from the ,church have been necessary to print a book8 ,have we any remaining vestiges of this church control over books8 #ah4 ,do you see any special reason why ,venice should have become the early center of the book trade8 #ai4 ,show how the printing-press became a formidable rival to the pulpit and the sermon1 and one of the greatest instruments for human progress and liberty4 #bj4 ,one writer has characterized the ,revival of ,learning as the beginnings of the emergence of the individual from institutional control1 and the substitution of the humanities for the divinities as the basis of education4 ,is this a good characterization of a phase of the movement8 #ba4 ,counting each edition of a printed book at only three hundred copies1 how many volumes had been printed before #aejj at the places listed in footnote #c1 page #beg8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #abe4 ,petrarch3 ,on copying a ,work of ,cicero4 #abf4 ,benvenuto3 ,boccaccio's ,visit to the ,library at ,monte ,cassino4 #abg4 ,symonds3 ,finding of ,quintilian's ,institutes at ,saint ,gall4 7a7 ,letter of ,poggio ,bracciolini on the ,find4 7b7 ,reply of ,lionardo ,bruni4 #abh4 ,,ms43 ,reproducing ,books before the ,days of ,printing4 #abi4 ,symonds3 ,italian ,societies for studying the ,classics4 #acj4 ,vespasiano3 ,founding of the ,medicean ,library at ,florence4 #aca4 ,vespasiano3 ,founding of the ,ducal ,library at ,urbino4 #acb4 ,vespasiano3 ,founding of the ,vatican ,library at ,rome4 #acc4 ,green3 ,the ,new ,learning at ,oxford4 #acd4 ,green3 ,the ,new ,taste for ,books4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,is it probable that ,petrarch's explanation 7#abe7 of why many of the older ,latin books were copied so infrequently1 psalters being preferred instead1 is correct8 #b4 ,how do you explain the later neglect of so valuable a library as that at ,monte ,cassino 7#abf7 or ,saint ,gall 7#abg a78 #c4 ,was ,lionardo ,bruni's letter to ,poggio 7#abg b7 overdrawn8 #d4 ,was there anything unnatural about the work and customs of the ,italian societies for studying the classics 7#abi78 ,compare with a modern literary or scientific society1 or with the ,national ,dante ,society4 #e4 ,what does the extract from ,vespasiano1 telling how he got books for ,cosimo de' ,medici 7#acj71 indicate as to the scarcity of books in ,italy toward the middle of the fifteenth century8 #f4 ,the library of the ,duke of ,urbino 7#aca7 was the most complete collected up to that time4 ,list the larger classifications of the books copied1 as to the lines represented in a great library of that day4 #g4 ,what does the work of ,pope ,nicholas ,v1 in establishing the ,vatican ,library 7#acb71 indicate as to his interest in the new humanistic movement8 #h4 ,show from the selection from ,green 7#acc7 that the revival movement in ,england was essentially a religious revival4 #i4 ,explain ,green's cause-and-effect theory1 as given in selection #acd4 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b4 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages4 ,blades1 ,william4 ,william ,caxton4 ,duff1 ,e4 ,g4 ,early ,printed ,books4 99 ,field1 ,lilian ,f4 ,introduction to the ,study of the ,renaissance4 99 ,howells1 ,w4 ,d4 ,venetian ,days 7,venetian commerce74 99 ,keane1 ,john4 ,the ,evolution of ,geography4 ,la ,croix1 ,paul4 ,the ,arts in the ,middle ,ages and at the ,period of the ,renaissance4 99 ,loomis1 ,louise4 ,mediaeval ,hellenism4 ,oliphant1 ,mrs4 ,makers of ,venice4 99 ,robinson1 ,j4 ,h41 and ,rolfe1 ,h4 ,w4 ,petrarch1 the ,first ,modern ,scholar and ,man of ,letters4 ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e4 ,history of ,classical ,scholarship1 vol4 ,,ii4 99 ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e4 ,harvard ,lectures on the ,revival of ,learning4 ,scaife1 ,w4 ,b4 ,florentine ,life during the ,renaissance4 ,sedgwick1 ,h4 ,d4 ,italy in the ,thirteenth ,century4 99 ,symonds1 ,j4 ,a4 ,the ,renaissance in ,italy2 vol4 ,,ii1 ,the ,revival of ,learning4 ,thorndike1 ,lynn4 ,history of ,mediaeval ,europe4 ,whitcomb1 ,m4 ,source ,book of the ,italian ,renaissance4 99 ,walsh1 ,jas4 ,j4 ,the ,thirteenth1 ,greatest of ,centuries4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,educational ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,learning ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,learning4 ,it is often stated that the roots of all our modern educational practices in secondary education lie buried deep in the great ,italian ,revival of ,learning4 ,if we limit the statement to the time preceding the middle of the nineteenth century we shall be more nearly correct1 as tremendous changes in both the character and the purpose of secondary education have taken place since that time4 ,the important and outstanding educational result of the revival of ancient learning by ,italian scholars was that it laid a basis for a new type of education below that of the university1 destined in time to be much more widely opened to promising youths than the old cathedral and monastic schools had been4 ,this new education1 based on the great intellectual inheritance recovered from the ancient world by a relatively small number of ,italian scholars1 dominated the secondary-school training of the middle and higher classes of society for the next four hundred years4 ,it clearly began by #adej1 it clearly controlled secondary education until at least after #ahej4 ,out of the efforts of ,italian scholars to resurrect1 reconstruct1 understand1 and utilize in education the fruits of their legacy from the ancient ,greek and ,roman world1 arose modern secondary education1 as contrasted with mediaeval church education4 ,mediaeval education1 after all1 was narrowly technical4 ,it prepared for but one profession1 and one type of service4 ,there was little that was liberal1 cultural1 or humanitarian about it4 ,it prepared for the world to come1 not for the world men live in here4 ,the new education developed in ,italy aimed to prepare directly for life in the world here1 and for useful and enjoyable life at that4 ,combining with the new humanistic 7cultural7 studies the best ideals and practices of the old chivalric education-- physical training1 manners and courtesy1 reverence--the ,italian pioneers devised a scheme of education1 below that of the universities1 which they claimed prepared youths not only for an intellectual appreciation of the great and wonderful past of which they were descendants1 but also for intelligent service in the two great non-church occupations of ,italy in the fifteenth century--public service for the ,city-,state1 and commerce and a business life4 ,this new type of education spread to other lands1 and a new type of secondary-school training1 actuated by a new and a modern purpose1 thus came out of the revival of learning in ,italy4 ,,the ,,movement ,,in ,,italy ,,patriotic4 ,the inspiration for the revival of learning in ,italy did not originate with the universities4 ,even the new chairs when established in the universities were regarded as inferior1 and1 in true university fashion1 the occupants were tolerated by the other professors rather than approved of by them4 ,some of the universities-- ,pavia and ,bologna1 in particular--had practically nothing to do with the new movement4 #a ,even in the rich and learned city of ,florence1 the head and front of the revival movement1 the church scholars and many university men took little or no part in the restoration of the old studies4 ,the learned archbishop1 ,saint ,antoninus1 who presided over the cathedral at ,florence during the brightest days of that city's history1 pursued his mediaeval scholastic instruction undisturbed1 and even wrote a ,summa ,theologica of his own4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,,saint ,,antoninus ,,and ,,his ,,scholars ,saint ,antoninus 7#achj-adei7 was the learned and pious ,archbishop of ,florence from #addf until his death4 ,the picture of him giving instruction is from the ,venice 7#aejc7 edition of his ,summa ,theologica4 ,the revival movement1 on the contrary1 was directed in its beginnings by a small group of patriotic ,italians possessed of a modern spirit1 and was financed by intelligent and patriotic merchants1 bankers1 and princes4 ,surrounded on all sides by monuments and remains testifying to ,roman greatness1 and with ,roman speech in constant use by the scholars of the ,church1 the revival of ,latin literature meant more to ,italian scholars than to those of any other country4 ,it seemed to them still possible to revive ,roman life and make ,roman speech once more the language of the learned world4 ,the revival of ,latin literature1 too1 meant much more to them than the revival of ,greek4 ,the chief value of the latter was to open up a still greater past1 and through this to illuminate ,roman life and literature4 ,after about #aejj the enthusiasm for ,greek rapidly died out in ,italy1 and the further interpretation of ,greek life and thought was left to the northern nations4 ,in this effort to revive the old ,roman world the ,italian scholars received the sympathy of the great men of wealth1 and of some of the popes of the time4 ,it was the ,medici family at ,florence who aided the movement liberally there1 rejuvenated the university of ,florence along new humanistic lines1 accumulated libraries there 7,r4 #acj7 and at ,venice1 and aided scholars all over ,italy4 ,at ,milan the ,visconti family paid the expenses of a chair of ,latin and ,greek1 established in the university there in #addj4 ,popes ,nicholas ,v and ,leo ,x were prodigal in their support of the new learning at ,rome 7,r4 #acb71 and the university there was reconstructed along modern lines4 ,at ,venice the rulers gave large financial and other support to the leaders of the new learning4 ,academies 7,r4 #abi71 under the patronage of the nobility1 were founded in almost all the northern ,italian cities1 and those in political power did much to make their cities notable centers for classical studies4 ,,new ,,schools ,,created4 ,the finds began with ,petrarch's discovery of two orations of ,cicero1 in #accc1 and by the time the century of finds 7#accc- #adcc7 was drawing to a close the materials for a new type of secondary education had been accumulated4 ,not only was the old literature discovered and edited1 but the finding of a complete copy of ,quintilian's ,institutes of ,oratory at ,saint ,gall 7,r4 #abg71 in #adaf1 gave a detailed explanation of the old ,roman theory of education at its best4 ,a number of court schools now arose in the different cities1 to which children from the nobility and the banking and merchant classes were sent to enjoy the advantages they offered over the older types of religious schools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,,two ,,early ,,italian ,,humanist ,,educators ,,guarino ,,da ,,verona 7#acgd-adfj7 7,drawn from a photograph of a contemporary painting4 ,school at ,ferrara1 #adbi-adfj7 ,,vittorino ,,da ,,feltre 7#acgh-addf7 7,drawn from a medallion in the ,british ,museum4 ,school at ,mantua1 #adbc-df7 ,two of the most famous teachers in these court schools were ,vittorino da ,feltre1 who conducted a famous school at ,mantua from #adbc to #addf1 and ,guarino da ,verona1 who conducted another almost equally famous school at ,ferrara from #adbi to #adfj4 ,taking boys at nine or ten and retaining them until twenty or twenty-one1 their schools were much like the best private boarding-schools of ,england and ,america to-day4 ,drawing to them a selected class of students2 emphasizing physical activities1 manners1 and morals2 employing good teaching processes2 and providing the best instruction the world had up to that time known--the influence of these court schools was indeed large4 ,many of the most distinguished leaders in ,church and ,state and some of the best scholars of the time were trained in them4 ,by better methods they covered1 in shorter time1 as much or more than was provided in the ,arts course of the universities1 and so became rivals of them4 ,the ultimate result was that1 with the evolution of a series of secondary schools which prepared for admission to the universities1 the gradual humanizing of the universities1 and the introduction of printed textbooks1 the ,arts courses in the universities were advanced to a much higher plane4 ,we have here one of the first of a number of subsequent steps by means of which new knowledge1 organized into teaching shape1 has been passed on down to lower schools to teach1 while the universities have stepped forward into new and higher fields of endeavor4 ,,the ,,humanistic ,,course ,,of ,,study4 ,the new instruction was based on the study of ,greek and ,latin1 combined with the courtly ideal and with some of the physical activities of the old chivalric education4 ,latin was begun with the first year in school1 and the regular ,roman emphasis was placed on articulation and proper accent4 ,after some facility in the language had been gained1 easy readings1 selected from the greatest ,roman writers1 were attempted4 ,as progress was made in reading and writing and speaking ,latin as a living language1 ,cicero and ,quintilian among prose writers1 and ,vergil1 ,lucan1 ,horace1 ,seneca1 and ,claudian among the poets1 were read and studied4 ,history was introduced in these schools for the first time and as a new subject of study1 though the history was the history of ,greece and ,rome and was drawn from the authors studied4 ,livy and ,plutarch were the chief historical writers used4 ,nothing that happened after the fall of ,rome was deemed as of importance4 ,much emphasis was placed on manners1 morality1 and reverence1 with ,livy and ,plutarch again as the great guides to conduct4 ,throughout all this the use of ,latin as a living language was insisted upon2 declamation became a fine art2 and the ability to read1 speak1 and compose in ,latin was the test4 ,cicero1 in particular1 because of the exquisite quality of his ,latin style1 became the great prose model4 ,quintilian was the supreme authority on the purpose and method of teaching 7,r4 #be74 ,greek also was begun later1 though studied much less extensively and thoroughly4 ,the ,greek grammar of ,theodorus ,gaza 7p4 #bdh7 was studied1 followed by the reading of ,xenophon1 ,isocrates1 ,plutarch1 and some of ,homer and ,hesiod4 ,this thorough drill in ancient history and literature was given along with careful attention to manners and moral training1 and each pupil's health was watchfully supervised--an absolutely new thought in the ,christian world4 ,such physical sports and games as fencing1 wrestling1 playing ball1 football1 running1 leaping1 and dancing were also given special emphasis4 ,competitive games between different schools were held1 much as in modern times4 ,the result was an all-round physical1 mental1 and moral training1 vastly superior to anything previously offered by the cathedral and other church schools1 and which at once established a new type which was widely copied4 ,a number of these new teachers1 called humanists1 wrote treatises on the proper order of studies1 the methods to be employed1 the right education of a prince1 liberal education1 and similar topics4 #b ,one of these1 ,battista ,guarino1 describing the education provided in the school which his father founded at ,ferrara 7,r4 #ace71 laid down a dictum which was accepted widely until the middle of the nineteenth century1 when he wrote3 ,i have said that ability to write ,latin verse is one of the essential marks of an educated person4 ,i wish now to indicate a second1 which is of at least equal importance1 namely1 familiarity with the literature and language of ,greece4 ,the time has come when we must speak in no uncertain voice upon this vital requirement of scholarship4 ,,humanism ,,in ,,france4 ,from ,italy the new humanism was carried to ,france1 along with the retreating armies that had occupied ,naples1 ,florence1 and ,milan 7p4 #beb71 and when ,francis ,i came to the ,french throne1 in #aeae1 the new learning found in him a willing patron4 ,though there had been beginnings before this1 the new learning really found a home in ,france now for the first time4 ,here1 too1 it became associated with court and noble1 and the schools created to furnish this new instruction were provided at the instigation of some form of public authority4 ,the greatest humanistic scholar in ,france at the time1 ,budaeus1 was made royal librarian1 in #aebb4 ,his study of the old ,roman coinage1 upon which he spent nine years1 would pass to-day as a study representing a high grade of scholarship1 and was in marked contrast with the scholastic methods of the university4 ,in his writings ,budaeus set forth for ,france the dictum that every man1 even if he be a king1 should be devoted to letters and liberal learning1 and that this culture can be obtained only through ,greek and ,latin1 and of these1 unlike the ,italians1 he held ,greek to be the more important4 ,other scholars now helped to transfer the center for ,greek scholarship to ,paris1 where it remained for the next two centuries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,,guillaume ,,budaeus 7#adfg-aedj7 ,a royal press was set up in ,paris1 in #aebf1 to promote the introduction of the new learning4 ,libraries were built up1 as in ,italy4 ,humanist scholars were made secretaries and ambassadors4 ,the ,college de ,france was established at ,paris1 by direction of the ,king1 with chairs in ,latin1 ,greek1 ,hebrew1 and mathematics4 ,to ,hebrew the ,italians had given almost no attention1 but in ,france1 and particularly in ,germany1 ,hebrew became an important study4 ,the development of schools in northern ,france was hindered by the dissensions following the religious revolts of ,luther and ,calvin1 but in southern ,france many of the cities founded municipal colleges1 much like the court schools of northern ,italy in type4 ,the work of the city of ,bordeaux in reorganizing its town school along the new lines was typical of the work of other southern cities4 ,good teachers1 liberal instruction1 and a broad-minded attitude on the part of the governing authorities #c made this school1 known as the ,collge de ,guyenne1 notable not only for humanistic instruction1 but for intelligent public education during the second half of the sixteenth century4 ,the picture of this college 7school7 left us by its greatest principal1 ,elie ,vinet 7,r4 #acf71 gives an interesting description of its work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,,coll,,ge ,,de ,,france ,founded at ,paris1 in #aecj1 by ,king ,francis ,i4 for instruction in the new humanistic learning ,,humanism ,,in ,,germany4 ,the ,french language and life was closely related to that of northern ,italy1 and ,french religious thought had always been so closely in touch with that of ,rome that something of the ,italian feeling for the old ,roman culture and institutions was felt by the humanists of ,france4 ,in ,germany and ,england no such feeling existed1 and in these countries any effort to discredit the rising native languages was much more likely to be regarded as mere pedantry4 ,in both these countries1 though1 ,latin was still the language of the ,church1 of the universities1 of all learned writing1 and the means of international intercourse1 and after the new humanism had once obtained a foothold it was welcomed by scholars as a great addition to existing knowledge4 ,erasmus1 the foremost scholar of his day1 not only labored hard to introduce the new learning in the schools1 but welcomed the restored ,roman tongue as an international language for scholarship1 as a potent weapon for destroying barriers of language1 religion1 law1 and possibly in time governments based on nationality1 and for the promise it gave of peace in international relationships4 ,in both ,germany and ,england1 in place of the patriotic fervor of the ,italians1 religious zeal1 as we shall see later on1 was kindled by the new humanistic studies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,,johann ,,reuchlin 7#adee-aebb7 ,father of modern ,hebrew ,studies ,among the universities ,vienna1 ,heidelberg1 ,erfurt1 ,tbingen1 and ,leipzig 7see ,figure #fa7 were foremost in the introduction of the new learning4 ,erfurt became the center of a group of humanistic scholars during the closing years of the fifteenth century1 and the first ,greek book printed in ,germany appeared there1 in #aeja4 ,at both ,tbingen and ,heidelberg ,reuchlin 7p4 #bed7 taught for a time1 and both institutions early became centers for the study of ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew4 ,at ,leipzig the reigning duke brought various humanistic scholars to the university to lecture1 after #aejg1 and in #aeai entirely reformed the university by subordinating the mediaeval disciplines to the new studies4 ,four new universities-- ,wittenberg 7#aejb71 ,marburg 7#aebg71 ,knigsberg 7#aedd71 and ,jena 7#aeeh7-- were established on the new humanistic basis1 and from their beginning were centers for the new learning4 ,at ,wittenberg1 ,martin ,luther had been made ,professor of ,theology1 in #aejh1 when but twenty-five years of age1 and to ,wittenberg the ,electoral ,prince1 in #aeah1 brought the young ,melanchthon1 then but twenty-one1 as ,professor of ,greek4 ,the universities of ,germany were more profoundly affected by the introduction of the new learning than were those of any other country4 ,the monastic orders and the ,scholastics1 who had for long controlled the ,german institutions1 were overthrown by the aid of the ruling princes1 and by the close of the first quarter of the sixteenth century the new humanism was everywhere triumphant in ,german lands4 ,,german ,,secondary ,,schools4 ,the enthusiasm of the humanists for the new learning led them to urge the establishment of humanistic secondary schools in the ,german cities4 ,the schools of ,the ,brethren of the ,common ,life 7,hieronymians71 a teaching order founded by ,gerhard ,grote at ,deventer1 ,holland1 in #achd1 and which had established forty-five houses by the time the new learning came into the ,netherlands from ,italy1 at once adopted the new studies1 soon trebled the number of its houses1 and for decades supplied teachers of ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew to all the surrounding countries4 #d ,wessel1 ,agricola1 ,hegius1 ,reuchlin1 and ,sturm were among their greatest teachers1 and ,erasmus their greatest pupil4 ,here and there in ,german cities ,latin schools1 teaching the subjects of the ,trivium1 but principally the elements of ,latin and grammar1 had been established in the course of the later ,middle ,ages1 and to these scholars trained in the new learning gradually made their way1 secured employment1 and thus quietly introduced a purified ,latin and the intellectual part of the new humanistic course of study4 ,up to #aebj this method was followed entirely in ,german lands4 ,as in ,italy1 the commercial cities were among the first to provide schools of the new type4 ,in #aebf the commercial city of ,nuremberg1 in southern ,germany1 opened one of the first of the new city humanistic secondary schools1 ,melanchthon being present and giving the dedicatory address4 ,a number of similar schools were founded about this time in various ,german cities--,ilfeld1 ,frankfort1 ,strassburg1 ,hamburg1 ,bremen1 ,dantzig--among the number4 ,many of these failed1 as did the one at ,nuremberg1 to meet the needs of the people in essentially commercial cities4 ,whatever might have been true in more cultured ,italy1 in ,german cities a rigidly classical training for youth and early manhood was found but poorly suited to the needs of the sons of wealthy burghers destined to a commercial career4 ,the rising commerce of the world apparently was to rest on native languages1 and not on elegant ,latin verse and prose4 ,the commercial classes soon fell back on burgher schools1 elementary vernacular schools1 writing and reckoning schools1 business experience1 and travel for the education of their sons1 leaving the ,latin schools of the humanists to those destined for the service of the ,church1 the law1 teaching1 or the higher state service4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,,johann ,,sturm 7#aejg-hi7 7,after a contemporary engraving by ,stofflin7 ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,johann ,,sturm4 ,the most successful classical school in all ,germany1 and the one which formed the pattern for future classical creations1 was the gymnasium #e at ,strassburg1 under the direction 7#aecf-hb7 of the famous ,johann ,sturm1 or ,sturmius1 as he came to call himself4 ,this was one of the early classical schools founded by the commercial cities1 but it had not been successful4 ,in #aecf the authorities invited ,sturm1 a graduate of the ,university of ,louvain1 and at that time a teacher of classics and dialectic at ,paris1 where he had come in contact with the humanism brought from ,italy1 to become head of the school and reorganize it4 ,this he did1 and during the forty-five years he was head of the school it became the most famous classical school in continental ,europe4 ,his ,plan of ,organization1 published in #aech2 his ,letters to the ,masters on the course of study1 in #aefe2 and the record of an examination of each class in the school1 conducted in #aegh1 all of which have been preserved1 give us a good idea as to the nature of the organization and instruction 7,r4 #acg74 ,sturm was a strong and masterful man1 with a genius for organization4 ,probably adopting the plan of the ,french colleges 7,r4 #acf71 he organized his school into ten classes1 #f one for each year the pupil was to spend in the school1 and placed a teacher in charge of each4 ,the aim and end of education1 as he stated it1 was piety1 knowledge1 and the art of speaking1 and every effort of teachers and pupils should bend toward acquiring knowledge1 and purity and elegance of diction4 ,of the ten years the pupil was to spend in the gymnasium1 seven were to be spent in acquiring a thorough mastery of pure idiomatic ,latin1 and the three remaining years to the acquisition of an elegant style4 ,cicero was the great model1 but ,vergil1 ,plautus1 ,terence1 ,martial1 ,sallust1 ,horace1 and other authors were read and studied4 ,except that the ,catechism was first studied in the native ,german1 ,latin was made the language of the classroom4 ,great emphasis was placed on letter-writing1 declamation1 and the acting of plays4 ,rhetoric1 too1 was made a very important subject of study4 ,greek was begun in the fifth year of school and continued throughout1 all instruction in ,greek being given through the medium of the ,latin4 #g ,the instruction in both ,latin and ,greek was much like that of the court schools of ,italy1 except that in ,greek the ,new ,testament was read in addition4 ,the plays and games and physical training of the ,italian schools1 however1 were omitted2 much less emphasis was placed on manners and gentlemanly conduct2 and in educational purpose a narrow drill was substituted for the broad cultural spirit of the ,french and ,italian schools4 ,sturm was the greatest and most successful schoolman of his day4 ,in clearly defined aim1 thorough organization1 carefully graded instruction1 good teaching1 and sound scholarship1 his school surpassed all others4 ,sturm's aim was to train pious1 learned1 and eloquent men for service in ,church and ,state1 using religion and the new learning as means1 and in this he was very successful4 ,in a short time after taking charge his gymnasium had six hundred pupils1 and in #aegh there were thousands of pupils1 representing eight nations1 in attendance4 ,sturm became widely known throughout northern ,europe1 and scholars and princes passing through ,strassburg stopped to visit his school and secure his advice4 ,he corresponded with scholars in many lands1 and the influence of his institution was enormous4 ,he was the author of many school textbooks1 and of half a dozen works on the theory and practice of education4 ,he fixed both the type and the name--gymnasium--of the ,german classical secondary school1 which to-day is not very materially changed from the form and character which ,sturm gave it4 ,sturm's work deeply influenced many later foundations in ,germany1 and also helped to mould the educational system devised later on by the ,jesuits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,,desiderius ,,erasmus 7#adfg-aecf7 ,a contemporary portrait by the ,german artist1 ,hans ,holbein the ,younger1 in the ,louvre1 ,paris ,,humanism ,,in ,,england4 ,grocyn1 ,linacre1 and ,colet had introduced the new learning at ,oxford1 as we have already seen 7p4 #bec71 in the closing years of the fifteenth century 7,r4 #acc71 but had made but little impression4 ,they were ably seconded by ,erasmus1 who taught ,greek at ,cambridge 7#aeaj- #ad71 and who labored hard to substitute true classical culture for the poor ,latin and the empty scholasticism of his time4 ,he wrote textbooks #h to help introduce the new learning1 urged the importance of history1 geography1 and science as serving to elucidate the classics1 edited editions of the classical authors1 wrote two treatises of importance on education1 #i and in two other books #aj ridiculed those who mistook the form for the spirit of the ancient learning4 ,his ,latin ,greek edition of the ,new ,testament definitely fixed the place of the ,new ,testament in the humanistic schools4 ,in spite of the opposition of monks and scholastics in the universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge1 and in the face of the coming religious turmoil in the days of ,henry ,,viii1 the new learning made steady progress in the universities1 #aa with the court1 and among the scholars and statesmen of the time4 ,with the coming of ,elizabeth to the throne1 #ab in #aeeh1 the court1 from the ,queen down1 was imbued with the spirit of the new learning 7,r4 #aci74 ,elizabeth appointed new chancellors for the two universities1 and these institutions were soon transformed from places for the training of mediaeval scholars and theologians into places for the production of a due supply of fit persons to serve ,god in ,church and ,state4 ,as ,sir ,thomas ,elyot so well expressed it1 in his ,the ,governour 7#aedd7--;a book on the education of rulers for a ,state1 and which was permeated by the new spirit--the new political order requires qualified instruments for its administration1 and a trained governing class must henceforth take the place of the privileged caste and the clerk cleric education under the mediaeval disciplines4 ,,colet ,,and ,,saint ,,paul',s ,,school4 ,the first real establishment of the new learning in ,england came through the secondary schools1 and through the refounding of the cathedral school of ,saint ,paul's1 in ,london1 by the humanist ,john ,colet1 in #aeaj4 ,colet had become ,dean of ,saint ,paul's ,church1 and ,erasmus urged him to embrace the opportunity to reconstruct the school along humanistic lines4 ,this he did1 endowing it with all his wealth1 and in a series of carefully drawn-up ,statutes 7,r4 #ach71 which were widely copied in subsequent foundations1 ,colet laid special emphasis on the school giving training in the new learning and in ,christian discipline4 ,erasmus gave much of his time for years to finding teachers and writing textbooks for the school4 ,william ,lily 7#adfh-aebb71 another early humanist recently returned from study in ,italy1 and the author of a widely known and much used textbook #ac--,lily's ,latin ,grammar 7,r4 #adj7 --was made headmaster of the school4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,,saint ,,paul',s ,,school1 ,,london ,the course of study was of the humanistic type already described1 coupled with careful religious instruction4 ,in place of the monkish ,latin pure ,latin and ,greek were to be taught1 and the best classical authors took the place of the old mediaeval disciplines4 ,the school met with much opposition1 was denounced as a temple of idolatry and heathenism by the men of the old schools1 and even the ,bishop of ,london tried twice to convict ,colet of heresy and suppress the instruction4 ,notwithstanding this the school became famous for its work1 not only in ,london but throughout ,england4 ,from its desks came a long line of capable statesmen1 learned clergy1 brilliant scholars1 and literary men4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,,giggleswick ,,grammar ,,school ,one of the chief schools of ,yorkshire1 ,england1 and dating back to #adii4 ,this building was erected in #aejg-ab by a chantry priest named ,james ,carr 7,ker74 ,drawn from an old print4 ,on the front of the building was a ,latin tablet 7shown in the drawing71 now in the ,british ,museum1 which1 translated1 read3 ,kindly mother of ,god1 defend ,james ,ker from ill4 ,for priests and young clerks this house is made1 in #aeab4 ,jesus1 have mercy on us4 ,old men and children praise the name of the ,lord4 ,,influence ,,on ,,other ,,english ,,grammar ,,schools4 ,in a preceding chapter 7p4 #aeb7 we mentioned the founding of many ,english grammar schools after #abjj4 ,at the time ,saint ,paul's ,school was refounded there were something like three hundred of these1 of all classes1 in ,england4 ,they existed in connection with the old monasteries1 cathedrals1 collegiate churches1 guilds1 and charity foundations in connection with parish churches1 while a few were due to private benevolence and had been founded independently of either ,church or ,state4 ,the ,sevenoaks ,grammar ,school1 founded by the will of ,william ,sevenoaks1 in #adcb 7,r4 #ada71 and for which he stated in his will that he desired as master an honest man1 sufficiently advanced and expert in the science of ,grammar1 ,b4,a41 by no means in holy orders1 and the chantry grammar school founded by ,john ,percyvall1 in #aejc 7,r4 #adb71 are examples of the parish type4 ,the famous ,winchester ,public ,school1 founded by ,bishop ,william of ,wykeham1 in #achb1 to emphasize grammar1 religion1 and manners1 and to prepare seventy scholars for ,new ,college1 at ,oxford1 #ad where they were to be trained as priests2 and ,eton ,college1 founded by ,henry ,,vi1 in #addj1 to prepare students for ,king's ,college1 at ,cambridge1 are examples of the larger private foundations4 ,a few1 such as the grammar school at ,sandwich 7#aegi71 owed their origin 7,r4 #adc7 to the initiative of the city authorities4 ,most of these grammar schools were small1 but a few were large and wealthy establishments4 ,these old foundations1 with their mediaeval curriculum1 after a time began to feel the influence of ,colet's school4 ,within a century1 due to one influence or another1 practically all had been remodeled after the new classical type set up by ,colet4 ,in the course of study given for ,eton 7,r4 #add71 for #aefj1 we see the new learning fully established1 and in the course of study for a small country grammar school1 in #afce 7,r4 #ade71 we see how fully the new learning1 with its emphasis on ,latin as a living language1 had by this time extended to even the smallest of the ,english grammar schools4 ,the new foundations1 after #aeaj1 were almost entirely new-learning grammar schools1 with large emphasis on grammar1 good ,latin and ,greek1 games and sports1 and the religious spirit4 ,one of the most conspicuous of these later foundations was ,merchant ,taylor's ,school1 #ae founded in ,london in #aefa1 and of which ,richard ,mulcaster 7#aeca-afaa71 the author of two important books on educational theory1 #af was for long the headmaster4 ,the first ,american ,latin grammar school 7,boston1 #afce7 was a direct descendant of these ,english influences and traditions4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #e4 ,,stratford-,,on-,,avon ,,grammar ,,school ,established by the ,holy ,cross ,guild of ,stratford-on-,avon1 at the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,the ,grammar ,school was built in #adbf1 of wood1 and at a cost of #aj1 #es41 #c-a_/b;d4 ,the school was held on the upper floor1 the lower being used as a guild-hall4 ,here ,shakespeare went to school1 and saw companies of strolling players in the hall below4 ,the lower picture shows the grammar-school room after its restoration1 in #ahib4 ,,the ,,reaction ,,against ,,mediaevalism4 ,having traced the introduction of the new learning by countries1 it still remains to point out certain significant educational features of the movement which were common in all lands1 and which profoundly modified subsequent educational practice4 ,both the purpose and the method of education were permanently changed4 ,up to about the middle of the fourth ,christian century the aim of both ,greek and ,roman education had been to prepare men to become good and useful citizens in the ,state4 ,then the ,church gained control of education1 and for a thousand years the chief object was to prepare for the world to come4 ,success and good citizenship in this world counted for little1 religious devotion took the place of the old state patriotism1 the salvation of souls took the place of the promotion of the social welfare1 and the aim and end of life here was to attain everlasting bliss in the world to come4 ,to be able to appease the dread ,judge at the ,day of ,judgment1 prayer1 penance1 and holy contemplation were the important things here below4 ,it was preminently the age of the self-abasing monk1 and this mental attitude dominated all thinking and learning4 ,the spirit behind the ,revival of ,learning was a protest against this mediaeval attitude1 and the protest was vigorous and successful4 ,the ,revival of ,learning was a clear break with mediaeval traditions and with mediaeval authority4 ,it restored to the world the ideals of earlier education--self-culture1 and preparation for usefulness and success in the world here4 ,in ,italy1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,england the movement1 too1 met with the most thorough approval from modern men--merchants1 court officials1 and scholars who were ready to break with the mediaeval type of thinking4 ,the court and other types of secondary schools now established were popular with the higher classes in society1 and this aristocratic stamp the humanistic schools and courses have ever since retained4 ,these schools restored to the world the practical education of the days of ,cicero1 and preparation for intelligent service in the ,church1 ,state1 and the larger business life became one of their important purposes4 ,supported as they were by the ruling classes1 the new schools were close to the most progressive forces in the national life of the different countries4 ,they represented an unmistakable reaction against the world of the mediaeval monk and the ,scholastic1 and their early success was in large part because of this4 ,,modification ,,of ,,the ,,mediaeval ,,curriculum4 ,the mediaeval curriculum1 as we have seen 7chap4 ,,vii71 was based on instruction in the ,seven ,liberal ,arts4 ,grammar at first was the great subject1 but later ,dialectic became the master science4 ,knowledge was regarded as an organic whole1 capable of being stated in a brief encyclopaedia1 and each man could learn it all4 ,with the rise of university instruction some new knowledge was added1 chiefly from ,moslem sources1 and the old knowledge was minutely re-ground4 ,with the revival of the ancient learning there came1 within a little more than a century1 an enormous increase in the world's sum of knowledge1 and the invention of printing came just in time to multiply and scatter this new knowledge throughout western ,europe4 ,to all the old subjects a new wealth of detail was added which made teaching encyclopaedias impossible4 ,new purposes in education now came to prevail1 and the great mediaeval teaching curriculum was changed in content and in relative importance4 ,of the subjects in the old ,trivium1 ,dialectic or ,logic1 which ,scholastics had raised to the place of first importance1 was dethroned1 and relegated to a minor position in university instruction4 ,in its place ,grammar1 as ,quintilian knew and used the term 7,r4 #gf7 and as based on and including ,literature1 was raised once more to the place of first importance4 ,out of this1 ,literature--at first the classical and later the modern--later came as a separate study1 as did also the study of ,history and ,mythology4 ,by the latter part of the sixteenth century technical ,grammar had been separated from ,literature1 and made a more elementary subject1 while ,rhetoric had developed into a critical study of literary art4 ,of the subjects of the ,quadrivium1 ,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 and ,astronomy were each greatly expanded1 as a result of the introduction of much new knowledge1 and each was reduced to textbook form1 while ,algebra and ,trigonometry were now organized as teaching subjects4 ,due to their newness and difficulty these subjects were taught chiefly in the universities4 ,there they remained for a long time before being passed down to the secondary schools4 ,out of the very elemental instruction given in ,geography and ,astronomy were in time evolved all the biological and physical sciences1 though this development belongs to a later chapter 7,,xvii71 and these new subjects did not reach the secondary schools until well into the nineteenth century4 ,the last of the quadrivial subjects1 ,music1 experienced a different history in different countries4 ,in the ,germanic countries it continued to receive its old emphasis1 while in ,england and ,france much less was made of it4 ,after the setting-in of ,puritanism in ,england1 when music was regarded with great disfavor1 it in large part passed out of the ,english curriculum4 ,as a result the ,germanic and ,scandinavian nations are to-day singing nations1 while the ,english and ,american are not4 ,in early ,america1 in particular1 was the religious reaction against music especially strong4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,modern ,,studies ,the great study of each period is in ,,capitals2 subjects in italics indicate that they also were quite important4 ,least important subjects in ordinary type4 ,,new ,,teaching ,,methods4 ,such important changes naturally called for a progressively evolving series of printed textbooks1 and these now came fast from the presses4 ,the day of one textbook1 which could dominate all instruction for hundreds of years1 was over forever4 ,a few books1 such as ,lily's or ,melanchthon's ,latin grammars and the textbooks of ,erasmus1 were still used for a long time1 but throughout the sixteenth century1 before the schools became formalized and lost their earlier purpose1 each textbook issued was soon superseded by a better one4 ,the invention of printing1 too1 changed teaching from a reading-by-the-professor to a textbook method1 and tremendously shortened the time necessary to give instruction in any subject4 ,with the manufacture of paper the written theme1 too1 displaced the disputation1 with great gains in accuracy of thinking and refinement in the use of words4 ,it was still the ,latin theme or verse or oration1 to be sure1 and the object of the new instruction was to teach ,latin as a living language1 but before long the time was to come when the same methods would be transferred to instruction in the native tongues and for national ends4 ,to make the instruction as practical as possible1 and thus prepare the pupils for service as ,latin scholars in public or scholarly pursuits1 the ancient literature was studied in part as a storehouse of adequate and elegant expression1 and numerous phrase books #ag were written for use in the schools4 ,when we remember that ,latin was still the language of all learned literature1 of the university classroom1 of most diplomatic and legal documents1 and a practical necessity for travel or communication abroad1 we can realize why so much emphasis was placed on the constant use of ,latin as the language of the school4 #ah ,as ,leach #ai so well puts it3 ,the learned professions required a competent knowledge of ,latin far more directly then than now4 ,a need for ,latin was not confined to the ,church and the priest4 ,the diplomatist1 the lawyer1 the civil servant1 the physician1 the naturalist1 the philosopher1 wrote1 read1 and to a large extent spoke and perhaps thought in ,latin4 ,nor was ,latin only the language of the higher professions4 ,a merchant1 or a bailiff of a manor1 wanted it for his accounts2 every town clerk or guild clerk wanted it for his minute book4 ,columbus had to study for his voyages in ,latin2 the general had to study tactics in it4 ,the architect1 the musician1 every one who was neither a mere soldier nor a mere handicraftsman1 wanted1 not a smattering of grammar1 but a living acquaintance with the tongue1 as a spoken as well as a written language4 ,,the ,,schools ,,become ,,formal4 ,after the new learning had obtained a firm footing in the schools there happened what has often happened in the history of new educational efforts--that is1 the new learning became narrow1 formal1 and fixed1 and lost the liberal spirit which actuated its earlier promoters4 ,in the beginning the ,italian humanists had aimed at large personal self-culture and individual development1 and the northern humanists at moral and religious reform and preparation for useful service1 both using the classics as a means to these new ends4 ,after about #aejj in ,italy1 and #afjj in the northern countries1 when the new-learning schools had become well established and thoroughly organized1 the tendency arose to make the means an end in itself4 ,instead of using the classical literatures to impart a liberal education1 give larger vision1 and prepare for useful public service1 they came to be used largely for disciplinary ends4 ,the teaching of ,campion at ,prague 7#aegd7 well illustrates this degeneracy 7,r4 #adf74 ,this change alienated practical men from the schools4 ,french now in turn became the language of the court and of diplomacy1 and the work of the schools tended to be confined largely to preparing students to enter the universities or the service of the ,church4 ,men of the world hence turned to a new type of schools which now arose 7chapter xvii71 and which made preparation for social efficiency in a modern world their aim4 ,in consequence the aim of the new humanistic education came in time to be thought of in terms of languages and literatures1 instead of in terms of usefulness as a preparation for intelligent living1 and educational effort was transferred from the larger human point of view of the early humanistic teachers to the narrower and much less important one of mastering ,greek and ,latin1 writing verses1 and cultivating a good 7,ciceronian7 ,latin style4 ,sturm's school at ,strassburg clearly shows the beginnings of such a transformation 7,r4 #acg74 ,as ,latin came to be less and less used by scholars in writing1 passed out of use as the language of government and of international communication1 was replaced by ,french as the language of polite society1 and was gradually superseded in the university lecture room by the vernaculars1 the practical motive for learning ,latin died out1 except for service in the ,church1 and the disciplinary and cultural value of the study of the classics alone remained4 ,the disciplinary1 being easier to give1 and better within the understanding of most teachers1 gradually won over the cultural4 ,as a result1 classical education gradually became narrow and formal1 and drill in composition and declamation and imitation of the style of ancient authors--particularly ,cicero1 whence the term ,ciceronianism which came to be applied to it--grew to be the ruling motives in instruction4 ,by the end of the sixteenth century this change had taken place in both the secondary schools and the universities1 and this narrow linguistic attitude continued to dominate classical education1 in ,german lands until the mid-eighteenth1 and in all other western ,european countries and in ,america until near the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,it was not until vigorously challenged by the enthusiasts for modern scientific studies that the teachers of the classics awoke to the need of improving their instruction and restoring something of the old cultural value to what they were teaching4 ,the new learning in northern and western ,europe was also much changed in character by the violent religious dissensions1 following the ,protestant ,revolt1 to a consideration of which we next turn4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,explain just what is meant by the statement that mediaeval education was narrowly technical4 #b4 ,state the educational ideals of the new secondary schools evolved by the ,italian humanistic scholars1 and show whether these ideals have been best embodied in the ,german gymnasium or the ,english grammar school4 #c4 ,how do you explain the merchants and bankers and princes of ,italy being more interested in the revival-of-learning movement than the ,church and university scholars8 ,do such classes to-day show the same type of interest in aiding learning8 #d4 ,what was the particular importance of the recovery of ,quintilian's ,institutes8 ,of ,cicero's ,orations and ,letters8 #e4 ,what better methods could the ,italian court schools have used to enable them to cover the university ,arts course in shorter time8 ,how would this have advanced the character of the instruction in ,arts in the university8 #f4 ,show how the type of education developed in the ,italian court schools was superior to that of the best of the cathedral schools4 ,to that developed by ,sturm4 #g4 ,show how the new type of secondary schools was naturally associated with court and nobility and men of large worldly affairs1 and how in consequence the new secondary education became and for long continued to be considered as aristocratic education4 #h4 ,explain how the terms college1 lyce1 gymnasium1 academy1 and grammar school all came to be employed1 in different countries1 to designate about the same type of secondary school4 #i4 ,had the purified ,latin been restored1 as the general international language of learning and government1 would it have helped materially in bringing about the civilizing influences ,erasmus saw in it8 #aj4 ,has the development of separate nationalities and different national languages aided in advancing international peace and civilization8 ,why8 #aa4 ,why should the new humanistic studies have developed religious fervor in ,germany and ,england1 in place of the patriotic fervor of the ,italian scholars8 #ab4 ,was the struggle against the introduction of the new learning into the ,german universities parallel to the late struggle against the introduction of science into ,american universities8 #ac4 ,contrast the aim of ,sturm's school with that of the ,italian court schools1 and the ,english grammar schools4 ,point out the new tendencies in his work4 #ad4 ,does the sentence quoted from ,elyot's ,governour express well the changed conditions in ,england at the middle of the sixteenth century8 ,do such changed conditions always demand educational reorganizations8 #ae4 ,what basis1 if any1 did the opponents of ,colet's school have for denouncing it as a temple of idolatry and heathenism8 #af4 ,show how it was natural that the first ,american school should have been a ,latin grammar school in type4 #ag4 ,show that the new conception as to education1 as expressed by the new humanism1 found a public ready to support it4 ,what was the nature of this public8 #ah4 ,show how the new schools were close to the most progressive forces in the national life1 and the influence of this1 particularly in ,england and ,america1 in fixing classical training as the approved type of secondary education4 #ai4 ,explain how the written theme of to-day is the successor of the mediaeval disputation4 #bj4 ,show how the methods of instruction employed in the new ,latin grammar schools have been passed over to the native-language schools4 #ba4 ,from the paragraph quoted from ,leach 7p4 #bhb71 explain why a knowledge of ,latin was for so long regarded as synonymous with being educated4 #bb4 ,show how instruction in ,latin1 by being changed from cultural to disciplinary ends1 made ,french the language of diplomacy and society1 tended to elevate all the vernacular tongues1 and marked the beginnings of the end of the importance of ,latin as a school study except for the purposes of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 #bc4 ,what was the purpose of the ,latin instruction1 as you received it8 #bd4 ,does it require a higher quality of teaching to impart the cultural aspect of a study than is required for the disciplinary8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #ace4 ,guarino3 ,on ,teaching the ,classical ,authors4 #acf4 ,vinet3 ,the ,collge de ,guyenne at ,bordeaux4 #acg4 ,sturm3 ,course of ,study at ,strassburg4 #ach4 ,colet3 ,statutes for ,st4 ,paul's ,school1 ,london4 7a7 ,religious ,observances4 7b7 ,admission of ,children4 7c7 ,the ,course of ,study4 #aci4 ,ascham3 ,on ,queen ,elizabeth's ,learning4 #adj4 ,colet3 ,introduction to ,lily's ,latin ,grammar4 #ada4 ,william ,sevenoaks3 ,foundation ,bequest for ,sevenoaks ,grammar ,school4 #adb4 ,john ,percyvall3 ,foundation ,bequest for a ,chantry ,grammar ,school4 #adc4 ,sandwich3 ,a ,city ,grammar ,school ,foundation4 #add4 ,eton3 ,course of ,study in #aefj4 #ade4 ,martindale3 ,course of ,study in an ,english ,country ,grammar ,school4 #adf4 ,simpson3 ,degeneracy of ,classical ,instruction4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,show the large scope of ,grammar1 as outlined by ,guarino 7#ace74 #b4 ,how generally was his dictum that a knowledge of ,latin and ,greek were essential for a well-educated gentleman 7#ace7 accepted8 #c4 ,compare the course of study in ,sturm's school 7#acg7 with that at ,bordeaux 7#acf71 and with that at ,eton 7#add7 a little later4 #d4 ,from ,ascham's statements 7#aci71 what do you infer as to the reception of the new learning at the ,english court8 #e4 ,show how ,colet 7#ach a7 and ,william ,sevenoaks 7#ada7 both aimed to provide for real teachers1 specialized for the service1 and not for teaching as an adjunct to priestly duties4 ,what was the significance of these provisions8 #f4 ,show that ,colet 7#ach b7 desired to train leaders1 rather than followers4 #g4 ,show that he clearly provided 7#ach c7 for a humanistic school of the reformed type4 #h4 ,characterize ,colet's ,introduction to ,lily's ,grammar 7#adj74 #i4 ,what was the educational significance of such a bequest as that of ,william ,sevenoaks 7#ada78 #aj4 ,what did the founding of a chantry grammar school 7#adb71 instead of a song school1 indicate as to the progress of education8 #aa4 ,would the action taken by the authorities of the ,city of ,sandwich 7#adc7 indicate that the humanistic grammar school had taken a deep hold on ,english thought1 or not8 ,the same with reference to the course given in a small ,english country grammar school1 as described by ,martindale 7#ade78 #ab4 ,just what does the instruction described as given by ,campion 7#adf7 indicate8 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b4 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages4 ,jebb1 ,r4 ,c4 ,humanism in ,education4 ,laurie1 ,s4 ,s4 ,development of ,educational ,opinion since the ,renaissance4 ,laurie1 ,s4 ,s4 ,the ,renaissance and the ,school1 #addj-aehj2 in ,school ,review1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #adj-dh1 #bjb-ad4 99 ,lupton1 ,j4 ,h4 ,a ,life of ,john ,colet4 ,palgrave1 ,f4 ,t4 ,the ,oxford ,movement in the ,fifteenth ,century2 in ,nineteenth ,century1 vol4 #bh1 pp4 #hab-cj4 7,nov4 #ahij47 ,seebohm1 ,f4 ,the ,oxford ,reformers of #adih2 ,colet1 ,erasmus1 ,more4 99 ,stowe1 ,a4 ,m4 ,english ,grammar ,schools in the ,reign of ,queen ,elizabeth4 99 ,thurber1 ,c4 ,h4 ,vittorino da ,feltre2 in ,school ,review1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #bie-cjj4 ,watson1 ,foster4 ,english ,grammar ,schools to #affj4 99 ,woodward1 ,w4 ,h4 ,vittorino da ,feltre1 and other ,humanistic ,educators4 99 ,woodward1 ,w4 ,h4 ,education during the ,renaissance4 ,woodward1 ,w4 ,h4 ,desiderius ,erasmus1 ,concerning the ,method and ,aim of ,education4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,revolt ,,against ,,authority ,,the ,,new ,,questioning ,,attitude4 ,the student can hardly have followed the history of educational development thus far without realizing that a serious questioning of the practices and of the dogmatic and repressive attitude of the omnipresent mediaeval ,church was certain to come1 sooner or later1 unless the ,church itself realized that the mediaeval conditions which once demanded such an attitude were rapidly passing away1 and that the new life in ,christendom now called for a progressive stand in religious matters as in other affairs4 ,the new life resulting from the ,crusades1 the rise of commerce and industry1 the organization of city governments1 the rise of lawyer and merchant classes1 the formation of new national ,states1 the rise of a new ,estate of tradesmen and workers1 the new knowledge1 the evolution of the university organizations1 and the discovery of the art of printing--all these forces had united to develop a new attitude toward the old problems and to prepare western ,europe for a rapid evolution out of the mediaeval conditions which had for so long dominated all action and thinking4 ,this the ,church should have realized1 and it should have assumed toward the progressive tendencies of the time the same intelligent attitude assumed earlier toward the rise of scholastic inquiry4 ,but it did not1 and by the fifteenth century the situation had been further aggravated by a marked decline in morality on the part of both monks and clergy1 which awakened deep and general criticism in all lands1 but particularly among the northern peoples4 ,the ,revival of ,learning was the first clear break with mediaevalism4 ,in the critical and constructive attitude developed by the scholars of the movement1 their renunciation of the old forms of thinking1 the new craving for truth for its own sake which they everywhere awakened1 and their continual appeal to the original sources of knowledge for guidance1 we have the definite beginnings of a modern scientific spirit which was destined ultimately to question all things1 and in time to usher in modern conceptions and modern ways of thinking4 ,the authority of the mediaeval ,church would be questioned1 and out of this questioning would come in time a religious freedom and a religious tolerance unknown in the mediaeval world4 ,the great world of scientific truth would be inquired into and the facts of modern science established1 regardless of what preconceived ideas1 popular or religious1 might be upset thereby4 ,the divine right of kings to rule1 and to dispose of the fortunes and happiness of their peoples as they saw fit1 was also destined to be questioned1 and another new ,estate would in time arise and substitute1 instead1 in all progressive lands1 the divine right of the common people4 ,religious freedom and toleration1 scientific inquiry and scholarship1 and the ultimate rise of democracy were all involved in the critical1 questioning1 and constructive attitude of the humanistic scholars of the ,renaissance4 ,these came historically in the order just stated1 and in this order we shall consider them4 ,,humanism ,,became ,a ,,religious ,,reform ,,movement ,,in ,,the ,,north4 ,in ,italy the ,revival of ,learning was classical and scientific in its methods and results1 and awakened little or no tendency toward religious and moral reform4 ,instead it resulted in something of a paganization of religion1 with the result that the ,papacy and the ,italian ,church probably reached their lowest religious levels at about the time the great religious agitation took place in northern lands4 ,in the latter1 on the contrary1 the introduction of humanism awakened a new religious zeal1 and religious reform and classical learning there came to be associated almost as one movement4 ,in ,england1 ,germany1 the ,low ,countries1 and in large parts of northern ,france1 the new learning was at once directed to religious and moral ends4 ,the patriotic emotions roused in the ,italians by the humanistic movement were in the northern countries superseded by religious and moral emotions1 and the constant appeal to sources turned the northern leaders almost at once back to the ,church ,fathers and the original ,greek and ,hebrew ,testaments for authority in religious matters4 ,colet1 from ,england1 who had spent the years #adic-if in ,florence 7p4 #bed71 during the period when ,savonarola 7#adeb-ih7 was preaching moral reform there1 returned home1 not only a humanist1 but a religious reformer as well1 and began to lecture at ,oxford on the ,epistles of ,saint ,paul in the ,greek4 ,linacre1 ,grocyn1 ,colet1 ,erasmus1 and ,sir ,thomas ,more 7author of ,utopia71 among others1 formed a little group of humanists all of whom were also deeply interested in a reform of the practices of the ,church4 ,erasmus1 in particular1 labored hard by his writings to remove religious abuses4 ,his ,colloquies 7#aeai71 a widely used ,latin reading book1 was banned from the classrooms of the ,university of ,paris 7#aebh71 and forbidden to be used in ,catholic lands by the ,church ,council of ,trent 7#aefd71 because of the way in which it held up to ridicule the abuses in the ,church1 the superstitions of the age1 and the immoralities in the lives of the monks and clergy4 ,his work as ,professor of ,divinity at ,cambridge1 his numerous editions of the writings of the ,church ,fathers1 and his ,latin-,greek edition 7#aeaf71 of the ,new ,testament #a all alike tended to turn theological scholars back to the original sources instead of to the scholastics for the foundations of their religious faith4 ,in ,germany such men as ,hegius 7p1 #bga71 ,reuchlin 7p4 #bed71 and ,melanchthon 7p4 #bgj7 began1 by similar methods1 to go back to ,greek and ,hebrew sources and to the ,church ,fathers for new interpretations as to religious doctrines4 ,in so doing they discovered that many practices and demands of the ,church1 all of which had grown up during the long mediaeval period1 were not in harmony with the earlier teachings of ,christ1 the ,apostles1 or the early ,fathers4 ,in ,france1 ,jacques ,lefvre 7c4 #adee-aecf71 a humanist and a pioneer ,protestant1 contended for the rule of the ,scriptures and for justification by faith1 and translated the ,bible into the ,french 7,new ,testament1 #aebc2 complete1 #aecj7 that the people might read it4 ,,evolution ,,or ,,revolution4 ,the reaction against the mediaeval dogmas of the ,church and the demand by the humanists of the ,north for a return to the simpler religion of ,christ gradually grew1 and in time became more and more insistent4 ,this demand was not something which broke out all at once and with ,luther1 as many seem to think4 ,had this been so he would soon have been suppressed1 and little more would have been heard of him4 ,instead1 the literature of the time clearly reveals that there had been1 for two centuries1 an increasing criticism of the ,church1 and a number of local and unsuccessful efforts at reform had been attempted4 ,the demand for reform was general1 and of long standing1 outside of ,italy and southern ,france4 ,had it been heeded probably much subsequent history might have been different4 ,a few of the more important attempts at reform may be mentioned here1 as a background for our study4 ,the first organized revolt against the ,church occurred in southern ,france1 in the early thirteenth century1 and the revolters 7,albigenses7 were so fearfully punished by fire and sword that it was not attempted there again4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,,john ,,wycliffe 7#acbj8-hd7 ,a popular ,english preacher 7,drawn from an old print7 ,in #acgh there was a disputed papal election1 and for nearly forty years there were two ,popes1 one at ,rome1 and one at ,avignon in southern ,france1 each attempting to control the ,church and each denouncing the other as ,antichrist4 ,the discussions which accompanied this ,great ,schism did much to weaken the authority of the ,church in all ,christian lands4 ,in ,england a popular preacher and ,oxford divinity graduate by the name of ,john ,wycliffe was led1 by the sad condition of the ,church there1 to a careful study of the ,bible4 ,he came to the conclusion that many of the claims of the ,popes and many practices of the ,church were wrong 7,r4 #adg7 and he refused to accept teachings of the ,church for which he could not find sanction in the ,bible4 ,his revolt was as direct and vigorous as that of ,luther1 in ,german lands1 a century and a half later 7,r4 #adh74 ,so great was his zeal for reform that he and his scholars attempted a translation of the ,bible #b into ,english 7see ,figure #ic71 that the people might read it1 and he and his followers 7called ,lollards7 went about the country teaching what they believed to be the true ,christianity4 ,what had before in ,england been a widespread but undefined feeling of disaffection for the rich and careless clergy and monks1 the work of ,wycliffe organized into a political and social force4 ,due to the then close connection of the ,english and ,bohemian courts1 through royal marriages1 ,wycliffe's teachings were carried to ,bohemia1 where a popular preacher and university theologian by the name of ,john ,huss 7#acgc-adae7 expounded them4 ,he denounced the evil conduct of the clergy1 and he and his followers tried to introduce several new customs into the ,church4 ,for this ,huss was first excommunicated1 and then burned at the stake as a dangerous heretic4 #c ,after a series of terrible massacres his followers were forced1 in large part1 to accept once more the old system4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,,religious ,,warfare ,,in ,,bohemia ,sacking a village in true ,german style 7,from a picture in the ,germanic ,museum at ,nuremberg7 ,in #adad a ,council of the ,church was called at ,constance1 in ,switzerland1 to heal the papal schism1 and this ,council made a serious attempt at church reform4 ,after reuniting the ,church under one ,pope1 it drew up a list of abuses which it ordered remedied 7,r4 #adi74 ,it also attempted to establish a democratic form of organization for the government of the ,church1 with ,church ,councils meeting from time to time to advise with the ,pope and formulate church policy1 much like the government of a modern parliament and king4 ,had this succeeded1 much future history might have been different #d and the civilization of the world to-day much advanced4 ,but the attempt failed1 and the absolutism of the reunited ,papacy became stronger than ever before4 ,protests of princes1 actions of legislative assemblies1 #e protests sometimes of bishops1 #f the failing allegiance of men of affairs1 the increasing condemnation and ridicule from laymen and scholars--all signs of a strong undercurrent of public opinion--seemed to have no effect on those responsible for the policy of the ,church4 ,that the different rebellions and refusals of reform helped directly to the ultimate break of ,luther is not probable1 as ,luther seems to have worked out his position by himself4 ,each of these earlier defiances of authority and the later defiance of ,luther were alike1 though1 in two respects4 ,each demanded a return to the usages and beliefs and practices of the earlier ,christian ,church1 as derived from a study of the ,bible and of the writings of the early ,christian ,fathers2 and each insisted that ,christians should be permitted to study the ,bible for themselves1 and reach their own conclusions as to ,christian duty4 ,in this demand to be allowed to go back to the original sources for authority1 and the assertion of the right to personal investigation and conclusions1 we see the new intellectual standards established by the ,revival of ,learning in full force4 ,after #aejj the rising demands for moral reform and the recognition of individual judgment could not be put aside much longer4 ,unless there could be evolution there would be revolution4 ,evolution was refused1 #g and revolution was the result4 ,,discontent ,,in ,,german ,,lands4 ,it happened that the first revolt to be successful in a large way broke out in ,germany1 and about the person of an ,augustinian monk and ,professor of ,theology in the ,university of ,wittenberg by the name of ,martin ,luther 7#adhc-aedf74 ,had it not centered about ,luther the revolt would have come about some one else2 had it not come in ,germany it would have come in some other land4 ,it was the modern scientific spirit of inquiry and reason in conflict with the mediaeval spirit of dogmatic authority1 and two such forces are sooner or later destined to clash4 ,whether we be ,catholic or ,protestant1 and whether we approve or disapprove of what ,luther did or of his methods1 makes little difference in this study4 ,over a question involving so much religious partisanship we do not need to take sides4 ,all that we need concern ourselves with is that a certain ,martin ,luther lived1 did certain things1 made certain stands for what he believed to be right1 and what he did1 whether right or wrong1 whether beneficial to progress and civilization or not1 stands as a great historical fact with which the student of the history of education must take account4 ,that the same or even better results might have been arrived at in time by other methods may be true1 but what we are concerned with is the course which history actually took4 #h ,there were special reasons why the trouble1 when once it broke1 made such rapid entry in ,german lands4 ,the ,germans had a long-standing grudge against the ,italian papal court1 chiefly because it had for long been draining ,germany of money to support the ,italian ,church4 ,germany's greatest minnesinger1 ,walther von der ,vogelweide 7#aagj-abbh71 three centuries before ,luther had sung to the ,german people how the ,pope made merry over the stupid ,germans4 ,all their goods will be mine1 ,their silver is flowing into my far-away chest2 ,their priests are living on poultry and wine1 ,and leaving the silly layman to fast4 ,many positions in the ,german ,church had been filled by the ,pope with ,italians1 who not infrequently drew the perquisites1 but did not reside in ,germany4 ,the princely and feudal ,archbishops of ,mayence1 ,treves1 ,cologne1 and ,salzburg1 with their fortified castles and lands and troops and large governmental powers1 frequently proved to be serious sources of irritation4 ,the most widespread discontent1 though1 arose over the heavy church taxation1 which drained the money of the people to ,italy4 ,the whole ,german people1 from the princes down to the peasants1 felt themselves unjustly treated1 that the ,german money which flowed to ,rome should be kept at home1 and that the immoral and inefficient clergy should be replaced by upright1 earnest men who would attend better to their religious duties 7,r4 #aej74 ,it was these conditions which prepared the ,germans for revolt1 and enabled ,luther to rally so many of the princes and people to his side when once he had defied authority4 ,,the ,,german ,,revolt4 ,the crisis came over the sale of indulgences for sins by the papal agent1 ,tetzel1 who began the practice in the neighborhood of ,wittenberg1 where ,luther was a ,professor of ,theology1 in #aeaf4 ,there is little doubt but that ,tetzel1 in his zeal to raise money for the rebuilding of the church of ,saint ,peter's at ,rome1 a great undertaking then under way1 exceeded his instructions and made claims as to the nature and efficacy of indulgences which were not warranted by church doctrines4 ,such would be only human4 ,the sale1 however1 irritated ,luther1 and he appealed to the ,archbishop of ,magdeburg to prohibit it4 ,failing to obtain any satisfaction1 he followed the old university custom1 made out ninety- five theses1 or reasons1 why he did not believe the practice justifiable1 detailed the abuses1 set forth what he conceived to be the true ,christian doctrine in the matter1 and challenged all comers to a debate on the theses 7,r4 #aea74 ,following true university custom1 also1 these theses were made out in ,latin1 and in ,october1 #aeag1 ,luther followed still another university custom and nailed them to the church door in ,wittenberg4 ,luther was probably as much surprised as any one to find that these were at once translated into ,german1 printed1 and in two weeks had been scattered all over ,germany4 ,within a month they were known in all the important centers of the ,western ,christian world4 ,they had been carried everywhere on the currents of discontent4 ,luther at first intended no revolt from the ,church1 but only a protest against its practices4 ,from one step to another1 though1 he was gradually led into open rebellion1 and finally1 in #aebj1 was excommunicated from the ,church4 ,he then expressed his defiance by publicly burning the bull of excommunication1 together with a volume of the canon law4 ,this was open rebellion1 and such heresy 7,r4 #aeb7 must needs be stamped out4 ,luther took his stand on the authority of the ,scriptures1 and the battle was now joined between the forces representing the authority of the ,church versus the authority of the ,bible1 and salvation through the ,church versus salvation through personal faith and works4 #i ,luther also forced the issue for freedom of thought in religious matters4 ,it was1 to be sure1 some three centuries before freedom in religious thinking and worship became clearly recognized1 but what the early university masters and scholars had stood for in intellectual matters1 ,luther now asserted in religious affairs as well4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,,showing ,,the ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,revolts ,we do not need to follow the details of the conflict4 ,suffice it to know that great portions of northern and western ,germany followed ,luther1 as is shown in ,figure #hh1 and that the ,western ,church1 which had remained one for so many centuries and been the one great unifying force in western ,europe1 was permanently split by the ,protestant ,revolt4 ,the large success of ,luther is easily explained by the new life which now permeated western ,europe4 ,the world was rapidly becoming modern1 while the ,church1 with a perversity almost unexplainable1 insisted upon remaining mediaeval and tried to force others to remain mediaeval with it4 ,adams expresses the situation well when he says3 #aj ,a revolution had been wrought in the intellectual world in the century between ,huss and ,luther4 ,at the death of ,huss the world had only just begun the study of ,greek4 ,since that date1 the great body of classical literature had been recovered1 and the sciences of philology and historical criticism thoroughly established4 ,as a result ,luther had at his command a well-developed method 444 impossible to any earlier reformer4444 ,the world also had become familiar with independent investigation1 and with the proclamation of new views and the upsetting of old ones4 ,by no means the least of the great services of ,erasmus to civilization had been to hold up before all the world so conspicuous an example of the scholar following1 as his inalienable right1 the truth as he found it and wherever it appeared to lead him1 and honest in his public utterances as to the results of his studies4444 ,his was the crowning work of a century which had produced in the general public a greatly changed attitude of mind toward intellectual independence since the days of ,huss4 ,the printing press was of itself almost enough to account for ,luther's success as compared with his predecessors4 ,wycliffe made almost as direct and vigorous an appeal to the public at large1 and with an amazing industry he issued tract after tract in the tongue of the people1 but ,luther had the advantage in the rapid multiplication of copies and in their cheapness1 and he covered ,europe with the issues of his press4444 ,luther spoke to a very different public from that which ,wycliffe or ,huss had addressed1--a public ,european in extent1 and one not merely familiar with the assertion of new ideas1 but tolerant1 in a certain way1 of the innovator1 and expectant of great things in the future4 ,a revolution it undoubtedly was1 but a revolution in thinking much more than a political revolution4 ,it was but a further manifestation of the inquiring and questioning tendency awakened by the ,revival of ,learning4 ,it might in a sense be dated from ,wycliffe and ,huss1 as well as from ,erasmus and ,luther4 ,luther did not create the ,reformation4 ,he rather popularized the work of preceding protesters1 giving the impress of his powerful personality to the movement1 and directing and moulding its form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,,huldreich ,,zwingli 7#adhg-aeca7 ,,revolts ,,in ,,other ,,lands4 ,the outbreak in ,germany soon spread to other lands4 ,lutheranism made rapid headway in ,denmark1 where the ,german grievances against ,italian rule were equally familiar1 and in #aecg the ,danish ,diet severed all connection with ,rome and established ,lutheranism as the religion of the country4 ,norway1 being then a part of ,denmark1 was carried for ,lutheranism also4 ,in ,sweden the ,church was shorn of some of its powers and property in #aebg1 and in #aeib ,lutheranism was definitely adopted as the religion for the nation4 ,this included ,finland1 then a part of ,sweden4 ,an independent reform movement1 closely akin to ,lutheranism in its aims1 made considerable headway in ,german ,switzerland contemporaneously with the reform work of ,luther in ,germany4 ,this was under the leadership of a popular humanist preacher in ,zurich by the name of ,huldreich ,zwingli4 ,in #aeai he began a series of sermons on real religion1 as he had learned it from a study of the ,new ,testament writings4 ,zwingli1 being supported by the people1 made many changes in church practices and worship1 eventually even abolishing the mass4 ,many other towns took up this reform movement1 and civil war was the result4 ,zwingli was killed in battle between ,swiss partisans of the old regime and reformers1 in #aeca1 but his work though checked persisted1 and ,german ,switzerland became mixed ,catholic and ,protestant4 #aa ,in ,england the struggle came nominally over the divorce 7#aecc7 of ,henry ,,viii from ,catherine of ,aragon1 though the independence of the ,english ,church had been asserted from time to time for two centuries1 and a free ,national ,church had for long been a growing ideal with ,english statesmen4 ,in #aecd ,parliament passed the ,act of ,supremacy 7,r4 #aec7 which severed ,england from ,rome4 ,by it the ,king was made head of the ,english ,national ,church4 ,the change was in no sense a profound one1 such as had taken place in ,lutheran ,germany4 ,the priests who took the new oath of allegiance to the ,king instead of the ,pope as the head of the ,church1 as most of them did1 continued in the churches1 the service was changed to ,english1 some reforms were instituted1 but the people did not experience any great change in religious feeling or ideas4 ,this new ,national ,church became known as the ,english or ,anglican ,church4 ,so far as the early history of ,america is concerned1 the most important reform movement was neither ,lutheranism nor ,anglicanism1 but ,calvinism4 ,in #aecg ,john ,calvin1 a ,french ,protestant who had fled to ,switzerland1 #ab was invited to submit a plan for the educational and religious reorganization of the city of ,geneva1 and in #aeda he was entrusted with the task of organizing there a little religious ,city-,republic4 ,for this he established a combined church and city government1 in which religious affairs and the civil government were as closely connected as they had ever been in any ,catholic country4 ,during the twenty-three years that ,calvin dominated ,geneva it became the ,rome of ,protestantism4 ,calvin's ,the ,institutes of ,christianity1 published in ,latin in #aecf1 and in ,french in #aeda1 was the first orderly presentation of the principles of ,christian faith from the ,protestant standpoint1 #ac while his ,french ,catechism 7#aecg7 was extensively used #ad in ,calvinistic lands as a basis for elementary religious instruction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,,john ,,calvin 7#aeji-aefd7 7,drawn from a contemporary painting7 ,from ,geneva a reformed ,calvinistic religion spread over northern ,france1 #ae where its followers became known as ,huguenots2 to ,scotland 7#aefj71 where they were known as ,scotch ,presbyterians2 to the ,netherlands 7#aegb71 where originated the ,dutch ,reformed ,church2 and to portions of central ,england1 where those who embraced it became known as ,puritans4 ,through the ,puritans who settled ,new ,england1 and later through the ,huguenots in the ,carolinas1 the ,scotch ,presbyterians in the central colonies1 and the ,dutch in ,new ,york1 ,calvinism was carried to ,america1 was for long the dominant religious belief1 and profoundly colored all early ,american education4 ,lutheranism also came in through the ,swedes along the ,delaware and the ,germans in ,pennsylvania1 while the ,anglican ,church1 known in ,america as the ,episcopalian1 came in through the landed aristocracy in ,virginia and the later settlers in ,new ,york4 ,the early settlement of ,america was thus a ,protestant settlement1 while the migration to ,america of large numbers of peoples from ,catholic lands is a relatively recent movement4 ,,religious ,,freedom ,,and ,,religious ,,warfare4 ,of course the revolt against the authority of the ,church1 once inaugurated1 could not be stopped4 ,the same right to freedom in religious belief which ,luther claimed for himself and his followers had of course to be extended to others4 ,this the ,protestants were not much more willing to grant than had been the ,catholics before them4 ,the world was not as yet ready for such rapid advances1 and religious toleration1 #af though established in principle by the revolt1 was an idea to which the world has required a long time to become accustomed4 ,it took two centuries of intermittent religious warfare1 during which ,catholic and ,protestant waged war on one another1 plundered and pillaged lands1 and murdered one another for the salvation of their respective souls1 before the people of western ,europe were willing to stop fighting and begin to recognize for others that which they were fighting for for themselves4 ,when religious tolerance finally became established by law1 civilization had made a tremendous advance4 ,the religious wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were waged with greatest intensity in ,spain1 ,france1 and the ,german ,states1 though no land wholly escaped4 ,the result of this religious strife was to check the progress of the higher civilization of the people for nearly three centuries1 and to delay greatly the coming of the great blessing of freedom in matters of religious belief1 while the poverty and misery resulting from the devastation of these religious wars left neither the energy for nor the interest in educational or political progress4 ,the struggle to suppress ,lutheranism in ,germany was postponed for twenty- five years--due to outside pressure1 chiefly that of the ,turks in southeastern ,europe--from the time that the ,diet of ,worms decided against ,luther 7#aeba74 ,finally1 in #aedf1 the ,german-,spanish ,emperor ,charles ,v felt at last free to proceed against the ,lutheran heresy1 and from the breaking-out in that year of the struggle between ,charles and the ,german princes who sided with ,luther1 to the ,peace of ,westphalia1 in #afdh1 represents a century of almost continual religious warfare in the ,german ,states4 ,the worst of the period was the last thirty years1 when religious ferocity and hatred reached its climax in the period known as the ,thirty ,years' ,war 7#afah-dh74 ,though fought on ,german soil1 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,sweden were deeply involved in the struggle4 ,it left ,germany a ruin4 ,from the most prosperous ,state in ,europe1 in #aeej1 ,germany was so reduced that it was not until the second third of the nineteenth century that central and southern ,germany had fully recovered4 ,more than half the population and two thirds of the movable property were swept away4 ,the people were so reduced by starvation that cannibalism was openly practiced4 ,but one tenth of the inhabitants of the ,duchy of ,wrtemberg were left alive4 ,land tilled for centuries became a wilderness1 thousands of towns were destroyed1 whole trades were swept away1 and the generation which survived the war came to manhood without knowing education1 religion1 law and order1 or organized industry4 ,not until the end of the eighteenth century was ,germany again able to make any significant contribution to education or civilization1 and not until the middle of the nineteenth century did parts of ,germany come to have as many people or cattle as before this devastating religious war broke out4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,a ,,french ,,protestant 7c4 #afjj7 ,a restoration1 ,muse d',artillerie1 ,paris ,from #aefj to #afbi in ,france1 also1 a period of carnage and devastation prevailed1 due to an attempt to exterminate the ,calvinistic ,huguenots4 ,in the massacre of ,saint ,bartholomew's eve1 in #aegb1 ten thousand ,protestants are said to have perished in ,paris alone1 and forty-five thousand additional outside the city4 ,though the ,edict of ,nantes 7#aeih7 had granted religious toleration1 this never was fully accomplished1 and in #afhe the ,edict was revoked4 ,the ,huguenots were now given fifteen days to become ,catholics or leave ,france4 ,the demands were enforced with great severity1 and the sect1 which embraced one tenth of the population of ,france1 was stamped out and ,france became once more a ,catholic country4 ,in a short time four hundred thousand thrifty and highly intelligent ,huguenots had left ,france for other lands4 ,in ,southern ,german lands1 ,holland1 ,england1 and ,america many found a new home4 ,,changed ,,attitude ,,toward ,,the ,,old ,,problems4 ,the ,peace of ,westphalia 7#afdh71 which ended the bloody ,thirty ,years' ,war1 itself the culmination of a century of bitter and vindictive religious strife1 has often been regarded as both an end and a beginning4 ,though the persecution of minorities for a time continued1 especially in ,france1 this treaty marked the end of the attempt of the ,church and the ,catholic ,states to stamp out ,protestantism on the continent of ,europe4 ,the religious independence of the ,protestant ,states was now acknowledged1 and the beginnings of religious freedom were established by treaty4 ,this new freedom of conscience1 once definitely begun for the ruling princes1 was certain in time to be extended further4 ,ultimately the day must come1 though it might be centuries away1 when individual as well as national freedom in religious matters must be granted as a right1 and one of the greatest blessings of mankind finally be firmly established by law4 #ag ,the end of the period of bitter religious warfare1 too1 was followed by a reaction against religious intolerance which contained within itself the germs of much future liberty and human progress4 ,paulsen has well expressed the change1 in the following words3 #ah ,the long and terrible wars to which the ecclesiastical schism had everywhere given rise--the wars of the ,huguenots in ,france1 the ,thirty ,years ,war1 and the ,civil ,war in ,england--had1 in the end1 created a feeling of indifference toward religious and theological problems4 ,did it really pay1 people asked themselves1 to kill each other and devastate each other's countries for the sake of such questions8 ,could these problems ever be decided at all8 ,if not1 was it not much more reasonable to let everyone believe what he could1 and1 instead of wasting breath and arguments1 convincing to nobody1 on transubstantiation1 predestination1 and real presence1 to cultivate sciences which really placed lasting and verifiable truths within the reach of the understanding1 such as mathematics and natural philosophy1 geography and astronomy8 ,here were sciences which offered knowledge to the mind that could be turned to account in this earthly life1 whereas those transcendental speculations were of no use at all4444 ,toward the end of the seventeenth century this spirit of indifference and scepticism toward theology1 and sometimes even toward religion in general and the future world1 formed a most important factor in the changing intellectual attitude of the times4 #ai ,physically exhausted1 and recognizing at last the futility of fire and sword as means for stamping out opposing religious convictions1 but still thoroughly convinced as to the correctness of their respective points of view1 both sides now settled down to another century and more of religious hatred1 suspicion1 and intolerance1 and to a close supervision of both preaching and teaching as safeguards to orthodoxy4 ,during the century following the ,peace of ,westphalia greater reliance than ever before was placed on the school as a means for protecting the faith1 and the pulpit and the school now took the place of the sword and the torch as converting and holding agents4 ,,religious ,,reform4 ,the effect of the ,protestant ,revolts on the ,church was good4 ,for the first time in history ,catholic churchmen learned that they could not rely on the general acceptance of any teachings they promulgated1 or any practices they saw fit to approve4 ,the spirit of inquiry which had been aroused by the methods of the humanists would in the future force them to explain and to defend4 ,if they were to make headway against this great rebellion they must reform abuses1 purify church practices1 and see that monks and clergy led upright ,christian lives4 ,unless the mass of the people could be made loyal to the ,church by reverence for it1 further revolts and the ultimate break-up of the institution were in prospect4 ,the ,council of ,trent 7#aede-fc7 at last undertook the reform which should have come at least a century before4 ,better men were selected for the church offices1 and bishops and clergy were ordered to reside in their proper places and to preach regularly4 ,new religious orders arose1 whose purpose was to prepare priests better for the service of the ,church and for ministry to the needs of the people4 ,irritating practices were abandoned4 ,the laws and doctrines of the ,church were restated1 in new and better form4 ,moral reforms were instituted4 ,in most particulars the reforms forced by the work of ,luther were thorough and complete1 and since the middle of the sixteenth century the ,catholic ,church1 in morals and government1 has been a reformed ,church4 ,above all1 attention was turned to education rather than force as a means of winning and holding territory4 ,a rigid quarantine was1 however1 established in ,catholic lands against the further spread of heretical text books and literature4 ,especially was the reading of the ,bible1 which had been the cause of all the trouble1 for a time rigidly prohibited4 #bj ,such1 in brief1 are the historical facts connected with the various revolts against authority which split the ,roman ,catholic ,church in the sixteenth century4 ,these have been stated1 as briefly and as impartially as possible1 because so much of future educational history arose out of the conditions resulting from these revolts4 ,the early educational history of ,america is hardly understandable without some knowledge of the religious forces awakened by the work of the ,protestants4 ,to the educational significance and consequences of these revolts we next turn4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,how do you explain the difference in the effect1 on the scholars of the time1 of the ,revival of ,learning in ,italy and in northern lands8 #b4 ,how do you explain the serious church opposition to the different attempts of northern scholars to try to turn the ,church back to the simpler religious ideals and practices of early ,christianity8 #c4 ,explain how opposition to the practices of the ,church could be organized into a political force4 #d4 ,explain the analogy of a heretic in the fifteenth century and an anarchist of to-day4 #e4 ,assuming that the ,church had encouraged progressive evolution as a policy1 and thus warded off revolution and disruption1 in what ways might history have been different8 #f4 ,how can the bitter opposition to the reading and study of the ,bible be explained8 #g4 ,show the analogy between the freedom of thinking demanded by ,luther1 and that obtained three centuries earlier by the scholars in the rising universities4 ,why were the universities not opposed8 #h4 ,enumerate the changes which had taken place in western ,europe between the days of ,wycliffe and ,huss and the time of ,luther1 which enabled him to succeed where they had failed4 #i4 ,explain in what ways the ,protestant ,revolt was essentially a revolution in thinking1 and that1 once started1 certain other consequences must inevitably follow in time4 #aj4 ,was it perfectly natural that the reformers should refuse to their followers the same right to revolt1 and separate off into smaller and still different sects1 which they had contended for for themselves8 ,why8 #aa4 ,on what basis could ,catholic and ,protestant wage war on one another to try to enforce their own particular belief8 #ab4 ,compare the individualism of the ,greek ,sophists with that of the ,protestant reformers4 ,did ,greece attempt to deal with them in the same way8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #adg4 ,wycliffe3 ,on the ,enemies of ,christ4 #adh4 ,wycliffites3 ,attack the ,pope and the ,practice of ,indulgences4 #adi4 ,council of ,constance3 ,list of ,church ,abuses demanding ,reform4 #aej4 ,geiler3 ,a ,german ,priest's ,view as to ,coming ,reform4 #aea4 ,luther3 ,illustrations from his ,ninety-,five ,theses4 #aeb4 ,saint ,thomas ,aquinas3 ,on the ,treatment of ,heresy4 #aec4 ,henry ,,viii3 ,the ,english ,act of ,supremacy4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,was ,wycliffe's attack 7#adg7 as direct and fierce as ,luther's 7#aea78 #b4 ,explain the difference in the results attained by the two attacks8 #c4 ,was the challenge of ,wycliffe's followers on indulgences 7#adh7 any less direct than that of ,luther 7#aea78 #d4 ,does the list of items drawn up by the ,church ,council of ,constance 7#adi7 indicate a general recognition of the need for extensive ,church reform8 #e4 ,try to state the possible change in the progress of human history and civilization1 had the demands of the ,council of ,constance 7#adi7 been carried out in good faith4 #f4 ,considering the nature of heresy at the time1 does the extract from ,thomas ,aquinas 7#aeb7 indicate a narrow or a liberal attitude8 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b4 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages4 ,beard1 ,charles4 ,martin ,luther and the ,reformation4 ,beard1 ,charles4 ,the ,reformation of the ,sixteenth ,century in its ,relation to ,modern ,thought and ,knowledge4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhc47 ,fisher1 ,george ,p4 ,history of the ,reformation4 ,gasquet1 ,f4 ,a4 ,eve of the ,reformation4 ,johnson1 ,a4 ,h4 ,europe in the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,perry1 ,george ,g4 ,history of the ,reformation in ,england4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,educational ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,revolts ,i4 ,,among ,,lutherans ,,and ,,anglicans ,,ultimate ,,consequences ,,of ,,the ,,break ,,with ,,authority4 ,that the ,protestant ,revolts in the different lands produced large immediate and permanent changes in the character of the education provided in the revolting ,states is no longer accepted as being the case4 ,in every phase of educational history growth has proceeded by evolution rather than by revolution1 and this applies to the ,protestant ,revolts as well as to other revolutions4 ,many changes naturally resulted at once1 some of which were good and some of which were not1 while others which were enthusiastically attempted failed of results because they involved too great advances for the time4 ,much1 too1 of the progress that was inaugurated was lost in the more than a century of religious strife which followed1 and the additional century and more of suspicion1 hatred1 religious formalism1 and strict religious conformity which followed the period of religious strife4 ,the educational significance of the reformation movement1 though1 lies in the far-reaching nature of its larger results and ultimate consequences rather than in its immediate accomplishments1 and because of this the importance of the immediate changes effected have been overestimated by ,protestants and underestimated by ,catholics4 ,the dominant idea underlying ,luther's break with authority1 and for that matter the revolts of ,wycliffe1 ,huss1 ,zwingli1 and ,calvin as well1 was that of substituting the authority of the ,bible in religious matters for the authority of the ,church2 of substituting individual judgment in the interpretation of the ,scriptures and in formulating decisions as to ,christian duty for the collective judgment of the ,church2 and of substituting individual responsibility for salvation1 in ,luther's conception of justification through personal faith and prayer1 for the collective responsibility for salvation of the ,church4 #a ,whether one believes that the ,protestant position was sound or not depends almost entirely upon one's religious training and beliefs1 and need not concern us here1 as it makes no difference with the course of history4 ,we can believe either way1 and the course that history took remains the same4 ,the educational consequences of the position taken by the ,protestants1 though1 are important4 ,under the older theory of collective judgment and collective responsibility for salvation--that is1 the judgment of the ,church rather than that of individuals--it was not important that more than a few be educated4 ,under the new theory of individual judgment and individual responsibility promulgated by the ,protestants it became very important1 in theory at least1 that every one should be able to read the word of ,god1 participate intelligently in the church services1 and shape his life as he understood was in accordance with the commandments of the ,heavenly ,father4 ,this undoubtedly called for the education of all4 ,still more1 from individual participation in the services of the ,church1 with freedom of judgment and personal responsibility in religious matters1 to individual participation in and responsibility for the conduct of government was not a long step1 and the rise of democratic governments and the provision of universal education were the natural and ultimate corollaries1 though not immediately attained of the ,protestant position regarding the interpretation of the ,scriptures and the place and authority of the ,church4 ,this was soon seen and acted upon4 ,the great struggle of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 in consequence1 became one for religious freedom and toleration2 the great struggle of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries has been for political freedom and political rights2 to supply universal education has been left to the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries4 ,,schools ,,and ,,learning ,,before ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,after the rise of the universities1 as we have seen1 many ,latin secondary schools were founded in western ,europe1 and a more extensive development of the cathedral and other larger church schools took place4 ,rashdall 7,r4 #aed7 thinks that by #adjj the opportunity to attend a ,latin grammar school was rather common1 an opinion in which ,leach and ,nohle concur4 ,after the humanistic learning had spread to northern lands these opportunities were increased and improved4 ,in ,england1 for example1 some two hundred and fifty ,latin grammar schools are known to have been in existence by #aejj4 ,in ,germany1 as we have seen 7chapter xi71 many such schools were founded before the time of ,luther4 ,these offered a form of advanced education1 in the language of the educated classes of the time1 for those intending to go to the universities to prepare for service in either ,church or ,state1 and for teaching4 ,the ,church had also for long maintained or exercised control over a number of types of more elementary schools--parish1 song1 chantry1 hospital 7chapter ,,vii7--the chief purpose of which was to prepare for certain phases of the church service1 or to enter the secondary schools4 ,these schools1 too1 were taught partly or wholly in ,latin4 ,in consequence1 while ,latin schools came to be rather widely diffused1 schools in the vernacular hardly existed outside of a few of the larger commercial cities of the north4 ,even the burgh and guild schools 7p4 #bje71 established in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 were essentially ,latin schools4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #f4 ,,educational ,,leaders ,,in ,,protestant ,,germany 7,from a painting dated #aedc1 by ,lucas ,cranach1 a ,german contemporary of both men1 and now in the ,uffizi ,gallery1 at ,florence7 ,,martin ,,luther 7#adhc-aedf7 ,professor of ,theology at ,wittenberg ,,philipp ,,melanchthon 7#adig-aefj7 ,professor of ,greek at ,wittenberg ,in the commercial cities of the ,north1 however1 though often only after quite a struggle with the local church authorities1 which throughout the ,middle ,ages had maintained a monopoly of all instruction as a protection to orthodoxy1 different types of elementary vernacular schools had been developed to meet local commercial needs1 such as writing-schools to train writers1 #b and reckoning-schools to train young men to handle accounts4 #c ,reading1 manners1 and religion were also taught in these schools4 ,other city schools1 largely ,latin in type1 but containing some vernacular instruction to meet local business needs not met by the cathedral or parish schools of the city1 were also developed4 ,up to the time of the ,protestant ,revolts1 however1 there was almost no instruction in the vernacular outside of the commercial cities1 nor was there any particular demand for such instruction elsewhere4 ,if one wished to be a scholar1 a statesman1 a diplomat1 a teacher1 a churchman1 or to join a religious brotherhood1 he needed to study the learned language of the time1--,latin4 ,with this he could be at home with people of his kind anywhere in western ,europe4 ,the vernacular he could leave to tradesmen1 craftsmen1 soldiers1 laborers1 and the servant classes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,,two ,,early ,,vernacular ,,schools ,,german 7,from a woodcut1 printed at ,nuremberg1 #aeje7 ,,french 7,after a drawing by ,soquand1 #aebh7 ,these people1 on the other hand1 had practically no need for a written language1 aside from a very small amount for business needs4 ,even here the sign of the cross would do4 ,there were but few books written in the vernacular tongues1 and these had to be copied by hand and1 in consequence1 were scarce and expensive4 ,there were no newspapers 7first newspaper1 ,venice1 #aefc7 or magazines4 ,spectacles for reading were not known until the end of the thirteenth century1 and were not common for two centuries after that4 ,there was little knowledge that could not pass from mouth to mouth4 ,such little vernacular literature as did exist was transmitted orally1 and no great issue which appealed to the imagination of the masses had as yet come to the front to create any strong desire for the ability to read4 ,as a result1 the education of the masses was in hand labor1 the trades1 and religion1 and not in books1 and the need for book education was scarcely felt4 ,a ,,new ,,demand ,,for ,,vernacular ,,schools4 ,the invention of printing and the ,protestant ,revolts were in a sense two revolutionary forces1 which in combination soon produced vast and far-reaching changes4 ,the discovery of the process of making paper and the invention of the printing press changed the whole situation as to books4 ,these could now be reproduced rapidly and in large numbers1 and could be sold at but a small fraction of their former cost4 ,the printing of the ,bible in the common tongue did far more to stimulate a desire to be able to read than did the ,revival of ,learning 7,rs4 #aee1 #agj74 ,then came the religious discussions of the ,reformation period1 which stirred intellectually the masses of the people in northern lands as nothing before in history had ever done4 ,in an effort to reach the people the reformers originated small and cheap pamphlets1 written in the vernacular1 and these1 sold for a penny or two1 were peddled in the market-places and from house to house4 ,while there had been imperfect translations of the ,bible in ,german before ,luther's1 his translation 7,new ,testament1 #aebb7 was direct from the original ,greek and so carefully done that it virtually fixed the character of the ,german language4 #d ,calvin's ,institutes of ,christianity 7,french edition1 #aeda7 in a similar manner fixed the character of the ,french language1 #e and ,tyndale's translation of the ,new ,testament 7#aebf7 was into such simple and homely language #f that it fixed the character of the ,english tongue1 and was made the basis for the later ,authorized translation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,,the ,,first ,,page ,,of ,,wycliffe',s ,,bible ,translated between #achb and #achd4 ,facsimile of the first verses of ,genesis ,the leaders of the ,protestant ,revolts1 too1 in asserting that each person should be able to read and study the ,scriptures as a means to personal salvation1 created an entirely new demand1 in ,protestant lands1 for elementary schools in the vernacular4 ,heretofore the demand had been for schools only for those who expected to become scholars or leaders in ,church or ,state1 while the masses of the people had little or no interest in learning4 ,now a new class became desirous of learning to read1 not ,latin1 but the language which they had already learned to speak4 ,wycliffe1 ,huss1 ,zwingli1 ,luther1 ,calvin1 and ,knox alike insisted on the importance of the study of the ,bible as a primary necessity in the religious life4 ,in an effort to bring the ,bible within reach of the people ,wycliffe's followers had attempted the laborious and impossible task of multiplying by hand 7p4 #bij7 copies of his translation4 ,zwingli had written a pamphlet on ,the ,manner of ,instruction and ,bringing up ,boys in a ,christian ,way 7#aebd71 in which he urged the importance of religious education4 ,luther1 besides translating the ,bible1 had prepared two general ,catechisms1 one for adults and one for children1 had written hymns #g and issued numerous letters and sermons in behalf of religious education4 ,all these were printed in the vernacular and scattered broadcast4 ,luther thought that every human being1 by the time he has reached his tenth year1 should be familiar with the ,holy ,gospels1 in which the very core and marrow of his life is bound4 ,in his sermons and addresses he urged a study of the ,bible and the duty of sending children to school4 ,calvin's ,catechism similarly was extensively used in ,protestant lands4 #a4 ,lutheran ,school ,organization ,,educational ,,ideas ,,of ,,luther4 ,luther enunciated the most progressive ideas on education of all the ,german ,protestant reformers4 ,in his ,letter to the ,mayors and ,aldermen of all the ,cities of ,germany in behalf of ,christian ,schools 7#aebd7 7,r4 #aef71 and in his ,sermon on the ,duty of ,sending ,children to ,school 7#aecj71 we find these set forth4 ,that his ideas could be but partially carried out is not surprising4 ,there were but few among his followers who could understand such progressive proposals1 they were entirely too advanced for the time1 there was no body of vernacular teachers #h or means to prepare them1 the importance of such training was not understood1 and the religious wars which followed made such educational advantages impossible1 for a long time to come4 ,the sad condition of the schools1 which he said were deteriorating throughout ,germany1 awakened his deep regret1 and he begged of those in authority not to think of the subject lightly1 for the instruction of youth is a matter in which ,christ and all the world are concerned4 ,all towns had to spend money for roads1 defense1 bridges1 and the like1 and why not some for schools8 ,this they now could easily afford1 since ,divine ,grace has released them from the exaction and robbery of the ,roman ,church4 ,parents continually neglected their educational duty1 yet there must be civil government4 ,were there neither soul1 heaven1 nor hell1 he declared1 it would still be necessary to have schools for the sake of affairs here below4444 ,the world has need of educated men and women to the end that men may govern the country properly and women may properly bring up their children1 care for their domestics1 and direct the affairs of their households4 ,the welfare of the ,state depends upon the intelligence and virtue of its citizens1 he said1 and it is therefore the duty of mayors and aldermen in all cities to see that ,christian schools are founded and maintained 7,r4 #aef74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,,luther ,,giving ,,instruction ,an ideal drawing1 though representative of early ,protestant popular instruction ,the parents of children he held responsible for their ,christian and civic education4 ,this must be free1 and equally open to all--boys and girls1 high and low1 rich and poor4 ,it was the inherent right of each child to be educated1 and the ,state must not only see that the means are provided1 but also require attendance at the schools 7,r4 #aeh74 ,at the basis of all education lay ,christian education4 ,the importance of the services of the teacher was beyond ordinary comprehension 7,r4 #aeg74 ,teachers should be trained for their work1 and clergymen should have had experience as teachers4 ,a school system for ,german people should be a state system1 divided into3 #a4 ,vernacular ,primary ,schools4 ,schools for the common people1 to be taught in the vernacular1 to be open to both sexes1 to include reading1 writing1 physical training1 singing1 and religion1 and to give practical instruction in a trade or in household duties4 ,upon this attendance should be compulsory4 ,it is my opinion1 he said1 that we should send boys to school for one or two hours a day1 and have them learn a trade at home the rest of the time4 ,it is desirable that these two occupations march side by side4 #b4 ,latin ,secondary ,schools4 ,upon these he placed great emphasis 7,r4 #aef7 as preparatory schools by means of which a learned clergy was to be perpetuated for the instruction of the people4 ,in these he would teach ,latin1 ,greek1 ,hebrew1 rhetoric1 dialectic1 history1 science1 mathematics1 music1 and gymnastics4 #c4 ,the ,universities4 ,for training for the higher service in ,church and ,state4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 ,,johannes ,,bugenhagen 7#adhe-aeeh7 ,father of the ,lutheran ,volksschule in northern ,germany ,,the ,,organizing ,,work ,,of ,,bugenhagen4 ,luther assisted in reorganizing the churches at ,wittenberg 7#aebc71 ,leipzig 7#aebc71 and ,magdeburg 7#aebd71 in connection with all of which he provided for ,lutheran-type schools4 #i ,luther1 though1 was not essentially an organizer4 ,the organizing genius of the ,reformation1 in central and southern ,germany1 was ,luther's colleague1 ,philipp ,melanchthon 7#adig-aefj71 ,professor of ,greek at the ,university of ,wittenberg4 ,in northern ,germany it was ,johannes ,bugenhagen 7#adhe-aeeh71 another of ,luther's colleagues at ,wittenberg4 ,more than any other ,germans these two directed the necessary reorganization of religion and education in those parts of ,germany which changed from ,roman ,catholicism to ,german ,lutheranism4 ,the churches1 of course1 had to be reorganized as ,lutheran churches1 and the schools connected with them refounded as ,lutheran schools4 ,for the reorganization of each of these a more or less detailed ,ordnung had to be written out 7,rs4 #aei1 #afj74 ,in this change cathedral and other large church schools became ,latin secondary schools1 while the song1 chantry1 and other types of parish elementary schools were transformed into ,lutheran vernacular parish schools4 ,bugenhagen was sent to reorganize the churches of northern ,germany4 ,being in close sympathy with ,luther's ideas1 he made good provision for ,lutheran parish schools in connection with each of the churches he reorganized4 ,at ,brunswick 7#aebh71 ,hamburg 7#aebi7 7,r4 #aei71 ,lbeck 7#aecj71 for his native ,state of ,pomerania 7#aecd71 for ,schleswig-,holstein 7#aecg71 and elsewhere in northern ,germany1 he drew up church and school plans 7,kirchen und ,schule- ,ordnungen7 which formed models 7,rs4 #aei1 #afj7 for many northern ,german cities and towns4 ,besides providing for a ,latin school for the city1 he organized elementary vernacular schools in each parish1 for both boys and girls1 in which instruction in reading1 writing1 and religion was to be given in the ,german tongue4 ,he has been called the father of the ,german ,volksschule1 though probably much of what he did was merely the redirection of existing schools4 ,in #aecg he was called to ,denmark1 by the ,danish ,king1 to reorganize the ,university of ,copenhagen and the ,danish ,church and schools as ,lutheran institutions4 ,efforts were also made to create ,protestant schools in the ,scandinavian countries4 ,in ,denmark writing-schools for both boys and girls were organized1 and the sexton of each parish was ordered to gather the children together once a week for instruction in the ,catechism4 ,in ,sweden little was done before #afhf1 when ,charles ,,xi ordained that the sacristan of each parish should instruct the children in reading1 while the religious instruction should be conducted by the clergy1 and carried on by means of sermons1 the ,catechism1 and a yearly public examination4 ,the ability to read and a knowledge of the ,catechism was made necessary for communion4 ,a ,swedish law of this same time also ordered that1 ,no one should enter the married state without knowing the lesser ,catechism of ,luther by heart and having received the sacrament4 ,this latter regulation drove the peasants to request the erection of children's schools in the parishes1 to be supported by the ,state1 though it was not for more than a century that this was generally brought about4 ,the general result of this legislation was that the ,scandinavian countries1 then including ,finland1 early became literate nations4 ,,the ,,reorganizing ,,work ,,of ,,melanchthon4 ,melanchthon1 unlike ,bugenhagen1 was essentially a humanistic scholar1 and his interest lay chiefly ,in the ,latin secondary schools4 ,he prepared plans for schools in many cities and smaller ,states of central and southern ,germany1 among which were ,luther's native town1 ,eisleben 7#aebe71 and for ,nuremberg 7#aebf71 ,herzeberg 7#aech71 ,cologne 7#aedc71 and ,wittenberg 7#aede7 among cities2 and ,saxony 7#aebh71 ,mecklenberg 7#aeeb71 and the ,palatinate 7#aeef7 among ,states4 ,the schools he provided for ,saxony may be described as typical of his work4 ,in #aebg he was asked by the ,elector of ,saxony to head a commission of three to travel over the kingdom and report on its needs as to schools4 ,in his ,report1 or ,book of ,visitation1 which was probably the first school survey report in history1 he outlined in detail plans for school organization for the ,state 7,r4 #afa71 of which the following is an abstract3 ,each school was to consist of three classes4 ,in the first class there was to be taught the beginnings of reading and writing1 in both the vernacular and in ,latin1 ,latin grammar 7,donatus71 the ,creed1 the ,lord's prayer1 and the prayers and hymns of the church service4 ,in the second class ,latin became the language of instruction1 and ,latin grammar was thoroughly learned4 ,latin authors were read1 and religious instruction was continued4 ,in the third class more advanced work in reading ,latin 7,livy1 ,sallust1 ,vergil1 ,horace1 and ,cicero7 was given1 and rhetoric and dialectic were studied4 ,these were essentially humanistic schools with but a little preparatory work in the vernacular1 and their purpose was to prepare those likely to become the future leaders of the ,state for entrance to the universities4 ,how different was ,melanchthon's conception as to the needs for education from the conceptions of ,luther and ,bugenhagen may easily be seen4 ,yet1 so great were his services in organizing and advising1 and so well did such schools meet the great demand of the time for educational leaders that he has1 very properly1 been called the ,preceptor of ,germany4 ,his work was copied by other leaders1 and the result was the organization of a large number of humanistic gymnasia throughout northern ,germany1 in which the new learning and the ,protestant faith were combined4 ,sturm's school at ,strassburg 7p4 #bgb7 was one of the more important and better organized of this type1 many of which have had a continuous existence up to the present4 ,by #aedj the process was begun of endowing such schools from the proceeds of old monasteries1 confiscated by the ,state1 and many ,german gymnasia of to-day trace their origin back to some old monastic foundation1 altered by state authority to meet modern needs and purposes4 ,,early ,,german ,,state ,,school ,,systems4 ,melanchthon's ,saxony plan was put into partial operation as a ,lutheran ,church school system1 but the first ,german ,state to organize a complete system of schools was ,wrtemberg 7,r4 #afb71 in southwestern ,germany1 in #aeei4 ,this marks the real beginning of the ,german state school systems4 ,three classes of schools were provided for3 7#a7 ,elementary schools1 for both sexes1 in which were to be taught reading1 writing1 reckoning1 singing1 and religion1 all in the vernacular4 ,these were to be provided in every village in the ,duchy4 7#b7 ,latin schools 7,particularschulen71 with five or six classes1 in which the ability to read1 write1 and speak ,latin1 together with the elements of mathematics and ,greek in the last year1 were to be taught4 7#c7 ,the universities or colleges of the ,state1 of which the ,university of ,tbingen 7f4 #adgf7 and the higher school at ,stuttgart were declared to be constituent parts4 ,acting through the church authorities1 these schools were to be under the supervision of the ,state4 ,the example of ,wrtemberg was followed by a number of the smaller ,german ,states4 ,ten years later ,brunswick followed the same plan1 and in #aehj ,saxony revised its school organization after the state-system plan thus established4 ,in #afai the ,duchy of ,weimar added compulsory education in the vernacular for all children from six to twelve years of age4 ,in #afdb1 the same date as the first ,massachusetts school law 7chapter ,,xv71 ,duke ,ernest the ,pious of little ,saxe-,gotha and ,altenburg established the first school system of a modern type in ,german lands4 ,an intelligent and ardent ,protestant1 he attempted to elevate his miserable peasants1 after the ravages of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 by a wise economic administration and universal education4 ,with the help of a disciple of the greatest educational thinker of the period1 ,john ,amos ,comenius 7chapter ,,xvii71 he worked out a ,school ,code 7,schulmethode1 #afdb7 which was the pedagogic masterpiece of the seventeenth century 7,r4 #afc74 ,in it he provided for compulsory school attendance1 and regulated the details of method1 grading1 and courses of study4 ,teachers were paid salaries which for the time were large1 pensions for their widows and children were provided1 and textbooks were prepared and supplied free4 ,so successful were his efforts that ,gotha became one of the most prosperous little spots in ,europe1 and it was said that ,duke ,ernest's peasants were better educated than noblemen anywhere else4 ,by the middle of the seventeenth century most of the ,german ,states had followed the ,wrtemberg plan of organization4 ,even ,duke ,albrecht ,v of ,bavaria1 which was a ,catholic ,state1 ordered the establishment of ,german schools throughout his realm1 with instruction in reading1 writing1 and the ,catholic creed1 the schools to be responsible through the ,church to the ,state4 ,,protestant ,,state ,,school ,,organization4 ,we see here in ,german lands a new1 and1 for the future1 a very important tendency4 ,throughout all the long ,middle ,ages the ,church had absolutely controlled all education4 ,from the suppression of the pagan schools1 in #ebi ,a4,d41 to the time of the ,reformation there had been no one to dispute with the ,church its complete monopoly of education4 ,even ,charlemagne's attempt at the stimulation of educational activity had been clearly within the lines of church control4 ,until the beginnings of the modern ,states1 following the ,crusades1 the ,church had been the ,state as well1 and for long humbled any ruler who dared dispute its power4 ,in the later ,middle ,ages nobles and rising parliaments had at times sided with the king against the ,church--warnings of a changing ,europe that the ,church should have heeded--but there had been no serious trouble with the rising nationalities before the sixteenth century4 ,now1 in ,protestant lands1 all was changed4 ,the authority of the ,church was overthrown4 ,by the ,peace of ,augsburg 7#aeee7 each ,german prince and town and knight were to be permitted to make choice between the ,catholic and ,lutheran faith1 and all subjects were to accept the faith of their ruler or emigrate4 ,this established freedom of conscience for the rulers1 but for no one else4 ,it also gave them control of both religious and secular affairs1 thus uniting in the person of the ruler1 large or small1 control of both ,church and ,state4 ,this was as much progress toward religious freedom as the world was then ready for1 as ,church and ,state had been united for so many centuries that a complete separation of the two was almost inconceivable4 ,it was left for the ,united ,states 7#aghg7 to completely divorce ,church and ,state1 and to reduce the churches to the control of purely spiritual affairs4 ,the ,german rulers1 however1 were now free to develop schools as they saw fit1 and1 through their headship of the ,church in their principality or duchy or city1 to control education therein4 ,we have here the beginnings of the transfer of educational control from the ,church to the ,state1 the ultimate fruition of which came first in ,german lands1 and which was to be the great work of the nineteenth century4 ,it was through the kingly or ducal headship of the ,church1 and through it of the educational system of the kingdom or duchy1 that the great educational development in ,wrtemberg1 ,saxony1 and ,gotha was brought about by their rulers1 and it was through the ruling princes that the ,german ,universities were reformed #aj and the new ,protestant universities established4 #aa ,even in ,catholic ,states1 as ,bavaria1 the ,german state-control idea took root early4 ,many of the important features of the modern ,german school systems are to be seen in their beginnings in these ,lutheran state-church schools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,german ,,state ,,school ,,control #b4 ,anglican foundations ,,the ,,reformation ,,and ,,education ,,in ,,england4 ,the ,reformation in ,england took a very different direction from what it did in ,germany1 and its educational results in consequence were very different4 ,in ,england the reform movement was much more political in character than in ,german lands4 ,henry ,,viii was no ,protestant1 in the sense that ,luther or ,calvin or ,zwingli or ,knox was4 ,he distrusted their teachings1 and was always anxious to explain objections to the old faith4 ,the people of ,england as a body1 too1 had been much less antagonized by the exactions of the ,roman ,church and the immoral lives of the monks and ,roman clergy2 the new learning had awakened there somewhat less of a spirit of moral and religious reform2 and the reformation movement of ,luther1 after a decade and a half1 had roused no general interest4 ,the change from the ,roman ,catholic faith to an independent ,english ,church1 when made1 was in consequence much more nominal than had been the case in ,german lands4 ,as a result the severance from ,rome was largely carried out by the ruling classes1 and the masses of the people were in no way deeply interested in it4 ,the ,english ,national ,church merely took over most of the functions formerly exercised by the ,roman ,church1 in general the same priests remained in charge of the parish churches1 and the church doctrines and church practices were not greatly altered by the change in allegiance4 ,the changing of the service from ,latin to ,english was perhaps the most important change4 ,the ,english ,church1 in spirit and service1 has in consequence retained the greatest resemblance to the ,roman ,catholic ,church of any ,protestant denomination4 ,in particular1 the ,lutheran idea of personal responsibility for salvation1 and hence the need of all being taught to read1 made scarcely any impression in ,england4 ,by the time of ,elizabeth 7#aeeh-afjc7 it had become a settled conviction with the ,english as a people that the provision of education was a matter for the ,church1 and was no business of the ,state1 and this attitude continued until well into the nineteenth century4 ,the ,english ,church merely succeeded the ,roman ,church in the control of education1 and now licensed the teachers 7,r4 #afh71 took their oath of allegiance 7,r4 #afg71 supervised prayers 7,r4 #afi7 and the instruction1 and became very strict as to conformity to the new faith 7,rs4 #afd-aff71 while the schools1 aside from the private tuition and endowed schools1 continued to be maintained chiefly from religious sources1 charitable funds1 and tuition fees4 ,private tuition schools in time flourished1 and the tutor in the home became the rule with families of means4 ,the poorer people largely did without schooling1 as they had done for centuries before4 ,as a consequence1 the educational results of the change in the headship of the ,church relate almost entirely to grammar schools and to the universities1 and not to elementary education4 ,the development of anything approaching a system of elementary schools for ,england was consequently left for the educational awakening of the latter half of the nineteenth century4 ,when this finally came the development was due to political and economic1 and not to religious causes4 ,the ,english ,act of ,supremacy 7,r4 #aec71 which severed ,england from ,rome1 had been passed by parliament in #aecd4 ,in #aecf an ,english ,bible was issued to the churches1 #ab the services were ordered conducted in ,english1 and in #aedi the ,english ,prayer ,book1 ,psalter1 and ,catechism were put into use4 ,in #aech the ,english ,bible was ordered chained in the churches1 #ac that the people might read it 7,r4 #agj71 and the people were ordered instructed in ,english in the ,creed1 the ,lord's ,prayer1 and the ,ten ,commandments4 ,the change of the service to ,english was perhaps the largest educational gain the masses of the people obtained as the result of the ,reformation in ,england4 #ad ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,a ,,chained ,,bible 7,redrawn from an old print showing a chained ,bible in a church in ,york1 ,england7 ,,suppression ,,of ,,the ,,monasteries ,,and ,,the ,,founding ,,of ,,grammar ,,schools4 ,between #aecf and #aeci the most striking result of the ,reformation in ,england took place1--the dissolution of the monasteries4 ,their doubtful reputation enabled ,henry and ,parliament to confiscate their property1 and the dead hand of monasticism was removed from a third of the lands of ,england4 ,there were precedents for this in pre-,reformation times1 the church authorities themselves having converted several monastic foundations into grammar schools4 ,at one blow ,parliament now suppressed the monasteries of all ,england1 some eight thousand monks and nuns were driven out1 many of the monasteries1 nunneries1 and abbey churches were destroyed1 and the monastic lands were forfeited to the ,crown4 ,it was a ruthless proceeding1 though in the long course of history beneficial to the nation4 ,much of the land was given to influential followers of the king in return for their support1 and a large part of the proceeds from sales was spent on coast defenses and a navy1 though more than was formerly thought to be the case was used in refounding grammar schools4 ,a number of the monasteries were converted into collegiate churches1 with schools attached4 ,some of the alms-houses and hospitals confiscated at the same time were similarly used1 and the cathedral churches in nine ,english cities were taken from the monks 7,r4 #aga71 who had driven out the regular clergy during the tenth to the twelfth centuries1 and were refounded as cathedral church schools4 ,the cathedral church school at ,canterbury1 which ,henry refounded in #aeda as a humanistic grammar school1 with a song school attached1 and for the government of which he made detailed provisions 7,r4 #agb71 is typical of a school which had fallen into bad repute 7,r4 #aga71 and was later refounded as a result of the confiscation of the monastic property4 ,the ,college of ,christ ,church at ,oxford1 and ,trinity ,college at ,cambridge1 were also richly endowed from the monastic proceeds4 ,in #aedf another ,act of ,parliament vested the title of all chantry foundations1 some two hundred in number1 in the ,crown that they might be altered1 changed1 and amended to convert them to good and godly uses as in the erecting of grammar schools1 but so pressing became the royal need for money that1 after their sale1 the intended endowments were never made4 ,as the song schools had been established originally to train a few boys to help a priest sing mass1 and as the service was now to be read rather than sung1 the need for choristers largely disappeared4 ,being regarded as nurseries of superstition1 they were abandoned without regret4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #g4 ,,the ,,free ,,school ,,at ,,harrow ,one of the ,great ,public ,grammar ,schools of ,england4 ,founded in #aega1 in the reign of ,elizabeth2 building finished in #aeic4 ,the names of famous old boys are seen lettered on the wall at the back4 ,pupils are seen seated in forms1 reciting to the masters4 7,from a picture published by ,ackermann1 in his illustrated ,history of the ,colleges of ,winchester1 ,eton1 ,westminster1 etc4 ,london1 #ahaf47 ,,result ,,of ,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,england4 ,the result of the change in religious allegiance in ,england was a material decrease in the number of places offering grammar-school advantages1 though with a material improvement in the quality of the instruction provided1 and a consequent decrease in the number of boys given free education in the refounded grammar schools4 ,as for elementary education1 the abolition of the song1 chantry1 and hospital schools took away most of the elementary schools which had once existed4 ,the clerk of the parish usually replaced them by teaching a certain number of boys to read ,english intelligently instead of ,latin unintelligently1 many new parish elementary schools were created1 especially during the reign of ,elizabeth1 and in time the dame school1 the charity school1 the writing school1 and apprenticeship training arose 7chapter ,,xviii7 and became regular ,english institutions4 ,these types of schooling constituted almost all the elementary-school advantages provided in ,england until well into the eighteenth century4 ,the post-,reformation educational energy of ,england was given to the founding of grammar schools1 and during the century and a half before the outbreak of the struggle with ,james ,,ii 7#afhh7 to put an end in ,england for all time to the late-mediaeval theory of the divine right of kings1 a total of #eeh grammar schools were founded or refounded4 #ae ,the grammar schools thus founded were1 one and all1 grammar schools of the reformed humanistic type4 ,what was to be taught in them was seldom mentioned in the foundation articles1 as it was assumed that every one knew what a grammar school was1 so well by this time had the humanistic type become established4 ,they were one and all modeled after the instruction first provided in ,saint ,paul's ,school 7p4 #bge7 in ,london1 and such modifications as had been sanctioned with time1 and this continued to be the type of ,english secondary school instruction until well into the nineteenth century4 ,,the ,,dominating ,,religious ,,purpose4 ,the religious conflicts following the reformation movement everywhere intensified religious prejudices and stimulated religious bigotry4 ,this was soon reflected in the schools of all lands4 ,in ,england1 after the restoration under ,catholic ,mary 7#aeec-eh7 and the final restablishment of the ,english ,church under ,elizabeth 7#aeeh71 all school instruction became narrowly religious and ,english ,protestant in type4 ,by the middle of the seventeenth century the grammar schools had become nurseries of the faith1 as well as very formal and disciplinary in character4 ,in ,england1 perhaps more than in any other ,protestant country1 ,christianity came to be identified with a strict conformity to the teachings and practices of the ,established ,church1 and to teach that particular faith became one of the particular missions of all types of schools4 ,bishops were instructed to hunt out schoolmasters who were unsound in the faith 7,r4 #afd a71 and teachers were deprived of their positions for nonconformity 7,r4 #afd b74 ,more effectively to handle the problem a series of laws were enacted1 the result of which was to institute such an inquisitorial policy that the position of schoolmaster became almost intolerable4 ,in #aehj a law 7,r4 #afe7 imposed a fine of #aj on any one employing a schoolmaster of unsound faith1 with disability and imprisonment for the schoolmaster so offending2 in #afjc another law required a license from the bishop on the part of all schoolmasters as a condition precedent to teaching2 in #affb the obnoxious ,act of ,uniformity 7,r4 #aff7 required every schoolmaster in any type of school1 and all private tutors1 to subscribe to a declaration that they would conform to the liturgy of the ,church1 as established by law1 with fine and imprisonment for breaking the law2 in #affe the so-called ,five-,mile ,act forbade ,dissenters to teach in any school1 under penalty of a fine of #dj2 and in that same year bishops were instructed to see that the said schoolmasters1 ushers1 schoolmistresses1 and instructors1 or teachers of youth1 publicly or privately1 do themselves frequent the public prayers of the ,church1 and cause their scholars to do the same2 and whether they appear well affected to the ,government of his ,majesty1 and the doctrine and discipline of the ,church of ,england4 ,this attitude also extended upward to the universities as well1 where nonconformists were prohibited by law 7#aeeh7 from receiving degrees1 a condition not remedied until #ahga 7,r4 #cje74 ,the great purpose of instruction came to be to support the authority and the rule of the ,established ,church1 and the almost complete purpose of elementary instruction came to be to train pupils to read the ,catechism1 the ,prayer ,book1 and the ,bible4 ,this intense religious attitude in ,england was reflected in early colonial ,america1 as we shall see in a following chapter4 ,,the ,,poor-,,law ,,legislation1 ,,and ,,its ,,educational ,,significance4 ,after the thirteenth century1 due in part to the rise of the wool industry in ,flanders1 ,england began to change from a farming to a sheep-raising country4 ,accompanying this decline in the importance of farming there had been a slow but gradual growth of trade and manufacturing in the cities1 and to the cities the surplus of rural peasantry began to drift4 ,the cost of living also increased rapidly after the fifteenth century4 ,as a result there was a marked shifting of occupations1 much unemployment1 and a constantly increasing number of persons in need of poor-relief4 ,in the time of ,elizabeth 7#aeeh-afjc7 it has been estimated that one half the population of ,england did not have an income sufficient for sustenance1 and great numbers of children were running about without proper food or care1 and growing up in idleness and vice4 ,the situation1 which had been growing worse for two centuries1 culminated at the time of the ,reformation when the religious houses1 which had previously provided alms1 were confiscated as a result of the reformation activities4 ,the groundwork of the old system of religious charity was thus swept away1 and the relation which had for so long existed between prayer and penance and almsgiving and charity was altered4 ,the nation was thus forced to deal with the problem of poor-relief1 and with the care of the children of the poor4 ,in the place of the old system the people were forced1 by circumstances1 to develop a new conception of the ,state as a community of peoples bound together by community interest1 good feeling1 charity1 and service4 ,as this new conception dawned on the ,english people1 a series of laws were enacted which attempted to provide for the situation which had been created4 ,these were progressive in character1 and ranged over much of the sixteenth century4 ,first the poor were restricted from begging1 outside of certain specified limits4 ,next church collections and parish support for the poor were ordered 7#aeec71 and the people were to be urged to give4 ,then workhouses for the poor and their children1 and materials with which to work1 were ordered provided1 and those persons of means who would not give freely were to be cited before the bishop first 7,r4 #agc71 and the justices later1 and if necessary forcibly assessed 7#aefc74 ,the next step was to permit the local authorities to raise needed funds by strictly local taxation 7#aegb74 ,in #afja the last step was taken1 when the compulsory taxation of all persons of property was ordered to provide the necessary poor-relief1 and the excessive burdens of one parish were to be shared by neighboring parishes4 ,thus1 after a long period of slowly evolving legislation 7,r4 #agc71 the ,english ,poor-,law of #afja 7,r4 #agd7 finally gave expression to the following principles3 #a4 ,the compulsory care of the poor1 as an obligation of the ,state4 #b4 ,the compulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor1 male and female1 to learn a useful trade4 #c4 ,the obligation of the master to train his apprentices in a trade4 #d4 ,the obligation of the overseers of the poor to supply1 where necessary1 the opportunity and the materials for such training of the children of the poor4 #e4 ,the compulsory taxation of all persons of property to provide the necessary funds for such a purpose1 and without reference to any benefits derived from the taxation4 #f4 ,the excessive burdens of any one parish to be pooled throughout the hundred or county4 ,in this compulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor1 with the obligation imposed that such children must be trained in a trade and in proper living1 with general taxation of those of property to provide workhouses and materials for such a purpose1 we have the germ1 among ,english-speaking peoples1 of the idea of the general taxation of all persons by the ,state to provide schools for the children of the ,state4 ,the apprenticing of the children of the poor to labor and the requirement that they be taught the elements of religion soon became a fixed ,english practice 7,r4 #bag71 and in the seventeenth century this idea was carried to the ,american colonies and firmly established there4 ,it was on the foundations of the ,english ,poor-,law of #afja1 above stated1 that the first ,massachusetts law relating to the schooling of all children 7#afdb7 was framed 7,r4 #aij71 but with the significant ,calvinistic addition that3 #g4 ,in euery towne ye chosen men shall see that parents and masters not only train their children in learning and labor1 but also to read understand the principles of religion the capitall lawes of this country1 with power to impose fines on such as refuse to render accounts concerning their children4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,why is progress that is substantial nearly always a product of slow rather than rapid evolution8 #b4 ,show why the evolution of many ,protestant sects was a natural consequence of the position assumed by ,luther4 ,what is the ultimate outcome of the process8 #c4 ,why was it not important that more than a few be educated under the older theory of salvation8 #d4 ,show how modern democratic government was a natural consequence of the ,protestant position4 #e4 ,why was universal education involved as a later but ultimate consequence of the position taken by the ,protestants8 #f4 ,explain why the local ,church authorities1 before #aebj1 tried so hard to prevent the establishment of vernacular schools4 #g4 ,explain why the religious discussions of the ,reformation should have so strongly stimulated a desire to read4 #h4 ,explain the fixing in character of the ,german1 ,french1 and ,english languages by a single book4 ,what had fixed the ,italian8 #i4 ,was ,luther probably right when he wrote1 in #aebd1 that the schools were deteriorating throughout ,germany8 ,why8 #aj4 ,give reasons why ,luther's appeals for schools were not more fruitful4 #aa4 ,what was the significance of the position of ,luther for the future education of girls8 #ab4 ,was ,luther's idea that a clergyman should have had some experience as a teacher a good one1 or not8 ,why8 #ac4 ,how do you explain ,luther's ideas as to coupling up elementary and trade education in his primary schools8 #ad4 ,point out the similarity of ,luther's scheme for a school system with the ,german school system as finally evolved 7,figure #if74 #ae4 ,show how ,melanchthon's ,saxony ,plan differed from ,luther's ideas4 ,for the times was it a more practical plan8 ,why8 #af4 ,explain why the ,lutheran idea of personal responsibility for salvation made so little headway in ,england1 and show that the natural educational consequences of this resulted4 #ag4 ,show what different conditions were likely to follow1 in later centuries1 from the different stands taken as to the relation of the ,state and ,church to education by the ,german people by the middle of the sixteenth century1 and by the ,english at the time of ,elizabeth4 #ah4 ,compare the origin of the vernacular elementary-school teacher in ,germany and ,england4 #ai4 ,leach estimates that1 in #aedf1 there were approximately three hundred grammar schools in ,england for a total population of approximately two and one half millions4 ,about what opportunities for grammar-school education did this afford8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #aed4 ,rashdall3 ,diffusion of ,education in ,mediaeval ,times4 #aee4 ,times3 ,the ,vernacular ,style of the ,translation of the ,bible4 #aef4 ,luther3 ,to the ,mayors and ,magistrates of ,germany4 #aeg4 ,luther3 ,dignity and ,importance of the ,teacher's ,work4 #aeh4 ,luther3 ,on the ,duty of ,compelling ,school ,attendance4 #aei4 ,hamburg3 ,an ,example of a ,lutheran ,kirchenordnung4 #afj4 ,brieg3 ,an ,example of a ,lutheran ,schuleordnung4 #afa4 ,melanchthon3 ,the ,saxony ,school ,plan4 #afb4 ,raumer3 ,the ,school ,system ,established in ,wrtemberg4 #afc4 ,duke ,ernest3 ,the ,schulemethodus for ,gotha4 #afd4 ,strype3 ,the ,supervision of a ,teacher's ,acts and ,religious ,beliefs in ,england4 7a7 ,letter of ,queen's ,council on4 7b7 ,dismissal of a ,teacher for non-conformity4 #afe4 ,elizabeth3 ,penalties on ,non-conforming ,schoolmasters4 #aff4 ,statutes3 ,english ,act of ,uniformity of #affb4 #afg4 ,carlisle3 ,oath of a ,grammar ,school ,master4 #afh4 ,strype3 ,an ,english ,elementary-,school ,teacher's ,license4 #afi4 ,cowper3 ,grammar ,school ,statutes regarding ,prayers4 #agj4 ,green3 ,effect of the ,translation of the ,bible into ,english4 #aga4 ,old ,,ms43 ,ignorance of the ,monks at ,canterbury and ,messenden4 #agb4 ,parker3 ,refounding of the ,cathedral ,school at ,canterbury4 #agc4 ,nicholls3 ,origin of the ,english ,poor-,law of #afja4 #agd4 ,statutes3 ,the ,english ,poor ,law of #afja4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,from the selection from ,rashdall 7#aed71 what do you infer as to the effect of the ,reformation on the schools8 ,what kind of schools does ,rashdall describe as existing8 #b4 ,contrast the vernacular style of the ,bible 7#aee7 with the ,ciceronian4 #c4 ,characterize the three extracts 7#aef-eh7 from ,luther4 #d4 ,how advanced was the ground taken by ,luther 7#aeh78 ,would we accept the logic of his argument to-day8 #e4 ,just what do the ,hamburg 7#aei7 and ,brieg 7#afj7 ,ordnungen indicate8 #f4 ,compare ,melanchthon's ,saxony ,plan 7#afa7 with ,sturm's 7#acg7 and the ,french ,collge de ,guyenne 7#acf71 and grade the three in order of importance4 #g4 ,show the close similarity of the ,wrtemberg plan of #aeei-fe 7#afb7 and a modern ,german state school system4 #h4 ,how advanced for the time was the work of ,duke ,ernest of ,gotha 7#afc78 #i4 ,what kind of a school attitude is indicated by the close supervision of ,english teachers1 as described in #afd and #afe8 #aj4 ,what would be the natural effect on the teaching occupation of such legislation as the ,act of ,uniformity 7#aff78 #aa4 ,compare the form of license of an elementary teacher 7#afh7 with a modern form4 ,what have we added and omitted8 #ab4 ,what do the statutes regarding prayers 7#afi7 indicate as to the nature of the grammar schools of the time8 #ac4 ,characterize the educational importance of the translations of the ,bible into the native tongues 7#agj74 #ad4 ,what are the marked features of the refounding act 7#agb7 for ,canterbury cathedral school8 ,what improvements are indicated8 #ae4 ,state the steps in the development 7#agc7 of the ,english ,poor-,law of #afja1 just what the law provided for 7#agd71 and just what elements necessary to the creation of a state school system were incorporated into it4 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b4 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,german ,teachers and ,educators4 ,francke1 ,kuno4 ,social ,forces in ,german ,literature4 99 ,good1 ,harry ,e4 ,the ,position of ,luther upon ,education1 in ,school and ,society1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #eaa-ah 7,nov4 #c1 #aiag74 99 ,montmorency1 ,j4 ,e4 ,g4 de4 ,state ,intervention in ,english ,education4 99 ,montmorency1 ,j4 ,e4 ,g4 de4 ,the ,progress of ,education in ,england4 ,painter1 ,f4 ,v4 ,n4 ,luther on ,education4 ,paulsen1 ,fr4 ,german ,education4 ,richard1 ,j4 ,w4 ,philipp ,melanchthon1 the ,protestant ,preceptor of ,germany4 ,woodward1 ,w4 ,h4 ,education during the ,renaissance4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,educational ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,revolts ,,ii4 ,,among ,,calvinists ,,and ,,catholics #c4 ,educational work of the ,calvinisms ,,the ,,organizing ,,work ,,of ,,calvin4 ,from the point of view of ,american educational history the most important developments in connection with the ,reformation were those arising from ,calvinism4 ,while the ,calvinistic faith was rather grim and forbidding1 viewed from the modern standpoint1 the ,calvinists everywhere had a program for political1 economic1 and social progress which has left a deep impress on the history of mankind4 ,this program demanded the education of all1 and in the countries where ,calvinism became dominant the leaders included general education in their scheme of religious1 political1 and social reform4 #a ,in the governmental program which ,calvin drew up 7#aecg7 for the religious republic at ,geneva 7p4 #bih71 he held that learning was a public necessity to secure good political administration1 sustain the ,church unharmed1 and maintain humanity among men4 ,in his plan for the schools of ,geneva1 published in #aech1 he outlined a system of elementary education in the vernacular for all1 which involved instruction in reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 religion1 careful grammatical drill1 and training for civil as well as for ecclesiastical leadership4 ,in his plan of #aeda he upholds the principle1 as had ,luther1 that the liberal arts and good training are aids to a full knowledge of the ,word4 ,this involved the organization of secondary schools1 or colleges as he called them1 following the ,french nomenclature1 to prepare leaders for the ministry and the civil government through instruction in the languages and humane science4 ,in the colleges 7secondary schools7 which he organized at ,geneva and in neighboring places to give such training1 and which became models of their kind which were widely copied1 the usual humanistic curriculum was combined with intensive religious instruction4 ,these colleges became famous as institutions from which learned men came forth4 ,the course of study in the seven classes of one of the ,geneva colleges1 which has been preserved for us1 reveals the nature of the instruction 7,r4 #age74 ,the lowest class began with the letters1 reading was taught from a ,french-,latin ,catechism1 and the usual ,latin authors were read4 ,greek was begun in the fourth class1 and1 in addition to the usual ,greek authors1 the ,new ,testament was read in ,greek4 ,in the higher classes1 as was common also in ,german gymnasia1 logic and rhetoric were taught to prepare pupils to analyze1 argue1 and defend the faith4 ,elocution was also given much importance in the upper classes as preparation for the ministry1 two original orations being required each month4 ,psalms were sung1 prayers offered1 sermons preached and questioned on1 and the ,bible carefully studied4 ,the men who went forth from the colleges of ,geneva to teach and to preach the ,calvinistic gospel were numbered by the hundreds4 #b ,calvin's great educational work at ,geneva has been well summarized by a recent writer1 #c as follows3 ,the strenuous moral training of the ,genevese was an essential part of ,calvin's work as an educator4 ,all were trained to respect and obey laws1 based upon ,scripture1 but enacted and enforced by representatives of the people1 and without respect of persons4 ,how fully the training of children1 not merely in sound learning and doctrine1 but also in manners1 good morals1 and common sense was carried out is pictured in the delightful human ,colloquies of ,calvin's old teacher1 ,corderius 7once a teacher at the ,college of ,guyenne1 p4 #bfi71 whom he twice established at ,geneva4444 ,calvin's memorials to the ,genevan magistrates1 his drafts for civil law and municipal administration1 his correspondence with reformers and statesmen1 his epoch-making defense of interest taking1 his growing tendency toward civil1 religious1 and economic liberty1 his development of primary and university education1 his intimate knowledge of the dialect and ways of thought of the common people of ,geneva1 and his broad understanding of ,european princes1 diplomats1 and politics mark him out as a great political1 economic1 and educational as well as a religious reformer1 a constructive social genius capable of reorganizing and moulding the whole life of a people4 ,the world owes much to the constructive1 statesman-like genius of ,calvin and those who followed him1 and we in ,america probably most of all4 ,geneva became a refuge for the persecuted ,protestants from other lands1 and through such influences the ideas of ,calvin spread to the ,huguenots in ,france1 the ,walloons of the ,dutch and ,belgian ,netherlands1 the ,germans in the ,palatinate1 the ,presbyterians of ,scotland1 the ,puritans in ,england1 and later to the ,american colonies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,a ,,french ,,school ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century 7,from an old woodcut by ,abraham ,bosse1 #afaa-gh7 ,,calvinism ,,in ,,the ,,other ,,lands4 ,the great educational work done by the ,calvinists in ,france1 in the face of heavy persecution1 deserves to be ranked with that of the ,lutherans in ,germany in its importance4 ,had the ,calvinists had the same opportunity for free development the ,lutherans had1 and especially their state support1 there can be little doubt that their work would have greatly exceeded the ,lutherans in importance and influence on the future history of mankind4 ,beginning with one church in #aech1 they had #baej churches by #aefa1 when the severe persecutions and religious wars began4 ,true to the ,calvinistic teaching of putting principles into practice1 they organized an extensive system of schools1 extending from elementary education for all1 through secondary schools or colleges1 up to eight ,huguenot universities4 ,as a people they were thrifty and capable of making great sacrifices to carry out their educational ideals4 ,the education they provided was not only religious but civil2 not only intellectual but moral1 social1 and economic4 ,education was for all1 rich and poor alike4 ,their synods made liberal appropriations for the universities1 while municipalities provided for colleges and elementary education4 ,they emphasized1 in the lower schools1 the study of the vernacular and arithmetic1 and in the colleges ,greek and the ,new ,testament4 ,the long list of famous teachers found in their universities reveals the character of their instruction4 ,foster has well summarized the distinguishing characteristics of ,huguenot education in ,france1 before they were driven from the land1 as follows3 #d ,the significant characteristics of ,huguenot education were3 an emphasis on the education of the laity2 training for the republic and society as well as for the ,church2 insistence upon virtue as well as knowledge2 the wide-spread demand for education1 and a view of it as essential to liberty of conscience2 a comprehensive working system of elementary1 collegiate1 and university training for all1 poor as well as rich2 an astonishing familiarity with ,scripture1 even among the lowest classes2 utilization of representative church organization for founding1 supporting1 and unifying education2 readiness to sacrifice for education1 a spirit of carrying a thing through at any cost2 business-like supervision of money1 and systematic supervision of both professors and students2 a notable emphasis on vernacular1 arithmetic1 ,greek1 use of full texts1 and libraries2 and finally a progressive spirit of inquiry and investigation4 ,in the ,palatinate 7see map1 ,figure #hh7 some progress in founding churches and schools was made1 especially about ,strassburg1 and the universities of ,heidelberg and ,marburg became the centers of ,huguenot teaching4 ,in the ,dutch ,netherlands1 and in that part of the ,belgian ,netherlands inhabited by the ,walloons1 ,calvinist ideas as to education dominated4 ,the universities of ,leyden 7f4 #aege71 ,groningen 7f4 #afad71 ,amsterdam 7f4 #afcj71 and ,utrecht 7f4 #afcf7 were ,calvinistic1 and closely in touch with the ,calvinists and ,huguenots of ,german lands and ,france4 ,popular education was looked after among these people as it was in ,calvinistic ,france and ,geneva4 ,the ,church ,synod of ,the ,hague 7#aehf7 ordered the establishment of schools in the cities1 and in #afah the ,great ,synod held at ,dort 7,r4 #agf7 ordered that3 ,schools in which the young shall be properly instructed in piety and fundamentals of ,christian doctrine shall be instituted not only in cities1 but also in towns and country places where heretofore none have existed4 ,the ,christian magistracy shall be requested that honorable stipends be provided for teachers1 and that well-qualified persons may be employed and enabled to devote themselves to that function2 and especially that the children of the poor may be gratuitously instructed by them and not be excluded from the benefits of schools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,a ,,dutch ,,village ,,school 7,after a painting by ,adrian ,ostade1 dated #affb1 now in the ,louvre1 at ,paris7 ,further provisions were made as to the certificating of schoolmasters1 and the pastors were made superintendents of the schools1 to visit1 examine1 encourage1 advise1 and report 7,r4 #agf74 ,provision for the free education of the poor became common1 and elementary education was made accessible to all4 ,the careful provision for education made by the province of ,utrecht 7#aeij1 #afab7 7,r4 #agh7 was typical of ,dutch activity4 ,the province of ,drenthe ordered 7#afcj7 a school tax paid for all children over seven1 whether attending school or not4 ,the province of ,overyssel levied 7#afff7 a school tax for all children from eight to twelve years of age4 ,the province of ,groningen constituted the pastors the attendance officers to see that the children got to school4 ,amsterdam and many other ,dutch cities demanded an examination of all teachers before being licensed to teach4 ,by the middle of the seventeenth century a good system of schools seems to have been provided generally #e by the ,dutch and the ,belgian ,walloons 7,r4 #agh74 ,that the teaching of religion was the main function of the ,dutch elementary schools1 as of all other vernacular schools of the time1 is seen from the official lists of the textbooks used 7,r4 #agh74 ,john ,knox1 the leader of the ,scottish ,reformation 7#aefj71 who had spent some time at ,geneva and who was deeply impressed by the ,calvinistic religious-state found there1 introduced the ,calvinistic religious and educational ideas into ,scotland4 ,his ,book of ,discipline for the ,scottish ,church 7#aefj71 framed closely on the ,genevan model1 contained a chapter devoted to education in which he proposed3 ,that everie severall churche have a school-maister appointed1 such a one as is able at least to teach ,grammar and the ,latin tung1 yf the ,town be of any reputation4 ,yf it be upaland 444 then must either the ,reider or the ,minister take cayre over the children 444 to instruct them in their first rudementie and especially in the catechisme4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,,john ,,knox 7#aeje8-gb7 ,the educational plan proposed by ,knox would have called for a large expenditure of money1 and this the thrifty ,scotch were not ready for4 ,knox and his followers then proposed to endow the new schools from the old church and monastic foundations1 but the ,scottish nobles hoped to share in these1 as had the ,english nobility under ,henry ,,viii1 and ,knox's plan was not approved4 ,this delayed the establishment of a real national system of education for ,scotland until the nineteenth century4 ,the new ,church1 however1 took over the superintendence of education in ,scotland1 and when parish schools were finally established by decree of the ,privy ,council1 in #afaf1 and by the legislation of #afcc and #afdf 7,r4 #agi71 the ,church was given an important share in their organization and management4 ,these schools1 while not always sufficient in number to meet the educational needs1 were well taught1 and have deeply influenced the national character4 #d4 ,the ,counter-,reformation of the ,catholics ,,the ,,jesuit ,,order4 ,the ,protestant ,revolt made but little headway in ,italy1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 much of ,france1 or southern ,belgium 7see map1 p4 #bif74 ,italy was scarcely disturbed at all1 while in ,france1 where of all these countries the reform ideas had made greatest progress1 nine tenths of the people remained loyal to ,rome4 ,in a general way it may be stated that those parts of western ,europe which had once formed an integral part of the old ,roman ,empire remained loyal to the ,roman ,church1 while those which had been the homes of the ,germanic tribes revolted4 ,now it naturally happened that the countries which remained loyal to the old ,church experienced none of the feelings of the necessity for education as a means to personal salvation which the ,lutherans and ,calvinists felt4 ,there1 too1 the church system of education which had developed during the long ,middle ,ages remained undisturbed and largely unchanged4 ,the ,church as an institution1 though1 learned from the ,protestants the value of education as a means to larger ends1 and soon set about using it4 #f ,after the ,church ,council of ,trent 7#aede-fc71 where definite church reform measures were carried through 7p4 #cjc71 the ,catholics inaugurated what has since been called a counter-reformation1 in an effort to hold lands which were still loyal and to win back lands which had been lost4 ,besides reforming the practices and outward lives of the churchmen1 and reforming some church practices and methods1 the ,church inaugurated a campaign of educational propaganda4 ,in this last the chief reliance was upon a new and a very useful organization officially known as the ,society of ,jesus1 but more commonly called the ,jesuit ,order4 ,this had been founded1 in #aecd1 by a ,spanish knight1 pilgrim1 man of large ideas1 and scholar by the name of ,ignatius ,loyola1 and had been sanctioned as an ,order of the ,church by ,pope ,paul ,,iii1 in #aedj4 ,it was organized along strictly military lines1 all members being responsible to its ,general1 and he in turn alone to the ,pope4 ,the quiet life of the cloister was abandoned for a life of open warfare under a military discipline4 ,the ,jesuit was to live in the world1 and all peculiarities of dress or rule which might prove an obstacle to worldly success were suppressed4 ,the purposes of the ,order were to combat heresy1 to advance the interests of the ,church1 and to strengthen the authority of the ,papacy4 ,its motto was ,omnia ad ,majorem ,dei ,gloriam 7that is1 ,all for the greater glory of ,god71 and the means to be employed by it to accomplish these ends were the pulpit1 the confessional1 the mission1 and the school4 ,of these the school was given the place of first importance4 ,realizing clearly that the real cause of the ,reformation had been the ignorance1 neglect1 and vicious lives of so many monks and priests and the extortion and neglect practiced by the ,church1 and that the chief difficulty was in the higher places of authority1 it became the prime principle of the ,order to live upright and industrious lives themselves1 and to try to reach and train those likely to be the future leaders in ,church and ,state4 ,with the education of the masses of the people the ,order was not concerned4 #g ,our interest lies only with the educational work of this ,order1 a work in which it was remarkably successful and through which it exercised a very large influence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,,ignatius ,,de ,,loyola 7#adia-aeef7 ,,great ,,success ,,of ,,the ,,order4 ,the service of the ,order to the ,church in combating ,protestant heresies was very marked4 ,beginning in a small way1 the ,order1 by #afjj1 had established two hundred colleges 7,latin secondary schools71 universities1 and training seminaries2 by #afdj1 #cgb2 by #agjf 7#aej years after the death of its founder71 #gfi2 and by #agef1 #gbh4 ,in #aggc1 when the ,order was for a time abolished1 #h after it had been driven out of a number of ,european countries because of the unscrupulous methods it adopted and the continual application of its doctrine that the end justifies the means1 the ,order had #bb1ehi members1 about half of whom were teachers4 ,its colleges 7secondary schools7 and universities were most numerous and its work most energetically carried on in northern ,france1 ,belgium1 ,holland1 the ,german ,states1 ,austria1 ,poland1 and ,hungary4 ,here was the great battle line1 and here the ,jesuits deeply entrenched themselves4 ,in these portions of ,europe alone there were1 in #agej1 #bag colleges1 #ee seminaries1 #bd houses for novitiates1 and #afj missions4 ,in ,france alone there were #ib colleges4 ,they did much1 single-handed1 to roll back the tide of ,protestantism which had advanced over half of western ,europe1 and to hold other countries true to the ancient faith4 ,the colleges were usually large and well-supported institutions1 with dormitories1 classrooms1 dining-halls2 and play-grounds4 ,the usual number of scholars in each was about #cjj1 though some had an attendance of #fjj to #hjj1 and a few as high as #bjjj4 ,at their period of maximum influence the colleges and universities of the ,order probably enrolled a total of #bjj1jjj students4 ,their graduates were prominent in every scholarly and governmental activity of the time4 ,as far as possible the pupils were a selected class to whom the ,order offered free instruction4 ,the children of the nobility and gentry1 and the brightest and most promising youths of the different lands were drawn into their schools4 ,the children of many ,protestants1 also1 were attracted by the high quality of the instruction offered4 ,there they were given the best secondary-school education of the time1 and received1 at an impressionable age1 the peculiar ,jesuit stamp4 #i ,bacon gave his opinion as to the success of their instruction in the following sentence3 ,as for the pedagogical part1 the shortest rule would be1 ,consult the schools of the ,jesuits2 for nothing better has been put in practice4 7,de ,augmentis1 ,,vi1 #d47 #aj ,,success ,,of ,,the ,,jesuit ,,schools4 ,displaying a genius for organization worthy of ,rome1 ,loyola and his followers absorbed the best educational ideas of the time as to school organization and management and curriculum1 and incorporated these into their educational plan4 ,too practical to make many changes1 but with a keen eye for what was best1 they accepted the best and used it much as others had worked it out4 ,from the municipal college of ,guyenne1 the colleges of ,calvin1 and ,sturm's organization at ,strassburg1 they adopted the plan of class organization1 with a teacher for each class4 ,from the ,calvinists they obtained the idea of the careful supervision of instruction1 which was worked out in the ,prefect of ,studies for their colleges4 ,in their course of study they incorporated the ,ciceronian ideal of the humanistic learning1 and as careful religious instruction as was provided by any of the reformers4 ,from the ,italian court schools they took the idea of physical training4 ,the method of instruction and classroom management which they worked out was detailed1 practical1 and for their purposes excellent4 ,the reasons for their educational work gave them a clearly defined aim and purpose4 ,the military brotherhood type of organization1 the lifetime of celibate service1 and the opportunity to sort the carefully selected members according to their ability for service in the different lines of the ,order gave them the best-selected teaching force in ,europe1 and these men they trained for the teaching service with a thoroughness unknown before and seldom equaled since4 ,knowing why they were at work and what ends they should achieve1 intolerant of opposition1 intensely practical in all their work1 and possessed of an indefatigable zeal in the accomplishment of their purpose1 they gave ,europe in general and northern continental ,europe in particular a system of secondary schools and universities possessed of a high degree of effectiveness1 which1 combined with religious warfare and persecution1 in time drove out or dwarfed all competing institutions in the countries they were able to control4 ,that their educational system1 viewed from a modern liberal-education standpoint1 equaled in effectiveness for liberal-education ends such institutions as the court schools of ,vittorino da ,feltre1 ,battista da ,guarino1 or other ,italian humanistic educators of the ,renaissance 7p4 #bfg72 the ,french and ,swiss colleges of ,calvin 7p4 #cca72 ,colet's school at ,saint ,paul's 7p4 #bge71 and the better ,english grammar schools2 or the schools of the ,brethren of the ,common ,life in the ,netherlands 7p4 #bga72 would hardly be contended for to-day4 ,such1 though1 was not their purpose4 ,to proselyte for the ,church rather than to liberalize--from their point of view there had been too much liberalizing already--was their ultimate aim1 and their educational work was organized to suppress rather than to awaken more ,protestant heresy4 ,the work of this ,order was so successful1 and for two centuries so dominated secondary and higher education in ,europe1 that it will pay us to examine a little more closely their educational organization to see more fully the reasons for their large success4 ,in so doing we will examine three points--their school organization1 their methods of instruction1 and the training of their teachers4 ,,jesuit ,,school ,,organization4 ,each college was presided over by a ,rector1 who was in effect the president of the institution1 and a ,prefect of ,studies1 who was the superintendent of instruction4 ,below these were the ,professors or teachers1 the ,house ,prefect1 the official disciplinarian of the institution1 known as the ,corrector1 the monitors1 and the students4 ,there were two classes of students1 interns and externs4 ,their schools were divided into two courses4 ,the studia inferiora1 or lower school1 which covered the six years from ten to twelve years of age up to sixteen to eighteen2 and the studia superiora1 which followed1 and included the higher college and university courses1 with philosophy and theology as the important subjects4 ,for the whole1 there was a very carefully worked-out manual of instruction 7,r4 #ahj7 known as the ,ratio ,studiorum4 #aa ,the boy entering a ,jesuit college was supposed to have previously learned how to read ,latin4 ,the first three years were given to learning ,latin grammar and a little ,greek4 ,in the fourth year ,latin and ,greek authors were begun1 and in the fifth and sixth years a rhetorical study of the ,latin authors was made4 ,latin was the language of the classroom and the playground as well1 the mother tongue being used only by permission4 ,greek was studied through the medium of the ,latin4 ,the retention of ,latin as the language of all scholarly and political intercourse1 and the cultivation of the style and speech of ,cicero as the standard of purity and elegance1 were the ends aimed at4 ,careful attention was given to the health and sports of the pupils1 and special regard was paid to moral and religious training4 ,following this lower school of six years came the so-called philosophical course of three years 7sometimes two74 ,the study of the ,latin classics and rhetoric was continued1 and dialectics 7logic7 and some metaphysics were added4 ,the nine years together covered about the same scope as ,sturm's school 7,r4 #acg7 at ,strassburg 7p4 #bgc71 but was more formal in character and partook more of the nature of the later formalized humanistic schools4 ,slight variations were allowed in places1 to meet particular local needs1 but this course of study remained practically unchanged until #ahcb1 when some history1 geography1 and elementary mathematics and science were added to the lower schools1 and advanced mathematics and science to the philosophical course4 ,in #aijf each ,province of the ,order was permitted to change the ,ratio further1 if necessary to adjust it better to local needs4 ,above the philosophical course a course of four or six years in philosophy and theology prepared for the higher work of the ,order1 the four-year course for preaching and the six-year course for teaching4 ,,jesuit ,,school ,,methods4 ,the characteristic method of the schools was oral1 with a consequent closeness of contact of teacher and pupils4 ,this closeness of contact and sympathy was further retained by the system whereby all punishment was given by the official ,corrector of the institution4 ,their method1 like that of the modern ,german ,volkschule1 was distinctly a teaching and not a questioning method4 ,the teacher planned and gave the instruction2 the pupils received it4 ,in the upper classes the teacher explained the general meaning of the entire passage2 then the construction of each part2 then gave the historical1 geographical1 and archaeological information needed further to explain the passage2 then called attention to the rhetorical and poetical forms and rules2 then compared the style with that of other writers2 and finally drew the moral lesson4 ,the memory was drilled2 but little training of the judgment or understanding was given4 ,thoroughness1 memory drills1 and the disciplinary value of studies were foundation stones in the ,jesuit's educational theory4 ,repetition1 they said1 was the mother of memory4 ,each day the work of the previous day was reviewed1 and there were further reviews at the end of each week1 month1 and year4 ,to retain the interest of the pupils amid such a load of memorizing various school devices were resorted to1 chief among which were prizes1 ranks1 emulations1 rivals1 and public disputations4 ,the system of rivals1 whereby each boy had an opponent constantly after him1 as shown in ,figure #ajb1 was one of the peculiar features of their schools4 ,while the schools were said to have been made pleasant and attractive1 the idea of the absolute authority of the ,church which they represented pervaded them and repressed the development of that individuality which the court schools of the ,italian ,renaissance1 the schools of the northern humanists1 and the ,calvinistic colleges had tried particularly to foster4 ,this1 however1 is a criticism made from a modern point of view4 ,that the school represented well the spirit of the times is indicated by their marked success as teaching institutions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,jesuit ,,schoolroom ,the pupils were arranged in equal numbers in opposite rows1 known as decuriae1 and designated by the numbers4 ,each boy in each row had a rival in the similarly numbered opposite row 7one pair is designated by dots71 who rose whenever he was called on to recite1 and who tried to correct him in some error4 ,a monitor for each group sat at ,c1 and the regular teacher at ,b4 ,a1 ,d1 ,e1 i1 o1 and x represent various student officials4 ,,training ,,of ,,the ,,jesuit ,,teacher4 ,the newest and the most distinguishing feature of the ,jesuit educational scheme1 as well as the most important1 was the care with which they selected and the thoroughness with which they trained their teachers4 ,to begin with1 every ,jesuit was a picked man1 and of those who entered the ,order only the best were selected for teaching4 ,each entered the ,order for life1 was vowed to celibacy1 poverty1 chastity1 uprightness of life1 and absolute obedience to the commands of the ,order4 ,the six-year inferior course had to be completed1 which required that the boy be sixteen to eighteen years of age before he could take the preliminary steps toward joining the ,order4 ,then a two-year novitiate1 away from the world1 followed4 ,this was a trial of his real character1 his weak points were noted1 and his will and determination tested4 ,many were dismissed before the end of the novitiate4 ,if retained and accepted1 he took the preliminary vows and entered the philosophical course of study4 ,on completing this he was from twenty-one to twenty-three years of age4 ,he was now assigned to teach boys in the inferior classes of some college1 and might remain there4 ,if destined for higher work he taught in the inferior classes for two or three years1 and then entered the theological course at some ,jesuit university4 ,this required four years for those headed for the ministry1 and six for those who were being trained for professorships in the colleges4 ,on completing this course the final vows were taken1 at an age of from twenty-nine to thirty-two4 ,the training to- day is still longer4 ,to become a teacher in the inferior classes required training until twenty-one at least1 and for college 7secondary7 classes training until at least twenty-nine4 ,the training was in scholarship1 religion1 theology1 and an apprenticeship in teaching1 and was superior to that required for a teaching license in any ,protestant country of ,europe1 or in the ,catholic ,church itself outside of the ,jesuit ,order4 ,with such carefully selected and well-educated teachers1 themselves models of upright life in an age when priests and monks had been careless1 it is not surprising that they wielded an influence wholly out of proportion to their numbers1 and supplied ,europe with its best secondary schools during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries4 ,in the loyal ,catholic countries they were virtually the first secondary schools outside of the monasteries and churches1 and the real introduction of humanism into ,spain1 ,portugal1 and parts of ,france came with the establishment of the ,jesuit humanistic colleges4 ,for their schools they wrote new school books --the ,protestant books1 the most celebrated of which were those of ,erasmus1 ,melanchthon1 ,sturm1 and ,lily1 were not possible of use--and for a time they put new life into the humanistic type of education4 ,before the eighteenth century1 however1 their secondary schools had become as formal as had those in ,protestant lands 7,r4 #adf71 and their universities far more narrow and intolerant4 ,the elements of strength and weakness in the ,jesuit system of education has been well summarized by ,dabney1 #ab in the following words3 ,the order of the ,jesuits was anti-democratic1 and was founded to uphold authority1 and to antagonize the right of private judgment4 ,with masterly skill they ruled the ,catholic world for about two centuries2 and1 in the beginning of their activity1 performed services of great value to mankind4 ,for1 although they aimed1 in their system of education1 to fit pupils merely for so-called practical avocations1 and to avoid all subjects likely to stimulate them to independent thought1 it was nevertheless the best system which had then appeared4 ,in dropping the old scholastic methods1 and teaching new and fresher subjects1 although with the intention of perverting them to their own ends1 they sowed1 in fact1 the germs of their own decay4 ,in spite of their wonderful organization1 and their indefatigable industry as courtiers in royal palaces1 as professors in the universities1 as teachers in the schools1 as preachers1 as confessors1 and as missionaries1 they were utterly unable to crush the spirit of doubt and inquiry4 ,during the first half century of their existence they were intellectually in advance of their age2 but after that they gradually dropped behind it1 and1 instead of diffusing knowledge1 saw that the only hope of retaining their dominion was to oppose it with all their might4 ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,elementary ,,education4 ,as was stated on a preceding page1 the countries which remained loyal to the ,church experienced none of the ,protestant feeling as to the necessity for universal education for individual salvation4 ,in such lands the church system of education which had grown up during the ,middle ,ages remained undisturbed1 and was expanded but slowly with the passage of time4 ,the ,church1 never having made general provision for education1 was not prepared for such work4 ,teachers were scarce1 there was no theory of education except the religious theory1 and few knew what to do or how to do it4 ,many churchmen1 too1 did not see the need for doing anything4 ,nevertheless the ,church1 spurred on by the new demands of a world fast becoming modern1 and by the exhortations of the official representatives of the people1 #ac now began to make extra efforts1 in the large cathedral cities1 to remedy the deficiency of more than a thousand years4 ,in ,paris1 for example1 which was typical of other ,french cities1 the ,church organized a regular system of elementary schools1 with teachers licensed by the ,precentor of the cathedral of ,notre ,dame and nominally under his supervision1 in which instruction was offered to children of the artisan and laboring classes1 of both sexes1 in reading1 writing1 reckoning1 the rudiments of ,latin ,grammar1 ,catechism1 and singing4 ,by #afge these ,little ,schools in ,paris came to contain upwards of #ejjj pupils1 taught by some #ccj masters and mistresses4 ,all such schools1 of course1 remained under the immediate control of the ,church1 and modern state systems of education in the ,catholic ,states are late nineteenth-century productions4 ,in ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,poland1 and the ,balkan ,states1 general state systems of education have not even as yet been evolved4 ,the general effect of the ,reformation1 though1 was to stimulate the ,church to greater activity in elementary1 as well as in secondary and higher education4 ,in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries we find a large number of decrees by church councils and exhortations by bishops urging the extension of the existing church system of education1 so as to supply at least religious training to all the children of the faithful4 ,as a result a number of teaching orders were organized1 the aim of which was to assist the ,church in providing elementary and religious education for the children of the laboring and artisan classes in the cities4 ,,teaching ,,orders ,,established4 ,the teaching orders for elementary education1 founded before the eighteenth century1 with the dates of their foundation1 were3 99 #aece-,the ,order of ,ursulines4 7,u4,s41 #agbi47 #aeib--,the ,congregation of ,christian ,doctrine4 99 #aeih--,the ,sisters of ,notre ,dame4 7,u4,s41 #ahdg47 99 #afaj--,the ,visitation ,nuns4 7,u4,s41 #agii47 #afba--,patres piarum scholarum 7,piarists74 ,first school opened in #aeig2 authorized by the ,pope1 #affb4 #afbg--,the ,daughters of the ,presentation4 99 #afcc--,the ,sisters of ,charity of ,saint ,vincent de ,paul4 7,u4,s41 #ahji47 #afcg--,the ,port ,royalists 7,jansenists74 7,suppressed in #affa47 #afdc--,the ,sisters of ,providence4 99 #afej--,the ,sisters of ,saint ,joseph4 ,rule based on ,jesuits4 7,u4,s41 #aith ,c47 #afeb--,the ,sisters of ,mary of ,saint ,charles ,borromeo4 #afhd--,the ,sisters of the ,presentation of the ,blessed ,virgin4 99 #afhd--,the ,brothers of the ,christian ,schools4 7,u4,s41 #ahde47 99 ,have communities in the ,united ,states1 the date being that of the first one established4 ,see ,cyclopedia of ,education1 vol4 v1 p4 #ebh4 ,all of these1 except the ,ursulines and the ,piarists1 were founded in ,france1 many of them originating in ,paris4 ,the first has long been prominent in ,italy1 and is now found in all lands4 ,the second was founded by ,father ,csar de ,bus1 at ,cavaillon1 ,avignon1 in southern ,france1 and its purpose was to teach the ,catechism to the young4 ,the catechetical schools of this ,order were prominent in southern ,france up to the time of the ,french ,revolution4 ,the third was founded by the ,blessed ,peter ,fourier 7#aefe-afdj71 in #aeih1 and played an important part in the education of girls in ,france1 particularly in ,lorraine1 where ,calvinism had made much headway4 ,this noted ,order offered free instruction to tradesmen's daughters1 not only in religion but in that which concerns this present life and its maintenance as well4 ,the girls were taught reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 sewing1 and divers manual arts1 honorable and peculiarly suitable for girls of their station of life4 ,at a time when handwork had not been thought of for boys1 the beginnings of such work were here introduced for girls4 ,in #afdj ,fourier gave the sisterhood a constitution and a rule1 which were revised and perfected in #afid4 ,in this he laid down rules for the organization and management of schools1 methods of teaching the different branches1 and provided for a rudimentary form of class organization4 ,the following extract from the ,rule illustrates the approach to class organization which he devised3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,,an ,,ursuline ,order founded1 #aece ,the inspectress1 or mistress of the class1 shall endeavor1 as far as it possibly can be carried out1 that all the pupils of the same mistress have each the same book1 in order to learn and read therein the same lesson2 so that1 whilst one is reading hers in an audible and intelligible voice before the mistress1 all the others1 following her and following this lesson1 in their books at the same time1 may learn it sooner1 more readily1 and more perfectly4 #ad ,the ,piarists were established in ,italy1 the first school being opened in ,rome1 in #aeig1 by a ,spanish priest who had studied at ,lerida1 ,valencia1 and ,alcal4 ,being struck by the lack of educational opportunities for the poor1 he opened a free school for their instruction4 ,by #afjf he had #ijj pupils in his schools1 and by #afac he had #abjj4 ,in #afba ,pope ,gregory ,,xv gave his work definite recognition by establishing it a teaching ,order for elementary 7reading1 writing1 counting1 religion7 education1 modeled on that of the ,jesuits4 ,the ,order did some work in ,italy and ,spain1 but its chief services were in border ,catholic lands4 ,in #afca it began work in ,moravia1 in #afdj in ,bohemia1 in #afdb in ,poland1 and after #afdh in ,austria and ,hungary4 ,the members wore a habit much like that of the ,jesuits1 had a scheme of studies similar to their ,ratio1 and were organized by provinces and were under discipline as were the members of the older ,order4 ,the ,jansenists1 founded by ,saint ,cyran1 at ,port ,royal1 conducted a very interesting and progressive educational experiment1 and their schools have become known to history as the ,little ,schools of ,port ,royal4 ,the congregation was a reaction against the work and methods of the ,jesuits4 ,it included both elementary and secondary education1 but never extended itself1 and probably never had more than sixty pupils and teachers4 ,after seventeen years of work it was suppressed through the opposition of the ,jesuits1 and its members fled to the ,netherlands4 ,there they wrote those books which have explained to succeeding generations what they attempted1 #ae and which have revealed what a modern type of educational experiment they conducted4 ,the progressive and modern nature of their teaching1 in an age of suspicion and intolerance1 condemned them to extinction4 ,yet despite the progressive nature of their instruction1 the intense religious atmosphere which they threw about all their work 7,r4 #aha7 reveals the dominant characteristic of most education for church ends at the time4 ,,the ,,brothers ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,schools4 ,the largest and most influential of the teaching orders established for elementary education was the ,institute of the ,brothers of the ,christian ,schools1 founded by ,father ,la ,salle at ,rouen1 in #afhd1 and sanctioned by the ,king and ,pope in #agbd4 ,as early as #afgi ,la ,salle had begun a school at ,rheims1 and in #afhd he organized his disciples1 prescribed a costume to be worn1 and outlined the work of the brotherhood 7,r4 #ahb74 ,the object was to provide free elementary and religious instruction in the vernacular for the children of the working classes1 and to do for elementary education what the ,jesuits had done for secondary education ,la ,salle's ,conduct of ,schools1 first published in #agbj1 was the ratio studiorum of his order4 ,his work marks the real beginning of free primary instruction in the vernacular in ,france4 ,in addition to elementary schools1 a few of what we should call part-time continuation schools were organized for children engaged in commerce and industry4 ,realizing better than the ,jesuits the need for well-trained rather than highly educated teachers for little children1 and unable to supply members to meet the outside calls for schools1 ,la ,salle organized at ,rheims1 in #afhe1 what was probably the second normal school for training teachers in the world4 #af ,another was organized later at ,paris4 ,in addition to a good education of the type of the time and thorough grounding in religion1 the student teachers learned to teach in practice schools1 under the direction of experienced teachers4 ,the pupils in ,la ,salle's schools were graded into classes1 and the class method of instruction was introduced4 #ag ,the curriculum was unusually rich for a time when teaching methods and textbooks were but poorly developed1 the needs for literary education small1 and when children could not as yet be spared from work longer than the age of nine or ten4 ,children learned first to read1 write1 and spell ,french1 and to do simple composition work in the vernacular4 ,those who mastered this easily were taught the ,latin ,psalter in addition4 ,much prominence was given to writing1 the instruction being applied to the writing of bills1 notes1 receipts1 and the like4 ,much free questioning was allowed in arithmetic and the ,catechism1 to insure perfect understanding of what was taught4 ,religious training was made the most prominent feature of the school1 as was natural4 ,a half-hour daily was given to the ,catechism1 mass was said daily1 the crucifix was always on the wall1 and two or three pupils were always to be found kneeling1 telling their beads4 ,the discipline1 in contradistinction to the customary practice of the time1 was mild1 though all punishments were carefully prescribed by rule4 #ah ,the rule of silence in the school was rigidly enjoined1 all speech was to be in a low tone of voice1 and a code of signals replaced speech for many things4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,a ,,school ,,of ,,la ,,salle ,,at ,,paris1 #afhh ,a visit of ,james ,,ii and the ,archbishop of ,paris to the ,school 7,from a bas- relief on the statue of ,la ,salle1 at ,rouen7 ,though the ,order met with much opposition from both church and civil authorities1 it made slow but steady headway4 ,at the time of the death of ,la ,salle1 in #agai1 thirty-five years after its foundation1 the ,order had one general normal school1 four normal schools for training teachers1 three practice schools1 thirty-three primary schools1 and one continuation school4 ,the ,order remained largely ,french1 and at the time of its suppression1 in #agib1 had schools in #aba communities in ,france and #f elsewhere1 about #ajjj brothers1 and approximately #cj1jjj children in its schools4 ,this was approximately #a child in every #age of school age of the population of ,france at that time4 ,while relatively small in numbers1 their schools represented the best attempt to provide elementary education in any ,catholic country before well into the nineteenth century4 ,the distribution of their schools throughout ,france1 by #agib1 is shown on the map above4 ,in #ahjc the ,order was restablished1 by #ahch it had schools in #bhb communities1 and in #ahhg1 when ,la ,salle was declared a ,saint of the ,church1 it had #ahih communities on four continents1 #aji of which were in the ,united ,states1 and was teaching a total of approximately #cjj1jjj primary children4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,,the ,,brothers ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,schools ,,by #agib ,map1 showing the locations of their communities #e4 ,general ,results of the ,reformation on ,education ,,destruction ,,and ,,creation ,,of ,,schools4 ,any such general overturning of the established institutions and traditions of a thousand years as occurred at the time of the ,protestant ,revolts1 with the accompanying bitter hatreds and religious strife1 could not help but result in extensive destruction of established institutions4 ,monasteries1 churches1 and schools alike suffered1 and it required time to replace them4 ,even though they had been neglectful of their functions1 inadequate in number1 and unsuited to the needs of a world fast becoming modern1 they had nevertheless answered partially the need of the times4 ,in all the countries where revolts took place these institutions suffered more or less1 but in ,england probably most of all4 ,the old schools which were not destroyed were transformed into ,protestant schools1 the grammar schools to train scholars and leaders1 and the parish schools into ,protestant elementary schools to teach reading and the ,catechism1 but the number of the latter1 in all ,protestant lands1 was very far short of the number needed to carry out the ,protestant religious theory4 ,this1 as we have seen1 proposed to extend the elements of an education to large and entirely new classes of people who never before in the history of the world had had such advantages4 ,out of the ,protestant religious conception that all should be educated the popular elementary school of modern times has been evolved4 ,the evolution1 though1 was slow1 and long periods of time have been required for its accomplishment4 ,in place of the schools destroyed1 or the teachers driven out if no destruction took place1 the reformers made an earnest effort to create new schools and supply teachers4 ,this1 though1 required time1 especially as there was as yet in the world no body of vernacular teachers1 no institutions in which such could be trained1 no theory as to education except the religious1 no supply of educated men or women from which to draw1 no theory of state support and control1 and no source of taxation from which to derive a steady flow of funds4 ,throughout the long ,middle ,ages the ,church had supplied gratuitous or nearly gratuitous instruction4 ,this it could do1 to the limited number whom it taught1 from the proceeds of its age-old endowments and educational foundations4 ,in the process of transformation from a ,catholic to a ,protestant ,state1 and especially during the more than a century of turmoil and religious strife which followed the rupture of the old relations1 many of the old endowments were lost or were diverted from their original purposes4 ,as the ,protestant reformers were supported generally by the ruling princes1 many of these tried to remedy the deficiency by ordering schools established4 ,the landed nobility though1 unused to providing education for their villein tenants and serfs1 were averse to supplying the deficiency by any form of general taxation4 ,nor were the rising merchant classes in the cities any more anxious to pay taxes to provide for artisans and servants what had for ages been a gratuity or not furnished at all4 ,,no ,,real ,,demand ,,of ,,elementary ,,schools4 ,the creation of a largely new type of schools1 and in sufficient numbers to meet the needs of large classes of people who before had never shared in the advantages of education1 in consequence proved to be a work of centuries4 ,the century of warfare which followed the reformation movement more or less exhausted all ,europe1 while the ,thirty ,years' ,war which formed its culmination left the ,german ,states1 where the largest early educational progress had been made1 a ruin4 ,in consequence there was for long little money for school support1 and religious interest and church tithes had to be depended on almost entirely for the establishment and support of schools4 ,out of the parish sextons or clerks a supply of vernacular teachers had to be evolved1 a system of school organization and supervision worked out and added to the duties of the minister1 and the feeling of need for education awakened sufficiently to make people willing to support schools4 ,in consequence what ,luther and ,calvin declared at the beginning of the sixteenth century to be a necessity for the ,state and the common right of all1 it took until well into the nineteenth century actually to create and make a reality4 ,the great demand of the time1 too1 was not so much for the education of the masses1 however desirable or even necessary this might be from the standpoint of ,protestant religious theory1 but for the training of leaders for the new religious and social order which the ,revival of ,learning1 the rise of modern nationalities1 and the ,reformation movements had brought into being4 ,for this secondary schools for boys1 largely ,latin in type1 were demanded rather than elementary vernacular schools for both sexes4 ,we accordingly find the great creations of the period were secondary schools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,,tendencies ,,in ,,educational ,,development ,,in ,,europe1 #aejj to #agjj ,,lines ,,of ,,future ,,development ,,established4 ,still more1 certain lines of future development now became clearly established4 ,the drawing given here will help to make this evident4 ,it will be seen from this that not only was the secondary school still the dominant type1 though elementary schools began for the first time to be considered as important also1 but that the secondary schools were wholly independent of the elementary schools which now began to be created4 ,the elementary schools were in the vernacular and for the masses2 the secondary schools were in the ,latin tongue and for the training of the scholarly leaders4 ,between these two schools1 so different in type and in clientle1 there was little in common4 ,this difference was further emphasized with time4 ,the elementary schools later on added subjects of use to the common people1 while the secondary schools added subjects of use for scholarly preparation or for university entrance4 ,the secondary schools also frequently provided preparatory schools for their particular classes of children4 ,as a result1 all through ,europe two school systems--an elementary-school system for the masses1 and a secondary-school system for the classes--exist to-day side by side4 ,we in ,america did not develop such a class school system1 though we started that way4 ,this was because the conception of education we finally developed was a product of a new democratic spirit1 as will be explained later on4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,compare the attention to careful religious instruction in the secondary schools provided by the ,lutherans1 ,calvinists1 and ,english4 ,what analogous instruction do we provide in the ,american high schools8 ,is it as thorough or as well done8 #b4 ,compare the scope and ideals of the educational system provided by the ,calvinists with the same for the ,lutherans and ,anglicans4 #c4 ,compare the characteristics of ,calvinistic 7,huguenot7 education1 as summarized by ,foster1 with present-day state educational purposes4 #d4 ,just what kind of a school system did ,knox propose 7#aefj7 for ,scotland8 #e4 ,show how the educational program of the ,jesuits reveals ,ignatius ,loyola as a man of vision4 #f4 ,viewed from the purposes the ,order had in mind1 was it warranted in neglecting the education of the masses8 #g4 ,does the success of the ,order show the importance to society of finding and educating the future leader8 ,can all men be trained for leadership8 #h4 ,what does the statement that the ,jesuits were too practical to make many changes1 but had a keen eye for what was best in the work of others1 indicate as to the nature of school administration and educational progress8 #i4 ,indicate the advantages which the ,jesuits had in their teachers and teaching-aim over us of to-day4 ,how could we develop an aim as clearly defined and potent as theirs8 ,could we select teachers with such care8 ,how8 #aj4 ,compare the religious and educational propaganda of the ,jesuits with the recent political propaganda of the ,germans4 #aa4 ,what is meant by the statement that the ,jesuit teaching method1 like that of the modern ,german ,volksschule1 was a teaching and not a questioning method8 #ab4 ,compare present ,american standards for teacher-training for elementary and secondary teaching with those required by the ,jesuits3--7a7 as to length of preparation2 7b7 as to nature and scope of preparation4 #ac4 ,how do you explain the introduction of sewing into the elementary vernacular ,catholic schools for girls1 so long before handiwork for boys was thought of8 #ad4 ,in schools so formally organized as those of ,la ,salle1 how do you explain the great freedom allowed in questioning on arithmetic and the ,catechism8 #ae4 ,why should ,la ,salle's work have been so opposed by both ,church and civil authorities8 ,do you consider that his ,order ever made what would be called rapid progress8 #af4 ,why must the education of leaders always precede the education of the masses8 #ag4 ,explain how ,european countries came naturally to have two largely independent school systems--a secondary school for leaders and an elementary school for the masses--whereas we have only one continuous system4 #ah4 ,explain why modern state systems of education developed first in the ,german ,states1 and why ,england and the ,catholic nations of ,europe were so long in developing state school systems4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #age4 ,woodward3 ,course of ,study at the ,college of ,geneva4 #agf4 ,synod of ,dort3 ,scheme of ,christian ,education adopted4 #agg4 ,kilpatrick3 ,work of the ,dutch in developing ,schools4 #agh4 ,kilpatrick3 ,character of the ,dutch ,schools of #afej4 #agi4 ,statutes3 ,the ,scotch ,school ,law of #afdf4 #ahj4 ,pachtler3 ,the ,ratio ,studiorum of the ,jesuits4 #aha4 ,grard3 ,the ,dominant ,religious ,purpose in the ,education of ,french ,girls4 #ahb4 ,la ,salle3 ,rules for the ,brothers of the ,christian ,schools4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,was the ,college at ,geneva 7#age7 a true humanistic-revival school8 #b4 ,just what did the ,synod of ,dort provide for 7#agf7 in the matter of schools1 school supervision1 and ministerial duties8 #c4 ,compare the work of the ,dutch 7#agg7 and the ,lutherans 7#aei-afc7 in creating schools4 #d4 ,just what type of school is indicated by selection #agh8 #e4 ,just what did the ,scotch law of #afdf provide for 7#agi78 #f4 ,characterize the schools provided for by ,la ,salle 7#ahb74 #g4 ,compare the religious care at ,port ,royal 7#aha7 with that suggested by ,saint ,jerome 7,r4 #de74 ,,supplementary ,,references ,baird1 ,c4 ,w4 ,history of the ,rise of the ,huguenots of ,france4 ,baird1 ,c4 ,w4 ,huguenot ,emigration to ,america4 ,grant1 ,jas4 ,history of the ,burgh ,schools of ,scotland4 ,hughes1 ,thos4 ,loyola1 and the ,educational ,system of the ,jesuits4 ,kilpatrick1 ,wm4 ,h4 ,the ,dutch ,schools of ,new ,netherlands and ,colonial ,new ,york4 ,laurie1 ,s4 ,s4 ,history of ,educational ,opinion since the ,renaissance4 ,ravelet1 ,a4 ,blessed ,j4 ,b4 de la ,salle4 ,schwickerath1 ,r4 ,jesuit ,education2 its ,history and ,principles in the ,light of ,modern ,educational ,problems4 ,woodward1 ,w4 ,h4 ,education during the ,renaissance4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,educational ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,revolts ,,iii4 ,,the ,,reformation ,,and ,,american ,,education ,,the ,,protestant ,,settlement ,,of ,,america4 ,columbus had discovered the new world just twenty-five years before ,luther nailed his theses to the church door at ,wittenberg1 and by the time the northern continent had been roughly explored and was ready for settlement1 ,europe was in the midst of a century of warfare in a vain attempt to extirpate the ,protestant heresy4 ,by the time that the futility of fire and sword as means for religious conversion had finally dawned upon ,christian ,europe and found expression in the ,peace of ,westphalia 7#afdh71 which closed the terrible ,thirty ,years' ,war 7p4 #cja71 the first permanent settlements in a number of the ,american colonies had been made4 ,these settlements1 and the beginnings of education in ,america1 are so closely tied up with the ,protestant ,revolts in ,europe that a chapter on the beginnings of ,american education belongs here as still another phase of the educational results of the ,protestant ,revolts4 ,practically all the early settlers in ,america came from among the peoples and from those lands which had embraced some form of the ,protestant faith1 and many of them came to ,america to found new homes and establish their churches in the wilderness1 because here they could enjoy a religious freedom impossible in their old home-lands4 ,this was especially true of the ,french ,huguenots1 many of whom1 after the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes #a 7#afhe71 fled to ,america and settled along the coast of the ,carolinas2 the ,calvinistic ,dutch and ,walloons1 who settled in and about ,new ,amsterdam2 the ,scotch and ,scotch-,irish ,presbyterians1 who settled in ,new ,jersey1 and later extended along the ,allegheny ,mountain ridges into all the southern colonies2 the ,english ,quakers about ,philadelphia1 who came under the leadership of ,william ,penn1 and a few ,english ,baptists and ,methodists in eastern ,pennsylvania2 the ,swedish ,lutherans1 along the ,delaware2 the ,german ,lutherans1 ,moravians1 ,mennonites1 ,dunkers1 and ,reformed-,church ,germans1 who settled in large numbers in the mountain valleys of ,pennsylvania2 and the ,calvinistic dissenters from the ,english ,national ,church1 known as ,puritans1 who settled the ,new ,england colonies1 and who1 more than any others1 gave direction to the future development of education in the ,american ,states4 ,very many of these early religious groups came to ,america in little congregations1 bringing their ministers with them4 ,each set up1 in the colony in which it settled1 what were virtually little religious republics1 that through them they might the better perpetuate the religious principles for which they had left the land of their birth4 ,education of the young for membership in the ,church1 and the perpetuation of a learned ministry for the congregations1 from the first elicited the serious attention of these pioneer settlers4 ,englishmen who were adherents of the ,english national faith 7,anglicans7 also settled in ,virginia and the other southern colonies1 and later in ,new ,york and ,new ,jersey1 while ,maryland was founded as the only ,catholic colony1 in what is now the ,united ,states1 by a group of persecuted ,english ,catholics who obtained a charter from ,charles ,i1 in #afcb4 ,these settlements are shown on the map on the following page4 ,as a result of these settlements there was laid1 during the early colonial period of ,american history1 the foundation of those type attitudes toward education which subsequently so materially shaped the educational development of the different ,american ,states during the early part of our national history4 ,,the ,,puritans ,,in ,,new ,,england4 ,of all those who came to ,america during this early period1 the ,calvinistic ,puritans who settled the ,new ,england colonies contributed most that was valuable to the future educational development of ,america1 and because of this will be considered first4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,religious ,,settlements ,,in ,,america ,the original reformation in ,england1 as was stated in chapters ,,xii and ,,xiii1 had been much more nominal than real4 ,the ,english ,bible and the ,english ,prayer-,book had been issued to the churches 7,r4 #agj71 and the ,king instead of the ,pope had been declared by the ,act of ,supremacy 7,r4 #aec7 to be the head of the ,english ,national ,church4 ,the same priests1 though1 had continued in the churches under the new rgime1 and the church service had not greatly changed aside from its transformation from ,latin into ,english4 ,neither the ,church as an organization nor its members experienced any great religious reformation4 ,not all ,englishmen1 though1 took the change in allegiance so lightly 7,r4 #ahc71 and in consequence there came to be a gradually increasing number who desired a more fundamental reform of the ,english ,church4 ,by #afjj the demand for ,church reform had become very insistent1 and the question of ,church purification 7whence the name ,puritans7 had become a burning question in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,,homes ,,of ,,the ,,pilgrims1 ,,and ,,their ,,route ,,to ,,america ,the ,english ,puritans1 moreover1 were of two classes4 ,one was a moderate but influential low-church group within the high ,state ,church1 possessed of no desire to separate ,church and ,state1 but earnestly insistent on a simplification of the ,church ceremonial1 the elimination of a number of the vestiges of the old ,romish-,church ritual1 and particularly the introduction of more preaching into the service4 ,the other class constituted a much more radical group1 and had become deeply imbued with ,calvinistic thinking4 ,this group gradually came into open opposition to any ,state ,church1 stood for the local independence of the different churches or congregations1 and desired the complete elimination of all vestiges of the ,romish faith from the church services4 #b ,they became known as ,independents1 or ,separatists1 and formed the germs of the later ,congregational groups of early ,new ,england4 ,both ,elizabeth 7#aeeh-afjc7 and ,james ,i 7#afjc-be7 savagely persecuted this more radical group1 and many of their congregations were forced to flee from ,england to obtain personal safety and to enjoy religious liberty 7,r4 #ahd74 ,one of these fugitive congregations1 from ,scrooby1 in north-central ,england1 after living for several years at ,leyden1 in ,holland1 finally set sail for ,america1 landed on ,plymouth ,rock1 in #afbj1 and began the settlement of that bleak and stormy coast4 ,other congregations soon followed1 it having been estimated that twenty thousand ,english ,puritans migrated #c to the ,new ,england wilderness before #afdj4 ,these represented a fairly well-to-do type of middle-class ,englishmen1 practically all of whom had had good educational advantages at home4 ,settling along the coast in little groups or congregations1 they at once set up a combined civil and religious form of government1 modeled in a way after ,calvin's ,city-,state at ,geneva1 and which became known as a ,new ,england town4 #d ,in time the southern portion of the coast of ,new ,england was dotted with little self-governing settlements of those who had come to ,america to obtain for themselves that religious freedom which had been denied them at home4 ,these settlements were loosely bound together in a colony federation1 in which each town was represented in a ,general ,court1 or legislature4 ,the extent of these settlements by #affj is shown on the map on the opposite page4 ,,beginnings ,,of ,,schools ,,in ,,new ,,england4 ,having come to ,america to secure religious freedom1 it was but natural that the perpetuation of their particular faith by means of education should have been one of the first matters to engage their attention1 after the building of their homes and the setting up of the civil government 7,r4 #ahe74 ,being deeply imbued with ,calvinistic ideas as to government and religion1 they desired to found here a religious commonwealth1 somewhat after the model of ,geneva 7p4 #bih71 or ,scotland 7p4 #cce71 or the ,dutch provinces 7p4 #ccd71 the corner- stones of which should be religion and education4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 ,,new ,,england ,,settlements1 #affj ,at first1 ,english precedents were followed4 ,home instruction1 which was quite common in ,england among the ,puritans1 was naturally much employed to teach the children to read the ,bible and to train them to participate in both the family and the congregational worship4 ,after #afdg1 town elementary schools under a master1 and later the ,english dame schools 7chapter ,,xviii71 were established to provide this rudimentary instruction4 ,the ,english apprentice system was also established 7,r4 #bja71 and the masters of apprentices gave similar instruction to boys entrusted to their care4 ,the town religious governments1 under which all the little congregations organized themselves1 much as the little religious parishes had been organized in old ,england1 also began the voluntary establishment of town grammar schools1 as a few towns in ,england had done 7,r4 #adc7 before the ,puritans migrated4 ,the ,latin ,school at ,boston dates from #afce1 and has had a continuous existence since that time4 ,the grammar school at ,charlestown dates from #afcf1 that at ,ipswich from the same year1 and the school at ,salem from #afcg4 ,in #afci ,dorchester voted3 that there shall be a rent of #bj lb a year for ever imposed upon ,tomsons ,island 444 toward the mayntenance of a schoole in ,dorchester4 ,this rent of #bj lb yearly to bee payd to such a schoole-master as shall vndertake to teach english1 latine1 and other tongues1 and also writing4 ,the said schoole-master to bee chosen from tyme to tyme p'r the freemen4 ,newbury1 in #afci1 voted foure akers of upland and sixe akers of salt marsh to ,anthony ,somerby for his encouragement to keepe schoole for one yeare1 and later levied a town rate of #bd for a schoole to be kepte at the meeting house4 ,cambridge also early established a ,latin grammar school for the training up of ,young ,schollars1 and fitting them #e for ,academicall ,learning 7,r4 #ahe74 ,the support for the town schools thus founded was derived from various sources1 such as the levying of tuition fees1 the income from town lands or fisheries set aside for the purpose1 #f voluntary contributions from the people of the town1 #g a town tax1 or a combination of two or more of these methods4 ,the founding of the free 7grammar7 school at ,roxburie1 in #afde1 is representative 7,r4 #ahh7 of the early methods4 ,there was no uniform plan as yet1 in either old or ,new ,england4 ,,founding ,,of ,,harvard ,,college4 ,in addition to establishing ,latin grammar schools1 a college was founded1 in #afcf1 by the ,general ,court 7legislature7 of the ,massachusetts ,bay ,colony1 to perpetuate learning and insure an educated ministry 7,r4 #ahe7 to the churches after our present ministers shall lie in the dust4 ,this new college1 located at ,newtowne1 was modeled after ,emmanuel ,college at ,cambridge1 an ,english ,puritan college in which many of the early ,new ,england colonists had studied1 #h and in loving memory of which they rechristened ,newtowne as ,cambridge4 ,in #afci the college was christened ,harvard ,college1 after a graduate of ,emmanuel ,college1 ,cambridge1 by the name of ,john ,harvard1 who died in ,charlestown1 a year after his arrival in the colony1 and who left the college his library of two hundred and sixty volumes and half his property1 about #hej4 ,the instruction in the new college was a combination of the arts and theological instruction given in a mediaeval university1 though at ,harvard the ,president1 ,master ,dunster 7,r4 #ahe71 did all the teaching4 ,for the first fifty years at ,harvard this continued to be true1 the attendance during that time seldom exceeding twenty4 ,the entrance requirements for the college 7,r4 #ahf a7 call for the completion of a typical ,english ,latin grammar-school education2 the rules and precepts for the government of the college 7,r4 #ahf b7 reveal the deep religious motive2 and the schedule of studies 7,r4 #ahf c7 and the requirements for degrees 7,r4 #ahf d7 both show that the instruction was true to the ,european type4 ,in the charter for the college1 granted by the colonial legislature in #afej 7,r4 #ahg a71 we find exemptions and conditions which remind one strongly of the older ,european foundations4 ,a century later ,brown ,college1 in ,rhode ,island1 was granted even more extensive exemptions 7,r4 #ahg b74 ,,the ,,first ,,colonial ,,legislation3 ,,the ,,law ,,of #afdb4 ,we thus see manifested early in ,new ,england the deep ,puritan-,calvinistic zeal for learning as a bulwark of ,church and ,state4 ,we also see the establishment in the wilderness of ,new ,england of a typical ,english educational system--that is1 private instruction in reading and religion by the parents in the home and by the masters of apprentices1 and later by a town schoolmaster2 the ,latin grammar school in the larger towns1 to prepare boys for the college of the colony2 and an ,english-type college to prepare them for the ministry4 ,as in ,england1 too1 all was clearly subordinate to the ,church4 ,still further1 as in ,england also1 the system was voluntary1 the deep religious interest which had brought the congregations to ,america being depended upon to insure for all the necessary education and religious training4 ,it early became evident1 though1 that these voluntary efforts on the part of the people and the towns would not be sufficient to insure that general education which was required by the ,puritan religious theory4 ,under the hard pioneer conditions1 and the suffering which ensued1 many parents and masters of apprentices evidently proved neglectful of their educational duties4 ,accordingly the ,church appealed to its servant1 the ,state1 as represented in the colonial legislature 7,general ,court7 to assist it in compelling parents and masters to observe their religious obligations4 ,the result was the famous ,massachusetts ,law of #afdb 7,r4 #aij71 which directed the chosen men 7,selectmen2 ,councilmen7 of each town to ascertain1 from time to time1 if the parents and masters were attending to their educational duties2 if the children were being trained in learning and labor and other employments 444 profitable to the ,commonwealth2 and if children were being taught to read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of the country1 and empowered them to impose fines on those who refuse to render such accounts to them when required4 ,in #afde the ,general ,court further ordered that all youth between ten and sixteen years of age should also receive instruction in ye exercise of arms1 as small guns1 halfe pikes1 bowes arrows1 c4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #i4 ,two ,,tablets ,,on ,,the ,,west ,,gateway ,,at ,,harvard ,,university ,reproducing colonial records relating to the founding of ,harvard ,college4 ,the ,law of #afdb is remarkable in that1 for the first time in the ,english- speaking world1 a legislative body representing the ,state ordered that all children should be taught to read4 ,the law shows clearly not only the influence of the ,reformation theory as to personal salvation and the ,calvinistic conception of the connection between learning and religion1 but also the influence of the ,english ,poor-,law legislation which had developed rapidly during the half-century immediately preceding the coming of the ,puritans to ,america 7,r4 #agc74 ,on the foundations of the ,english ,poor ,law of #afja 7,r4 #agd7 our ,new ,england settlers moulded the first ,american law relating to education1 adding to the principles there established 7p4 #cbf7 a distinct ,calvinistic contribution to our new-world life that1 the authorities of the civil town should see that all children were taught to read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of the country4 ,this law the ,selectmen1 or the courts if they failed to do so1 were ordered to enforce1 and the courts usually looked after their duties in the matter 7,r4 #aib74 ,the ,law of #afdg4 ,the ,law of #afdb1 while ordering the chosen men of each town to see that the education and training of children was not neglected1 and providing for fines on parents and masters who failed to render accounts when required1 did not1 however1 establish schools1 or direct the employment of schoolmasters4 ,the provision of education1 after the ,english fashion1 was still left with the homes4 ,after a trial of five years1 the results of which were not satisfactory1 the ,general ,court enacted another law by means of which it has been asserted that the ,puritan government of ,massachusetts rendered probably its greatest service to the future4 ,after recounting in a preamble 7,r4 #aia7 that it had in the past been one cheife proiect of y't ould deluder1 ,satan1 to keepe men from the knowledge of y'e ,scriptures1 444 by keeping y'm in an unknowne tongue1 so now by pswading from y'e use of tongues1 and obscuring y'e true sence meaning of y'e originall by false glosses of saint-seeming deceivers1 learning was in danger of being buried in y'e grave of o'r fath'rs in y'e church and comonwealth2 the ,court ordered3 #a4 ,that every town having fifty householders should at once appoint a teacher of reading and writing1 and provide for his wages in such manner as the town might determine2 and #b4 ,that every town having one hundred householders must provide a grammar school to fit youths for the university1 under a penalty of #e 7afterwards increased to #bj7 for failure to do so4 ,this law represents a distinct step in advance over the ,law of #afdb1 and for this there are no ,english precedents4 ,it was not until the latter part of the nineteenth century that ,england took such a step4 ,the precedents for the compulsory establishment of schools lie rather in the practices of the different ,german ,states 7p4 #cah71 the actions of the ,dutch synods 7,r4 #agf7 and provinces 7p4 #cce71 the ,acts of the ,scottish parliament of #afcc and #afdf 7p4 #ccd2 ,r4 #agi71 and the general ,calvinistic principle that education was an important function of a religious ,state4 ,,principles ,,established4 ,the ,state here1 acting again as the servant of the ,church1 enacted a law and fixed a tradition which prevailed and grew in strength and effectiveness after ,state and ,church had parted company4 ,not only was a school system ordered established--elementary for all towns and children1 and secondary for youths in the larger towns--but1 for the first time among ,english-speaking people1 there was an assertion of the right of the ,state to require communities to establish and maintain schools1 under penalty if they refused to do so4 ,it can be safely asserted1 in the light of later developments1 that the two laws of #afdb and #afdg represent the foundations upon which our ,american state public-school systems have been built4 ,mr4 ,martin1 the historian of the ,massachusetts public-school system1 states the fundamental principles which underlay this legislation1 as follows3 #i #a4 ,the universal education of youth is essential to the well-being of the ,state4 #b4 ,the obligation to furnish this education rests primarily upon the parent4 #c4 ,the ,state has a right to enforce this obligation4 #d4 ,the ,state may fix a standard which shall determine the kind of education1 and the minimum amount4 #e4 ,public money1 raised by general tax1 may be used to provide such education as the ,state requires4 ,the tax may be general1 though the school attendance is not4 #f4 ,education higher than the rudiments may be supplied by the ,state4 ,opportunity must be provided1 at public expense1 for youths who wish to be fitted for the university4 ,it is important to note here1 adds ,mr4 ,martin1 that the idea underlying all this legislation is neither paternalistic nor socialistic4 ,the child is to be educated1 not to advance his personal interests1 but because the ,state will suffer if he is not educated4 ,the ,state does not provide schools to relieve the parent1 nor because it can educate better than the parent can1 but because it can thereby better enforce the obligation which it imposes4 ,to prevent a return to the former state of religious ignorance it was important that education be provided4 ,to assure this the colonial legislature enacted a law requiring the maintenance and support of schools by the towns4 ,this law became the corner-stone of our ,american state school systems4 ,influence on other ,new ,england colonies4 ,connecticut ,colony1 in its ,law of #afej establishing a school system1 combined the spirit of the ,massachusetts ,law of #afdb1 though stated in different words 7,r4 #aic71 and the ,law of #afdg1 stated word for word4 ,new ,haven ,colony1 in #afee1 ordered that children and apprentices should be taught to read1 as had been done in ,massachusetts1 in #afdb1 but on the union of ,new ,haven and ,connecticut ,colonies1 in #affe1 the ,connecticut ,code became the law for the united colonies4 ,in #agjb a college was founded 7,yale7 and finally located at ,new ,haven1 to offer preparation for the ministry in the ,connecticut colony1 as had been done earlier in ,massachusetts1 and ,latin grammar schools were founded in the ,connecticut towns to prepare for the new college1 as also had been done earlier in ,massachusetts4 ,the rules and regulations for the grammar school at ,new ,haven 7,r4 #ahi7 reveal the purpose and describe the instruction provided in one of the earliest and best of these4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,,where ,,yale ,,college ,,was ,,founded ,plymouth ,colony1 in #afeh and again in #affc1 proposed to the towns that they sett vp a schoolmaster to traine vp children to reading and writing 7,r4 #aid a74 ,in #afgb the towns were asked to aid ,harvard ,college by gifts 7,r4 #aid b74 ,in #afgc-gd the income from the ,cape ,cod fisheries was set aside for the support of a 7grammar7 school 7,r4 #aid c74 ,finally1 in #afgg1 all towns having over fifty families and maintaining a grammar school were ordered aided from the fishery proceeds 7,r4 #aid d74 ,the ,massachusetts laws also applied to ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 and ,vermont1 as these were then a part of ,massachusetts ,colony4 ,after ,new ,hampshire separated1 in #afhj1 the ,massachusetts ,law of #afdg was virtually readopted in #agai-ba4 ,in ,maine and ,vermont there were so few settlers1 until near the beginning of our national life1 that the influence of the ,massachusetts legislation on these ,states was negligible until a later period4 ,only in ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations1 of all the ,new ,england colonies1 did the ,massachusetts legislation fail to exert a deep influence4 ,settled as these two had been by refugees from ,new ,england1 and organized on a basis of hospitality to all who suffered from religious oppression elsewhere1 the religious stimulus to the founding of schools naturally was lacking4 ,as the religious basis for education was as yet the only basis1 the first development of schools in ,rhode ,island awaited the humanitarian and economic influences which did not become operative until early in the nineteenth century4 ,outside of the ,new ,england colonies1 the appeal to the ,state as the servant of the ,church was seldom made during the early colonial period1 the churches handling the educational problem in their own way4 ,as a result the beginnings of ,state oversight and control were left to ,new ,england4 ,in the central colonies a series of parochial-school systems came to prevail1 while in ,episcopalian ,virginia and the other colonies to the south the no-business-of-the-,state attitude assumed toward education by the mother country was copied4 ,,the ,,church ,,schools ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,new ,netherland1 as ,new ,york ,colony was called before the ,english occupation1 was settled by the ,dutch ,west ,india ,company1 and some dozen villages about ,new ,york and up the ,hudson had been founded by the time it passed to the control of the ,english1 in #affd4 ,in these the ,dutch established typical home-land public parochial schools1 under the control of the ,reformed ,dutch ,church4 ,the schoolmaster was usually the reader and precentor in the church as well 7,r4 #aie71 and often acted1 as in ,holland1 as sexton besides4 ,girls attended on equal terms with boys1 but sat apart and recited in separate classes4 ,the instruction consisted of reading and writing ,dutch1 sometimes a little arithmetic1 the ,dutch ,catechism1 the reading of a few religious books1 and certain prayers4 ,the rules 7#affa7 for a schoolmaster in ,new ,amsterdam 7,r4 #aif71 and the contract with a ,dutch schoolmaster in ,flatbush 7,r4 #aie71 dating from #afhb1 reveal the type of schools and school conditions provided4 ,all except the children of the poor paid fees to the schoolmaster4 #aj ,he was licensed by the ,dutch church authorities4 ,as the ,dutch had not come to ,america because of persecution1 and were in no way out of sympathy with religious conditions in the home-land1 the schools they developed here were typical of the ,dutch ,european parochial schools of the time 7,r4 #agh74 ,a trivial 7,latin7 school was also established in ,new ,york1 in #afeb4 ,after the ,english occupation the ,english principle of private and church control of education1 with schooling on a tuition or a charitable basis1 came to prevail1 and this continued up to the beginning of our national period4 #aa ,of the ,english colonial schools of ,new ,york ,draper has written3 #ab ,all the ,english schools in the province from #agjj down to the time of the ,declaration of ,independence were maintained by a great religious society organized under the auspices of the ,church of ,england--and1 of course1 with the favor of the government--called ,the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel in ,foreign ,parts4 ,the law governing this ,society provided that no teacher should be employed until he had proved his affection for the present government and his conformity to the doctrine and discipline of the ,church of ,england4 ,schools maintained under such auspices were in no sense free schools4 ,indeed1 humiliating as it is1 no student of history can fail to discern the fact that the government of ,great ,britain1 during its supremacy in this territory1 did nothing to facilitate the extension or promote the efficiency of free elementary schools among the people4 ,,the ,,parochial ,,schools ,,of ,,pennsylvania4 ,pennsylvania was settled by ,quakers1 ,baptists1 ,methodists1 ,presbyterians1 ,german ,lutherans1 ,moravians1 ,mennonites1 and members of the ,german ,reformed ,church1 all of whom came to ,america to secure greater religious liberty and had been attracted to this colony by the freedom of religious worship which ,penn had provided for there4 ,all these were ,protestant sects1 all believed in the necessity of learning to read the ,bible as a means to personal salvation1 and all made efforts looking toward the establishment of schools as a part of their church organization4 ,unlike ,new ,england1 though1 no sect was in a majority2 church control for each denomination was considered as most satisfactory2 and no appeal was made to the ,state to have it assist the churches in the enforcement of their religious purposes4 ,the clergymen were usually the teachers in the parochial schools established1 #ac while private pay schools were opened in the villages and towns4 ,these were taught in ,english1 ,german1 or the ,moravian tongue 7,czech71 according to the original language of the different immigrants4 ,the ,quakers seem to have taken particular interest in schools 7,r4 #aii71 a ,quaker school in ,philadelphia 7,r4 #aih7 having been established the year the city was founded4 ,girls were educated as well as boys1 and the emphasis was placed on reading1 writing1 counting1 and religion1 rather than upon any higher form of training4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,,an ,,old ,,quaker ,,meeting-,,house ,,and ,,school ,,at ,,lampeter1 ,,pennsylvania 7,from an old drawing7 ,the result was the development in this colony of a policy of depending on church and private effort1 and the provision of education1 aside from certain rudimentary and religious instruction1 was left largely for those who could afford to pay for the privilege4 ,charitable education was extended to but a few1 for a short time1 while1 under the freedom allowed1 many communities made but indifferent provisions or suffered their schools to lapse4 ,under the primitive conditions of the time the interest even in religious education often declined almost to the vanishing point4 ,so lax in the matter of providing schooling had many communities become that the second ,provincial ,assembly1 sitting in ,philadelphia1 in #afhc1 passed an ordinance requiring 7,r4 #aig7 that all persons having children must cause them to be taught to read and write1 so that they might be able to read the ,scriptures by the time they were twelve years old1 and also that all children be taught some useful trade4 ,a fine of #e was to be assessed for failure to comply with the law4 ,so much in advance of ,english ideas as to what was fitting and proper was this compulsory law that it was vetoed by ,william and ,mary1 when submitted to their majesties for approval4 ,ten years later it was renacted by the ,governor and ,assembly of the colony1 but proved so difficult of enforcement that it was soon dropped1 and the chance of starting education in ,pennsylvania somewhat after the ,new ,england model was lost4 ,the colony now settled down to a policy of non state action1 and this in time became so firmly established that the do- as-you-please idea persisted in this ,state up to the establishment of the first free state school system1 in #ahcd4 ,,mixed ,,conditions ,,in ,,new ,,jersey4 ,in ,new ,jersey1 situated as it was near the center of the different colonies1 the early development of education there was the product of a number of different influences4 ,the ,dutch crossed from ,new ,amsterdam1 the ,english came from ,connecticut and later from ,new ,york1 ,scotch and ,scotch-,irish ,presbyterians came from the mother country1 ,swedish ,lutherans settled along the ,delaware1 and ,quakers and ,german ,lutherans came over from ,pennsylvania4 ,the educational practice of the colony or land from which each group of settlers came was reproduced in the colony4 ,after the ,english succeeded the ,dutch in ,new ,amsterdam 7#affd71 ,english methods and practice in education gradually came into control throughout most of ,new ,jersey1 and as a result here1 as in ,new ,york1 but little was accomplished in providing schools for other than a select few until well after the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,neither ,new ,jersey1 ,new ,york1 nor ,pennsylvania may be said to have developed any colonial educational policy aside from that of allowing private and parochial effort to provide such schools as seemed desirable4 ,,virginia ,,and ,,the ,,southern ,,type4 ,almost all the conditions attending the settlement of ,virginia were in contrast to those of the ,new ,england colonies4 ,the early settlers were from the same class of ,english yeomen and country squires1 but with the important difference that whereas the ,new ,england settlers were ,dissenters from the ,church of ,england and had come to ,america to obtain freedom in religious worship1 the settlers in ,virginia were adherents of the ,national ,church and had come to ,america for gain4 ,the marked differences in climate and possible crops led to the large plantation type of settlement1 instead of the compact little ,new ,england town2 the introduction of large numbers of indentured white servants1 and later negro slaves1 led to the development of classes in society instead of to the ,new ,england type of democracy2 and the lack of a strong religious motive for education naturally led to the adoption of the customary ,english practices instead of to the development of colonial schools4 ,the tutor in the home1 education in small private pay schools1 or education in the mother country were the prevailing methods adopted among the well-to-do planters1 while the poorer classes were left with only such advantages as apprenticeship training or charity schools might provide4 ,throughout the entire colonial period ,virginia remained most like the mother country in spirit and practice1 and stands among the colonies as the clearest example of the ,english attitude toward school support and control4 ,as in the mother country1 education was considered to be no business of the ,state4 ,rhode ,island1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,delaware1 and the ,carolinas followed the ,english attitude1 much after the fashion of ,virginia4 ,practically all the ,virginia colonial legislation relating to education refers either to ,william and ,mary ,college 7founded in #afic71 or to the education of orphans and the children of the poor4 ,both these interests1 as we have previously seen1 were typically ,english4 ,all the seventeenth- century legislation relating to education is based on the ,english ,poor-,law legislation1 #ad previously described 7p4 #cbe71 and included the compulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor1 training in a trade1 the requirement that the public authorities must provide opportunities for this type of education1 and the use of both local and colony funds for the purpose 7,r4 #bjj a71 all1 as the ,statutes state1 according to the aforesaid laudable custom in the ,kingdom of ,england4 ,it was not until #agje that ,virginia reached the point1 reached by ,massachusetts in #afdb1 of requiring that the master of the apprenticed orphan shall be obliged to teach him to read and write4 ,in all the ,anglican colonies the apprenticing of the children of the poor 7see ,r4 #bjj b for some interesting ,north ,carolina records7 was a characteristic feature4 ,during the entire colonial period the indifference of the mother country to general education was steadily reflected in ,virginia and in the colonies which were essentially ,anglican in religion1 and followed the ,english example4 ,,type ,,plans ,,represented ,,by #agej4 ,the seventeenth century thus witnessed the transplanting of ,european ideas as to government1 religion1 and education to the new ,american colonies1 and by the eighteenth century we find three clearly marked types of educational practice or conception as to educational responsibility established on ,american soil4 ,the first was the strong ,calvinistic conception of a religious ,state1 supporting a system of common vernacular schools1 higher ,latin schools1 and a college1 for both religious and civic ends4 ,this type dominated ,new ,england1 and is best represented by ,massachusetts4 ,from ,new ,england this attitude was carried westward by the migrations of ,new ,england people1 and deeply influenced the educational development of all ,states to which the ,new ,englander went in any large numbers4 ,this was the educational contribution of ,calvinism to ,america4 #ae ,out of it our state school systems of to-day1 by the separation of ,church and ,state1 have been evolved4 ,the second was the parochial-school conception of the ,dutch1 ,moravians1 ,mennonites1 ,german ,lutherans1 ,german ,reformed ,church1 ,quakers1 ,presbyterians1 ,baptists1 and ,catholics4 ,this type is best represented by ,protestant ,pennsylvania and ,catholic ,maryland4 ,it stood for church control of all educational efforts1 resented state interference1 was dominated only by church purposes1 and in time came to be a serious obstacle in the way of rational state school organization and control4 ,the third type1 into which the second type tended to fuse1 conceived of public education1 aside from collegiate education1 as intended chiefly for orphans and the children of the poor1 and as a charity which the ,state was under little or no obligation to assist in supporting4 ,all children of the upper and middle classes in society attended private or church schools1 or were taught by tutors in their homes1 and for such instruction paid a proper tuition fee4 ,paupers and orphans1 in limited numbers and for a limited time1 might be provided with some form of useful education at the expense of either ,church or ,state4 ,this type is best represented by ,anglican ,virginia1 which typified well the laissez-faire policy which dominated ,england from the time of the ,protestant ,reformation until the latter half of the nineteenth century4 ,these three types of attitude toward the provision of education became fixed ,american types1 and each deeply influenced subsequent ,american educational development1 as we shall point out in a later chapter4 ,,dominance ,,of ,,the ,,religious ,,motive4 ,the seventeenth century was essentially a period of the transplanting1 almost unchanged in form1 of the characteristic ,european institutions1 manners1 religious attitudes1 and forms of government to ,american shores4 ,each sect or nationality on arriving set up in the new land the characteristic forms of church and school and social observances known in the old home-land4 ,dutch1 ,germans1 ,english1 ,scotch1 ,calvinists1 ,lutherans1 ,anglicans1 ,presbyterians-- reproduced in the ,american colonies the main type of schools existing at the time of their migration in the mother land from which they came4 ,they were also dominated by the same deep religious purpose4 ,the dominance of this religious purpose in all instruction is well illustrated by the great beginning-school book of the time1 ,the ,new ,england ,primer4 ,a digest of the contents of this1 with a few pages reproduced1 is given in ,r4 #bjb4 ,this book1 from which all children learned to read1 was used by ,dissenters and ,lutherans alike in the ,american colonies4 ,this book ,ford well characterizes in the following words3 ,as one glances over what may truly be called ,the ,little ,bible of ,new ,england1 and reads its stern lessons1 the ,puritan mood is caught with absolute faithfulness4 ,here was no easy road to knowledge and salvation2 but with prose as bare of beauty as the whitewash of their churches1 with poetry as rough and stern as their storm-torn coast1 with pictures as crude and unfinished as their own glacial-smoothed boulders1 between stiff oak covers which symbolized the contents1 the children were tutored1 until1 from being unregenerate1 and as ,jonathan ,edwards said1 young vipers1 and infinitely more hateful than vipers to ,god1 they attained that happy state when1 as expressed by ,judge ,sewell's child1 they were afraid that they should goe to hell1 and were stirred up dreadfully to seek ,god4 ,god was made sterner and more cruel than any living judge1 that all might be brought to realize how slight a chance even the least erring had of escaping eternal damnation4 ,one learned to read chiefly that one might be able to read the ,catechism and the ,bible1 and to know the will of the ,heavenly ,father4 ,there was scarcely any other purpose in the maintenance of elementary schools4 ,in the grammar schools and the colleges students were instructed to consider well the main end of life and studies4 ,these institutions existed mainly to insure a supply of learned ministers for service in ,church and ,state4 ,such studies as history1 geography1 science1 music1 drawing1 secular literature1 and organized play were unknown4 ,children were constantly surrounded1 week days and ,sundays1 by the somber ,calvinistic religious atmosphere in ,new ,england1 #af and by the careful religious oversight of the pastors and elders in the colonies where the parochial-school system was the ruling plan for education4 ,schoolmasters were required to catechise their scholars in the principles of the ,christian religion1 and it was made a chief part of the schoolmaster's religious care to commend his scholars and his labors amongst them unto ,god by prayer morning and evening1 taking care that his scholars do reverently attend during the same4 ,religious matter constituted the only reading matter1 outside the instruction in ,latin in the grammar schools4 ,the ,catechism was taught1 and the ,bible was read and expounded4 ,church attendance was required1 and grammar-school pupils were obliged to report each week on the ,sunday sermon4 ,this insistence on the religious element was more prominent in ,calvinistic ,new ,england than in the colonies to the south1 but everywhere the religious purpose was dominant4 ,the church parochial and charity schools were essentially schools for instilling the church practices and beliefs of the church maintaining them4 ,this state of affairs continued until well toward the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,compare the conservative and radical groups in the ,english purification movement with the conservative and radical groups1 as typified by ,erasmus and ,luther1 at the time of the ,reformation4 #b4 ,show how1 for each group1 the schools established were merely homeland foreign-type religious schools1 with nothing distinctively ,american about them4 #c4 ,show why such copying of home-land types1 even to the ,latin grammar school1 was perfectly natural4 #d4 ,the provision of the ,law of #afdb requiring instruction in the capital laws of the country was new4 ,how do you explain this addition to mother- land practices8 #e4 ,show why the ,law of #afdb was ,calvinistic rather than ,anglican in its origin4 #f4 ,explain the meaning of the preamble to the ,law of #afdg4 #g4 ,show how the ,law of #afdg must go back for precedents to ,german1 ,dutch1 and ,scotch sources4 #h4 ,apply the six principles stated by ,mr4 ,martin1 as embodied in the legislation of #afdg1 to modern state school practice1 and show how we have adopted each in our laws4 #i4 ,show also that the ,law of #afdg1 as well as modern state school laws1 is neither paternalistic nor socialistic in essential purpose4 #aj4 ,show that1 though the mixture of religious sects in ,pennsylvania made colonial legislation difficult1 still it would have been possible to have enforced the ,massachusetts ,law of #afdb1 or the ,pennsylvania laws of #afhc or #afic1 in the colony4 ,how do you explain the opposition and failure to do so8 #aa4 ,show how the charity schools for the poor1 and church missionary- society schools1 were the natural outcome of the ,english attitude toward elementary education4 #ab4 ,which of the three type plans in the ,american colonies by #agej most influenced educational development in your ,state8 #ac4 ,state the important contribution of ,calvinism to our new-world life4 #ad4 ,explain the indifference of the ,anglican ,church to general education during the whole of our colonial period4 #ae4 ,explain what is meant by ,the ,puritan ,church applied to its servant1 the ,state1 etc4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #ahc4 ,nichols3 ,the ,puritan ,attitude4 #ahd4 ,gov4 ,bradford3 ,the ,puritans leave ,england4 #ahe4 ,first ,fruits3 ,the ,founding of ,harvard ,college4 #ahf4 ,first ,fruits3 ,the ,first ,rules for ,harvard ,college4 7a7 ,entrance ,requirements4 7b7 ,rules and ,precepts4 7c7 ,time and ,order of ,studies4 7d7 ,requirements for ,degrees4 #ahg4 ,college ,charters3 ,extracts from1 showing ,privileges4 7a7 ,harvard ,college1 #afej4 7b7 ,brown ,college1 #agfd4 #ahh4 ,dillaway3 ,founding of the ,free ,school at ,roxburie4 #ahi4 ,baird3 ,rules and ,regulations for ,hopkins ,grammar ,school4 #aij4 ,statutes3 ,the ,massachusetts ,law of #afdb4 #aia4 ,statutes3 ,the ,massachusetts ,law of #afdg4 #aib4 ,court ,records3 ,presentment of ,topsfield for ,violating the ,law of #afdb4 #aic4 ,statutes3 ,the ,connecticut ,law of #afej4 #aid4 ,statutes3 ,plymouth ,colony ,legislation4 #aie4 ,flatbush3 ,contract with a ,dutch ,schoolmaster4 #aif4 ,new ,amsterdam3 ,rules for a ,schoolmaster in4 #aig4 ,statutes3 ,the ,pennsylvania4 ,law of #afhc4 #aih4 ,minutes of ,council3 ,the ,first ,school in ,philadelphia4 #aii4 ,murray3 ,early ,quaker ,injunctions regarding ,schools4 #bjj4 ,statutes3 ,apprenticeship ,laws in the ,southern ,colonies4 7a7 ,virginia ,statutes4 7b7 ,north ,carolina ,court ,records4 #bja4 ,stiles3 ,a ,new ,england ,indenture of ,apprenticeship4 #bjb4 ,the ,new ,england ,primer3 ,description and ,digest4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,what does the selection on ,the ,puritan ,attitude 7#ahc7 reveal as to the extent and depth of the ,reformation in ,england8 #b4 ,characterize the feelings and emotions and desires of the ,puritans1 as expressed in the extract 7#ahd7 from ,governor ,bradford's narrative4 #c4 ,characterize the spirit behind the founding of ,harvard ,college1 as expressed in the extract from ,new ,england's ,first ,fruits 7#ahe74 #d4 ,what was the nature and purpose of the ,harvard ,college instruction as shown by the selection #ahf a-d8 #e4 ,point out the similarity between the exemptions granted to ,harvard ,college by the ,legislature of the colony 7#ahg a7 and those granted to mediaeval universities 7#ajc-aje74 ,compare the privileges granted ,brown 7#ahg b7 and those contained in #ajd4 #f4 ,compare the founding of the ,free ,school at ,roxbury 7#ahh7 with the founding of an ,english ,grammar ,school 7#ada-dc74 #g4 ,what does the distribution of scholars at ,roxbury 7#ahh7 show as to the character of the school8 #h4 ,state the essentials of the ,massachusetts ,law of #afdb 7#aij74 #i4 ,compare the ,massachusetts ,law of #afdb and the ,english ,poor-,law of #afja 7#aij with #agd7 as to fundamental principles involved in each4 #aj4 ,what does the court citation of ,topsfield 7#aib7 show8 #aa4 ,what new principle is added 7#aia7 by the ,law of #afdg1 and what does this new law indicate as to needs in the colony for classical learning8 #ab4 ,show how the ,connecticut ,law of #afej 7#aic7 was based on the ,massachusetts ,law 7#aij7 of #afdb4 #ac4 ,what does the ,plymouth ,colony appeal for ,harvard ,college 7#aid b7 indicate as to community of ideas in early ,new ,england8 #ad4 ,what type of school was it intended to endow from the ,cape ,cod fisheries 7#aid c78 #ae4 ,what is the difference between the ,plymouth requirement as to grammar schools 7#aid d7 and the ,massachusetts requirement 7#aia78 #af4 ,compare the rules for the ,new ,haven ,grammar ,school 7#ahi7 with those for ,colet's ,london ,school 7#ach a-c74 #ag4 ,characterize the early ,dutch schools as shown by the rules for the schoolmaster 7#aif7 and the ,flatbush contract 7#aie74 #ah4 ,just what type of education did the ,quakers mean to provide for1 as shown in the extract from their ,rules of ,discipline 7#aii78 #ai4 ,what kind of a school was the first one established in ,philadelphia 7#aih78 #bj4 ,compare the proposed ,pennsylvania ,law of #afhc 7#aig7 and the ,massachusetts ,law of #afdb 7#aij74 #ba4 ,what conception of education is revealed by the ,virginia apprenticeship laws 7#bjj a1 #a-c7 and the ,north ,carolina court records 7#bjj b1 #a-c78 #bb4 ,characterize the ,new ,england ,indenture of ,apprenticeship given in #bja4 ,,supplementary ,,references ,boone1 ,r4 ,g4 ,education in the ,united ,states4 ,brown1 ,s4 ,w4 ,the ,secularization of ,american ,education4 ,cheyney1 ,edw4 ,p4 ,european ,background of ,american ,education4 ,dexter1 ,e4,g4 ,a ,history of ,education in the ,united ,states4 99 ,eggleston1 ,edw4 ,the ,transit of ,civilization4 ,fisk1 ,c4 ,r4 ,the ,english ,parish and ,education at the ,beginning of ,american ,civilization2 in ,school ,review1 vol4 #bc1 pp4 #dcc-di4 7,september1 #aiae47 99 ,ford1 ,p4 ,l4 ,the ,new ,england ,primer4 99 ,heatwole1 ,c4 ,j4 ,a ,history of ,education in ,virginia4 ,jackson1 ,g4 ,l4 ,the ,development of ,school ,support in ,colonial ,massachusetts4 99 ,kilpatrick1 ,wm4 ,h4 ,the ,dutch ,schools of ,new ,netherlands and ,colonial ,new ,york4 99 ,knight1 ,e4 ,w4 ,public ,school ,education in ,north ,carolina4 99 ,martin1 ,geo4 ,h4 ,evolution of the ,massachusetts ,public ,school ,system4 ,seybolt1 ,r4 ,f4 ,apprenticeship and ,apprentice ,education in ,colonial ,new ,york and ,new ,england4 99 ,small1 ,w4 ,h4 ,the ,new ,england ,grammar ,school2 in ,school ,review1 vol4 #aj1 pp4 #eac-ca4 7,september1 #aijb47 ,small1 ,w4 ,h4 ,early ,new ,england ,schools4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,scientific ,,inquiry ,,new ,,attitudes ,,after ,,the ,,eleventh ,,century4 ,from the beginning of the twelfth century onward1 as we have already noted1 there had been a slow but gradual change in the character of human thinking1 and a slow but certain disintegration of the ,mediaeval ,system1 with its repressive attitude toward all independent thinking4 ,many different influences and movements had contributed to this change--the ,moslem learning and civilization in ,spain1 the recovery of the old legal and medical knowledge1 the revival of city life1 the beginnings anew of commerce and industry1 the evolution of the universities1 the rise of a small scholarly class1 the new consciousness of nationality1 the evolution of the modern languages1 the beginnings of a small but important vernacular literature1 and the beginnings of travel and exploration following the ,crusades--all of which had tended to transform the mediaeval man and change his ways of thinking4 ,new objects of interest slowly came to the front1 and new standards of judgment gradually were applied4 ,in consequence the mediaeval man1 with his feeling of personal insignificance and lack of self- confidence1 came to be replaced by a small but increasing number of men who were conscious of their powers1 possessed a new self-confidence1 and realized new possibilities of intellectual accomplishment4 ,the ,revival of ,learning1 first in ,italy and then elsewhere in western ,europe1 was the natural consequence of this awakening of the modern spirit1 and in the careful work done by the humanistic scholars of the ,italian ,renaissance in collecting1 comparing1 questioning1 inferring1 criticizing1 and editing the texts1 and in reconstructing the ancient life and history1 we see the beginnings of the modern scientific spirit4 ,it was this same critical1 questioning spirit which1 when applied later to geographical knowledge1 led to the discovery of ,america and the circumnavigation of the globe2 which1 when applied to matters of ,christian faith1 brought on the ,protestant ,revolts2 which1 when applied to the problems of the universe1 revealed the many wonderful fields of modern science2 and which1 when applied to government1 led to a questioning of the divine right of kings and the rise of constitutional government4 ,the awakening of scientific inquiry and the scientific spirit1 and the attempt of a few thinkers to apply the new method to education1 to which we now turn1 may be regarded as only another phase of the awakening of the modern inquisitive spirit which found expression earlier in the rise of the universities1 the recovery and reconstruction of the ancient learning1 the awakening of geographical discovery and exploration1 and the questioning of the doctrines and practices of the ,mediaeval ,church4 ,,insufficiency ,,of ,,ancient ,,science4 ,from the point of view of scientific inquiry1 all ancient learning possessed certain marked fundamental defects4 ,the ,greeks had--their time and age in world-civilization considered--made many notable scientific observations and speculations1 and had prepared the way for future advances4 ,thales 7#fcf8-edf8 ,b4,c471 ,xenophanes 7#fbh8-ebj8 ,b4,c471 ,anaximenes 7#eeg-ejd ,b4,c471 ,pythagoras 7#egj- #ejj ,b4,c471 ,heraclitus 7c4 #ejj ,b4,c471 ,empedocles 7#dfj8-cfa8 ,b4,c471 and ,aristotle 7#chd-cbb ,b4,c47 had all made interesting speculations as to the nature of matter1 #a ,aristotle finally settling the question by naming the world-elements as earth1 water1 air1 fire1 and ether4 ,hippocrates 7#dfj-cfg8 ,b4,c471 as we have seen 7p4 #aig71 had observed the sick and had recorded and organized his observations in such a manner #b as to form the foundations upon which the science of medicine could be established4 ,the ,greek physician1 ,galen 7#acj-bjj ,a4,d47 added to these observations1 and their combined work formed the basis upon which modern medical science has slowly been built up4 ,on the other hand1 some of what each wrote was mere speculation and error1 #c and modern physicians were compelled to begin all over and along new lines before any real progress in medicine could be made4 ,aristotle had done a notable work in organizing and codifying ,greek scientific knowledge1 as the list of his many scientific treatises in use in ,europe by #acjj 7,r4 #hg7 will show1 but his writings were the result of a mixture of keen observation and brilliant speculation1 contained many inaccuracies1 and in time1 due to the reverence accorded him as an authority by the mediaeval scholars and the church authorities1 proved serious obstacles to real scientific progress4 ,at ,alexandria the most notable ,greek scientific work had been done4 ,euclid 7#cbc-bhc ,b4,c47 in geometry2 ,aristarchus 7third century ,b4,c471 who explained the motion of the earth2 ,eratosthenes 7#bgj-aif ,b4,c471 who measured the size of the earth2 ,archimedes 7#bgj8-bab ,b4,c471 a pupil of ,euclid's1 who applied science in many ways and laid the foundations of dynamics2 ,hipparchus 7#afj-abe ,b4,c471 the father of astronomy1 who studied the heavens and catalogued the stars1 were among the more famous ,greeks who studied and taught there in the days when ,alexandria had succeeded ,athens as the intellectual capital of the ,greek world4 ,some remarkable advances also were made in the study of human anatomy and medicine by two ,greeks1 ,herophilus 7#cce-bhj ,b4,c47 and ,erasistratus 7d4 #bhj ,b4,c471 who apparently did much dissecting4 ,but even at ,alexandria the promise of ,greek science was unfulfilled4 ,despite many notable speculations and scientific advances1 the hopeful beginnings did not come to any large fruitage1 and the great contribution made by the ,greeks to world civilization was less along scientific lines than along the lines of literature and philosophy4 ,their great strength lay in the direction of philosophic speculation1 and this tendency to speculate1 rather than to observe and test and measure and record1 was the fundamental weakness of all ,greek science4 ,the ,greeks never advanced in scientific work to the invention and perfection of instruments for the standardization of their observations4 ,as a result they passed on to the mediaeval world an extensive book science and not a little keen observation1 of which the works of ,aristotle and the ,alexandrian mathematicians and astronomers form the most conspicuous examples1 but little scientific knowledge of which the modern world has been able to make much use4 ,the book science of the ,greeks1 and especially that of ,aristotle1 was highly prized for centuries1 but in time1 due to the many inaccuracies1 had to be discarded and done anew by modern scholars4 ,the ,romans1 as we have seen 7chapter ,,iii71 were essentially a practical people1 good at getting the work of the world done1 but not much given to theoretical discussion or scientific speculation4 ,they were organizers1 governors1 engineers1 executives1 and literary workers rather than scientists4 ,they executed many important undertakings of a practical character1 such as the building of roads1 bridges1 aqueducts1 and public buildings2 organized government and commerce on a large scale2 and have left us a literature and a legal system of importance1 but they contributed little to the realm of pure science4 ,the three great names in science in all their history are ,strabo the geographer 7#fc ,b4,c4-#bd ,a4,d472 ,pliny the ,elder 7#bc-gi ,a4,d471 who did notable work as an observer in natural history2 and ,galen 7a ,roman-,greek71 in medicine4 ,they1 like the ,greeks1 were pervaded by the same fear that their science might prove useful1 whereas they cultivated it largely as a mental exercise 7,r4 #bjc74 ,,the ,,christian ,,reaction ,,against ,,inquiry4 ,the ,christian attitude toward inquiry was from the first inhospitable1 and in time became exceedingly intolerant4 ,the tendency of the ,western ,church1 it will be remembered 7p4 #id71 was from the first to reject all ,hellenic learning1 and to depend upon emotional faith and the enforcement of a moral life4 ,by the close of the third century the hostility to pagan schools and ,hellenic learning had become so pronounced that the ,apostolic ,constitutions 7,r4 #da7 ordered ,christians to abstain from all heathen books1 which could contain nothing of value and only served to subvert the faith of the unstable4 ,in #dja ,a4,d4 the ,council of ,carthage forbade the clergy to read any heathen author1 and ,greek learning now rapidly died out in the ,west4 ,for a time it was almost entirely lost4 ,in consequence ,greek science1 then best represented by ,alexandrian learning1 and which contained much that was of great importance1 was rejected along with other pagan learning4 ,the1 very meager scientific knowledge that persisted into the ,middle ,ages in the great mediaeval textbooks 7p4 #afb71 as we have seen in the study of the ,seven ,liberal ,arts 7chapter ,,vii71 came to be regarded as useful only in explaining passages of ,scripture or in illustrating the ways of ,god toward man4 ,the one and only science worthy of study was ,theology1 to which all other learning tended 7see ,figure #dd1 p4 #aed74 ,the history of ,christianity throughout all the ,dark ,ages is a history of the distrust of inquiry and reason1 and the emphasis of blind emotional faith4 ,mysticism1 good and evil spirits1 and the interpretation of natural phenomena as manifestations of the ,divine will from the first received large emphasis4 ,the worship of saints and relics1 and the great development of the sensuous and symbolic1 changed the earlier religion into a crude polytheism4 ,during the long period of the ,middle ,ages the miraculous flourished4 ,the most extreme superstition pervaded all ranks of society4 ,magic and prayers were employed to heal the sick1 restore the crippled1 foretell the future1 and punish the wicked4 ,sacred pools1 the royal touch1 wonder-working images1 and miracles through prayer stood in the way of the development of medicine 7,r4 #bjd74 ,disease was attributed to satanic influence1 and a regular schedule of prayers for cures was in use4 ,sanitation was unknown4 ,plagues and pestilences were manifestations of ,divine wrath1 and hysteria and insanity were possession by the devil to be cast out by whipping and torture4 ,one's future was determined by the position of the heavenly bodies at the time of birth4 ,eclipses1 meteors1 and comets were fearful portents of ,divine displeasure3 ,eight things there be a ,comet brings1 ,when it on high doth horrid rage2 ,wind1 ,famine1 ,plague1 and ,death to ,kings1 ,war1 ,earthquakes1 ,floods1 and ,direful ,change4 #d ,the literature on magic was extensive4 ,the most miraculous happenings were recorded and believed4 ,trial by ordeal1 following careful religious formulae1 was common before #abjj1 though prohibited shortly afterward by papal decrees 7#abae1 #abbb74 ,the insistence of the ,church on the willful1 devilish character of heresy1 and the extension of heresy to cover almost any form of honest doubt or independent inquiry1 caused an intellectual stagnation along lines of scientific investigation which was not relieved for more than a thousand years4 ,the many notable advances in physics1 chemistry1 astronomy1 and medicine made by ,moslem scholars 7chapter ,,viii7 were lost on ,christian ,europe1 and had to be worked out again centuries later by the scholars of the western world4 ,out of the astronomy of the ,arabs the ,christians got only astrology2 out of their chemistry they got only alchemy4 ,both in time stood seriously in the way of real scientific thinking and discovery4 ,,growing ,,tolerance ,,changed ,,by ,,the ,,protestant ,,revolts4 ,after the rise of the universities1 the expansion of the minds of men which followed the ,crusades and the revival of trade and industry1 the awakening which came with the revival of the old learning and the rise of geographical discovery1 the church authorities assumed a broader and a more tolerant attitude toward inquiry and reason than had been the case for hundreds of years4 ,it would have been surprising1 with the large number of university- trained men entering the service of the ,church1 had this not been the case4 ,by the middle of the fifteenth century it looked as though the ,renaissance spirit might extend into many new directions1 and by #aejj the world seemed on the eve of important progress in almost every line of endeavor4 ,as was pointed out earlier 7p4 #bei71 the ,church was more tolerant than it had been for centuries1 and about the year #aejj was the most stimulating time in the history of our civilization since the days of ,alexandria and ancient ,rome4 ,in #aeag ,luther nailed his theses to the church door in ,wittenberg4 ,the ,church took alarm and attempted to crush him1 and soon the greatest contest since the conflict between paganism and ,christianity was on4 ,within half a century all northern lands had been lost to the ancient ,church 7see map1 p4 #bif72 the first successful challenge of its authority during its long history4 ,the effect of these religious revolts on the attitude of the ,church toward intellectual liberty was natural and marked4 ,the tolerance of inquiry recently extended was withdrawn1 and an era of steadily increasing intolerance set in which was not broken for more than a century4 ,in an effort to stop the further spread of the heresy1 the ,church ,council of ,trent 7#aede-fc7 adopted stringent regulations against heretical teachings 7p4 #cjc71 while the sword and torch and imprisonment were resorted to to stamp out opposition and win back the revolting lands4 ,a century of merciless warfare ensued1 and the hatreds engendered by the long and bitter struggle over religious differences put both ,catholic and ,protestant ,europe in no tolerant frame of mind toward inquiry or new ideas4 ,the ,inquisition1 a sort of universal mediaeval grand jury for the detection and punishment of heretics1 was revived1 and the ,jesuits1 founded in #aecd-dj1 were vigorous in defense of the ,church and bitter in their opposition to all forms of independent inquiry and ,protestant heresy4 ,it was into this post-,reformation atmosphere of suspicion and distrust and hatred that the new critical1 inquiring1 questioning spirit of science1 as applied to the forces of the universe1 was born4 ,a century earlier the first scientists might have obtained a respectful hearing1 and might have been permitted to press their claims2 after the ,protestant ,revolts had torn ,christian ,europe asunder this could hardly be4 ,as a result the early scientists found themselves in no enviable position4 ,their theories were bitterly assailed as savoring of heresy2 their methods and purposes were alike suspected2 and any challenge of an old long-accepted idea was likely to bring a punishment that was swift and sure4 ,from the middle of the sixteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century was not a time when new ideas were at a premium anywhere in western ,europe4 ,it was essentially a period of reaction1 and periods of reaction are not favorable to intellectual progress4 ,it was into this century of reaction that modern scientific inquiry and reasoning1 itself another form of expression of the intellectual attitudes awakened by the work of the humanistic scholars of the ,italian ,renaissance1 made its first claim for a hearing4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,modern ,,scientific ,,method4 ,one of the great problems which has always deeply interested thinking men in all lands is the nature and constitution of the material universe1 and to this problem people in all stages of civilization have worked out for themselves some kind of an answer4 ,it was one of the great speculations of the ,greeks1 and it was at ,alexandria1 in the period of its decadence1 that the ,egyptian geographer ,ptolemy 7#ach ,a4,d47 had offered an explanation which was accepted by ,christian ,europe and which dominated all thinking on the subject during the ,middle ,ages4 ,he had concluded that the earth was located at the center of the visible universe1 immovable1 and that the heavenly bodies moved around the earth1 in circular motion1 fixed in crystalline spheres4 #e ,this explanation accorded perfectly with ,christian ideas as to creation1 as well as with ,christian conceptions as to the position and place of man and his relation to the heavens above and to a hell beneath4 ,this theory was obviously simple and satisfactory1 and became sanctified with time4 ,as we see it now the wonder is that such an explanation could have been accepted for so long4 ,only among an uninquisitive people could so imperfect a theory have endured for over fourteen centuries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,,nicholas ,,kopernik 7,copernicus71 7#adgc-aedc7 ,in #aedc a ,bohemian church canon and physician by the name of ,nicholas ,copernicus published his ,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,celestium1 in which he set forth the explanation of the universe which we now know4 ,he piously dedicated the work to ,pope ,paul ,,iii1 and wisely refrained from publishing it until the year of his death4 #f ,anything so completely upsetting the ,christian conception as to the place and position of man in the universe could hardly be expected to be accepted1 particularly at the time of its publication1 without long and bitter opposition4 ,in the dedicatory letter 7,r4 #bje71 ,copernicus explains how1 after feeling that the ,ptolemaic explanation was wrong1 he came to arrive at the conclusions he did4 ,the steps he set forth form an excellent example of a method of thinking now common1 but then almost unknown4 ,they were3 #a4 ,dissatisfaction with the old ,ptolemaic explanation4 #b4 ,a study of all known literature1 to see if any better explanation had been offered4 #c4 ,careful thought on the subject1 until his thinking took form in a definite theory4 #d4 ,long observation and testing out1 to see if the observed facts would support his theory4 #e4 ,the theory held to be correct1 because it reduced all known facts to a systematic order and harmony4 ,this is as clear a case of inductive reasoning as was ,l4 ,valla's exposure of the forgery of the so-called ,donation of ,constantine1 an example of deductive reasoning4 ,both used a new method--the method of modern scholarship4 ,in both cases the results were revolutionary4 ,as ,petrarch stands forth in history as the first modern classical scholar1 so ,copernicus stands forth as the first modern scientific thinker4 ,the beginnings of all modern scientific investigation date from #aedc4 ,of his work a recent writer 7,e4 ,c4 ,j4 ,morton7 has said3 ,copernicus cannot be said to have flooded with light the dark places of nature--in the way that one stupendous mind subsequently did-- but still1 as we look back through the long vista of the history of science1 the dim ,titanic figure of the old monk seems to rear itself out of the dull flats around it1 pierces with its head the mists that overshadow them1 and catches the first gleam of the rising sun1444 ,like some iron peak1 by the ,creator ,fired with the red glow of the rushing morn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,,tycho ,,brahe 7#aedf-afja7 ,,the ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,inquiry ,,applied ,,by ,,others4 ,at first ,copernicus' work attracted but little attention4 ,an ,italian ,dominican by the name of ,giordano ,bruno 7#aedh-afjj71 deeply impressed by the new theory1 set forth in ,latin and ,italian the far-reaching and majestic implications of such a theory of creation1 and was burned at the stake at ,rome for his pains4 ,a ,dane1 ,tycho ,brahe1 after twenty-one years of careful observation of the heavens1 during which time he collected a magnificent series of observations1 far transcending in accuracy #g and extent anything that had been accomplished by his predecessors1 showed ,aristotle to be wrong in many particulars4 ,his observations of the comet of #aegg led him to conclude that the theory of crystalline spheres was impossible1 and that the common view of the time as to their nature #h was absurd4 ,in #afji a ,german by the name of ,johann ,kepler 7#aega-afcj71 using the records of observations which ,tycho ,brahe had accumulated and applying them to the planet ,mars1 proved the truth of the ,copernican theory and framed his famous three laws for planetary motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,,galileo ,,galilei 7#aefd-afdb7 ,finally an ,italian1 ,galileo ,galilei1 a professor at the ,university of ,pisa1 developing a telescope that would magnify to eight diameters1 discovered ,jupiter's satellites and ,saturn's rings4 ,the story of his discovery of the satellites of ,jupiter is another interesting illustration of the careful scientific reasoning of these early workers 7,r4 #bjf74 ,galileo also made a number of discoveries in physics1 through the use of new scientific methods1 which completely upset the teachings of the ,aristotelians1 and made the most notable advances in mechanics since the days of ,archimedes4 ,for his pronounced advocacy of the ,copernican theory he was called to ,rome 7#afae7 by the ,cardinals of the ,inquisition1 the ,copernican theory was condemned as absurd in philosophy and as expressly contrary to ,holy ,scripture1 and ,galileo was compelled to recant 7#afaf7 his error4 #i ,for daring later 7#afcb7 to assume that he might1 under a new ,pope1 defend the ,copernican theory1 even in an indirect manner1 he was again called before the inquisitorial body1 compelled to recant and abjure his errors 7,r4 #bjg7 to escape the stake1 and was then virtually made a prisoner of the ,inquisition for the remainder of his life4 ,so strongly had the forces of medievalism reasserted themselves after the ,protestant ,revolts6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,,sir ,,isaac ,,newton 7#afdb-agbg7 ,finally the ,english scholar ,newton 7#afdb-agbh71 in his ,principia 7#afhg71 settled permanently all discussions as to the ,copernican theory by his wonderful mathematical studies4 ,he demonstrated mathematically the motions of the planets and comets1 proved ,kepler's laws to be true1 explained gravitation and the tides1 made clear the nature of light1 and reduced dynamics to a science4 ,of his work a recent writer1 ,karl ,pearson1 has said3 ,the ,newtonian laws of motion form the starting point of most modern treatises on dynamics1 and it seems to me that physical science1 thus started1 resembles the mighty genius of an ,arabian tale emerging amid metaphysical exhalations from the bottle in which for long centuries it had been corked down4 ,so far-reaching in its importance was the scientific work of ,newton that ,pope's couplet seems exceedingly applicable3 ,nature and ,nature's laws lay hid in night2 ,god said1 ,let ,newton be1 and all was light4 ,,the ,,new ,,method ,,applied ,,in ,,other ,,fields4 ,the new method of study was soon applied to other fields by scholars of the new type1 here and there1 and always with fruitful results4 ,the ,englishman1 ,william ,gilbert 7#aedj-afjc7 published1 in #afjj1 his ,de ,arte ,magnetica1 and laid the foundations of the modern study of electricity and magnetism4 ,a ,german-,swiss by the name of ,hohenheim1 but who ,latinized his name to ,paracelsus 7#adic-aeda71 and who became a professor in the medical faculty at the ,university of ,basle1 in #aebf broke with mediaeval traditions by being one of the first university scholars to refuse to lecture in ,latin4 ,he ridiculed the medical theories of ,hippocrates 7p4 #aig7 and ,galen 7p4 #aih71 and1 regarding the human body as a chemical compound1 began to treat diseases by the administration of chemicals4 ,a ,saxon by the name of ,landmann1 who also ,latinized his name to ,agricola 7#adid-aeee71 applied chemistry to mining and metallurgy1 and a ,french potter named ,bernard ,palissy 7c4 #aejj- #hh7 applied chemistry to pottery and the arts4 ,to ,paracelsus1 ,agricola1 and ,palissy we are indebted for having laid1 in the sixteenth century1 the foundations of the study of modern chemistry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,,william ,,harvey 7#aegh-afeg7 ,a ,belgian by the name of ,vesalius 7#aead-fd7 was the first modern to dissect the human body1 and for so doing was sentenced by the ,inquisition to perform a penitential journey to ,jerusalem4 ,one of his disciples discovered the valves in the veins and was the teacher of the ,englishman1 ,william ,harvey1 who discovered the circulation of the blood and later 7#afbh7 dared to publish the fact to the world4 ,these men established the modern studies of anatomy and physiology4 ,another early worker was a ,swiss by the name of ,conrad ,gessner 7#aeaf-fe71 who observed and wrote extensively on plants and animals1 and who stands as the first naturalist of modern times4 ,the sixteenth century thus marks the rise of modern scientific inquiry1 and the beginnings of the study of modern science4 ,the number of scholars engaged in the study was still painfully small1 and the religious prejudice against which they worked was strong and powerful1 but in the work of these few men we have not only the beginnings of the study of modern astronomy1 physics1 chemistry1 metallurgy1 medicine1 anatomy1 physiology1 and natural history1 but also the beginnings of a group of men1 destined in time to increase greatly in number1 who could see straight1 and who sought facts regardless of where they might lead and what preconceived ideas they might upset4 ,how deeply the future of civilization is indebted to such men1 men who braved social ostracism and often the wrath of the ,church as well1 for the1 to them1 precious privilege of seeing things as they are1 we are not likely to over- estimate4 ,in time their work was destined to reach the schools1 and to materially modify the character of all education4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,,francis ,,bacon 7#aefa-afbf7 ,,human ,,reason ,,in ,,the ,,investigation ,,of ,,nature4 ,to the ,english statesman and philosopher1 ,francis ,bacon1 more than to any one else1 are we indebted for the proper formulation and statement of this new scientific method4 ,though not a scientist himself1 he has often been termed the father of modern science4 ,seeing clearly the importance of the new knowledge1 he broke entirely with the old scholastic deductive logic as expressed in the ,organon1 of ,aristotle1 and formulated and expressed the methods of inductive reasoning in his ,novum ,organum1 published in #afbj4 ,in this he showed the insufficiency of the method of argumentation2 analyzed and formulated the inductive method of reasoning1 of which his study as to the nature of heat #aj is a good example2 and pointed out that knowledge is a process1 and not an end in itself2 and indicated the immense and fruitful field of science to which the method might be applied4 ,by showing how to learn from nature herself he turned the ,renaissance energy into a new direction1 and made a revolutionary break with the disputations and deductive logic of the ,aristotelian scholastics which had for so long dominated university instruction4 ,in formulating the new method he first pointed out the defects of the learning of his time1 which he classified under the head of distempers1 three in number1 and as follows3 #a4 ,fantastic learning3 ,alchemy1 magic1 miracles1 old-wives1 tales1 credulities1 superstitions1 pseudo-science1 and impostures of all sorts inherited from an ignorant past1 and now conserved as treasures of knowledge4 #b4 ,contentious learning3 ,the endless disputations of the ,scholastics about questions which had lost their significance1 deductive in character1 not based on any observation1 not aimed primarily to arrive at truth1 fruitful of controversy1 and barren of effect4 #c4 ,delicate learning3 ,the new learning of the humanistic ,renaissance1 verbal and not real1 stylish and polished but not socially important1 and leading to nothing except a mastery of itself4 ,as an escape from these three types of distempers1 which well characterized the three great stages in human progress from the sixth to the fifteenth centuries1 ,bacon offered the inductive method1 by means of which men would be able to distinguish true from false1 learn to see straight1 create useful knowledge1 and fill in the great gaps in the learning of the time by actually working out new knowledge from the unknown4 ,the collecting1 organizing1 comparing1 questioning1 and inferring spirit of the humanistic revival he now turned in a new direction by organizing and formulating for the work a new ,organum to take the place of the old ,organon of ,aristotle4 ,in ,book #a he sets forth some of the difficulties 7,r4 #bjh7 with which those who try new experiments or work out new methods of study have to contend from partisans of old ideas4 ,the ,novum ,organum showed the means of escape from the errors of two thousand years by means of a new method of thinking and work4 ,bacon did not invent the new method--it had been used since man first began to reason about phenomena1 and was the method by means of which ,wycliffe1 ,luther1 ,magellan1 ,copernicus1 ,brahe1 and ,gilbert had worked--but he was the first to formulate it clearly and to point out the vast field of new and useful knowledge that might be opened up by applying human reason1 along inductive lines1 to the investigation of the phenomena of nature4 ,his true service to science lay in the completeness of his analysis of the inductive process1 and his declaration that those who wish to arrive at useful discoveries must travel by that road4 ,as ,macaulay well says1 in his essay on ,bacon3 ,he was not the maker of that road2 he was not the discoverer of that road2 he was not the person who first surveyed and mapped that road4 ,but he was the person who first called the public attention to an inexhaustible mine of wealth which had been utterly neglected1 and which was accessible by that road alone4 ,to stimulate men to the discovery of useful truth1 to turn the energies of mankind--even slowly--from assumption and disputation to patient experimentation1 #aa4 and to give an impress to human thinking which it has retained for centuries1 is1 as ,macaulay well says1 the rare prerogative of a few imperial spirits4 ,macaulay's excellent summary of the importance of ,bacon's work 7,r4 #bji7 is well worth reading at this point4 ,,the ,,new ,,method ,,in ,,the ,,hands ,,of ,,subsequent ,,workers4 ,by the middle of the seventeenth century many important advances had been made in many different lines of scientific work4 ,in the two centuries between #adej and #afej1 the foundations of modern mathematics and mechanics had been laid4 ,at the beginning of the period ,arabic notation and the early books of ,euclid were about all that were taught2 at its end the western world had worked out decimals1 symbolic algebra1 much of plane and spherical trigonometry1 mechanics1 logarithms 7#afad7 and conic sections 7#afcg71 and was soon to add the calculus 7#affg-hg74 ,mercator had published the map of the world 7#aefi7 which has ever since born his name1 and the ,gregorian calendar had been introduced 7#aegb74 ,the barometer1 thermometer1 air-pump1 pendulum clock1 and the telescope had come into use in the period4 ,alchemy had passed over into modern chemistry2 and the astrologer was finding less and less to do as the astronomer took his place4 ,the ,english ,hippocrates1 ,thomas ,sydenham 7#afbd-hi71 during this period laid the foundations of modern medical study1 and the microscope was applied to the study of organic forms4 ,modern ideas as to light and optics and gases1 and the theory of gravitation1 were about to be set forth4 ,all these advances had been made during the century following the epoch-making labors of ,copernicus1 the first modern scientific man to make an impression on the thinking of mankind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,,the ,,loss ,,and ,,recovery ,,of ,,the ,,sciences ,each short horizontal line indicates the life-span of a very distinguished scholar in the science4 ,mohammedan scientists have not been included4 ,the relative neglect or ignorance of a science has been indicated by the depth of the shading4 ,the great loss to civilization caused by the barbarian inroads and the hostile attitude of the early ,church is evident4 ,accompanying this new scientific work there arose1 among a few men in each of the western ,european countries1 an interest in scientific studies such as the world had not witnessed since the days of the ,alexandrian ,greek4 ,this interest found expression in the organization of scientific societies1 wholly outside the universities of the time1 for the reporting of methods and results1 and for the mingling together in sympathetic companionship of these seekers after new truth4 ,the most important dates connected with the rise of these societies are3 #afjc4 ,the ,lyncean ,society at ,rome4 #afai4 ,jungius founded the ,natural ,science ,association at ,rostock4 #afde4 ,the ,royal ,society of ,london began to meet2 constituted in #affj2 chartered in #affb4 #afeg4 ,the ,academia del ,cimento at ,florence4 #affb4 ,the ,imperial ,academy of ,germany4 #afff4 ,the ,academy of ,sciences in ,france4 #afge4 ,the ,national ,observatory at ,greenwich established4 ,after #afej the advance of science was rapid4 ,the spirit of modern inquiry1 which in the sixteenth century had animated but a few minds1 by the middle of the seventeenth had extended to all the principal countries of ,europe4 ,the striking results obtained during the seventeenth century revealed the vast field waiting to be explored1 and filled many independent modern-type scholars with an enthusiasm for research in the new domain of science4 ,by the close of the eighteenth century the main outlines of most of the modern sciences had been established4 ,,leading ,,thinkers ,,outside ,,the ,,universities4 ,during the seventeenth century1 and largely during the eighteenth as well1 the extreme conservatism of the universities1 their continued control by their theological faculties1 and their continued devotion to theological controversy and the teachings of state orthodoxy rather than the advancement of knowledge1 served to make of them such inhospitable places for the new scientific method that practically all the leading workers with it were found outside the universities4 ,this was less true of ,england than other lands1 but was in part true of ,english universities as well4 ,as civil servants1 court attachs1 pensioners of royalty1 or as private citizens of means they found1 as independent scholars reporting to the recently formed scientific societies1 a freedom for investigation and a tolerance of ideas then scarcely possible anywhere in the university world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,,ren ,,descartes 7#aeif-afej7 ,tycho ,brahe and ,kepler were pensioners of the ,emperor at ,prague4 ,lord ,bacon was a lawyer and political leader1 and became a peer of ,england4 ,descartes1 the mathematician and founder of modern philosophy1 to whom we are indebted for conic sections2 ,napier1 inventor of logarithms2 and ,ray and ,willoughby1 who did the first important work in botany and zoology in ,england1 were all independent scholars4 ,the air-pump was invented by the ,burgomaster of ,madgeburg4 ,huygens1 the astronomer and inventor of the clock was a pensioner of the ,king of ,france4 ,cassini1 who explained the motion of ,jupiter's satellites1 was ,astronomer ,royal at ,paris4 ,halley1 who demonstrated the motions of the moon and who first predicted the return of a comet1 held a similar position at ,greenwich4 ,van ,helmont and ,boyle1 who together laid the foundations of our chemical knowledge1 were both men of noble lineage who preferred the study of the new sciences to a life of ease at court4 ,harvey was a physician and demonstrator of anatomy in ,london4 ,sydenham1 the ,english ,hippocrates1 was a pensioner of ,cromwell and a physician in ,westminster4 ,the ,german mathematical scholar1 ,leibnitz1 who jointly with ,newton discovered the calculus1 scorned a university professorship and remained an attach of a ,german court4 ,newton1 though for a time a professor at ,cambridge1 during most of his mature life held the royal office of ,warden of the ,mint4 ,these are a few notable illustrations of scientific scholars of the first rank who remained outside the universities to obtain advantages and freedom not then to be found within their walls4 ,much these same conditions continued throughout most of the eighteenth century1 during which many remarkable advances in all lines of pure science were made4 ,by the close of this century the universities had been sufficiently modernized that scientific workers began to find in them an atmosphere conducive to scientific teaching and research2 during the nineteenth century they became the homes of scientific progress and instruction2 to-day they are deeply interested in the promotion of scientific research4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,show that the rise of scientific inquiry was but another manifestation of the same inquiring spirit which had led to the recovery of the ancient literatures and history4 #b4 ,what do you understand to be meant by the failure of the ,greeks to standardize their observations by instruments8 #c4 ,show that it would be possible largely to determine the character of a civilization1 if one knew only the prevailing ideas and conceptions as to scientific and religious matters4 #d4 ,show the two different types of reasoning involved in the deduction of ,l4 ,valla 7p4 #bdf7 and the induction of ,copernicus4 #e4 ,of which type was the reasoning of ,galileo as to ,jupiter's satellites8 #f4 ,show that the three distempers described by ,bacon characterize the three great stages in human progress from the sixth to the fifteenth centuries4 #g4 ,how do you explain the long rejection of the new sciences by the universities8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #bjc4 ,macaulay3 ,attitude of the ,ancients toward ,scientific ,inquiry4 #bjd4 ,franck3 ,the ,credulity of ,mediaeval ,people4 #bje4 ,copernicus3 ,how he arrived at the theory he set forth4 #bjf4 ,brewster3 ,galileo's ,discovery of the ,satellites of ,jupiter4 #bjg4 ,inquisition3 ,the ,abjuration of ,galileo4 #bjh4 ,bacon3 ,on ,scientific ,progress4 #bji4 ,macaulay3 ,the ,importance of ,bacon's ,work4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,how do you explain the attitude of the ancients toward scientific inquiry8 #b4 ,state the ancient purpose in pursuing scientific studies4 #c4 ,contrast ,bacon and ,plato as to aims4 #d4 ,show that the thinking of ,copernicus as to the motions of the heavenly bodies was an excellent example of deductive thinking4 #e4 ,show that the discovery and reasoning of ,galileo was an example of the common method of reasoning of to-day4 #f4 ,were the difficulties that surrounded scientific inquiry and progress1 as described by ,bacon1 easily removed8 #g4 ,explain the readiness with which the clergy have so commonly opposed scientific inquiry for fear that the results might upset preconceived theological ideas4 ,,supplementary ,,references ,ball1 ,w4 ,r4 ,r4 ,history of ,mathematics at ,cambridge4 99 ,libby1 ,walter4 ,an ,introduction to the ,history of ,science4 ,ornstein1 ,martha4 ,role of the ,scientific ,societies in the ,seventeenth ,century4 99 ,routledge1 ,robert4 ,a ,popular ,history of ,science4 99 ,sedgwick1 ,w4 ,t4 and ,tyler1 ,h4 ,w4 ,a ,short ,history of ,science4 99 ,white1 ,a4 ,d4 ,history of the ,warfare of ,science with ,theology1 #b vols4 ,wordsworth ,christopher4 ,scholae ,academicae2 ,studies at the ,english ,universities in the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,new ,,scientific ,,method ,,and ,,the ,,schools ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,realism ,,in ,,education4 ,as will be remembered from our study of the educational results of the ,revival of ,learning 7chapter ,,xi71 the new schools established in the reaction against medievalism1 to teach pure ,latin and ,greek1 in time became formal and lifeless 7p4 #bhc71 and their aim came to be almost entirely that of imparting a mastery of the ,ciceronian style1 both in writing and in speech4 ,this idea1 first clearly inaugurated by ,sturm at ,strassburg 7,r4 #acg71 had now become fixed1 and in its extreme is illustrated by the teachings of the ,jesuit ,campion at ,prague 7,r4 #adf74 ,as a reaction against this extreme position of the humanistic scholars there arose1 during the sixteenth century1 and as a further expression of the new critical spirit awakened by the ,revival of ,learning1 a demand for a type of education which would make truth rather than beauty1 and the realities of the life of the time rather than the beauties of a life of ,roman days1 the aim and purpose of education4 ,this new spirit became known as ,realism1 was contemporaneous with the rise of scientific inquiry1 and was an expression of a similar dissatisfaction with the learning of the time4 ,as applied to education this new spirit may be said to have manifested itself in three different stages1 as follows3 #a4 ,humanistic realism4 #b4 ,social realism4 #c4 ,sense realism4 ,we will explain each of these1 briefly1 in order4 #a4 ,,humanistic ,,realism ,a ,,new ,,aim ,,in ,,instruction4 ,humanistic realism represents the beginning of the reaction against form and style and in favor of ideas and content4 ,the humanistic realists were in agreement with the classical humanists that the old classical literatures and the ,bible contained all that was important in the education of youth4 ,the ancient literatures1 they held1 presented not only the widest product of human intelligence1 but practically all that was worthy of man's attention4 ,the two groups differed1 however1 in that the classical humanists conceived the aim of education to be the mastery of the vocabulary and style of ,cicero1 and the production of a new race of ,roman youths for a revived ,latin scholarly world1 while the new humanistic realists wanted to use the old literatures as a means to a new end--that of teaching knowledge that would be useful in the world in which they lived4 ,monroe has so well expressed the humanistic-realist attitude that a passage from his ,history is worth quoting here4 ,he says3 ,not only did ancient philosophy contain the true philosophy of this life1 but languages were the key to the real understanding of the ,christian religion4 ,not only did mastery of these languages give power of speech1 and hence influence over one's fellows2 but1 if military science was to be studied1 it could in no place be better searched for than in ,caesar and in ,xenophon2 was agriculture to be practiced1 no better guide was to be found than ,virgil or ,columella2 was architecture to be mastered1 no better way existed than through ,vitruvius2 was geography to be considered1 it must be through ,mela or ,solinus2 was medicine to be understood1 no better means than ,celsus existed2 was natural history to be appreciated1 there was no more adequate source of information than ,pliny and ,seneca4 ,aristotle furnished the basis of all the sciences1 ,plato of all philosophy1 ,cicero of all institutional life1 and the ,church ,fathers and the ,scriptures of all religion4 ,,exponents ,,of ,,humanistic ,,realism4 ,the ,dutch international scholar ,erasmus 7#adfg8-aecf7 7p4 #bgd71 the ,frenchman ,rabelais 7#adhc-aeec71 and the ,english poet ,milton 7#afjh-gd7 stand as the clearest representatives of this new humanistic realism4 ,erasmus had clearly distinguished between the education of words and the education of things1 had pointed out the ease with which real truth is learned and retained1 and had urged the study of the content rather than the form of the ancient authors4 ,in his ,system of ,studies he said3 ,from these very authors 7,latin and ,greek71 whom we read for the sake of improving our language1 incidentally1 in no small degree is a knowledge of things gathered4 ,in his ,ciceronian he had ridiculed those who mistook the form for the spirit of the ancients4 ,the ,french non-conforming monk1 cur1 physician1 and university scholar1 ,franois ,rabelais1 in his satirical ,life of ,gargantua 7#aece7 and ,the ,heroic ,deeds of ,pantagruel 7#aecc7 had set forth1 even more clearly1 the idea of obtaining from a study of the ancient authors 7,r4 #baj7 knowledge that would be useful4 ,writing largely in the character of a clown and a fool1 because such was a safer method1 he protested against the formal1 shallow1 and insincere life of his age4 ,he made as vigorous a protest against medievalism and formalism as he dared1 for he lived in a time when new ideas were dangerous commodities for one to carry about or to try to express4 ,he ridiculed the old scholastic learning1 set forth the idea of using the old classics for realistic as well as humanistic ends1 and also advocated physical1 moral1 social1 and religious education in the spirit of the best writers and teachers of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,his book was extensively read and had some influence in shaping thinking1 though ,rabelais's importance in the history of education lies rather in his influence on later educational thinkers than on the life of his time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,,fran,,ois ,,rabelais 7#adhc-aeec7 ,perhaps the clearest example of humanistic realism is found in the writings of the ,english poet and humanitarian1 ,john ,milton4 ,his ,tractate on ,education 7#afdd7 was extensively read1 and was influential in shaping educational practice in the non-conformist secondary academies which arose a little later in ,england4 ,still later his ideas indirectly somewhat influenced ,american development4 ,milton first gives us an excellent statement of the new religious-civic aim of post-,reformation education 7,r4 #baa71 and then points out the defects of the existing education1 whereby boys spend seven or eight years merely in scraping together so much miserable ,latine and ,greek1 as might be learnt otherwise easily and delightfully in one year4 ,he then presents his plan for a compleat and generous ,education for noble and gentle youths1 and tells how all this may be done between twelve and one and twenty1 less time than is now bestowed in pure trifling at ,grammar and ,sophistry4 ,the course of study he outlines 7,r4 #bab7 is enormous4 ,the first year1 that is beginning at twelve1 the boy is to learn ,latin grammar1 arithmetic1 and geometry1 and to read simple ,latin and ,greek4 ,during the next three or four years the pupil is to master ,greek1 and to study agriculture1 geography1 natural philosophy1 physiology1 mathematics1 fortification1 engineering1 architecture1 and natural history1 all by reading the chief writings of the ancients1 in prose and poetry1 on these subjects4 ,during the remaining years to twenty-one the pupil1 similarly1 is to obtain ethical instruction from the ,greeks and the ,bible2 learn ,hebrew1 ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,saxon law2 learn ,italian and ,hebrew2 and study economics1 politics1 history1 logic1 rhetoric1 and poetry by reading selected ancient authors4 ,what ,rabelais suggested in jest for his giant1 ,milton adopted as a program for the school4 ,in addition1 in thoroughly characteristic modern ,english fashion1 he makes careful provision for daily exercise and play4 ,aside1 though1 from its impossibility of accomplishment except by a superior few1 ,milton's plan is thoroughly representative of the new humanistic-realistic point of view-that is1 that education should impart useful information1 though the information as ,milton conceived it was to be drawn almost entirely from the books of the ancients4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,,john ,,milton 7#afjh-gd7 ,,educational ,,results ,,of ,,humanistic ,,realism4 ,the importance of humanistic realism in the history of education lies largely in that it was the first of a series of reactions that led later to sense-realism--that is1 to the study of science and the application of scientific method in the schools4 ,in ,england it possesses still larger importance4 ,milton had called his institution an ,academy4 #a ,after the restoration of the ,stuarts 7,charles ,,ii1 #affj71 some two thousand non-conforming clergymen were dispossessed by the ,act of ,conformity 7#affb2 ,r4 #aff71 and soon after this the children of ,non-,conformists were excluded from the grammar schools and universities4 ,many of these clergymen now turned to teaching as a means of earning a livelihood and serving their people1 and the ideas of the non-conformist ,milton were influential in turning the schools thus established even further toward the study of useful subjects4 ,many of the new schools offered instruction in the modern languages1 logic1 rhetoric1 ethics1 geography1 astronomy1 algebra1 geometry1 trigonometry1 surveying1 navigation1 history1 oratory1 economics1 and natural and moral philosophy1 as well as the old classical subjects4 ,all teaching1 too1 was done in ,english1 and the study of ,english language and literature was emphasized4 ,this made these non-conformist academies in many respects superior to the older ,latin grammar schools4 ,after the enactment of the ,toleration ,act1 in #afhi1 these schools were allowed to incorporate and were gradually absorbed into the existing ,latin grammar-school system of ,england1 but unfortunately without producing much change in the character of these older institutions4 ,the idea of offering instruction in these new studies was in time carried to ,america1 where better results were obtained4 ,at first a few of the subjects1 such as the mathematical studies1 surveying1 navigation1 and ,english1 were introduced into the existing ,latin grammar or other schools of secondary grade4 ,especially was this true in the colonies south of ,new ,england4 ,after #agea1 and especially after about #aghj1 distinct ,academies arose in the ,united ,states 7chapter ,,xviii71 whose purpose was to offer instruction in all these new subjects of study4 ,from these our modern high schools have been derived4 ,,ii4 ,,social ,,realism ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 ,,michel ,,de ,,montaigne 7#aecc-ib7 ,,montaigne ,,and ,,locke4 ,social realism represents a still further reaction away from the humanistic schools4 ,it was the natural reaction of practical men of the new world against a type of education that tended to perpetuate the pedantry of an earlier age1 by devoting its energies to the production of the scholar and professional man to the neglect of the man of affairs4 ,the social realists were small in number1 but powerful because of their important social connections and wealth1 and they were very determined to have an education suited to their needs1 even if they had to create it themselves 7,r4 #bac74 ,the ,french nobleman1 scholar1 author1 and civic officer1 ,m4 de ,montaigne 7#aecc-ib71 and the ,english philosopher1 ,john ,locke 7#afcb-agjd71 were the clearest exponents of this new point of view1 though it found expression in the writings of many others4 ,each declared for a practical1 useful type of education for the young boy who was to live the life of a gentleman in the world of affairs4 ,neither had any sympathy with the colleges and grammar schools of the time 7,r4 #bad71 and both rejected the school for the private tutor4 ,this tutor must be selected with great care1 and first of all must be a well-bred gentleman--a man1 as ,montaigne says1 who has rather a well-made than a well-filled head 7,r4 #bae74 ,locke cautions that one fit to educate and form the ,mind of a young ,gentleman is not every where to be found1 and of the common type of teacher he asks1 ,when such an one has empty'd out into his ,pupil all the ,latin and ,logick he has brought from the ,university1 will that ,furniture make him a fine ,gentleman8 7,r4 #baf74 ,both condemn the school training of their time1 and both urge that the tutor train the judgment and the understanding rather than the memory4 ,to impart good manners rather than mere information1 and to train for life in the world rather than for the life of a scholar1 seem to both of fundamental importance in the education of a boy4 ,the great world1 says ,montaigne1 is the mirror wherein we are to behold ourselves4 ,in short1 ,i would have this to be the book my young gentleman should study with the most attention4 ,latin and ,learning1 says ,locke1 make all the ,noise2 and the main ,stress is laid upon ,proficiency in ,things a great ,part whereof belong not to a ,gentleman's ,calling2 which is to have the ,knowledge of a ,man of ,business1 a ,carriage suitable to his ,rank1 and to be eminent and useful to his ,country1 according to his ,station 7,r4 #baf74 ,both emphasized the importance of travel abroad as an important factor in the education of a gentleman4 ,,their ,,place ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,education4 ,both ,montaigne and ,locke were concerned alone with the education of the sons of gentlemen1 individuals now coming rapidly into prominence to dispute place in the world of affairs with the higher nobility on the one hand and the clergy on the other4 ,with the education of any other class ,montaigne never concerned himself4 ,as for ,locke1 he was later appointed a ,king's ,commissioner1 with certain oversight of the poor1 and for the education of the children of such he drew up a careful report which1 in true ,english fashion1 provided for their training in workhouses and their apprenticeship to a trade 7,r4 #bag74 ,he wrote nothing with regard to the education of the children of middle-class workers and tradesmen4 ,both authors also deal entirely with the work of a tutor1 and not with the work of a teacher in a school4 ,neither deals specifically with elementary education1 but rather with what1 in ,europe1 would be called the secondary-school period in the education of a boy4 ,locke was extensively read by the gentry of ,england1 as expressive of the best current practice of their class1 and his ideas as to education were also of some influence in shaping the instruction of the non-conformist teachers in the academies there4 ,his place in the history of education is also of some importance1 as we shall point out later1 for the disciplinary theory of education which he set forth4 ,still more1 ,locke later exerted a deep influence on the writings of ,rousseau 7chapter ,,xxi71 and hence helped materially to shape modern educational theory4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,,john ,,locke 7#afca-agjd7 ,,the ,,new ,,schools ,,for ,,the ,,sons ,,of ,,the ,,gentry4 ,both ,montaigne and ,locke1 in their emphasis on the importance of a practical education for the social and political demands of a gentleman concerned with the affairs of the modern world1 represent a still further reaction against the humanistic schools of the time than did the humanistic realists whom we have just considered4 ,still more1 both are expressive of the attitude of the nobility and gentry of the time1 who had almost deserted the schools as pedantic institutions of little value4 ,france was then the great country of ,europe1 and ,french language1 ,french political ideas1 ,french manners1 and ,french tutors found their way into all neighboring lands4 ,a new social and political ideal was erected--that of the polished man of the world1 who could speak ,french1 had traveled1 knew history and politics1 law and geography1 heraldry and genealogy1 some mathematics and physics with their applications1 could use the sword and ride1 was adept in games and dancing1 and was skilled in the practical affairs of life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4 ,,an ,,academie ,,des ,,armes ,from an early eighteenth-century ,parisian poster1 advertising an ,academy4 ,to give such training the ,french created numerous ,academies in their cities4 ,a writer of #afdi states that there were twelve such institutions at that time in ,paris alone4 ,not infrequently some nobleman was at the head4 ,boys were first educated at home by tutors1 and then sent to the ,academy to be trained in riding1 the military arts1 fortification1 mathematics1 the modern languages1 and the many graces of a gentleman4 ,the ,englishman1 ,john ,evelyn1 who was in ,france in #afdd1 thus describes the ,french ,academies3 ,at the ,palais ,cardinal in ,paris ,i frequently went to see them ride and exercise the ,greate ,horse1 especially at the ,academy of ,monsieur du ,plessis1 and de ,veau1 whose scholes of that art are frequented by the ,nobility2 and here also young gentlemen are taught to fence1 daunce1 play on musiq1 and something in fortifications and mathematics4 ,at ,richelieu1 near ,tours1 belongs an ,academy where besides the exercise of the horse1 armes1 dauncing1 etc41 all the sciences are taught in the vulgar ,french by ,professors stipendiated by the great ,cardinal4 ,the ,academy of ,juilly included some study of physical science1 mathematics1 geography1 heraldry1 ,french history1 ,italian1 and ,spanish1 besides the riding and gentlemanly arts4 ,in ,england the tutor in the home became the type form for the education of the sons of a gentleman1 the boys frequently being sent abroad to complete their education4 ,in ,german lands1 which in the seventeenth century were in close sympathy with ,french life and thought1 ,heidelberg being a center for the dissemination of ,french ideas1 the ,french academy idea was copied1 and what were called ,ritterakademieen 7knightly academies7 were founded in the numerous court cities #b for the education1 along such lines1 of the sons of the many grades of the ,german nobility4 ,between #afbj and #aghj1 before the rise of the ,german nationalistic movement which sought to replace ,french ideas by native ,german culture1 was the great period of these ,german court schools1 and during this period they bestowed on the sons of the ,german nobility the courtly and military education of the ,french academies4 ,the education of the nobility was in consequence segregated from the intellectual life of other classes4 ,gallants and pedants were the respective outputs of the two types of schools4 ,,iii4 ,,sense ,,realism ,,the ,,new ,,educational ,,aims ,,of ,,this ,,group4 ,this represented a still further and more important step in advance than either of the preceding4 ,in a very direct way sense realism in education was an outgrowth of the organizing work of ,francis ,bacon4 ,its aim was3 7#a7 ,to apply the same inductive method formulated by ,bacon for the sciences to the work of education1 with a view to organizing a general method which would greatly simplify the instructional process1 reduce educational work to an organized system1 and in consequence effect a great saving of time2 and 7#b7 ,to replace the instruction in ,latin by instruction in the vernacular1 #c and to substitute new scientific and social studies1 deemed of greater value for a modern world1 for the excessive devotion to linguistic studies4 ,the sixteenth century had been essentially a period of criticism in education1 and the leading thinkers on education1 as in other lines of intellectual activity1 were not in the schools4 ,in the seventeenth century we come to a new group of men who attempted to think out and work out in practice the ideas advanced by the critics of the preceding period4 ,in the seventeenth century we have1 in consequence1 the first serious attempt to formulate an educational method since the days of the ,athenian ,greeks and the treatise of ,quintilian4 ,the possibility of formulating an educational method that would simplify the educational process and save time in instruction1 appealed to a number of thinkers1 in different lands4 ,this group of thinkers1 due to their new methods of attack and thought1 the ,german historian of education1 ,karl von ,raumer1 has called ,innovators4 ,the chief pedagogical ideas of the ,innovators were3 #a4 ,that education should proceed from the simple to the complex1 and the concrete to the abstract4 #b4 ,that things should come before rules4 #c4 ,that students should be taught to analyze1 rather than to construct4 #d4 ,that each student should be taught to investigate for himself1 rather than to accept or depend upon authority4 #e4 ,that only that should be memorized which is clearly understood and of real value4 #f4 ,that restraint and coercion should be replaced by interest in the studies taught4 #g4 ,that the vernacular should be used as the medium for all instruction4 #h4 ,that the study of real things should precede the study of words about things4 #i4 ,that the order and course of ,nature be discovered1 and that a method of teaching based on this then be worked out4 #aj4 ,that physical education should be introduced for the sake of health1 and not merely to teach gentlemanly sports4 #aa4 ,that all should be provided with the opportunity for an education in the elements of knowledge4 ,this to be in the vernacular4 #ab4 ,that ,latin and ,greek be taught only to those likely to complete an education1 and then through the medium of the mother tongue4 #ac4 ,that a uniform and scientific method of instruction could be worked out1 which would reduce education to a science and serve as a guide for teachers everywhere4 ,the ,englishman1 ,francis ,bacon1 whom we have previously considered2 the ,german1 ,wolfgang ,ratichius 7or ,ratke72 and the ,moravian bishop and teacher1 ,johann ,amos ,comenius1 stand as perhaps the clearest examples of this organizing tendency in education4 ,ratke and ,comenius will be considered here as types4 ,,wolfgang ,,ratke4 ,bacon had believed that the new scientific knowledge should be incorporated into the instruction of the schools1 and had suggested1 in his ,advancement of ,learning 7#afjc-je71 a broader course of study for them1 and better facilities for scientific investigation and teaching4 ,while ,bacon was not a teacher and did not write specifically on school instruction1 his writings nevertheless deeply influenced many of those who followed his thinking4 ,the first writer to apply ,bacon's ideas to education and to attempt to evolve a new method and a new course of instruction was a ,german1 by the name of ,wolfgang ,ratke 7#aega-afce74 ,while studying in ,england he had read ,bacon's ,advancement of ,learning1 and from ,bacon's suggestions ,ratke tried to work out a new method of instruction4 ,this he offered1 and with much secrecy1 unsuccessfully for sale at various ,german courts4 ,finally he issued an ,address to the princes of ,germany1 assembled at an ,electoral ,diet at ,frankfurt-am-,main1 in #afab4 ,in this he told them of his new method1 which followed ,nature1 and declared that it was fraught with momentous consequences for mankind4 ,he claimed that he could3 #a4 ,by using the ,german language in the earlier years3 7a7 ,bring about the use of one common language among the ,german people1 and thus lay the basis for unity in government and religion2 7b7 ,impart to children a knowledge of the useful arts and sciences4 #b4 ,teach ,latin4 ,greek1 and ,hebrew better1 and in far less time1 than had previously been required for one language only4 ,this method he offered to sell to the princes1 and he would impart it only on the promise that it be not revealed to others4 ,two professors were appointed to examine ,ratke1 and they reported very favorably on his plan4 ,in #afag ,ratke published1 in ,leipzig1 his ,methodus ,nova1 which was the pioneer work on school method1 and is ,ratke's chief claim to mention here4 ,in this he laid down the fundamental rules for teaching1 as he had thought them out4 ,they were as follows3 #a4 ,the order of ,nature was to be sought and followed4 #b4 ,one thing at a time1 and that mastered thoroughly4 #c4 ,much repetition to insure retention4 #d4 ,use of the mother tongue for all instruction1 and the languages to be taught through it4 #e4 ,everything to be taught without constraint4 ,the teacher to teach1 and the scholars to keep order and discipline4 #f4 ,no learning by heart4 ,much questioning and understanding4 #g4 ,uniformity in books and methods a necessity4 #h4 ,knowledge of things to precede words about things4 #i4 ,individual experience and contact and inquiry to replace authority4 ,we see here the essentials of the ,baconian ideas1 as well as the foreshadowings of many other subsequent reforms in teaching method4 ,during the next half-dozen years ,ratke was a much-interviewed person1 as the idea of a more general education of the people1 advanced by the ,protestant reformers1 had appealed strongly to the imagination of many of the ,german princes4 ,finally the necessary money was raised to establish an experimental school1 #d printing-presses were set up to print the necessary books1 the people of the village of ,kthen1 in ,anhalt1 were ordered to send their children for instruction1 and the school opened with ,ratke in charge and amid great expectations and enthusiasm4 ,a year and a half later the school had failed1 through the bad management of ,ratke and his inability to realize the extravagant hopes he had aroused1 and he himself had been thrown into prison as an impostor by the princes4 ,this ended ,ratke's work4 ,he is important chiefly for his pioneer work as the forerunner of the greatest educator of the seventeenth century4 ,,johann ,,amos ,,comenius4 ,we now reach not only the greatest representative of sense realism1 both in theory and practice1 before the latter part of the eighteenth century1 but also one of the commanding figures in the history of education4 ,comenius was born at ,nivnitz1 in ,moravia1 in #aeib4 ,as a member1 pastor1 and later bishop of the ,moravian church1 and as a follower of ,john ,huss1 he suffered greatly in the ,catholic-,protestant warfare which raged over his native land during the period of the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,his home twice plundered1 his books and manuscripts twice burned1 his wife and children murdered1 and himself at times a fugitive and later an exile1 ,comenius gave his long life to the advancement of the interests of mankind through religion and learning4 ,driven from his home and country1 he became a scholar of the world4 ,while a student at the ,university of ,nassau1 at the age of twenty1 he read and was deeply impressed by the ,address of ,ratke4 ,bacon's ,novum ,organum1 which appeared when he was twenty-eight1 made a still deeper impression upon him4 ,he seems to have been familiar also with the writings of the educational reformers of his time in all ,european lands4 ,he traveled extensively1 and maintained a large correspondence with the scholars of his time4 ,he was master of a ,latin school in ,moravia from the age of twenty-two to twenty-four1 when he was ordained as a pastor of the ,moravian ,church4 ,eight years later1 in #afcb1 he was banished1 with all ,protestant ministers1 from his native land1 and while an exile for a time took charge of a school at ,lissa1 in ,poland4 ,here he worked out1 in practice1 the great work on method which he later published4 ,in #afch he was invited to reform the schools of ,sweden2 in #afda he visited ,england1 in connection with a plan for the organization of all knowledge2 he spent the next eight years working at school reform in ,sweden2 from #afej to #afed he was in charge of a school at ,saros-,patak1 in ,hungary1 where he worked out his famous textbooks for teaching language2 he was consulted with reference to the presidency of ,harvard ,college1 in #afed2 the same year he returned to ,lissa1 and once more lost his books and manuscripts and was made a homeless exile2 and finally he found a patron and asylum in ,amsterdam1 where he died in #afga1 at the age of seventy-nine4 ,the verse beneath his portrait seems an especially appropriate commentary on his life4 ,,comenius ,,and ,,educational ,,method4 ,while teaching at ,lissa1 in ,poland1 ,comenius had formulated for himself the principles underlying school instruction1 as he saw it1 in a lengthy book which he called ,the ,great ,didactic4 #e ,the title page 7,r4 #bah7 and the table of contents 7,r4 #bai7 will give an idea as to its scope4 ,in this work ,comenius formulated and explained his two fundamental ideas1 namely1 that all instruction must be carefully graded and arranged to follow the order of nature1 and that1 in imparting knowledge to children1 the teacher must make constant appeal through sense-perception to the understanding of the child4 ,we have here the fundamental ideas of ,bacon applied to the school1 and ,comenius stands as the clearest exponent of sense realism in teaching up to his time1 and for more than a century afterward4 ,deeply religious by nature and training1 ,comenius held the ,holy ,scriptures to contain the beginning and end of all learning2 to know ,god aright he held to be the highest aim2 and with true ,protestant fervor he contended that the education of every human being was a necessity if mankind was to enter into its religious inheritance1 and piety1 virtue1 and learning were to be brought to their fruition4 ,unlike those who were enthusiasts for religious education only1 ,comenius saw further1 and held an ideal of service to the ,state and ,church here below for which proper training was needed4 ,still more1 he believed in the education of human beings simply because they were human beings1 and not merely for salvation1 as ,luther had held4 ,comenius was the first to formulate a practicable school method1 working along the new lines marked out by ,bacon4 ,he had no psychology to guide him1 and worked largely by analogies from nature4 ,a great idea with him was that we should study and follow nature1 and this led him to the conclusions that education should proceed from the easy to the difficult1 the near to the remote1 the general to the special1 and the known to the unknown1 and that the great business of the teacher was imparting and guiding1 and not storing the memory4 ,these conclusions seem commonplaces to us of to-day1 but what is commonplace today was genius three hundred years ago4 ,to select the subject-matter of instruction carefully and on the basis of utility1 to eliminate needless materials1 not to attempt too much at a time1 to use concrete examples1 to have frequent repetitions to fix ideas1 to advance by carefully graded steps1 to tie new knowledge to old1 to learn by observing and doing1 and to learn by use rather than by precept--were still other of the present-day commonplaces which ,comenius worked out and formulated in his ,didactica ,magna4 #f ,his plea for a mild and gentle discipline in place of the brutality of his time1 his emphasis of the vernacular and the realities of life1 his conception as to the importance of early education1 his careful gradation of the school1 and his ability to see the usefulness of ,latin without over-emphasizing its importance--all stamp him as a capable and practical schoolmaster who saw deeply into the nature of the educational process4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aj4 ,,john ,,amos ,,comenius 7#aeib-afga7 ,the ,moravian ,bishop at the age of fifty4 7,after an engraving by ,glover1 printed as a frontispiece to ,hartlib's ,a ,reformation of ,schooles4 ,london1 #afdb47 ,loe1 here an ,exile1 who to serve his ,god1 ,hath sharply tasted of proud ,pashurs ,rod ,whose learning1 ,piety1 true worth1 being knowne ,to all the world1 makes all the world his owne4 ,f4,q4 ,,comenius' ,,ideas ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,schools4 ,in his ,didactica ,magna ,comenius divided the school life of a child into four great divisions4 ,the first concerned the period from infancy to the age of six1 which he called ,the ,mother ,school4 ,for this period he wrote ,the ,school of ,infancy 7#afbh71 a book intended primarily for parents1 and one of such deep insight and fundamental importance that parents and teachers may still read it with interest and profit4 ,in it he anticipated many of the ideas of the kindergarten of to-day4 ,the next division was ,the ,vernacular ,school1 which covered the period from the ages of six to twelve4 ,for this period six classes were to be provided1 and the emphasis was to be on the mother tongue4 ,this school was to be for all1 of both sexes1 and in it the basis of an education for life was to be given4 ,it was to teach its pupils to read and write the mother tongue2 enough arithmetic for the ordinary business of life1 and the commonly used measures2 to sing1 and to know certain songs by rote2 to know about the real things of life2 the ,catechism and the ,bible2 a general knowledge of history1 and especially the creation1 fall1 and redemption of man2 the elements of geography and astronomy2 and a knowledge of the trades and occupations of life2 all of which1 says ,comenius1 can be taught better through the mother tongue than through the medium of the ,latin and ,greek4 ,in scope this school corresponds with the vernacular school of modern ,europe4 ,the next school was ,the ,latin ,school1 covering the years from twelve to eighteen1 and in this ,german1 ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew were to be taught1 by improved methods1 and with physics and mathematics added4 ,this school he divided into six classes1 named from the principal study in each1 as follows3 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,physics1 7#c7 ,mathematics1 7#d7 ,ethics1 7#e7 ,dialectics1 7#f7 ,rhetoric4 ,he also later outlined a plan for a six-class ,gymnasium for ,saros-,patak 7,r4 #bbj71 culminating in a seventh year for preparation for the ministry1 which was an improvement on the ,latin ,school and very modern in character4 ,had such a school become common1 secondary education in ,europe might have been a century in advance of where the nineteenth century found it4 ,the ,latin school was to be attended only by those of ability who were likely to enter the service of ,church or ,state1 or who intended to pass on to the ,university4 ,this last was to cover the period from eighteen to twenty-four4 ,unlike all educational practice of his time and later1 ,comenius here provides for an educational ladder of the present-day ,american type1 wholly unlike the ,european two-class school system which 7p4 #cec7 later evolved4 ,,comenius' ,,work ,,in ,,reforming ,,language ,,teaching4 ,at the time ,comenius lived and wrote1 the languages constituted almost the only subject of study1 and ,latin grammar was the great introductory subject4 ,the mediaeval grammars 7,donatus2 ,alexander de ,villa ,dei2 pp4 #aef1 #aee7 had been so poor that the instruction was difficult and1 in consequence1 long drawn out4 ,lily's ,latin ,grammar 7p4 #bgf71 published in #aeac1 and ,melanchthon's ,latin ,grammar1 published in #aebe1 had represented marked advances4 ,still the subject remained difficult1 even when taught from these new types of grammars4 ,comenius early became convinced1 as a result of his teaching and studies in educational method1 that the ancient classical authors were not only too difficult for boys beginning the study of ,latin1 but that they also did not contain the type of real knowledge he felt should be taught in the schools4 ,he accordingly set to work to construct a series of introductory ,latin readers which would form a graded introduction to the study of ,latin1 and which would also introduce the pupil to the type of world knowledge and scientific information he felt should be taught4 ,his plan eventually embraced a graded series of five books1 as follows3 #a4 ,the ,orbis ,sensualium ,pictus1 or the ,world of ,sense ,objects ,pictured4 ,this was an illustrated primer and first reader1 which appeared in #afeh1 and was the first illustrated book ever written for children 7,r4 #bba74 #b4 ,the ,vestibulum 7,vestibule1 or gate74 ,an easy first reader1 consisting of but a few hundred of the most commonly used ,latin words and sentences1 with a translation into the vernacular in parallel columns4 ,this book required about a half-year for its completion4 #c4 ,the ,janua ,linguarum ,reserata1 or ,gate of ,languages ,unlocked4 ,this was the first of the series printed 7#afca71 the ,vestibulum being an easy introduction to it1 and the ,orbis ,pictus being the ,janua simplified and illustrated4 ,the ,janua contained some eight thousand ,latin words1 arranged in simple sentences1 with the vernacular equivalent in parallel columns2 included information on a variety of subjects2 #g and was a regular ,noah's ,ark for vocabulary purposes4 ,it embraced sufficient reading material and grammar for a year4 #d4 ,the ,atrium4 ,this was an expansion of the ,janua1 and treated the same topics more in detail4 ,it was intended to be an advanced reader1 based1 as was the ,janua1 on studies about the real things of life4 ,the vocabulary now was ,latin-,latin1 instead of ,latin-vernacular4 #e4 ,the ,thesaurus1 which was never completed1 but was planned to be a collection of graded extracts from easy ,latin authors--,cornelius ,nepos1 ,caesar1 ,cicero1 ,sallust1 ,vergil1 ,horace1 ,pliny--to furnish the needed reading material for the three upper years of the ,latin ,school4 ,,the ,,textbooks ,,illustrated4 ,beginning in the ,janua1 and afterwards in the ,vestibulum and ,orbis ,pictus as well1 ,comenius not only simplified the teaching of ,latin by producing the best textbooks for instruction in the subject the world had ever known1 but he also shifted the whole emphasis in instruction from words to things1 and made the teaching of scientific knowledge and useful world information the keynote of his work4 ,the hundred different chapters of the ,janua1 and the hundred and fifty-one chapters of the ,orbis ,pictus1 were devoted to imparting information as to all kinds of useful subjects4 ,the following selections from the chapter titles of the ,orbis ,pictus illustrate how large a place the new scientific studies occupied in his conception of the school3 ,the ,world ,birds ,weaving ,philosophy ,the ,heavens ,cattle ,tailor ,prudence ,fire ,fish ,barber ,diligence ,wind ,parts of ,man ,schoolmaster ,temperance ,water ,flesh and ,bowels ,shoemaker ,fortitude ,clouds ,chanels and ,bones ,carpenter ,humanity ,earth ,senses ,potter ,justice ,fruits ,deformities ,printing ,consanguinity ,metals ,husbandry ,geometry ,a ,city ,trees ,bees and ,honey ,the ,planets ,merchandizing ,herbs ,butchery ,eclipses ,a ,burial ,flowers ,cookery ,europe ,religious ,forms ,the accompanying illustrations 7,figs4 #abf1 #abg7 reveal the nature of the text-books he prepared4 7,see also ,r4 #bba for four additional pages of illustrations from the ,orbis ,pictus47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4 ,a ,,sample ,,page ,,from ,,the ,,orbis ,,pictus ,the illustration and ,latin text is from the first edition of #afeh2 the ,english translation from the ,english edition of #agbg4 ,the success of these textbooks was immediate and very great4 ,within a short time after the publication of the ,janua it had been translated into ,flemish1 ,bohemian1 ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 ,greek1 ,hungarian1 ,italian1 ,latin1 ,polish1 ,spanish1 and ,swedish1 as well as into ,arabic1 ,mongolian1 ,russian1 and ,turkish4 ,the ,orbis ,pictus was an even greater success4 #h ,it went through many editions1 in many languages2 stood without a competitor in ,europe for a hundred and fifteen years2 and was used as an introductory textbook for nearly two hundred years4 ,an ,american edition was brought out in ,new ,york ,city1 as late as #ahaj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,page ,,from ,a ,,latin-,,english ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,vestibulum ,thousands of parents1 who knew nothing of ,comenius and cared nothing for his educational ideas1 bought the book for their children because they found that they liked the pictures and learned the language easily from it4 #i ,,place ,,and ,,influence ,,of ,,comenius4 ,comenius stands in the history of education in a position of commanding importance4 ,he introduces the whole modern conception of the educational process1 and outlines many of the modern movements for the improvement of educational procedure4 ,what ,petrarch was to the revival of learning1 what ,wycliffe was to religious thought1 what ,copernicus was to modern science1 and what ,bacon and ,descartes were to modern philosophy1 ,comenius was to educational practice and thinking 7,r4 #bbb74 ,the germ of almost all eighteenth- and nineteenth- century educational theory is to be found in his work1 and he1 more than any one before him and for at least two centuries after him1 made an earnest effort to introduce the new science studies into the school4 ,far more liberal than his ,lutheran or ,calvinistic or ,anglican or ,catholic contemporaries1 he planned his school for the education of youth in religion and learning and to fit them for the needs of a modern world4 ,unlike the textbooks of his time1 and for more than a century afterward1 his were free from either sectarian bigotry or the intense and gloomy atmosphere of the age4 ,yet ,comenius lived at an unfortunate period in the history of human progress4 ,the early part of the seventeenth century was not a time when an enthusiastic and aggressive and liberal-minded reformer could expect much of a hearing anywhere in western ,europe4 ,the shock of the contest into which western ,christendom had been plunged by the challenge of ,luther had been felt in every corner of ,europe1 and the culmination of a century of warfare was then raging1 with all the bitterness and brutality that a religious motive develops4 ,christian ,europe was too filled with an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust and hatred to be in any mood to consider reforms for the improvement of the education of mankind4 ,as a result the far-reaching changes in method formulated by ,comenius made but slight impression on his contemporaries2 his attempt to introduce scientific studies awakened suspicion1 rather than interest2 and the new method which he formulated in his ,great ,didactic was ignored and the book itself was forgotten for centuries4 ,his great influence on educational progress was through the reform his textbooks worked in the teaching of ,latin1 and the slow infiltration into the schools of the scientific ideas they contained4 ,as a result1 many of the fundamentally sound reforms for which he stood had to be worked out anew in the nineteenth century4 ,it is sad to contemplate how far our western world might have been advanced in its educational organization and scientific progress1 by the close of the eighteenth century1 had it been in a mood to receive and utilize the reforms in aims and methods1 and to accept the new scientific subject-matter1 proposed and worked out by this far-sighted ,moravian teacher4 ,religious bigotry has1 in all lands and ages1 proved itself one of the most serious of all obstacles in the path of human progress4 ,,iv4 ,,realism ,,and ,,the ,,schools ,,the ,,vernacular ,,schools4 ,the ideas for which the realists just described had stood were adopted in the people's schools but slowly1 and came only after long waiting4 ,the final incorporation of science instruction into elementary education did not come until the nineteenth century1 and then was an outgrowth of the reform work of ,pestalozzi on the one hand1 and the new social1 political1 economic1 and industrial forces of a modern world on the other4 ,the ,peace of ,westphalia 7#afdh71 which closed a century of bitter and vindictive religious warfare1 was followed by another century of hatred1 suspicion1 and narrow religious intolerance and reaction4 ,all parties now adopted an extremely conservative attitude in matters of religion and education1 and the protection of orthodoxy became the chief purpose of the school4 ,reading1 religion1 a little counting and writing1 and1 in ,teutonic lands1 music1 came to constitute the curriculum of such elementary vernacular schools as had come to exist1 and the religious ,primer and the ,bible became the great school textbooks4 ,the people were poor1 much of ,europe was impoverished and depopulated as a result of long-continued religious strife1 the common people still occupied a very low social position1 there were as yet no qualified teachers1 and no need for general education aside from religion4 ,still more1 during more than a thousand years the ,church had established the tradition of providing free education1 and when the governing authorities of the ,states which turned to ,protestantism had taken from the ,church both the opportunity to continue the schools and the wealth with which to maintain them1 they were seldom willing to tax themselves to set up institutions to continue the work formerly done gratis by the ,church4 ,in consequence1 regardless of ,protestant educational theory as to the need for general education1 but little progress in providing vernacular schools was made during the whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,here and there in ,teutonic lands1 however1 the new studies found an occasional patron4 ,in #afai schools were organized for the little ,duchy of ,weimar 7p4 #cag7 by a pupil of ,ratke1 and sense realism was given a place in them4 ,the schoolmaster1 ,andreas ,reyher1 who in #afdb drew up the ,schule ,methodus the actual title of that book was ',schulmethodus for ,duke ,ernest of ,saxe-,gotha and ,altenburg1 was familiar with the work of both ,ratke and ,comenius1 and made provision for instruction in the natural and useful sciences 7,r4 #afc7 for ,duke ,ernest's children4 ,here and there a few other attempts to provide schools and add instruction in the new ,realien were made4 ,the number of such attempts was not large1 but their work was influential1 and as a result vernacular schools and science instruction finally became established among ,german-speaking peoples before they did in any other land4 ,,the ,,secondary ,,schools4 ,the influence of ,milton's ,tractate on the non- conformist ,academies of ,england has been traced1 and the transfer of the idea of instruction in the new mathematical1 scientific1 literary1 historical1 and political subjects to the new ,american ,academies has been mentioned4 ,that these new studies also entered into the education of a gentleman in ,england and ,france1 under the private-tutor and the courtly- academy system1 and were copied from the ,french and constituted a large part of the instruction organized for the ,ritterakademieen of the numerous court cities in ,german lands1 has also been mentioned4 ,in both ,england and ,france such private instruction exerted but little influence on the existing ,latin grammar schools1 and in consequence the schools of both countries remained largely unchanged in direction and purpose until the second half of the nineteenth century4 ,in ,german lands the ,ritterakademieen idea experienced a further development1 which proved to be of large importance for the future of ,german education4 ,,francke',s ,,institutions4 ,with the introduction of ,french ideas and training into the ,german courts1 ,french skepticism in matters of religion developed in the court circles4 ,under the influence of a pious ,lutheran clergyman1 ,philip ,spener 7#afce-agje71 who tried to emphasize religion as an affair of the heart rather than the head2 and especially as a result of the work of his spiritual successor1 ,augustus ,hermann ,francke1 a movement arose in ,german lands1 during the closing years of the seventeenth century1 which became known as ,pietism4 #aj ,disgusted with the lifeless and insincere religion of the time1 these two strove to substitute a religion of both head and heart4 ,in #afie1 moved by pity for the poor1 ,francke established at ,halle the first of his famous ,institutions1--a school for poor children4 ,a pay school for the well-to-do was soon added1 and soon another school for the children of nobility4 ,an orphan school also was in time provided4 ,the school for the poor developed into a vernacular or ,burgher 7volks2 peoples7 school2 the school for the pay pupils into a ,latin ,school1 or ,gymnasium2 and the school for nobles into a higher scientific school1 or ,pdagogium as it was called4 ,at first ,francke encountered some theological opposition1 but the ,institutions prospered1 and at the time of his death contained over #bbjj pupils1 and over #cjj teachers1 workers1 and attendants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,,augustus ,,hermann ,,francke 7#affc-agbg7 ,the interesting thing about ,francke's work was the courses of instruction he provided for his schools4 #aa ,in the ,burgher ,school he gave the children instruction in history1 geography1 and animal life1 in addition to the reading1 writing1 counting1 music1 and religion of the usual ,german vernacular school4 ,into the ,gymnasium he introduced instruction in history1 geography1 music1 science1 and mathematics1 in addition to the usual ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew4 ,he also changed the purpose of the language instruction4 ,greek was studied to be able to read the ,new ,testament in the original1 and ,hebrew better to understand the ,old4 ,the ,pdagogium was provided with a botanical garden1 a cabinet of natural history1 physical apparatus1 a laboratory for the study of chemistry and anatomy1 and a workshop for turning and glass-cutting4 ,independent of the work of ,comenius1 but as an outgrowth of the new movement for the study of science now beginning to influence educational thought1 we have here the most important attempt at the introduction into the school of sense realism1 or ,realien1 as the ,germans say1 that the modern world had so far witnessed4 ,in #afig ,francke added a ,seminarium ,praeceptorium1 to train teachers in his new ideas4 ,this was the first teachers' training- school in ,german lands1 and the teachers he trained served to scatter his educational ideas over the ,german ,states4 #ab ,,the ,,first ,,realschule4 ,associated with ,francke as a teacher was one ,christopher ,semler 7#affi-agdj71 who became deeply interested in the new studies of the secondary school4 ,in #agjf ,semler had submitted a plan to the government of ,magdeburg for the teaching of the practical studies4 ,this was referred to the ,berlin ,society of ,sciences1 which approved the plan1 and later elected ,semler to membership in the ,society4 ,for years ,semler continued as a teacher at ,halle1 but without carrying the idea far enough to create a new type of school4 ,in #agci ,semler published a paper ,upon the ,mathematical1 ,mechanical1 and ,agricultural ,real ,school in the ,city of ,halle1 in which he described the instruction given there4 ,this was probably the first use of the term real school 7,realschule74 ,the important subjects described as taught1 aside from religion1 were the useful and in daily life wholly indispensable sciences1 such as mathematics1 drawing1 geography1 history1 natural history1 agriculture1 and economics1 with much emphasis on observation by the pupils4 ,the work at ,halle soon stimulated complaints as to the existing ,latin schools1 where children1 destined for business or the service of the ,state1 were kept trying to learn ,latin1 to the neglect of more practical and more useful studies4 ,the usefulness of the new real studies now began to be more correctly estimated1 and the conviction gradually grew that those boys who were destined for trade--now a rapidly increasing number-- should not be obliged to follow the same course as those destined to be scholars4 ,in #agbj ,rector ,gesner1 of the gymnasium at ,rotenburg1 wrote1 rather sarcastically3 ,the one class1 who will not study1 but will become tradesmen1 merchants1 or soldiers1 must be instructed in writing1 arithmetic1 writing letters1 geography1 description of the world1 and history4 ,the other class may be trained for studying4 ,in #agdb the ,rector at ,dresden1 ,schttgen1 issued a ,humble proposal for the special class in public city schools to provide for those children who are to remain without 7that is1 cannot learn7 ,latin4 ,instead of forcing them to attempt to learn ,donatus1 which he said was useless for them1 he urged that a special class 7school7 be organized to train them to become useful merchants1 artists1 and mechanics4 ,in #agea ,rector ,henzky1 of ,prenzlau1 issued a treatise to show ,that ,real schools can and must become common4 ,in #agef ,gesner1 professor at the new ,university of ,gttingen1 in a pamphlet ,on the organization of a gymnasium 7,r4 #bbc71 urged that there were three classes of youths for whom schools should be provided1 one of which needed the ,realschule4 ,in #agdg a clergyman by the name of ,julius ,hecker 7#agjg-agfh71 who had been a pupil in1 and later had taught in ,francke's ',institutions1 went to ,berlin and opened there the first distinct ,german ,realschule4 ,in this school ,hecker provided instruction in religion1 ethics1 ,german1 ,french1 ,latin1 mathematics1 drawing1 history1 geography1 mechanics1 architecture1 and a knowledge of nature and of the human body4 ,classes were organized in architecture1 agriculture1 bookkeeping1 manufacturing1 and mining4 ,the school prospered from the first1 and in time became the ,royal ,realschule of ,berlin4 ,in answer to a growing demand for advanced education for that constantly increasing number of youths destined for the trades or a mercantile career1 the realschule idea was copied in a number of the important cities of ,germany4 ,thus early--a century in advance of other nations1 and a century and a quarter ahead of the ,united ,states--did ,prussia lay the foundations of that scientific and technical education which1 later on1 did so much toward creating modern industrial ,germany4 ,,the ,,universities ,,and ,,the ,,new ,,scientific ,,learning4 ,though the theological persecution of scientific workers largely died out after about the middle of the seventeenth century1 and was never much of a factor in lands which had embraced some form of ,protestantism1 the new sciences nevertheless made but little headway in the universities until after the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,up to the close of the seventeenth century the universities in all lands continued to be dominated by their theological faculties1 and instruction still remained largely encompassed by mediaevalism4 ,england represents perhaps the most notable exception to this statement1 scientific studies having been received with greater tolerance by the universities there than in other lands4 ,in both ,catholic and ,protestant lands the need was felt for orthodox training1 through fear of further heresy1 and many petty restrictions were thrown about study and teaching which were stifling to free thinking and investigation4 ,each little ,kingdom or ,state now took over the supervision of some old university within its borders1 or established a new one1 that it might more completely control orthodoxy and prepare its own civil servants4 ,of the seventeenth century1 ,paulsen #ac well says3 ,it was essentially the period of the territorial-confessional university1 and is characterized by a preponderance of theological- confessional interest4444 ,many new foundations1 both ,catholic and ,protestant1 now appeared4 ,the chief impetus leading to these numerous foundations was the accentuation of the principle of territorial sovereignty1 from the ecclesiastical as well as the political point of view4 ,the consequence was that the universities began to be instrumentia denominationis of the government as professional schools for its ecclesiastical and secular officials4 ,each individual government endeavored to secure its own university in order--7#a7 to make sure of wholesome instruction1 which meant1 of course1 instruction in harmony with the confessional standards of its established church2 7#b7 to retain training of its secular officials in its own hands2 and finally 7#c7 render attendance at foreign universities unnecessary on the part of its subjects1 and thus keep the money in the country4 ,large amounts of money were not needed to establish a new university4 ,a few thousand guilders or thalers sufficed for the salaries of ten or fifteen professors1 a couple of preachers and physicians would undertake the theological and medical lectures1 and some old monastery would supply the needed buildings4 ,after the ,reformation the law faculty increased to the place of first importance in ,protestant lands1 because the ,reformation had created a new demand for judges and higher court officials to replace the rule of the clergy4 ,the medical faculty continued to be1 as in the mediaeval universities1 the smallest of all the faculties and amounted to little before the nineteenth century4 #ad ,the arts faculty1 or philosophical as it came to be termed in ,german lands1 offered lectures in ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew1 and a general course in philosophy1 but the ,aristotelian texts and to some extent mediaeval methods in instruction continued to be used until the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,here and there some professor read on mathematics1 and in ,protestant lands on the new astronomy1 and the study of botany began as the study of herbs in the medical faculty1 #ae but during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries few professors or students were interested in the scientific subjects4 ,by #afge ,bacon's ,novum ,organum had begun to be taught at both ,oxford and ,cambridge1 and by #agjj the ,newtonian physics had begun to displace ,aristotle at ,oxford4 ,by #agdj it was well established there4 ,at first instruction in the new subjects was offered as an extra and for a fee by men not having professional rank 7,r4 #bbd71 and later the instruction was given full recognition by the university4 ,by #agjj ,cambridge had become a center for mathematical study 7,r4 #bbe71 and with the growth in popularity of the ,newtonian philosophy1 mathematical studies there took the place held by logic in the mediaeval university4 ,cambridge has ever since remained a center for mathematical and1 since the beginning of the nineteenth century1 for scientific studies as well4 ,between #afhj and #agjj the ,university of ,paris was reformed1 and the mathematical and philosophical studies of ,descartes 7p4 #cid7 began to be taught there4 ,the universities of the ,netherlands began to teach the new mathematical and scientific studies even earlier4 ,aside from the above described ,realschule development1 the new scientific movement for a time largely passed over ,german lands1 and in consequence the ,german universities remained unreformed until the eighteenth century4 ,during the seventeenth century they sank to their lowest intellectual level4 ,in #afid1 largely in protest against the narrowness of the old universities1 the new ,university of ,halle was founded4 ,it received into its faculty certain forward-looking men who had been driven from the old universities1 #af and is generally considered as the first modern university4 ,the new scientific and mathematical subjects and a reformed philosophy were introduced2 the instruction in ,greek and ,latin was reformed2 ,german was made the medium of classroom instruction2 and a scientific magazine in ,german was begun4 ,in #agcg the ,university of ,gttingen became a second center of modern influence1 and from these two institutions the new scientific spirit gradually spread to all the ,protestant universities of ,german lands4 ,a century later they were the leading universities of the world4 ,,the ,,transition ,,now ,,practically ,,complete4 ,from the time ,petrarch made his first find at ,lige 7#accc71 in the form of two previously unknown orations of ,cicero 7p4 #bdd71 to the publication of the ,principia 7p4 #chh7 of ,newton 7#afhg71 is a period of approximately three and a half centuries4 ,during these three and a half centuries a complete transformation of world-life had been effected1 and the mediaeval man1 with his eyes on the past1 had given place to the modern man with his eyes on the future4 ,during these three and a half centuries revolutionary forces had been at work in the world of ideas1 and the transition from mediaeval to modern attitudes had been accomplished4 ,from #accc to #adcc was the century of literary finds1 and during this period the monastic treasures were brought to light and edited and the classical literature of ,rome restored4 ,greek also was restored to the western world1 and a reformed ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew were given the place of first importance in the new humanistic school4 ,the invention of printing took place in #adbc2 #adef witnessed the appearance of the first printed book1 and the perfection of the new means for the multiplication of books and the dissemination of ideas4 ,before #aejj the great era of geographical discovery had been inaugurated2 a sea-route to ,india was found in #adhg2 and a new continent in #adib4 ,in #aeai-bb ,magellan's ships rounded the world4 ,in #aeag ,luther issued the challenge1 the shock of which was felt in every corner of ,christian ,europe1 and within a half-century much of northern and western ,europe had been lost to the original ,roman ,church4 ,soon independence in thinking had been extended to the problem of the organization of the universe1 and in #aedc ,copernicus issued the book that clearly marks the beginning of modern scientific thinking and inquiry4 ,bacon had done his organizing work by #afbj1 and ,newton's ,principia 7#afhg7 finally established modern scientific thought and work4 ,comenius died in #afga1 his great organizing work done1 and his textbooks1 with their many new educational ideas1 in use all over ,europe4 ,the mediaeval attitude still continued in religion and government1 but the world as a whole had left mediaeval attitudes behind it1 and was facing the future of modern world organization and life4 ,to the educational organization of this modern world we now turn1 though before doing so we shall try to present a cross-section1 as it were1 of the development in educational theory and practice which had been attained by about the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,explain why the scholars of the time were so intent on producing a new race of ,roman youths for a revived ,latin scholarly world4 #b4 ,show that a reaction against humanism was certain to arise1 and why4 #c4 ,how do you explain the very small influence exerted on the ,latin grammar schools of ,england by the non-conformist ,academies1 after they had been absorbed into the existing ,english non-state system of higher schools8 #d4 ,compare ,milton and ,montaigne4 #e4 ,what would be the most probable effect on education of the erection of the polished-man-of-the-world ideal8 #f4 ,enumerate the forces favoring and opposing the change of the language of instruction from ,latin to the vernacular4 #g4 ,how many of the thirteen principles of the ,innovators do we still hold to be valid8 #h4 ,just what was new in the nine fundamental rules laid down by ,ratke1 in his ,methodus ,nova8 #i4 ,what is your estimate of the vernacular schools as outlined by ,comenius8 ,of the plans for a gymnasium at ,saros-,patak8 #aj4 ,compare ,comenius' ,latin school with the ,college of ,calvin4 #aa4 ,state the new ideas in instruction embodied in the textbooks of ,comenius4 #ab4 ,show that ,comenius dominates modern educational ideas1 even though his work was largely lost1 in the same way that ,petrarch or ,wyclifle or ,copernicus do modern work in their fields4 #ac4 ,explain the very slow development of vernacular schools after the ,protestant ,revolts4 #ad4 ,why would the introduction of real studies into them be especially slow8 #ae4 ,what explanation can you offer for the much earlier beginnings in scientific instruction in ,german lands than in ,england or ,america1 when much more of the important early scientific work was done by ,englishmen than by ,germans8 and the failure of science for a time to find a home in the ,german universities8 #af4 ,explain the continued dominance of the theological faculty in the universities of the seventeenth century4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following illustrative selections are reproduced3 #baj4 ,rabelais3 ,on the ,nature of ,education4 #baa4 ,milton3 ,the ,aim and ,purpose of ,education4 #bab4 ,milton3 ,his ,program for ,study4 #bac4 ,adamson3 ,discontent of the ,nobility with the ,schools4 #bad4 ,montaigne3 ,ridicule of the ,humanistic ,pedants4 #bae4 ,montaigne3 ,his ,conception of ,education4 #baf4 ,locke3 ,extracts from his ,thoughts on ,education4 #bag4 ,locke3 ,plan for ,working ,schools for ,poor ,children4 #bah4 ,comenius3 ,title-,page of the ,great ,didactic4 #bai4 ,comenius3 ,contents of the ,great ,didactic4 #bbj4 ,comenius3 ,plan for the ,gymnasium at ,saros-,patak4 #bba4 ,comenius3 ,sample pages from the ,orbis ,pictus4 7a7 ,a page from a ,latin-,german edition of #agdj4 7b7 ,two pages from a ,latin-,english edition of #agbg4 7c7 ,a page from the ,new ,york edition of #ahaj4 #bbb4 ,butler3 ,place of ,comenius in the ,history of ,education4 #bbc4 ,gesner3 ,need for ,realschulen for the ,new ,classes to be ,educated4 #bbd4 ,handbill3 ,how the ,scientific ,studies began at ,cambridge4 #bbe4 ,green3 ,cambridge ,scheme of ,study of #agjg4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,show that ,rabelais was in close sympathy with the best of the new humanists of his age4 #b4 ,would ,milton's definition of the purpose of education be true1 still8 #c4 ,show from ,milton's program of studies that he represents a transition type1 and also that his program contains the nucleus of the more modern studies of the secondary school4 #d4 ,explain the discontent of the nobility with the existing ,church schools4 #e4 ,assuming ,montaigne's description of the education of his time to be true1 explain why this might naturally be the case4 #f4 ,just what kind of an education does ,montaigne outline1 and how great a reaction was this from existing conditions8 #g4 ,in how far would ,locke's ideas still apply to the education of a boy of the leisure class8 #h4 ,show that ,locke's plan for work-house schools was in thorough accord with ,english post-,reformation ideas as to the duty of the ,state in matters of education1 and also that it contained the beginnings of the pauper- school idea of education which we later had to combat4 #i4 ,from the title-page and the table of contents 7#bai7 of ,comenius' ,great ,didactic1 point out the originality and novelty of his ideas4 #aj4 ,compare ,comenius' plan for the ,saros-,patak ,gymnasium with such schools as ,sturm's1 the college of ,guyenne1 the college of ,calvin1 and the ,jesuits4 #aa4 ,compare ,comenius' plan 7#bbj7 with the instruction in an ,american high school of seventy-five years ago4 #ab4 ,compare the ,alphabet page of ,comenius' ,orbis ,pictus with the same page in the ,new ,england ,primer4 #ac4 ,when so many educational reforms were inaugurated so early by ,comenius1 explain their neglect1 and our having to work them out anew in the nineteenth century4 #ad4 ,what does the need for ,realschulen indicate as to the evolution of ,german society and the recuperation from the ravages of war8 #ae4 ,compare the beginnings of scientific study at ,cambridge with beginnings of new subjects to-day in our schools4 #af4 ,just what does the ,cambridge ,scheme of ,study indicate as being taught there8 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,adamson1 ,j4 ,w4 ,pioneers of ,modern ,education1 #afjj-agjj4 ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,german ,teachers and ,educators4 99 ,butler1 ,n4 ,m4 ,the ,place of ,comenius in the ,history of ,education3 in ,proc4 ,n4 ,e4 ,a41 #ahib1 pp4 #gbc-bh4 ,browning1 ,oscar1 ,editor4 ,milton's ,tractate on ,education4 99 ,comenius1 ,j4 ,a4 ,orbis ,pictus 7,bardeen2 ,syracuse74 ,hanus1 ,paul ,h4 ,the ,permanent ,influence of ,comenius2 in ,educational ,review1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #bbf-cf 7,march1 #ahib74 ,laurie1 ,s4 ,s4 ,history of ,educational ,opinion since the ,renaissance4 99 ,laurie1 ,s4 ,s4 ,john ,amos ,comenius4 ,quick1 ,r4 ,h41 ,editor4 ,locke's ,thoughts on ,education4 99 ,quick1 ,r4 ,h4 ,essays on ,educational ,reformers4 99 ,vostrovsky1 ,clara4 ,a ,european ,school of the ,time of ,comenius 7,prague1 #afji72 in ,education1 vol4 #ag1 pp4 #cef-fj 7,february1 #ahig47 ,wordsworth1 ,christopher4 ,scholae ,academicae2 ,studies at the ,english ,universities in the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,by ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century ,we have now reached1 in our history of the transition age which began with the ,revival of ,learning--the great events of which were the recovery of the ancient learning1 the rediscovery of the historic past1 the reawakening of scholarship1 and the rise of religious and scientific inquiry--the end of the transition period1 and we are now ready to pass to a study of the development and progress of education in modern times4 ,before doing so1 however1 we desire to gather up and state the progress in both educational theory and practice which had been attained by the end of this transition period1 and to present1 as it were1 a cross-section of education at about the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,to do this1 then1 before passing to a consideration of educational development in modern times1 will be the purpose of this chapter4 ,we shall first review the progress made in evolving a theory as to the educational purpose1 and then present a cross-section view of the schools of the time under consideration4 ,i4 ,,pre-,,eighteenth-,,century ,,educational ,,theories ,,the ,,state ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,greeks ,,and ,,romans4 ,as we saw1 early in our study of the rise and progress of the education of peoples1 the ,city-,states of ,greece were the first consciously to evolve a systematic plan of schooling and a prolonged course of training for those who were to guide and direct the ,state4 ,in ,sparta the training was almost wholly for military efficiency and tribal safety1 but in ,athens we found a people using a well-worked-out system of training to develop individual initiative1 advance civilization1 and promote the welfare of the ,state4 ,the education provided was for but a class1 to be sure1 and a small ruling class at that1 but it was the first evidence of the new western1 individualistic1 and democratic spirit expressing itself in the education of the young4 ,there also we found1 for the first time1 the thinkers of the ,state deeply concerned with the education of the youth of the ,state1 and viewing education as a necessity to make life worth living and to secure the ,state from dangers1 both without and within4 ,the training there given produced wonderful results1 and for two centuries the men educated by it ably guided the destinies of ,athens4 ,the essentials of this ,greek training were later embodied in the private- adventure school system that arose in ,rome1 which was adapted to conditions and needs there1 and which was used for the training of a few ,roman youths of the wealthier families for a political career4 ,schooling at ,rome1 though1 never attained the importance or rendered the service that characterized education at ,athens1 and never became an instrument of the ,state used consciously for ,state ends4 ,one ,roman writer1 ,quintilian1 as we have seen 7,r4 #be71 worked out a careful statement of the whole process of educating a youth for a public career1 and this1 the first practical treatise on education1 was for long highly prized as the best- written statement of the educational art4 ,,the ,,future-,,life ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,christians4 ,with the decline of ,roman power and influence1 and the victory of ,christianity throughout the ,roman world1 the ,state conception of education was entirely lost to western ,europe1 and more than a thousand years elapsed before it again arose in the western world4 ,the ,church now became the ,state1 and the need for any education for secular life almost entirely passed away4 ,for centuries the aim was almost entirely a preparation for life in the world to come4 ,throughout all the early ,middle ,ages this attitude continued1 supplemented only by the meager education of a few to carry on the work of the ,church here below4 ,after the tenth century we noted the rise of some more or less independent study in some of the monastery and cathedral schools1 and after the twelfth century the rise of studia generalia marked the congregation into groups of the few interested in a studious life4 ,these in turn gave rise to the university foundations1 and to the beginning of independent and secular study once more in the western world4 ,the ,revival of ,learning1 the recovery of the ancient manuscripts1 the revival of the study of ,greek in the ,west1 the founding of libraries1 the invention of paper and printing1 and the revival of trade and commerce--all were new forces tending to give a new direction to scholarly study1 and as a result a new race of scholars1 more or less independent of the ,church1 now arose in western ,europe4 ,they were1 however1 a class1 and a very small class at that1 and though the result of their work was the creation of a new humanistic secondary school1 this still ministered to the needs of but a few4 ,this few was intended either for the service of the ,church1 for the governmental service of the towns which had by this time attained their independence1 or for the governments of the rising principalities or states4 ,for the great mass of the people1 whose purpose in life was to work and believe and obey1 agriculture1 warfare1 the rising trades with their guilds 7p4 #bji71 and the services of the ,church constituted almost all in the way of education which they ever received4 ,to be useful to his overlord and master here and to be saved hereafter were the chief life- purposes of the common man4 ,the former he must himself undertake in order to be able to live at all2 the latter the ,church undertook to supply to those who followed her teachings4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,vernacular ,,religious ,,school4 ,for the first time in history1 if we except the schools of the early ,christian period1 the ,protestant ,revolts created a demand for some form of an elementary religious school for all4 ,the ,protestant theory as to personal versus collective salvation involved as a consequence the idea of the education of all in the essentials of the ,christian faith and doctrine4 ,the aim was the same as before--personal salvation--but the method was now changed from that of the ,church as intermediary to personal knowledge and faith and effort4 ,to be saved1 one must know something of the ,word of ,god1 and this necessitated instruction4 ,to this end1 in theory at least1 schools had to be established to educate the young for membership in the new type of ,church relationship4 ,reading the vernacular1 a little counting and writing1 in ,teutonic countries a little music1 and careful instruction in a religious ,primer 7,r4 #bjb71 the ,catechism1 and the ,bible1 now came to constitute the subject matter of a new vernacular school for the children of ,protestants1 and to a certain extent in time for the children of ,catholics as well4 ,as we pointed out earlier 7p4 #cec71 between this new type of school for religious ends and the older ,latin grammar school for scholarly purposes there was almost no relationship1 and the two developed wholly independently of one another4 ,in the ,latin grammar schools one studied to become a scholar and a leader in the political or ecclesiastical world2 in the vernacular religious school one learned to read that he might be able to read the ,catechism and the ,bible1 and to know the will of the ,heavenly ,father4 ,there was scarcely any other purpose to the maintenance of the elementary vernacular schools4 ,this condition continued until well into the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,a ,,french ,,school ,,before ,,the ,,revolution 7,after an etching by ,boisseau1 #agcj-ahji7 ,,early ,,unsuccessful ,,educational ,,reformers4 ,back in the seventeenth century1 as we have pointed out in the preceding chapter1 a very earnest effort was made by ,ratke and ,comenius to introduce a larger conception of the educational process into the elementary vernacular school1 to eliminate the gloomy religious material from the textbooks1 to substitute a human- welfare purpose for the exclusively life-beyond view1 and to transform the school into an institution for imparting both learning and religion4 ,comenius in particular hoped to make of the new elementary religious school a potent instrument for human progress by introducing new subject- matter1 and by formulating laws and developing methods for its work which would be in harmony with the new scientific procedure so well stated by ,francis ,bacon4 ,comenius stands as the commanding figure in seventeenth- century pedagogical thought4 ,he reasoned out and introduced us to the whole modern conception of the educational process and purpose1 and gave to the school of the people a solid theoretical and practical basis4 ,living1 though1 at an unfortunate period in human history1 he was able to awaken little interest either in rational teaching-method or in reforms looking to the advancement of the welfare of mankind4 ,instead he roused suspicion and distrust by the innovations and progressive reforms he proposed2 his now-celebrated book on teaching method 7,rs4 #bah1 #bai7 was not at the time understood and was for long forgotten1 while the fundamentally sound ideas and pedagogical reforms which he proposed and introduced were lost amid the hatreds of his time1 and had to be worked out again and restablished in a later and a more tolerant age4 ,another unsuccessful reformer of some importance1 and one whose work antedated that of both ,ratke and ,comenius1 was the ,london schoolmaster1 ,richard ,mulcaster 7#aeca-afaa71 for twenty-five years headmaster of the famous ,merchant ,taylors' ,school1 and later ,master of ,saint ,paul's ,school4 ,in #aeha he issued his ,positions1 a pedagogical work so far in advance of his time1 and written in such a heavy and affected style1 that it passed almost unnoticed in ,england1 and did not become known at all in other lands4 ,yet the things he stood for became the fundamental ideas of nineteenth-century educational thought4 ,these were3 #a4 ,that the end and aim of education is to develop the body and the faculties of the mind1 and to help nature to perfection4 #b4 ,that all teaching processes should be adapted to the pupil taught4 #c4 ,that the first stage in learning is of large importance1 and requires high skill on the part of the teacher4 #d4 ,that the thing to be learned is of less importance than the pupil learning4 #e4 ,that proper brain development demands that pressure and one-sided education alike be avoided4 #f4 ,that the mother tongue should be taught first and well1 and should be the language of the school from six to twelve4 #g4 ,that music and drawing should be taught4 #h4 ,that reading and writing at least should be the common right of all1 and that girls should be given equal opportunity with boys4 #i4 ,that training colleges for teachers should be established and maintained4 ,the modern nature of many of ,mulcaster's proposals may be seen from the table of contents of his volume 7,r4 #bbf74 ,mulcaster1 like ,comenius1 thought far in advance of his age1 and in consequence his book was soon and for long forgotten4 ,yet what ,quick #a says of him is very true3 ,it would have been a vast gain to all ,europe if ,mulcaster had been followed instead of ,sturm4 ,he was one of the earliest advocates of the use of the vernacular instead of ,latin1 and good reading and writing in ,english were to be secured before ,latin was begun4 ,his elementary course included five things3 ,english reading1 ,english writing1 drawing1 singing1 playing a musical instrument4 ,if this were made to occupy the school time up to twelve1 ,mulcaster held that more would be done between twelve and sixteen than between seven and seventeen in the ordinary 7,latin grammar school7 way4 ,there would be a further gain in that the children would not be set against learning4 ,john ,locke1 and the disciplinary theory of education4 ,another commanding figure in seventeenth-century pedagogical thought was the ,english scholar1 philosopher1 teacher1 physician1 and political writer1 ,john ,locke 7#afcb- #agjd74 ,in the preceding chapter we pointed out the place of ,locke as a writer on the education of the sons of the ,english gentry1 and illustrated by an extract from his ,thoughts 7,r4 #baf7 the importance he placed on such a practical type of education as would prepare a gentleman's son for the social and political demands of a world fast becoming modern4 ,locke's place in the history of education1 though1 is of much more importance than was there 7p4 #djb7 indicated4 ,locke was essentially the founder of modern psychology1 based on the application of the methods of modern scientific investigation to a study of the mind1 #b and he is also of importance in the history of educational thought as having set forth1 at some length and with much detail1 the disciplinary conception of the educational process4 ,locke had served as a tutor in an ,english nobleman's family1 had worked out his educational theories in practice and thought them through as mind processes1 and had become thoroughly convinced that it was the process of learning that was important1 rather than the thing learned4 ,education to him was a process of disciplining the body1 fixing good habits1 training the youth in moral situations1 and training the mind through work with studies selected because of their disciplinary value4 ,this conception of education he sets forth well in the following paragraph1 taken from his ,thoughts3 ,the great ,work of the ,governor is to fashion the ,carriage and form the ,mind2 to settle in his ,pupils good ,habits and the ,principles of ,virtue and ,wisdom2 to give him by little and little a ,view of ,mankind1 and work him into a ,love and ,imitation of what is excellent and praiseworthy2 and in the ,prosecution of it1 to give him ,vigor1 ,activity1 and ,industry4 ,the ,studies which he sets him upon1 are but as it were the ,exercise of his ,faculties1 and ,employment of his ,time1 to keep him from ,sauntering and ,idleness1 to teach him ,application1 and accustom him to take ,pains1 and to give him some little ,taste of what his own ,industry must perfect 7#id74 ,in his ,thoughts ,locke first sets forth at length the necessity for disciplining the body by means of diet1 exercise1 and the hardening process4 ,a sound mind in a sound body he conceives to be a short but full description of a happy state in this world1 and a fundamental basis for morality and learning4 ,the formation of good habits and manners through proper training1 and the proper adjustment of punishments and rewards next occupies his attention1 and he then explains his theory as to making all punishments the natural consequences of acts4 ,similarly the mind1 as the body1 must be disciplined to virtue by training the child to deny1 subordinate desires1 and apply reason to acts4 ,the formation of good habits and the disciplining of the desires ,locke regards as the foundations of virtue4 ,on this point he says3 ,as the ,strength of the ,body lies chiefly in being able to endure ,hardship1 so also does that of the ,mind4 ,and the great ,principle and ,foundation of all ,virtue and ,worth is plac'd in this3--,that a ,man is able to deny himself his own ,desires1 cross his own ,inclinations1 and purely follow what ,reason directs as best1 tho' the ,appetite lean the other ,way 7 #cc74 ,similarly1 in intellectual education1 good thinking and the employment of reason is the aim1 and these1 too1 must be attained through the proper discipline of the mind4 ,good intellectual education does not consist merely in studying and learning1 he contends1 as was the common practice in the grammar schools of his time1 but must be achieved by a proper drilling of the powers of the mind through the use of selected studies4 ,the purpose of education1 he holds1 is above all else to make man a reasoning creature4 ,nothing1 in his judgment1 trains to reason closely so well as the study of mathematics1 though ,locke would have his boy look into all sorts of knowledge1 and train his understanding with a wide variety of exercises4 ,in the education given in the grammar schools of his time he found much that seemed to him wasteful of time and thoroughly bad in principle1 and he used much space to point out defects and describe better methods of teaching and management1 giving in some detail reasons therefor4 ,his ideas as to needed reforms in the teaching of ,latin 7,r4 #bbg7 are illustrative4 ,,locke ,,on ,,elementary ,,education4 ,for the beginnings of education1 and for elementary education in general1 ,locke sticks close to the prevailing religious conception of his time4 ,as for the education of the common people1 he writes3 ,the knowledge of the ,bible and the business of his own calling is enough for the ordinary man2 a ,gentleman ought to go further4 ,continuing regarding the beginnings of education and the studies and textbooks of his day1 he says3 ,the ,lord's ,prayer1 the ,creeds1 and the ,ten ,commandments1 't is necessary he should learn perfectly by heart4444 ,what other ,books there are in ,english of the ,kind of those above-mentioned 7besides the ,primer7 fit to engage the ,liking of ,children1 and tempt them to read1 ,i do not know2444 and nothing that ,i know has been considered of this ,kind out of the ordinary ,road of the ,horn ,book1 ,primer1 ,psalter1 ,testament1 and ,bible 7 #aeg74 ,locke does1 however1 give some very sensible suggestions as to the reading of the ,bible 7,r4 #bbh71 the imparting of religious ideas to children1 and the desirability of transforming instruction so as to make it pleasant and agreeable1 with plenty of natural playful activity4 #c ,on this point he writes3 ,he that has found a ,way how to keep up a ,child's ,spirit easy1 active1 and free1 and yet at the same time to restrain him from many ,things he has a ,mind to1 and to draw him to ,things that are uneasy to him2 he1 ,i say1 that knows how to reconcile these seeming ,contradictions1 has1 in my ,opinion1 got the true ,secret of ,education 7 #df74 ,,influence ,,of ,,locke',s ,,thoughts4 ,the volume by ,locke contains much that is sensible in the matter of educating a boy4 ,the emphasis on habit formation1 reasoning1 physical activities and play1 the individuality of children1 and a reformed method in teaching are its strong points4 ,the thoroughly modern character of the book1 in most respects1 is one of its marked characteristics4 ,the volume seems to have been much read by middle and upper-class ,englishmen1 and copies of it have been found in so many old colonial collections that it was probably well known among early eighteenth-century ,american colonists4 ,that the book had an important influence on the attitude of the higher social classes of ,england toward the education of their sons and1 consciously or unconsciously1 in time helped to redirect the teaching in that most characteristic of ,english educational institutions1 the ,english ,public 7,latin ,grammar7 ,school1 seems to be fairly clear4 ,on elementary religious and charity-school education it had practically no influence4 ,locke's great influence on educational thought did not come1 though1 for nearly three quarters of a century afterward1 and it came then through the popularization of his best ideas by ,rousseau4 ,karl ,schmidt #d well says of his work3 ,locke is a thorough ,englishman1 and the principle underlying his education is the principle according to which the ,english people have developed4 ,hence his theory of education has in the history of pedagogy the same value that the ,english nation has in the history of the world4 ,he stood in strong opposition to the scholastic and formalized education current in his time1 a living protest against the prevailing pedantry2 in the universal development of pedagogy he gives impulse to the movement which grounds education upon sound psychological principles1 and lays stress upon breeding and the formation of character4 ,restating and expanding the leading ideas of ,locke in his ,emile 7chapter ,,xxi71 and putting them into far more attractive literary form1 ,rousseau scattered ,locke's ideas as to educational reform over ,europe4 ,in particular ,rousseau popularized ,locke's ideas as to the replacement of authority by reason and investigation1 his emphasis on physical activity and health1 his contention that the education of children should be along lines that were natural and normal for children1 and above all ,locke's plea for education through the senses rather than the memory4 ,in so popularizing ,locke's ideas1 and at a time when all the political tendencies of the period were in the direction of the rejection of authority and the emphasis of the individual1 those educational reformers who were inspired by the writings of ,rousseau created and applied1 largely on the foundations laid down by ,john ,locke1 a new theory as to educational aims and procedure which dominated all early nineteenth-century instruction4 ,this we shall trace further in a subsequent chapter 7chapter ,,xxi74 ,it was at this point that the educational problem stood1 in so far as a theory as to educational aims and the educational process was concerned1 when ,rousseau took it up 7#agfb74 ,before passing to a consideration of his work1 though1 and the work of those inspired by him and by the ,french revolutionary writers and statesmen1 let us close this third part of our history by a brief survey of the development so far attained1 the purpose1 character1 aims1 and nature of instruction in the schools1 and their means of support and control at about the middle of the century in which ,rousseau wrote1 and before the philosophical and political revolutions of the latter half of the eighteenth century had begun to influence educational aims and procedure and control4 ,,ii4 ,,mid-,,eighteenth-,,century ,,educational ,,conditions ,,the ,,purpose4 ,the purpose of maintaining the elementary vernacular school1 in all ,european lands1 remained at the middle of the eighteenth century much as it was a century before1 though in the ,german ,states and in the ,american ,colonies there was a noticeable shifting of emphasis from the older exclusively religious purpose toward a newer conception of education as preparation for life in the world here4 ,still1 one learned to read chiefly to learn some orthodox ,catechism1 to read fluently in the ,new ,testament1 and to know the will of ,god1 or1 as stated in the law of the ,connecticut ,colony 7,r4 #aic71 in some competent measure to understand the main grounds and principles of ,christian religion necessary to salvation4 ,the teacher was still carefully looked after as to his soundness in the faith 7,r4 #bch a72 he was required to catechise his scholars in the principles of the ,christian religion1 and to commend his labors amongst them unto ,god by prayer morning and evening1 #e taking care that his scholars do reverently attend during the same4 ,the minister in practically all lands examined the children as to their knowledge of the ,catechism and the ,bible1 and on his visits quizzed them as to the ,sunday sermon4 ,in ,boston 7#agaj7 the ministers were required1 on their school visits1 to pray with the pupils1 and to entertain them with some instructions of piety adapted to their age4 ,in ,church-of-,england schools the ,end and ,chief ,design of the schools established continued to be instruction in the ,knowledge and ,practice of the ,christian ,religion as ,professed and ,taught in the ,church of ,england 7,r4 #bch b74 ,in ,german lands the elementary vernacular school was still regarded as the portico of the ,temple1 ,christianity its principal work1 and not as mere establishments preparatory to public life1 but be pervaded by the religious spirit4 #f ,the uniform system of public schools ordered established for ,prussia by ,frederick the ,great1 in #agfc1 were after all little more than religious schools 7,r4 #bgd71 conducted for purposes of both ,church and ,state4 ,as ,frederick expressed it1 we find it necessary and wholesome to have a good foundation laid in the schools by a rational and a ,christian education of the young for the fear of ,god1 and other useful ends4 ,in the schools of ,la ,salle's organization1 which was most prominent in elementary vernacular education in ,catholic ,france1 the aim continued to be 7,r4 #ahb7 to teach them to live honestly and uprightly1 by instructing them in the principles of our holy religion and by teaching them ,christian precepts4 ,,weakening ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,religious ,,theory4 ,by the middle of the eighteenth century1 however1 there is a noticeable weakening of the hold of the old religious theory on the schools in most ,protestant lands4 ,in ,england there was a marked relaxation of the old religious intolerance in educational matters as the century proceeded1 and new textbooks1 embodying but little of the old gloomy religious material1 appeared and began to be used4 ,by a series of decisions1 between #afgj and #agja 7chapter ,,xxiv71 the ,english courts broke the hold of the bishops in the matter of the licensing of elementary schoolmasters1 and by the ,acts of #agac and #agad the ,dissenters were once more allowed to conduct schools of their own4 ,coincident with this growth of religious tolerance among the ,english we find the ,church of ,england redoubling its efforts to hold the children of its adherents1 by the organization of parish schools and the creation of a vast system of charitable religious schools4 ,in ,german lands1 too1 a marked shifting of emphasis away from solely religious ends and toward the needs of the government began1 toward the end of the eighteenth century1 to be evident4 ,in ,wrtemberg1 which was somewhat typical of late eighteenth-century action by other ,german ,states1 a ,circular of the ,general ,synod1 of ,november #aghg1 declares the ,german schools to be those nurseries in which should be taught the true and genuine idea of the duties of men--created with a reasoning soul toward ,god1 government1 their fellow-men1 and themselves1 and also at least the first rudiments of useful and indispensable knowledge4 ,it was in the ,american ,colonies1 though1 that the waning of the old religious interest was most notable4 ,due to rude frontier conditions1 the decline in force of the old religious-town governments1 the diversity of sects1 the rise of new trade and civil interests1 and the breakdown of old-home connections1 the hold on the people of the old religious doctrines was weakened there earlier than in the old world4 ,by #agej the change in religious thinking in ,america had become quite marked4 ,as a consequence many of the earlier parochial schools had died out1 while in the ,new ,england ,colonies the colonial governments had been forced to exercise an increasing state oversight of the elementary school to keep it from dying out there as well4 ,,studies ,,and ,,textbooks4 ,the studies of the elementary vernacular school remained1 throughout the whole of the eighteenth century1 much as before1 namely1 reading1 a little writing and ciphering1 some spelling1 religion1 and in ,teutonic countries a little music4 ,la ,salle 7,r4 #ahb7 had prescribed1 for the ,catholic vernacular schools of ,france1 instruction in ,french1 some4 ,latin1 orthography1 arithmetic1 the matins and vespers1 le ,pater1 l',ave ,maria1 le ,credo et le ,confiteor1 the ,commandments1 responses1 ,catechism1 duties of a ,christian1 and maxims and precepts drawn from the ,testament4 ,the ,catechism was to be taught one half-hour daily4 ,the schoolbooks in ,england in ,locke's day1 as he tells us 7p4 #dce71 were the ,horn ,book1 ,primer1 ,psalter1 ,testament1 and ,bible4 ,these indicate merely a religious vernacular school4 ,the purpose stated for the ,english ,church charity-schools 7,r4 #bch b71 schools that attained to large importance in ,england and the ,american ,colonies during the eighteenth century1 shows them to have been1 similarly1 religious vernacular schools4 ,the ,school ,regulations which ,frederick the ,great promulgated for ,prussia 7#agfc71 fixed the textbooks to be used 7,r4 #bgd1 #bj71 and indicate that the instruction in ,prussia was still restricted to reading1 writing1 religion1 singing1 and a little arithmetic4 ,in colonial ,america1 ,noah ,webster's description 7,r4 #bcj7 of the schools he attended in ,connecticut1 about #agfd-gj1 shows that the studies and textbooks were chiefly or wholly ,dilworth's ,spelling ,books1 the ,psalter1 ,testament1 and ,bible1 with a little writing and ciphering4 ,a few words of description of these older books may prove useful here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,a ,,horn ,,book ,,the ,,horn ,,book4 ,the ,horn ,book goes back to the close of the fifteenth century1 #g and by the end of the sixteenth century was in common use throughout ,england4 ,somewhat similar alphabet boards1 lacking the handle1 were also used in ,holland1 ,france1 and in ,german lands4 ,this1 a thin oak board on which was pasted a printed slip1 covered by translucent horn1 was the book from which children learned their letters and began to read1 the mastery of which usually required some time4 ,cowper thus describes this little book3 ,neatly secured from being soiled or torn ,beneath a pane of thin translucent horn1 ,a book 7to please us at a tender age ',t is called a book1 though but a single page7 ,presents the prayer the ,savior designed to teach1 ,which children use1 and parsons--when they preach4 ,the ,horn ,book was much used well into the eighteenth century1 but its reading matter was in time incorporated into the school ,primer1 now evolved out of an earlier elementary religious manual4 ,,the ,,primer4 ,originally the child next passed to the ,catechism and the ,bible1 but about the middle of the seventeenth century the ,primer began to be used4 ,the ,primer in its original form was a simple manual of devotion for the laity1 compiled without any thought of its use in the schools4 ,it contained the ,creed1 the ,lord's ,prayer1 the ,ten ,commandments1 and a few of the more commonly used prayers and psalms4 #h ,the ,catechism soon was added1 and with the prefixing of the alphabet and a few syllables and words it was transformed1 as schools arose1 into the first reading book for children4 ,there was at first no attempt at grading1 illustration1 or the introduction of easy reading material4 ,about the close of the seventeenth century the illustrated ,primer1 with some attempt at grading and some additional subject-matter1 made its appearance1 both in ,england and ,america1 and at once leaped into great popularity4 ,the idea possibly goes back to the ,orbis ,pictus 7#afed7 of ,comenius 7p4 #dac3 ,r4 #bba71 the first illustrated schoolbook ever written4 ,the first ,english ,primer adapted to school use was ,the ,protestant ,tutor1 a rather rabid anti-,catholic work which appeared in ,london1 about #afhe4 ,a later edition of this contained the alphabet1 some syllables and words1 the figures and letters1 the list of the books of the ,bible1 an alphabet of lessons1 the ,lord's ,prayer1 the ,creed1 the ,ten ,commandments1 and a poem1 long famous1 on the death of the martyr1 ,john ,rogers4 #i ,it was an abridgement of this book which the same publisher brought out in ,boston1 about #afij1 under the name of ,the ,new ,england ,primer 7,r4 #bjb74 ,this at once leaped into great popularity1 and became the accepted reading book in all the schools of the ,american ,colonies except those under the ,church of ,england4 ,for the next century and a quarter it was the chief school and reading book in use among the ,dissenters and ,lutherans in ,america4 ,schoolmasters drilled the children on the reading matter and the ,catechism it contained1 and the people recited from it yearly in the churches4 ,it was also used for such spelling as was given4 ,it was the first great ,american textbook success1 and was still in use in the ,boston dame schools as late as #ahjf4 ,it was reprinted in ,england1 and enjoyed a great sale among ,dissenters there4 ,its sales in ,america alone have been estimated at least three million copies4 ,the sale in ,europe was also large4 ,it was followed in ,england by other ,primers and other introductory reading books1 of which ,the ,history of ,genesis 7#agjh71 a series of simple stories retold from the first book of the ,bible1 and ,the ,child's ,weeks-,work 7#agab71 containing proverbs1 fables1 conundrums1 lessons on behavior1 and a short catechism1 are types4 ,frederick the ,great1 in his list of required textbooks for ,prussian schools 7,r4 #bgd1 #bj71 does not mention a ,primer4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,westminster ,,catechism4 7,a page from ,the ,new ,england ,primer1 natural size7 ,,the ,,catechism4 ,in all ,protestant ,german lands the ,shorter ,catechism prepared by ,luther1 or the later ,heidelberg ,catechism2 in ,calvinistic lands the ,catechism of ,calvin2 and in ,england and the ,american ,colonies the ,westminster ,catechism1 #aj formed the backbone of the religious instruction4 ,teachers drilled their pupils in these as thoroughly as on any other subject1 writing masters set as copies sentences from the book1 children were required to memorize the answers1 and the doctrines contained were emphasized by teacher and preacher so that the children were saturated with the religious ideas set forth4 ,no book except the ,bible did so much to form the character1 and none so much to fix the religious bias of the children4 ,almost equal importance was given to the ,catechism in ,catholic lands 7,r4 #ahb1 #ba-bb71 though there supplemented by more religious influences derived from the ceremonial of the ,church4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,,thomas ,,dilworth 78-#aghj7 ,the most celebrated ,english textbook writer of his day4 7,from the ,frontispiece of his ,schoolmaster's ,assistant1 #agdj7 ,,spellers4 ,the next step forward1 in the transition from the religious ,primer to secular reading matter for school children1 came in the use of the so-called ,spellers4 ,probably the first of these was ,the ,english ,school-,master of ,edmund ,coote 7,r4 #bbi71 first issued in #aeif4 ,this gave thirty-two pages to the alphabet and spelling2 eighteen to a shorter ,catechism1 prayers1 and psalms2 five to chronology2 two to writing copies2 two to arithmetic2 and twenty to a list of hard words1 alphabetically arranged and explained4 ,as will be seen from this analysis of contents1 this was a schoolmaster's general manual and guide4 ,after about #agdj such books became very popular1 due to the publication that year of ,thomas ,dilworth's ,a ,new ,guide to the ,english ,tongue4 ,this book contained1 as the title-page 7,r4 #bbi7 declared1 selected lists of words with rules for their pronunciation1 a short treatise on grammar1 a collection of fables with illustrations for reading1 some moral selections1 and forms of prayer for children4 ,it became very popular in ,new as well as in old ,england1 and was followed by a long line of imitators1 culminating in ,america in the publication of ,noah ,webster's famous blue-backed ,american ,spelling ,book1 in #aghc4 ,this was after the plan of the ,english ,dilworth1 but was put in better teaching form4 ,it contained numerous graded lists of words1 some illustrations1 a series of graded reading lessons1 and was largely secular in character4 ,it at once superseded the expiring ,new ,england ,primer in most of the ,american cities1 and continued popular in the ,united ,states for more than a hundred years4 #aa ,it was the second great ,american textbook success1 and was followed by a long list of popular ,spellers and ,readers1 leading up to the excellent secular ,readers of the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 ,,frontispiece ,,to ,,noah ,,webster',s ,,american ,,spelling ,,book ,this is from the #ahbg edition1 reduced one third in size4 ,,arithmetic ,,and ,,writing4 ,the first ,english ,arithmetic1 published about #aedj to #aedb1 has been entirely lost1 and was probably read by few4 ,the first to attain any popularity was ,cocker's ,arithmetic 7#afgg71 this ,being a ,plain and ,familiar ,method suitable to the meanest ,capacity1 for the understanding of that incomparable4 ,art4 ,a still more popular book was ,arithmetick3 or that ,necessary ,art ,made ,most ,easie1 by ,j4 ,hodder1 ,writing ,master1 a reprint of which appeared in ,boston1 in #agai4 ,the first book written by an ,american author was ,isaac ,greenwood's ,arithmetick1 ,vulgar and ,decimal1 which appeared in ,boston1 in #agbi4 ,in #agdc appeared ,dilworth's ,the ,schoolmaster's ,assistant1 a book which retained its popularity in both ,england and ,america until after the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,no text in ,arithmetic is mentioned in the ,school ,regulations of ,frederick the ,great 7,r4 #bgd1 #bj71 or in scarcely any of the descriptions left us of eighteenth-century schools4 ,the study itself was common1 but not universal1 and was one that many teachers were not competent to teach4 ,to possess a reputation as an arithmeticker was an important recommendation for a teacher1 while for a pupil to be able to do sums in arithmetic was unusual1 and a matter of much pride to parents4 ,the subject was frequently taught by the writing master1 in a separate school1 #ab while the reading teacher confined himself to reading1 spelling1 and religion4 ,thus1 for example1 following earlier ,english practice1 the ,town ,meeting of ,boston1 in #aghi1 ordered three reading schools and three writing schools established in the town for the instruction of children between the ages of seven and fourteen1 the subjects to be taught in each being3 ,the writing schools3 ,writing1 ,arithmetic ,the reading schools3 ,spelling1 ,accentuation1 ,reading of prose and verse1 ,english grammar and composition ,the teacher might or might not possess an arithmetic of his own1 but the instruction to the pupil was practically always dictated and copied instruction4 ,each pupil made up his own book of rules and solved problems1 and few pupils ever saw a printed arithmetic4 ,many of the early arithmetics were prepared after the catechism plan4 ,there was almost no attempt to use the subject for drill in reasoning or to give a concrete type of instruction1 before about the middle of the eighteenth century1 #ac and but little along such reform lines was accomplished until after the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 ,,title-,,page ,,of ,,hodder',s ,,arithmetic ,an early reprint of this famous book appeared in ,boston in #agai4 ,writing1 similarly1 was taught by dictation and practice1 and the art of the scrivener1 as the writing master was called1 was one thought to be difficult to learn4 ,the lack of practical value of the art1 the high cost of paper1 and the necessity usually for special lessons1 all alike tended to make writing a much less commonly known art than reading4 ,fees also were frequently charged for instruction in writing and arithmetic2 reading1 spelling1 and religion being the only free subjects4 ,the scrivener and the arithmetic teacher also frequently moved about1 as business warranted1 and was not fixed as was the teacher of the reading school4 ,,the ,,teachers4 ,the development of the vernacular school was retarded not only by the dominance of the religious purpose of the school1 but by the poor quality of teachers found everywhere in the schools4 ,the evolution of the elementary-school teacher of to-day out of the church sexton1 bell- ringer1 or grave-digger1 #ad or out of the artisan1 cripple1 or old dame who added school teaching to other employment in order to live1 forms one of the interesting as well as one of the yet-to-be-written chapters in the history of the evolution of the elementary school4 ,teachers in elementary schools everywhere in the eighteenth century were few in number1 poor in quality1 and occupied but a lowly position in the social scale4 ,school dames in ,england 7,r4 #bce7 and later in the ,american ,colonies1 and on the continent of ,europe teachers who were more sextons1 choristers1 beadles1 bell-ringers1 grave-diggers1 shoemakers1 tailors1 barbers1 pensioners1 and invalids than teachers1 too often formed the teaching body for the elementary vernacular school 7,rs4 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcc74 ,in ,switzerland1 the ,netherlands1 and some of the ,american ,colonies1 where schools had become or were becoming local semi-civic affairs1 the standards which might be imposed for teaching also were low4 ,the grant of the tailoring monopoly to the elementary teachers of ,prussia1 #ae in #agch1 and ,krsi's recollections of how he became a schoolmaster in ,switzerland1 in #agic 7,r4 #bcd71 were quite typical of the time4 ,in ,catholic ,france1 and in some ,german ,catholic lands as well1 teaching congregations 7p4 #cde71 some of whose members had some rudimentary training for their work1 were in charge of the existing parish schools4 ,these provided a somewhat better type of teaching body than that frequently found in ,protestant lands1 though by the latter part of the eighteenth century the beginnings of teacher-training are to be seen in some of the ,german ,states4 ,the ,church of ,england1 too1 had by this time organized strong ,societies #af for the preparation of teachers for ,church-of-,england schools1 both at home and abroad4 ,in ,dutch1 ,german1 and ,scandinavian lands1 and in colonies founded by these people in ,america1 the parish school1 closely tied up with and dependent upon the parish church1 was the prevailing type of vernacular school1 and in this the teacher was regarded as essentially an assistant to the pastor 7,r4 #bcf7 and the school as a dependency of the ,church4 ,,fig4 #ace4 ,a ,,christian ,,brothers ,,school ,la ,salle teaching at ,grenoble4 ,note the adult type of dress of the boys4 ,in ,england1 in addition to regular parish schools and endowed elementary schools1 three peculiar institutions1 known as the ,dame ,school1 the religious charity-school1 and the private-adventure or hedge school had grown up1 and the first two of these had reached a marked development by the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,because these were so characteristic of early ,english educational effort1 and also played such an important part in the ,american ,colonies as well1 they merit a few words of description at this point4 ,,the ,,dame ,,school4 ,the ,dame ,school arose in ,england after the ,reformation4 ,by means of it the increasing desire for a rudimentary knowledge of the art of reading could be satisfied1 and at the same time certain women could earn a pittance4 ,this type of school was carried early to the ,american ,colonies1 and out of it was in time evolved1 in ,new ,england1 the ,american elementary school4 ,the ,dame ,school was a very elementary school1 kept in a kitchen or living-room by some woman who1 in her youth1 had obtained the rudiments of an education1 and who now desired to earn a small stipend for herself by imparting to the children of her neighborhood her small store of learning4 ,for a few pennies a week the dame took the children into her home and explained to them the mysteries connected with learning the beginnings of reading and spelling4 ,occasionally a little writing and counting also were taught1 though not often in ,england4 ,in the ,american ,colonies the practical situations of a new country forced the employment as teachers of women who could teach all three subjects1 thus early creating the ,american school of the so-called #c ,rs--,reading1 ,riting1 ,rithmetic4 ,the ,dame ,school appears so frequently in ,english literature1 both poetry and prose1 that it must have played a very important part in the beginnings of elementary education in ,england4 ,of this school ,shenstone 7#agad-fc7 writes 7,r4 #bce73 ,in every village marked with little spire1 ,embowered in trees1 and hardly known to fame1 ,there dwells1 in lowly shed and mean attire1 ,a matron old1 whom we schoolmistress name1 ,who boasts unruly brats with birch to tame4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,,an ,,english ,,dame ,,school 7,from a drawing of a school in the heart of ,london1 after ,barclay7 ,the ,reverend ,george ,crabbe 7#aged-ahcb71 another poet of homely life1 writes 7,r4 #bce7 of a deaf1 poor1 patient widow who sits ,and awes some thirty infants as she knits2 ,infants of humble1 busy wives who pay1 ,some trifling price for freedom through the day4 ,this school flourished greatly in ,america during the eighteenth century1 but with the coming of ,infant ,schools1 early in the nineteenth1 was merged into these to form the ,american ,primary ,school4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4 ,,gravel ,,lane ,,charity-,,school1 ,,southwark ,founded in #afhg1 and one of the earliest of the ,non-,conformist ,english charity-schools4 ,still carrying on its work in the original schoolroom at the time this picture appeared1 in ,londina ,illustrata in #ahai4 ,,the ,,religious ,,charity-,,school4 ,another thoroughly characteristic ,english institution was the church charity-school4 ,the first of these was founded in ,whitechapel1 ,london1 in #afhj4 ,in #afii1 when the ,school of ,saint ,anne1 ,soho 7,r4 #bcg71 was founded by ,five ,earnest ,laymen for the ,poore ,boys of the ,parish1 it was the sixth of its kind in ,england4 ,in #afii the ,society for the ,promotion of ,christian ,knowledge 7,s4,p4,c4,k47 was founded for the purpose1 among other things1 of establishing catechetical schools for the education of the children of the poor in the principles of the ,established ,church 7,r4 #bch b74 ,in #agja the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel in ,foreign ,parts 7,s4,p4,g47 was also founded to extend the work of the ,anglican ,church abroad1 supply schoolmasters and ministers1 and establish schools1 to train children to read1 write1 know and understand the ,catechism1 and fit into the teachings and worship of the ,church4 ,to develop piety and help the poor to lead industrious1 upright1 self- respecting lives1 to make them loyal ,church members1 and to fit them for work in that station of life in which it had pleased their ,heavenly ,father to place them1 were the principal objects of the ,society4 ,all were taught reading1 spelling1 and the ,catechism1 and instruction in writing and arithmetic might be added4 ,the training might also be coupled with that of the schools of industry 7workhouse schools1 as described by ,locke ,r4 #bag7 to augment the economic efficiency of the boy4 ,girls seem to have been provided for almost equally with boys1 and1 in addition to being taught to read and spell1 were taught to knit their ,stockings and ,gloves1 to ,mark1 ,sew1 and make and mend their ,cloathes4 ,both boys and girls were usually provided with books and clothing1 #ag a regular uniform being worn by the boys and girls of each school4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4 ,a ,,charity-,,school ,,girl ,,in ,,uniform ,saint ,anne's1 ,soho1 ,england ,the chief motive in the establishment of these schools1 though1 was to decrease the ,prophaness and ,debauchery 444 owing to a gross ,ignorance of the ,christian ,religion 7,r4 #bcg7 and to educate ,poor ,children in the ,rules and ,principles of the ,christian ,religion as professed and taught in the ,church of ,england4 ,writing1 in #agdb1 ,reverend ,griffith ,jones1 an organizer for the ,s4,p4,c4,k4 in ,wales1 said3 ,it is but a cheap education that we would desire for them the poor1 only the moral and religious branches of it1 which indeed is the most necessary and indispensable part4 ,the sole design of this charity is to inculcate upon such 444 as can be prevailed upon to learn1 the knowledge and practice1 the principles and duties of the ,christian religion2 and to make them good people1 useful members of society1 faithful servants of ,god1 and men and heirs of eternal life4 ,these schools multiplied rapidly and soon became regular institutions1 as the following table1 showing the growth of the ,s4,p4,c4,k4 schools in ,london alone1 shows3 ,year ,schools ,boys ,girls ,total #afii #j #j #j #j #agjd #ed #achf #gde #baca #agji #hh #baha #abba #cdjb #agad #aag #cjgg #agda #dhah ,in ,england and ,ireland combined the ,society had1 by #agad1 a total of #ajgc schools1 with #ai1dec pupils enrolled1 and by #agbi the number had increased to #afeh1 with approximately #cd1jjj pupils4 ,from ,england the charity-school idea was early carried to the ,anglican ,colonies in ,america and became a fixed institution in ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 ,maryland1 and somewhat in the ,colonies farther south4 ,in the ,pennsylvania constitution of #agij we find the following directions for the establishment of a state charity-school system to supplement the parish schools of the churches3 ,sec4 ,i4 ,the legislature shall1 as soon as conveniently may be1 provide1 by law1 for the establishment of schools throughout the ,state1 in such manner that the poor may be taught gratis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,a ,,charity-,,school ,,boy ,,in ,,uniform ,saint ,anne's1 ,soho1 ,england ,the first ,pennsylvania school law of #ahjb carried this direction into effect by providing for pauper schools in the counties1 a condition that was not done away with until #ahcd4 ,in ,new ,jersey the system lasted until #ahch4 ,,the ,,private-,,adventure1 ,,or ,,hedge1 ,,school4 ,this was a school analogous to the ,dame ,school1 but was kept by a man instead of a woman1 and usually at his home or shop4 ,plate #ae1 showing a shoe cobbler teaching1 represents one type of such schools4 ,the term hedge schools arose in ,ireland1 where teaching was forbidden the ,catholics1 and secret schools arose in which priests and others taught what was possible4 ,of these ,mc,carthy writes3 #ah ,on the highways and on the hillsides1 in ditches and behind hedges1 in the precarious shelter of the ruined walls of some ancient abbey1 or under the roof of a peasant's cabin1 the priests set up schools and taught the children of their race4 ,the term soon came to be applied to any kind of a poor school1 taught in an irregular manner or place4 ,similar irregular schools1 under equivalent names1 also were found in ,german lands1 #ai the ,netherlands1 and in ,france1 while in the ,american ,colonies indentured white servants were frequently let out as schoolmasters4 ,the following advertisement of a teacher for sale is typical of private-adventure elementary school-keeping during the colonial period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4 ,,advertisement ,,for ,a ,,teacher ,,to ,,let 7,from the ,american ,weekly ,mercury of ,philadephia1 #agce7 ,these schools were taught by itinerant school-keepers1 artisans1 and tutors of the poorer type1 but offered the beginnings of elementary education to many a child who otherwise would never have been able to learn to read4 ,in the early eighteenth century these schools attained a remarkable development in ,england4 ,a new influence of tremendous future importance--general reading--was now coming in2 the vernacular was fast supplanting ,latin2 newspapers were being started2 little books or pamphlets 7tracts7 containing general information were being sold2 books for children and beginners were being written2 the popular novel and story had appeared2 #bj and all these educative forces were creating a new and a somewhat general desire for a knowledge of the art of reading4 ,this in turn caused a new demand for schools to teach the long-locked-up art1 and this demand was capitalized to the profit of many types of people4 ,,the ,,apprenticing ,,of ,,orphans ,,and ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,poor4 ,the compulsory apprenticing of the children of the poor1 as we have seen 7p4 #cbf71 was an old ,english institution1 and workhouse training1 or the so-called schools of industry became1 by the eighteenth century1 a prominent feature of the ,english care of the poor4 ,these represented the only form of education supported by taxation1 and the only form of education to which ,parliament gave any attention during the whole of the eighteenth century4 ,this type of institution also was carried to the ,anglican ,colonies in ,america1 as we have seen in the documents for ,virginia 7,r4 #bjj a71 and became an established institution in ,america as well4 ,the apprenticing of boys to a trade1 a still older institution1 was also much used as a means for training youths for a life in the trades1 not only in ,england and the ,american ,colonies1 but throughout all ,european lands as well4 ,the conditions surrounding the apprenticing of a boy had by the eighteenth century become quite fixed4 ,the ,indenture of ,apprenticeship was drawn up by a lawyer1 and by it the master was carefully bound to clothe and feed the boy1 train him properly in his trade1 look after his morals1 and start him in life at the end of his apprenticeship4 ,this is well shown in the many records which have been preserved1 both in ,england 7,r4 #bdb7 and the ,american ,colonies 7,r4 #bja74 ,for many boys this type of education was the best possible at the time1 and worthily started the possessor in the work of his trade4 ,in the eighteenth century different ,english church parishes began to set up workhouse schools of various types1 and to maintain these out of parish rates4 ,the one established in ,bishopsgate ,street1 ,london1 in #agja1 is typical4 ,this cared for about #cge children and in it1 by #agbj1 there had been educated and placed forth #adbj children1 and in addition #abc had died4 ,of this school it is recorded that poor children being taken into the said ,workhouse are there taught to ,read and ,write1 and kept to ,work until they are qualified to be put out to be ,apprentices1 and for the ,sea ,service1 or otherwise disposed2 444 ,the ,habit of the ,children is all the same1 being made of ,russit ,cloth1 and a round ,badge worn upon their ,breast1 representing a poor ,boy1 and a ,sheep2 the ,motto3 ',god's ,providence is our ,inheritance4' 444 ,in this workhouse children were taught to spin ,wool and ,flax1 to ,sow and ,knit1 to make their own ,cloaths1 ,shoes1 and ,stockings1 and the like ,employments2 to inure them betimes to labour4 ,they are also taught to read1 and such as are capable1 to write and cast ,accounts2 and also the ,catechism1 to ground them in ,principles of ,religion and ,honesty4 #ba ,the school established by ,saint ,john's parish1 ,southwark1 ,london1 in #agce1 and designed to train and put out girls for domestic service 7,r4 #bda71 and which cared for1 clothed1 and trained forty girls1 is also typical of these parish schools for the children of the industrious poor4 ,,methods ,,of ,,instruction4 ,throughout the eighteenth century the method of instruction commonly employed in the vernacular schools was what was known as the individual method4 ,this was wasteful of both time and effort1 and unpedagogical to a high degree 7,r4 #bdd74 ,everywhere the teacher was engaged chiefly in hearing recitations1 testing memory1 and keeping order4 ,the pupils came to the master's desk1 one by one 7see ,figures #ih1 #ii71 and recited what they had memorized4 ,aside from imposing discipline1 teaching was an easy task4 ,the pupils learned the assigned lessons and recited what they had learned4 ,such a thing as methodology--technique of instruction-- was unknown4 ,the dominance of the religious motive1 too1 precluded any liberal attitude in school instruction1 the individual method was time- consuming1 school buildings often were lacking1 and in general there was an almost complete lack of any teaching equipment1 books1 or supplies4 ,viewed from any modern standpoint the schools of the eighteenth century attained to but a low degree of efficiency 7,r4 #bdd74 ,the school hours were long1 the schoolmaster's residence or place of work or business was commonly used as a schoolroom1 and such regular schoolrooms as did exist were dirty and noisy and but poorly suited to school purposes4 ,schools everywhere1 too1 were ungraded1 the school of one teacher being like that of any other teacher of that class4 ,so wasteful of time and effort was the individual method of instruction that children might attend school for years and get only a mere start in reading and writing4 ,paulsen1 #bb writing of schools in ,german lands at an even later date1 says that even in the better type of vernacular schools many children never achieved anything beyond a little reading and knowing a few things by heart4444 ,the instruction in reading was never anything else but a torture1 protracted through years1 from saying the alphabet and formation of syllables to the deciphering of complete words1 without any real success in the end1 while writing was nothing but a wearisome tracing of the letters1 the net result of all the toil being the gabbling of the ,catechism and a few ,bible texts and hymns1 learned over and over again4 ,the imparting of information by the teacher to a class1 or a class discussion of a topic1 were almost unknown4 ,hearing lessons1 assigning new tasks1 setting copies1 making quill pens1 dictating sums1 and imposing order completely absorbed the time and the attention of the teacher4 ,,school ,,discipline4 ,the discipline everywhere was severe4 ,a boy has a back2 when you hit it he understands1 was a favorite pedagogical maxim of the time4 ,whipping-posts were sometimes set up in the schoolroom1 and practically all pictures of the schoolmasters of the time show a bundle of switches near at hand4 ,boys in the ,latin grammar schools were flogged for petty offenses 7,r4 #bde74 ,the ability to impose order on a poorly taught and1 in consequence1 an unruly school was always an important requisite of the schoolmaster4 ,a ,swabian schoolmaster1 ,huberle by name1 with characteristic ,teutonic attention to details1 has left on record #bc that1 in the course of his fifty-one years and seven months as a teacher he had1 by a moderate computation1 given #iaa1ebg blows with a cane1 #abd1jaj blows with a rod1 #bj1ihi blows and raps with a ruler1 #acf1gae blows with the hand1 #aj1bce blows over the mouth1 #g1ije boxes on the ear1 #a1aae1hjj raps on the head1 and #bb1gfc notabenes with the ,bible1 ,catechism1 singing book1 and grammar4 ,he had #ggg times made boys kneel on peas1 #fac times on a triangular piece of wood1 had made #cjja wear the jackass1 and #agjg hold the rod up1 not to mention various more unusual punishments he had contrived on the spur of the occasion4 ,of the blows with the cane1 #hjj1jjj were for ,latin words2 of the rod #gf1jjj were for texts from the ,bible or verses from the singing book4 ,he also had about #cjjj expressions to scold with1 two thirds of which were native to the ,german tongue and the remainder his invention4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4 ,a ,,school ,,whipping-,,post ,drawn from a picture of a five-foot whipping-post which once stood in the floor of a school-house at ,sunderland1 ,massachusetts4 ,now in the ,deerfield ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4 ,,an ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,german ,,school ,reproduction of an engraving by ,j4 ,mettenleiter1 now in the ,kupferstichkabinet1 ,munich1 and printed in ,joh4 ,ferd4 ,schlez's4 ,dorfschulen zu ,langenhausen4 ,nuremberg1 #agie4 ,another illustration of ,german school discipline1 of many that might be cited1 was the reform work of ,johann ,ernest ,christian ,haun1 who was appointed1 in #aghc1 as inspector of schools in the once famous ,gotha 7p4 #cag74 ,due to warfare and neglect the schools there had fallen into disrepute4 ,haun drove the incapable teachers from the work1 and for a time restored the schools to something of their earlier importance4 ,among other reforms it is recorded that he forbade teachers to put irons around the boys' necks1 to cover them with mud1 to make them kneel on peas1 or to brutally beat them4 ,diesterweg 7,r4 #bdd7 describes similar punishments as characteristic of eighteenth-century ,german schools4 ,the eighteenth- century ,german schoolmaster shown in ,fig4 #adb was probably a good sample of his class4 ,pedagogical writers of the time uniformly complain of the severe discipline of the schools1 and the literature of the period abounds in allusions to the prevailing harshness of the school discipline4 ,a few writers condemn1 but most approve heartily of the use of the rod4 ,spare the rod and spoil the child had for long been a well-grounded pedagogical doctrine4 ,among many literary extracts that might be cited illustrating this belief1 the following poem by the ,english poet ,crabbe 7#aged-ahcb7 is interesting4 ,he puts the following words into the mouth of his early schoolmaster3 ,students like horses on the road1 ,must be well lashed before they take the load2 ,they may be willing for a time to run1 ,but you must whip them ere the work be done2 ,to tell a boy1 that if he will improve1 ,his friends will praise him1 and his parents love1 ,is doing nothing--he has not a doubt ,but they will love him1 nay1 applaud without2 ,let no fond sire a boy's ambition trust1 ,to make him study1 let him learn he must4 ,,conditions ,,surrounding ,,childhood4 ,it is difficult for us of today to re- create in imagination the pitiful life-conditions which surrounded children a century and a half ago4 ,often the lot of the children of the poor1 who then constituted the great bulk of all children1 was little less than slavery4 ,wretchedly poor1 dirty1 unkempt1 hard-worked1 beaten about1 knowing strong drink early1 illiterate1 often vicious--their lot was a sad one4 ,for the children of the poor there were few1 if any1 educational opportunities4 ,writing on the subject ,david ,salmon says3 #bd ,the imagination of the twentieth century cannot fathom the poverty of the eighteenth4 ,the great development of mines and manufactures1 which has brought ease and independence within the reach of industrious labour everywhere1 had hardly begun2 employment was so scarce and intermittent1 and wages were so low1 that the working classes lived in hovels1 dressed in rags1 and were familiar with the pangs of hunger2 while those who were forced to look to the rates for hovels1 rags1 and food sufficient to maintain a miserable life numbered a sixth of the whole population4 ,in the towns children were apprenticed out early in life1 and for long hours of daily labor4 ,child welfare was almost entirely neglected1 children were cuffed about and beaten at their work1 juvenile delinquency was a common condition1 child mortality was heavy1 and ignorance was the rule4 ,schools generally were pay institutions or a charity1 and not a birthright1 and usually existed only for the middle and lower-middle classes in the population who were attendants at the churches and could afford to pay a little for the schooling given4 ,reading and religion were usually the only free subjects4 ,only in the ,new ,england ,colonies1 where the beginnings of town and colony school systems were evident1 and in a few of the ,german ,states where state control was beginning to be exercised1 was a better condition to be found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4 ,,children ,,as ,,miniature ,,adults ,children leaving school1 from an eighteenth-century drawing by ,saint ,aubin4 ,among the middle and upper social classes1 particularly on the continent of ,europe1 a stiff artificiality everywhere prevailed4 ,children were dressed and treated as miniature adults1 the normal activities of childhood were suppressed1 and the natural interests and emotions of children found little opportunity for expression4 ,wearing powdered and braided hair1 long gold-braided coats1 embroidered waistcoats1 cockaded hats1 and swords1 boys were treated more as adults than as children4 ,girls1 too1 with their long dresses1 hoops1 powdered hair1 rouged faces1 and demure manner1 were trained in a1 for children1 most unnatural manner4 #be ,the dancing master for their manners and graces1 and the religious instructor to develop in them the ability to read and to go through a largely meaningless ceremonial1 were the chief guides for the period of their childhood4 ,,school ,,support4 ,no uniform plan1 in any country1 had as yet been evolved for even the meager support which the schools of the time received4 ,the ,latin grammar schools were in nearly all cases supported by the income from old foundations and from students' fees1 with here and there some state aid4 ,the new elementary vernacular schools1 though1 had had assigned to them few old foundations upon which to draw for maintenance1 and in consequence support for elementary schools had to be built up from new sources1 and this required time4 ,in ,england the ,act of ,conformity of #affb 7,r4 #aff71 it will be remembered 7p4 #cbd71 had laid a heavy hand on the schools by driving all ,dissenters from positions in them1 and the ,five ,mile ,act of #affe had borne even more severely on the teachers in the schools of the ,dissenters4 ,fortunately for elementary education in ,england1 however1 the ,english courts1 in #afgj1 had decided in a test case that the teacher in an elementary school could not be deprived of his position by failure of the bishop to license him1 if he were a nominee of the founder or the lay patron of the school4 ,the result of this decision was that1 between #affj and #agcj1 #ije endowed elementary schools were founded in ,england1 and #gb others previously founded had their endowments increased4 ,the number continued to increase throughout the eighteenth century1 and by #ahdb had reached a total of #baid4 ,these new foundations probably gave the best schooling of the time1 and tended to stir the ,established ,church to action4 ,accordingly we find that during the eighteenth century the vestries of the different church parishes began the creation of parish elementary schools for the children of the poor of the parish1 supporting a teacher for them out of the parish rates1 and without specific legal authorization to do so4 ,these new parish schools also contributed somewhat to the provision of elementary education1 and mark the beginning of the church voluntary schools which were such a characteristic feature of nineteenth-century ,english education4 ,we thus have1 in ,england1 endowed elementary schools1 parish schools1 dame schools1 private-adventure schools of many types1 and charity-schools1 all existing side by side1 and drawing such support as they could from endowment funds1 parish rates1 church tithes1 subscriptions1 and tuition fees4 ,the support of schools by subscription lists 7,r4 #bdj7 was a very common proceeding4 ,education in ,england1 more than in any other ,protestant land1 early came to be regarded as a benevolence which the ,state was under no obligation to support4 ,only workhouse schools were provided for by the general taxation of all property4 ,in the ,netherlands and in ,german lands church funds1 town funds1 and tuition fees were the chief means of support1 though here and there some prince had provided for something approaching state support for the schools of his little principality4 ,frederick the ,great had ordered schools established generally 7#agfc7 and had decreed the compulsory attendance of children 7,r4 #bgd71 but he had depended largely on church funds and tuition fees 7#g7 for maintenance1 with a proviso that the tuition of poor and orphaned children should be paid from any funds of the church or town1 that the schoolmaster may get his income 7#h74 ,in ,scotland the church parish school was the prevailing type4 ,in ,france the religious societies 7p4 #cde7 provided nearly all the elementary vernacular religious education that was obtainable4 ,in the ,dutch ,provinces1 in the ,new ,england ,colonies1 and in some of the minor ,german ,states1 we find the clearest examples of the beginnings of state control and maintenance of elementary schools--something destined to grow rapidly and in the nineteenth century take over the school from the ,church and maintain it as a function of the ,state4 ,the ,prussian kings early made grants of land and money for endowment funds and support1 and state aid was ordered granted by ,maria ,theresa for ,austria 7,r4 #bgd a71 in #aggd4 ,in the ,new ,england ,colonies the separation of the school from the ,church1 and the beginnings of state support and control of education1 found perhaps their earliest and clearest exemplification4 ,in the other ,colonies the lottery was much used 7,r4 #bdf7 to raise funds for schools1 while church tithes1 subscription lists1 and school societies after the ,english pattern also helped in many places to start and support a school or schools4 ,only by some such means was it possible in the eighteenth century that the children of the poor could ever enjoy any opportunities for education4 ,the parents of the poor children1 themselves uneducated1 could hardly be expected to provide what they had never come to appreciate themselves4 ,on the other hand1 few of the well-to-do classes felt under any obligation to provide education for children not their own4 ,there was as yet no realization that the diffusion of education contributed to the welfare of the ,state1 or that the ignorance of the masses might be in any way a public peril4 ,this attitude is well shown for ,england by the fact that not a single law relating to the education of the people1 aside from workhouse schools1 was enacted by ,parliament during the whole of the eighteenth century4 ,the same was true of ,france until the coming of the ,revolution4 ,it is to a few of the ,german ,states and to the ,american ,colonies that we must turn for the beginnings of legislation directing school support4 ,this we shall describe more in detail in later chapters4 ,,the ,,latin ,,secondary ,,school4 ,the great progress made in education during the eighteenth century1 nevertheless1 was in elementary education4 ,concerning the secondary schools and the universities there is little to add to what has previously been said4 ,during this century the secondary school1 outside of ,german lands1 remained largely stationary4 ,having become formal and lifeless in its teaching 7p4 #bhc71 and in ,england and ,france crushed by religious-uniformity legislation1 the ,latin grammar school of ,england and the surviving colleges in ,france practically ceased to exert any influence on the national life4 ,the ,jesuit schools1 which once had afforded the best secondary education in ,europe1 had so declined in usefulness everywhere that they were about to be driven from all lands4 ,the ,act of ,conformity of #affb 7,r4 #aff7 had dealt the grammar schools of ,england a heavy blow1 and the eighteenth century found them in a most wretched condition1 with few scholars1 and their endowments shamefully abused4 ,the ,law of #affb1 says ,montmorency1 involved such a peering into the lives of schoolmasters1 such a course of inquisitorial folly1 that the position became intolerable4 ,men would not become schoolmasters4444 ,education had no meaning when none but political and religious hypocrites were allowed to teach4444 ,national education was destroyed4 and the grammar schools of ,england were practically withdrawn during more than two centuries 7#affb-ahgj7 from the national life4 #bf ,in ,german lands the old ,latin schools continued largely unchanged until near the middle of the eighteenth century1 with ,latin1 taught as it had been for a century or more1 as the chief subject of study4 ,shortly after the coming of ,frederick the ,great to the throne 7#agdj7 the ,latin schools of ,prussia1 and after them the ,latin schools in other ,german ,states1 were reorganized and given a new life4 ,the influence of ,francke's school at ,halle 7p4 #dah71 and the new types of teaching developed there and by his followers elsewhere1 began to be felt4 ,german1 ,french1 and mathematics were given recognition1 and some science work was here and there introduced4 ,above all1 though1 ,greek now attained to the place of first importance in the reorganized ,latin schools4 ,it was not until after #agdj that the ,german people awakened to the possibility of an independent national life4 ,then1 under the new impulse toward nationality1 ,french influence and manners were thrown off1 ,german literature attained its ,golden ,age1 the ,ritterakademieen 7p4 #dje7 were discarded1 and a number of the ,german ,principalities and ,states revised their school regulations and erected1 out of the old ,latin schools1 a series of humanistic gymnasia in which the study of ,greek life and culture occupied the foremost place4 ,new methods in classical study were thought out and applied1 and a new pedagogical purpose--culture and discipline--was given to the regenerated ,latin schools4 ,a new ,renaissance1 in a way1 took place in ,german lands1 #bg and a knowledge of ,greek was proclaimed by ,german university and gymnasial teachers as indispensable to a liberal education with an earnestness of conviction not exceeded by ,battista ,guarino 7p4 #bfh7 four centuries before4 ,to know ,greek and to have some familiarity with ,greek literature and history now came to be regarded as necessary to the highest culture1 #bh and a pedagogical theory for such study was erected1 based on the discipline of the mind1 #bi which dominated the ,german classical school throughout the entire nineteenth century4 ,it was in the eighteenth century also that the ,german ,states began the development of the scientific secondary school 7,realschule71 see p4 #dbj1 as described in a preceding chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4 ,a ,,pennsylvania ,,academy ,york ,academy1 ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 founded by the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church1 in #aghg4 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,academy ,,in ,,america4 ,as we have seen 7p4 #cfa71 the ,english ,latin grammar school was early 7#afce7 carried to ,new ,england1 and set up there and elsewhere in the ,colonies1 but after the close of the seventeenth century its continued maintenance was something of a struggle4 ,particularly in the central and southern colonies1 where commercial demands early made themselves felt1 the tendency was to teach more practical subjects4 ,this tendency led to the evolution1 about the middle of the eighteenth century1 of the distinctively ,american ,academy1 with a more practical curriculum1 and by the close of the century it was rapidly superseding the older ,latin grammar school4 ,franklin's ,academy at ,philadelphia1 which began instruction in #agea1 and which later evolved into the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 was probably the first ,american ,academy4 ,the first in ,massachusetts was founded in #agfa1 and by #ahjj there were seventeen in ,massachusetts alone4 ,the great period of academy development was the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,the ,phillips ,academy1 at ,andover1 ,massachusetts1 founded in #aghh1 reveals clearly the newer purpose of these ,american secondary schools4 ,the foundation grant of this school gives the purpose to be3 to lay the foundation of a public free school or ,,academy for the purposes of instructing ,youth1 not only in ,english and ,latin ,grammar1 ,writing1 ,arithmetic1 and those ,sciences wherein they are commonly taught2 but more especially to learn them the ,,great ,,end ,,and ,,real ,,business ,,of ,,living 444 it is again declared that the first and principle object of this ,institution is the promotion of ,,true ,,piety and ,,virtue2 the second1 instruction in the ,english1 ,latin1 and ,greek ,languages1 together with ,writing1 ,arithmetic1 ,music1 and the ,art of ,speaking2 the third1 practical ,geometry1 ,logic1 and ,geography2 and the fourth1 such other liberal ,arts and ,sciences or ,languages1 as opportunity and ability may hereafter admit1 and as the ,,trustees shall direct4 ,though still deeply religious1 these new schools usually were free from denominationalism4 ,though retaining the study of ,latin1 they made most of new subjects of more practical value4 ,a study of real things rather than words about things1 and a new emphasis on native ,english and on science were prominent features of their work4 ,they were also usually open to girls1 as well as boys1--an innovation in secondary education before almost wholly unknown4 ,many were organized later for girls only4 ,these institutions were the precursors of the ,american public high school1 itself a type of the most democratic institution for secondary education the world has ever known4 ,,the ,,universities4 ,the condition of the universities by the middle of the eighteenth century we traced in the preceding chapter4 ,they had lost their earlier importance as institutions of learning1 but in a few places the sciences were slowly gaining a foothold1 and in ,german lands we noted the appearance of the first two modern universities--institutions destined deeply to influence subsequent university development1 as we shall point out in a later chapter4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,transition ,,period4 ,we have now reached1 in our study of the history of educational progress1 the end of the transition period which marked the change in thinking from mediaeval to modern attitudes4 ,the period was ushered in with the beginnings of the ,revival of ,learning in ,italy in the fourteenth century1 and it may fittingly close about the middle of the eighteenth4 ,we now stand on the threshold of a new era in world history4 ,the same questioning spirit that animated the scholars of the ,revival of ,learning1 now full-grown and become bold and self-confident1 is about to be applied to affairs of politics and government1 and we are soon to see absolutism and mediaeval attitudes in both ,church and ,state questioned and overthrown4 ,new political theories are to be advanced1 and the divine right of the people is to be asserted and established in ,england1 the ,american ,colonies1 and in ,france1 and ultimately1 early in the twentieth century1 we are to witness the final overthrow of the divine-right-of- kings idea and a world-wide sweep of the democratic spirit4 ,a new human and political theory as to education is to be evolved2 the school is to be taken over from the ,church1 vastly expanded in scope1 and made a constructive instrument of the ,state2 and the wonderful nineteenth century is to witness a degree of human1 scientific1 political1 and educational progress not seen before in all the days from the time of the ,crusades to the opening of the nineteenth century4 ,it is to this wonderful new era in world history that we now turn4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,contrast a religious elementary school1 with the ,catechism as its chief textbook1 with a modern public elementary school4 #b4 ,contrast the elementary schools of ,mulcaster and ,comenius4 #c4 ,to what extent did the religious teachings of the time support ,locke's ideas as to the disciplinary conception of education8 #d4 ,do we to-day place as much emphasis on habit formation as did ,locke8 ,on character8 ,on good breeding8 #e4 ,state some of the reasons for the noticeable weakening of the hold of the old religious theory as to education1 in ,protestant lands1 by the middle of the eighteenth century4 #f4 ,how do you explain the slow evolution of the elementary teacher into a position of some importance8 ,is the evolution still in process8 ,illustrate4 #g4 ,what were the motives behind the organization of the religious charity- schools8 #h4 ,show how tax-supported workhouse schools represented1 for ,england1 the first step in public-school maintenance4 #i4 ,show that teaching under the individual method of instruction was school keeping1 rather than school teaching4 #aj4 ,how do you explain the general prevalence of harsh discipline well into the nineteenth century8 #aa4 ,did any other country have1 in the eighteenth century1 so mixed a type of elementary education as did ,england8 ,why was it so badly mixed there8 #ab4 ,show how the ,english ,act of ,conformity1 of #affb1 stifled the ,english ,latin grammar schools4 #ac4 ,what reasons were there for the development of the more practical ,academy in ,america1 rather than in ,england8 #ad4 ,compare the ,american ,academy with the ,german ,realschule4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections1 illustrative of the contents of this chapter1 are reproduced3 #bbf4 ,mulcaster3 ,table of ,contents of his ,positions4 #bbg4 ,locke3 ,on the ,teaching of ,latin4 #bbh4 ,locke3 ,on the ,bible as a ,reading ,book4 #bbi4 ,coote-,dilworth3 ,two early ,spelling ,books4 #bcj4 ,webster3 ,description of ,pre-,revolutionary ,schools4 #bca4 ,raumer3 ,teachers in ,gotha in #agda4 #bcb4 ,raumer3 ,an #ahth ,century ,swedish ,people's ,school4 #bcc4 ,raumer3 ,schools of ,frankfurt-am-,main during the ,eighteenth ,century4 #bcd4 ,krsi3 ,a ,swiss ,teacher's ,examination in #agic4 #bce4 ,crabbe2 ,white2 ,shenstone3 ,the ,english ,dame ,school described4 #bcf4 ,newburgh3 ,a ,parochial-,school ,teacher's ,agreement4 #bcg4 ,saint ,anne3 ,beginnings of an ,english ,charity ,school4 #bch4 ,regulations3 ,charity-,school ,organization and ,instruction4 7a7 ,qualifications for the ,master4 7b7 ,purpose and ,instruction4 #bci4 ,allen and ,mc,clure3 ,textbooks used in ,english ,charity-,schools4 #bdj4 ,england3 ,a ,charity-,school ,subscription ,form4 #bda4 ,southwark3 ,the ,charity-,school of ,saint ,john's ,parish4 #bdb4 ,gorsham3 ,an ,eighteenth-,century ,indenture of ,apprenticeship4 #bdc4 ,indenture3 ,learning the ,trade of a ,schoolmaster4 #bdd4 ,diesterweg3 ,the ,schools of ,germany before ,pestalozzi4 #bde4 ,england3 ,free ,school ,rules1 #agcd4 #bdf4 ,murray3 ,a ,new ,jersey ,school ,lottery4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,state the main points in ,mulcaster's scheme 7#bbf7 for education4 #b4 ,characterize ,locke's criticism 7#bbg7 on the teaching of ,latin4 #c4 ,state ,locke's ideas as to the use of the ,bible 7#bbh74 #d4 ,characterize the nature and contents of the so-called ,spellers by ,coote and ,dilworth 7#bbi74 #e4 ,compare the ,connecticut common school1 as described by ,webster 7#bcj71 with an ,english charity-school 7#bch b71 or a ,swedish popular school 7#bcb7 of the time4 #f4 ,just what state of vernacular education in ,teutonic lands is indicated by the three selections 7#bca1 #bcb1 #bcc78 #g4 ,compare the proprietary right of the teachers at ,frankfort 7#bcc7 with the right of control claimed over song schools by the ,precentor of a mediaeval cathedral 7#hc74 #h4 ,do such conditions as ,krsi describes 7#bcd7 exist anywhere to day8 #i4 ,characterize the ,dame ,school of ,england1 as to instruction and control1 from the descriptions given in the selections 7#bce7 reproduced4 #aj4 ,state the relationship of teacher and minister at ,newburgh 7#bcf71 and indicate the nature and probable extent of his income4 #aa4 ,state the purpose of the founders of ,saint ,anne of ,soho 7#bcg71 and characterize the type of school they created4 #ab4 ,what does the qualification for a charity-school teacher 7#bch a7 indicate as to the nature of the teacher's calling in such schools8 ,outline the instruction 7#bch b7 in such a school4 #ac4 ,what instruction did the textbooks as printed 7#bci7 provide for8 #ad4 ,show the voluntary and benevolent character of the charity-school by comparing the subscription form 7#bdj7 with some voluntary subscription form used to day4 #ae4 ,how did the school in ,saint ,john's parish 7#bda7 differ from apprenticeship training8 #af4 ,what changes do you note between the mediaeval ,indenture of ,apprenticeship 7#ii7 and the eighteenth-century ,english form 7#bdb78 #ag4 ,compare ,readings #bja and #bdb on apprenticeship4 #ah4 ,compare conditions described in #bdd with #bca-bcc4 #ai4 ,what do the ,free ,school ,rules of #agcd 7#bde7 indicate as to duties and discipline8 #bj4 ,what does the use of the lottery for school support 7#bdf7 indicate as to the conception and scope of education at the time8 ,,supplementary ,,references ,allen1 ,w4 ,o4 ,b41 and ,mc,clure1 ,e4 ,two ,hundred ,years2 ,history of the ,s4,p4,c4,k41 #afih-ahjh4 ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,english ,pedagogy1 ,part ,,ii1 ,the ,teacher in ,english ,literature4 99 ,birchenough1 ,c4 ,history of ,elementary ,education in ,england and ,wales4 ,brown1 ,e4 ,e4 ,the ,making of our ,middle ,schools4 ,cardwell1 ,j4 ,f4 ,the ,story of a ,charity ,school4 ,davidson1 ,thos4 ,rousseau4 99 ,earle1 ,alice ,m4 ,child ,life in ,colonial ,days4 ,field1 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,m4 ,the ,child and his ,book4 ,ford1 ,paul ,l4 ,the ,new ,england ,primer4 ,godfrey1 ,elizabeth4 ,english ,children in the ,olden ,time4 99 ,johnson1 ,clifton4 ,old ,time ,schools and ,school ,books4 99 ,kemp1 ,w4 ,w4 ,the ,support of ,schools in ,colonial ,new ,york by the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel in ,foreign ,parts4 ,kilpatrick1 ,wm4 ,h4 ,dutch ,schools of ,new ,netherlands and ,colonial ,new ,york4 ,locke1 ,john4 ,some ,thoughts ,concerning ,education 7#afic74 99 ,montmorency1 ,j4 ,e4 ,g4 de4 ,progress of ,education in ,england4 ,montmorency1 ,j4 ,e4 ,g4 de4 ,state ,intervention in ,english ,education4 ,mulcaster1 ,richard4 ,positions4 7,london1 #aeha47 99 ,paulsen1 ,friedrich4 ,german ,education1 ,past and ,present4 99 ,salmon1 ,david4 ,the ,education of the ,poor in the ,eighteenth ,century2 reprinted from the ,educational ,record4 7,london1 #aijh47 99 ,scott1 ,j4 ,f4 ,historic ,essays on ,apprenticeship and ,vocational ,education4 7,ann ,arbor1 #aiad47 ,,part ,,iv ,,modern ,,times ,,the ,,abolition ,,of ,,privilege ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,democracy ,a ,,new ,,theory ,,for ,,education ,,evolved ,,the ,,state ,,takes ,,over ,,the ,,school ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,eighteenth ,a ,,transition ,,century ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century ,a ,,turning-,,point4 ,the eighteenth century1 in human thinking and progress1 marks for most western nations the end of mediaevalism and the ushering-in of modern forms of intellectual liberty4 ,the indifference to the old religious problems1 which was clearly manifest in all countries at the beginning of the century1 steadily grew and culminated in a revolt against ecclesiastical control over human affairs4 ,this change in attitude toward the old problems permitted the rise of new types of intellectual inquiry1 a rapid development of scientific thinking and discovery1 the growth of a consciousness of national problems and national welfare1 and the bringing to the front of secular interests to a degree practically unknown since the days of ancient ,rome4 ,in a sense the general rise of these new interests in the eighteenth century was but a culmination of a long series of movements looking toward greater intellectual freedom and needed human progress which had been under way since the days when studia generalia and guilds first arose in western ,europe4 ,the rise of the universities in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 the ,revival of ,learning in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 the ,protestant ,revolts in the sixteenth1 the rise of modern scientific inquiry in the sixteenth and seventeenth1 and ,puritanism in ,england and ,pietism in ,germany in the seventeenth1 had all been in the nature of protests against the mediaeval tendency to confine and limit and enslave the intellect4 ,in the eighteenth century the culmination of this rising tide of protest came in a general and determined revolt against despotism in either ,church or ,state1 which1 at the close of the century1 swept away ancient privileges1 abuses1 and barriers1 and prepared the way for the marked intellectual and human and political progress which characterized the nineteenth century4 ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,change ,,in ,,attitude4 ,the new spirit and interests and attitudes which came to characterize the eighteenth century in the more progressive western nations meant the ultimate overthrow of the tyranny of mediaeval supernatural theology1 the evolution of a new theory as to moral action which should be independent of theology1 the freeing of the new scientific spirit from the fetters of church control1 the substituting of new philosophical and scientific and economic interests for the old theological problems which had for so long dominated human thinking1 the substitution of natural political organization for the older ecclesiastical foundations of the ,state1 the destruction of what remained of the old feudal political system1 the freeing of the serf and the evolution of the citizen1 and the rise of a modern society interested in problems of national welfare--government in the interest of the governed1 commerce1 industry1 science1 economics1 education1 and social welfare4 ,the evolution of such modern-type governments inevitably meant the creation of entirely new demands for the education of the people and for far-reaching political and social reforms4 ,this new eighteenth-century spirit1 which so characterized the mid- eighteenth century that it is often spoken of as the ,period of the ,enlightenment1 #a expressed itself in many new directions1 a few of the more important of which will be considered here as of fundamental concern for the student of the history of educational progress4 ,in a very real sense the development of state educational systems1 in both ,european and ,american ,states1 has been an outgrowth of the great liberalizing forces which first made themselves felt in a really determined way during this important transition century4 ,in this chapter we shall consider briefly five important phases of this new eighteenth-century liberalism1 as follows3 #a4 ,the work of the benevolent despots of continental ,europe in trying to shape their governments to harmonize them with the new spirit of the century4 #b4 ,the unsatisfied demand for reform in ,france4 #c4 ,the rise of democratic government and liberalism in ,england4 #d4 ,the institution of constitutional government and religious freedom in ,america4 #e4 ,the sweeping away of mediaeval abuses in the great ,revolution in ,france4 ,i4 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,benevolent ,,despots ,,of ,,continental ,,europe ,,the ,,new ,,nationalism ,,leads ,,to ,,interested ,,government4 ,in ,england1 as we shall trace a little further on1 a democratic form of government had for long been developing1 but this democratic life had made but little headway on the continent of ,europe4 ,there1 instead1 the democratic tendencies which showed some slight signs of development during the sixteenth century had been stamped out in the period of warfare and the ensuing hatreds of the seventeenth1 and in the eighteenth century we find autocratic government at its height4 ,national governments to succeed the earlier government of the ,church had developed and grown strong1 the kingly power had everywhere been consolidated1 ,church and ,state were in close working alliance1 and the new spirit of nationality--in government1 foreign policy1 languages1 literature1 and culture--was being energetically developed by those responsible for the welfare of the ,states4 ,everywhere1 almost1 on the continent of ,europe1 the theory of the divine right of kings to rule and the divine duty of subjects to obey seemed to have become fixed1 and this theory of government the ,church now most assiduously supported4 ,unlike in ,england and the ,american ,colonies1 the people of the larger countries of continental ,europe had not as yet advanced far enough in personal liberty or political thinking to make any demand of consequence for the right to govern themselves4 ,the new spirit of nationality abroad in ,europe1 though1 as well as the new humanitarian ideas beginning to stir thinking men1 alike tended to awaken a new interest on the part of many rulers in the welfare of the people they governed4 ,in consequence1 during the eighteenth century1 we find a number of nations in which the rulers1 putting themselves in harmony with the new spirit of the time1 made earnest attempts to improve the condition of their peoples as a means of advancing the national welfare4 ,we shall here mention the four nations in which the most conspicuous reform work was attempted4 ,,the ,,rulers ,,of ,,prussia4 ,three kings1 to whom the nineteenth-century greatness of ,prussia was largely due1 ruled the country during nearly the whole of the eighteenth century4 ,they were fully as despotic as the kings of ,france1 but1 unlike the ,french kings1 they were keenly alive to the needs of the people1 anxious to advance the welfare of the ,state1 tolerant in religion1 and in sympathy with the new scientific studies4 ,the first1 ,frederick ,william ,i 7#agac-dj71 labored earnestly to develop the resources of the country1 trained a large army1 ordered elementary education made compulsory1 and made the beginnings in the royal provinces of the transformation of the schools from the control of the ,church to the control of the ,state4 ,his son1 known to history as ,frederick the ,great1 ruled from #agdj to #aghf4 ,during his long reign he labored continually to curtail ancient privileges1 abolish old abuses1 and improve the condition of his people4 ,during the first week of his reign he abolished torture in trials1 made the administration of law more equitable1 instituted a limited freedom for the press1 #b and extended religious toleration4 #c ,he also partially abolished serfdom on the royal domains1 and tried to uplift the peasantry and citizen classes1 but in this he met with bitter opposition from the nobles of his realm4 ,he built roads1 canals1 and bridges1 encouraged skilled artisans to settle in his dominions1 developed agriculture and industry1 encouraged scientific workers1 extended an asylum to thousands of ,huguenots fleeing from religious persecution in ,france1 #d and did more than any previous ruler to provide common schools throughout his kingdom4 ,by the general regulation of education in his kingdom 7chapter xxii7 he laid the foundations upon which the nineteenth- century ,prussian school system was later built4 ,illustration3 ,fig #ade ,,frederick ,,the ,,great ,his rule1 though1 was thoroughly autocratic4 ,every thing for the people1 but nothing by the people1 was the keynote of his policies4 ,he had no confidence in the ability of the people to rule1 and gave them no opportunity to learn the art4 ,he employed the strong army his father built up to wage wars of conquest1 seize territory that did not belong to him1 and in consequence made himself a great ,german hero4 #e ,he may be said to have laid the foundations of modern militarized1 socialized1 obediently educated1 and subject ,germany1 and also to have begun the grand-larceny and scrap-of-paper policy which has characterized ,prussian international relationships ever since4 ,frederick ,william ,,ii1 who reigned from #aghf to #agig1 continued in large measure the enlightened policies of his uncle1 reformed the tax system1 lightened the burdens of his people1 encouraged trade1 emphasized the ,german tongue1 quickened the national spirit1 actively encouraged schools and universities1 and began that centralization of authority over the developing educational system which resulted in the creation in ,prussia of the first modern state school system in ,europe4 ,the educational work of these three ,prussian kings was indeed important1 and we shall study it more in detail in a later chapter 7,chapter ,,xxii74 ,,the ,,austrian ,,reformers4 ,two notably benevolent rulers occupied the ,austrian throne for half a century1 and did much to improve the condition of the ,austrian people4 ,a very remarkable woman1 ,maria ,theresa1 came to the throne in #agdj1 and was followed by her son1 ,joseph ,,ii1 in #aghj4 ,he ruled until #agij4 ,to ,maria ,theresa the ,austria of the nineteenth century owed most of its development and power4 ,she worked with seemingly tireless energy for the advancement of the welfare of her subjects1 and toward the close of her reign laid1 as we shall see in a later chapter1 the beginnings of ,austrian school reform4 ,joseph ,,ii carried still further his mother's benevolent work1 and strove to introduce enlightenment and reason into the administration of his realm4 ,a student of the writings of the eighteenth-century reform philosophers1 and deeply imbued with the reform spirit of his time1 he attempted to abolish ancient privileges1 establish a uniform code of justice1 encourage education1 free the serfs1 abolish feudal tenure1 grant religious toleration1 curb the power of the ,pope and the ,church1 break the power of the local ,diets1 centralize the ,state1 and introduce a uniform level of democratic simplicity under his own absolute sway4 ,he attempted to alter the organization of the ,church1 abolished six hundred monasteries1 #f and reduced the number of monastic persons in his dominion from #fc1jjj to #bg1jjj4 ,attempting too much1 he brought down upon his head the wrath of both priest and noble and died a disappointed man4 ,the abolition of feudal tenure and serfdom on the distinctively ,austrian lands1 of all his attempted reforms1 alone was permanent4 ,his work stands as an interesting commentary on the temporary character of the results which follow attempts rapidly to improve the conditions surrounding the lives of people1 without at the same time educating the people to improve themselves4 ,,the ,,spanish ,,reformers4 ,a very similar result attended the reform efforts of a succession of benevolent rulers thrust upon ,spain1 during the eighteenth century1 by the complications of foreign politics4 ,over a period of nearly ninety years1 extending from the accession of ,philip ,v 7#agjj7 to the death of ,charles ,,iii 7#aghh71 remarkable political progress was imposed by a succession of able ministers and with the consent of the kings4 #g ,the power of the ,church1 always the crying evil of ,spain1 was restricted in many ways2 the ,inquisition was curbed2 the ,jesuits were driven from the kingdom2 the burning of heretics was stopped2 prosecution for heresy was reduced and discouraged2 the monastic orders were taught to fear the law and curb their passions2 evils in public administration were removed2 national grievances were redressed2 the civil service was improved2 science and literature were encouraged1 in place of barren theological speculations2 and an earnest effort was made to regenerate the national life and improve the lot of the common people4 ,all these reforms1 though1 were imposed from above1 and no attempt was made to introduce schools or to educate the people in the arts of self- government4 ,the result was that the reforms never went beneath the surface1 and the national life of the people remained largely untouched4 ,within five years of the death of ,charles ,,iii all had been lost4 ,under a native ,spanish king1 thoroughly orthodox1 devout1 and lacking in any broad national outlook1 the ,church easily restored itself to power1 the priests resumed their earlier importance1 the nobles again began to exact their full toll1 free discussion was forbidden1 scientific studies were abandoned1 the universities were ordered to discontinue the study of moral philosophy1 and the political and social reforms which had required three generations to build up were lost in half a decade4 ,not meeting any well- expressed need of the people1 and with no schools provided to show to the people the desirable nature of the reforms introduced1 it was easy to sweep them aside4 ,in this relapse to mediaevalism1 the chance for ,spain-- a country rich in possibilities and natural resources--to evolve early into a progressive modern nation was lost4 ,so ,spain has remained ever since1 and only in the last quarter of a century has reform from within begun to be evident in this until recently priest-ridden and benighted land4 ,,the ,,intelligent ,,despots ,,of ,,russia4 ,the greatest of these were ,peter the ,great1 who ruled from #afhi to #agbe1 and ,catherine ,,ii1 who ruled from #agfb to #agif4 ,catching something of the new eighteenth-century western spirit1 these rulers tried to introduce some western enlightenment into their as yet almost barbarous land4 ,each tried earnestly to lift their people to a higher level of living1 and to start them on the road toward civilization and learning4 ,by a series of edicts1 despotically enforced1 ,peter tried to introduce the civilization of the western world into his country4 ,he brought in numbers of skilled artisans1 doctors1 merchants1 teachers1 printers1 and soldiers2 introduced many western skills and trades2 and made the beginnings of western secondary education for the governing classes by the establishment in the cities of a number of ,german-type gymnasia4 #h ,later ,catherine ,,ii had the ,french philosopher ,diderot 7p4 #dhb7 draw up a plan for her for the organization of a state system of higher schools1 but the plan was never put into effect4 ,the beginnings of ,russian higher civilization really date from this eighteenth-century work4 ,the power of the formidable ,greek or ,eastern ,church remained1 however1 untouched1 and this continued1 until after the ,russian revolution of #aiag1 as one of the most serious obstacles to ,russian intellectual and educational progress4 ,the serfs1 too1 remained serfs--tied to the land1 ignorant1 superstitious1 and obedient4 ,by the close of the eighteenth century ,russia1 largely under ,prussian training1 had become a very formidable military power1 and by the close of the nineteenth century was beginning to make some progress of importance in the arts of peace4 ,just at present ,russia is going through a stage of national evolution quite comparable to that which took place in ,france a century and a quarter ago1 and the educational importance of this great people1 as we shall point out further on1 lies in their future evolution rather than in any contribution they have as yet made to western development4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,unsatisfied ,,demand ,,for ,,reform ,,in ,,france ,,the ,,setting ,,of ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,france4 ,eighteenth-century ,france1 on the contrary1 developed no benevolent despot to mitigate abuses1 reform the laws1 abolish privileges1 temper the rule of the ,church1 #i 7,r4 #bdg71 curb the monastic orders1 develop the natural resources1 begin the establishment of schools1 and alleviate the hard lot of the serf and the peasant4 ,there1 instead1 absolute monarchy in ,europe reached its most complete triumph during the long reigns of ,louis ,,xiv 7#afdc-agae7 and ,louis ,,xv 7#agae-gd71 and the splendor of the court life of ,france captivated all ,europe and served to hide the misery which made the splendor possible4 ,there the power of the nobles had been completely broken1 and the power of the parliaments completely destroyed4 ,i am the ,state1 exclaimed ,louis ,,xiv1 and the almost unlimited despotism of the ,king and his ministers and favorites fully supported the statement4 ,local liberties had been suppressed1 and the lot of the common people--ignorant1 hard-working1 downtrodden1 but intensely patriotic--was wretched in the extreme4 ,approximately #adj1jjj nobles #aj and #acj1jjj monks1 nuns1 and clergy owned two fifths of the landed property of ,france1 and controlled the destinies of a nation of approximately #be1jjj1jjj people4 ,agriculture was the great industry of the time1 but this was so taxed by the agents of ,king and ,church that over one half of the net profits from farming were taken for taxation4 ,,church ,,and ,,state ,,were ,,in ,,close ,,working ,,alliance4 ,the higher offices of the ,church were commonly held by appointed noblemen1 who drew large incomes #aa led worldly lives1 and neglected their priestly functions much as the ,italian appointees in ,german lands had done before the ,reformation4 ,between the nobles and upper clergy on the one hand and the peasant-born lower clergy and the masses of the people on the other a great gulf existed4 ,the real brains of ,france were to be found among a small bourgeois class of bankers1 merchants1 shopkeepers1 minor officials1 lawyers1 and skilled artisans1 who lived in the cities and who1 ambitious and discontented1 did much to stimulate the increasing unrest and demand for reform which in time pervaded the whole nation4 ,a king1 constantly in need of increasing sums of money2 an idle1 selfish1 corrupt1 and discredited nobility and upper clergy1 incapable of aiding the king1 many of whom1 too1 had been influenced by the new philosophic and scientific thinking and were willing to help destroy their own orders2 an aggressive1 discontented1 and patriotic bourgeoisie1 full of new political and social ideas1 and patriotically anxious to reform ,france2 and a vast unorganized peasantry and city rabble1 suffering much and resisting little1 but capable of a terrible fury and senseless destruction1 once they were aroused and their suppressed rage let loose2--these were the main elements in the setting of eighteenth-century ,france4 ,,the ,,french ,,reform ,,philosophers4 ,during the middle decades of the eighteenth century a small but very influential group of reform philosophers in ,france attacked with their pens the ancient abuses in ,church and ,state1 and did much to pave the way for genuine political and religious reform4 ,in a series of widely read articles and books1 characterized for the most part by clear reasoning and telling arguments1 these political philosophers attacked the power of the absolute monarchy on the one hand1 and the existing privileges of the nobles and clergy on the other1 as both unjust and inimical to the welfare of society 7,r4 #bdh74 ,the leaders in the reform movement were ,montesquieu 7#afhi-agee71 ,turgot 7#agbg-ha71 ,voltaire 7#afid-aggh71 ,diderot 7#agac-hd71 and ,rousseau 7#agab- #gh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4 ,,montesquieu7#afhi-agee7 ,montesquieu4 ,in #agdh appeared ,montesquieu's famous book1 the ,spirit of ,laws4 ,in this he pointed out the many excellent features of the constitutional government which the ,english had developed1 and compared ,english conditions with the many abuses to which the ,french people were subject4 ,he argued that laws should be expressive of the wishes and needs of the people governed1 and that the education of a people ought to be relative to the principles of good government4 ,montesquieu also stands1 with ,turgot as the founder of the sciences of comparative politics #ab and the philosophy of history--new studies which helped to shape the political thinking of eighteenth-century ,france4 ,turgot4 ,two years after the publication of ,montesquieu's book1 ,turgot delivered 7#agej7 a series of lectures at the ,sorbonne1 in ,paris1 in which he virtually created the science of history4 ,looking at human history comprehensively1 seeing clearly that there had been a hitherto unrecognized regularity of march amid the confusion of the past1 and that it was possible to grasp the history of the progress of man as a whole1 he saw and stated the possibility of society to improve itself through intelligent government1 and the need for wise laws and general education to enable it to do so4 #ac ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4 ,,turgot 7#agbg-ha7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,,voltaire 7#afid-aggh7 ,in #aggd ,turgot was appointed ,minister of ,finance by the new ,king1 ,louis ,,xvi1 and during the two years before he was removed from office he attempted to carry out many needed political and social reforms4 ,duruy #ad has summarized his suggested reforms as follows3 #a4 ,gradual introduction of a complete system of local self-government4 #b4 ,imposition of a land tax on nobility and clergy4 #c4 ,suppression of the greater part of the monasteries4 #d4 ,amelioration of the condition of the minor clergy4 #e4 ,equalization of the burdens of taxation4 #f4 ,liberty of conscience1 and the recall of the ,protestants to ,france4 #g4 ,a uniform system of weights and measures4 #h4 ,freedom for commerce and industry4 #i4 ,a single and uniform code of laws4 #aj4 ,a vast plan for the organization of a system of public instruction throughout ,france4 ,this list is indicative of the reform philosophy in the light of which he worked4 ,arousing the natural hostility of the nobility and higher clergy1 he was soon dismissed1 and the reforms he had proposed were abandoned by the ,king4 ,voltaire4 ,the keenest and most unsparing critic of the old order was ,voltaire4 ,in clear and forceful ,french he exposed existing conditions in society and government1 and particularly the control of affairs exercised by the most ancient and most powerful organization of his day--the ,church4 ,for this he was execrated and hated by the clergy1 and in return he made it the chief task of his life to destroy the reign of the priest4 ,having lived for a time in ,england1 he appreciated the vast difference between the ,english and ,french forms of government4 ,with a keen and unsparing pen he exposed the scholasticism1 despotism1 dogmatism1 superstition1 hypocrisy1 servility1 and deep injustice of his age1 and poured out the vials of his scorn upon the grubbing pedantry of the ,academicians who doted upon the past because ignorant of the present4 ,in particular he stood for the abolition of that relic of feudalism--serfdom--which still seriously oppressed the peasantry of ,france2 for liberty in thought and action for the individual2 for curbing the powers and privileges of both ,state and ,church2 for an equalization of the burdens of taxation between the different classes in ,french society2 and for the organization of a system of public education throughout the nation4 ,he died before the outbreak of the ,revolution he had done so much to bring about1 but by the time he died the ,ancient ,rgime of privilege and corruption and oppression was already tottering to its fall4 ,his conception of the relations that should exist between ,church and ,state are well set forth in a short article from his pen on the subject 7,r4 #bdh7 reprinted from the ,encyclopaedia of ,diderot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4 ,,diderot 7#agac-hd7 ,diderot4 ,another able thinker and writer was ,diderot4 ,besides other works of importance1 he gave twenty years of his life 7#agea-gb7 to the editing 7with ,d',alembert7 of an ,encyclopaedia of seventeen volumes of text and eleven of plates4 ,many of the articles were written by himself1 and were expressive of his ideas as to reform4 ,many were frankly critical of existing privileges1 abuses1 and pretensions4 ,many interpreted to the ,french the science of ,newton and the discoveries of the age1 and awakened a new interest in scientific study4 ,because of its reform ideas the publication was suppressed1 in #agei1 after the publication of the seventh volume1 and had to be carried on surreptitiously thereafter4 ,viscount ,morley1 writing recently on ,diderot1 summarizes the nature and influence of the ,encyclopaedia in the following words3 ,the ecclesiastical party detested the ,encyclopaedia1 in which they saw a rising stronghold for their philosophical enemies4 ,to any one who turns over the pages of these redoubtable volumes now1 it seems surprising that their doctrine should have stirred such portentous alarm4 ,there is no atheism1 no overt attack on any of the cardinal mysteries of the faith1 no direct denunciation even of the notorious abuses of the ,church4 ,yet we feel that the atmosphere of the book may well have been displeasing to authorities who had not yet learnt to encounter the modern spirit on equal terms4 ,the ,encyclopaedia takes for granted the justice of religious toleration and speculative freedom4 ,it asserts in distinct tones the democratic doctrine that it is the common people in a nation whose lot ought to be the chief concern of the nation's government4 ,from beginning to end it is one unbroken process of exaltation of scientific knowledge on the one hand1 and pacific industry on the other4 ,all these things were odious to the old governing classes of ,france4 #ae ,rousseau4 ,the fifth reform writer mentioned as exercising a large influence was ,rousseau4 ,in #agdi the ,academy at ,dijon offered a prize for the best essay on the subject3 ,has the progress of the sciences and arts contributed to corrupt or to purify morals8 ,rousseau took the negative side and won the prize4 ,his essay attracted widespread attention4 ,in #agec he competed for a second prize on ,the ,origin of ,inequality among ,men1 in which he took the same negative attitude4 ,in #agfb appeared both his ,social ,contract and mile4 ,in the former he contended that early men had given to selected leaders the right to conduct their government for them1 and that these had in time become autocratic and had virtually enslaved the people 7,r4 #bdi a74 ,he held that men were not bound to submit to government against their wills1 and to remedy existing abuses he advocated the overthrow of the usurping government and the establishment of a republic1 with universal suffrage based on liberty1 fraternity1 and equality4 ,the ideal ,state lay in a society controlled by the people1 where artificiality and aristocracy and the tyranny of society over man did not exist4 ,nor could ,rousseau distinguish between political and ecclesiastical tyranny1 holding that the former inevitably followed from the latter 7,r4 #bdi b74 ,crude as were his theories1 and impractical as were many of his ideas1 to an age tired of absurdities and pretensions and injustice1 and suffering deeply from the abuses of both ,church and ,state1 his attractively written book seemed almost inspired4 ,the ,social ,contract virtually became the ,bible of the ,french ,revolutionists4 ,in the mile1 a book which will be referred to more at length in chapter ,,xxi1 ,rousseau held that we should revert1 in education1 to a state of nature to secure the needed educational reforms1 and that education to prepare for life in the existing society was both wrong and useless4 ,a ,,revolution ,,in ,,french ,,thinking4 ,these five men--,montesquieu1 ,turgot1 ,voltaire1 ,diderot1 and ,rousseau--and many other less influential followers1 portrayed the abuses of the time in ,church and ,state and pointed out the lines of political and ecclesiastical reform4 ,those who read their writings understood better why the existing privileges of the nobility and clergy were no longer right1 and the need for reform in matters of taxation and government4 ,their writings added to the spirit of unrest of the century1 and were deeply influential1 not only in ,france1 but in the ,american ,colonies as well4 ,though the attack was at first against the evils in ,church and ,state1 the new critical philosophy soon led to intellectual developments of importance in many other directions4 ,at the death of ,louis ,,xiv 7#agae7 ,france was intellectually prostrate4 ,great as was his long reign from the point of view of the splendor of his court1 and large as was the quantity of literature produced1 his age was nevertheless an age of misery1 religious intolerance1 political oppression1 and intellectual decline4 ,it was a reign of centralized and highly personal government4 ,men no longer dared to think for themselves1 or to discuss with any freedom questions either of politics or religion4 ,there was no popular liberty2 there were no great men2 there was no science2 there was no literature2 there were no arts4 ,the largest intellects lost their energy2 the national spirit died away4 ,between the death of ,louis ,,xiv and the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution 7#aghi7 an intellectual revolution took place in ,france1 and for this revolution ,english political progress and political and scientific thinking were largely responsible4 ,,great ,,english ,,influence ,,on ,,france4 ,in #agae the ,english language was almost unspoken in ,france1 ,english science and political progress were unknown there1 and the ,english were looked down upon and hated4 ,half a century later ,english was spoken everywhere by the scholars of the time2 the ,english were looked upon as the political and scientific leaders of ,europe2 and the scholars of ,france visited ,england to study ,english political1 economic1 and scientific progress4 ,locke1 an uncompromising advocate of political and religious liberty2 ,hobbes1 the speculative moral philosopher2 and the great scientist ,newton were the teachers of ,voltaire4 ,more than any other single man1 ,voltaire moulded and redirected eighteenth-century thought in ,france4 #af ,numerous ,french writers of importance--,helvetius1 ,diderot1 ,morellet1 ,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 to mention but a few--drew their inspiration from ,english writers4 ,in the eighteenth century ,england became the school for political liberty for ,france4 #ag ,the effect of the work of ,isaac ,newton 7p4 #chh71 as popularized by the writings of ,voltaire1 was revolutionary on a people who had been so tyrannized over by the clergy as had the ,french during the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,an interest in scientific studies before unknown in ,france now flamed up1 and a new generation of ,french scientists arose4 ,physics1 chemistry1 zology1 and anatomy received a great new impetus1 while botany1 geology1 and mineralogy were raised to the rank of sciences4 ,popular scientific lectures became very common4 ,the classics were almost abandoned for the new studies4 ,economic questions now also began to be discussed1 such as questions of money1 food1 finance1 and government expenditure4 ,in #aggf the ,englishman1 ,adam ,smith1 laid the foundations of the new science of political economy by the publication of his ,wealth of ,nations1 and this was at once translated into ,french and eagerly read4 ,in #agha a ,french banker by the name of ,necker published his ,compte ,rendu1 a statistical report on the finances of ,france4 ,so feverishly eager were men to study problems of government that six thousand copies were sold the day it was published1 and eighty thousand had to be printed before the demand for it was satisfied4 ,a half-century earlier it would have been read scarcely at all4 ,in the meantime taxes piled up1 reforms were refused1 the power and arrogance of the clergy and nobility showed no signs of diminution1 the nation was burdened with debt1 commerce and agriculture declined1 the lot of the common people became ever more hard to bear1 and the masses grew increasingly resentful and rebellious4 ,as national affairs continued to drift from bad to worse in ,france1 a series of important happenings on the ,american continent helped to bring matters more rapidly to a crisis4 ,before describing these events1 however1 we wish to sketch briefly the rise of government by the people and the extension of liberalism in ,england--the first great democratic nation of the western world4 ,,iii4 ,,england ,,the ,,first ,,democratic ,,nation ,,early ,,beginnings ,,of ,,english ,,liberty4 ,the first western nation created from the wreck of the ,roman ,empire to achieve a measurement of self-government was ,england4 ,better civilized than most of the other wandering tribes1 at the time of their coming to ,english shores1 the invading ,angles1 ,saxons1 and ,jutes early accepted ,christianity 7p4 #abj7 and settled down to an agricultural life4 ,on ,english shores they soon built up a for-the-time substantial civilization4 ,this was later largely destroyed by the pillaging ,danes1 but with characteristic energy the ,english set to work to assimilate the newcomers and build up civilization anew4 ,the work of ,alfred 7p4 #adf7 in restablishing law and order1 at a time when law and order scarcely existed anywhere in western ,europe1 will long remain famous4 ,later on1 and at a time when ,german and ,hun and ,slav had only recently accepted ,christianity in name and had begun to settle down into rude tribal governments1 and when the ,prussians in their original home along the eastern ,baltic were still offering human sacrifices to their heathen gods 7p4 #abj71 the ,english barons were extorting ,magna ,charta from ,king ,john and laying the firm foundations of ,english constitutional liberty4 ,in the meadow at ,runnymede1 on that justly celebrated ,june day1 in #abae1 government under law and based on the consent of the governed began to shape itself once more in the western world4 ,of the sixty-three articles of this ,charter of ,liberties1 three possess imperishable value4 ,these provided3 #a4 ,that no free man shall be imprisoned or proceeded against except by his peers1 or the law of the land1 which secured trial by jury4 #b4 ,that justice should neither be sold1 denied1 nor delayed4 #c4 ,that dues from the people to the king could be imposed only with the consent of the ,national ,council 7after #abdf known as ,parliament74 ,so important was this charter to such a liberty-loving people as the ,english have always been1 and so bitterly did kings resent its hampering provisions1 that within the next two centuries kings had been forced to confirm it no less than thirty-seven times4 ,by #abie the first complete ,parliament1 representative of the three orders of society--,lords1 ,clergy1 and ,commons--assembled1 and in #accc the ,commons gained the right to sit by itself4 ,from that time to the present the ,commons1 representing the people1 has gradually broadened its powers1 working1 as ,tennyson has said1 #ah from precedent to precedent1 until to-day it rules the ,english nation4 ,in #acgf the ,commons gained the right to impeach the ,king's ministers1 and in #adjg the exclusive right to make grants of money for any governmental purpose4 ,centuries ahead of other nations1 this insured an almost continual meeting of the national assembly and a close scrutiny of the acts of both kings and ministers4 ,in #afjd ,king ,james ,i1 imitating continental ,european precedents1 proclaimed his theory as to the divine right of kings to rule1 #ai and a struggle at once set in which carried the ,english into ,civil ,war 7#afdb- #di72 led to the beheading of ,charles ,i 7#afdi72 the overthrow and banishment of ,james ,,ii 7#afhh72 and the ultimate firm establishment1 instead1 of the divine right of the common people4 #bj ,in an age when the autocratic power and the divine right of kings to rule was almost unquestioned elsewhere in ,europe1 the ,english people compelled their king to recognize that he could rule over them only when he ruled in their interests and as they wished him to do4 ,though there was a period of struggle later on with the ,german ,georges 7,i1 ,,ii1 and ,,iii71 and especially with the honest but stupid ,george ,,iii1 ,england has1 since #afhh1 been a government of and by the people4 #ba ,france did not rid itself of the divine-right conception until the ,french ,revolution 7#aghi71 and ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,russia not until #aiah4 ,,growth ,,of ,,tolerance ,,among ,,the ,,english4 ,the results of the long struggle of the ,english for liberty under law showed itself in many ways in the growth of tolerance among the people of the ,english nation4 ,at a time when other nations were bound down in blind obedience to king and priest1 and when dissenting minorities were driven from the land1 the ,english people had become accustomed to the idea of individual liberty1 regulated by law1 and to the toleration of opinions with which they did not agree4 ,these characteristically ,english conceptions of liberty under law and of the toleration of minorities have found expression in many important ways in the life and government of the people 7,r4 #bej71 and have been elements of great strength in ,england's colonial policy4 ,one of the important ways in which this growth of tolerance among the ,english showed itself was in the extension of a larger freedom to those unable to subscribe to the state religion4 ,though the ,reformation movement had stirred up bitter hatreds in ,england1 as on the ,continent1 the ,english were among the first of ,european peoples to show tolerance of opposition in religious matters4 ,the high ,english ,state ,church1 which had succeeded the ,roman1 had made but small appeal to many ,englishmen4 ,the ,puritans had early struggled to secure a simplification of the church service and the introduction of more preaching 7p4 #cei71 and in the seventeenth century the organization of three additional dissenting sects1 which became known as ,unitarians1 ,baptists1 and ,quakers1 took place4 ,these sects divided off rather quietly1 and their separation resulted only in the enactment of new laws regarding conformity1 prayers1 and teaching4 ,during the latter half of the seventeenth century1 after the execution of ,charles ,i 7#afdi71 the ,puritans had temporarily risen to power1 and during their control of affairs had imposed their strict ,calvinistic standards as to ,sabbath observance and piety on the nation4 ,this was very distasteful to many1 and from such strict observances the people in time rebelled4 ,the standards of the ,english in personal morality1 temperance1 amusements1 and manners at the beginning of the eighteenth century were not especially high1 and in the reaction from ,puritan control and strict religious observances the great mass of the people degenerated into positive irreligion and gross immorality4 ,drunkenness1 rowdyism1 robbery1 blasphemy1 brutality1 lewdness1 and prostitution became very common4 ,this moral decline of the people the ,church of ,england seemed powerless to arrest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 ,,john ,,wesley 7#agjg-hb7 ,founder of ,methodism4 ,about #agcj a reform movement was begun under the able leadership of a young ,oxford student by the name of ,john ,wesley1 ably seconded by ,george ,whitefield 7#agad-gj71 with a view to reaching the classes so completely untouched by the high ,state ,church4 ,by traveling over the country and preaching a gospel of repentance1 personal faith1 and better living1 these two young men made a deep emotional appeal1 and soon gained a strong hold on the poorer and more ignorant classes of the people4 ,forbidden to preach in ,anglican churches1 and at times threatened with personal violence1 these two men were in time forced into open rebellion against the ,established ,church4 ,finally they founded a new ,church1 which became known as the ,methodist4 #bb ,this new organization bore the same relation to the ,church of ,england that the ,anglican ,church two hundred years before had borne to the ,church of ,rome4 ,thus was accomplished a second spiritual reformation in ,england1 and one destined in time to spread to the colonies and deeply affect the lives of a large portion of the ,english people4 #bc ,that such a well-organized sect could arise1 such a moral reformation be preached1 and the power of the ,established ,church be challenged so openly and without serious persecution1 speaks much for the growth of religious tolerance among the ,english people since the days of the great ,elizabeth4 ,in #aggh the ,roman ,catholic ,relief ,act was adopted1 and in #aggi dissenting ministers and schoolmasters were relieved from the disabilities under which they had so long remained4 ,these acts indicate a further marked growth in religious tolerance on the part of the ,english nation4 #bd ,,new ,,emancipating ,,and ,,educative ,,influences4 ,in #affb the first regular newspaper outside of ,italy was established in ,england1 and in #agjb the first daily paper4 ,small in size1 printed on but one side of the sheet1 and dealing wholly with local matters1 these nevertheless marked the beginnings of that daily expression of popular opinion with which we are now so familiar4 #be ,after about #agje the cheap political pamphlet made its appearance1 and after #agaj1 instead of merely communicating news1 the papers began the discussion of political questions4 ,by #agce a revolution had been effected in ,england1 and papers and presses began to be established in the chief cities and towns outside of ,london2 the freedom of the press was in a large way completed1 and newspapers1 for the first time in the history of the world1 were made the exponents of public opinion4 ,the press in ,england in consequence became an educative force of great intellectual and political importance1 and did much to compensate for the lack of a general system of schools for the people4 ,in #aggb the right to publish the debates in ,parliament was finally won1 over the strenuous objections #bf of ,george ,,iii4 ,in #aghj the first ,sunday newspaper appeared1 on the only day the lower orders had time to read a paper at all1 and1 despite the efforts of religious bodies to suppress it1 the ,sunday paper has continued to the present and has contributed its quota to the education and enlightenment of mankind4 ,in #aghe the famous ,london ,times began to appear4 ,in the middle of the eighteenth century debating societies for the consideration of public questions arose1 and in #agfi the first public meeting ever assembled in ,england1 in which it was attempted to enlighten ,englishmen respecting their political rights was held1 and such meetings soon became of almost daily occurrence4 ,all these influences stimulated political thinking to a high degree1 and contributed not only to a desire for still larger political freedom but for the more general diffusion of the ability to read as well 7,r4 #bej74 ,still other important new influences arose during the early part of the eighteenth century1 each of which tended to awaken new desires for schools and learning4 ,in #afgh the first modern printed story to appeal to the masses1 ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress1 appeared from the press4 ,written1 as it had been1 by a man of the people1 its simple narrative form1 its passionate religious feeling1 its picture of the journey of a pilgrim through a world of sin and temptation and trial1 and its ,biblical language with which the common people had now become familiar--all these elements combined to make it a book that appealed strongly to all who read or heard it read1 and stimulated among the masses a desire to read comparable to that awakened by the chaining of the ,english ,bible in the churches a century before 7,r4 #agj74 ,in #agai the first great ,english novel1 ,defoe's ,robinson ,crusoe1 and in #agbf ,gulliver's ,travels1 added new stimulus to the desires awakened by ,bunyan's book4 ,all three were books of the common people1 whereas the dramas1 plays1 essays1 and scholarly works previously produced had appealed only to a small educated class4 ,in #agea what was probably the first circulating library of modern times was opened at ,birmingham1 and soon thereafter similar institutions were established in other ,english cities4 ,,science ,,and ,,manufacturing2 ,,the ,,new ,,era4 ,england1 too1 from the first1 showed an interest in and a tolerance toward the new scientific thinking scarcely found in any other land4 ,this in itself is indicative of the great intellectual progress which the ,english people had by this time made4 #bg ,at a time when ,galileo1 in ,italy1 was fighting1 almost alone1 for the right to think along the lines of the new scientific method and being imprisoned for his pains1 ,englishmen were reading with deep interest the epoch-making scientific writings of ,lord ,francis ,bacon1 ,earlier than in other lands1 too1 the ,newtonian philosophy found a place in the instruction of the national universities1 and ,english scholars began to employ the new scientific method in their search for new truths4 ,the ,british ,royal 7,scientific7 ,society #bh had begun to meet as early as #afde1 and ever since has published in its proceedings the best of ,english scientific thinking4 ,by the reign of ,george ,i 7#agad-bg7 scientific work began to be popularized1 and the first little booklets on scientific subjects began to appear4 ,these popular presentations of what had been worked out were sold at the book stalls and by peddlers and were eagerly read2 by the beginning of the reign of ,george ,,iii 7#agfj7 they had become very common4 ,in #agjd-aj the first ,dictionary of ,arts and ,sciences was printed1 and in #agfh-ga the first edition 7three volumes7 of the now famous ,encyclopedia ,britannica appeared4 ,in #agee the famous ,british ,museum was founded4 ,as early as #afih a rude form of steam engine had been patented in ,england1 and by #agab this had been perfected sufficiently to be used in pumping water from the coal mines4 ,in #agfe ,james ,watt made the real beginning of the application of steam to industry by patenting his steam engine2 in #agfj ,wedgwood established the pottery industry in ,england2 in #agfg ,hargreaves devised the spinning-jenny1 which banished the spindle and distaff and the old spinning-wheel2 in #agfi ,arkwright evolved his spinning-frame2 and in #aghe ,cartwright completed the process by inventing the power loom for weaving4 ,in #aghd a great improvement in the smelting of iron ores 7puddling7 was worked out4 ,these inventions1 all ,english1 were revolutionary in their effect on manufacturing4 ,they meant the displacement of hand power by machine labor1 the breakdown of home industry through the concentration of labor in factories1 the rise of great manufacturing cities1 #bi and the ultimate collapse of the age-old apprenticeship system of training1 where the master workman with a few apprentices in his shop prepared goods for sale4 ,they also meant the ultimate transformation of ,england from an agricultural into a great manufacturing and exporting nation1 whose manufactured products would be sold in every corner of the globe4 ,by #agej a change in attitude toward all the old intellectual problems had become marked in ,england1 and by #agge attention before unknown was being given there to social1 political1 economic1 and educational questions4 ,religious intolerance was dying out1 the harsh laws of earlier days had begun to be modified1 new social and political interests #cj were everywhere attracting attention1 and the great commercial expansion of ,england was rapidly taking shape4 ,with ,england and ,france leading in the new scientific studies2 ,england in the van in the development of manufacturing and the ,french to the fore in social influences and polite literature2 ,england and the new ,american ,colonies setting new standards in government by the people2 the ,french theorists and economists giving the world new ideas as to the function of the ,state2 enlightened despots on the thrones of ,prussia1 ,austria1 ,spain1 and ,russia2 and the hatreds of the hundred years of religious warfare dying out2 the world seemed to many1 about #agge1 as on the verge of some great and far-reaching change in methods of living and in government1 and about ready to enter a new era and make rapid advances in nearly all lines of human activity4 ,the change came1 but not in quite the manner expected4 ,,iv4 ,,institution ,,of ,,constitutional ,,government ,,and ,,religious ,,freedom ,,in ,,america ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,,nationality ,,of ,,the ,,white ,,population1 ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,family ,,names ,,in ,,the ,,census ,,of #agij4 ,,englishmen ,,in ,,america ,,establish ,a ,,republic4 ,though the early settlement of ,america1 as was pointed out in chapter xv1 was made from among those people and from those lands which had embraced some form of the ,protestant faith1 and represented a number of nationalities and several religious sects1 the thirteen colonies1 nevertheless1 were essentially ,english in origin1 speech1 habits1 observances1 and political and religious conceptions4 ,this is well shown for the white population by the results of the first ,federal census1 taken in #agij1 as given in the adjoining figure4 ,this shows that of all the people in the thirteen original ,states1 #hc4e per cent possessed names indicating pure ,english origin1 and that #ia4h per cent had names which pointed to their having come from the ,british ,isles4 ,the largest non-,british name nationality was the ,german1 with #e4f per cent of the whole1 and these were found chiefly in ,pennsylvania where they constituted #bf4a per cent of the ,state's population4 ,next were those having ,dutch names1 who constituted but #b per cent of the total population1 and but #af4a per cent of the population of ,new ,york4 ,no other name-nationality constituted over one half of one per cent of the total4 ,the ,new ,england ,states were almost as ,english as ,england itself1 #ic to #if per cent of the names being pure ,english1 and #ih4e to #ii4h per cent being from the ,british ,isles4 ,we thus see that it was from ,england1 the nation which had done most in the development of individual and religious liberty1 that the great bulk of the early settlers of ,america came1 and in the ,new ,world the ,english traditions as to constitutional government and liberty under law were early and firmly established4 ,the centuries of struggle for representative government in ,england at once bore fruit here4 ,colony charters1 charters of rights and liberties1 public discussion1 legislative assemblies1 and liberty under law were from the first made the foundation stones upon which self-government in ,america was built up4 ,from an early date the ,american ,colonies showed an independence to which even ,englishmen were scarcely accustomed1 and when the home government attempted to make the colonists pay some of the expenses of the ,seven ,years' ,war1 and a larger share of the expenses of colonial administration1 there was determined opposition4 ,having no representation in ,parliament and no voice in levying the tax1 the colonists declared that taxation without representation was tyranny1 and refused to pay the taxes assessed4 ,standing squarely on their rights as ,englishmen1 the colonists were gradually forced into open rebellion4 ,in #agfe1 and again in #aggd1 ,declarations of ,rights were drawn up and adopted by representatives from the ,colonies1 and were forwarded to the ,king4 ,in #aggd the first ,continental ,congress met and formed a union of the ,colonies2 in #aggf the ,colonies declared their independence4 ,this was confirmed1 in #aghc1 by the ,treaty of ,paris2 in #aghg1 the ,constitution of the ,united ,states was drafted2 and in #aghi1 the ,american government began4 ,in the preamble to the twenty-seven charges of tyranny and oppression made against the ,king in the ,declaration of ,independence1 we find a statement of political philosophy #ca which is a combination of the results of the long ,english struggle for liberty and the ,french eighteenth-century reform philosophy and revolutionary demands4 #cb ,this preamble declared3 ,we hold these truths to be self-evident--that all men are created equal2 that they are endowed by their ,creator with certain unalienable rights2 that among these are life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness4 ,that1 to secure these rights1 governments are instituted among men1 deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed2 that1 whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends1 it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it1 and to institute a new government1 laying its foundation on such principles1 and organizing its powers in such form1 as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness4 ,,american ,,contributions ,,to ,,world ,,history4 ,the ,american ,revolution and its results were fraught with great importance for the future political and educational progress of mankind4 ,before the close of the eighteenth century the new ,american government had made at least four important contributions to world liberty and progress which were certain to be of large political and educational value for the future4 ,in the first place1 the people of the ,colonies had erected independent governments and had shown the possibility of the self-government of peoples on a large scale1 and not merely in little city-states or communities1 as had previously been the case where self-government had been tried4 ,democratic government was here worked out and applied to large areas1 and to peoples of diverse nationalities and embracing different religious faiths4 ,the possibility of ,states selecting their rulers and successfully governing themselves was demonstrated4 ,in the second place1 the new ,american government which was formed did something new in world history when it united thirteen independent and autonomous ,states into a single federated ,nation1 and without destroying the independence of the ,states4 ,what was formed was not a league1 or confederacy1 as had existed at different times among differing groups of the ,greek ,city-,states1 and from time to time in the case of later ,swiss and temporary ,european national groupings1 but the union into a substantial and permanent ,federal ,state of a number of separate ,states which still retained their independence1 and with provision for the expansion of this national ,union by the addition of new ,states4 ,this federal principle in government is probably the greatest political contribution of the ,american ,union to world development4 ,in the twentieth- century conception of a ,league of ,nations it has borne still further fruit4 ,in the third place1 the different ,american ,states changed their old ,colonial ,charters into definite written ,constitutions1 each of which contained a ,preamble or ,bill of ,rights which affirmed the fundamental principles of democratic liberty 7,r4 #bea74 ,these now became the fundamental law for each of the separate ,states1 and the same idea was later worked out in the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,these were the first written constitutions of history1 and have since served as a type for the creation of constitutional government throughout the world4 ,in such documents to-day free peoples everywhere define the rights and duties and obligations which they regard as necessary to their safety and happiness and welfare4 ,finally1 the ,federal ,constitution provided for the inestimable boon of religious liberty1 and in a way that was both revolutionary and wholesome4 ,at the beginning of the ,war for ,independence the ,anglican 7,episcopal7 faith had been declared the established religion in seven of the ,colonies1 and the ,congregational was the established religion in three of the ,new ,england ,colonies1 while but three ,colonies had declared for religious freedom and refused to give a preference to any special creed4 ,this religious problem had to be met by the ,constitutional ,convention1 and this body handled it in the only way it could have been intelligently handled in a nation composed of so many different religious sects as was ours4 ,it simply incorporated into the ,federal ,constitution provisions which guaranteed the free exercise of their religious faith to all1 and forbade the establishment by ,congress of any state religion1 or the requirement of any religious test as a prerequisite to holding any office under the control of the ,federal ,government4 ,the ,american people thus took a stand for religious liberty at a time when the hatreds of the ,reformation still burned fiercely1 and when tolerance in religious matters was as yet but little known4 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,religious-,,liberty ,,contribution4 ,the solution of the religious question arrived at was only second in importance for us to the establishment of the ,federal ,union1 and the far-reaching significance to our future national life of the sane and for-the-time extraordinary provisions incorporated into our ,national ,constitution can hardly be overestimated4 ,this action led to the early abandonment of state religions1 religious tests1 and public taxation for religion in the old ,states1 and to the prohibition of these in the new4 ,the importance of this solution of the religious question for the future of popular education in the ,united ,states was great1 for it laid the foundations upon which our systems of free1 common1 public1 tax-supported1 non-sectarian schools have since been built up4 ,how we could have erected a common public-school system on a religious basis1 with the many religious sects among us1 it is impossible to conceive4 ,instead1 we should have had a series of feeble1 jealous1 antagonistic1 and utterly inefficient church-school systems1 chiefly confined to elementary education1 and each largely intent on teaching its peculiar church doctrines and struggling for an increasing share of public funds4 ,how much the ,american people owe to the ,fathers of the ,republic for this most enlightened and intelligent provision1 few who have not thought carefully on the matter can appreciate4 ,to it we must trace not only the great blessing of religious liberty1 which we have so long enjoyed1 but also the final establishment of our common1 free1 public-school systems4 ,the beginning of the new state motive for education1 which was soon to supersede the religious motive1 dates from the establishment with us of republican governments2 and the beginning of the emancipation of education from church domination goes back to this wise provision inserted in our ,national ,constitution4 ,this national attitude was later copied in the state constitutions1 and as a preamble to practically all we find a ,bill of ,rights1 which in almost every case included a provision for freedom of religious worship 7,rs4 #bea1 #bfj74 ,after the middle of the nineteenth century a further provision prohibiting sectarian teaching or state aid to sectarian schools was everywhere added4 ,v4 ,,the ,,french ,,revolution ,,sweeps ,,away ,,ancient ,,abuses ,,new ,,demands ,,for ,,reform ,,that ,,could ,,not ,,be ,,resisted4 ,more than in any other continental ,european country ,france had1 by #aghc1 become a united nation1 conscious of a modern national feeling4 ,yet in ,france mediaeval abuses in both ,state and ,church had survived1 as we have seen1 to as great an extent almost as in any ,european nation4 ,so determined were the clergy and nobility to retain their old powers1 not only in ,france but throughout the continent of ,europe as well1 that progressive reform seemed well-nigh impossible4 ,the work of the benevolent despots had1 after all1 been superficial4 ,by the last quarter of the eighteenth1 though1 a progressive change was under way which was certain to produce either evolution or revolution4 ,the influence of the ,american experiment in nation-building now became pronounced4 ,in #aggi ,franklin took a copy of the new ,pennsylvania ,constitution with him to ,paris1 and in #aghj ,john ,adams did the same with the ,massachusetts ,constitution4 ,frenchmen instantly recognized here1 in concrete form1 the ideas with which their own heads were filled4 ,in #aghc ,franklin published in ,france a ,french translation of all the ,american ,constitutions1 and the ,national ,constitution of #aghg was as eagerly read and discussed in ,paris as in ,new ,york or ,philadelphia or ,boston4 ,america appeared to the ,french of that stormy period as an ideal land2 where the dreams of ,rousseau about the social contract had been transformed into realities4 ,two years later the cahiers of the ,third ,estate demanded a written constitution for ,france4 ,the ,french1 too1 had aided the ,american ,colonies in their struggle for liberty1 and ,french soldiers returning home carried back new political ideas drawn from the remarkable political progress of the new ,american ,nation4 ,by #aghh the demand for reform in ,france had become so insistent1 and the condition of the treasury of the ,state was so bad1 that it was finally felt necessary to summon a meeting of the ,states-,general--a sort of national parliament consisting of representatives of the three great ,estates3 clergy1 nobility1 and commons--which had not met in ,france since #afad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,,the ,,states-,,general ,,in ,,session ,,at ,,versailles 7,after a contemporary drawing by ,monnet7 ,besides electing its representatives1 each locality and order was allowed to draw up a series of instructions1 or cahiers 7,r4 #beb71 for the guidance of its delegates4 ,these cahiers are a mine of information as to the demands and hopes and interests of the ,french people1 #cc and it is interesting to know that the cahiers of nobility1 clergy1 and commons alike included1 among their demands1 the organization of a comprehensive plan of education for ,france4 #cd ,,france ,,establishes ,,constitutional ,,government4 ,the ,states-,general met ,may #e1 #aghi1 and soon 7,june #bj7 resolved itself into the ,national or ,constituent ,assembly4 ,terrified by the uprisings and burnings of chteaux throughout ,france1 on the night of ,august fourth1 in a few hours1 it adopted a series of decrees which virtually abolished the ,ancien ,rgime of privileges for ,france4 ,the nobility gave up most of their old rights1 the serfs #ce were freed1 and the special privileges of towns were surrendered4 ,later the ,assembly adopted a ,declaration of ,rights of ,man and of the ,citizen 7,r4 #bec71 much like the ,american ,declaration of ,independence4 ,this declared1 among other things1 that all men were born free and have equal rights1 that taxes should be proportional to wealth1 that all citizens were equal before the law and have a right to help make the laws1 and that the people of the nation were sovereign4 ,these principles struck at the very foundations of the old system4 ,soon a ,constitution for ,france1 the first ever promulgated in modern ,europe1 was prepared and adopted 7#agia74 ,this abolished the ancient privileges and reorganized ,france as a self-governing nation1 much after the ,american plan4 ,local government was created1 and the absolute monarchy was changed to a limited constitutional one4 ,next the property of the ,church was taken over by the ,state1 the monasteries were suppressed1 and the priests and bishops were made state officials and paid a fixed state salary4 ,the ,jesuits had been expelled from ,france in #agfd2 and in #agib the ,brothers of the ,christian ,schools were not allowed longer to teach4 ,among other important matters1 the ,constitution of #agia declared that3 ,there shall be created and organized a system of public instruction common to all citizens1 and gratuitous1 with respect to those branches of instruction which are indispensable for all men4 ,up to this point the ,revolution in ,france had proceeded relatively peacefully1 considering the nature of the long-standing abuses which were to be remedied4 ,in ,august1 #agib1 the ,king was imprisoned1 and in ,january1 #agic1 he was executed and a ,republic proclaimed4 #cf ,then followed a reign of terror1 which we do not need to follow1 and which ended only when ,napoleon became master of ,france4 ,,beneficent ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4 ,the ,french ,revolution was not an accident or a product of chance1 but rather the inevitable result of an attempt to dam up the stream of human progress and prevent its orderly onward flow4 ,the ,protestant ,revolts were the first great revolutionary wave1 the ,puritan revolution in ,england was another1 the formation of the ,american ,republic and the institution of constitutional government and religious freedom another1 while the ,french ,revolution brought the rising movement to a head and swept away1 in a deluge of blood1 the very foundations of the mediaeval system4 ,along with much that was disastrous1 the ,french ,revolution accomplished after all much that was of greatest importance for human progress4 ,the world at times seems to be in need of such a great catharsis4 ,progress was made in a decade that could hardly have been made in a century by peaceful evolution4 ,the old order of privilege came to an end1 mediaevalism was swept away1 and the serf was evolved into the free farmer and citizen4 ,one fifth of the soil of ,france was restored to the use of the people from the monasteries1 and an additional one third from the ,church and nobility4 ,the new principles of citizenship--,liberty1 ,equality1 and ,fraternity--were for ,france revolutionary in the extreme1 while the assertion that the sovereignty of a nation rests with the people rather than with the king1 here successfully promulgated1 ended for all time the divine-right-of-kings idea for ,france4 ,after political theory had for a time run mad1 the organizing genius of ,napoleon consolidated the gains1 gave ,france a strong government1 a uniform code of laws1 #cg and began that organization of schools for the nation which ultimately meant the taking over of education from the ,church and its provision at the expense of and in the interests of the nation4 ,,the ,,national ,,idea ,,extends ,,to ,,other ,,lands4 ,the reform work in ,france1 together with the examples of ,english and ,american liberty1 soon began to have their influence in other lands as well4 ,people everywhere began to see that the old rgime of privilege and misgovernment ought to be replaced4 ,other countries abolished serfdom1 introduced better laws1 and made reforms in the abuses of both ,church and ,state4 ,french armies and rulers carried the best of ,french ideas to other lands1 and1 where the ,french rule continued long enough1 these ideas became fixed4 ,in particular was the ,code ,napolon copied in the ,netherlands1 the ,italian ,states1 and the ,states of southern and western ,germany4 ,the national spirit of ,italy was awakened1 and the ,italian liberals began to look forward to the day when the small ,italian ,states might be reunited into an ,italian ,nation1 with ,rome as its capital4 ,this became the work of nineteenth-century ,italian statesmen4 ,for the first time in ,spanish history1 too1 the people became conscious1 under ,french occupation1 of a feeling of national unity1 and similarly the national spirit of ,german lands was stirred by the conquests of ,napoleon4 ,a constitution was obtained in ,spain1 in #ahab1 and between #ahae and #ahba all of ,spain's ,south ,american colonies--,argentina1 ,bolivia1 ,chile1 ,colombia1 ,ecuador1 ,panama1 ,paraguay1 ,uruguay1 and ,venezuela--revolted1 became independent1 and set up republics with constitutional governments1 some of the larger ones based on the federal principle1 as in the ,united ,states4 ,brazil similarly freed itself from ,portugal and set up a constitutional and federated monarchy1 in #ahbb4 ,the ,kingdom of ,naples obtained constitutional government in #ahbj1 and ,sardinia in #ahba4 ,in #ahbc1 when ,spain with ,austria's aid prepared to reconquer the ,spanish ,south ,american ,republics1 ,president ,monroe transmitted to the ,american ,congress his message in which he declared that any attempt on the part of ,european nations to suppress republicanism on the ,american continent would be considered by the ,united ,states as an unfriendly act4 ,this has since been known as the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,in #ahbi ,greece obtained her independence from ,turkey1 and in #ahdc a constitutional form of government was obtained4 ,,important ,,consequences ,,of ,,the ,,democratic ,,movement4 ,since the closing decades of the eighteenth century1 when democratic government and written constitutions began1 the sweep of democratic government has become almost world wide4 ,nation after nation has changed to democratic and constitutional forms of government1 the latest additions being ,portugal 7#aiaa71 ,china 7#aiab71 ,russia 7#aiag71 and ,germany 7#aiah74 ,new ,english colonies1 too1 have carried ,english self-government into almost every continent4 ,the ,world ,war of #aiad-ah gave a new emphasis to democracy1 and there is good reason to believe that government of and by and for the people is ultimately destined to prevail among all the intelligent nations and races of the earth4 ,with the development of democratic government there has everywhere been a softening of old laws1 the growth of humanitarianism1 the wider and wider extension of the suffrage1 important legislation as to labor1 a previously unknown attention to the poor and the dependents of society1 a vast extension of educational advantages1 and the taking over of education from the ,church by the ,state and the erection of the school into an important institution for the preservation and advancement of the national welfare4 ,these consequences of the onward sweep of new-world ideas we shall trace more in detail in the chapters which follow4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,show the importance1 for human progress1 of each of the meanings of the new eighteenth-century liberalism1 as enumerated on pages #dga-gb4 #b4 ,how do you explain the lack of any permanent influence on ,spanish life of the work of the benevolent despots in ,spain8 #c4 ,show the liberalizing influence of the rise of scientific investigation and economic studies1 for a nation still oppressed by mediaevalism and bad government4 #d4 ,enumerate the new sciences which arose in the eighteenth century4 #e4 ,indicate the importance of the freedom of the press in the development of ,english political liberty4 #f4 ,explain how the religious-freedom attitude of the ,american national constitution conferred an inestimable boon on the ,states in the matter of public education4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following illustrative selections are reproduced3 #bdg4 ,dabney3 ,ecclesiastical ,tyranny in ,france4 #bdh4 ,voltaire3 ,on the ,relation of ,church and ,state4 #bdi4 ,rousseau3 ,extract from the ,social ,contract4 #bej4 ,buckle3 ,changes in ,english ,thinking in the ,eighteenth ,century1 #bea4 ,pennsylvania ,constitution3 ,bill of ,rights in4 #beb4 ,clergy of ,blois3 ,cahier of #aggi4 #bec4 ,france3 ,declaration of the ,rights of ,man4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,explain why ecclesiastical tyranny should have awakened such a spirit of rebellion in ,france 7#bdg71 and not in ,spain or in ,italian lands4 #b4 ,just what attitude toward religion is shown in the extract from ,voltaire 7#bdh78 #c4 ,bolshevists in ,russia and in ,america talk to-day as did ,rousseau in the ,social ,contract 7#bdi74 ,compare the justification of each with the eighteenth-century ,france of ,rousseau4 #d4 ,what do all the changes enumerated by ,buckle 7#bej7 indicate as to the spread of general education1 irrespective of schools1 among the ,english people8 #e4 ,compare the ,pennsylvania ,bill of ,rights of #aggf 7#bea7 with that of your own present-day state constitution1 #f4 ,just what type of educational provisions1 and what administrative organization1 did the recommendations of the ,clergy of ,blois 7#beb7 contemplate8 ,indicate its shortcomings for eighteenth-century ,france4 #g4 ,compare the main ideas of #bea and #bec4 ,,supplementary ,,references ,dabney1 ,r4 ,h4 ,the ,causes of the ,french ,revolution4 ,taine1 ,h4 ,a4 ,the ,ancient ,regime4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,national ,,education ,i4 ,,new ,,conceptions ,,of ,,the ,,educational ,,purpose ,,the ,,state ,,as ,,servant ,,of ,,the ,,church4 ,with the rise of the ,protestant sects we noted1 in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 and for the first time since ,christianity became supreme in the western world1 the beginnings of a state connection with the education of the young4 ,the ,protestant reformers1 obtaining the support of the ,protestant princes and kings1 had successfully used this support to assist them in the organization of church schools as an aid to the reformed faith4 ,luther1 it will be recalled 7p4 #cab71 had made a strong appeal to the mayors and magistrates of all ,german lands to establish schools as a part of their civic duties 7,r4 #aef71 and had contended that a solemn obligation rested upon them to do so4 ,the ,dutch ,provinces had worked closely with the ,dutch ,protestant synods 7p4 #ccd7 in ordering schools established and in providing for their financing2 ,calvin had organized a religious ,city-,state at ,geneva 7p4 #ccj71 of which religion and learning had been the corner-stones2 the ,scottish ,parliament1 by the laws of #afcc and #afdf 7p4 #cce71 had ordered schools for ,scottish children in connection with the churches2 and in the ,scandinavian countries and in ,finland the beginnings of a connection with the ,state had also been made 7p4 #cae74 ,finally1 in the new ,massachusetts ,colony the laws of #afdb and #afdg 7p4 #cff7 had1 for the first time in the ,english-speaking world1 ordered that children be taught to read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of the country 7p4 #cfd71 and that schools be established by the towns1 under penalty if they refused to do so4 ,in all ,protestant lands we saw that the reformers appealed1 from time to time1 to what were then the servants of the churches--the rising civil governments and principalities and ,states--to use their civil authority to force the people to meet their new religious obligations in the matter of schooling4 ,the purpose of the schooling ordered established1 however1 was almost wholly religious4 ,massachusetts1 in ordering instruction in the capital laws of the country1 as well as reading and religion1 had formed a marked exception4 ,in nearly all lands the rising state governments merely helped the ,protestant churches to create the elementary vernacular religious school1 and to make of it an auxiliary for the protection of orthodoxy and the advancement of the faith4 ,even in the new state school systems of the ,german ,states--,saxony1 ,wrtemberg 7p4 #cag71 ,brunswick1 ,weimar1 ,gotha--the elementary schools established were for religious rather than for state ends4 ,this condition continued until well toward the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,,the ,,new ,,state ,,theory ,,of ,,education4 ,after about the middle of the eighteenth century a new theory as to the purpose of education1 and one destined to make rapid headway1 began to be advanced4 ,this theory had already made marked progress1 as we shall see1 in the ,new ,england ,colonies1 and had also found expression1 as we shall also see in a later chapter1 in the organizing work of ,frederick the ,great in ,prussia4 ,it was from the ,french political philosophers of the eighteenth century1 though1 that its clearest definition came4 ,they now advanced the idea that schools were essentially civil affairs1 the purpose of which should be to promote the everyday interests of society and the welfare of the ,state1 rather than the welfare of the ,church1 and to prepare for a life here rather than a life hereafter4 ,after about #agej a critical and reformatory pedagogy rapidly began to take shape in ,france1 and the second half of the eighteenth century became a period of criticism and discontent and reconstruction in education1 as well as in politics and religion4 ,this criticism and discontent in ,france was greatly stimulated by the decline in character and influence of the ,jesuit schools4 ,unwilling to change their instruction to meet the needs of a changing society1 their schools had become formal in character 7,r4 #adf71 and were now engaged chiefly in stilling thinking rather than in promoting it4 ,in consequence the schools had fallen into disrepute throughout all ,france4 ,the ,society1 too1 in the eighteenth century1 came to be a powerful political organization which strove to dominate the ,state4 ,so bad had the situation become by #agfb1 that the different parliaments in the provinces and in ,paris had formulated complaints against the ,jesuits and their schools1 #a and1 in #agfd1 the king was induced to suppress the ,order4 #b ,this decline in influence and final suppression of the ,society gave rise to some rather remarkable pedagogical literature1 which looked to the creation of a system of state secondary schools in ,france to replace those of the ,jesuits4 ,the outcome was the rise of a new national and individual conception of the educational purpose4 ,this was destined in time to spread to other lands and to lead to the rise of complete state school systems1 financed and managed by the ,state and conducted for state ends1 and to the ultimate divorce of ,church and ,state1 in all progressive lands1 in the matter of the education of the young4 ,teachers trained and certificated by the ,state were in time to supplant the nuns and brothers of the religious congregations in ,catholic lands1 as well as teachers who served as assistants to the pastors in ,protestant lands and whose chief purpose was to uphold the teachings and advance the interests of the sect2 citizens were to supplant the ecclesiastic in the supervision of instruction2 and the courses of instruction were to be changed in direction and vastly broadened in scope to make them minister to the needs of the ,state rather than the ,church1 and to prepare pupils for useful life here rather than for life in another world4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,new ,,state ,,theory ,,in ,,france ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 ,,rousseau 7#agab-gh7 ,,the ,,french ,,political ,,theorists4 ,the leading ,french political theorists of the two decades between #agfj and #aghj now began to discuss education as in theory a civil affair1 intimately connected with the promotion of the welfare of the ,state4 ,the more important of these1 and their chief ideas were3 #a4 ,rousseau4 ,the first of the critical and reformatory pedagogical writers to awaken any large interest and obtain a general hearing was ,jean-,jacques ,rousseau4 ,the same year 7#agfb7 that his ,social ,contract appeared and attacked the foundations of the old political system 7p4 #dhc71 his mile also appeared and attacked with equal vigor the religious and social theory as to education then prevailing throughout western ,europe4 ,for the stiff and unnatural methods in education1 under which children were dressed and made to behave as adults1 #c the harsh discipline of the time1 and the excessive emphasis on religious instruction and book education1 he preached the substitution of life amid nature1 childish ways and sports1 parental love1 and an education that considered the instincts and natural development of children4 ,gathering up the political and social ideas of his age as to ecclesiastical and political despotism2 the nature of the social contract2 that the state of nature was the ideal one1 and the one in which men had been intended to live2 that human duty called for a return to the state of nature1 whatever that might be2 and that the artificiality and hypocrisy of his age in manners1 dress1 religion1 and education were all wrong--,rousseau restated his political philosophy in terms of the education of the boy1 mile4 ,despite its many exaggerations1 much faulty reasoning1 and many imperfections1 the book had a tremendous influence upon ,europe in laying bare the limitations and defects and abuses of the formal and ecclesiastical education of the time4 #d ,he may be regarded as the first important writer to sap the foundations of the old system of religious education1 and to lay a basis for a new type of child training 7,r4 #bed74 ,though ,rousseau's enthusiasm took the form of theory run mad1 and the educational plan he proposed was largely impossible1 he nevertheless popularized education1 not only in ,france1 but among the reading public of the progressive ,european ,states as well4 ,after he had written1 the old limited and narrow religious education was on the defensive1 and1 though time was required1 the transition to a more secular type of education was inevitable as fast as nations and peoples could shake off the dominance of the ,church in state affairs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee ,,la ,,chalotais 7#agja-hc7 #b4 ,la ,chalotais4 ,the year following the publication of ,rousseau's mile appeared ,la ,chalotais's ,essai d'ducation nationale 7#agfc74 ,ren de la ,chalotais1 a ,solicitor-,general for the ,parliament of ,bretagne1 was one of the notable ,french parliamentarians of the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,unlike ,rousseau's highly imaginary1 exaggerated1 sentimental1 and paradoxical volume1 ,la ,chalotais produced a practical and philosophical discussion of the problem of the education of a people4 ,declaring firmly that education was essentially a civil affair2 that it was the function of government to make citizens contented by educating them for their sphere in society2 that citizen and secular teachers should not be excluded for celibates2 #e that the real purpose of education should be to prepare citizens for ,france2 that the poor were deserving of education2 and that the most enlightened people will always have the advantage in the struggles of a modern world1 ,la ,chalotais produced a work which was warmly approved by such political philosophers as ,voltaire1 ,diderot1 and ,turgot1 and which was translated into several ,european languages 7,r4 #bee74 ,though far less widely read than ,rousseau's mile1 it was far more influential in shaping subsequent political theory and action regarding the relations of education to the ,state4 ,nearly every proposal for educational legislation during the days of the ,revolution went back in idea to this philosophic discussion of the question by ,la ,chalotais and to the practical proposals of ,rolland and ,turgot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,,rolland 7#agcd-ic7 #c4 ,rolland4 ,in #agfh ,rolland1 president of the ,parliament of ,paris1 presented to his colleagues a report in which he outlined a national system of education to replace both the schools of the ,jesuits and those of the ,brothers of the ,christian ,schools4 ,la ,chalotais had proposed a more modern system of state schools chiefly to replace those of the ,jesuits1 but ,rolland went further and proposed the extension of education to all1 and the supervision of all schools by a central council of the ,government4 ,by means of a centralized control1 a central university to which the other universities of ,france were to be subordinate1 a higher normal school to train teachers for the colleges 7secondary schools71 and universal education1 #f ,rolland hoped to develop for ,france a national spirit1 a national character1 and a national government and code of laws1 and to bring the youth of the provinces into harmony with the best of all ,french ideas4 #d4 ,turgot4 ,in #aggd ,turgot was appointed ,minister of ,finance 7p4 #dha71 and in #agge he made a series of recommendations to the ,king in which he set forth ideas analogous to those of ,rolland1 and presented an eloquent plea for the formation of a national council of public instruction and the establishment of a system of civil and national education for the whole of ,france4 ,in closing he wrote3 ,your kingdom1 ,sir1 is of this world4 ,without opposing any obstacle to the instructions whose object is higher1 and which already have their rules and their expounders1 ,i think ,i can propose to you nothing of more advantage to your people than to cause to be given to all your subjects an instruction which shows them the obligations they owe to society and to your power to protect them1 and the interest they have in fulfilling those duties for the public good and their own4 ,this moral and social instruction requires books expressly prepared1 by competition1 and with great care1 and a schoolmaster in each parish to teach them to children1 along with the art of writing1 reading1 counting1 measuring1 and the principles of mechanics4 ,the study of the duty of citizenship ought to be the foundation of all the other studies4444 ,there are methods and establishments for training geometricians1 physicists1 and painters1 but there are none for training citizens4 #e4 ,diderot4 ,in #aggf ,diderot1 editor with ,d',alembert of the ,encyclopaedia 7#agea-gb71 prepared1 at the request of ,catherine ,,ii 7p4 #dgg71 under the title of ,plan of a ,university1 a complete scheme for the organization of a state system of public instruction for ,russia4 ,though the plan was never carried out1 it was printed and much discussed in ,france1 and is important as coming from one of the most influential ,frenchmen of his time4 ,he commends as an example to be followed the work of the ,german ,states in the organization of popular instruction4 ,for ,russia he outlines first a system of people's schools1 which shall be free and obligatory for all1 and in which instruction in reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 morals1 civics1 and religion shall be taught4 ,from the ,prime ,minister to the lowest peasant1 he says1 it is good for every one to know how to read1 write1 and count4 ,for the series of secondary schools to be established1 he condemns the usual practice of devoting so much of the instruction to the humanities and a mediaeval type of logic and ethics1 and urges instead the introduction of instruction in mathematics1 in the modern sciences1 literature1 and the work of governments4 ,classical studies he would confine to the last years of the course4 ,science1 history1 drawing1 and music find a place in his scheme4 ,all this instruction ,diderot would place under the supervisory control of an administrative bureau to be known as the ,university of ,russia1 at the head of which should be a statesman1 who should exercise control of all the work of public instruction beneath4 ,though never carried out in ,russia1 the ,university of ,france of #ahjh is largely an embodiment of the ideas he proposed in #aggf4 ,,legislative ,,proposals ,,to ,,embody ,,these ,,ideas4 ,during the quarter of a century between the publication of ,rousseau's mile and the summoning of the ,states-,general to reform ,france 7#agfb-hh71 the educational as well as the political ideas of the ,french reformers had taken deep root with the thinking classes of the nation4 ,the cahiers of #aghi1 of all ,orders 7p4 #ejj71 gave evidence of this in their somewhat general demand for the creation of some form of an educational system for ,france 7,r4 #beb74 ,from the first days of the ,revolution pedagogical literature became plentiful1 and the successive ,national ,assemblies found time1 amid the internal reorganization of ,france1 constitution-making1 the troubles with and trial of the ,king1 and the darkening cloud of foreign intervention1 to listen to reports and addresses on education and to enact a bill for the organization of a national school system4 ,the more important of these educational efforts were3 #a4 ,the ,constituent ,assembly 7,june #ag1 #aghi1 to ,september #cj1 #agia74 ,in the ,constituent ,assembly1 into which the ,states-,general resolved itself1 ,june #ag1 #aghi1 and which continued until after it had framed the constitution of #agia1 two notable addresses and one notable report on the organization of education were made4 ,the ,count de ,mirabeau1 a nobleman turned against his class and elected to the ,states-,general as a representative of the ,third ,estate1 made addresses on the ,organization of a ,teaching ,body and on the ,organization of a ,national ,lyce4 ,in the first he advocated the establishment of primary schools throughout ,france4 ,in the second he proposed the establishment of colleges of literature in each department1 with a ,national ,lyce at ,paris for higher 7university7 education1 and to contain the essentials of a national normal school or teachers' college as well4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg ,,count ,,de ,,mirabeau 7#agdi-ia7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4 ,,talleyrand 7#ageh-ahch7 ,mirabeau's proposals represent rather a transition in thinking from the old to the new1 but the ,report of ,talleyrand 7#agia71 former ,bishop of ,autun1 now turned revolutionist1 embodies the full culmination of revolutionary educational thought4 ,public instruction he termed a power which embraces everything1 from the games of infancy to the most imposing ftes of the ,nation4 ,he definitely proposed the organization of a complete state system of public instruction for ,france1 to consist of a primary school in every canton 7community1 district71 open to the children of peasants and workmen--classes heretofore unprovided with education2 a secondary school in every department 7county72 a series of special schools in the chief ,french cities1 to prepare for the professions2 and a ,national ,institute1 or ,university1 to be located at ,paris4 ,inspired by ,montesquieu's principle that the laws of education ought to be relative to the principles of government1 ,talleyrand proposed a bill designed to give effect to the provisions of the ,constitution of #agia relating to education 7p4 #eja71 and to provide an education for the people of ,france who were now to exercise1 through elected representatives1 the legislative power for ,france4 ,instruction he held to be the necessary counterpoise of liberty1 and every citizen was to be taught to know1 obey1 love1 and protect the new constitution4 ,political1 social1 and personal morality were to take the place of religion in the cantonal schools1 which were to be free and equally open to all4 ,as the ,constituent ,assembly was succeeded by the newly elected ,legislative ,assembly within three weeks after ,talleyrand submitted his ,report1 no action was taken on his bill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4 ,,condorcet 7#agdc-id7 #b4 ,the ,legislative ,assembly 7,october #a1 #agia1 to ,september #ba1 #agib74 ,this new legislative body was far more radical in character than its predecessor1 and far more radical than was the sentiment of ,france at the time4 ,among other acts it abolished 7#agib7 the old universities and confiscated 7#agic7 their property to the ,state4 ,to it was submitted 7,april #bj-ba1 #agib7 by the mathematician1 philosopher1 and revolutionist1 ,marquis de ,condorcet1 #g on behalf of the ,committee on ,public ,instruction and as a measure of reconstruction1 a ,report and draft of a ,law for the organization of a complete democratic system of public instruction for ,france 7,r4 #bef74 ,it provided for the organizing of a primary school for every four hundred inhabitants1 in which each individual was to be taught to direct his own conduct and to enjoy the plenitude of his own rights1 and where principles would be taught1 calculated to insure the perpetuation of liberty and equality4 ,the bill also provided1 for the first time1 for the organization of higher primary schools in the principal towns2 colleges 7secondary schools7 in the chief cities 7one for every four thousand inhabitants72 a higher school for each department2 ,lyces1 or institutions of still higher learning1 at nine places in ,france2 and a ,national ,society of ,sciences and ,arts to crown the educational system at ,paris4 ,the national system of education he proposed was to be equally open to women1 as well as men1 and to be gratuitous throughout4 ,teachers for each grade of school were to be prepared in the school next above4 ,sunday lectures for workingmen and peasants were to be given by teachers everywhere4 ,public morality1 political intelligence1 human progress1 and the preservation of liberty and equality were the aims of the instruction4 ,the necessity for education in a constitutional government he saw clearly4 ,a free constitution1 he writes1 which should not be correspondent to the universal instruction of citizens1 would come to destruction after a few conflicts1 and would degenerate into one of those forms of government which cannot preserve the peace among an ignorant and corrupt people4 ,anarchy or despotism he held to be the future for peoples who become free without being enlightened4 ,he held it to be a fundamental principle that3 ,the order of nature includes no distinctions in society beyond those of education and wealth4 ,to establish among citizens an equality in fact1 and to realize the equality confirmed by law1 ought to be the primary object of national instruction4 ,the bill proposed by ,condorcet1 while too ambitious for the ,france of his day1 was thoroughly sound as a democratic theory of education1 and an accurate prediction of what the nineteenth century brought generally into existence4 ,condorcet's ,report was discussed1 but not acted upon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 ,,the ,,institute ,,of ,,france ,founded by ,article #bih of the ,constitution of ,year ,,iii 7#agic7 #c4 ,the ,national ,convention 7,september #ba1 #agib1 to ,october #bf1 #agie74 ,the ,convention was also a radical body1 deeply interested in the creation of a system of state schools for the people of ,france4 ,to higher education there was for a time marked opposition1 though later in its history the ,convention erected a number of important higher technical institutions and schools1 among the most important of which was the ,institute of ,france4 ,there was also in the ,convention marked opposition to all forms of clerical control of schools4 ,the schools of the ,brothers of the ,christian ,schools were suppressed by it1 in #agib1 and all secular and endowed schools and colleges were abolished and their property confiscated1 in #agic4 ,the complete supremacy of the ,state in all educational matters was now asserted4 ,great enthusiasm was manifested for the organization of state primary schools1 which were ordered established in #agic 7,r4 #beh a71 and in these3 ,children of all classes were to receive that first education1 physical1 moral1 and intellectual1 the best adapted to develop in them republican manners1 patriotism1 and the love of labor1 and to render them worthy of liberty and equality4 ,the course of instruction was to include3 to speak1 read1 and write correctly the ,french language2 the geography of ,france2 the rights and duties of men and citizens2 #h the first notions of natural and familiar objects2 the use of numbers1 the compass1 the level1 the system of weights and measures1 the mechanical powers1 and the measurement of time4 ,they are to be taken into the fields and the workshops where they may see agricultural and mechanical operations going on1 and take part in the same so far as their age will allow4 ,what a change from the course of instruction in the religious schools just preceding this period6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4 ,,lakanal 7#agfb-ahde7 ,a multiplicity of reports1 bills1 and decrees1 often more or less contradictory but still embodying ideas advanced by ,condorcet and ,talleyrand1 now appeared4 ,whereas the preceding legislative bodies had considered the subject carefully1 but without taking action1 the ,convention now acted4 ,the nation1 though1 was so engrossed by the internal chaos and foreign aggression that there was neither time nor funds to carry the decrees into effect4 ,the most extreme proposal of the period was the bill of ,lepelletier le ,saint-,fargeau to create a national system of education modeled closely after that of ancient ,sparta4 ,the best of the proposals probably was the ,lakanal ,law1 of ,november #ag1 #agid1 which ordered a school for every one thousand inhabitants1 with special divisions for boys and girls1 and which provided for instruction in3 #a4 ,reading and writing the ,french language4 #b4 ,the ,declaration of the ,rights of ,man1 and the ,constitution4 #c4 ,lessons on republican morals4 #d4 ,the rules of simple calculation and surveying4 #e4 ,lessons in geography and the phenomena of nature4 #f4 ,lessons on heroic actions1 and songs of triumph4 ,lakanal also carefully prescribed the method of instruction1 and advocated the founding of a national normal school 7,latin norma2 a rule71 which idea the ,convention adopted in #agid1 the school opening #i in ,january1 #agie4 ,supplementing this was the law of ,february #be1 #agie1 ordering central or higher schools established to replace the former colleges1 #aj one for every three hundred thousand of the population1 which were to offer instruction from twelve to eighteen4 ,the course was to include3 #ab to #ad--;,drawing1 natural history1 ancient and living languages4 #ad to #af--,mathematics1 natural philosophy1 experimental chemistry4 #af to #ah--;,grammar1 literature1 history1 legislation4 ,organized on a soviet principle1 each professor declared the equal of every other1 and lacking any effective administration or discipline1 these institutions soon fell into disrepute and were displaced when ,napoleon reorganized secondary education in ,france4 ,the law of ,october #be1 #agie1 closed the work of the ,convention4 ,this made less important provisions for primary education 7,r4 #beh b7 than had preceding bills1 but was the only permanent contribution of this period to the organization of primary schools4 ,it placed greater emphasis than had the legislative ,assembly on the creation of secondary and higher institutions 7,r4 #beh a71 of more value to the bourgeois class4 ,this bill of #agie represents a reaction from the extreme republican ideas of a few years earlier1 and the triumph of the conservative middle-class elements in the nation over the radical republican elements previously in control4 ,the ,convention also1 in the latter part of its history1 created a number of higher technical institutions of importance1 which were expressive alike of the ,french interest in scientific subjects which arose during the latter part of the eighteenth century1 and of the new ,french military needs4 ,many of these institutions have persisted to the present1 so well have they answered the scientific interests and needs of the nation4 ,a mere list of the institutions created is all that need be given4 ,these were3 ,museum or ,conservatory of ,arts 7,jan4 #af1 #agid74 ,conservatory of ,arts and ,trades 7,oct4 #aj1 #agid74 ,new medical schools 7,schools of ,health7 ordered 7,dec4 #d1 #agid74 ,museum of ,natural ,history 7,dec4 #aa1 #agid74 ,central ,schools to succeed the former ,colleges 7secondary schools7 7,feb4 #be1 #agie74 ,school of ,living ,oriental ,languages 7,march #cj1 #agie74 ,veterinary ,schools 7,april #ba1 #agie74 ,course in ,archaeology1 ,national ,library 7,june #h1 #agie74 ,bureau of ,longitude 7,june #bi1 #agie74 ,conservatory of ,music 7,aug4 #c1 #agie74 ,the ,national ,library 7,oct4 #ag1 #agie74 ,museum of ,archaeological ,monuments 7,oct4 #bj1 #agie74 ,polytechnic ,schools 7,r4 #beg72 ,school of ,civil ,engineering2 ,school of ,hydrographic ,engineers2 and ,school of ,mining 7,oct4 #bb1 #agie74 ,the ,convention also adopted the metric system of weights and measures2 enacted laws under which the peasants could acquire title to the lands they had tilled for so long2 and began the unification of the laws of the different parts of the country into a single set1 which later culminated in the ,code ,napolon4 #d4 ,the ,directory 7#agie-ii7 and the ,consulate 7#agii-ahjd74 ,the ,revolution had by this time largely spent itself1 the ,directory followed1 and in #agii ,napoleon became ,first ,consul and for the next sixteen years was master of ,france4 ,the ,law of #agie for primary schools 7,r4 #beh b7 was but feebly administered under the ,directory1 as foreign wars absorbed the energies and resources of the ,government4 ,napoleon's chief educational interest1 too1 was in opening up opportunities for talent to rise1 in encouraging scientific work and higher specialized institutions1 and in developing schools of a type that would support the kind of government he had imposed upon ,france4 ,the secondary and higher schools he established and promoted cost him money at a time when money was badly needed for national defense1 and primary education was accordingly neglected during the time he directed the destinies of the nation4 ,his educational organizations and work we shall refer to again in a later chapter4 ,the ,revolutionary enthusiasts had stated clearly their theory of republican education1 but had failed to establish a permanent state school system according to their plans4 ,this now became the work of the nineteenth century4 ,in the meantime1 in the new ,united ,states of ,america the same ideas were taking shape and finding expression1 and to the developments there we next turn4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,new ,,state ,,theory ,,in ,,america ,,waning ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,religious ,,interest4 ,as early as #afdg ,rhode ,island ,colony had enacted the first law providing for freedom of religious worship ever enacted by an ,english-speaking people1 and two years later ,maryland enacted a similar law4 ,though the ,maryland law was later repealed1 and a rigid ,church-of-,england rule established there1 these laws were indicative of the new spirit arising in the ,new ,world4 ,by the beginning of the eighteenth century a change in attitude toward the old problem of personal salvation had become evident4 ,frontier conditions2 the gradual rise of a civil as opposed to a religious form of town government2 the rising interests in trade and shipping2 the beginnings of the breakdown of the old aristocratic traditions and customs transplanted from ,europe2 the rising individualism in both ,europe and ,america--these all helped to weaken the hold on the people of the old religious doctrines4 ,by #agej the change in religious thinking in the ,american ,colonies had become quite marked4 #aa ,especially was this change evidenced in the dying-out of the old religious fervor and intolerance1 and the breaking-up of the old religious solidarity4 ,while most of the ,colonies continued to maintain an established ,church1 other sects had to be admitted to the ,colony and given freedom of worship4 ,the ,puritan monopoly in ,new ,england was broken1 as was also that of the ,anglican faith in the central ,colonies4 ,the day of the monopoly of any sect in a ,colony was over4 ,new secular interests began to take the place of religion as the chief topic of thought and conversation1 and secular books began to dispute the earlier predominance of the ,bible4 ,a few colonial newspapers had begun 7seven by #agej71 and these became expressive of the new colony interests4 ,,changing ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,schools4 ,these changes in attitude toward the old religious problems materially affected both the support and the character of the education provided in the ,colonies4 ,the ,law of #afdg1 requiring the maintenance of the ,latin grammar schools1 had been found to be increasingly difficult of enforcement1 not only in ,massachusetts1 but in all the other ,new ,england ,colonies which had followed the ,massachusetts example4 ,with the changing attitude of the people1 which had become clearly manifest by #agej1 the demand for relief from the maintenance of this school in favor of a more practical and less aristocratic type of higher school1 if higher school were needed at all1 became marked4 ,by the close of the colonial period the new ,american ,academy 7p4 #dfc71 with its more practical studies1 had begun to supersede the old ,latin grammar school4 ,the elementary school experienced something of the same difficulties4 ,many of the parochial schools died out1 while others declined in character and importance4 ,in ,church-of-,england ,colonies all elementary education was left to private initiative and philanthropic and religious effort 7p4 #cgc74 ,in the southern ,colonies the classes in society and the character of the plantation life made common schools impossible1 and the feeling of any need for elementary schools almost entirely died out4 ,in ,new ,england the eighteenth century was a continual struggle on the one hand to prevent the original religious town school from disappearing1 and on the other to establish in its place a series of scattered and inferior district schools1 while either church or town support and tuition fees became ever harder to obtain4 ,among other changes of importance the reading school and the writing school now became definitely united1 in all the smaller places and in the rural districts1 as a measure of economy1 to form the ,american school of the #c ,rs4 ,new textbooks1 too1 containing less of the gloomily religious than the ,new ,england ,primer1 and secular rather than religious in character 7p4 #ddc71 appeared after #agej and began to be used in the schools4 ,after #agej1 too1 it was increasingly evident that the old religious enthusiasm for schools had largely died out2 that ,european traditions and ways and types of schools no longer completely satisfied2 and that the period of the transplanting of ,european educational ideas and schools and types of instruction was coming to an end4 ,instead1 the evolution of a public or state school out of the original religious school1 and the beginnings of the evolution of distinctly ,american types of schools1 better adapted to ,american needs1 became increasingly evident in the ,colonies as the eighteenth century progressed4 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,civil ,,of ,,state ,,school4 ,as has been stated earlier1 the school everywhere in ,america arose as a child of the ,church4 ,in the ,middle ,colonies1 where the parochial-school conception of education was the prevailing type1 the school remained under church control until after the foundation of our national government4 ,in ,new ,england1 though--and the ,new ,england evolution in time became the prevailing ,american practice--the school passed through a very interesting development during colonial times4 ,as we have seen 7p4 #cfj71 each little ,new ,england town was originally established as a little religious republic1 with the ,church in complete control4 ,the governing authorities for church and civil affairs were much the same4 ,when acting as church officers they were known as ,elders and ,deacons2 when acting as civil or town officers they were known as ,selectmen4 ,the ,state1 as represented in the colony legislature or the town meeting1 was clearly the servant of the ,church1 and existed in large part for religious ends4 ,it was the ,state acting as the servant of the ,church which enacted the ,massachusetts laws of #afdb and #afdg 7,rs4 #aij1 #ail71 requiring the towns to maintain schools for religious ends4 ,now1 so close was the connection between the religious town1 which controlled church affairs1 and the civil town1 which looked after roads1 fences1 taxes1 and defense--the constituency of both being one and the same1 and the meetings of both being held at first in the meeting-house--that when the schools were established the colony legislature placed them under the civil--as involving taxes1 and being a public service--rather than under the religious town4 ,the interests of one were the interests of both1 and1 being the same in constituency and territorial boundaries1 there seemed no occasion for friction or fear4 ,from this religious beginning the civil school and the civil school-town and school-township1 with all their elaborate school administrative machinery1 were later evolved4 ,the erection of a town hall1 separate from the meeting-house1 was a first step in the process4 ,school affairs now were discussed at the town hall1 instead of in the church4 ,the town authorities now appointed committees to locate and build schoolhouses1 select and certificate the teachers1 and visit and examine the school4 ,next a regular town school committee was provided for4 ,to this was given the management of the town school1 and town taxes1 instead of church taxes1 were voted for buildings and maintenance4 ,the minister continued to certificate the grammar-school master until the close of the colonial period1 but the power to certificate the elementary-school teachers passed to the town authorities early in the eighteenth century4 ,by the close of the century all that the minister--as the only surviving representative of church control--had left to him was the right to accompany the town authorities in the visitation of schools4 ,thus gradually but certainly did the earlier religious school in ,america pass out from under the control of the ,church and come under the control of the ,state4 ,when our national government and the different state governments were established1 the ,states were ready to accept1 in principle at least1 the theory gradually worked out in ,new ,england that schools are state institutions1 and should be under the control of the ,state4 ,,the ,,early ,,state ,,constitutions ,,and ,,laws4 ,in framing the ,federal ,constitution1 in #aghg1 education1 then being regarded largely as a local matter1 was left to the ,states to handle as they saw fit2 so we turn to the early state constitutions and laws to see how far the new ,american ,states had1 by the close of the eighteenth century1 advanced toward the conception of education as an affair of the ,state4 ,during the period from the ,declaration of ,independence to the close of the eighteenth century 7#aggf-ahjj71 all the ,states1 except ,rhode ,island and ,connecticut1 which considered their colonial charters as satisfactory1 formulated and adopted new state constitutions4 ,three new ,states--,vermont1 ,kentucky1 and ,tennessee--were admitted to the ,union before #ahjj1 and these framed constitutions also4 ,of the sixteen ,states forming the ,union by #ahjj1 seven had incorporated into their constitutions a clause setting forth the ,state's duty in the matter of education 7,r4 #bei74 ,as in the earlier period of ,american education1 it was ,calvinistic ,new ,england which incorporated into the constitutions the best provisions regarding learning4 ,in the parochial-school central ,colonies the mention was much less emphatic1 while the old ,anglican-,church ,colonies and the new ,states of ,kentucky and ,tennessee remained silent on the subject4 ,massachusetts1 ,vermont1 and ,new ,hampshire1 in particular1 incorporated strong sections directing the encouragement of learning and virtue1 the protection and fostering of school societies1 and the establishment of schools4 ,the ,massachusetts provision1 afterwards copied by ,new ,hampshire1 is so explicit in the matter of state duty that it is worth quoting in full4 ,chap4 ,v1 ,sec4 #b4 ,wisdom and knowledge1 as well as virtue1 diffused generally among the body of the people1 being necessary for the preservation of their rights and liberties2 and as these depend on spreading the opportunities and advantages of education in the various parts of the country1 and among the different orders of the people1 it shall be the duty of the legislatures and magistrates1 in all future periods of this ,commonwealth1 to cherish the interests of literature and the sciences1 and all seminaries of them2 especially the university at ,cambridge1 public schools1 and grammar schools in the towns2 to encourage private societies and public institutions1 by rewards and immunities1 for the promotion of agriculture1 arts1 sciences1 commerce1 trades1 manufactures1 and a natural history of the country2 to countenance and inculcate the principles of humanity and general benevolence1 public and private charity1 industry and frugality1 honesty and punctuality in their dealings2 sincerity1 good humor1 and all social affections and generous sentiments among the people4 ,though the ,federal ,constitution made no provision for education or aid to schools1 when the ,congress of the ,confederation1 in #aghg1 adopted the ,ordinance for the organization and government of the ,northwest ,territory1 out of which the ,states of ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,michigan1 and ,wisconsin were later carved1 it prefixed to this ,ordinance the following significant provision3 ,art4 #c4 ,religion1 morality1 and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind1 schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged in the ,states to be formed from this ,territory4 ,by the time the first ,state formed from this western territory was ready to be admitted to the ,union 7,ohio1 #ahjb71 the theory that education is a function of the ,state had come to be so thoroughly accepted1 in principle at least1 by the new ,american people that ,congress now began a policy1 ever since continued1 of aiding each new ,state to establish and maintain a state system of schools4 ,to this end ,congress gave the new ,state for this purpose a generous endowment of national land1 and in addition three townships of land to endow a state university4 ,we also find that the constitutions of the first ,states created from this new ,northwest ,territory 7,ohio1 #ahjb2 ,indiana1 #ahaf #ab7 contain for the time good provisions relating to public education4 ,the ,ohio provisions 7,r4 #bfj7 are noteworthy for the strong stand for religious freedom and against any discrimination in the schools between rich and poor1 while the ,indiana provisions 7,r4 #bfa7 are marked for their broad and generous conception of the scope and purpose of a state system of public instruction4 ,many of the older ,states enacted general state school laws early in their history 7,r4 #bfb74 ,connecticut continued the general school laws of #agjj1 #agab1 and #agad unchanged1 and in #agie added #a1bjj1jjj1 derived from land sales1 to a permanent state school endowment fund1 created as early as #agej4 ,vermont enacted a general school law in #aghb4 ,massachusetts and ,new ,hampshire enacted new general school laws1 in #aghi1 which restated and legalized the school development of the preceding hundred and fifty years4 ,all these required the maintenance of schools by the towns for a definite term each year1 ordered taxation1 and fixed the school studies required by the ,state4 ,new ,york1 in #aghd1 created an administrative organization1 known as the ,university of the ,state of ,new ,york1 to supervise secondary and higher education throughout the ,state--an institution clearly modeled after the centralizing ideas of ,condorcet1 ,rolland1 and ,diderot 7p4 #dgg71 and very similar to the ideas proposed by ,talleyrand and ,condorcet and later 7#ahjh7 embodied in the ,university of ,france by ,napoleon4 ,in #agie ,new ,york also provided for a state system of elementary education4 ,georgia created a state system of academies1 as early as #aghc4 ,delaware created a state school fund1 in #agif1 and ,virginia enacted an optional school law the same year4 ,north ,carolina created a state university1 as early as #agie4 ,,the ,,new ,,political ,,motive ,,for ,,schools4 ,we thus see1 in the new ,united ,states1 the theories of the ,french revolutionary thinkers and statesmen actually being realized in practice4 ,the constitutional provisions1 and even the legislation1 often were in advance of what the ,states1 impoverished as they were by the ,war of ,independence1 could at once carry out1 but they mark the evolution in ,america of a clearly defined state theory as to education1 and the recognition of a need for general education in a government whose actions were so largely influenced by the force of public opinion4 ,the ,federal ,constitution had extended the right to vote for national officers to all1 and the older ,states soon began to remove their earlier property qualifications for voting and to extend general manhood suffrage to all citizens4 ,this new development in government by the people1 which meant the passing of the rule of a propertied and educated class and the establishment of a real democracy1 caused the leading ,american statesmen to turn early to general education as a necessity for republican safety4 ,in his ,farewell ,address to the ,american people1 written in #agif1 ,washington said3 ,promote1 then1 as an object of primary importance1 institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge4 ,in proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion1 it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened4 ,jefferson spent the years #aghd to #aghi in ,paris1 and became a great propagandist in ,america for ,french political ideas4 ,writing to ,james ,madison from ,france1 as early as #aghg1 he said3 ,above all things1 ,i hope the education of the common people will be attended to2 convinced that on this good sense we may rely with the most security for the preservation of a due sense of liberty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4 ,,thomas ,,jefferson 7#agdc-ahbf7 ,in #aggi1 then1 as a member of the ,virginia legislature1 ,jefferson tried unsuccessfully to secure the passage of a comprehensive bill1 after the plan of the ,french ,revolutionary proposals1 for the organization of a complete system of public education for ,virginia4 ,the essential features of the proposed bill 7,r4 #bfc7 were that every county should be laid off into school districts1 five to six miles square1 to be known as hundreds1 and in each of these an elementary school was to be established to which any citizen could send his children free of charge for three years1 and as much longer as he was willing to pay tuition2 that the leading pupil in each school was to be selected annually and sent to one of twenty grammar 7secondary7 schools to be established and maintained at various points in the ,state2 after two years the leaders in each of these schools were to be selected and further educated free for six years1 the less promising being sent home2 and at the completion of the grammar- school course1 the upper half of the pupils were to be given three years more of free education at the ,state ,college of ,william and ,mary1 and the other half were to be employed as teachers for the schools of the ,state4 #ac ,though the scheme failed of approval1 ,jefferson never lost interest in the education of the people for intelligent participation in the functions of government4 ,writing from ,monticello to ,colonel ,yancey1 in #ahaf1 after his retirement from the presidency1 he wrote3 ,if a nation expects to be ignorant and free in a state of civilization it expects what never was and never will be4444 ,there is no safe deposit 7for the functions of government7 but with the people themselves2 nor can they be safe with them without information4 ,in #ahai the founding of the ,university of ,virginia crowned ,jefferson's efforts for education by the ,state4 ,this institution1 the ,declaration of ,independence1 and the statute for religious freedom in ,virginia stand to- day as the three enduring monuments to his memory4 #ad ,other of the early ,american statesmen expressed similar views as to the importance of general education by the ,state4 ,john ,jay1 first ,chief ,justice of the ,united ,states1 in a letter to his friend1 ,dr4 ,benjamin ,rush1 wrote3 ,i consider knowledge to be the soul of a ,republic1 and as the weak and the wicked are generally in alliance1 as much care should be taken to diminish the number of the former as of the latter4 ,education is the way to do this1 and nothing should be left undone to afford all ranks of people the means of obtaining a proper degree of it at a cheap and easy rate4 ,james ,madison1 fourth ,president of the ,united ,states1 wrote3 ,a satisfactory plan for primary education is certainly a vital desideratum in our republics4 ,a popular government without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy1 or1 perhaps1 both4 ,knowledge will forever govern ignorance2 and a people who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves with the power which knowledge gives4 ,john ,adams1 with true ,new ,england thoroughness1 expressed the new motive for education still more forcibly when he wrote3 ,the instruction of the people in every kind of knowledge that can be of use to them in the practice of their moral duties as men1 citizens1 and ,christians1 and of their political and civil duties as members of society and freemen1 ought to be the care of the public1 and of all who have any share in the conduct of its affairs1 in a manner that never yet has been practiced in any age or nation4 ,the education here intended is not merely that of the children of the rich and noble1 but of every rank and class of people1 down to the lowest and poorest4 ,it is not too much to say that schools for the education of all should be placed at convenient distances and maintained at the public expense4 ,the revenues of the ,state would be applied infinitely better1 more charitably1 wisely1 usefully1 and therefore politically in this way than even in maintaining the poor4 ,this would be the best way of preventing the existence of the poor4444 ,laws for the liberal education of youth1 especially of the lower classes of people1 are so extremely wise and useful that1 to a humane and generous mind1 no expense for this purpose would be thought extravagant4 ,having founded1 as ,lincoln so well said later at ,gettysburg1 on this continent a new nation1 conceived in liberty1 and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal1 and having built a constitutional form of government based on that equality1 it in time became evident to those who thought at all on the question that that liberty and political equality could not be preserved without the general education of all4 ,a new motive for education was thus created and gradually formulated in the ,united ,states1 as well as in revolutionary ,france1 and the nature of the school instruction of the youth of the ,state came in time to be colored through and through by this new political motive4 ,the necessary schools1 though1 did not come at once4 ,on the contrary1 the struggle to establish these necessary schools it will be our purpose to trace in subsequent chapters1 but before doing so we wish first to point out how the rise of a political theory for education led to the development of a theory as to the nature of the educational process which exercised a far-reaching influence on all subsequent evolution of schools and teaching4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,what do the proposals of ,la ,chalotais1 ,rolland1 and ,turgot indicate as to the degree of unification of ,france attained by the time they wrote8 #b4 ,what new subjects did ,diderot add to the religious elementary school of his time8 #c4 ,show how the decline in efficiency of the ,jesuits was a stimulating force for the evolution of a system of public instruction in ,france4 #d4 ,show the statesman-like character of the proposals made in the legislative assemblies of ,france for the organization of national education4 #e4 ,assuming that there had been enough funds to carry out the law 7#agic7 of the ,convention for primary instruction1 what other difficulties would have been met that would have been hard to surmount8 #f4 ,compare the ,lakanal school with an ,american elementary school of a half-century ago4 #g4 ,show that many of the important educational reforms of ,napoleon were foreshadowed in the ,national ,convention4 #h4 ,was ,napoleon right in his attitude toward education and schools8 #i4 ,explain the lack of success of the revolutionary theorists in the establishment of a state system of education4 #aj4 ,explain why the breakdown of the old religious intolerance came earlier in the ,american ,colonies than in the ,old ,world4 #aa4 ,show the great value of the ,laws of #afdb and #afdg in holding ,new ,england true to the maintenance of schools during the period of decline4 #ab4 ,what might have been the result in ,america had the ,new ,england ,colonies established the school as a parish institution1 as did the central ,colonies8 #ac4 ,analyze the ,massachusetts constitutional provision for education1 and show what it provided for4 #ad4 ,show the similarity of the ,university of the ,state of ,new ,york to the proposals for governmental control in ,france4 #ae4 ,explain why the ,french revolutionary ideas as to education were realized so easily in the new ,united ,states1 whereas ,france did not realize them until well into the nineteenth century4 #af4 ,compare ,jefferson's proposed law with the proposals of ,talleyrand for ,france4 #ag4 ,just what type of educational institutions did ,washington have in mind in the quotation from his ,farewell ,address8 ,john ,jay8 ,john ,adams8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #bed4 ,dabney3 ,the ,far-,reaching ,influence of ,rousseau's ,writings4 #bee4 ,la ,chalotais3 ,essay on ,national ,education4 #bef4 ,condorcet3 ,outline of a ,plan for ,organizing ,public ,instruction in ,france4 #beg4 ,report3 ,founding of the ,polytechnic ,school at ,paris4 #beh4 ,barnard3 ,work of the ,national ,convention in ,france4 7a7 ,various legislative proposals4 7b7 ,the ,law of #agie organizing ,primary ,instruction4 #bei4 ,american ,states3 ,early ,constitutional ,provisions relating to ,education4 #bfj4 ,ohio3 ,educational ,provisions of ,first ,constitution4 #bfa4 ,indiana3 ,educational ,provisions of ,first ,constitution4 #bfb4 ,american ,states3 ,early ,school ,legislation in4 #bfc4 ,jefferson3 ,plan for ,organizing ,education in ,virginia4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,explain the conditions of society under which the emotional writings of a man of the type of ,rousseau could have made such a deep impression 7#bed7 on the nation4 #b4 ,in how far do nations to-day accept the theories of ,la ,chalotais 7#bee78 #c4 ,what type of administrative organization was proposed by ,condorcet 7#bef78 #d4 ,what does the founding of the ,polytechnic ,school 7#beg7 indicate as to the ,french interest in science8 #e4 ,what real progress was made by the ,national ,convention 7#beh a71 and to what degree did it fail8 #f4 ,explain the type of school system proposed and the conception of education lying behind the early constitutional provisions 7#bei7 for education in each of the ,american ,states4 #g4 ,in what respects were the educational provisions of the first ,ohio constitution 7#bfj7 remarkable8 #h4 ,in what respects were the educational provisions of the first ,indiana constitution 7#bfa7 remarkable8 #i4 ,characterize the early school legislation reproduced 7#bfb74 #aj4 ,just what type of educational system did ,jefferson propose to organize in ,virginia 7#bfc78 ,,supplementary ,,references ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,american ,journal of ,education1 vol4 #bb1 pp4 #fea-fd4 ,compayr1 ,g4 ,history of ,pedagogy1 chapters #ae1 #af1 #ag4 ,cubberley1 ,e4 ,p4 ,public ,education in the ,united ,states1 chapter #c4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,a ,,new ,,theory ,,and ,,subject-,,matter ,,for ,,the ,,elementary ,,school ,in chapters ,,xvii and ,,xviii we traced the development of educational theory up to the point where ,john ,locke left it after outlining his social and disciplinary theory for the educational process1 and in the chapter preceding this one we traced the evolution of a new state theory as to the purpose of education to replace the old religious theory4 ,the new theory as to state control1 and the erection of a citizenship purpose for education1 made it both possible and desirable that the instruction in the school1 and particularly in the vernacular school1 should be recast1 both in method and content1 to bring the school into harmony with the new secular purpose4 ,in consequence1 an important reorganization of the vernacular school now took place1 and to this transformation of the elementary school we next turn4 ,i4 ,,the ,,new ,,theory ,,stated ,,iconoclastic ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,rousseau4 ,the inspirer of the new theory as to the purpose of education was none other than the ,french-,swiss iconoclast and political writer1 ,jean-,jacques ,rousseau1 whose work as a political theorist we have previously described4 ,happening to take up the educational problem as a phase of his activity against the political and social and ecclesiastical conditions of his age1 drawing freely on ,locke's ,thoughts for ideas1 and inspired by a feeling that so corrupt and debased was his age that if he rejected everything accepted by it and adopted the opposite he would reach the truth1 ,rousseau restated his political theories as to the control of man by society and his ideas as to a life according to nature in a book in which he described the education1 from birth to manhood1 of an imaginary boy1 mile1 and his future wife1 ,sophie4 ,in the first sentence of the book ,rousseau sets forth his fundamental thesis3 ,all is good as it comes from the hand of the ,creator2 all degenerates under the hands of man4 ,he forces one country to produce the fruits of another1 one tree to bear that of another4 ,he confounds climates1 elements1 and seasons2 he mutilates his dog1 his horse1 his slave2 turns everything topsy-turvy1 disfigures everything4 ,he will have nothing as nature made it1 not even man himself2 he must be trained like a managed horse1 trimmed like a tree in a garden4 ,his book1 published in #agfb1 in no sense outlined a workable system of education4 ,instead1 in charming literary style1 with much sophistry1 many paradoxes1 numerous irrelevant digressions upon topics having no relation to education1 and in no systematic order1 ,rousseau presented his ideas as to the nature and purpose of education4 ,emphasizing the importance of the natural development of the child 7,r4 #bfd a71 he contended that the three great teachers of man were nature1 man1 and experience1 and that the second and third tended to destroy the value of the first 7,r4 #bfd b72 that the child should be handled in a new way1 and that the most important item in his training up to twelve years of age was to do nothing 7,r4 #bfd c1 d7 so that nature might develop his character properly 7,r4 #bfd e72 and that from twelve to fifteen his education should be largely from things and nature1 and not from books 7,r4 #bfd f74 ,as the outcome of such an education ,rousseau produced a boy who1 from his point of view1 would at eighteen still be natural 7,r4 #bfd g7 and unspoiled by the social life about him1 which1 after all1 he felt was soon to pass away 7,r4 #bfd i74 ,the old religious instruction he would completely supersede 7,r4 #bfd h74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4 ,,the ,,rousseau ,,monument ,,at ,,geneva ,so depraved was the age1 and so wretched were the educational practices of his time1 that1 in spite of the malevolent impulse which was his driving force1 what he wrote actually contained many excellent ideas1 pointed the way to better practices1 and became an inspiration for others who1 unlike ,rousseau1 were deeply interested in problems of education and child welfare4 ,one cannot study ,rousseau's writings as a whole1 see him in his eighteenth-century setting1 know of his personal life1 and not feel that the far-reaching reforms produced by his mile are among the strangest facts in history4 ,,the ,,valuable ,,elements ,,in ,,rousseau',s ,,work4 ,amid his glittering generalities and striking paradoxes ,rousseau did1 however1 set forth certain important ideas as to the proper education of children4 ,popularizing the best ideas of the ,englishman1 ,locke 7p4 #dcc71 ,rousseau may be said to have given currency to certain conceptions as to the education of children which1 in the hands of others1 brought about great educational changes4 ,briefly stated1 these were3 #a4 ,the replacement of authority by reason and investigation4 #b4 ,that education should be adapted to the gradually unfolding capacities of the child4 #c4 ,that each age in the life of a child has activities which are normal to that age1 and that education should seek for and follow these4 #d4 ,that physical activity and health are of first importance4 #e4 ,that education1 and especially elementary education1 should take place through the senses1 rather than through the memory4 #f4 ,that the emphasis placed on the memory in education is fundamentally wrong1 dwarfing the judgment and reason of the child4 #g4 ,that catechetical and ,jesuitical types of education should be abandoned4 #h4 ,that the study of theological subtleties is unsuited to child needs or child capacity4 #i4 ,that the natural interests1 curiosity1 and activities of children should be utilized in their education4 #aj4 ,that the normal activities of children call for expression1 and that the best means of utilizing these activities are conversation1 writing1 drawing1 music1 and play4 #aa4 ,that education should no longer be exclusively literary and linguistic1 but should be based on sense perception1 expression1 and reasoning4 #ab4 ,that such education calls for instruction in the book of nature1 with home geography and the investigation of elementary problems in science occupying a prominent place4 #ac4 ,that the child be taught rather than the subject-matter2 life here rather than hereafter2 and the development of reason rather than the loading of the memory1 were the proper objects of education4 #ad4 ,that a many-sided education is necessary to reveal child possibilities2 to correct the narrowing effect of specialized class education2 and to prepare one for possible changes in fortune4 ,a new educational ideal presented4 ,rousseau's mile presented a new ideal in education4 ,according to his conception it was debasing that man should be educated to behave correctly in an artificial society1 to follow blindly the doctrines of a faith1 or to be an obedient subject of a king4 ,instead he conceived the function of education to be to evolve the natural powers1 cultivate the human side1 unfold the inborn capacities of every human being1 and to develop a reasoning individual1 capable of intelligently directing his life under diverse conditions and in any form of society4 ,a book setting forth such ideas naturally was revolutionary #a in matters of education4 ,it deeply influenced thinkers along these lines during the remaining years of the eighteenth century1 and became the inspiring source of nineteenth-century reforms4 ,as ,rousseau's ,social ,contract became the political handbook of the ,french ,revolutionists1 so his mile became the inspiration of a new theory as to the education of children4 ,coming1 as it did1 at a time when political and ecclesiastical despotisms were fast breaking down in ,france1 when new forces were striving for expression throughout ,europe1 and when new theories as to the functions of government were being set forth in the ,american ,colonies and in ,france1 it gave the needed inspiration for the evolution of a new theory of non- religious1 universal1 and democratic education which would prepare citizens for intelligent participation in the functions of a democratic ,state1 and for a reorganization of the subject-matter of education itself4 ,a new theory as to the educational purpose was soon to arise1 and the whole nature of the educational process1 in the hands of others1 was soon to be transformed as a result of the fortunate conjunction of the iconoclastic and impractical discussion of education by ,rousseau and the more practical work of ,english1 ,french1 and ,american political theorists and statesmen4 ,out of the fusing of these1 modern educational theory arose4 ,,ii4 ,,german ,,attempts ,,to ,,work ,,out ,a ,,new ,,theory ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,mile ,,in ,,german ,,lands4 ,the mile was widely read1 not only in ,france1 but throughout the continent of ,europe as well4 ,in ,german lands its publication coincided with the rising tide of nationalism--the ,period of ,enlightenment--and the book was warmly welcomed by such 7then young7 men as ,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,herder1 ,richter1 ,fichte1 and ,kant4 ,it presented a new ideal of education and a new ideal for humanity1 and its ideas harmonized well with those of the newly created aristocracy of worth which the young ,german enthusiasts were busily engaged in proclaiming for their native land4 ,the ideal of the perfected individual1 strong in the consciousness of his powers1 now found expression in the new classics of individualism which marked the outburst of the best that ,german literature has ever produced4 ,as ,paulsen #b well says3 ,rousseau exercised an immense influence on his times1 and ,germany was stirred perhaps even more deeply than ,france4 ,in ,france ,voltaire continued to be regarded as the great man of his time1 whereas1 in ,germany1 his place in the esteem of the younger generation had been taken by the enthusiast of ,geneva4 ,kant1 ,herder1 ,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,fichte1 all of them were roused by ,rousseau to the inmost depths of their natures4 ,he gave utterance to the passionate longing of their souls3 to do away with the imitation of ,french courtly culture1 by which ,nature was suppressed and perverted in every way1 to do away with the established political and social order1 based on court society and class distinctions1 which was felt to be lowering to man in his quality as a reasonable being1 and to return to ,nature1 to simple and unsophisticated habits of life1 or rather to find a way through ,nature to a better civilisation1 which would restore the natural values of life to their rightful place and would be compatible with truth and virtue1 sincerity and probity of character4 ,the great ,german philosopher1 ,immanuel ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd71 was so deeply stirred by the mile that the regularity of his daily walks and the clearness of his thinking were disturbed by it4 ,goethe called the book the teacher's ,gospel4 ,schiller praised ,rousseau as a new ,socrates1 who of ,christians wished to make men4 ,herder acclaimed ,rousseau as a ,german1 and his divine work as his guide4 ,jean-,paul ,richter confessed himself indebted to ,rousseau for the best ideas in his ,levana4 ,lavater declared himself ready for a ,reformation in education along the lines laid down by ,rousseau4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,,basedow 7#agbc-ij7 ,,basedow ,,and ,,his ,,work4 ,perhaps the most important practical influence exerted by the mile in ,german lands came in the work of ,johann ,bernard ,basedow and his followers4 ,basedow was a ,north ,german who had been educated in the ,gymnasium at ,hamburg1 had studied in the theological faculty at ,leipzig1 had been a tutor in a nobleman's family1 and had been a teacher in a ,ritterakademie in ,denmark and the ,gymnasium at ,altona4 ,deeply imbued with the new scientific spirit1 in thorough revolt against the dominance of the ,church in human lives1 and incited to new efforts by his reading of the mile1 ,basedow thought out a plan for a reform school which should put many of ,rousseau's ideas into practice4 ,in #agfh he issued his ,address to ,philanthropists and ,men of ,property on ,schools and ,studies and their ,influence on the ,public ,weal1 in which he appealed for funds to enable him to open a school to try out his ideas1 and to enable him to prepare a new type of textbooks for the use of schools4 ,he proposed in this appeal to organize a school which should be non-sectarian1 and also advocated the creation of a ,national ,council of ,education to have charge of all public instruction4 ,these were essentially the ideas of the ,french political reformers of the time4 ,the appeal was widely scattered1 awakened much enthusiasm1 and subscriptions to assist him poured in from many sources4 #c ,in #aggd ,basedow published two works of more than ordinary importance4 ,the first1 a ,book of ,method for ,fathers and ,mothers of ,families and of ,nations1 was a book for adults1 and outlined a plan of education for both boys and girls4 ,the keynotes were following nature1 impartial religious instruction1 children to be dealt with as children1 learning through the senses1 language instruction by a natural method1 and much study of natural objects4 ,the ideas were a combination of those of ,bacon1 ,comenius1 and ,rousseau4 ,the second book1 in four volumes1 and containing one hundred copper-plate illustrations1 was the famous ,elementary ,work 7,elementarwerk mit ,kupfern7 7,r4 #bff71 the first illustrated school textbook since the ,orbis ,pictus 7#afed7 of ,comenius4 ,this work of ,basedow's became1 in ,german lands1 the ,orbis ,pictus of the eighteenth century4 ,by means of its natural methods 7,r4 #bfe7 children were to be taught to read1 both the vernacular and ,latin1 more easily and in less time than had been done before1 and in addition were to be given a knowledge of morals1 commerce1 scientific subjects1 and social usages by an incomparable method1 founded on experience in teaching children4 ,the book enjoyed a wide circulation among the middle and upper classes in ,german lands4 ,,basedow',s ,,philanthropinum4 ,in #aggd ,prince ,leopold1 of ,dessau1 a town in the duchy of ,anhalt1 in northern ,germany1 gave ,basedow the use of two buildings and a garden1 and twelve thousand thalers in money1 with which to establish his long-heralded ,philanthropinum1 which was to be an educational institution of a new type4 ,great expectations were aroused1 and a widespread interest in the new school awakened4 ,education according to nature1 with a reformed1 time-saving1 natural method for the teaching of languages1 were to be its central ideas4 ,children were to be treated as children1 and not as adults4 ,powdered hair1 gilded coats1 swords1 rouge1 and hoops were to be discarded for short hair1 clean faces1 sailor jackets1 and caps1 while the natural plays of children and directed physical training were to be made a feature of the instruction4 ,the languages were to be taught by conversational methods4 ,each child was to be taught a handicraft--turning1 planing1 and carpentering were provided-- for both social and educational reasons4 ,instruction in real things-- science1 nature--was to take the place of instruction in words1 and the vernacular was to be the language of instruction4 ,the institution was to have the atmosphere of religion1 but was not to be ,catholic1 ,lutheran1 ,reformed1 or ,jewish1 and was to be free from theologizing distinctions4 ,latin1 ,german1 ,french1 mathematics1 a knowledge of nature 7geography1 physics1 natural history71 music1 dancing1 drawing1 and physical training were the principal subjects of instruction4 ,the children were divided into four classes1 and the instruction for each1 with the textbooks to be used1 was outlined 7,r4 #bfe74 ,the school opened with ,basedow and three assistants as teachers1 and two of ,basedow's children and twelve others as pupils4 ,later the school came to have many boarding pupils1 drawn from as far-distant points as ,riga and ,spain4 ,in #aggf a public examination was held1 to which many distinguished men were invited1 and the work which ,basedow's methods could produce was exhibited4 ,these methods seem to have been successful1 judging from the rather full accounts which have been left us4 #d ,the school represented a new type of educational effort1 and was frankly experimental in purpose4 ,it was an attempt to apply1 in practice1 the main ideas of ,rousseau's mile4 ,basedow tried the plan of education outlined by ,rousseau with his own daughter1 whom he named milie4 ,,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe ,,immanuel ,,kant 7#agbd-ahjd7 ,as a promising experiment the school awakened widespread interest1 and ,basedow was supported by such thinkers of the time as ,goethe and ,kant4 ,the year following the ,examination ,kant1 then professor of philosophy at the ,university of ,knigsberg1 contributed an article to the ,knigsberg ,gazette explaining the importance of the experiment ,basedow was making4 ,still later1 in his university lectures ,on ,pedagogy1 he further stated the importance of such a new experiment1 in the following words3 ,it was imagined that experiments in education were not necessary2 and that1 whether any thing in it was good or bad1 could be judged of by the reason4 ,but this was a great mistake2 experience shows very often that results are produced precisely the opposite to those which had been expected4 ,we also see from experiment that one generation cannot work out a complete plan of education4 ,the only experimental school which has made a beginning toward breaking the path was the ,dessau institution4 ,this praise must be given to it1 in spite of the many faults which may be charged against it2 faults which belong to all conclusions based upon such undertakings2 and which make new experiments always necessary4 ,it was the only school in which the teachers had the liberty to work after their own methods and plans1 and where they stood in connection1 not only with each other1 but with men of learning throughout all ,germany4 ,,basedow',s ,,influence1 ,,and ,,followers4 ,basedow1 though1 was an impractical theorist1 boastful and quarrelsome1 vulgar and coarse1 given to drunkenness and intemperate speech1 and fond of making claims for his work which the results did not justify4 ,in a few years he had been displaced as director1 and in #agic the ,philanthropinum closed its doors4 ,the school1 nevertheless1 was a very important educational experiment1 and ,basedow's work for a time exerted a profound influence on ,german pedagogical thought4 ,he may be said to have raised instruction in the ,realien in ,german lands to a place of distinct importance1 and to have given a turn to such instruction which it has ever since retained4 #e ,the methods of instruction1 too1 worked out in arithmetic1 geography1 geometry1 natural history1 physics1 and history were in many ways as revolutionary as those evolved by ,pestalozzi later on in ,switzerland4 ,in his emphasis on scientific subject-matter ,basedow surpassed ,pestalozzi1 but ,pestalozzi possessed a clearer1 intuitive insight into the nature and purpose of the educational process4 ,the work of the two men furnishes an interesting basis for comparison 7,r4 #bga71 and the work of each gave added importance to that of the other4 ,from ,dessau an interest in pedagogical ideas and experiments spread over ,europe1 and particularly over ,german lands4 ,other institutions1 modeled after the ,philanthropinum1 were founded in many places1 and some of ,basedow's followers #f did as important work along certain lines as did ,basedow himself4 ,his followers were numerous1 and of all degrees of worth4 ,they urged acceptance of the new ideas of ,rousseau as worked out and promulgated by ,basedow2 vigorously attacked the old schools1 making converts here and there2 and in a way helped to prepare northern ,german lands for the incoming1 later1 of the better-organized ideas of the ,german-,swiss reformer ,pestalozzi1 to whose work we next turn4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,work ,,and ,,influence ,,of ,,pestalozzi ,,the ,,inspiration ,,of ,,pestalozzi4 ,among those most deeply influenced by ,rousseau's mile was a young ,german-,swiss by the name of ,johann ,heinrich ,pestalozzi1 who was born 7#agdf7 and brought up in the ancient city of ,zurich4 ,inspired by ,rousseau's writings he spent the early part of his life in trying to render service to the poor1 and the latter part in working out for himself a theory and a method of instruction based on the natural development of the child4 ,to ,pestalozzi1 more than to any one else1 we owe the foundations of the modern secular vernacular elementary school1 and in consequence his work is of commanding importance in the history of the development of educational practice4 ,trying to educate his own child according to ,rousseau's plan1 he not only discovered its impracticability but also that the only way to improve on it was to study the children themselves4 ,accordingly he opened a school and home on his farm at ,neuhof1 in #aggd4 ,here he took in fifty abandoned children1 to whom he taught reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1 gave them moral discourses1 and trained them in gardening1 farming1 and cheese- making4 ,it was an attempt to regenerate beggars by means of education1 which ,pestalozzi firmly believed could be done4 ,at the end of two years he had spent all the money he and his wife possessed1 and the school closed in failure--a blessing in disguise--though with ,pestalozzi's faith in the power of education unshaken4 ,of this experiment he wrote3 ,for years ,i have lived in the midst of fifty little beggars1 sharing in my poverty my bread with them1 living like a beggar myself in order to teach beggars to live like men4 ,turning next to writing1 while continuing to farm1 ,pestalozzi now tried to express his faith in education in printed form4 ,his ,leonard and ,gertrude 7#agha7 was a wonderfully beautiful story of ,swiss peasant life1 and of the genius and sympathy and love of a woman amid degrading surroundings4 ,from a wretched place the village of ,bonnal1 under ,pestalozzi's pen1 was transformed by the power of education4 #g ,the book was a great success from the first1 and for it ,pestalozzi was made a citizen of the ,french ,republic1 along with ,washington1 ,madison1 ,kosciusko1 ,wilberforce1 and ,tom ,paine4 ,he continued to farm and to think1 though nearly starving1 until #agih1 when the opportunity for which he was really fitted came4 ,,pestalozzi',s ,,educational ,,experiments4 ,in #agih ,the ,helvetic ,republic was proclaimed1 an event which divided ,pestalozzi's life into two parts4 ,up to this time he had been interested wholly in the philanthropic aspect of education1 believing that the poor could be regenerated through education and labor4 ,from this time on he interested himself in the teaching aspect of the problem1 in the working-out and formulation of a teaching method based on the natural development of the child1 and in training others to teach4 ,much to the disgust of the authorities of the new ,swiss ,government1 citizen ,pestalozzi applied for service as a schoolteacher4 ,the opportunity to render such service soon came4 ,that autumn the ,french troops invaded ,switzerland1 and1 in putting down the stubborn resistance of the three ,german cantons1 shot down a large number of the people4 ,orphans to the number of #afi were left in the little town of ,stanz1 and citizen ,pestalozzi was given charge of them4 ,for six months he was father1 mother1 teacher1 and nurse4 ,then1 worn out himself1 the orphanage was changed into a hospital4 ,a little later he became a schoolmaster in ,burgdorf2 was dismissed2 became a teacher in another school2 and finally1 in #ahjj1 opened a school himself in an old castle there4 ,he now drew about him other teachers interested in improving instruction1 and in consequence could specialize the work4 ,he provided separate teachers for drawing and singing1 geography and history1 language and arithmetic1 and gymnastics4 ,the year following the school was enlarged into a teachers' training-school1 the government extending him aid in return for giving ,swiss teachers one month of training as teachers in his school4 ,here he wrote and published ,how ,gertrude teaches her ,children1 which explained his methods and forms his most important pedagogical work 7,r4 #bfg72 a ,guide for teaching ,spelling and ,reading2 and a ,book for ,mothers1 devoted to a description of object teaching4 ,in #ahjc1 the castle being needed by the government1 ,pestalozzi moved first to ,munchenbuchsee1 near ,hofwyl1 opening his ,institute temporarily in an old convent there4 ,for a few months1 in #ahjd1 he was associated with ,emanuel von ,fellenberg1 at ,hofwyl 7p4 #edf71 but in ,october1 #ahjd1 he moved to ,yverdon1 where he restablished the ,institute1 and where the next twenty years of his life were spent and his greatest success achieved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4 ,,the ,,scene ,,of ,,pestalozzi',s ,,labors ,,the ,,contribution ,,of ,,pestalozzi4 ,the great contribution of ,pestalozzi lay in that1 following the lead of ,rousseau1 he rejected the religious aim and the teaching of mere words and facts1 which had characterized all elementary education up to near the close of the eighteenth century1 and tried instead to reduce the educational process to a well-organized routine1 based on the natural and orderly development of the instincts1 capacities1 and powers of the growing child4 ,taking ,rousseau's idea of a return to nature1 he tried to apply it to the education of children4 ,this led to his rejection of what he called the empty chattering of mere words and outward show in the instruction in reading and the catechism1 and the introduction in their place of real studies1 based on observation1 experimentation1 and reasoning4 ,sense impression became his watchword4 #h ,as he expressed it1 he tried to organize and psychologize the educational process by harmonizing it with the natural development of the child 7,r4 #bfg74 ,to this end he carefully studied children1 and developed his methods experimentally as a result of his observation4 ,to this end1 both at ,burgdorf and ,yverdon1 all results of preceding teachers and writers on education were rejected1 for fear that error might creep in4 ,read nothing1 discover everything1 and prove all things1 came to be the working guides of himself and his teachers4 ,the development of man he believed to be organic1 and to proceed according to law4 ,it was the work of the teacher to discover these laws of development and to assist nature in securing a natural1 symmetrical1 and harmonious development of all the faculties of the child4 ,real education must develop the child as a whole--mentally1 physically1 morally--and called for the training of the head and the hand and the heart4 ,the only proper means for developing the powers of the child was use1 and hence education must guide and stimulate self-activity1 be based on intuition and exercise1 and the sense impressions must be organized and directed4 ,education1 too1 if it is to follow the organic development of the child1 must observe the proper progress of child development and be graded1 so that each step of the process shall grow out of the preceding and grow into the following stage4 ,to accomplish these ends the training must be all-round and harmonious2 much liberty must be allowed the child in learning2 education must proceed largely by doing instead of by words1 the method of learning must be largely analytical2 real objects and ideas must precede symbols and words2 and1 finally1 the organization and correlation of what is learned must be looked after by the teacher4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,johann ,,heinrich ,,pestalozzi4 ,still more1 ,pestalozzi possessed a deep and abiding faith1 new at the time1 in the power of education as a means of regenerating society4 ,he had begun his work by trying to teach beggars to live like men1 and his belief in the potency of education in working this transformation1 so touchingly expressed in his ,leonard and ,gertrude1 never left him4 ,he believed that each human being could be raised through the influence of education to the level of an intellectually free and morally independent life1 and that every human being was entitled to the right to attain such freedom and independence4 ,the way to this lay through the full use of his developing powers1 under the guidance of a teacher1 and not through a process of repeating words and learning by heart4 ,not only the intellectual qualities of perception1 judgment1 and reasoning need exercise1 but the moral powers as well4 ,to provide such exercise and direction was the work of the school4 ,pestalozzi also resented the brutal discipline which for ages had characterized all school instruction1 believed it by its very nature immoral1 and tried to substitute for this a strict but loving discipline-- a thinking love1 he calls it--and to make the school as nearly as possible like a gentle and refined home4 ,to a ,swiss father1 who on visiting his school exclaimed1 ,why1 this is not a school1 but a family1 ,pestalozzi answered that such a statement was the greatest praise he could have given him4 ,,the ,,consequences ,,of ,,these ,,ideas4 ,the educational consequences of these new ideas were very large4 ,they in time gave aim and purpose to the elementary school of the nineteenth century1 transforming it from an instrument of the ,church for church ends1 to an instrument of society to be used for its own regeneration and the advancement of the welfare of all4 #i ,the introduction of the study of natural objects in place of words1 and much talking about what was seen and studied instead of parrot-like reproductions of the words of a book1 revolutionized both the methods and the subject-matter of instruction in the developing elementary school4 ,observation and investigation tended to supersede mere memorizing2 class discussion and thinking to supersede the reciting of the words of the book2 thinking about what was being done to supersede routine learning2 and class instruction to supersede the wasteful individual teaching which had for so long characterized all school work4 ,it meant the reorganization of the work of the vernacular school on a modern basis1 with class organization and group instruction1 and a modern-world purpose 7,r4 #bfi74 ,the work of ,pestalozzi also meant the introduction of new subject-matter for instruction1 the organization of new teaching subjects for the elementary school1 and the redirection of the elementary education of children4 ,observation led to the development of elementary-science study1 and the study of home geography2 talking about what was observed led to the study of language usage1 as distinct from the older study of grammar2 and counting and measuring led to the study of number1 and hence to a new type of primary arithmetic4 ,the reading of the school also changed both in character and purpose4 ,in other words1 in place of an elementary education based on reading1 a little writing and spelling1 and the catechism1 all of a memoriter type and with religious ends in view1 a new primary school1 essentially secular in character1 was created by the work of ,pestalozzi4 ,this new school was based on the study of real objects1 learning through sense impressions1 the individual expression of ideas1 child activity1 and the development of the child's powers in an orderly way4 ,in fact1 the development of the faculties of the child became a by-word with ,pestalozzi and his followers4 ,pestalozzi's deep abiding faith in the power of education to regenerate society was highly influential in ,switzerland1 throughout western ,europe1 and later in ,america in showing how to deal with orphans1 vagrants1 and those suffering from physical defects or in need of reformation1 by providing for such a combination of intellectual and industrial training4 ,,the ,,spread ,,and ,,influence ,,of ,,pestalozzi',s ,,work4 ,so famous did the work of ,pestalozzi become that his schools at ,burgdorf and ,yverdon came to be show places1 even in a land filled with natural wonders4 ,observers and students came from ,america 7,r4 #bfh7 and from all over ,europe to see and to teach in his school1 and draw inspiration from seeing his work 7,r4 #bgj7 and talking with him4 #aj ,in particular the educators of ,prussia were attracted by his work1 and1 earlier than other nations1 saw the far- reaching significance of his discoveries4 ,herbart visited his school as early as #agii1 when but a young man of twenty-three1 and wrote a very sympathetic description of his new methods4 ,froebel spent the years #ahjh to #ahaj as a teacher at ,yverdon1 when he was a young man of twenty-six to eight4 ,it soon became evident to me1 wrote ,froebel1 that ',pestalozzi' was to be the watchword of my life4 ,the philosopher ,fichte1 whose ,addresses 7#ahjg-jh7 on the condition of the ,german people 7page #efh71 after their humiliating defeat by ,napoleon1 did much to reveal to ,prussia the possibilities of national regeneration by means of education1 had taught in ,zurich1 knew ,pestalozzi1 and afterward exploited his work and his ideas in ,berlin4 #aa ,as early as #ahjc an envoy1 sent by the ,prussian ,king1 #ab reported favorably on ,pestalozzi's work1 and in #ahjd ,pestalozzian methods were authorized for the primary schools of ,prussia4 ,in #ahjh seventeen teachers were sent to ,switzerland1 at the expense of the ,prussian ,government1 to spend three years in studying ,pestalozzi's ideas and methods4 ,on their return1 these and others spread ,pestalozzian ideas throughout ,prussia4 ,a pastor and teacher from ,wrtemberg1 ,karl ,august ,zeller 7#aggd-ahdg71 came to ,burgdorf in #ahjc to study4 ,in #ahjf he opened a training-school for teachers in ,zurich1 and there worked out a plan of studies based on the work of ,pestalozzi4 ,this was printed and attracted much attention4 ,in #ahjh the ,king of ,wrtemberg listened to five lectures on ,pestalozzian methods by ,zeller1 and invited him to a position as school inspector in his ,state4 ,before he had done but a few months' work he was called to ,prussia1 to organize a normal school and begin the introduction of ,pestalozzian ideas there4 ,from ,prussia the ideas and methods of ,pestalozzi gradually spread to the other ,german ,states4 ,many ,swiss teachers were trained by ,pestalozzi1 and these also helped to extend his work and ideas over ,switzerland4 ,particularly in ,german ,switzerland did his ideas take root and reorganize education4 ,as a result modern systems of education made an early start in these cantons4 ,one of ,pestalozzi's earliest and most faithful teachers1 ,hermann ,krsi1 became principal of the ,swiss normal school at ,gais1 and trained teachers there in ,pestalozzian methods4 ,zeller's pupils1 too1 did much to spread his influence among the ,swiss4 ,pestalozzi's ideas were also carried to ,england1 but in no such satisfactory manner as to the ,german ,states4 ,where ,german lands received both the method and the spirit1 the ,english obtained largely the form4 ,later ,pestalozzian ideas came to the ,united ,states1 at first largely through ,english sources1 and1 after about #ahfj1 resulted in a thoroughgoing reorganization of ,american elementary education4 ,after ,pestalozzi's institution had become celebrated1 and visitors and commissions from many countries had visited him and it1 and after governments had vied with one another in introducing ,pestalozzian methods and reforms1 the vogue of the ,pestalozzian ideas became very extended4 ,many excellent private schools were founded on the ,pestalozzian model1 while on the other hand self-styled ,pestalozzian reformers sprang up on all sides4 ,all this imitation was both natural and helpful2 the foolishness and charlatanism in time disappeared1 leaving a real advance in the educational conception4 ,,the ,,manual-,,labor ,,school ,,of ,,fellenberg4 ,of the ,swiss associates and followers of ,pestalozzi one of the most influential was ,phillip ,emanuel von ,fellenberg 7#agga-ahdd74 ,the son of a ,swiss official of high political and social position1 possessed of wealth1 having traveled extensively1 ,fellenberg1 having become convinced that correct early education was the only means whereby the ,state might be elevated and the lot of man made better1 resolved 7#ahje7 to devote his life and his fortune to the working- out of his ideas4 ,for a short time associated with ,pestalozzi1 he soon withdrew and established1 on his own estate1 an ,institution which later 7#ahbi7 came to comprise the following3 #a4 ,a farm of about six hundred acres4 #b4 ,workshops for manufacturing clothing and tools4 #c4 ,a printing and lithographing establishment4 #d4 ,a literary institution for the education of the well-to-do4 #e4 ,a lower or real school1 which trained for handicrafts and middle-class occupations4 #f4 ,an agricultural school for the education of the poor as farm laborers1 and as teachers for the rural schools4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ab3 ,,fellenberg',s ,,institute ,,at ,,hofwyl4 ,the first ,agricultural and ,mechanical ,college4 ,this school contained the germ-idea of all our agricultural education4 ,by #ahaj the ,institution had begun to attract attention1 and soon pupils and visitors came from distant lands to study in and to examine the schools4 ,the agricultural school in particular aroused interest4 ,more than one hundred ,reports 7,r4 #bgb7 were published1 in ,europe and ,america1 on this very successful experiment in a combined intellectual and manual- labor type of education4 ,fellenberg died in #ahdd1 and his family discontinued the school in #ahdh4 ,fellenberg's work was a continuation of the social-regeneration conception of education held by ,pestalozzi1 and contained the germ-idea of all our agricultural and industrial education4 ,his plan was widely copied in ,switzerland1 ,germany1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states4 ,it was well suited to the ,united ,states because of the very democratic conditions then prevailing among an agricultural people possessed of but little wealth4 ,the plan of combining farming and schooling made for a time a strong appeal to ,americans1 and such schools were founded in many parts of the country4 ,the idea at first was to unite training in agriculture with schooling1 but it was soon extended to the rapidly rising mechanical pursuits as well4 ,the plan1 however1 was rather short-lived in the ,united ,states1 due to the rise of manufacturing and the opening of rich and cheap farms to the westward1 and lasted with us scarcely two decades4 ,a generation later it reappeared in the ,central ,west in the form of a new demand for colleges to teach agricultural and mechanical arts1 but with the manual-labor idea omitted4 ,this we shall refer to again1 later on 7chapter xxix74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4 ,,fellenberg 7#agga-ahdd7 ,,iv4 ,,redirection ,,of ,,the ,,elementary ,,school ,,significance ,,of ,,this ,,work4 ,though some form of parish school for the elements of religious instruction had existed in many places during the later ,middle ,ages1 and foundations providing for some type of elementary instruction had appeared here and there in almost all lands1 the elementary vernacular school1 as we have previously pointed out1 was nevertheless clearly the outcome of the ,protestant movement in the sixteenth century1 and in its origin was essentially a child of the ,church4 ,a child of the ,church1 too1 for more than two centuries the elementary vernacular school remained4 ,during these two centuries the elementary school made slow but rather unsatisfactory progress1 due largely to there being no other motive for its maintenance or expansion than the original religious purpose4 ,only in the ,new ,england ,colonies in ,north ,america1 in some of the provinces of the ,netherlands1 and in a few of the ,german ,states had any real progress been made in evolving any different type of school out of this early religious creation1 and even in these places the change was in form of control rather than in subject- matter or purpose4 ,the school remained religious in purpose1 even though its control was beginning to pass from the ,church to the ,state4 ,now1 within half a century1 beginning with the work of ,rousseau 7#agfb71 and by means of the labors of the political philosophers of ,france1 the ,revolutionary leaders in the ,american ,colonies1 the legislative ,assemblies and ,conventions in ,france1 and the experimental work of ,basedow and his followers in ,german lands and of ,pestalozzi and his disciples in ,switzerland1 the whole purpose and nature of the elementary vernacular school was changed4 ,the ,american and ,french political revolutions and the more peaceful changes in ,england had ushered in new conceptions as to the nature and purpose and duties of government4 ,as a consequence of these new ideas1 education had come to be regarded in a new light1 and to assume a new importance in the eyes of statesmen4 ,in place of schools to serve religious and sectarian ends1 and maintained as an adjunct of the parishes or of a ,state ,church1 the elementary vernacular school now came to be conceived of as an instrument of the ,state1 the chief purpose of which was to serve state ends4 ,some time would1 of course1 be required to develop the state support necessary to effect the complete transformation in control1 and the forces of reaction would naturally delay the process as much as possible1 but the theory of state purpose had at last been so effectively proclaimed1 and the forces of a modern world were pushing the idea so steadily forward1 that it was only a question of time until the change would be effected4 ,a ,,new ,,impetus ,,for ,,change ,,in ,,control4 ,basedow and ,pestalozzi1 too1 had given the movement for a transfer of control a new impetus by working out new methods in instruction and in organizing new subject-matter for the school1 and methods and subject-matter which harmonized with the spirit and principles of the new democracy that had been proclaimed4 ,pestalozzi in particular had sought1 guided by a clearer insight into the educational problem than ,basedow possessed 7,r4 #bga71 to create a school in which children might1 under the wise guidance of the teacher1 develop and strengthen their own faculties and thus evolve into reasoning1 self- directing human beings1 fitted for usefulness and service in a modern world4 ,to make intelligent and reasoning individuals of all citizens1 to develop moral and civic character1 to train for life in organized society1 and to serve as an instrument by means of which an ignorant1 drunken1 immoral1 and shiftless working-class and peasantry might be elevated into men and women of character1 intelligence1 and directive power1 was in ,pestalozzi's conception the underlying meaning of the school4 ,after ,pestalozzi1 the earlier conception as to the religious purpose of the elementary vernacular schools1 by means of which children were to be trained almost exclusively in the principles of our holy religion and to become loyal church members1 and to fit them for that station in life in which it hath pleased their ,heavenly ,father to place them1 was doomed4 ,in its stead there was certain to arise a newer conception of the school as an instrument of that form of organized society known as the ,state1 and maintained by the ,state to train its future citizens for intelligent participation in the duties and obligations of citizenship1 and for social1 moral1 and economic efficiency4 ,,the ,,way ,,now ,,becoming ,,clear4 ,after two hundred and fifty years of confusion and political failure1 the way was now at last becoming clear for the creation of national instead of church systems of elementary education1 and for the firm establishment of the elementary vernacular school as an important obligation to its future citizens of every progressive modern ,state and the common birthright of all4 ,this became distinctively the work of the nineteenth century4 ,it also became the work of the nineteenth century to gather up the old secondary-school and university foundations1 accumulated through the ages1 and remould them to meet modern needs1 fuse them into the national school systems created1 and connect them in some manner with the people's schools4 ,to see how this was done we next turn to the beginnings of the organization of national school systems in the ,german ,states1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states4 ,these may be taken as types4 ,as ,prussia was the first modern ,state to grasp the significance of national education1 and to organize state schools1 we shall begin our study by first tracing the steps by which this transformation was effected there4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,compare the statement of the valuable elements in the theories of ,rousseau 7p4 #ecj7 with the main ideas of ,basedow 7p4 #ece72 ,ratke 7p4 #fjg72 ,comenius 7p4 #dji74 #b4 ,do we accept all the fourteen points of ,rousseau's theory to-day8 #c4 ,might a ,rousseau have done work of similar importance in ,russia1 early in the twentieth century8 ,why8 #d4 ,explain the educational significance of self-activity1 sense impressions1 and harmonious development4 #e4 ,what were the strong points in the experimental work of ,basedow8 #f4 ,explain the great enthusiasm which his rather visionary statements and plans awakened4 #g4 ,show the importance of such work as that of ,basedow in preparing the way for better-organized reform work4 #h4 ,how far was ,pestalozzi right as to the power of education to give men intellectual and moral freedom8 #i4 ,what do you understand ,pestalozzi to have meant by the development of the faculties8 #aj4 ,state the importance of the work of ,pestalozzi from the point of view of showing the world how to deal with orphans and defectives4 #aa4 ,show how the germs of agricultural and technical education lay in the work of ,fellenberg4 #ab4 ,explain the greater popularity of the mile in ,german lands4 #ac4 ,state the change in subject-matter and aims from the vernacular church school to the school as thought out by ,pestalozzi4 #ad4 ,show that it was a fortunate conjunction that brought the work of ,pestalozzi alongside of that of the political reformers of ,france4 #ae4 ,what differences might there have been had ,comenius lived and done his work in the time of ,pestalozzi8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections1 illustrative of the contents of this chapter1 are reproduced3 #bfd4 ,rousseau3 ,illustrative ,selections from the mile4 #bfe4 ,basedow3 ,instruction in the ,philanthropinum4 #bff4 ,basedow3 ,a ,page from the ,elementarwerk4 #bfg4 ,pestalozzi3 ,explanation of his ,work4 #bfh4 ,griscom3 ,a ,visit to ,pestalozzi at ,yverdon4 #bfi4 ,woodbridge3 ,an ,estimate of ,pestalozzi's ,work4 #bgj4 ,dr4 ,mayo3 ,on ,pestalozzi4 #bga4 ,woodbridge3 ,work of ,pestalozzi and ,basedow compared4 #bgb4 ,griscom3 ,hofwyl as seen by an ,american4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,show the fallacy of ,rousseau's reasoning 7#bfd d7 as to society being a denominator which prevents man from realizing himself4 #b4 ,what are the elements of truth and falsity in ,rousseau's idling-to-the- twelfth-year 7#bfd d7 idea8 #c4 ,would such a training up to twelve 7#bfd e7 be possible1 or desirable8 #d4 ,what type of education is presupposed in #bfd f8 #e4 ,show the similarity in the conceptions of the ,orbis ,pictus 7#bba7 and the ,elementarwerk 7#bff74 #f4 ,what types of schools and conceptions of education were combined in the ,philanthropinum 7#bfe78 #g4 ,just what did ,pestalozzi attempt 7#bfg7 to accomplish8 #h4 ,compare the accounts as to purpose and instruction given by ,pestalozzi 7#bfg7 and ,griscom 7#bfh74 #i4 ,what do the tributes of ,woodbridge 7#bfi7 and ,mayo 7#bgj7 reveal as to the character of ,pestalozzi and his influence8 #aj4 ,analyze the courses of instruction 7#bgb7 at ,hofwyl4 #aa4 ,state the points of similarity and difference between the work of ,basedow and ,pestalozzi 7#bga71 and the points of superiority in the work of ,pestalozzi4 ,,selected ,,references 99 ,anderson1 ,l4 ,f4 ,the ,manual-,labor-,school ,movement2 in ,educational ,review1 vol4 #df1 pp4 #cfi-hh4 7,november1 #aiac47 ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,pestalozzi and his ,educational ,system4 99 ,compayr1 ,g4 ,jean-,jacques ,rousseau4 99 ,compayr1 ,g4 ,pestalozzi and ,elementary ,education4 99 ,guimps1 ,roger de4 ,pestalozzi3 his ,aim and ,work4 99 ,krsi1 ,hermann1 ,jr4 ,life and ,work of ,pestalozzi4 99 ,parker ,s4 ,c4 ,history of ,modern ,education1 chaps4 #h1 #i1 #ac-af4 99 ,pestalozzi1 ,j4 ,h4 ,leonard and ,gertrude4 ,pestalozzi1 ,j4 ,h4 ,how ,gertrude teaches her ,children4 ,pinloche1 ,a4 ,pestalozzi and the ,foundations of the ,modern ,elementary ,school4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,national ,,organization ,,in ,,prussia ,i4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,national ,,organization ,,early ,,german ,,progress ,,in ,,school ,,organization4 ,the first modern nation to take over the school from the ,church1 and to make of it an instrument for promoting the interests of the ,state was ,prussia1 and the example of ,prussia was soon followed by the other ,german ,states4 ,the reasons for this early action by the ,german ,states will be clear if we remember the marked progress made in establishing state control of the churches 7p4 #cah7 which followed the ,protestant ,revolts in ,german lands4 ,figure #if1 page #cai1 rexamined now1 will make the reason for the earlier evolution of state education in ,germany plain4 ,wrtemberg1 as early as #aeei1 had organized the first ,german state-church school system1 and had made attendance at the religious instruction1 compulsory on the parents of all children4 ,the example of ,wrtemberg was followed by ,brunswick 7#aefi71 ,saxony 7#aehj71 ,weimar 7#afai71 and ,gotha 7#afdb74 ,in ,weimar and ,gotha the compulsory- attendance idea had even been adopted for elementary-school instruction to all children up to the age of twelve4 ,by the middle of the seventeenth century most of the ,german ,states1 even including ,catholic ,bavaria1 had followed the example of ,wrtemberg1 and had created a state-church school system which involved at least elementary and secondary schools and the beginnings of compulsory school attendance4 ,notwithstanding the ravages of the ,thirty ,years' ,war 7#afah- #dh71 the state-church schools of ,german lands contained1 more definitely than had been worked out elsewhere1 the germs of a separate state school organization4 ,only in the ,american ,colonies 7p4 #cfd7 had an equal development in state-church organization and control been made4 ,as state- church schools1 with the religious purpose dominant1 the ,german schools remained until near the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,then a new movement for state control began1 and within fifty years thereafter they had been transformed into institutions of the ,state1 with the state purpose their most essential characteristic4 ,how this transformation was effected in ,prussia1 the leader among the ,german ,states1 and the forces which brought about the transformation1 it will be the purpose of this chapter to relate4 ,,the ,,new ,,university ,,of ,,halle4 ,the turning-point in the history of ,german educational progress was the founding of the ,university of ,halle1 in #afid4 ,this institution1 due to its entirely new methods of work1 has usually been designated as the first modern university4 ,a few forward-looking men1 men who had been expelled from ,leipzig because of their critical attitude and modern ways of thinking1 were made professors here4 ,its creation was due to the sympathy for these men felt by the ,elector ,friedrich ,,iii of ,brandenburg1 later the first ,king of ,prussia4 ,the ,king clearly intended that the new institution should be representative of modern tendencies in education4 ,to this end he installed as professors men who could and would reform the instruction in theology1 law1 medicine1 and philosophy4 ,in consequence ,aristotle was displaced for the new scientific philosophy of ,descartes and ,bacon1 and ,latin in the classrooms for the ,german speech4 ,the sincere pietistic faith of ,francke 7p4 #dah7 was substituted for the ,lutheran dogmatism which had supplanted the earlier ,catholic4 ,the instruction in law was reformed to accord with the modern needs and theory of the ,state4 ,medical instruction1 based on observation1 experimentation1 and deduction1 superseded instruction based on the reading of ,hippocrates and ,galen4 ,the new sciences1 especially mathematics and physics1 found a congenial home in the philosophical or arts faculty4 ,free scientific investigation and research1 without interference from the theological faculty1 were soon established as features of the institution1 and in place of the fixed scientific knowledge taught for so long from the texts of ,aristotle 7,rs4 #aac-ae7 and other ancients1 a new and changing science1 that must prove its laws and axioms1 and which might at any time be changed by the investigation of any teacher or student1 here now found a home4 ,under the leadership of ,christian ,wolff1 who was ,professor of ,philosophy from #agjg to #agbc1 when he was banished by a new ,king at the instigation of the ,pietists for his too great liberalism in religion1 and again from #agdj to #aged1 after his recall by ,frederick the ,great1 #a philosophy was made to speak ,german and the ,aristotelian philosophy was permanently displaced4 ,no thing without sufficient cause was the ruling principle of ,wolff's teaching4 ,,changes ,,wrought ,,in ,,old ,,established ,,procedure4 ,the introduction of the new scientific and mathematical and philosophical studies soon changed the arts or philosophy faculty from a preparatory faculty for the faculties of law1 medicine1 and theology1 as it had been for centuries1 to the equal of these three professional faculties in importance1 while the elementary instruction in ,latin and ,greek was now relegated to the ,gymnasia below4 ,these were now in turn changed into preparatory schools for all four faculties of the university4 ,the university instruction in the ancient languages was now placed on a much higher plane1 and a new humanistic renaissance took place 7p4 #dfb7 which deeply influenced both university and gymnasial training4 ,new standards of taste and judgment were drawn from the ancient literatures and applied to modern life1 and students were trained to read and enjoy the ancient classics4 ,this reawakening of the best spirit of the ,italian ,renaissance marked the first outburst of a national feeling of a people as yet possessed of no national literature of importance1 but unwilling longer to depend on foreign 7,french7 influences for the cultural elements in their intellectual life4 ,it was at ,halle1 too1 that ,gundling1 in #agaa1 discussed the office of a university and laid down the modern university theory of ,lehrfreiheit und ,lernfreiheit--that is1 freedom from outside interference in teaching and studying1 both teachers and students to be free to follow the truth wherever the truth might lead1 and without reference to what preconceived theories might be upset thereby4 ,this was a revolution in university procedure1 #b and the importance of the establishment of this new conception of university work can scarcely be overestimated4 ,it was a contribution to intellectual progress of large future value4 ,it meant the end of the old-type university1 ruled by a narrow theological dogmatism and maintained to give support to a particular religious faith1 and the ultimate transformation of the old university foundations into institutions actuated by the methods and purposes of a modern world4 ,in #agcd another new university was founded at ,gttingen1 and in this ,johann ,matthias ,gesner 7#afia-agfa7 raised the new humanistic learning to the place of first importance4 ,this new university became a nursery for the new literary humanism1 ably supplementing the work done at ,halle4 ,from these two universities teachers of a new type went out1 filled with the spirit of ,the ,enlightenment1 as this eighteenth-century ,german renaissance was called1 and they in time regenerated all the ,german universities4 ,still more1 they regenerated the secondary schools of ,german lands as well1 and gave ,greek literature and life that place of first importance in their instruction which was retained until the latter part of the nineteenth century4 ,gesner at ,gttingen1 and later ,ernesti at ,leipzig1 did much to formulate the new pedagogical purpose #c of instruction in the ancient languages and literatures for the higher schools of ,german lands4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,school ,,laws ,,for ,,prussia4 ,in #agac there came to the kingship of ,prussia an organizing genius in the person of ,frederic ,william ,i 7#agac- #dj74 ,under his direction ,prussia was given1 for the first time1 a centralized and uniform financial administration1 and the beginnings of state school organization were made4 ,he freed the ,state from debt1 provided it with a good income1 developed a strong army1 and began a vigorous colonization and commercial policy4 ,though he cared nothing and did nothing for the universities1 the religious reform movement of ,francke1 as well as his educational undertakings 7p4 #dai71 found in the new ,king a warm supporter4 ,largely in consequence of this the ,king became deeply interested in attempts to improve and advance the education of the masses of his people4 ,the first year of his reign he issued a ,regulatory ,code for the ,reformed ,evangelical and ,latin schools of ,prussia1 and in #agag he issued the so- called ,advisory ,order1 relating to the people's schools4 ,in this latter parents were urged1 under penalty of vigorous punishment1 to send their children to school to learn religion1 reading1 writing1 to calculate1 and all that could serve to promote their happiness and welfare4 ,the tuition fees of poor children he ordered paid out of the community poor-box 7,r4 #bgc74 ,the following year he directed the authorities of ,lithuania to relieve the existing ignorance there1 and sent commissioners to provide the villages with schoolmasters4 ,from time to time he renewed his directions4 ,to insure a better class of teachers for the towns and rural schools1 he1 in #agbb1 directed that no one be admitted to the office of sacristan-schoolmaster #d except tailors1 weavers1 smiths1 wheelwrights1 and carpenters1 and in #agch he further restricted the position of teacher in the town and rural schools to tailors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4 ,,the ,,school ,,of ,a ,,handworker ,conducted in his home4 ,a gentleman visiting the school4 ,after a drawing in the ,german ,school ,museum in ,berlin4 ,becoming especially interested in providing schools for the previously neglected province of ,east ,prussia1 he gave the sum of fifty thousand thalers as an endowment fund1 the interest to be used in assisting communities to build schoolhouses and maintain schools1 and he also set aside large tracts of land for school uses4 ,within a few years over a thousand elementary schools had been established1 and some eighteen hundred new schools in ,prussia owed their origin to the interest of this ,king4 ,he also took a similar interest in the establishment of schools in ,pomerania 7,r4 #bgc71 a part of which had but recently been wrested from ,sweden4 ,in #agcg the ,king issued his celebrated ,principia ,regulative1 which henceforth became the fundamental ,school ,law for the province of ,east ,prussia4 ,this prescribed conditions for the building of schoolhouses1 the support of the schoolmaster1 tuition fees1 and government aid4 ,the following digest of the section of the ,principia relating to these matters gives a good idea as to the nature of the school regulations the ,king sought to enforce3 #a4 ,the parishes forming school societies were obliged to build school- houses and to keep them in repair4 #b4 ,the ,state was to furnish the necessary timber and firewood4 #c4 ,the expenses for doors1 windows1 and stoves to be obtained from collections4 #d4 ,every church to pay four thalers a year toward the support of the schoolmaster4 #e4 ,tuition fees for each child1 from four to twelve years of age1 to be four groschen per year4 #f4 ,government to pay the fee when a peasant sends more than one child to school4 #g4 ,the peasants to furnish the teacher with certain provisions4 #h4 ,the teacher to have the right of free pasture for his small stock and some fees from every child confirmed4 #i4 ,government to give the teacher one acre of land1 which villagers were to till for him4 ,in #agch the ,king further regulated the private schools and teachers in and about ,berlin1 in particular dealing with their qualifications and fees4 ,the ,king showed1 for the time1 an interest in and solicitude for the education of his people heretofore almost unknown4 ,that his decrees were in advance of the possibilities of the people in the matter of school support is not to be wondered at4 ,still1 they rendered useful service in preparing the way for further organizing work by his successors1 and in particular in accustoming the people to the ideas of state oversight and local school support4 ,under his successor and son1 ,frederick the ,great1 the preparatory work of the father bore important fruit4 ,,the ,,organizing ,,work ,,of ,,frederick ,,the ,,great4 ,in #agdj ,frederick ,,ii1 surnamed the ,great1 succeeded his father1 and in turn guided the destinies of ,prussia for forty-six years4 ,his benevolently despotic rule has been described on a preceding page 7p4 #dgd74 ,here we will consider only his work for education4 ,in #agdj1 #agda1 and again in #agdc he issued regulations concerning the support of schools in the villages of ,prussia1 in which he directed that new schools should be established1 teachers provided for them1 and that the existing school regulations and the arrangements made in pursuance thereto should be permanent1 and that no change should be made under any pretext whatever4 ,in #agej he effected a centralization of all the provincial church consistories1 except that of ,catholic ,silesia1 under the ,berlin ,consistory4 ,this was a centralizing measure of large future importance1 as it centralized the administration of the schools1 as well as that of the churches1 and transformed the ,berlin ,consistory into an important administrative agent of the central government4 ,to this new centralized administrative organization the ,king issued instructions to pay special attention to schools1 in order that they might be furnished with able schoolmasters and the young be well educated4 ,one of the results of this centralization was the gradual evolution of the modern ,german ,gymnasien1 with uniform standards and improved instruction1 out of the old and weakened ,latin schools of various types within the kingdom4 ,from #agef to #agfc ,frederick was engaged in a struggle for existence1 known as the ,seven ,years' ,war1 but as soon as peace was at hand the ,king issued new regulations concerning the maintenance of schools1 and began employing competent schoolmasters for his royal estates4 ,in ,april1 #agfc1 he issued instructions to have a series of general school regulations prepared for all ,prussia4 ,these were drawn up by ,julius ,hecker1 a former pupil and teacher in ,francke's ,institution 7p4 #dah7 and now a pastor in ,berlin and counselor for the ,berlin ,consistory4 ,after approval by the ,king1 these were issued1 ,september #bc1 #agfc1 under the title of ,general ,land-,schule ,reglement 7general school regulations for the rural and village schools7 of all ,prussia 7,r4 #bgd74 ,these new regulations constituted the first general ,school ,code for the whole kingdom1 and mark the real foundation of the ,prussian elementary-school system4 ,two years later 7#agfe7 a similar but stronger set of regulations or ,code was drawn up and promulgated for the government of the ,catholic elementary schools in the province of ,silesia 7,r4 #bge74 ,this was a new province which ,frederick had wrested by force a few years previously 7#agdh7 from ,maria ,theresa of ,austria1 and the addition of a large number of ,catholics to ,prussia caused ,frederick to issue specific regulations for schools among them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4 ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,prussia1 #agdj-hf ,these two ,school ,codes did not so much bring already existing schools into a state system1 but rather set up standards and obligations for an elementary-school system in part to be created in the future4 ,the schools were still left under the supervision and direction of the ,church1 but the ,state now undertook to tell the ,church what it must do4 ,to enforce the obligation the ,state ,inspectors of ,prussia were directed to make an annual inspection 7,r4 #bgd1 #bf7 of all schools1 and to forward a report on their inspection to the ,berlin ,consistory1 and for ,catholic ,silesia the following significant injunction was placed in the ,code3 #ea4 ,in order to render as permanent as possible this reform of schools1 which lies near our heart1 we cannot be satisfied with committing the care of the schools to the clergy alone4 ,we find it necessary that our bureau of ,war and ,domain1 the bureau of the ,episcopal ,vicariate1 and the dioceses in our ,silesian and ,glatz districts1 as well as our special school inspectors1 give all due attention to this subject1 so important to the ,state4 ,,the ,,prussian ,,school ,,codes ,,of #agfc ,,and #agfe4 ,the regulations of #agfc were issued1 so the introduction reads 7,r4 #bgd71 because the instruction of youth in the country had come to be greatly neglected and the young people were growing up in stupidity and ignorance4 ,the ,king1 therefore1 issued the new regulations to the end that ignorance1 so injurious and unbecoming to ,christianity1 may be prevented and lessened1 and the coming time may train and educate in the schools more enlightened and virtuous subjects4 ,to this end the ,king ordered compulsory education for the children of all subjects from the ages of five to thirteen or fourteen1 all apprentices to be taught1 and leaving certificates to be issued on completion of the course 7,r4 #bgd1 #a-d74 ,the school hours were fixed1 ,sunday and summer instruction regulated1 tuition fees standardized1 and the fees of the children of the poor were ordered paid 7,r4 #bgd1 #e-h74 ,a school census1 and fines on parents not sending their children to school were provided for 7,r4 #bgd1 #aj-aa74 ,the requirements for a teacher1 his habits1 his qualifications and examination1 the license to teach1 and the extent to which he might ply his trade or business1 were all laid down in some detail 7,r4 #bgd #ab-ag74 ,the organization1 instruction1 textbooks1 order of exercises1 and discipline for all schools were prescribed at some length 7,r4 #bgd1 #ai-ba74 ,the ,code closed with a series of regulations covering the relations of the schoolmaster and clergyman1 and the supervision of the instruction by the clergyman and clerical superintendents 7,r4 #bgd1 #be-bf74 ,incapable teachers were ordered suspended or deposed4 ,a a final injunction relative to school attendance the ,code closed with the following sentence3 ,in general we here confirm and renew all wholesome laws1 published in former times1 especially1 that no clergyman shall admit to confirmation and the sacrament1 any children not of his parish1 nor those unable to read1 or who are ignorant of the fundamental principles of evangelical religion4 ,the ,code of #agfe for the ,catholic schools of ,silesia followed much the same line as the ,code of #agfc1 though in it the ,king placed special emphasis on the training of schoolmasters1 a subject in which he had become much interested 7,r4 #bge a72 the regulation of the conditions under which teachers lived and worked 7,r4 #bge b72 and the supervision of instruction by the clergyman of the parish 7,r4 #bge e74 ,these directions throw much light on the conditions surrounding teaching near the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,the nature of instruction in the ,catholic schools1 and the compulsion to attend1 were also definitely stated 7,r4 #bge c-d74 ,these new ,codes met with resistance everywhere4 ,the money for the execution of such a comprehensive project was not as yet generally available2 parents and churches objected to taxation and to the loss of their children from work2 the wealthy landlords objected to the financial burden2 the standards for teachers later on 7#aggi7 had to be lowered1 and veterans from ,frederick's wars installed2 and the examinations of teachers had to be made easy #e to secure teachers at all for the schools4 ,while there continued for some decades to be a vast difference between the actual conditions in the schools and the requirements of these ,codes1 and while the real establishment of a state school system awaited the first decade of the nineteenth century for its accomplishment1 much valuable progress in organization nevertheless was made4 ,in principle1 at least1 ,frederick the ,great1 by the ,codes of #agfc and #agfe1 effected for elementary education a transition from the church school of the ,protestant ,reformation1 and for ,catholic ,silesia from the parish school of the ,church1 to the state school of the nineteenth century4 ,it remained only for his successors to realize in practice what he had made substantial beginnings of in law4 ,nowhere else in ,europe that early had such progress in educational organization been made4 ,,the ,,prussian ,,example ,,followed ,,in ,,other ,,german ,,states4 ,the example of ,prussia was in time followed by the other larger ,german ,states4 ,wrtemberg issued a new ,school ,code in #agib1 which remained the ruling law for the church schools throughout the eighteenth century4 ,the ,saxon ,king1 ,augustus the ,just1 inspired by the example of ,frederick1 issued a mandate1 in #agff1 reminding parents as to their duty to send children to school1 and in #aggc issued a new ,regulation1 filled with generous enthusiasm for the cause4 ,a teachers' training-school was founded at ,dresden1 in #aghh1 and four others before the close of the century4 ,in #ahje a comprehensive ,code was issued4 ,this required that every child must be able to read1 write1 count1 and know the truths of religion to receive the sacrament2 clergymen were ordered to supervise the schools2 school attendance was required from six to fourteen2 the pay of teachers and the government appropriations for schools were increased2 and a series of fines were imposed for violations of the ,code4 ,bavaria issued new school ,codes in #aggj and #aggh1 and additional schoolhouses were built and new textbooks written4 ,after the suppression of the ,jesuits 7#aggc7 a new progressive spirit animated the ,catholic ,states1 and ,austria in particular1 under the leadership of ,maria ,theresa and ,joseph ,,ii 7p4 #dge71 made marked progress in school organization and educational reform4 ,in #aggj ,maria ,theresa appointed a ,school ,commission to have charge of education in ,lower ,austria2 in #agga established the first ,austrian normal school in ,vienna2 and in #aggd promulgated a ,general ,school ,code 7,r4 #bgf71 drawn up by the ,abbot ,felbiger1 who had been most prominent in school organization in ,silesia4 ,this ,code provided for ,school ,commissions in all provinces #f ordered the establishment of an elementary school in all villages and parishes1 a principal or higher elementary school in the principal city of every canton1 and a normal school in every province2 laid down the course of study for each2 and gave details as to teachers1 instruction1 compulsory attendance1 support1 and inspection similar to ,frederick's ,silesian ,code 7,r4 #bge74 ,continuation instruction up to twenty years of age also was ordered4 ,that such demands were much in advance of what was possible is evident1 and it is not surprising that1 in the reaction under ,francis ,i1 following the outburst of the ,french ,revolution1 we find a decree 7#ahje7 that the elementary school shall be curtailed to absolutely necessary limits1 and that the common people shall get in elementary school only such ideas as will not trouble them in their work1 and which will not make them discontented with their condition2 their intelligence shall be directed toward the fulfillment of their moral duties1 and prudent and diligent fulfillment of their domestic and communal obligations4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,teacher-,,training4 ,the beginning of teacher-training in ,german lands was the ,seminarium ,praceptorum of ,francke1 established at ,halle 7p4 #dai71 in #afig4 ,in #agch ,johann ,julius ,hecker 7#agjg-fh71 one of ,francke's former students and teachers1 and the author of the ,prussian ,code of #agfc1 established the first regular seminary for teachers in ,prussia1 to train intending theological students for the temporary or parallel occupation of teaching in the ,latin schools4 ,in #agdg he established a private ,lehrerseminar in ,berlin1 in connection with his celebrated ,realschule 7p4 #dbj71 and there demonstrated the possibilities of teacher-training4 ,frederick the ,great was so pleased with the result that1 in #agec1 he gave the school a subsidy and changed it into a royal institution1 and on every fitting occasion recommended school authorities to it for teachers4 ,similar institutions were opened in ,hanover1 in #agea2 ,wolfenbttel1 in #agec2 in the county of ,glatz in ,silesia1 in #agfd 7,r4 #bge72 in ,breslau1 in #agfe and #agfg2 and in ,carlsruhe1 in #agfh4 ,in the ,silesian ,code of #agfe ,frederick specified 7,r4 #bge a1 #b7 six institutions which he had designated as teacher-training schools4 ,these early ,prussian institutions laid the foundations upon which the normal-school system of the nineteenth century has been built4 ,in ,prussia first1 but soon thereafter in other ,german ,states 7,austria1 at ,vienna1 #agga2 ,saxe-,weimar1 at ,eisenach1 in #aghc2 and ,saxony1 at ,dresden1 #aghh7 the ,teachers' ,seminary was erected into an important institution of the ,state1 and the idea has since been copied by almost all modern nations4 ,this early development in ,prussia was influential in both ,france and the ,united ,states1 as we shall point out further on4 ,despite these many important educational efforts1 though1 the type and the work of teachers remained low throughout the whole of the eighteenth century4 ,in the rural and village schools the teachers continued to be deficient in number and lacking in preparation4 ,often the pastors had first to give to invalids1 cripples1 shoemakers1 tailors1 watchmen1 and herdsmen the rudimentary knowledge they in turn imparted to the children4 ,in the towns of fair size the conditions were not much better than in the villages4 ,the elementary school of the middle-sized towns generally had but one class1 common for boys and girls1 and the magistrates did little to improve the condition of the schools or the teachers4 ,in the larger cities1 and even in ,berlin1 the number of elementary schools was insufficient1 the schools were crowded1 and many children had no opportunity to attend schools4 #g ,in ,leipzig there was no public school until #agib1 in which year the city free school was established4 ,even ,sunday schools1 supported by subscription1 had been resorted to by ,berlin1 after #agih1 to provide journeymen and apprentices with some of the rudiments of an education4 ,the creation of a state school system out of the insufficient and inefficient religious schools proved a task of large dimensions1 in ,prussia as in other lands4 ,even as late as #ahai ,dinter found discouraging conditions 7,r4 #bgi7 among the teachers of ,east ,prussia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4 ,a ,,german ,,late ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,school 7,after a picture in the ,german ,school ,museum in ,berlin7 ,,further ,,late ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,progress4 ,frederick the ,great died in #aghf4 ,in the reign of his successors his work bore fruit in a complete transfer of all schools from church to state control1 and in the organization of the strongest system of state schools the world had ever known4 ,the year following the death of ,frederick the ,great 7#aghg71 and largely as an outgrowth of the preceding centralizing work with reference to elementary education1 the ,superior ,school 7,oberschulcollegium7 ,board was established to exercise a similar centralized control over the older secondary and higher schools of ,prussia4 ,secondary and higher education were now severed from church control1 in principle at least1 as elementary education had been by the ,regulations of #agfc and #agfe4 ,the year following 7#aghh7 ,leaving ,examinations 7,maturittsprfung7 were instituted to determine the completion of the gymnasial course4 ,these1 for a time1 were largely ineffective1 due to clerical opposition1 but the centralizing work of this ,superior ,school ,board for the supervision of higher education1 and the state examinations for testing the instruction of the secondary schools1 were from the first important contributing influences4 ,in #agid came the culmination of all the preceding work in the publication of the ,general ,civil ,code 7,allgemeine ,landrecht7 for the ,state1 in which1 in the section relating to schools1 the following important declaration was made3 ,schools and universities are state institutions1 charged with the instruction of youth in useful information and scientific knowledge4 ,such institutions may be founded only with the knowledge and consent of the ,state4 ,all public schools and educational institutions are under the supervision of the ,state1 and are at all times subject to its examination and inspection4 ,the secular authority and the clergy were still to share jointly in the control of the schools1 but both according to rules laid down by the ,state4 ,in all cases of conflict or dispute1 the secular authority was to decide4 ,this important document forms the ,magna ,charta for secular education in ,prussia4 ,during the decade which followed the promulgation of this declaration of state control but little additional progress of importance was accomplished1 though the ,minister of ,justice1 to whom 7#agih7 the administration of ,lutheran church and school affairs had been given1 maintained a correspondence for some years with the ,king regarding provisions for a better education and instruction of the children of citizens and peasants1 and stated to the ,king that the object of reform is national education1 and its field of operation1 therefore1 all provinces of the monarchy4 ,the ,king1 though1 a weak1 deeply religious1 and unimaginative man 7,frederick ,william ,,iii1 #agig-ahdj71 who lacked the energy and foresight of his predecessors1 did little or nothing4 ,under ,frederick ,william ,,iii the ,state lacked vigor and drifted2 the ,church regained something of its former power2 and the army and the civil service became corrupt4 ,in #ahjf a blow fell which brought matters to an immediate crisis and forced important action4 ,,ii4 ,a ,,state ,,school ,,system ,,at ,,last ,,created ,,the ,,humiliation ,,of ,,prussia4 ,at the close of #ahjd ,france1 by vote1 changed from the ,republic to an ,empire1 with ,napoleon ,bonaparte as first ,emperor of the ,french1 and for some years he took pains that ,frenchmen should forget ,liberty and ,equality amid the surfeit of ,glory he heaped upon ,france4 ,the great nations outside ,france1 fearful of ,napoleon's ambition and power1 did not take his accession to the throne of ,france so complacently1 and1 in #ahje1 ,england1 ,sweden1 ,austria1 and ,russia formed the ,third ,coalition against ,napoleon in an effort to restore the balance of power in ,europe4 ,of the great powers of ,europe only ,prussia held aloof1 refused to take sides1 and in consequence enjoyed a temporary prosperity and freedom from invasion4 ,for this1 though1 she was soon to pay a terrible price4 ,having humiliated the ,austrians and vanquished the ,russians1 ,napoleon now goaded the ,prussians into attacking him1 and then utterly humiliated them in turn4 ,at the battle of ,jena 7,october #ad1 #ahjf7 the ,prussian army was utterly routed1 and forced back almost to the ,russian frontier4 ,officered by old generals and political favorites who were no longer efficient1 and backed by a state service honeycombed with inefficiency and corruption1 the ,prussian army that had won such victories under ,frederick the ,great was all but annihilated by the new and efficient fighting machine created by the ,corsican who now controlled the destinies of ,france4 ,by the ,treaty of ,tilsit 7,july #g1 #ahjg7 ,prussia lost all her lands west of the ,elbe and nearly all her stealings from ,poland--in all about one half her territory and population--and was almost stricken from the list of important powers in ,europe4 ,in all its history ,prussia had experienced no such humiliation as this4 ,in a few months the constructive work of a century had been undone4 ,,the ,,regeneration ,,of ,,prussia4 ,the new national ,german feeling1 which had been slowly rising for half a century1 now burst forth and soon worked a regeneration of the ,state4 ,in the school of adversity the ,king and the people learned much1 and the task of national reorganization was entrusted to a series of able ministers whom the ,king and his capable ,queen1 ,louise1 now called into service4 ,his chief minister1 ,stein1 created a free people by abolishing serfdom and feudal land tenure 7#ahjg72 eliminated feudal distinctions in business2 granted local government to the cities2 and broke the hold of the clergy on the educational system4 ,his successor1 ,hardenburg1 extended the rights of citizenship1 and laid the foundations of government by legislative assemblies4 ,another minister1 ,scharnhorst1 reorganized the ,prussian army 7#ahjg-ac7 by dismissing nearly all the old generals1 and introducing the principle of compulsory military service4 ,in all branches of the government service there were reorganizations1 the one thought of the leaders being to so reorganize and revitalize the ,state as to enable it in time to overthrow the rule of ,napoleon and regain its national independence4 ,though the abolition of serfdom1 the reform of the civil service1 and the beginnings of local and representative government were important gains1 nothing was of secondary importance to the complete reorganization of education which now took place4 ,the education of the people was turned to in earnest for the regeneration of the national spirit1 and education was1 in a decade1 made the great constructive agent of the ,state4 ,said the ,king3 ,though we have lost many square miles of land1 though the country has been robbed of its external power and splendor1 yet we shall and will gain in intrinsic power and splendor1 and therefore it is my earnest wish that the greatest attention be paid to public instruction4444 ,the ,state must regain in mental force what it has lost in physical force4 ,his minister ,stein said3 ,we proceed from the fundamental principle1 to elevate the moral1 religious1 and patriotic spirit in the nation1 to instil into it again courage1 self-reliance1 and readiness to sacrifice everything for national honor and for independence from the foreigner4444 ,to attain this end1 we must mainly rely on the education and instruction of the young4 ,if by a method founded on the true nature of man1 every faculty of the mind can be developed1 every noble principle of life be animated and nourished1 all one-sided education avoided1 and those tendencies on which the power and dignity of men rest1 hitherto neglected with the greatest indifference1 carefully fostered--then we may hope to see grow up a generation1 physically and morally vigorous1 and the beginnings of a better time4 ,,fichte ,,appeals ,,to ,,the ,,leaders4 ,still more did the philosopher ,fichte 7#agfb-ahad71 in a series of ,addresses to the ,german ,nation1 delivered in ,berlin during the winter #h of #ahjg-jh1 appeal to the leaders to turn to education to rescue the ,state from the miseries which had overwhelmed it4 ,unable forcibly to resist1 and with every phase of the government determined by a foreign conqueror1 only education had been overlooked1 he said1 and to this the leaders should turn for national redemption 7,r4 #bgg74 ,he held that it rested with them to determine whether you will be the end and last of a race 444 or the beginnings and germ of a new time1 glorious beyond all your imaginings1 and those from whom posterity will reckon the years of their welfare4444 ,a nation that is capable1 if it were only in its highest representation and leaders1 of fixing its eyes firmly on the vision from the spiritual world1 ,independence1 and being possessed with a love of it1 will surely prevail over a nation that is only used as a tool of foreign aggressiveness and for the subjugation of independent nations4 ,with a fervor of emotion that was characteristic of a romantic age1 impelled by a conviction that the distinctive character of the ,german people was indispensable to the world1 and holding that what was necessary also was possible1 ,fichte made the ,german leaders feel1 with him1 that to reshape reality by means of ideas is the business of man1 his proper earthly task2 and nothing can be impossible to a will confident of itself and of its aim4 #i ,illustration3 ,,plate #ac4 ,,two ,,leaders ,,in ,,the ,,regeneration ,,of ,,prussia ,,johann ,,gottleib ,,fichte 7#agfb-ahad7 ,philosopher1 university teacher ,,wilhelm ,,von ,,humboldt 7#agfg-ahce7 ,philosopher1 scholar1 statesman ,fichte's ,addresses stirred the thinkers among the ,german people as they had not been stirred since the days of the ,reformation1 #aj and a national reorganization of education1 with national ends in view1 now took place4 ,as ,duke ,ernest remade ,gotha1 after the ravages of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 by means of education 7p4 #cag71 so the leaders of ,prussia now created a new national spirit by taking over the school from the ,church and forging it into one of the greatest constructive instruments of the ,state4 ,the result showed itself in the ,uprising of ,prussia1 in the winter of #ahab-ac2 the ,war of ,liberation1 of #ahac-ae2 the utter defeat of ,napoleon at the battle of ,leipzig by ,russia1 ,prussia1 and ,austria1 in #ahac2 and again at the battle of ,waterloo by ,england and ,prussia1 #aa in #ahae4 ,still more clearly was the result shown in the humiliating defeat of ,france1 in #ahgj1 when it was commonly remarked that the schoolmaster of ,prussia had at last triumphed4 ,the regeneration of ,prussia in the early part of the nineteenth century1 as well as its more recent humiliation1 stand as eloquent testimonials to the tremendous influence of education on national destiny1 when rightly and when wrongly directed4 ,,the ,,reorgination ,,of ,,elementary ,,education4 ,the first step in the process of educational reorganization was the abolition 7#ahjg7 of the ,oberschulcollegium ,board1 established 7p4 #efd7 in #aghg to supervise secondary and higher education1 in order to get rid of clerical influence and control4 ,the next step was the creation instead 7#ahjh7 of a ,department of ,public ,instruction1 organized as a branch of the ,interior ,department of the ,state4 ,one of the first steps of the acting head of the new department was to send seventeen ,prussian teachers 7#ahjh7 to ,switzerland to spend three years1 at the expense of the ,government1 in studying ,pestalozzi's ideas and methods1 and they were particularly enjoined that they were not sent primarily to get the mechanical side of the method1 but to warm yourselves at the sacred fire which burns in the heart of this man1 so full of strength and love1 whose work has remained so far below what he originally desired1 below the essential ideas of his life1 of which the method is only a feeble product4 ,you will have reached perfection when you have clearly seen that education is an art1 and the most sublime and holy of all1 and in what connection it is with the great art of the education of nations4 ,in #ahji ,carl ,august ,zeller 7#aggd-ahdg71 a pupil of ,pestalozzi1 who had established two ,pestalozzian training-colleges in ,switzerland and had just begun to hold ,pestalozzian institutes in ,wrtemberg 7p4 #ede71 was called to ,prussia to organize a ,teachers' ,seminary 7normal school7 to train teachers in the ,pestalozzian methods4 ,the seventeen ,prussian teachers1 on their return from study with ,pestalozzi1 were also made directors of training institutions1 or provincial superintendents of instruction4 ,in this way ,pestalozzian ideas were soon in use in the elementary school rooms of ,prussia1 and so effective was this work1 and so readily did the ,prussian teachers catch the spirit of ,pestalozzi's endeavors1 that at the ,berlin celebration of the centennial of his birth1 in #ahdf1 the ,german educator ,diesterweg #ab said3 ,by these men and these means1 men trained in the ,institution at ,yverdon under ,pestalozzi1 the study of his publications1 and the applications of his methods in the model and normal schools of ,prussia1 after #ahjh1 was the present ,prussian1 or rather ,prussian- ,pestalozzian school system established1 for he is entitled to at least one half the fame of the ,german popular schools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4 ,,dinter 7#agfj-ahca7 ,director of ,teachers' ,seminaries in ,saxony2 ,superintendent of ,education in ,east ,prussia4 ,similarly ,gustavus ,friedrich ,dinter1 who early distinguished himself as principal of a ,teachers' ,seminary in ,saxony1 was called to ,prussia and made ,school ,counselor 7,superintendent7 for the province of ,east ,prussia4 ,wherever ,prussia could find men1 in other ,states1 who knew ,pestalozzian methods and possessed the new conception of education1 they were called to ,prussia and put to work1 and the statement of ,dinter was characteristic of the spirit which animated their work4 ,he said3 #ac ,i promised ,god1 that ,i would look upon every ,prussian peasant child as a being who could complain of me before ,god1 if ,i did not provide him with the best education1 as a man and a ,christian1 which it was possible for me to provide4 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,teachers ,,seminaries4 ,napoleon had imposed heavy financial indemnities on ,prussia1 as well as loss of territory1 and the material means with which to establish schools were scanty indeed4 ,with a keen conception of the practical difficulties1 the leaders saw that the key to the problem lay in the creation of a new type of teaching force1 and to this end they began from the first to establish ,teachers' ,seminaries4 ,those who desired to enter these institutions were carefully selected1 and out of them a steady stream of what ,horace ,mann described 7,r4 #bgh7 as a beneficent order of men were sent to the schools1 moulding the character of the people1 and carrying them forward in a career of civilization more rapidly than any other people in the world are now advancing4 ,mann described1 with marked approval1 both the teacher and the training he received4 ,so successful were these institutions that within a decade1 under the glow of the new national spirit animating the people1 the elementary schools were largely transformed in spirit and purpose1 and the position of the elementary-school teacher was elevated from the rank of a trade 7,r4 #bgi7 to that of a profession 7,r4 #bgh74 ,by #ahdj1 when the earlier fervor had died out and a reaction had clearly set in1 there were in ,prussia alone thirty-eight ,teachers' ,seminaries for elementary teachers1 approximately thirty thousand elementary schools1 and every sixth person in ,prussia was in school4 ,in the other ,german ,states1 and in ,holland1 ,sweden1 and ,france1 analogous but less extensive progress in providing normal schools and elementary schools had been made2 but in ,austria1 which did not for long follow the ,prussian example1 the schools remained largely stationary for more than half a century to come4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,,diesterweg 7#agij-ahff7 ,director of ,teachers' ,seminaries at ,maurs 7#ahbj-cc7 and ,berlin 7#ahcc-di74 ,der deutsche ,pestalozzi4 ,,nationalizing ,,the ,,elementary ,,instruction4 ,that the system of elementary vernacular or people's schools 7the term ,volksschule now began to be applied7 now created should be permeated by a strong nationalistic tone was1 the times and circumstances considered1 only natural4 ,though the ,pestalozzian theories as to the development of the mental faculties1 training through the senses1 and the power of education to regenerate society were accepted1 along with the new ,pestalozzian subject-matter and methods in instruction 7p4 #edc17 all that could be rendered useful to the ,prussian ,state in its extremity naturally was given special emphasis4 ,thus all that related to the home country--geography1 history1 and the ,german speech--was taught as much from the patriotic as from the pedagogical point of view4 ,music was given special emphasis as preparatory for participation in the patriotic singing-societies and festivals1 which were organized at the time of the ,uprising of ,prussia 7#ahac74 ,drawing and arithmetic were emphasized for their practical values4 ,physical exercises were given an emphasis before unknown1 because of their hygienic and military values4 ,finally religion was given an importance beyond that of ,pestalozzi's school1 but with the emphasis now placed on moral earnestness1 humility1 self-sacrifice1 and obedience to authority1 rather than the earlier stress on the ,catechism and church doctrine4 ,clearly perceiving1 decades ahead of other nations1 the power of such training to nationalize a people and thus strengthen the ,state1 the ,prussian leaders1 in the first two decades of the nineteenth century1 laid the foundations of that training of the masses1 and of teachers for the masses 7,r4 #bhj71 which1 more than any other single item1 paved the way for the development of a national ,german spirit1 the unification of ,german lands into an ,imperial ,german ,empire1 and that blind trust in and obedience to authority which has recently led to a second national humiliation4 ,,the ,,reorganization ,,of ,,secondary ,,education4 ,alongside this elementary- school system for the masses of the people1 the older secondary and higher school system for a directing class 7p4 #eec7 also was largely reorganized and redirected4 ,the first step in this direction was the appointment1 in #ahji1 of ,wilhelm von ,humboldt 7#agfg-ahce71 a philosopher1 scholar1 philologist1 and statesman of the first rank1 to the headship of the new ,prussian ,department of ,public ,instruction4 ,during the two and a half years he remained in charge important work in the reorganization of secondary and higher education was accomplished4 ,in #ahag the ,department of ,public ,instruction was changed from a bureau to an independent ,ministry for ,spiritual and ,instructional ,affairs4 ,by #ahbe1 when governing school boards were ordered established in each province1 and made responsible to the ,ministry for ,education at ,berlin1 the organization of the state school system was virtually complete4 ,for the next half-century the changes made were in the nature of the perfection of bureaucratic organization1 rather than any fundamental organizing change4 ,during the early years improvements of great future importance for secondary education were effected in the creation of a well-educated1 professional teaching body1 and in the standardization of courses and of work4 ,in #ahaj the examination of all secondary-school teachers1 according to a uniform state plan1 was ordered4 ,the examinations were to be conducted for the ,state by the university authorities2 to be based on university training in the gymnasial subjects1 with an opportunity to reveal special preparation in any subject or subjects2 and no one in the future could even be nominated for a position as a gymnasial teacher who had not passed this examination4 ,this meant the erection of the work of teaching in the secondary schools into a distinct profession2 the elimination from the schools of the theological student who taught for a time as a stepping- stone to a church living2 and the end of easy local examination and approval by town authorities or the patrons of a school4 ,to insure still better preparation of candidates1 ,pedagogical ,seminars were begun in the universities #ad for imparting to future gymnasial teachers some pedagogical knowledge and insight1 while ,philological ,seminars also appeared1 about the same time1 #ae to give additional training in understanding the spirit of instruction in the chief subjects of the gymnasial course--the classics4 ,in #ahbf a year of trial teaching before appointment 7,probejahr7 was added for all candidates1 and in #ahca new and more stringent regulations for the examination of teachers were ordered4 #af ,at least two generations ahead of other nations1 ,prussia thus developed a body of professional teachers for its secondary schools4 ,,unification ,,of ,,the ,,secondary ,,schools4 ,in #ahab the ,leaving ,examinations 7,maturittsprfung71 instituted in #aghh1 but ineffective through clerical opposition1 were revived and strictly enforced4 ,in #ahcd the passing of such an examination was made necessary to entering nearly all branches of the state civil service1 thus securing an educated body of minor public officials4 ,this same year the universities gave up their entrance examinations1 and have since depended entirely on the ,leaving ,examinations of the ,state4 ,the immediate effect of the reinstitution of the ,leaving ,examinations was to unify the work of all the different surviving types of classical secondary schools--,gymnasium1 ,lyceum1 ,pdagogium1 ,collegium1 ,lateinische ,schule1 ,akademie--all standard nine-year schools henceforth taking the name of ,gymnasien4 ,those institutions which could not meet the standards of a nine-year classical school were either permitted to do the first six years of the work1 being known as ,pro-,gymnasien1 or the modern languages were substituted for the ancient1 and they became middle-class institutions under the name of ,brgerschulen4 ,a few ,realschulen also were in existence1 and these were permitted to continue1 as middle-class institutions1 but without any state recognition4 ,thus1 without the destruction of institutions1 the accumulated foundations of the centuries were transformed into a series of organized state schools to serve the needs of the ,state4 ,the next step was the promulgation of a uniform course of instruction for all ,gymnasien and ,pro-,gymnasien4 ,this was done in #ahaf4 ,the studies were ,latin1 ,greek1 ,german1 mathematics1 history1 geography1 religion1 and science1 the amount of time to be devoted to each ranging1 in the order listed1 from a maximum for ,latin to a minimum for science4 ,up to #ahbd ,greek was not absolutely required2 from #ahbd to #ahcg it was required1 unless the substitution of a modern language was permitted2 but after #ahcg1 when the type of ,german secondary school had become fairly well fixed1 and the devotion to humanistic studies had reached a climax1 ,greek became a fixed and unvarying requirement4 #ag ,,founding ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,berlin4 ,one result of the ,treaty of ,tilsit 7p4 #eff7 was that ,prussia had lost all her universities1 except three along the ,baltic coast4 ,both ,halle and ,gttingen were lost1 and the loss of ,halle was a severe blow4 ,in #ahjg ,fichte1 who had been a professor at ,jena1 drew up a plan and submitted it to the ,king for the organization of a new university at ,berlin4 ,when ,humboldt came to the head of the ,department of ,public ,instruction the idea at once won his enthusiastic approval4 ,in ,may1 #ahji1 he reported favorably on the project to the ,king1 and three months later a ,cabinet ,order was issued creating the new university1 giving it an annual money grant1 and assigning a royal palace to it for a home4 ,the spirit with which the new institution was founded may be inferred from the following extract from a memorial1 published by ,humboldt1 in #ahaj4 ,in this he said3 ,the ,state should not treat the universities as if they were higher classical schools or schools of special sciences4 ,on the whole the ,state should not look to them at all for anything that directly concerns its own interests1 but should rather cherish a conviction that1 in fulfilling their real destination1 they will not only serve its own purposes1 but serve them on an infinitely higher plane1 commanding a much wider field of operation1 and affording room to set in motion much more efficient springs and forces than are at the disposal of the ,state itself4 ,this university was indeed a new creation1 and of far more significance for the future of university work than even the founding of ,halle had been4 ,to the selection of its first faculty ,humboldt devoted almost all his energies during the period he remained in office4 ,from the first1 high attainment in some branch of knowledge1 and the ability to advance that knowledge1 was placed ahead of mere teaching skill4 ,the most eminent scholars in all lines were invited to the new chairs1 and when it opened 7#ahaj7 its first faculty represented the highest attainment of scholarship in ,german lands4 ,from the first the instruction divested itself of almost all that characterized the school4 ,the lecture replaced the classroom recitation1 and the seminar1 in which small groups of advanced students investigate a problem under the direction of a professor1 was given a place of large importance in the institution4 ,original research and contributions to knowledge marked the work of both students and professors1 the object being1 not to train teachers for the schools1 but to produce scholars capable of advancing knowledge by personal research4 ,even more than at ,halle1 the institution was a place where professors and students worked to discover truth1 uninfluenced by any preconceived notions and unmindful of what older ideas might be upset in the process4 ,the value of such pioneer work for university scholars everywhere is not likely to be overestimated4 ,,specialization ,,in ,,university ,,instruction ,,emphasized4 ,specialization in some field of knowledge soon came to be the ruling idea1 and this proved exceedingly fruitful in the years which followed4 ,there ,bopp developed the study of comparative grammar on the basis of the ,sanskrit4 ,there ,dietz founded ,romance philology4 ,ritschl turned his students to the study of ,latin inscriptions to reconstruct the past4 ,lepsius began the study of ,egyptology with a spade4 ,niebuhr's ,roman ,history 7#ahaa7 was the institution's first fruit1 and his successor1 ,ranke1 showed his students how to study history from the sources4 ,hegel1 ,schopenhauer1 and ,lotze made over philosophy4 ,fechner and ,wundt began there the study of experimental psychology4 ,stahl and von ,savigny created new standards in the study of law4 ,mller introduced the microscope into the study of pathological anatomy4 ,schultze systematized zology4 ,liebig1 who had opened at ,giessen 7#ahbd7 what was probably the first chemical laboratory in the world open to students1 was drawn to ,berlin and created there a new chemistry4 ,still later1 ,helmholtz created there a new physics4 ,the effect of all this on the expansion of the work of the philosophical faculty was marked4 ,the new philological and historical sciences1 the biological sciences1 and the mathematical sciences1 were all greatly expanded in scope1 and the new philosophical faculty1 evolved out of the old arts faculty 7p4 #eed71 now attained to the place of first importance in the university--a position it has ever since retained4 ,law and medicine were also given a new direction and emphasis1 and even the teaching of theology was greatly improved under the specialization in instruction and the freedom in teaching which now became the rule4 ,the effect on the other ,german universities was marked4 ,some of the older institutions 7,erfurt1 ,wittenberg1 ,cologne1 ,mainz7 died out1 while new foundations 7,breslau1 #ahaa2 ,bonn1 #ahah2 ,munich1 #ahbf7 after the new model1 took their place4 ,those that continued were changed in character1 #ah and a new unity was established throughout the ,german university world4 ,by #ahej exact scientific research1 in both libraries and laboratories1 and a sober search for truth1 had become the watchword of all the ,german universities4 ,in consequence they naturally assumed a world leadership1 and were frequented by students from many lands4 ,especially has the ,united ,states been influenced in its university development by the large number of university teachers who received their specialized training in the ,german universities #ai during the latter half of the nineteenth century4 ,the lecture1 the seminar1 laboratory investigation1 research1 the doctorate1 and academic freedom in study and teaching are distinctive contributions to our university development drawn from ,german lands1 and superimposed on our earlier ,english-type college4 ,the founding of ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 at ,baltimore1 in #ahgf1 on the ,german model1 marked the erection of the first distinctively research university in ,america4 ,a ,,two-,,class ,,state ,,school ,,system ,,created4 ,we thus see that ,prussia by #ahae1 clearly by #ahbe1 had taken over education from the ,church and made of it an instrument of the ,state to serve ,state ends4 ,for the masses there was the ,volksschule1 superseding the old religious vernacular school and clearly designed to create an intelligent but obedient and patriotic citizenship for the ,fatherland1 and in this school the great majority of the children of the ,state received their education for citizenship and for life4 ,this was for both sexes1 and was entirely a ,german school4 ,attendance upon this school was made compulsory1 and beyond this some continuation education early began to be provided 7,rs4 #bgd1 ,section #f2 #bge d2 #bgf1 ,section #ae74 ,within the past half-century continuation education1 especially along vocational lines1 as we shall point out in a subsequent chapter1 has received in ,german lands a very remarkable development4 ,to insure that this school should serve the ,state in the way desired1 ,teachers' ,seminaries1 for the training of ,volksschule1 teachers1 were from the first made a feature of the new state system4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4 ,,the ,,prussian ,,state ,,school ,,system ,,created ,compare with ,fig4 #bfi and note the difference between a ,european two-class system and the ,american democratic educational ladder4 ,for those who were to form the official and directing class of ,society--a closely limited1 almost entirely male1 intellectual aristocracy--education in separate classical schools1 with university or professional training superimposed1 was provided1 and this type of training offered a very thorough preparation for a small and a carefully selected class4 ,out of this class the leaders of ,germany for a century have been drawn4 #bj ,for this classical school also the universities were early directed to prepare a well-educated body of teachers4 ,the ,prussian plan was followed in all its essentials in the other ,german ,states1 so that the drawing given 7,fig4 #agc7 was true for ,germany as a whole1 as well as for ,prussia1 up at least to #aiad4 ,,new ,,nineteenth-,,century ,,tendencies ,,manifested4 ,in this early evolution of the ,prussian state school systems we find two prominent nineteenth-century ideas expressing themselves4 ,the first is the new conception of the ,state as not merely a government organized to secure national safety and protection from invasion1 but rather an organization of the people to promote public welfare and realize a moral and political ideal4 ,to this end state control of the whole range of education1 to enable the ,state to promote intellectual and moral and social progress along lines useful to the ,state1 became a necessity1 and some form of this education1 in the interests of the public welfare1 must now be extended to all4 ,though ,france and the new ,american nation gave earlier political expression to this new conception of the ,state1 it was in ,prussia that the idea attained its earliest concrete and for long its most complete realization4 ,seeing further and more clearly than other nations the possibilities of education1 the practical workers of ,prussia1 and after them the other ,german ,states1 took over education as a function of the ,state for the propagation of the national ideas and the promotion of the national culture4 ,of this development ,paulsen says3 ,in the nineteenth century ,germany took the lead in the educational movement among the nations of ,europe4 ,the ,german universities have become acknowledged centers of scientific research for the whole world4444 ,in the domain of primary and technical education ,germany has also become the universal teacher of ,europe4 ,but it must not be forgotten1 in this connection1 that the ,german people had been the pupils of their neighbors during a greater length of time and with greater assiduity than any other ,european nation4 ,thus1 in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 ,germany imported the culture of ,humanism from ,italy4 ,during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries she introduced the modern courtly culture and language of the ,french people1 besides giving admission1 since the middle of the eighteenth century1 to the philosophy1 science1 and literature of ,english middle-class society4 ,lastly1 since the end of the eighteenth century1 the ,germans have yielded themselves to the influence of the ,hellenic spirit with greater fervor than any other nation4 ,the second nineteenth-century idea which early found expression in the ,prussian ,state1 and one which became a dominant factor during the latter half of the century1 was the idea of utilizing the schools1 as state institutions1 to promote national ends--to unify and nationalize peoples4 ,national self-consciousness here first found concrete expression1 and with wonderful practical results4 ,from a geographical expression1 consisting of nearly four hundred petty self-governing cities1 principalities1 and states1 and some fourteen hundred independent noblemen and prelates1 before the ,napoleonic wars1 their close found the ,german people free from serfdom1 united in spirit1 and organized politically into thirty-eight modern-type ,states4 ,in #ahgj1 largely as a result of the nationalizing efforts of government and education1 working hand in hand1 an ,imperial ,empire of twenty-two ,states and three ,free ,cities was formed4 ,the struggle for national realization1 begun by ,prussia after #ahjg1 and with education as the important constructive tool of the ,state1 has since been copied by nation after nation and has become the dominant force of modern history4 ,to awaken a national self-consciousness1 to acquire national unity1 and to infuse into all a common culture has supplanted the humanistic cosmopolitanism of the eighteenth century and become the dominant characteristic of nineteenth-century political history4 ,in this ,prussia led the way4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,reaction4 ,through the period preceding the ,wars of ,liberation 7#ahac-ae71 and afterward for a few years1 an educational zeal animated the ,government4 ,the schools during this period were free on the one hand from politics and on the other from minute official regulation4 ,as one writer well stated3 #ba ,it was difficult to decide whether the schools derived their importance from the life which surged around them1 or whether their importance was due to their intrinsic power1 very carefully fostered by the state authorities4444 ,there was spirit and life in ,prussia2 there was much activity and liberty in contriving1 with little outward parade4 ,any foreigner1 visiting ,prussia1 might observe that the vitalizing breath of government1 like the spirit of ,god1 was acting upon the whole people4 ,napoleon was finally vanquished at ,waterloo 7#ahae7 and sent to ,saint ,helena1 and the ,congress of ,vienna 7#ahae7 remade the map of ,europe4 ,in doing so it forgot that the people wanted constitutional government1 instead of a return to absolute rulers4 ,it restored old thrones1 rights1 and territories1 and inaugurated a policy of political reaction which increased in intensity with time and dominated the governments of continental ,europe until after the middle of the century4 ,under the lead of the ,austrian minister1 ,metternich1 and by third-degree methods1 the so-called ,holy ,alliance #bb of continental ,europe suppressed free speech1 democratic movements1 political liberties1 university freedom1 and liberalism in government and religion4 ,the governments in this ,alliance redirected and restricted the people's schools1 as much as could be done1 to make them conform in purpose to their reactionary ideas4 ,in consequence1 the development of popular education in ,germany1 as well as in ,france and other continental lands1 was for a time checked4 ,the great start obtained by ,prussia and the ,german ,states before #ahbj1 though1 was such that what had been done there could not be wholly undone4 ,in ,france1 ,spain1 the ,italian ,kingdoms1 the ,austrian ,states1 and ,russia1 on the other hand1 what had not been developed to any extent could be prevented from developing1 and in these lands popular education was given back to the ,church to control and direct4 ,in ,england1 also1 though for other reasons there1 the ,church retained its control over elementary education for half a century longer4 ,,change ,,in ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,schools4 ,the ,king of ,prussia1 ,frederick ,william ,,iii 7#agig-ahdj71 though he had given full adherence to the movement for general education during the dark period of ,prussian history1 was after all never fully in sympathy with the liberal aspect of the movement4 ,after ,austria1 by the settlement at ,vienna1 became the leader of the ,german ,states1 and ,metternich the dominating political personality of ,europe1 the ,king came more and more to favor a restriction of liberties and the holding of education to certain rather limited lines1 fearful that too much education of the people might prove harmful to the ,government4 ,accordingly1 under the influence of the ,king and against the desires of the liberal leaders1 ,prussia now changed direction and embarked on a policy of reaction which checked normal educational progress2 led to the unsuccessful revolution of #ahdh and the subsequent almost fanatical governmental opposition to reforms2 and was in large part responsible for the disaster of #aiah4 ,it is an interesting speculation as to how different the future ,german and world history might have been had ,prussia and the ,german ,states held to the liberal ideas of the earlier period1 and drawn their political conceptions from ,england and the new ,american nation1 rather than from ,austria and ,russia4 ,accordingly1 in ,november1 #ahag1 the ,department of ,public ,instruction was replaced by a ,ministry for ,spiritual1 ,educational1 and ,medical ,affairs1 and ,karl1 ,baron von ,altenstein1 was made ,minister4 ,he continued in office until his death1 #bc in #ahdj1 and his administration was marked by an increasing state centralization and limitation of the earlier plans4 ,in #ahai he codified all previous practices into a general school law for the kingdom4 ,while the ,king never really approved and issued it1 it nevertheless became a basis for future work and is the law so enthusiastically described by ,cousin1 in #ahcj 7,r4 #bhj74 ,under his administration the earlier creative enthusiasm and the energy for the execution of great ideas disappeared1 and the earlier stimulating and encouraging attitude on the part of the authorities was now replaced by the timid policy of the drag and the brake4 ,the earlier preparatory work in the development of ,teachers' ,seminaries and the establishment of elementary schools was allowed to continue2 ,pestalozzian ideas were for a time not seriously restricted2 compulsory attendance was more definitely ordered enforced1 in #ahbe2 the abolition of tuition fees for ,volksschule education was begun in #ahcc1 but not completed until #ahhh2 and a more careful supervision of schools was instituted1 in #ahcd4 ,the great change was rather in the spirit and direction of the instruction4 ,the early tendency to emphasize nationalism and religious instruction 7p4 #ega7 was now stressed1 and the liberal aspects of ,pestalozzianism were increasingly subordinated to the more formal instruction and to nationalistic ends4 ,the soldier and the priest joined hands in diverting the schools to the creation of intelligent1 devout1 patriotic1 and1 above all else1 obedient ,germans1 while the universal military idea1 brought in by the successful work of ,scharnhorst 7p4 #efg71 and retained after the ,war of ,liberation as a survival of the old dynastic and predatory conception of the ,state1 was more and more emphasized in the work of the schools and the life of the citizen4 ,when ,horace ,mann reported on his visit to the schools of the ,german ,states1 in #ahdc1 he called attention to this element of weakness 7,r4 #bha71 as well as to their many elements of strength4 ,,further ,,intolerance ,,and ,,reaction4 ,the reactionary tendencies which set in after the settlement of ,vienna had1 by #ahdj1 produced stagnation in the life of the ,governments of ,europe1 and the revolutions of #ahdh1 which broke out in ,france1 ,italy1 ,switzerland1 and the different ,german and ,austrian ,states1 were revolts against the reactionary governmental rule and an expression of disappointment at the failure to secure constitutional government4 ,the revolutions were both successful and unsuccessful--successful in that the greater liberty they sought came later on1 but unsuccessful at the time4 ,in consequence1 immediately following #ahdh1 an even more reactionary educational policy was instituted4 ,university freedom was markedly restricted2 the institutions lost their earlier vigor2 and the number of students suffered a marked decline in consequence4 ,the secondary schools also felt the new influences4 ,latin and ,greek were made compulsory2 uniform programs for work were insisted upon2 and ,latin in particular was reduced to a grammatical drill that destroyed the spirit of the earlier instruction and put gymnasial teaching back almost to the type made so popular by ,sturm4 ,the few ,realschulen1 which had continued to exist and were tolerated before1 were now treated with positive dislike4 ,in #ahei they were able to force their first official recognition1 but only when changed from practical schools for the middle classes to secondary schools1 on the same basis as the ,gymnasien1 and for parallel ends4 ,it was upon the elementary schools 7,volksschulen7 and the ,teachers' ,seminaries that the most severe official displeasure now fell4 ,a number of ,volksschule teachers had been connected with the revolutions of #ahdh1 and over-education was regarded as responsible4 ,the ,teachers' ,seminary at ,preslau1 which had for long given a high grade of training1 was closed1 and the head of the ,seminary at ,berlin1 ,diesterweg1 was dismissed because of his strong advocacy of ,pestalozzian ideas4 ,anything savoring of individualism was especially under the ban4 ,bitter reproaches were heaped upon the elementary-school teachers1 and the new ,king1 ,frederick ,william ,,iv 7#ahdj-fa7 considered their work as the very root of the political evils of the ,state4 ,to a conference of ,seminary teachers1 held in #ahdi in ,berlin1 he said3 #bd ,you and you alone are to blame for all the misery which the last year has brought upon ,prussia6 ,the irreligious pseudo-education of the masses is to be blamed for it1 which you have been spreading under the name of true wisdom1 and by which you have eradicated religious belief and loyalty from the hearts of my subjects and alienated their affections from my person4 ,this sham education1 strutting about like a peacock1 has always been odious to me4 ,i hated it already from the bottom of my soul before ,i came to the throne1 and1 since my accession1 ,i have done everything ,i could to suppress it4 ,i mean to proceed on this path1 without taking heed of any one1 and1 indeed1 no power on earth shall divert me from it4 ,thus easily did an autocratic ,hohenzollern cast upon the shoulders of others the burden of his own failure to grasp the evolution in political thinking #be which had taken place in ,europe1 since #aghi4 ,unfortunately for the future of the ,german people he was able to force his will upon them4 ,,progress ,,of ,,elementary ,,education ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,decrease ,,in ,,illiteracy ,,in ,,prussia1 ,,by ,,provinces 7,from ,rep4 ,u4,s4 ,com4 ,educ41 #ahij-aijj1 ,i1 p4 #gha7 ,provinces #ahda #ahfd-fe #ahha #ahid-ie ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,east ,prussia _/ #g4je 4#ii #ae4cc #af4ed ,west ,prussia _/ #h4gi #a4bc ,brandenburg #b4dg 4#if 4#cb 4#jf ,pomerania #a4bc #a4dg 4#dc 4#ab ,posen #da4jj #af4ij #i4ig 4#ih ,silesia #i4bb #c4gh #b4cc 4#dc ,saxony #a4ai 4#di 4#bh 4#ji ,westphalia #b4ad #a4jc 4#fj 4#jb ,rhenish ,prussia #g4jf #a4ac 4#bc 4#je ,hohenzollern 4#jj 4#jj 4#jj 4#jj ,the ,state #i4cj #e4eb #b4ch 4#cc ,in #ahed new ,regulations were issued which put the course of instruction for elementary schools back to the days of ,frederick the ,great4 ,the one- class rural elementary school was made the standard4 ,everything beyond reading1 writing1 a little arithmetic1 and religious instruction in strict accordance with the creeds of the ,church1 was considered as superfluous1 and was to be allowed only by special permit4 ,the elimination of illiteracy1 the creation of obedient citizens1 and the nationalizing of new elements became the aim of the schools4 ,the instruction in the ,teachers' ,seminaries was reduced to the merest necessities1 and they were given clearly to understand that they were to train teachers1 and not to prepare educated men4 ,all theory of education1 all didactics1 all psychology were eliminated4 ,a return was made to the subject-matter theory of education1 and a limited subject-matter at that1 and it once more became the business of the teacher to see that this was carefully learned4 ,religious instruction naturally once more came to hold a place of first importance4 ,similar reactionary movements took place in other ,german ,states1 all being sensitive to the reactionary spirit of the time and the leadership of ,austria and ,prussia4 ,,the ,,modern ,,german ,,educational ,,purpose4 ,after about #ahfj1 largely in response to modern scientific and industrial forces among a people turning from agriculture toward industrialism1 a slight relaxation of the reactionary legislation began to be evident4 ,this expressed itself chiefly in a diminution of the time given to memoriter work in religion1 and the introduction in its place of work in ,german history and geography1 with some work in natural science4 ,in the ,teachers' ,seminaries instruction in ,german literature1 formerly rigidly excluded1 was now added4 ,it was not1 however1 until after the unification of ,germany1 following the ,franco- ,prussian ,war1 and the creation of ,imperial ,germany under the directive guidance of ,bismarck1 that any real change took place4 ,then the changes were due to new political1 religious1 social1 industrial1 and economic forces which belong to the later period of ,german history4 ,in #ahgb a new law gave to the ,prussian elementary schools a new course of study2 reasserted the authority of the ,state in education2 extended the control of the public authorities2 and made the ,state instead of the ,church the authority even for their religious instruction4 #bf ,the schools were now to be used as of old to build up and strengthen the nation1 but particularly to support the new ,prussian idea as to the work and function of the ,state4 ,realien were given a new prominence1 because of new industrial needs1 and the instruction in religion was revamped4 ,the old memoriter work was greatly reduced1 and in its place an emotional and political emphasis was given to the religious instruction4 ,to make the school of the people an instrument for fighting the growth of social democracy1 and a support for the throne and government1 instruction in religion was placed in the center of the teacher's work1 and teachers were given to understand that they were members of an educational army and expected loyally to follow the flag4 ,the secondary schools also were redirected4 ,a new emphasis on scientific subjects and modern languages replaced the earlier emphasis on ,greek4 ,the ,emperor interfered 7,r4 #cfh7 to force a revision of the gymnasial programs better to adapt them to modern needs4 ,in particular were the universities of all the ,states unified and nationalized1 and great technical universities created4 ,science1 commerce1 technical work1 modern languages1 and government were stressed in the instruction of the leaders4 ,deciding clearly where the nation was to go and the route it was to follow1 and that education for national ends was one of the important means to be employed1 the different parts of the educational systems in the ,states--elementary schools1 secondary schools1 universities1 normal schools1 professional schools1 technical schools1 continuation schools-- were carefully integrated into a unified state system1 thoroughly national in spirit1 and given a definite function to perform in the work which the ,nation set itself to carry through4 ,nowhere have teachers been so well trained to play their part in a national plan1 and nowhere have teachers acquitted themselves more worthily1 from the point of view of the ,government4 ,as ,alexander #bg has well said3 ,during the nineteenth century the leaders of ,germany decided that ,germany should assume leadership in the world in every line of endeavor1 particularly in commerce and world power4 ,they set this as the very definite goal of their national ambition4 ,the next question was how that aim could be accomplished4 ,it was to be done through education4 ,accordingly school systems were organized with this aim in view4 ,in a ,state such as the ,germans proposed building there were be leaders and followers4 ,the followers were to be trained for a docile1 efficient ,german citizenship2 that is1 the lower classes were to be made into ,god-fearing1 patriotic1 economically-independent ,germans4 ,this was the task of the ,volksschule1 and it has been wonderfully well accomplished4 ,this type of ,german is created to do the manual labor of the ,state4 ,the leaders were to be trained in middle and higher schools and in the universities4 ,there were to be different grades of leaders2 leaders in the lower walks of life1 leaders in the middle walks of life1 and leaders of the nation4 ,the higher schools and the universities were employed to produce these types of leaders4444 ,the leaders think and do2 the followers merely do4 ,the schools were organized for the express purpose of producing just these types4 ,so well was this system and plan working that1 had the ,imperial ,government not been so impatient of that slower but surer progress by peaceful means1 and staked all on a gambler's throw1 in another half-century the ,german nation might have held the world largely in fee4 ,as it is1 the results which the ,germans attained by reason of definite aims and definite methods are both an encouragement and a warning to other nations4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,point out the extent of the educational reorganization which resulted from the reform work begun at ,halle4 #b4 ,how do you explain the very early ,german interest in compulsory school attendance1 when such was unknown elsewhere in ,europe8 #c4 ,compare the ,prussian ,regulations of #agcg with what was common at that time in practice in the parishes of the ,american ,colonies4 #d4 ,show the wisdom of the early ,prussian kings in working at school reform through the ,church4 ,could they well have worked otherwise8 ,why8 #e4 ,how do you explain such a slow development of a professional teaching body in ,prussia1 when all the state influences had for so long been favorable to educational development8 #f4 ,show that the ,oberschulcollegium ,board marked the beginnings of a ,state ,ministry for ,education for ,prussia4 #g4 ,show that the spirit of the ,prussian leaders1 after #ahjf1 was a further expansion of the ,german national feeling which arose in the ,period of ,enlightenment4 #h4 ,show that the reorganization of elementary education1 and the creation of the ,university of ,berlin1 were almost equally important events for the future of ,german lands4 #i4 ,show that the work of ,prussia1 in using the schools for national ends1 was3 7a7 in keeping with the work of the ,french ,revolutionary leaders1 and 7b7 only a further extension of the organizing work done by ,frederick the ,great4 #aj4 ,show how the universities of ,germany early took the lead of the universities of the world1 and the influence of this fact on national progress4 #aa4 ,enumerate the new nineteenth-century tendencies observable in the early educational organization in ,prussia4 #ab4 ,explain the marked mid-nineteenth-century reaction to educational development which set in4 #ac4 ,explain the early and marked welcome accorded science-study in ,german lands4 #ad4 ,explain in what ways ,prussia attained an educational leadership1 ahead of other nations4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections1 illustrative of the contents of this chapter1 are reproduced3 #bgc4 ,barnard3 ,the ,organizing ,work of ,frederick ,william ,i4 #bgd4 ,prussia3 ,the ,school ,code of #agfc4 #bge4 ,prussia3 ,the ,silesian ,school ,code of #agfe4 #bgf4 ,austria3 ,the ,school ,code of #aggd4 #bgg4 ,fichte3 ,addresses to the ,german ,nation4 #bgh4 ,mann3 ,the ,prussian ,elementary ,teacher and his ,training4 #bgi4 ,dinter3 ,prussian ,schools and ,teachers as he found them4 #bhj4 ,cousin3 ,report on ,education in ,prussia4 #bha4 ,mann3 ,the ,military ,aspect of ,prussian ,education41 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,explain the interest of ,frederick ,william ,i 7#bgc7 in elementary education4 #b4 ,characterize1 from the ,codes of #agfc 7#bgd7 and #agfe 7#bge71 and cite paragraph to show3 7a7 ,the type of instruction ordered provided2 7b7 the type of teacher expected2 7c7 the character of the attendance required2 and 7d7 the character of the continuation training ordered4 #c4 ,show the similarity in their main lines of the ,prussian 7#bgd7 and ,austrian 7#bgf7 ,codes4 #d4 ,would the reasoning of ,fichte 7#bgg7 apply to any crushed nation8 ,illustrate4 #e4 ,do we select teachers for training as carefully in the ,united ,states today as they did in ,prussia eighty years ago 7#bgh78 ,could we8 #f4 ,did such conditions as ,dinter describes 7#bgi7 exist1 even later1 with us8 #g4 ,was the ,prussian school system1 as described by ,cousin 7#bhj71 a centralized or a decentralized system8 #h4 ,show that ,mann's reasoning as to the strength of the ,prussian school system 7#bha7 was thoroughly sound4 ,,selected ,,references 99 ,alexander1 ,thomas4 ,the ,prussian ,elementary ,schools4 99 ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,public ,instruction in ,prussia2 in ,american ,journal of ,education1 vol4 ,,xx1 pp4 #ccc-dcd4 ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,german ,teachers and ,educators4 99 ,cassell1 ,henry4 ,adolph ,diesterweg2 in ,educational ,review1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cde-ef4 7,april1 #ahia47 ,friedel1 ,v4 ,h4 ,the ,german ,school as a ,war ,nursery4 ,lexis1 ,w4 ,a ,general ,view of the ,history and ,organization of ,public ,education in the ,german ,empire4 99 ,nohle1 ,e4 ,history of the ,german ,school ,system2 in ,report ,u4,s4 ,commissioner of ,education1 #ahig-ih1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #c-hb4 ,translated from ,rein's ,encyclopdisches ,handbuch der ,pdagogik4 99 ,paulsen1 ,fr4 ,german ,education1 ,past and ,present4 99 ,paulsen1 ,fr4 ,the ,german ,universities4 99 ,russell1 ,james4 ,german ,higher ,schools4 ,seeley1 ,j4 ,r4 ,life and ,times of ,stein1 vol4 ,i4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,national ,,organization ,,in ,,france ,,and ,,italy ,i4 ,,national ,,organization ,,in ,,france ,,lines ,,of ,,development ,,marked ,,out ,,by ,,the ,,revolution4 ,the ,revolution proved very disastrous to the old forms of education in ,france4 ,the old educational foundations1 accumulated through the ages1 were swept away1 and the teaching congregations1 which had provided the people with whatever education they had enjoyed1 were driven from the soil4 ,the ruin of educational and religious institutions in ,russia under the recent rule of the ,bolshevists is perhaps comparable to what happened in ,france4 ,many plans were proposed by the ,revolutionary philosophers and enthusiasts1 as we have seen 7chapter xx71 to replace what had once been and to provide better than had once been done for the educational needs of the masses of the people1 but with results that were small in comparison with the expectations of the legislative assemblies which considered or approved them4 ,nevertheless1 the directions of future progress in educational organization were clearly marked out before ,napoleon came to power1 and the work which he did was largely an extension1 and a reduction to working order1 of what had been proposed or established by the enthusiasts of the pre-revolutionary and revolutionary periods4 ,at the time of the ,revolution the ,state definitely took over the control of education from the ,church1 and the work of ,napoleon and those who came after him was to organize public instruction into a practical state-controlled system4 ,in effecting this organization1 the preceding discussions of education as a function of the ,state and the desirable forms of organization to follow all bore important fruit1 and the forms finally adopted embodied not only the ideas contained in the legislation of the revolutionary assemblies1 but the earlier theoretical discussion of the subject by ,rolland 7p4 #eaj71 ,diderot 7p4 #eaa71 and ,talleyrand 7p4 #eac7 as well4 ,they embodied also the peculiar administrative genius of ,france--that desire for uniformity in organization and administration--and hence stand in contrast to the state educational organizations worked out about the same time in ,german lands4 ,the ,german ,states1 as we have seen1 had for long been working toward state control of education1 but when this was finally attained they still permitted a large degree of local initiative and control4 ,the ,french1 on the contrary1 made the transition in a few years1 and the system of state control which they established provided for uniformity1 and for centralized supervision and inspection in the hands of the ,state4 ,the forms for state control and education adopted in the two countries were also expressive of age-long tendencies in each4 ,for three centuries ,german political organization1 as we have seen1 had been extremely decentralized on the one hand1 and had been slowly evolving a system of education under the joint control of the small ,states and the ,church on the other4 ,in ,france1 on the contrary1 centralization of authority and subordination to a central government had been the tendency for an even longer period4 ,when the time arrived for the ,state to take over education from the ,church1 it was but natural that ,france should tend toward a much more highly centralized control than did the ,german ,states1 and the differing political situations of the two countries1 at the opening of the nineteenth century1 gave added emphasis to these differing tendencies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd4 ,,an ,,old ,,foundation ,,transformed ,this was an ancient chteau in ,france4 ,in #afjd ,henry ,,iv gave it to the ,jesuits for a school4 ,in #agia it became national property1 and was transformed into a ,military ,college4 ,in consequence1 ,prussia and the other ,german ,states early achieved a form of state educational organization which emphasized local interest and the spirit of the instruction1 whereas ,france created an administrative organization which emphasized central control and1 for the time1 the form rather than the spirit of instruction4 ,this was well pointed out by ,victor ,cousin 7,r4 #bhj71 in contrasting conditions in ,prussia with those existing in ,france4 ,,napoleon ,,begins ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,education4 ,in #agii ,napoleon became ,first ,consul and master of ,france1 and in #ahjd ,france1 by vote1 changed from a ,republic to an ,empire1 with ,napoleon as first ,emperor4 ,until his banishment to ,saint ,helena 7#ahae7 he was master of ,france4 ,a man of large executive capacity and an organizing genius of great ability1 whether he turned to army organization1 governmental organization1 the codification of the laws1 or the organization of education1 ,napoleon's practical and constructive mind quickly reduced parts to their proper places in a well- regulated scheme4 ,shortly after he became ,consul he took up1 among other things1 the matter of educational organization4 ,his first effort was in #ahjj1 when he transformed the old humanistic ,college ,louis le ,grand 7founded #aefg7 and created four military colleges from its endowment4 ,one of these colleges he later1 in characteristic fashion1 transformed into a ,school of ,arts and ,trades 7,r4 #bhb74 ,in #ahjb he signed the famous ,concordat with the ,pope4 ,this restored the priests to the churches1 with state aid for their stipends1 and virtually turned over primary education again to the ,church for care and control4 ,the ,brothers of the ,christian ,schools 7p4 #eae7 were recalled the next year and especially favored1 and soon established themselves more firmly than before the ,revolution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4 ,,count ,,de ,,fourcroy 7#agee-ahji7 ,in #ahjb ,napoleon first turned his attention to a general organization of public instruction by directing ,count de ,fourcroy1 a distinguished chemist who had been a teacher in the ,polytechnic ,school1 and whom he appointed ,director of ,public ,instruction1 to draw up1 according to his ideas1 an organizing law on the subject4 ,this became the ,law of #ahjb4 ,it was divided into nine chapters1 as follows3 ,i4 ,degrees of ,instruction4 ,,ii4 ,primary ,schools4 ,,iii4 ,secondary ,schools4 ,,iv4 ,lyces4 ,v4 ,special ,schools4 ,,vi4 ,the ,military ,school4 ,,vii4 ,the ,national ,pupils4 ,,viii4 ,the nationales pensions ,,ix4 ,general regulations4 #a4 ,,primary ,,schools4 ,the chapter on primary schools virtually renacted the ,law of #agie 7,r4 #beh b74 ,each commune #a was required to furnish a schoolhouse and a home for the teacher4 ,the teacher was to be responsible to local authorities1 while the supervision of the school was placed under the prefect of the ,department4 ,the instruction was to be limited to reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1 and the legal authorities were enjoined to watch that the teachers did not carry their instructions beyond these limits4 ,the teacher was to be paid entirely from tuition fees1 though one fifth of the pupils were to be provided with free schooling4 ,the ,state gave nothing toward the support of the primary schools4 ,the interest of ,napoleon was not in primary or general education1 but rather in training pupils for scientific and technical efficiency1 and youths of superior ability for the professions and for executive work in the kind of government he had imposed upon ,france4 ,to this end secondary and special education were made particular functions of the ,state1 while primary education was left to the communes to provide as they saw fit4 ,they could provide schools and the parents could pay for the teacher1 or not1 as they might decide4 ,there was no compulsion to enforce the requirement of a primary school1 and no state aid to stimulate local effort to create one4 ,in consequence not many state primary schools were established1 and primary education remained1 for another generation1 in the hands of private teachers and the ,church4 #b4 ,,secondary ,,schools4 ,chapters ,,iii and ,,iv of the ,law of #ahjb made full provision for two types of secondary schools--the ,communal ,colleges and the ,lyces #b--to replace the ,central ,higher ,schools established in #agie 7p4 #eah74 ,these latter had lacked sadly in internal organization4 ,they were merely day schools1 lacking the dormitory and boarding arrangements which for over three centuries had characterized the ,french collges4 ,as a result they had not prospered4 ,the ,law of #ahjb now replaced them with two types of residential secondary schools1 in which the youth of the country1 under careful supervision and discipline1 might prepare for entrance to the higher special schools4 ,these fixed the lines of future ,french development in secondary schools4 ,the standard secondary school now became known as the ,lyce4 ,these institutions corresponded to the ,colleges under the old rgime1 of which the ,college of ,guyenne 7,r4 #acf7 was a type4 ,the instruction was to include the ancient languages1 rhetoric1 logic1 ethics1 belles-lettres1 mathematics1 and physical science1 with some provision for additional instruction in modern languages and drawing4 ,each was to have at least eight professors1 an administrative head1 a supervisor of studies1 and a steward to manage the business affairs of the institution4 ,the ,state usually provided the building1 often using some former church school which had been suppressed1 and the cities in which the ,lyces were located were required to provide them with furniture and teaching equipment4 ,the funds for maintenance came from tuition fees1 boarding and rooming income1 and state scholarships1 of which six thousand four hundred were provided4 ,besides the ,lyces1 every school established by a municipality1 or kept by an individual1 which gave instruction in ,latin1 ,french1 geography1 history1 and mathematics was designated as a secondary school1 or ,communal ,college4 ,these institutions usually offered but a partial ,lyce course1 and were tuition schools1 being patronized by many parents whose tastes forbade the sending of their children to the lower-class primary schools4 ,a license from the ,government to operate was necessary before masters could be employed4 ,they were to be maintained by the municipality1 without any state encouragement beyond some grants for capable teachers and scholarships in the ,lyces for meritorious pupils4 ,within two years after the enactment of the ,law of #ahjb there had been created in ,france #df ,lyces1 #cgh secondary schools of various degrees of completeness1 and #cfa private schools of secondary grade had been opened4 ,a number of these disappeared later1 in the reorganization of #ahjh4 ,for the supervision of all these institutions the ,director ,general of ,public ,instruction appointed three ,superintendents of ,secondary ,studies2 and for the work of the schools he outlined the courses of instruction in detail1 laid down the rules of administration1 prepared and selected the textbooks1 and appointed the professors4 ,,special ,,or ,,higher ,,schools4 ,the chapter of the ,law of #ahjb on ,special ,schools made provision for the creation of the following special faculties or schools for higher education for ,france3 #c medical schools1 to replace the ,schools of ,health of #agid 7p4 #eah74 #aj law schools2 increased to #ab in #ahjd 7,date of ,code ,napolon1 p4 #eah74 #d schools of natural history1 natural philosophy1 and chemistry4 #b schools of mechanical and chemical arts1 #a mathematical school1 #a school of geography1 history1 and political economy4 ,a fourth school of art and design4 ,professors of astronomy for the observatories4 ,in #ahjc the ,school of ,arts and ,trades was added 7,r4 #bhb71 and in #ahjd1 after ,napoleon had signed the ,concordat with the ,pope1 thus restoring the ,catholic religion 7abolished #agia71 schools of theology were added to the above list4 ,we have here1 clearly outlined1 the main paths along which ,french state educational organization had been tending and was in future to follow4 ,the ,state had definitely dispossessed the ,church as the controlling agency in education1 and had definitely taken over the school as an instrument for its own ends4 ,though primary education had been temporarily left to the communes1 and was soon to be turned over in large part to be handled by the ,church for a generation longer1 the supervision was to remain with the ,state4 ,the middle-class elements were well provided for in the new secondary schools1 and these were now subject to complete supervision by the ,state4 ,for higher education groups of ,special ,schools1 or ,teaching ,faculties1 replaced the older universities1 which were not re-created until after the coming of the ,third ,republic 7#ahga74 ,the dominant characteristics of the state educational system thus created1 aside from its emphasis on secondary and higher education1 were its uniformity and centralized control4 ,these characteristics were further stressed in the reorganization of #ahjh1 and have remained prominent in ,french educational organization ever since4 ,,creation ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,france4 ,by #ahjf ,napoleon was ready for a further and more complete organization of the public instruction of the ,state1 and to this end the following law was now enacted 7,may #aj1 #ahjf73 ,sec4 #a4 ,there will be formed1 under the name of ,imperial ,university1 a body exclusively commissioned with teaching and public education throughout the ,empire4 ,sec4 #b4 ,the members of this corporation can contract civil1 special1 and temporary obligations4 ,sec4 #c4 ,the organization of this corps will be given in the form of a law to the legislative body in the session of #ahaj4 ,in #ahjh1 without the formality of further legislation1 ,napoleon issued an ,imperial ,decree creating the ,university of ,france4 ,this was not only ,napoleon's most remarkable educational creation1 but it was an administrative and governing organization for education so in harmony with ,french spirit and ,french governmental ideas that it has persisted ever since1 though changed somewhat in form with time4 ,the ,decree began by declaring that public instruction1 in the whole ,empire1 is confined exclusively to the ,university1 and that no school1 nor establishment for instruction1 can be formed independent of the ,imperial ,university1 and without the authority of its chief4 ,unlike the ,university of ,berlin 7p4 #egd71 created a year later1 this was not a teaching university at all1 but instead a governing1 examining1 and disbursing corporation1 #c presided over by a ,grand ,master and a ,council of twenty-six members1 all appointed by the ,emperor4 ,this ,council decided all matters of importance1 and exercised supervision and control over education of all kinds1 from the lowest to the highest1 throughout ,france4 #d ,to assist the ,council1 general inspectors for medicine1 law1 theology1 letters1 and science were provided for1 to visit and examine the condition of instruction and discipline in the faculties1 lyces1 and colleges2 to inform themselves in regard to the fidelity and ability of professors1 regents1 and ushers2 to examine the students2 and to make a complete survey of those institutions1 in their whole administration4 ,beneath the ,grand ,master and ,council the ,state was divided into twenty- seven ,academies 7administrative districts71 each of which had a ,rector1 a ,council of ten1 and ,inspectors1 all appointed by the ,grand ,master4 ,these exercised jurisdiction over teachers and pupils in all schools1 and decided all local matters1 subject to appeal to the ,grand ,master and ,council4 ,under this new administrative organization but little change was made in the schools from that provided for in the law of #ahjb4 ,primary education remained as before1 private schools and ,church schools supplying most of the need4 ,all were under the supervision of the ,university1 and all were instructed to make as a basis of their instruction3 7#a7 the precepts of the ,catholic religion2 7#b7 fidelity to the ,emperor1 to the imperial monarchy1 the depository of the happiness of the people1 and to the ,napoleonic dynasty1 the conservator of the unity of ,france1 and of all the ideas proclaimed by the ,constitution4 ,the ,lyces and ,communal ,colleges continued1 much as before1 #e and during the half-century which followed1 experienced a steady and substantial growth4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,lyc,,es ,year #ahji #ahaa #ahac #ahbi #ahdg #ahff ,lyces #ce #cf #cf #cf #ed #gd ,pupils #i1jfh #aj1ibf #ad1dib #ae1jhg #bc1bjg #cd1ddb ,free pupils #d1aii #d1jjh #c1ejj #a1fjj ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,communal ,,colleges ,year #ahji #ahae #ahcj #ahdi #ahee #ahff ,colleges #bgc #cbc #ccb #cjf #bdd #bea ,pupils #ah1ejg #ai1cbj #bg1cjh #ca1gjf #cb1ejj #cc1jch ,the ,special ,higher ,schools were also continued1 and to the list given 7p4 #eic7 ,napoleon added 7#ahjh7 a ,superior ,normal ,school 7,r4 #bhc7 to train graduates of the ,lyces for teaching4 ,this opened in #ahaj1 with thirty- seven students and a two-year course of instruction1 and in #ahae a third year of method and practice work was added4 ,with some varying fortunes1 this institution has continued to the present4 ,,the ,,new ,,interest ,,in ,,primary ,,education4 ,the period from #ahae to #ahcj in ,france is known as the ,restoration4 ,louis ,,xviii was made ,king and ruled until his death in #ahbd1 and his brother ,charles ,x who followed until deposed by the ,revolution of #ahcj4 ,though a representative of the old rgime was recalled on the abdication of ,napoleon1 the great social gains of the ,revolution were retained4 ,there was no odious restoration of privilege and absolute monarchy4 ,frenchmen continued to be equal before the law2 a form of constitutional government was provided2 the right of petition was recognized2 and the system of public instruction as ,napoleon had organized it continued almost unchanged4 ,for a decade at least there was less political reaction in ,france than in other continental ,states4 ,in matters of education1 what had been provided was retained1 and there seems 7,r4 #bhe7 to have been an increasing demand for additions and improvements1 particularly in the matter of primary and middle-class schools1 and a willingness on the part of the communes to provide such advantages4 ,some small progress had been made in meeting these demands1 before #ahcj4 ,in #ahaf a small treasury grant 7#ej1jjj francs7 was made for school books1 model schools1 and deserving teachers in the primary schools1 and in #ahbi this sum was increased to #cjj1jjj francs4 ,in #ahah the ,brothers of the ,christian ,schools were permitted to be certificated for teaching on merely presenting their ,letter of ,obedience from the head of their ,order1 and in #ahbd the cantonal school committees were remodeled so as to give the bishops and clergy entire control of all ,catholic primary schools4 ,monitorial instruction was introduced from ,england by private teachers1 in an effort to supply the beginnings of education at small expense1 and for a time this had some vogue1 but never proved very successful4 ,in #ahae the ,lyces were renamed ,royal ,colleges1 but in #ahdh the old name was restored1 and has since been retained4 ,in #ahag there were thirty-six ,lyces1 receiving an annual state subsidy of #hab1jjj francs2 thirty years later the fifty-four in existence were receiving #a1ejj1jjj francs4 ,from #ahbb to #ahbi the ,higher ,normal ,school was suppressed1 and twelve elementary normal schools were created in its stead4 ,,early ,,work ,,under ,,the ,,monarchy ,,of #ahcj4 ,in ,july1 #ahcj1 ,charles ,x attempted to suppress constitutional liberty1 and the people rose in revolt and deposed him1 and gave the crown to a new ,king1 ,louis-,philippe4 ,he ruled until deposed by the creation of the ,second ,republic1 in #ahdh4 ,the ,monarchy of #ahcj was supported by the leading thinkers of the time1 prominent among whom were ,thiers and ,guizot1 and one of the first affairs of ,state to which they turned their attention was the extension downward of the system of public instruction4 ,the first steps were an increase of the state grant for primary schools 7#ahcj7 to a million francs a year2 the overthrow of the control by the priests of the cantonal school committees 7#ahcj73 the abolition 7#ahca7 of the exemption of the religious orders from the examinations for teaching certificates2 and the creation 7#ahcj-ca7 of thirty new normal schools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf ,,victor ,,cousin 7#agib-ahfg7 ,the next step was to send 7#ahca7 ,m4 ,victor ,cousin--,director of the restored ,higher ,normal ,school of ,france--on a mission to the ,german ,states1 and in particular to ,prussia1 to study and report on the system of elementary education1 teacher training1 and educational organization and administration which had done so much for its regeneration4 ,so convincing was ,cousin's ,report #f that1 despite bitter national antipathies1 it carried conviction throughout ,france4 ,it demonstrated to the government and the people the immense superiority of all the ,german ,states1 even the most insignificant duchy1 over any and every ,department of ,france1 in all that concerned institutions of primary and secondary education4 ,cousin pronounced the school law of ,prussia 7,r4 #bhj7 the most comprehensive and perfect legislative measure regarding primary education with which he was acquainted1 and declared his conviction that in the present state of things1 a law concerning primary education is indispensable in ,france4 ,the chief question1 he continued1 was how to procure a good one in a country where there is a total absence of all precedents and experience in so grave a matter4 ,cousin then pointed out the bases1 derived from ,prussian experience and ,french historical development1 on which a satisfactory law could be framed 7,r4 #bhd a-c72 the desirability of local control and liberty in instruction 7,r4 #bhd f-g72 and strongly recommended the organization of higher primary schools 7a new creation2 first recommended 7#agib7 by ,condorcet1 p4 #ead7 as well as primary schools 7,r4 #bhd e7 to meet the educational needs of the middle classes of the population of ,france4 ,,the ,,law ,,of #ahcc4 ,on the basis of ,cousin's ,report a bill1 making the maintenance of primary schools obligatory on every commune2 providing for higher primary schools in the towns and cities2 additional normal schools to train teachers for these schools2 a corps of primary-school inspectors1 to represent the ,state2 and normal training and state certification required to teach in any primary school1 was prepared4 ,in an address to the ,chamber of ,deputies1 in introducing the bill 7#ahcb71 ,m4 ,guizot #g1 the newly appointed ,minister for ,public ,instruction1 set forth the history of primary instruction in ,france up to #ahcb 7,r4 #bhe a72 described the two grades of primary instruction to be created 7,r4 #bhe b72 and1 emphasizing ,cousin's maxim that the schoolmaster makes the school1 dwelt on the necessity for normal training and state certification for all primary teachers 7,r4 #bhe c74 ,in preparing the bill it was decided not to follow the revolutionary ideas of free instruction1 by lay and state teachers1 or to enforce compulsion to attend1 and for these omissions ,m4 ,guizot1 in his ,mmoires 7,r4 #bhf71 gives some very interesting reasons4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,main ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,state ,,school ,,system ,the bill became a law the following year1 and is known officially as the ,law of #ahcc4 ,this ,law forms the foundations upon which the ,french system of national elementary education has been developed1 as the ,napoleonic ,law of #ahjb and the ,decree of #ahjh have formed the basis for secondary education and ,french state administrative organization4 ,a primary school was to be established in every commune1 which was to provide the building1 pay a fixed minimum salary to the teacher1 and where able maintain the school4 ,the state reserved the right to fix the pay of the teacher1 and even to approve his appointment4 ,a tuition fee was to be paid for attendance1 but those who could not pay were to be provided with free places4 ,the primary schools were to give instruction in reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 the weights and measures1 the ,french language1 and morals and religion4 ,the higher primary schools were to build on these subjects1 and to offer instruction in geometry and its applications1 linear drawing1 surveying1 physical science1 natural history1 history1 geography1 and music1 and were to emphasize instruction in the history and geography of ,france1 and in the elements of science1 as they apply it every day in the office1 the workshop1 and the field4 #h ,these latter were the ,brgerschulen1 recommended by ,cousin 7,r4 #bhd e7 on the basis of his study of ,prussian education4 #i ,illustration3 ,,plate #ad4 ,,fran,,ois ,,pierre ,,guillaume ,,guizot 7#aghg-ahgd7 ,creator of the ,french primary school system ,the primary schools were to follow a uniform plan1 and as a guide a ,manual of ,primary ,instruction was issued1 giving detailed directions as to what was to be done4 ,in sending out a copy of the ,law to the primary teachers of ,france1 ,m4 ,guizot enclosed a personal letter to each1 informing him as to what the government expected of him in the new work 7,r4 #bhg74 ,during the four years that ,m4 ,guizot remained ,minister of ,public ,instruction he rendered a remarkable service1 well described by ,matthew ,arnold 7,r4 #bhh71 in awakening his countrymen to the new problem of popular education then before them4 ,the results under the ,law of #ahcc were large #aj and the subsequent legislation under the monarchy of #ahcj was important4 ,for the first time in ,french history an earnest effort was made to provide education suited to the needs of the great mass of the people1 and the marked development of schools which ensued showed how eagerly they embraced the opportunities offered their children1 though the schooling was neither compulsory nor gratuitous4 ,in #ahcg ,infant ,schools1 for still younger children1 were authorized1 and in #ahdj state aid for these was begun4 ,in #ahcf classes for adults1 first begun in ,paris in #ahbj1 were authorized generally1 but it was not until #ahfg that these were formally incorporated into the state school system4 ,in #ahde state aid for the ,communal ,colleges1 as well as for the ,lyces1 was begun4 ,,development ,,of ,,infant ,,schools ,year444444 #ahbg #ahcg #ahdj #ahdc #ahdf #ahej #ahfc #ahhf #ahig ,schools444 #a #bea #eee #adhi #ahfa #agce #ccjh #ffif #efhc ,,reaction ,,after #ahdh4 ,in ,france1 as in ,europe generally1 the people were steadily becoming more liberal1 as they became better educated1 while the rulers were becoming more autocratic4 ,the result was the series of revolutions of #ahdh1 which broke out first in ,france1 and finally extended to most of the countries of continental ,europe4 ,in ,france the ,king1 ,louis- ,philippe1 was forced to abdicate2 a ,republic1 based on universal manhood suffrage1 was proclaimed2 and ,louis ,napoleon1 a nephew of ,napoleon ,i1 was elected ,president4 ,in #ahea ,napoleon established himself as ,dictator2 prepared a new constitution providing for an ,empire2 and1 in #aheb1 dissolved the ,second ,republic and assumed the title of ,emperor ,napoleon ,,iii4 ,this ,second ,empire lasted until #ahgj1 when ,france was humiliated by the ,prussians as the latter had been by ,napoleon ,i in #ahjf4 ,the ,emperor and his armies were taken prisoners 7#ahgj7 and1 in #ahga1 the ,prussians occupied ,paris and crowned the new ,emperor of united and ,imperial ,germany in the palace of the ,french ,kings at ,versailles4 ,a ,third ,republic now succeeded1 and this has lasted to the present time4 ,the period from #ahdh to #ahgj in ,france was a period of middle-class rule1 and reaction in education as in government4 ,in #ahdh a ,sub-,commission on ,primary ,education reported in opposition to the state primary schools4 ,the troubles of #ahdh had brought to view the political restlessness which had taken possession of the teachers1 as well as other classes in society4 ,the new schools were naturally suspected of being the source of the popular discontent4 ,many teachers had sympathized with1 and some had taken part in the disturbances1 and teachers generally were now placed under close surveillance4 ,some of the leaders were forced into exile until after #ahgj4 ,religious schools1 regarded as more favorable to monarchical needs and purposes1 were now encouraged1 and the number of religious schools increased from #fdfd in #ahej1 to #aa1cia by #ahfd4 ,private schools1 too1 were given full freedom to compete with the state schools1 and the pay of the primary teachers was reduced4 ,the course in the normal schools was condemned as too ambitious1 and1 in #ahea1 was cut down4 ,the course of instruction in the primary schools1 on the other hand1 was1 unlike in ,prussia1 broadened instead of restricted1 and in particular emphasis was placed1 in keeping with nearly a century of ,french tradition1 on scientific and practical subjects4 #aa ,the law of #ahej stated the requirements for primary schools as follows3 ,art4 #bc4 ,primary instruction comprises moral and religious instruction1 reading1 writing1 the elements of the ,french language1 computation1 and the legal system of weights and measures4 ,it may comprise1 in addition1 arithmetic applied to practical operations1 the elements of history 7a required subject after #ahfg7 and geography1 notions of the physical sciences and of natural history applicable to the ordinary purposes of life1 elementary instruction in agriculture1 trade1 and hygiene2 and surveying1 leveling1 linear drawing1 singing1 and gymnastics4 ,religious instruction prospered under the ,second ,empire1 and the state primary schools lost in importance4 ,the ,lyces continued largely as classical institutions1 though after #ahfe the crowding of the rising sciences began to dispute the supremacy of classical studies4 ,there were1 however1 many voices of discontent1 particularly from exiled teachers 7,r4 #bhi71 and the way was rapidly being prepared for the creation of a stronger and better state school system as soon as political conditions were propitious4 ,,revolutionary ,,ideals ,,at ,,last ,,realized4 ,with the creation of the ,third ,republic1 in #ahgj1 a change from the old conditions and old attitudes took place4 ,up to about #ahgi the new government was in control of those who were at heart sympathetic with the old conditions1 but were forced to accept the new2 from #ahgi to #ahij was a transition period2 and since #ahij the ,republic has grown steadily in strength and regained its position among the great powers of the world4 ,the first few years of the new ,republic were devoted to paying the ,prussian indemnity and clearing the soil of ,france of ,german armies1 but1 after about #ahge1 education became a great national interest among leaders of ,france4 #ab ,france saw1 somewhat as did ,prussia after #ahjf1 the necessity for creating a strong state system of primary1 secondary1 and higher schools to train the youth of the land in the principles of the ,republic1 strengthen the national spirit1 advance the welfare of the ,state1 and protect it from dangers both within and without4 ,,progress ,,of ,,primary ,,education ,,in ,,france1 ,,during ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century1 ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,reduction ,,in ,,the ,,percentage ,,of ,,illiteracy ,,among ,,army ,,conscripts1 ,,and ,,among ,,persons ,,signing ,,the ,,marriage ,,records ,years ,army ,marriage records conscripts ,men ,women #agij #ec4j #gc4j #ahbg #eh4j #ahcc #dg4h #ahdj #db4h #ahde #cg4h #ahej #ce4g #ahee #cc4g #cb4j #dg4j #ahfj #cj4j #cj4d #dd4h #ahfe #bd4d #bg4e #da4j #ahgj #ai4g #bf4h #ci4d #ahge #af4j #bj4j #ca4j #ahhj #ad4g #af4a #bd4e #ahhe #aa4e #ac4j #bj4b #ahij #g4h #h4g #ab4h #ahif #e4a #e4h #g4h #aija #d4d #d4d #f4c ,millions were put into the building of schoolhouses 7#ahgh-hh72 new normal schools were established2 a normal school for women was created in each of the eighty-seven departments of ,france2 the academic and superior councils of public instruction were reorganized to eliminate clerical influences 7#ahha72 religious instruction was replaced by moral and civic instruction 7,r4 #bij72 and clerical ,letters of ,obedience were no longer accepted1 and all teachers were required to be certificated by the ,state4 ,the ,law of #ahha1 eliminating instruction in religion from the elementary schools1 was followed1 in #ahhf1 by a law providing for the gradual replacement of clerical by lay teachers4 ,in #aijd1 the teaching congregations of ,france were suppressed4 ,all elementary education now became public1 free1 compulsory1 and secular1 #ac and teachers were required to be neutral in religious matters4 #ad ,since #ahga1 also1 technical and scientific education has been emphasized2 the primary and superior-primary schools have been made free 7#ahha7 and compulsory 7#ahhb72 classes for adults have been begun generally2 the state aid for schools has been very greatly increased2 lyces and colleges for women have been created 7#ahhj72 the lyces modernized in their instruction #ae and the reorganization and restablishment of a series of fifteen state universities of a modern type1 begun in #ahhe1 was completed in #ahif4 ,the reorganization and expansion of education in ,france since #ahge is a wonderful example of republican interest and energy1 and is along entirely different lines from those followed1 since the same date1 in ,german lands4 ,after the lapse of nearly a century we now see the ,french ,revolutionary ideas of gratuity1 obligation1 and secularization finally put into effect1 and the state system of public instruction outlined by ,condorcet 7p4 #ead71 in #agib1 at last an accomplished fact4 ,,ii4 ,,national ,,organization ,,in ,,italy ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,napoleon4 ,so much has been written about the deluge of blood that took place in ,paris in the days of the ,commune and the time of the ,national ,conventions1 and of the military victories and autocratic rule of ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 that it is difficult to appraise the importance of either1 from the point of view of the progress of civilization and of the organization of modern political institutions1 at its true worth4 ,the faults of both are prominent and outstanding1 but it nevertheless was the merit of the ,revolution that it enabled ,france1 and along with ,france a good portion of western ,europe1 to rid itself of the worst survivals of the ,middle ,ages1 while to ,napoleon much of western ,europe is indebted for the foundation of its civil institutions1 unified legal procedure1 beginnings of state educational organization1 and modern governmental forms4 ,writing on this subject1 ,matthew ,arnold #af well said3 ,with all his faults1 his ,napoleon's reason was so clear and strong that he saw1 in its general outlines at least1 the just and rational type of civil organization which modern society needs1 and wherever his armies went he instituted it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4 ,,europe ,,in #ahaj ,showing the control of ,france when ,napoleon was at the height of his power4 ,that the ,french ,revolution's merit and service was a real one is shown by all the world1 as it improves1 getting rid more and more of the ,middle ,ages4 ,that ,napoleon's merit and service was a real one is shown by the bad governments which succeeded him having always got rid1 when they could1 of his work1 and by the progress of improvement1 when these governments became intolerable1 and are themselves got rid of1 always bringing it back4 ,where governments were not wholly bad1 and did not get rid of ,napoleon's good work1 this work turns out to have the future on its side1 and to be more likely to assimilate the institutions round it to its pattern than to be itself assimilated by them4 ,in the ,italian ,states1 the ,netherlands1 some of the ,french cantons of ,switzerland1 the ,rhine countries1 and the ,danish peninsula1 in particular1 the rule of ,napoleon1 imposed by his armies1 carried out by rulers of his selection1 and maintained for a long enough period that the legal organization1 civil order1 unified government1 and taste of educational opportunities of a new type which his rule brought became attractive to the people1 in time proved deeply influential in their political development4 #ag ,all these nations still show traces of the ,french influence in their state educational organization4 ,we shall take the ,italian ,states as a type1 and examine briefly the influence on the development of state educational organization there which resulted from contact with the forward-looking rule of ,the ,great ,emperor4 ,,decline ,,in ,,importance ,,of ,,education ,,in ,,italy4 ,in a preceding chapter 7p4 #ejc71 we mentioned that the rule of ,napoleon in northern ,italy awakened the national spirit from its long lethargy1 and caused ,italian liberals to look forward1 for the first time since the days of the ,revival of ,learning1 to the time when the ,italian ,states might be united into one ,italian nation1 with ,rome as its capital4 ,this became the work of the mid- nineteenth century 7see dates1 ,fig4 #agi71 though not fully completed until the ,world ,war of #aiad-ah4 ,italy stands to-day a great united nation1 with a large future ahead of it1 but as such it is entirely a nineteenth- century creation4 ,from the time of its intellectual decline following the ,renaissance1 to the middle of the nineteenth century1 ,italy remained a geographical expression and split up into a number of little independent ,states2 up to the time of ,napoleon it was a part of the ,german-ruled ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,after the great patriotic effort of the period of the ,revival of ,learning 7p4 #bfd7 in ,italy1 and the rather feeble and unsuccessful attempts at a reform of religion which followed1 the intellectual development of ,italy was checked and turned aside for centuries by the triumph of an unprogressive and anti-intellectual attitude on the part of the dominant ,church4 ,the persecution of ,galileo 7p4 #chh7 was but a phase of the reaction in religion which had by that time set in4 ,education was turned over to the religious orders1 such as the ,jesuits and the ,barnabites1 and instruction was turned aside from liberal culture and the promotion of learning to the support of a religion and the stamping out of heresy4 ,though a number of educational foundations were made1 and some important undertakings begun after the days when her universities were crowded and ,florence and ,venice vied with one another for the intellectual supremacy of the western world1 the spirit nevertheless was gone1 and both education and government settled down to a tenacious preservation of the existing order4 ,scholars ceased to frequent the schools of ,italy2 the universities changed from seats of learning to degree-conferring institutions2 #ah the intellectual capitals came to be found north of the ,alps2 and the history of educational progress ceased to be traced in this ancient land4 ,in the early part of the eighteenth century the schools there reached perhaps their lowest intellectual level4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,reform ,,in ,,savoy4 ,the first and almost the only attempt to change this condition1 before ,napoleon's armies went crashing through the valley of the ,po1 was made in the seventeenth century by two ,dukes of ,savoy4 ,by decrees of #agbi and #aggb they took the control of the secondary 7,latin7 schools in their little duchy from the religious orders1 and established a ,council of ,public ,instruction to reform the university examinations1 see that teachers were prepared for the ,latin schools1 and take over in the name of the authorities of the duchy the control of education4 ,though inspired by a political interest1 the two dukes brought into their little kingdom the much-needed ideas of honest work1 effective administration1 and public spirit1 and laid the foundations for the control of education by the public authorities later on4 ,the only other attempt to improve conditions came in ,lombardy1 in #aggd1 which then was a part of the ,austrian dominions and felt the short-lived reforms of ,maria ,theresa 7p4 #efb2 ,r4 #bgf74 ,elsewhere in ,italy conditions remained unchanged until the time of ,napoleon4 ,,napoleon ,,revives ,,the ,,national ,,spirit4 ,in #agif ,napoleon's armies invaded ,sardinia1 ,lombardy1 and the valley of the ,po1 and he soon extended his control to almost all the ,italian peninsula4 ,for nearly two decades thereafter this collection of little ,states felt the unifying1 regenerating influence of the organizing ,french4 ,monasteries and convents and religious schools were transformed into modern teaching institutions1 brigandage was put down1 and efficient and honest government was established4 ,the ideas of the ,french ,law of #ahjb as to education were applied4 ,every town was ordered to establish a school for boys1 to teach the reading and writing of ,italian and the elements of ,french and ,latin2 the secondary schools were modernized2 and the universities were completely reorganized4 ,some of the universities were reduced to licei 7lyces2 secondary schools71 while others were strengthened and their revenues turned to better purposes4 ,the universities at ,naples and ,turin in particular were transformed into strong institutions1 with a decided emphasis on scientific studies4 ,a normal school was founded at ,pisa1 on the model of the one at ,paris4 ,new standards in education were set up1 the study of the sciences was introduced into the secondary schools1 and the study of medicine and law was regenerated4 ,with the fall of ,napoleon his work was largely undone4 ,the firm1 just1 and intelligent government which he had given ,italy--something the land had not known for ages--came to an end4 ,the little ,states were handed back to the reactionary dynasts whose rule was neither benevolent nor intelligent1 while the ever-ready ,austrian army crushed out any local movement for liberal institutions4 ,the laws regarding education were repealed1 and the schools the ,french had established were closed as revolutionary and dangerous4 ,the normal school at ,pisa ceased to exist2 the university at ,naples was dismantled2 the one at ,turin was closed2 and the ,jesuits were allowed to return and reorganize instruction4 ,the result was that a common discontent with ensuing conditions made ,italians conscious of their racial and historical unity1 and this finally expressed itself in the revolutions of #ahdh4 ,these failed at the time1 and the heel of the ,austrian oppressor came down harder than before4 ,liberty of the press practically ceased4 ,the national leaders went into exile for safety4 ,the prisons were filled with political offenders4 ,the schools were closed or ceased to influence4 ,the ,pope1 fearing the end of his earthly kingship approaching1 united firmly with the ,austrians to resist liberal movements4 ,finally1 under the leadership of the enlightened ,king of ,sardinia1 ,victor ,emmanuel 7#ahdi-gh7 and his ,prime ,minister1 ,count of ,cavour1 the ,austrians were driven out 7#ahei-ff7 and all ,italy was united 7#ahgj7 under the rule of one king interested in promoting the welfare of his people4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4 ,,the ,,unification ,,of ,,italy1 ,,since #ahdh ,,sardinia ,,leads ,,to ,,national ,,organization ,,and ,,control4 ,the movement to free ,italy was essentially a liberal movement4 ,many hoped to create a republic1 but chose a liberal constitutional monarchy under ,victor ,emmanuel as the most feasible plan4 ,cavour understood the importance of public instruction1 and from the first began to build up schools #ai and put them under state control4 ,in #ahdd1 a normal school was opened in ,turin4 ,in #ahdg1 a ,minister of ,public ,instruction was appointed and a ,council of ,public ,instruction created1 after the plan of ,france1 ,in #ahdh1 a ,general ,school ,law was enacted1 and the organization and improvement of schools was begun with a will4 ,in #ahej1 a commission was sent to study the school systems of ,europe1 and in particular those of ,france and of the ,german ,states4 ,a ,supreme ,council of ,public ,instruction was now formed for ,sardinia1 and the process of creating primary schools1 higher-primary schools1 classical and technical secondary schools1 colleges1 and the reorganization of the universities was begun4 ,in #ahei1 when the growth of ,italian unity was rapidly extending the rule of ,victor ,emmanuel1 #bj a new law1 providing a still better state organization of public instruction1 was enacted4 ,a ,minister of ,public ,instruction appointed by the ,king1 a ,supreme ,council of ,public ,instruction1 and a ,department of ,public ,instruction as a branch of the government1 were all provided for1 after the ,french plan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj ,,count ,,of ,,cavour 7#ahaj-fa7 ,this ,law of #ahei was later extended to cover all ,italy1 and has formed the basis for all subsequent legislation4 ,it clearly established a state system of education1 though the religious schools were allowed to remain4 ,it also established control after the ,french plan1 with a high degree of centralization and uniformity4 ,the schools established1 too1 were much after the ,french type1 though much less extensive in scope4 ,the primary and superior primary at first were but two years each1 though since extended in all the larger communities to a six-year combined course4 ,the two-class school system was established1 as in ,france and ,german lands4 ,the secondary-school system consisted of a five-year ginnasio1 established in many places 7#bah in ,italy by #ahfe2 #deh by #aiaf7 with a three-year liceo following1 but found in a smaller number of places4 ,parallel with this a seven-year non-classical scientific and technical secondary school was also created1 and these institutions have made marked headway 7#dfa by #aiaf7 in central and northern ,italy4 ,pupils may pass to either of these on the completion of the ordinary four-year primary course1 at the age of ten4 ,above the secondary schools are numerous universities4 ,the normal-school system created prepared for teaching in the primary schools1 while the university system followed the completion of the liceo course4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,main ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,italian ,,state ,,school ,,system ,the influence of ,french ideas in ,italian educational organization is clearly evident4 ,before the ,french armies brought ,french governmental ideas and organization to ,italy almost nothing had been done4 ,then1 during the first six decades of the nineteenth century1 the transition from the church-school idea to the conception of education as an important function of the ,state was made1 and the resulting system is largely ,french in organization and form4 ,,subsequent ,,progress4 ,from this point on educational progress has been chiefly a problem of increased finances and the slow but gradual extension of educational opportunities to more and more of the children of the people4 ,the church schools have been allowed to continue side by side with the state schools1 and the problem of securing satisfactory working relations has not always been easy of solution4 ,in #ahgg primary education was ordered made compulsory1 #ba and religious instruction was dropped from the state schools1 but the slow progress of the nation in extending literacy indicates that but little had been accomplished in enforcing the compulsion previous to the new compulsory law of #aijd4 ,this made more stringent provisions regarding schooling1 and provided for three thousand evening and ,sunday schools for illiterate adults4 ,in #aijf1 an earnest effort was begun to extend educational advantages in the southern provinces1 where illiteracy has always been highest4 ,in #aiaa1 the state aid for elementary education was materially increased4 ,in #aiab1 a new and more modern plan of studies for the secondary schools was promulgated4 ,since #aiab many important advances have been inaugurated1 such as elementary schools of agriculture1 vocational schools1 continuation schools1 the middle-class industrial and commercial schools4 ,the ,world ,war directed new attention to the educational needs of the nation4 ,italy1 at last thoroughly awakened1 seems destined to be a great world power politically and commercially1 and we may look forward to seeing education used by the ,italian ,state as a great constructive force for the advancement of its national interests4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,show how the ,revolution marked out the lines of future educational evolution for ,france4 #b4 ,explain why ,france and ,italy evolved a school system so much more centralized than did other ,european nations4 #c4 ,explain ,napoleon's lack of interest in primary education1 in view of the needs of ,france in his day4 #d4 ,show that ,napoleon was right1 time and circumstances considered1 in placing the state emphasis on the types of education he favored4 #e4 ,explain why middle-class education should have received such special attention in ,cousin's ,report1 and in the ,law of #ahcc4 #f4 ,was the course of instruction provided for the primary schools in #ahcc1 times and needs considered1 a liberal one1 or otherwise8 ,why8 #g4 ,compare the #ahcc and the #ahej courses4 #h4 ,explain why all forms of education in ,france should have experienced such a marked expansion and development after #ahge4 #i4 ,explain why great military disasters1 for the past #aej years1 have nearly always resulted in national educational reorganization4 #aj4 ,appraise the work and the permanent influence of ,napoleon4 #aa4 ,explain ,napoleon's interest in establishing schools and universities1 when the ,austrian and ,church authorities were so interested in abolishing what he had created4 #ab4 ,what did the dropping of religious instruction from the primary schools of both ,france and ,italy1 both strong ,catholic countries1 indicate as to national development8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections are reproduced3 #bhb4 ,le ,brun3 ,founding of the ,school of ,arts and ,trades4 #bhc4 ,jourdain3 ,refounding of the ,superior ,normal ,school4 #bhd4 ,cousin3 ,recommendations for ,education in ,france4 #bhe4 ,guizot3 ,address on the ,law of #ahcc4 #bhf4 ,guizot3 ,principles underlying the ,law of #ahcc4 #bhg4 ,guizot3 ,letter to the ,primary ,teachers of ,france4 #bhh4 ,arnold3 ,guizot's ,work as ,minister of ,public ,instruction4 #bhi4 ,quinet3 ,a ,lay ,school for a ,lay ,society4 #bij4 ,ferry3 ,moral and ,civic ,instruction replaces the ,religious4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,just what attitude toward education did the action of ,napoleon in changing the character of the school at ,compigne 7#bhb7 express8 #b4 ,what type of school 7#bhc7 was the re-created ,superior ,normal8 #c4 ,just what did ,victor ,cousin recommend 7#bhd7 as to 7a7 schools to be created2 7b7 control and administration2 7c7 compulsory attendance2 7d7 schools for the middle classes2 and 7e7 education and control of teachers8 #d4 ,was ,guizot's ,law of #ahcc 7#bhe7 in harmony with the recommendations of ,cousin 7#bhd78 #e4 ,why have public opinion and legislative action1 in ,france and elsewhere1 so completely reversed the positions taken by ,guizot and his advisers 7#bhf7 in framing the ,law of #ahcc8 #f4 ,from ,guizot's letter to the teachers of ,france 7#bhg71 and ,arnold's description of his work 7#bhh71 just what do you infer to have been the nature of his interest in advancing primary education in ,france8 #g4 ,contrast the reasoning of ,guizot 7#bhf7 and ,quinet 7#bhi7 on lay instruction4 ,of the reasoning of the two men1 which is now accepted in ,france and the ,united ,states8 #h4 ,contrast the letters of ,guizot 7#bhg7 and ,ferry 7#bij7 to the primary teachers of ,france4 ,,supplementary ,,references ,arnold1 ,matthew4 ,popular ,education in ,france4 99 ,arnold1 ,matthew4 ,schools and ,universities on the ,continent4 99 ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,national ,education in ,europe4 ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,american ,journal of ,education1 vol4 ,,xx4 ,compayr1 ,g4 ,history of ,pedagogy1 chapter ,,xxi4 99 ,farrington1 ,fr4 ,e4 ,the ,public ,primary ,school ,system of ,france4 99 ,farrington1 ,fr4 ,e4 ,french ,secondary ,schools4 ,guizot1 ,f4 ,p4 ,g4 ,mmoires1 ,extracts from1 covering work as ,minister of ,public ,instruction1 #ahcb-cg1 in ,barnard's ,american ,journal of ,education1 vol4 ,,xi1 pp4 #bed-ha1 #ceg-ii4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,national ,,organization ,,in ,,england ,i4 ,,the ,,charitable ,,voluntary ,,beginnings ,,english ,,progress ,a ,,slow ,,but ,,peaceful ,,evolution4 ,the beginnings of national educational organization in ,england were neither so simple nor so easy as in the other lands we have described4 ,so far this was in part due to the long-established idea1 on the part of the small ruling class1 that education was no business of the ,state2 in part to the deeply ingrained conception as to the religious purpose of all instruction2 in part to the fact that the controlling upper classes had for long been in possession of an educational system which rendered satisfactory service in preparing leaders for both ,church and ,state2 and in part--probably in large part--to the fact that national evolution in ,england1 since the time of the ,civil ,war 7#afdb-di7 has been a slow and peaceful growth1 though accompanied by much hard thinking and vigorous parliamentary fighting4 ,since the ,reformation 7#aecd-ci7 and the ,puritan uprising led by ,cromwell 7#afdb-di71 no civil strife has convulsed the land1 destroyed old institutions1 and forced rapid changes in old established practices4 ,neither has the country been in danger from foreign invasion since that memorable week in ,july1 #aehh1 when ,drake destroyed the ,spanish ,armada and made the future of ,england as a world power secure4 ,english educational evolution has in consequence been slow1 and changes and progress have come only in response to much pressure1 and usually as a reluctant concession to avoid more serious trouble4 ,a strong ,english characteristic has been the ability to argue rather than fight out questions of national policy2 to exhibit marked tolerance of the opinions of others during the discussion2 and finally to recognize enough of the proponents' point of view to be willing to make concessions sufficient to arrive at an agreement4 ,this has resulted in a slow but a peaceful evolution1 and this slow and peaceful evolution has for long been the dominant characteristic of the political1 social1 and educational progress of the ,english people4 ,the whole history of the two centuries of evolution toward a national system of education is a splendid illustration of this essentially ,english characteristic4 ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,educational ,,efforts4 ,england1 it will be remembered 7chapter ,,xix1 ,section ,,iii71 had early made marked progress in both political and religious liberty4 ,ahead of any other people we find there the beginnings of democratic liberty1 popular enlightenment1 freedom of the press1 religious toleration1 #a social reform1 and scientific and industrial progress4 ,all these influences awakened in ,england1 earlier than in any other ,european nation1 a rather general desire to be able to read 7,r4 #agj71 and by the opening of the eighteenth century we find the beginnings of a charitable and philanthropic movement on the part of the churches and the upper classes to extend a knowledge of the elements of learning to the poorer classes of the population4 ,as a result1 as we have seen 7chapter ,,xviii71 the eighteenth century in ,england1 educationally1 was characterized by a new attitude toward the educational problem and a marked extension of educational opportunity4 ,even before the beginning of the century the courts had taken a new attitude toward church control of teaching1 #b and in #agjj had freed the teacher of the elementary school from control by the bishops through license4 #c ,in #agad an ,act of ,parliament 7#ac ,anne1 c4 #g7 exempted elementary schools from the penalties of conformity legislation1 and they were thereafter free to multiply and their teachers to teach4 #d ,the dame school 7,r4 #bce7 now became an established ,english institution 7p4 #ddg74 ,private-adventure schools of a number of types arose 7p4 #dea74 ,the churches here and there began to provide elementary parish-schools for the children of their poorer members 7p4 #ddi71 or training-schools for other children who were to go out to service 7,r4 #bda74 ,workhouse schools and schools of industry also were used to provide for orphans and the children of paupers 7p4 #dec74 ,,the ,,charity-,,school ,,system4 ,most important of all was the organization1 by groups of individuals 7,r4 #bcg7 and by ,societies 7,s4,p4,c4,k42 p4 #ddi7 formed for the purpose1 and maintained by subscription 7,r4 #bdj71 collections 7,r4 #bia71 and foundation incomes1 of an extensive and well-organized system of ,charity-,schools 7p4 #ddi74 ,the ,society for the ,promotion of ,christian ,knowledge dates from the year #afii1 and the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel in ,foreign ,parts from #agja4 ,the first worked at home1 and the second in the overseas colonies4 #e ,both did much to provide schools for poor boys and girls1 furnishing them with clothing and instruction 7,r4 #bib71 and training them in reading1 writing1 spelling1 counting1 cleanliness1 proper behavior1 sewing and knitting 7girls71 and in the ,rules and ,principles of the ,christian ,religion as professed and taught in the ,church of ,england 7,r4 #bch b74 ,the ,charity-,school idea was in a sense an application of the joint-stock-company principle to the organization and maintenance of an extensive system of schools for the education of the children of the poor1 the stock being subscribed for by humanitarian- minded people4 ,the upper classes had for long been well provided1 through tutors in the home and grammar schools and colleges1 with those means for education which have for centuries produced an able succession of gentlemen1 statesmen1 governors1 and scholars for ,england1 and many of the commercial middle-class had1 by the eighteenth century1 become able to purchase similar advantages for their sons4 ,these now united to provide1 as part of a great organized charity and under carefully selected teachers 7,r4 #bch a71 for the more promising children of their poorer neighbors1 the elements of that education which they themselves had enjoyed4 ,the movement spread rapidly over ,england 7p4 #dea71 and soon developed into a great national effort to raise the level of intelligence of the masses of the ,english people4 ,thousands of persons gave their services as directors1 organizers1 and teachers4 ,traveling superintendents were employed4 ,a rudimentary form of teacher-training was begun4 ,the preaching of a ,charity ,sermon each year #f with a special collection1 became a general ,english practice4 ,,the ,,voluntary ,,system4 ,the rise of the ,methodist movement1 #g after #agcj 7p4 #dhi72 the earthquake shocks of #agej2 the rise of the popular novel and newspaper2 the printing of political news1 and cheap scientific pamphlets 7p4 #dib72 and the growing tendency to debate questions and to apply reason to their solution--all tended to give emphasis in ,england to these eighteenth-century charitable means for extending education to the children of those who could not afford to pay for it4 ,unlike the ,german ,states1 where the ,state and the ,church and the school had all worked together from the days of the ,reformation on1 the ,english had never known such a conception4 ,the efforts1 though1 of the educated few1 in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries1 to extend the elements of learning1 order1 piety1 cleanliness1 and proper behavior to the children of the masses1 formed an important substitute for the action by the ,church-,state which was so characteristic a feature of ,teutonic lands4 ,we see in these eighteenth-century efforts the origin of what became known in ,england as the voluntary system and upon this voluntary support of education--private1 parochial1 charitable--the ,english people for long relied4 ,of action by the ,state there was none during the eighteenth century1 aside from an ,act of #agfg 7#g ,geo4 ,,iii1 c4 #ci7 relating to the education of pauper children4 ,this established the important principle-- unfortunately not followed up--of providing that poor parish children of ,london might be maintained and educated at the cost of the rates4 ,,the ,,sunday-,,school ,,movement4 ,one other voluntary eighteenth-century movement of importance in the history of ,english educational development should be mentioned here1 as it formed the connecting link between the parochial-charity-school movement of the eighteenth century and the philanthropic period of the educational reformers of the early nineteenth4 ,this was the ,sunday-,school movement1 first tried by ,john ,wesley in ,savannah1 in #agcg1 but not introduced into ,england until #agfc4 ,the idea amounted to little1 though1 until practically worked out anew 7#aghj7 by ,robert ,raikes1 a printer of ,gloucester1 and described by him 7#aghc7 in his ,gloucester ,journal 7,r4 #bic71 after he had experimented with it for three years4 #h ,his printed description of the ,sunday-,school idea gave a national impulse to the movement1 and ,sunday ,schools were soon established all over ,england to take children off the streets on ,sunday and provide them with some form of secular and religious instruction4 #i ,the movement coincided with new religious1 social1 and economic forces which were at work1 and which awakened an interest not only in the education of the children of the poorer working-classes1 but caused the upper and middle classes in society to feel a new sense of responsibility for social and educational reform4 ,the cold and unemotional religion of the ,english ,church in the early eighteenth century had created an indifference to the simple truths and duties of the ,gospels4 ,the great religious revival under ,wesley and ,whitefield had challenged such an attitude1 and had done much to infuse a new spirit into religion and awaken a new sense of responsibility for social welfare4 ,the rapid growth of population in the towns1 following the beginnings of factory life 7p4 #dic71 had created new social and economic problems1 and the neglect of children in the manufacturing towns had shocked many thinking persons4 ,the way in which parents and children1 freed from hard labor in the factories on ,sundays1 abandoned themselves to vice1 drunkenness1 and profanity caused many1 among them ,raikes himself 7,r4 #bic71 to inquire if something could not be done to turn into respectable men and women the little heathen of the neighborhood4 ,the ,sunday ,school was his answer1 and the answer of many all over ,england4 #aj ,in #aghe ,the ,society for the ,support and ,encouragement of ,sunday ,schools in the different ,counties of ,england was formed with a view to establishing a ,sunday ,school in every parish in the kingdom1 and the ,queen headed a subscription list1 following a general appeal for funds4 ,by #aghg it was estimated that #bcd1jjj children in ,england and ,wales were attending a ,sunday ,school1 and by #agib the number had increased to half a million4 ,the ,parliamentary return for #ahah showed #edfc ,sunday ,schools in existence1 and #dgg1bbe scholars2 in #ahce the returns showed #a1edh1hij scholars1 half of whom attended no other school1 and approximately #afj1jjj voluntary teachers4 #aa ,in ,manchester1 then a city scourged with almost universal child-labor1 the schools 7#ahcd7 were in session five and a half hours on ,sunday and two evenings a week4 ,the moral and religious influence of these schools was important1 and the instruction in reading and writing1 meager as it was1 filled a real need of the time4 ,,other ,,voluntary ,,schools2 ,,ragged ,,schools4 ,the ,charity ,schools and the ,sunday ,schools were the two most conspicuous of the voluntary-organization type of undertakings for providing the poor children of ,england with the elements of secular and religious education4 ,many other organizations of an educational and charitable nature1 aided also by many individual efforts1 too numerous to mention1 were formed with the same charitable and humanitarian end in view4 ,others1 similar in type1 charged a small fee1 and hence were of the private-adventure type4 ,sunday ,schools1 day schools1 evening schools1 children's churches1 bands of hope1 clothing clubs1 messenger brigades1 shoeblack brigades1 orphans' schools1 reformatory schools1 industrial schools1 ragged schools--these were some of the types that arose4 ,only one of these--,ragged ,schools--will be described4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4 ,a ,,ragged ,,school ,,pupil 7,from a photograph of a boy on entering the school2 later changed into a respectable tradesman4 ,from ,guthrie7 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ae4 ,,john ,,pounds',s ,,ragged ,,school ,,at ,,portsmouth ,illustration3 ,,plate #af4 ,,an ,,english ,,village ,,voluntary ,,school 7,reproduced from an early nineteenth-century engraving1 through the courtesy of ,william ,g4 ,bruce7 ,the originator of the ,ragged ,schools--schools for the education of destitute children1 waifs and strays not reached by other agencies--was a large-hearted cobbler of ,portsmouth1 by the name of ,john ,pounds 7#agff- #ahci71 who divided his time between cobbling and rescue work among the poorest and most degraded children of his neighborhood4 ,his school is shown in the picture facing this page4 7,plate #ae47 ,in his shoeshop he taught such children1 free of charge1 to read1 write1 count1 cook their food1 and mend their shoes4 ,he was a schoolmaster1 doctor1 nurse1 and playfellow to them all in one4 ,his workshop was a room of only six by eighteen feet1 yet in it he often had forty children under his instruction4 ,his work set an example1 and ,ragged ,schools1 or ,schools for the ,destitute1 began to be formed in many places by humanitarians4 ,these took the form of day schools1 night schools1 ,sunday ,schools1 and the so-called industrial schools 7,r4 #bid74 ,the instruction in most of them was entirely free1 #ab but some charged a small fee1 in a few cases as high as a shilling a month4 ,it was one of these schools that ,crabbe described when he wrote3 #ac ,poor ,reuben ,dixon has the noisiest school ,of ragged lads1 who ever bowed to rule2 ,low in his price--the men who heave our coals1 ,and clean our causeways1 send him boys in shoals4 ,to see poor ,reuben1 with his fry beside- ,their half-check'd rudeness and his half-scorned pride- ,their room1 the sty in which th' assembly meet1 ,in the close lane behind the ,northgate street2 ,t' observe his vain attempts to keep the peace1 ,till tolls the bell1 and strife and trouble cease1 ,calls for our praise2 his labours praise deserves1 ,but not our pity2 ,reuben has no nerves4 ',mid noise and dirt1 and stench1 and play1 and prate1 ,he calmly cuts the pen or views the slate4 ,in #ahdd ,the ,ragged ,school ,union was formed in ,london1 and maintained there many of the types of schools mentioned above4 ,the ,constitution and ,rules of the ,association for the ,establishment of ,ragged ,industrial ,schools for ,destitute ,children in ,edinburgh 7,r4 #bid7 gives a good idea as to the nature1 support1 and instruction in such schools4 ,as late as #ahgj1 when national education was first begun in ,england1 there were about two hundred of these ,ragged ,schools in ,london alone1 with about #bc1jjj children in them4 ,upon many such forms of irregular schools ,england depended before the days of national organization4 ,,other ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,influences4 ,during the latter half of the eighteenth century ,french ,revolutionary thought #ad and ,american political action began to exert some influence on public opinion in ,england4 ,the small upper ruling class1 alarmed at the developments in ,france1 became confirmed in its opposition to any general popular education aside from a little reading1 writing1 counting1 and careful religious training1 while on the other hand men of more liberal outlook felt that popular enlightenment was a necessity to prevent the masses from becoming stirred by inflammatory writings and speeches4 ,the increasing distress in the agricultural regions1 due to the rapid change of ,england from an agricultural to a manufacturing nation2 the crowding of great numbers of working people into the manufacturing towns2 and the social misery and political unrest following the ,napoleonic wars all alike contributed to a feeling of need for any form of philanthropic effort that gave promise of alleviating the ills of society4 ,there now grew up a small but influential body of thinkers who favored the maintenance of a system of general and compulsory education by the ,state1 and the separation of the school from the ,church4 ,the most notable proponents of this new theory were ,adam ,smith1 the ,reverend ,t4 ,r4 ,malthus1 and the ,anglo-,american ,thomas ,paine4 ,the first approached the question from an economic point of view1 the second from an economic and biologic1 and the third from the political4 ,in #aggf ,adam ,smith's ,wealth of ,nations appeared4 ,this was one of the great books of all time4 ,among other matters he dealt with the question of education4 ,he pointed out that ,english society was now becoming highly organized2 that the new manufacturing life had completely changed the simple conditions of an earlier agricultural society2 that in the narrow round of manufacturing duties and town life people tended to lose their inventiveness and to stagnate2 and that the individual degeneracy which set in in a more highly organized type of society became a social danger of large magnitude4 ,hence1 he argued 7,r4 #bie71 it was a matter of state interest that the inferior ranks of the people be instructed to make them socially useful and to render them less apt to be misled into any wanton or unnecessary opposition to measures of government4 ,accordingly1 he held1 the ,state had every right1 not only to take over elementary education as a state function and a public charge1 but also to make it free and compulsory4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4 ,,adam ,,smith 7#agbc-ij7 ,in #agih the ,reverend ,t4 ,r4 ,malthus's ,essay on ,population appeared4 ,this was a precursor of the work of ,darwin1 and another of the great books of all time4 ,he pointed out that population everywhere tended to outrun the means of subsistence1 and that it was only prevented from doing so by preventive checks which involved much misery and vice and pauperism4 ,to prevent pauperism each individual must exercise moral restraint and foresight1 and to enable all to do this a widespread system of public instruction was a necessity 7,r4 #bif74 ,the money ,england had spent in poor- relief he regarded as largely wasted1 because it afforded no cure4 ,in the general education of a people the real solution lay4 ,he said3 ,we have lavished immense sums on the poor1 which we have every reason to think have constantly tended to aggravate their misery1444 ,it is surely a great national disgrace that the education of the lowest classes in ,england should be left to a few ,sunday ,schools1 supported by a subscription from individuals1 who can give to the course of instruction in them any kind of bias which they may please4 7,r #bif47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd ,,rev4 ,t4 ,r4 ,,malthus 7#agff-ahcd7 ,agreeing thoroughly with ,adam ,smith that a general diffusion of knowledge was a safeguard to society1 he urged the teaching of the elements of political economy in the common schools to enable people to live better in the new type of competitive society4 #ae ,in #agia-ib ,thomas ,paine published his widely read ,rights of ,man4 ,he expressed the ,french ,revolutionary political theory1 holding that government1 while capable of great good were its powers only properly exercised1 was1 as organized1 an evil4 ,in a well-governed nation none would be permitted to go uninstructed1 he held1 and he would cut off poor- relief and make a state grant of #d a year for every child under fourteen for its education1 and would compel parents to send all children to school to learn reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,each of these three books had a long and a slowly cumulative influence1 and a small number of young and powerful champions of the idea of popular education as a public charge began1 early in the nineteenth century1 to urge action and to influence public opinion4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,philanthropic ,,effort 7#ahjj-cc7 ,,conditions ,,at ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,this second period in the history of the organization of ,english education begins with the publication1 in #agig1 of ,dr4 ,andrew ,bell's ,an ,experiment in ,education1 describing his work in educating large numbers of children by means of the so-called mutual system1 at the ,male ,asylum at ,madras1 ,india4 ,the period properly ends with the first ,parliamentary grant for education1 in #ahcc4 ,in its main characteristics it belongs to the eighteenth rather than to the nineteenth century1 as the prominent educational movements of the eighteenth 7charity-schools1 ,sunday ,schools1 schools of industry7 continue strong throughout the period1 and many new undertakings of a similar charitable nature 7,ragged ,schools2 associations for the improvement of the condition of the poor1 etc47 were begun4 ,the period--during and after the ,napoleonic wars--was one of marked social and political unrest1 and of corresponding emphasis on social and philanthropic service4 ,the masses were discontented with their lot1 and were beginning to be with their lack of political privileges4 ,numerous plans to quiet the unrest and improve conditions were proposed1 of which schemes to increase employment 7industrial schools2 evening schools71 to encourage thrift 7savings banks2 children's brigades71 and to spread an elementary and religious education 7mutual schools2 infant schools7 that would train the poor in self-help were the most prominent4 ,the ,society for ,bettering the ,condition and ,increasing the ,comforts of the ,poor4 founded in #agif1 became a very important early-nineteenth-century institution4 ,branches were established all over ,england4 ,soup-kitchens1 clothing-stations1 savings banks1 and schools were among the chief lines of activity4 ,in particular it extended and improved ,sunday ,schools1 encouraged the formation of charity-schools and schools of industry1 and later gave much aid in establishing the new monitorial schools4 ,educational interest steadily strengthened during the period1 though as yet along lines that were deemed relatively harmless1 were inexpensive1 and were largely religious in character4 ,the eighteenth-century conception of education as a charity1 designed where given to train the poor to an honest1 upright1 grateful1 and industrious poverty1 still prevailed2 there was as yet little thought of education as designed to train the poor to think for and help themselves4 ,the eighteenth-century conception of the educational process1 too1 which regarded education as something external and determined by adult standards and needs1 and to be imposed on the child from without1 also continued4 ,the purpose of the school was to manufacture the standard man1 and the business of the teacher was to so organize and methodize instruction that the necessary knowledge could be acquired as economically1 from a financial point of view1 as possible4 ,the ,pestalozzian conception of education as a development of the individual1 according to the law of his own nature1 found but slow acceptance in ,england4 ,mental development1 scientific instruction1 the habit of thinking1 the exercise of judgment1 and free and enlightened opinion were ideas that found little favor there1 and hence had to be handled carefully by those who had caught the new conception of the educational process4 ,in the political reaction following the end of ,napoleon's rule the upper and ruling classes of ,england1 in common with those of continental lands1 became exceedingly suspicious of much education for the masses4 ,to secure contributions for schools it became necessary to avow and plead how little it was that the schools pretended or presumed to teach4 #af ,england now experienced a great development of manufacturing and commerce1 a great material prosperity ensued1 and the growing demand for education was met by a counter-demand that the education provided should be systematized1 economical1 and should not teach too much4 ,such a system of training was now discovered and applied1 in the form of mutual or monitorial instruction1 and was hailed as a new expedient1 parallel and rival to the modern inventions in the mechanical departments4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4 ,,the ,,creators ,,of ,,the ,,monitorial ,,system ,,rev4 ,,andrew ,,bell 7#agec-ahcb7 ,,joseph ,,lancaster 7#aggh-ahch7 ,,origin ,,of ,,mutual ,,or ,,monitorial ,,instruction4 ,in #agig ,dr4 ,andrew ,bell1 a clergyman in the ,established ,church1 published the results of his experiment in the use of monitors in ,india4 #ag ,the idea attracted attention1 and the plan was successfully introduced into a number of charity-schools4 ,about the same time 7#agih7 a young ,quaker schoolmaster1 ,joseph ,lancaster by name1 was led independently to a similar discovery of the advantages of using monitors1 by reason of his needing assistance in his school and being too poor to pay for additional teachers4 ,in #ahjc he published an account of his plan4 #ah ,the two plans were quite similar1 attracted attention from the first1 and schools formed after one or the other of the plans were soon organized all over ,england4 ,increased attention was attracted to the new plans by a bitter church quarrel which broke out as to who was the real originator of the idea1 #ai ,bell being upheld by ,church-of-,england supporters1 and ,lancaster by the ,dissenters4 ,in #ahjh ,the ,royal ,lancastrian ,institution was formed1 which in #ahad became ,the ,british and ,foreign ,school ,society1 to promote ,lancastrian schools4 ,this society had the close support of ,king ,george ,,iii1 the ,whigs1 and the ,edinburgh ,review1 while such liberals as ,brougham1 ,whitbread1 and ,james ,mill were on its board of directors4 ,this ,society sent out ,lancaster to expound his truly ,british system1 and by #ahaj as many as ninety-five ,lancastrian schools had been established in ,england4 ,his model school in ,borough ,road1 ,southwark1 which became a training-school for teachers1 is shown on the following page4 ,lancaster was a poor manager2 became involved in financial difficulties2 and in #ahah left for the ,united ,states1 where he spent the remainder of his life in organizing such schools and expounding his system4 ,for a time this attracted wide attention1 as we shall point out in the following chapter4 ,lancaster's work stimulated the ,church of ,england into activity1 and in #ahaa ,the ,national ,society for ,promoting the ,education of the ,poor in the ,principles of the ,established ,church throughout ,england and ,wales was formed by prominent ,s4,p4,c4,k4 7p4 #ddi7 members and ,churchmen1 with the ,archbishop of ,canterbury as president4 ,this ,society was supported by the ,tories1 the ,established ,church1 and the ,quarterly ,review1 and was formed to promote the ,bell system1 #bj which made religious instruction an essential and necessary part of the plan4 ,within a month #ae1jjj had been subscribed to establish schools4 ,among many other contributions were #ejj each from the universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,a training-school for teachers was organized2 district societies were formed over ,england to establish schools2 and a system of organized aid was extended for both buildings and maintenance4 ,by #ahca there were #ijj1dab children receiving instruction in the monitorial schools of the ,national ,society alone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,,the ,,lancastrian ,,model ,,school ,,in ,,borough ,,road1 ,,southwark1 ,,london ,this shows #cfe pupils1 seated for writing4 ,the room was #dj x #ij feet in size and contained #bj desks1 each #be feet long4 ,the boys of each row were divided into two drafts of from eight to ten1 each in charge of a monitor4 ,around the wall were #ca stations1 indicated by the semicircles on the floor4 ,the mutual-instruction idea spread to other lands--,france1 ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,denmark--and seems to have been tried even in ,german lands4 ,in ,france and ,belgium it was experimented with for a time because of its cheapness1 but was soon discarded because of its defects4 ,in ,teutonic lands1 where the much better ,pestalozzian ideas had become established1 the monitorial system made practically no headway4 ,it was in the ,united ,states1 of all countries outside of ,england1 that the idea met with most ready acceptance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4 ,,monitors ,,teaching ,,reading ,,at ,,stations ,three drafts of ten each1 with their toes to the semicircles painted on the floor1 are being taught by monitors from lessons suspended on the wall4 ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,mutual ,,or ,,monitorial ,,instruction4 ,the great merit1 aside from being cheap1 of the mutual or monitorial system of instruction lay in that it represented a marked advance in school organization over the older individual method of instruction1 with its accompanying waste of time and schoolroom disorder4 ,under the individual method only a small number of pupils could be placed under the control of one teacher1 and the expense for such instruction made general education almost prohibitive4 ,pestalozzi1 to be sure1 had worked out in ,switzerland the modern class- system of instruction1 and following developmental lines in teaching1 but of this the ,english were not only ignorant1 but it called for a degree of pedagogical skill which their teachers did not then possess4 ,bell and ,lancaster now evolved a plan whereby one teacher1 assisted by a number of the brighter pupils whom they designated as monitors1 could teach from two hundred to a thousand pupils in one school 7,r4 #big74 ,the picture of ,lancaster's ,london school 7,figure #ahf7 shows #cfe pupils seated4 #ba ,the pupils were sorted into rows1 and to each row was assigned a clever boy 7monitor7 to act as an assistant teacher4 ,a common number for each monitor to look after was ten4 ,the teacher first taught these monitors a lesson from a printed card1 and then each monitor took his row to a station about the wall and proceeded to teach the other boys what he had just learned4 ,at first used only for teaching reading and the ,catechism1 the plan was soon extended to the teaching of writing1 arithmetic1 and spelling1 and later on to instruction in higher branches4 ,the system was very popular from about #ahaj to #ahcj1 but by #ahdj its popularity had waned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4 ,,proper ,,monitorial-,,school ,,positions 7,from an engraved plate of #cj positions1 in a ,manual of the ,british and ,foreign ,school ,society1 ,london1 #ahca7 ,such schools were naturally highly organized1 the organization being largely mechanical 7,r4 #bih74 ,lancaster1 in particular1 was an organizing genius4 ,the ,manuals of ,instruction gave complete directions for the organization and management of monitorial schools1 the details of recitation work1 use of apparatus1 order1 position of pupils at their work1 and classification being minutely laid down4 ,by carefully studying and following these directions any reasonably intelligent person could soon learn to become a successful teacher in a monitorial school4 ,the schools1 mechanical as they now seem1 marked a great improvement over the individual method upon which schoolmasters for centuries had wasted so much of their own and their pupils' time4 ,in place of earlier idleness1 inattention1 and disorder1 ,bell and ,lancaster introduced activity1 emulation1 order1 and a kind of military discipline which was of much value to the type of children attending these schools4 ,lancaster's biographer1 ,salmon1 has written of the system that so thoroughly was the instruction worked out that the teacher had only to organize1 oversee1 reward1 punish1 and inspire3 ,when a child was admitted a monitor assigned him his class2 while he remained1 a monitor taught him 7with nine other pupils72 when he was absent1 one monitor ascertained the fact1 and another found out the reason2 a monitor examined him periodically1 and1 when he made progress1 a monitor promoted him2 a monitor ruled the writing paper2 a monitor had charge of slates and books2 and a monitor-general looked after all the other monitors4 ,every monitor wore a leather ticket1 gilded and lettered1 ,monitor of the ,first ,class1 ,reading ,monitor of the ,second ,class1 etc4 ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,system ,,in ,,awakening ,,interest4 ,the monitorial system of instruction1 coming at the time it did1 exerted a very important influence in awakening interest in and a sentiment for schools4 ,it increased the number of people who possessed the elements of an education2 made schools much more talked about2 and aroused thought and provoked discussion on the question of education4 ,it did much toward making people see the advantages of a certain amount of schooling1 and be willing to contribute to its support4 ,under the plans previously in use education had been a slow and an expensive process1 because it had to be carried on by the individual method of instruction1 and in quite small groups4 ,under this new plan it was now possible for one teacher to instruct #cjj1 #djj1 #ejj1 or more pupils in a single room1 and to do it with much better results in both learning and discipline than the old type of schoolmaster had achieved4 ,all at once1 comparatively1 a new system had been introduced which not only improved and popularized1 but tremendously cheapened education4 #bb ,lancaster1 in his ,improvements in ,education1 gave the annual cost of schooling under his system as only seven shillings sixpence 7#a4hj7 per pupil1 and this was later decreased to four shillings fivepence 7#a4jf7 as the school was increased to accommodate a thousand pupils4 ,under the ,bell system the yearly cost per pupil1 in a school of five hundred1 was only four shillings twopence 7#a4jj71 in #ahad4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,lancastrian schools cost from #a4bb per pupil in ,new ,york1 in #ahbb1 up to #c4jj and #d4jj later on4 ,at first begun as free schools1 #bc the expansion of effort was more rapid than the income from contributions1 and a small tuition fee was in time charged4 ,pupils were admitted at about the age of seven1 and might remain until thirteen or fourteen1 though an attendance of two years was considered abundantly sufficient for any boy4 ,to prepare skilled masters and mistresses for the schools1 girls were provided for in many places--training or model schools were organized by both the national societies1 and these represent the beginnings of normal-school training in ,england4 ,,infant ,,schools4 ,another type of school which became of much importance in ,england1 and spread to other lands1 was the ,infant ,school4 ,this owed its origin to ,robert ,owen1 proprietor of the cotton mills at ,new ,lanark1 ,scotland4 ,being of a philanthropic turn of mind1 and believing that man was entirely the product of circumstance and environment1 he held that it was not possible to begin too early in implanting right habits and forming character4 ,poverty and crime1 he believed1 were results of errors in the various systems of education and government4 ,so plastic was child nature1 that society would be able to mould itself into the very image of rational wishes and desires4 ,that the infants of any one class in the world may be readily formed into men of any other class1 was a fundamental belief of his4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi ,,robert ,,owen 7#agga-aheh7 ,when he took charge of the mills at ,new ,lanark 7#agii7 he found the usual wretched social conditions of the time4 ,children of five1 six1 and seven years were bound out to the factory as apprentices 7,r4 #bdb7 for a period of nine years4 ,they worked as apprentices and helpers in the factories twelve to thirteen hours a day1 and at early manhood were turned free to join the ignorant mass of the population4 ,owen sought to remedy this condition4 ,he accordingly opened schools which children might enter at three years of age1 receiving them into the schools almost as soon as they were able to walk1 and caring for them while their parents were at work4 ,children under ten he forbade to work in the mills1 and for these he provided schools4 ,the instruction for the children younger than six was to be whatever might be supposed useful that they could understand1 and much was made of singing1 dancing1 and play4 ,moral instruction was made a prominent feature4 ,by #ahad his work and his schools had become famous4 ,in #ahag he published a plan for the organization of such industrial communities as he conducted4 ,in #ahah he visited ,switzerland1 and saw ,pestalozzi and ,fellenberg4 ,in #ahah a number of ,liberals--,brougham1 ,james ,mill1 and others--combined to establish an ,infant ,school in ,london1 importing a teacher from ,new ,lanark4 ,the idea took root1 was popularized1 and the ,infant ,school was soon adopted as an integral part of their schools by both the ,british and ,foreign ,school ,society 7,lancastrians7 and the ,national ,society 7,bell74 ,in #ahcf the ,home and ,colonial ,infant ,school ,society was formed to train teachers for and to establish ,infant ,schools4 ,one of the organizers of this society was ,charles ,mayo who had worked with ,pestalozzi at ,yverdon 7,r4 #bgj71 and through his influence much of the bookishness which had crept in was removed and the better ,pestalozzian procedure put in its place4 ,unlike the monitorial schools1 the ,infant ,schools were based on the idea of small-group work1 and were usually conducted in harmony with the new psychological conceptions of instruction which had been worked out by ,pestalozzi1 and had by that time begun to be introduced into ,england4 ,the ,infant-,school idea came at an opportune time1 as the defects of the mechanical ,lancastrian instruction were becoming evident and its popularity was waning4 ,it gave a new and a somewhat deeper philosophical interpretation of the educational process1 created a stronger demand than had before been known for trained teachers1 established a preference for women teachers for primary work1 and tended to give a new dignity to teaching and school work by revealing something of a psychological basis for the instruction of little children4 ,it also contributed its share toward awakening a sentiment for national action4 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,educational ,,societies4 ,the work of the voluntary and philanthropic educational societies in establishing schools and providing teachers and instruction before the days of national schools was enormous4 #bd ,though the ,state did nothing before #ahcc1 and little before #ahgj1 the work of the educational societies was large and important4 ,what was done by the church societies alone may be seen from the following table3 ,,statistics ,,as ,,to #aj1eie ,,elementary ,,schools ,,founded ,,by ,,the ,,religious ,,societies 7,,british ,,census ,,returns1 #ahea7 ,the ,national ,society1 or ,british ,church and ,for- ,indepen- ,other ,total num- of eign dents1 or ,wesleyan ,roman rel- ber of ,england ,schools ,congrega- ,method-,cathol- ,bapt- gious ,date schools schools ,society tionalists ists ics ists bodies ,before #ahja #gff #gji #af #h #g #aj #ahja-ahaa #daj #cej #bh #i #d #aj #ahaa-ahba #hgi #gef #gg #ab #ag #ad #ahba-ahca #a1jba #hig #de #ba #ag #bh #ahca-ahda #b1dag #b1jjb #aia #ie #fb #fi #ahda-ahea #d1fjd #c1ddh #ddi #bfi #bci #aff ,not stated #dih #dji #df #ag #ag #ad #aca #cca ,totals #aj1eie #h1ega #heb #dca #cfc #caa #aca #cca ,after about #ahbj-be the rising interest in elementary education expressed itself in the formation of a number of additional societies1 the more important of which were3 #ahbd4 ,london ,infant ,school ,society founded by ,brougham4 #ahbf4 ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge founded by ,brougham4 ,the ,journal of ,education begun4 #ahcf4 ,central ,society of ,education founded4 #ahcf4 ,home and ,colonial ,infant ,society founded4 ,beginning of a ,pestalozzian ,training ,college4 #ahcg4 ,educational ,committee of the ,wesleyan ,conference established4 #ahdc4 ,congregational ,board of ,education formed4 #ahdd4 ,ragged ,school ,union founded4 #ahde4 ,catholic ,institute4 #ahdg4 ,the ,catholic ,poor-,school ,committee4 #ahdg4 ,lancashire ,public ,school ,association formed4 #ahej4 ,the ,national ,public ,school ,association4 #ahfg4 ,birmingham ,education ,aid ,society4 #ahfh4 ,the ,manchester ,conference4 #ahfi4 ,formation of ,the ,league4 ,some of these were formed to found and support schools1 and some engaged primarily in the work of propaganda in an effort to secure some national action4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,national ,,education ,,the ,,parliamentary ,,struggle4 ,during the whole of the eighteenth century ,parliament had enacted no legislation relating to elementary education1 aside from the one ,act of #agfg for the education of pauper children in ,london1 and the freeing of elementary schools1 ,dissenters1 and ,catholics1 from inhibitions as to teaching4 ,in the nineteenth century this attitude was to be changed1 though slowly1 and after three quarters of a century of struggle the beginnings of national education were finally to be made for ,england1 as they had by then for every other great nation4 ,in #ahgj the no-business-of-the-,state attitude toward the education of the people1 which had persisted from the days of the great ,elizabeth1 was finally and permanently changed4 ,the legislative battle began with the first ,factory ,act #be of #ahjb1 ,whitbread's ,parochial ,schools ,bill #bf of #ahjg1 and ,brougham's first ,parliamentary ,committee of ,inquiry of #ahaf 7,r4 #bia72 it finally culminated with the reform of the old endowed ,grammar ,schools by the ,act of #ahfi1 the enactment of the ,elementary ,education ,act of #ahgj 7,r4 #cjd71 and the ,act of #ahga freeing instruction in the universities from religious restrictions 7,r4 #cje74 ,the first of these enactments declared clearly the right of the ,state to inquire into1 reorganize1 and redirect the age-old educational foundations for secondary education2 the second made the definite though tardy beginnings of a national system of elementary education for ,england2 and the third opened up a university career to the whole nation4 ,the agitation and conflict of ideas was long drawn out1 and need not be traced in detail4 ,the following tabulated summary will give the main outlines of the struggle1 and the selection on ,the ,educational ,traditions of ,england 7,r4 #cjf7 gives a good brief history of the long conflict4 ,,the ,,parliamentary ,,struggle ,,for ,,national ,,education ,,in ,,england ,dates ,proposals1 ,reports1 etc41 and ,results #ahjb ,first ,factory ,act for regulating employment of children4 ,adopted4 #ahjg ,whitbread's ,parochial ,schools' ,bill introduced4 ,rejected by the ,house of ,lords #ahaf ,brougham secured a ,parliamentary ,committee to enquire into the state of education of the lower classes in ,london1 ,westminster1 and ,southwark4 ,report--#acj1jjj children without school accommodations #ahah4 7,r4 #bia47 #ahah ,brougham secured a ,committee of ,inquiry on ,educational ,charities4 ,no report until #ahcg4 #ahbj ,bill introduced proposing a tax for schools and the granting of ,government aid in building schoolhouses4 ,opposed by ,dissenters and ,catholics4 ,withdrawn4 ,brougham's first ,educational ,bill4 #ahcc ,government aid for building schoolhouses re-proposed4 #bj1jjj a year granted4 7,r4 #bii47 ,distributed through the two great ,educational ,societies #ahcd ,committee of ,inquiry appointed4 ,no result beyond statistics4 #ahce ,brougham introduced bills to organize a system of elementary #ahcg education4 ,bills failed of passage4 ,educational ,inquiry ,committee appointed #ahcg4 #ahch ,committee report3 the deplorable conditions existing ,bill of #ahci4 ,education ,department created4 #ahci ,bill to increase the government grant to #cj1jjj and to allow all ,societies to share4 ,inspectors to be appointed4 ,committee of ,privy ,council on ,education established4 ,bitter opposition4 ,carried4 ,much discussion as to undenominational education4 #ahda ,annual grant to establish schools of design in manufacturing districts4 ,voted4 #ahdc ,sir ,jas4 ,graham's ,factory ,bill4 ,opposed by the ,dissenters and defeated4 #ahdc ,address to the ,crown on condition of the working classes4 ,no parliamentary action4 #ahdf ,yearly grant extended to the maintenance of schools4 ,gradual increase in the yearly grants4 #ahdf ,minute and ,regulations on annual grants and pupil teachers4 ,foundations of a system laid4 ,pupil-teacher system definitely established4 ,certificates to teach4 ,annual grant extended to maintenance4 #ahdg ,government proposals for nationalizing education4 ,carried despite violent religious opposition4 #ahej ,fox's ,bill to make education free and compulsory4 ,defeated4 #ahec ,the ,government proposed a small local rate in aid of schools4 ,bill dropped after the first reading4 #ahec ,department of ,science and ,art created1 and ,national ,art ,training ,schools established4 ,promotion of elementary education in art and science1 particularly after #ahei4 #ahee ,three educational ,bills introduced4 ,local rate proposed4 ,failure to agree4 ,all withdrawn4 #ahef ,commons asked to declare in favor of rate aid and local ,boards4 ,two ,educational ,bills introduced4 ,first bill tabled4 ,second bill withdrawn4 ,education ,department formed4 #aheh ,a ,royal ,commission to inquire into the state of popular education in ,england asked for4 ,the ,duke of ,newcastle's ,commission created4 ,its ,report published in #ahfa4 7,r4 #cjc47 #ahfa ,no acceptable scheme reported4 ,code of #ahfa proposed4 ,no advance4 ,payment by results began #ahfb4 ,code adopted4 #ahfd ,schools ,inquiry ,commission appointed on endowed schools4 ,report of the ,schools ,inquiry ,commission in #ahfg4 #ahff ,report of a ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,commons on ,education4 #ahfg ,the ,government introduced proposals as to education4 ,voted down4 #ahfh ,government ,bill proposing changes in distribution and larger grants4 ,parliament adjourned without action4 #ahfi ,endowed ,schools' ,act passed4 #ahfi ,two ,educational ,bills introduced4 ,withdrawn at the request of the ,government4 #ahgj ,the ,elementary ,education ,act of #ahgj introduced4 ,much amended and passed4 7,r4 #cjd47 ,beginning of a ,national system of education4 #ahga ,religious ,tests at universities withdrawn 7,r4 #cje74 ,,the ,,leaders ,,in ,,the ,,conflict4 ,the main leader in the parliamentary struggle to establish national education1 from the death of ,whitbread1 in #ahae1 to about #ahce1 was ,henry1 afterwards ,lord ,brougham4 ,he was aided by such men as ,blackstone1 and ,bentham and his followers1 and1 after about #ahcg1 by such men as ,dickens1 ,carlyle1 ,macaulay1 and ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,dickens1 by his descriptions1 helped materially to create a sentiment favorable to education1 as a right of the people rather than a charity4 ,he stood strongly for a compulsory and non-sectarian state system of education that would transform the children of his day into generous1 self-respecting1 and intelligent men and women4 ,carlyle saw in education a cure for social evils1 and held that one of the first functions of government was to impart the gift of thinking to its future citizens4 ,writing1 in #ahdj1 he said3 ,who would suppose that education were a thing which had to be advocated on the ground of local expediency1 or any ground8 ,as if it stood not on the basis of everlasting duty as a prime necessity of man4 ,brougham was untiring in his efforts for popular education1 and some idea as to the interest he awakened may be inferred from the fact that his ,observations on the ,education of the ,people1 published in #ahbe1 went through twenty editions the first year4 ,he introduced bills1 secured committees of inquiry1 made addresses1 #bg and used his pen in behalf of the education of the people4 ,his belief in the power of education to improve a people was very large4 ,warning the ,lawgivers of ,england to take heed1 he once said3 ,let the soldier be abroad1 if he will2 he can do nothing in this age4 ,there is another personage abroad1 a person less imposing--in the eye of some insignificant4 ,the ,schoolmaster is abroad1 and ,i trust him1 armed with his primer1 against the soldier in full uniform array4 ,the conqueror stalks onward with the pride1 pomp1 and circumstance of war1 banners flying1 shouts rending the air1 guns thundering1 and martial music pealing1 to drown the shrieks of the wounded and the lamentations for the slain4 ,not thus the schoolmaster in his peaceful vocation4 ,he meditates and prepares in secret the plans which are to bless mankind2 he slowly gathers around him those who are to further their execution2 he quietly1 though firmly1 advances in his humble path laboring steadily1 but calmly1 till he has opened to the light all the recesses of ignorance1 and torn up by the roots the weeds of vice4 ,his is a progress not to be compared with anything like a march2 but it leads to a far more brilliant triumph1 and to laurels more imperishable than the destroyer of his species1 the scourge of the world1 ever won4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij ,,lord ,,brougham 7#aggh-ahfh7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 ,,an ,,english ,,village ,,school ,,in #ahdj 7,after a drawing by ,hablt ,k4 ,browne1 and printed in ,charles ,dickens's ,master ,humphrey's ,clock7 ,parallel with the agitation for some state action for education was an agitation for social and political reform4 ,the basis for the election of members to the ,house of ,commons was still mediaeval4 ,boroughs no longer inhabited still returned members1 and sparsely settled regions returned members out of all proportion to the newly created city populations4 ,few1 too1 could vote4 ,only about #afj1jjj persons in a population of #aj1jjj1jjj had1 early in the century1 the right of the franchise4 ,the city populations were practically disfranchised in favor of rural landlords1 the nobility1 and the clergy4 ,in #ahbh ,protestant ,non-,conformists were relieved of their political disability1 and in #ahbi a similar enfranchisement was extended to ,catholics4 ,in #ahcb came the first real voting reform in the passage of the so-called ,third ,reform ,bill #bh after a most bitter parliamentary struggle4 ,this reapportioned the membership of the ,house on a more equitable basis1 and enfranchised those who owned or leased lands or buildings of a value of #aj a year4 ,the result of this was to enfranchise the middle class of the population2 increase the number of voters 7#ahcf7 from about #age1jjj to about #hci1ejj out of #f1jbc1jjj adult males2 and effectively break the power of the ,house of ,lords to elect the ,house of ,commons4 ,progressive legislation now became much easier to secure1 and in #ahcc a ,bill making a grant of #bj1jjj a year to aid in building schoolhouses for elementary schools--the first government aid for elementary education ever voted in ,england--became a law 7,r4 #bii74 ,during the few years following the passage of the ,reform ,bill many progressive measures were enacted1 among which should be mentioned the abolition of slavery in the colonies2 the beginnings of legislation looking to a scientific treatment of poverty and non- employment2 the ,municipal ,reform ,act 7#ahce72 the institution of the penny post 7#ahci72 and the abolition of the ,corn ,laws 7#ahdf72 while after #ahcg education began to take a prominent place in the programs of the new working-class movement4 ,,progress ,,after #ahcc4 ,the ,law of #ahcc1 though1 made but the merest beginnings1 and up to #ahdj the money granted was given to the two great national school societies1 and without regulation4 ,beginning in #ahdj1 and continuing up to the beginnings of national education1 in #ahgj1 the grants were state-controlled and distributed through the different educational societies4 ,the total of these grants1 by years1 and the proportional share of the different educational societies are well shown in the chart 7,fig4 #aib47 ,in #ahdf the grants were extended to maintenance as well1 and in #ahdg ,catholic and ,wesleyan societies were admitted to share in the grants4 ,soon thereafter we note a sharp upward turn of the curve1 though the ,church-of- ,england schools obtained the greater proportion of the increased funds4 ,proposals to add local taxation1 in #ahec and #ahef1 were dropped almost as soon as made4 ,the commercial and manufacturing interests1 though1 secured separate aid for art and science instruction 7#ahda1 #ahec71 and the creation of national art training-schools 7#ahec74 ,training-schools for teachers also were begun1 and aided by grants4 ,in #ahde the ,english pupil- teacher system #bi also was begun in an effort to supply teachers of some little training4 ,a ,state ,department of ,education was created1 in #ahef1 though without much power1 and the various ,minutes which were now adopted were organized into a system and presented to ,parliament as a ,school ,code1 in #ahfa1 and finally approved4 ,new ,educational ,commissions were created to inquire into educational conditions and needs in #aheh and #ahfd1 and these reported in #ahfa and #ahfg1 but without important results4 ,the most notable of these was the ,duke of ,newcastle's ,commission1 appointed in #aheh to review conditions1 progress1 and needs1 and to make recommendations for the future4 ,this ,commission reported in #ahfa4 ,it stated that one in every eight of the population was then in some kind of school2 gave statistics as to conditions 7,r4 #cjc a72 and held that the plan of leaving popular education to the voluntary initiative of communities had been justified by the results4 ,the report presented no plan for national organization1 but recommended a number of minor changes in conditions4 ,in particular it recommended the introduction of the system of payment by results--that is1 of making money grants to schools on the basis of the number of pupils passing set examinations in reading1 writing1 and arithmetic 7,r4 #cjc b74 ,this plan was begun in #ahfb1 and the consequent drop in money grants for a few years thereafter is shown in the curves of the chart4 ,the other ,commission1 appointed1 known as the ,taunton ,schools ,inquiry ,commission 7#ahfd-fg71 dealt with the old endowed schools1 and in particular called attention to the lack of secondary-school facilities1 especially in the cities1 and recommended an extension of secondary-school facilities and a democratization of the whole system of secondary education4 ,the important legislation of this period was the freeing of the old universities from ,church-of-,england control 7,r4 #cje7 and making them national in spirit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4 ,,expenditure ,,from ,,the ,,education ,,grants1 #ahci-gj ,between #ahcc and #ahci no ,government regulation of grants4 ,the above figures do not include administration expenses1 or grants made to ,scotland 7about the same in amount as the ,br4 ,f4 ,s4 ,soc47 or to the ,parochial ,schools ,union 7very small74 ,the drop in the curve between #ahfb and #ahfg was due to the introduction of the payment by results plan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic ,,lord ,,macaulay 7#ahjj-ei7 ,,difficulties ,,encountered4 ,in the meantime liberal leaders1 ,schools ,inquiry ,commissions1 official reports1 and educational propagandists continued to pile up evidence as to the inadequacy of the old voluntary system4 ,a few examples1 out of hundreds that might be cited1 will be mentioned here4 ,lord ,macaulay1 in an address made in ,parliament1 in #ahdg 7,r4 #cjj71 defending a ,minute of the ,committee of ,privy ,council on ,education 7created in #ahci7 proposing the nationalization of education1 held it to be the right and duty of the ,state to provide for the education of the common people1 as an exercise of self-protection1 and warned the ,commons of dangers to come if the progressive tendencies of the time were not listened to4 ,the ,census ,returns of #ahea1 as well as the abundance of data published by the ,schools ,inquiry ,commissions1 were effectively used to reveal the inadequate provisions for the education of the masses4 ,the ,reports of the school inspectors1 too1 revealed conditions in need of being remedied in all phases of educational effort4 ,the ,report on the ,apprenticing of ,pauper ,children 7,r4 #cja7 is selected as typical of many similar reports4 ,,facts ,,revealed ,,by ,,the ,,census ,,of #ahea ,items #ahcc #ahea 7#a7 ,population of ,england and ,wales #ad1djj1jjj #ag1ibg1fji 7#b7 ,middle and upper classes population #b1jjj1jjj #b1dhi1ide 7#c7 ,laboring class populations #ab1djj1jjj #ae1dcg1ffd 7#d7 ,population #c-ab years of age of 7#b7 #dbj1jjj #ebb1hhh 7#e7 ,population #c-ab years of age of 7#c7 #b1fjd1jjj #c1bda1iai 7#f7 ,number of schools for children of 7#b7 #ad1hjg #af1cbd 7#g7 ,number of schools for children of 7#c7 #bd1jgd #bi1gah 7#h7 ,pupils of class 7#b7 in schools #dha1gbh #edf1cif 7#i7 ,pupils of class 7#c7 in schools #gje1bai #a1eig1ihb 7#aj7 ,percentage of children of class 7#b7 at school #aad4f #ajd4d 7#aa7 ,percentage of children of class 7#c7 at school #cj4e #di4b ,so deeply ingrained1 though1 was the ,english conception of education as a private and voluntary and religious affair and no business of the ,state2 so self-contained were the ,english as a people2 and so little did they know or heed the progress made in other lands1 that the arguments for national action encountered tremendous opposition from the ,conservative elements1 and often were opposed even by ,liberals4 ,the reasoning of ,sir ,james ,kay-,shuttleworth 7,r4 #cjb71 ,secretary of the ,committee of ,council on ,education and one of the clearest heads in ,england in his day1 who held that a fee for instruction had a moral value and vindicated personal freedom1 and who resented the interference of the ,state in the matter of a parent's relation to his child1 was typical of thousands of others4 ,edward ,baines 7#aggd-ahdh71 proprietor of the ,leeds ,mercury1 the chief ,liberal organ in northern ,england1 bitterly opposed any action looking toward nationalizing education4 ,he expressed the feeling of many when he wrote3 ,civil government is no fit agency for the training of families or of souls4444 ,throw the people on their own resources in education1 as you did in industry2 and be assured1 that1 in a nation so full of intelligence and spirit1 ,freedom and ,competition will give the same stimulus to improvement in our schools1 as they have done in our manufactures1 our husbandry1 our shipping1 and our commerce4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,national ,,organization4 ,by #ahfe it had become evident to a majority that the voluntary system1 whatever its merits1 would never succeed in educating the nation1 and from this time forth the demand for some acceptable scheme for the organization of national education became a part of a still more general movement for political and social reform4 ,once more1 as in #ahcb-cc1 an education law was enacted following the passage of a bill for electoral reform and the extension of the suffrage4 ,though the ,liberal ,party was in power1 it was well satisfied with the ,reform ,act of #ahcb because through it the middle classes of the population1 which the ,liberal ,party represented1 had gained control of the government4 ,the country1 though1 was not--the working-classes in particular demanding a share in the government4 ,finally the demand became too strong to be resisted1 and the ,second ,reform ,act1 of #ahfg1 became a law4 ,this abolished a number of the remaining smaller boroughs1 and greatly extended the right to vote4 ,in the country the amount of property to be owned to vote was reduced from #aj to #e1 and the leasehold value from #ej to #ab4 ,in the cities and towns the vote was now given to all householders1 and to all lodgers who paid a yearly rental of #aj4 ,this legislation gave the vote to a vastly increased number of people1 particularly city workers1 #cj and was a political revolution for ,england of great magnitude4 ,from the passage of this new ,reform ,act to #ahgj1 the organization of national education only awaited the formulation of some acceptable scheme4 ,we must educate our new masters1 now became a common expression4 ,the main question was how to create schools to do what the voluntary schools had shown themselves able to do for a part1 but were unable to do for all1 without at the same time destroying the vast denominational system #ca that1 in spite of its defects1 had done the great service of rearing a race of teachers1 spreading schools1 setting up a standard of education1 and generally making the introduction of a national system possible4 ,the way in which these vested interests were cared for was typically ,english1 and characteristic of the strong sense of obligation of the ,english people4 ,in #ahgj a compromise law was proposed and carried4 ,mr4 ,gladstone1 then ,prime ,minister1 stated the attitude of the ,government in framing the new law1 when he said3 #cb ,it was with us an absolute necessity--a necessity of honour and a necessity of policy--to respect and to favour the educational establishments and machinery we found existing in the country4 ,it was impossible for us to join in the language or to adopt the tone which was conscientiously and consistently taken up by some members of the ,house1 who look upon these voluntary schools1 having generally a denominational character1 as admirable passing expedients1 fit1 indeed1 to be tolerated for a time1 deserving all credit on account of the motives which led to their foundation1 but wholly unsatisfactory as to their main purpose1 and therefore to be supplanted by something they think better4444 ,that has never been the theory of the ,government4444 ,when we are approaching this great work1 which we desire to make complete1 we ought to have a sentiment of thankfulness that so much has been done for us4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid4 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,school ,,boards ,,in ,,providing ,,school ,,accommodations ,london taken as a type4 ,note the deficiency in school accommodation in #ahch1 that the voluntary schools made no appreciable gain on this deficiency up to #ahgj1 the attempt to cope with the situation between #ahga and #ahgd1 and the long pull of the new ,board schools necessary to provide sufficient schools and seats4 ,accordingly the ,elementary ,education ,bill of #ahgj 7,r4 #cjd7 preserved the existing ,voluntary ,schools2 divided the country up into school districts2 gave the denominations a short period in which to provide schools1 with aid for buildings2 #cc and thereafter1 in any place where a deficiency in school accommodations could be shown to exist2 ,school ,boards were to be elected1 and they should have power to levy taxes and maintain elementary schools4 ,existing ,voluntary ,schools might be transferred to the ,school ,boards1 whose schools were to be known as ,board ,schools4 ,the schools were not ordered made free1 but the fees of necessitous children were to be provided for by the ,school ,boards1 and they might compel the attendance of all children between the ages of five and twelve4 ,inspection and grants were limited to secular subjects1 though religious teaching was not forbidden4 ,the central government was to be secular and neutral2 the local boards might decide as they saw fit4 ,such were the beginnings of national education in ,england4 ,that the new ,board ,schools met a real need1 especially in the cities1 is shown by the chart on the preceding page1 giving the results in ,london4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,a ,,national ,,system ,,progress ,,under ,,the ,,law ,,of #ahgj4 ,beginning in #ahga the ,board ,schools had1 by #ahic1 come to enroll #da per cent of the pupils in elementary schools in ,england1 as against #dd per cent in ,voluntary ,schools1 and by #aijc the proportions were #di per cent to #ci per cent4 ,by #aijb the government grants for maintenance had reached1 for all schools1 #h1jjj1jjj a year1 and the ,board ,schools were rapidly outrunning the ,voluntary ,schools both in numbers and in per-capita expenditures4 ,the ,board ,schools had made their greatest headway in the cities4 ,in #ahie there were still some #aa1jjj small parishes which had no ,board ,schools1 and in consequence paid no direct taxes for schools4 ,of these1 #hjjj had only ,church-of-,england ,voluntary ,schools4 ,in #ahhj elementary education had been made fully compulsory1 and in #ahia largely free4 ,in #ahic the age for exemption from attendance was fixed at eleven1 and in #ahii this was raised to twelve4 ,in #ahhh county and borough councils had been created1 better to enforce the ,act and to extend supervision4 ,the ,annual ,codes1 from #ahgj to #aijb1 gradually extended governmental control through more and more detailed instructions as to inspection1 the addition of new subjects1 and better compulsion to attend4 ,in #ahii a ,central ,board of ,education1 under a ,president and a ,parliamentary ,secretary1 was created1 to consolidate in one body the work formerly done by3 a4 ,the ,committee of ,council on ,education 7established #ahci71 which administered the grants for elementary education4 b4 ,the ,department of ,science and ,art 7established #ahec71 which administered the grants for special and evening instruction in science and art4 c4 ,the ,charity ,commissioners1 to which had been given 7#ahgd7 supervision of the old educational trusts and endowments for education4 d4 ,the educational functions of the ,board of ,agriculture4 ,this new ,board unified the administration of elementary and secondary education for the first time in ,english history4 ,by about #ahie the strain on the ,voluntary ,schools had become hard to bear4 ,the ,church resented the encroachments of the ,state on its ancient privilege of training the young1 and the larger resources which the ,board ,schools could command4 ,in #ahie the ,conservative party won the parliamentary elections1 and remained in power for some years4 ,this was the opportunity of the ,voluntary ,schools1 and in #ahig a special national- aid grant of five shillings per pupil in average daily attendance was made to the ,voluntary ,schools4 ,this simply increased the general dissatisfaction1 and there was soon a general demand for new legislation that would reconcile the whole question of national education4 ,the ,law of #aijb was the ultimate result4 ,,the ,,annexation ,,law ,,of #aijb4 ,the ,balfour ,education ,act of #aijb marks the beginning of a new period in ,english education4 ,for the first time in ,english history education of all grades--elementary1 secondary1 and higher2 voluntary and state--was brought under the control of one single local authority1 and ,voluntary ,schools were taken over and made a charge on the rates equally with the ,board ,schools4 ,new local ,educational ,committees and ,councils replaced the old ,school ,boards1 and all secular instruction in state-aided schools of all types was now placed under their control4 ,religious instruction could continue where desired4 ,in addition1 one third of the property of ,england1 which had heretofore escaped all direct taxation for education1 was now compelled to pay its proper share4 ,the foundation principle that the wealth of the4 ,state must educate the children of the ,state was now applied1 for the first time4 ,the ,state now abandoned the old policy of merely supervising and assisting voluntary associations to maintain schools1 in competition with state- provided schools1 and assumed the whole responsibility for the secular instruction of the people4 ,though the law awakened intense opposition from those who felt that it riveted the hand of the cleric on the schools of the land1 it nevertheless equalized and unified educational provisions2 paved the way for much future progress2 made the general provision of secondary education possible2 and represented an important new step in the process of creating a national system of education for the people4 ,under this ,law much has been done by the new ,central ,board of ,education1 and subsequent supplementary legislation1 to increase materially the efficiency of the education provided4 ,since #aijb the cost for education per pupil has been increased more than one half4 ,the local authorities1 to whom were given large powers of control1 have levied taxes liberally1 and the ,state has also increased its grants4 ,since #aijb also there has been a continual agitation for a resettlement of the educational question along broad national lines4 ,bills have been introduced1 and important committees have considered the matter1 but no affirmative action was taken4 ,by the time of the opening of the ,world ,war it may be said that ,english opinion had about agreed upon the principle of public control of all schools1 absolute religious freedom for teachers1 local option as to religious instruction1 large local liberty in management and control1 well-trained and well-paid teachers1 and the fusing of all types of schools into a democratic and truly national school system1 strong in its unity and national elements1 but free from centralized bureaucratic control4 ,it was left for the ,world ,war to give emphasis to this national need and to permit the final creation of such an educational organization4 ,,the ,,incorporation ,,of ,,secondary ,,education ,,into ,,the ,,national ,,system4 ,for centuries the education of the small ruling class has been conducted by the private tutor and the endowed secondary school1 and had been completed by a few years at ,oxford or ,cambridge4 ,the ,reform ,bill of #ahcb had raised the middle commercial and industrial classes to power1 and had created new demands for secondary and higher education for the sons of this class4 ,the old endowed schools were now no longer sufficient in numbers1 and the result was the founding of many private and joint-stock-company secondary schools to minister to the new educational needs4 ,the ,second ,reform ,bill of #ahfg enfranchised a very much greater number of citizens1 and the increasing wealth and the increasing demands for educational advantages led to an insistence for a further extension along secondary and higher lines4 ,the result was seen in the investigation of the nine ,great ,public ,schools of ,england1 #cd by the ,lord ,clarendon ,commission 7#ahfa-fd72 and the appointment of the ,british ,schools ,inquiry ,commission of #ahfd-fg1 to inquire into the #hbj other endowed schools and the #abb proprietary or joint-stock-company schools of the land4 ,the ,report of the first led to the ,public ,schools ,act of #ahfh1 reforming abuses and regulating the use of their old endowments4 ,the second pointed out the great deficiency then existing in secondary education1 #ce and led to the enactment of the ,endowed ,schools ,act of #ahfi1 placing all endowed schools under centralized supervision4 ,we see here the beginnings of state supervision and control of the age-old endowments for ,latin grammar schools and other types of schools for secondary training4 ,the repeal of the old ,religious-,tests-for- ,degrees legislation1 at the old universities 7,r4 #cje71 in #ahga1 transformed these from ,church-of-,england into national institutions1 and opened up the whole range of education to all who could meet the standards and pay the fees4 ,under the ,act of #ahgj many local school boards1 especially in the manufacturing cities1 began to satisfy the new needs by the organization of ,higher ,grade ,schools1 or ,high ,schools1 to supplement the work of the elementary schools and to extend upward1 in a truly democratic fashion1 the educational ladder4 ,in this movement the manufacturing cities of ,sheffield1 ,birmingham1 and ,manchester were the leaders4 ,in these three cities also1 as well as in four others 7,bristol1 ,leeds1 ,liverpool1 and ,london7 #cf new modern-type universities were created4 ,the ,department of ,science and ,art 7created in #ahec7 also began1 in #ahgb1 to give large grants to the cities for the establishment of a three-years' course in science1 for the encouragement of scientific training4 ,these new secondary-type schools1 providing for the direct passage of children from the elementary to the secondary schools1 with many free places for capable students1 served to increase the friction between rate-aided schools on the one hand1 and voluntary and endowed and proprietary schools on the other4 ,carrying out1 as they did1 ,huxley's idea of a broad educational ladder1 #cg they also represented a very democratic innovation in ,english educational procedure4 ,in #ahid a ,commission--a favorite ,english method for considering vexatious questions--was appointed1 under the chairmanship of ,mr4 ,james 7afterwards ,lord7 ,bryce1 to consider the best methods of establishing a well- organized system of secondary education in ,england4 ,the ,report was important and influential4 ,it recommended the creation of a general ,board of ,education under a responsible government ,minister1 with a permanent ,secretary and a ,consultative ,educational ,council 7as was done in #ahii72 the establishment of local county and borough boards to provide adequate secondary-school accommodations1 with aid from the rates2 the inspection of secondary schools by the ,central ,board of ,education2 the professional training of secondary-school teachers2 and a great extension of the free- scholarship plan to children from the elementary schools4 ,on this last point the ,report said3 #ch ,we have to consider the means whereby the children of the less well- to-do classes of our population may be enabled to obtain such secondary education as may be suitable and needful for them4 ,as we have not recommended that secondary education shall be provided free of cost to the whole community1 we deem it all the more needful that ample provision be made by every local authority for enabling selected children of poorer parents to climb the educational ladder4444 ,the assistance we have contemplated should be given by means of a carefully graduated system of scholarships1 varying in value in the age at which they are awarded and the class of school or institution at which they are tenable4 ,the ,act of #aijb unified control of both elementary and secondary education4 ,any private or endowed secondary school was left free to accept or reject government aid and inspection1 but1 if the aid were accepted1 inspection and the following of government plans were required4 ,secondary education must provide for scholars up to or beyond the age of sixteen4 ,no attempt was made to unify the work and character of the secondary schools1 it being clearly recognized that1 in ,england at least1 these must be suited to the different requirements of the scholars1 the means of the parents1 the age at which schooling will stop1 and the probable place in the social organism of ,england which the pupils will occupy4 ,by #aiaj1 out of #hda secondary schools in ,england receiving grants of state aid1 #cbe were supported by local authorities and were the creations of the preceding four decades4 ,most of the others represented old ,latin grammar- school foundations1 thus incorporated into the national system1 and without that violence and destruction of endowments which characterized the transformations in ,france and ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie4 ,,the ,,english ,,educational ,,system ,,as ,,finally ,,evolved ,the years1 for the divisions of ,english education1 are only approximate1 as ,english education is more flexible than that found in most other lands4 ,a ,,national ,,system ,,at ,,last ,,evolved4 ,it is a little more than two centuries from the founding of the ,society for the ,promotion of ,christian ,knowledge 7#afii7 to the very important ,fisher ,education ,act #ci of ,august1 #aiah4 ,the first marked the beginnings of the voluntary system2 the second the first real attempt in ,england to lay broad and deep the foundations of a scheme of education which would be truly national4 ,this ,act1 passed by ,parliament in the midst of a war which called upon the ,english people for heavy sacrifices1 completed the evolution of two centuries and organized the educational resources--elementary1 secondary1 evening1 adult1 technical1 and higher--into one national system1 animated by a national purpose1 and aimed at the accomplishment for the nation of twentieth- century ends on the most democratic basis of any school system in ,europe4 ,in so doing ,huxley's educational ladder has not only been changed into a broad highway1 but the educational traditions of ,england 7,r4 #cjf7 have been preserved and moulded anew4 ,the central national supervisory authority has been still further strengthened2 the compulsion to attend greatly extended2 and the voice of the ,state has been uttered in a firmer tone than ever before in ,english educational history4 ,taxes have been increased2 the scope of the school system extended2 all elements of the system better integrated2 laggard local educational authorities subjected to firmer control2 the training of teachers looked after more carefully than ever before2 and the foundations for unlimited improvement and progress in education laid down4 ,still1 in doing all this1 the deep ,english devotion to local liberties has been clearly revealed4 ,the dangers of a centralized ,french-type educational bureaucracy have been avoided2 necessary1 and relatively high1 minimum standards have been set up1 but without sacrificing that variety which has always been one of the strong points of ,english educational effort2 and the legitimate claims of the ,state have been satisfied without destroying local initiative and independence4 ,in this story of two centuries and more of struggle to create a really national system of education for the people we see strongly revealed those prominent characteristics of ,english national progress--careful consideration of new ideas1 keen sensitiveness to vested rights1 strong sense of local liberties and responsibilities1 large dependence on local effort and good sense1 progress by compromise1 and a slow grafting-on of the best elements of what is new without sacrificing the best elements of what is old4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,show that the ,english method of slow progress and after long discussion would naturally result in a plan bearing evidence of many compromises4 #b4 ,what does the extensive ,charity-,school movement in eighteenth-century ,england indicate as to the comparative general interest in learning in ,england and the other lands we have previously studied8 #c4 ,show how the ,sunday-,school instruction1 meager as it was1 was very important in ,england in paving the way for further educational progress4 #d4 ,what do all the different late eighteenth-century voluntary educational movements indicate as to comparative popular interest in education in ,england and ,prussia8 ,england and ,france8 #e4 ,can you explain the much greater percentage of city poor in ,england in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries than in ,french or ,german lands8 #f4 ,can you explain why periods of prolonged warfare are usually followed by periods of social and political unrest8 #g4 ,can you explain why ,pestalozzian ideas found such slow acceptance in ,england8 #h4 ,explain1 on the basis of the ,english adult manufacturing conception of education1 why monitorial instruction was hailed as a new expedient1 parallel and rival to the modern inventions in the mechanical departments4 #i4 ,to what extent do we now accept ,robert ,owen's conception of the influence of education on children8 #aj4 ,show how the many philanthropic societies for the education of the children of the poor came in as a natural transition from church to state education4 #aa4 ,show the importance of the ,school ,societies in accustoming people to the idea of free and general education4 #ab4 ,show how the ,lancastrian system formed a natural bridge between private philanthropy in education and tax-supported state schools4 #ac4 ,why were the highly mechanical features of the ,lancastrian organization so advantageous in its day1 whereas we of to-day would regard them as such a disadvantage8 #ad4 ,explain how the ,lancastrian schools dignified the work of the teacher by revealing the need for teacher-training4 #ae4 ,assuming that there may be some validity to the arguments of ,kay- ,shuttleworth1 what are the limitations to such reasoning8 #af4 ,what theory as to education would naturally lie behind a payment-by- results plan of distributing state aid8 #ag4 ,show how ,english educational development during the nineteenth century has been deeply modified by the progress of democracy4 #ah4 ,show how the ,english have attained to minimum standards without imposing uniform requirements that destroy individuality and initiative4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following illustrative selections are reproduced3 #bia4 ,parliamentary ,report3 ,charity-,school ,education described4 #bib4 ,s4,p4,c4,k43 ,cost and ,support of ,charity-,schools4 #bic4 ,raikes3 ,description of the ,gloucester ,sunday ,schools4 #bid4 ,guthrie3 ,organization1 ,support1 and ,work of a ,ragged ,school4 #bie4 ,smith1 ,a43 ,on the ,education of the ,common ,people4 #bif4 ,malthus3 ,on ,national ,education4 #big4 ,smith1 ,s43 ,the ,school of ,lancaster described4 #bih4 ,philanthropist3 ,automatic ,character of the ,monitorial ,schools4 #bii4 ,montmorency1 de3 ,the ,first ,parliamentary ,grant for ,education4 #cjj4 ,macaulay3 ,on the ,duty of the ,state to ,provide ,education4 #cja4 ,mosely3 ,evils of ,apprenticing the ,children of ,paupers4 #cjb4 ,kay-,shuttleworth3 ,typical ,reasoning in ,opposition to ,free ,schools4 #cjc4 ,macnamera3 ,the ,duke of ,newcastle ,commission ,report4 #cjd4 ,statute3 ,elementary ,education ,act of #ahgj4 #cje4 ,statute3 ,abolition of ,religious ,tests at the ,universities4 #cjf4 ,times3 ,the ,educational ,traditions of ,england4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,characterize the type of education described by the witness 7#bia74 #b4 ,considering equipment provided and comparative money values1 then and now1 about how much of an effort did support 7#bib7 involve8 #c4 ,what class of children did ,raikes 7#bic7 make provision for8 #d4 ,characterize the type of education provided 7#bid7 in the ,ragged ,schools4 #e4 ,would ,adam ,smith's reasoning 7#bie7 still hold true8 #f4 ,would that of ,malthus 7#bif78 #g4 ,indicate the improvements ,lancaster had made 7#big1 #bih7 in organization and teaching efficiency4 #h4 ,was the first ,english parliamentary grant 7#bii7 expressive of deep national interest8 #i4 ,would ,macaulay's reasoning 7#cjj7 still be true8 #aj4 ,is it probable that the apprenticing of paupers had always given such 7#cja7 results8 #aa4 ,how sound was ,kay-,shuttleworth's reasoning 7#cjb78 #ab4 ,what merit was there to the payment-by-results recommendation of the ,duke of ,newcastle ,commission 7#cjc78 #ac4 ,just what kind of schools did the ,act of #ahgj 7#cjd7 make provision for8 #ad4 ,have we ever had such religious requirements as those so long maintained 7#cje7 at the ,english universities8 ,,supplementary ,,references ,allen1 ,w4 ,o4 ,b4 and ,mc,clure1 ,e4 ,two ,hundred ,years2 ,history of ,s4,p4,c4,k4 #afih-ahih4 ,adams1 ,francis4 ,history of the ,elementary ,school ,contest in ,england4 99 ,binns1 ,h4 ,b4 ,a ,century of ,education1 #ahjh-aijh1 ,history of the ,british and ,foreign ,school ,society4 99 ,birchenough1 ,c4 ,history of ,elementary ,education in ,england and ,wales since #ahjj4 ,escott1 ,t4 ,h4 ,s4 ,social ,transformations of the ,victorian ,era4 ,harris1 ,j4 ,h4 ,robert ,raikes2 the ,man and his ,work4 99 ,holman1 ,h4 ,english ,national ,education4 99 ,montmorency1 ,j4 ,e4 ,g4 de4 ,the ,progress of ,education in ,england4 99 ,montmorency1 ,j4 ,e4 ,g4 de4 ,state ,intervention in ,english ,education to #ahcc4 99 ,salmon1 ,david4 ,joseph ,lancaster4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,awakening ,,an ,,educational ,,consciousness ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,i4 ,,early ,,national ,,attitudes ,,and ,,interests ,,the ,,american ,,problem4 ,the beginnings of state educational organization in the ,united ,states present quite a different history from that traced for ,prussia1 ,france1 ,italy1 or ,england4 ,while the parochial school existed in the ,central ,colonies1 and in time had to be subordinated to state ends2 and while the idea of education as a charity had been introduced into all the ,anglican ,colonies1 and later had to be stamped out2 the problem of educational organization in ,america was not1 as in ,europe1 one of bringing church schools and old educational foundations into harmonious working relations with the new state school systems set up4 ,instead the old educational foundations were easily transformed to adapt them to the new conditions1 while only in the ,central ,colonies did the religious-charity conception of education give any particular trouble4 ,the ,american educational problem was essentially that of first awakening1 in a new land1 a consciousness of need for general education2 and second1 that of developing a willingness to pay for what it finally came to be deemed desirable to provide4 ,by the middle of the eighteenth century1 as we have pointed out 7p4 #dch71 the earlier religious interests in ,america had clearly begun to wane4 ,in the ,new ,england ,colonies the school of the civil town had largely replaced the earlier religious school4 ,in the ,middle ,colonies many of the parochial schools had died out4 ,in the ,southern ,colonies1 where the classes in society and negro slavery made common schools impossible1 and the lack of city life and manufacturing made them seem largely unnecessary1 the common school had tended to disappear4 ,even in ,new ,england1 where the ,calvinistic conception of the importance of education had most firmly established the idea of school support1 the eighteenth century witnessed a constant struggle to prevent the dying-out of that which an earlier generation had deemed it important to create4 ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,war ,,on ,,education4 ,the effect of the ,american ,war for ,independence1 on all types of schools1 was disastrous4 ,the growing troubles with the mother country had1 for more than a decade previous to the opening of hostilities1 tended to concentrate attention on other matters than schooling4 ,political discussion and agitation had largely monopolized the thinking of the time4 ,with the outbreak of the war education everywhere suffered seriously4 ,most of the rural and parochial schools closed1 or continued a more or less intermittent existence4 ,in ,new ,york ,city1 then the second largest city in the country1 practically all schools closed with ,british occupancy and remained closed until after the end of the war4 ,the ,latin grammar schools and academies often closed from lack of pupils1 while the colleges were almost deserted4 ,harvard and ,kings1 in particular1 suffered grievously1 and sacrificed much for the cause of liberty4 ,the war engrossed the energies and the resources of the peoples of the different ,colonies1 and schools1 never very securely placed in the affections of the people1 outside of ,new ,england1 were allowed to fall into decay or entirely disappear4 ,the period of the ,revolution and the period of reorganization which followed1 up to the beginning of the national government 7#agge-hi71 were together a time of rapid decline in educational advantages and increasing illiteracy among the people4 ,meager as had been the opportunities for schooling before #agge1 the opportunities by #agij1 except in a few cities and in the ,new ,england districts1 had shrunk almost to the vanishing point4 ,for ,boston 7,r4 #cjg71 ,providence 7,rs4 #cji1 #caj71 and a number of other places we have good pictures preserved of the schools which actually did exist4 ,the close of the war found the country both impoverished and exhausted4 ,all the ,colonies had made heavy sacrifices1 many had been overrun by hostile armies1 and the debt of the ,union and of the ,states was so great that many thought it could never be paid4 ,the thirteen ,states1 individually and collectively1 with only #c1chj1jjj people1 had incurred an indebtedness of #ge1jjj1jjj for the prosecution of the conflict4 ,commerce was dead1 the ,government of the ,confederation was impotent1 petty insurrections were common1 the ,states were quarreling continually with one another over all kinds of trivial matters1 ,england still remained more or less hostile1 and foreign complications began to appear4 ,that during such a crucial period1 and for some years following1 but little or no attention was anywhere given to the question of education was only natural4 ,,no ,,real ,,educational ,,consciousness ,,before ,,about #ahbj4 ,regardless of the national land grants for education made to the new ,states 7p4 #ebc71 the provisions of the different state constitutions 7,r4 #bei71 the beginnings made here and there in the few cities of the time1 and the early state laws 7,r4 #bfb71 it can hardly be said that the ,american people had developed an educational consciousness1 outside of ,new ,england and ,new ,york1 before about #ahbj1 and in some of the ,states1 especially in the ,south1 a state educational consciousness was not awakened until very much later4 ,even in ,new ,england there was a steady decline in education during the first fifty years of the national history4 ,there were many reasons in the national life for this lack of interest in education among the masses of the people4 ,the simple agricultural life of the time1 the homogeneity of the people1 the absence of cities1 the isolation and independence of the villages1 the lack of full manhood suffrage in a number of the ,states1 the want of any economic demand for education1 and the fact that no important political question calling for settlement at the polls had as yet arisen1 made the need for schools and learning seem a relatively minor one4 ,the country1 too1 was still very poor4 ,the ,revolutionary ,war debt still hung in part over the ,nation1 and the demand for money and labor for all kinds of internal improvements was very large4 ,the country had few industries1 and its foreign trade was badly hampered by ,european nations4 ,ways and means of strengthening the existing ,government and holding the ,union together1 #a rather than plans which could bear fruit only in the future1 occupied the attention of the leaders of the time4 ,when the people had finally settled their political and commercial future by the ,war of #ahab-ad1 and had built up a national consciousness on a democratic basis in the years immediately following1 and the ,nation at last possessed the energy1 the money1 and the interest for doing so1 they finally turned their energies toward the creation of a democratic system of public schools4 ,in the meantime1 education1 outside of ,new ,england1 and in part even there1 was left largely to private individuals1 churches1 incorporated school societies1 and such state schools for the children of the poor as might have been provided by private or state funds1 or the two combined4 ,,the ,,real ,,interest ,,in ,,advanced ,,education4 ,in so far as the ,american people may be said to have possessed a real interest in education during the first half-century of the national existence1 it was manifested in the establishment and endowment of academies and colleges rather than in the creation of schools for the people4 ,the colonial ,latin grammar school had been almost entirely an ,english institution1 and never well suited to ,american needs4 ,as democratic consciousness began to arise1 the demand came for a more practical institution1 less exclusive and less aristocratic in character1 and better adapted in its instruction to the needs of a frontier society4 ,arising about the middle of the eighteenth century1 a number of so-called ,academies had been founded before the new ,national ,government took shape4 ,while essentially private institutions1 arising from a church foundation1 or more commonly a local subscription or endowment1 it became customary for towns1 counties1 and ,states to assist in their maintenance1 thus making them semi-public institutions4 ,their management1 though1 usually remained in private hands1 or under boards or associations4 #b ,beside offering a fair type of higher training #c before the days of high schools1 the academies also became training-schools for teachers1 and before the rise of the normal schools were the chief source of supply for the better grade of elementary teachers4 ,these institutions rendered an important service during the first half of the nineteenth century1 but were in time displaced by the publicly supported and publicly controlled ,american high school1 the first of which dates from #ahba4 ,this evolution we shall describe more in detail a little later on4 ,,the ,,colleges ,,of ,,the ,,time4 ,some interest also was taken in college education during this early national period4 ,college attendance1 however1 was small1 as the country was still new and the people were poor4 ,as late as #ahae1 ,harvard graduated a class of but #ff2 ,yale of #fi2 ,princeton of #dj2 ,williams of #dj2 ,pennsylvania of #ae2 and the ,university of ,south ,carolina of #cg4 ,after the organization of the ,union the nine old colonial colleges were reorganized1 and an attempt was made to bring them into closer harmony with the ideas and needs of the people and the governments of the ,states4 ,dartmouth1 ,kings 7now rechristened ,columbia71 and ,pennsylvania were for a time changed into state institutions1 and an unsuccessful attempt was made to make a state university for ,virginia out of ,william and ,mary4 ,fifteen additional colleges were organized by #ahjj1 and fourteen more by #ahbj4 ,between #agij and #ahbe there was much discussion as to the desirability of founding a national university at the seat of government1 and ,washington in his will 7#agii7 left1 for that time1 a considerable sum to the ,nation to inaugurate the new undertaking4 ,nothing ever came of it1 however4 ,before #ahbe six ,states--,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,indiana1 and ,michigan--had laid the foundations of future state universities4 ,the ,national ,government had also granted to each new ,western ,state two entire townships of land to help endow a university in each--a stimulus which eventually led to the establishment of a state university in every ,western ,state4 ,a ,,half-,,century ,,of ,,transition4 ,the first half-century of the national life may be regarded as a period of transition from the church-control idea of education over to the idea of education under the control of and supported by the ,state4 ,though many of the early ,states had provided for state school systems in their constitutions 7,r4 #bei71 the schools had not been set up1 or set up only here and there4 ,it required time to make this change in thinking4 ,up to the period of the beginnings of our national development education had almost everywhere been regarded as an affair of the ,church1 somewhat akin to baptism1 marriage1 the administration of the sacraments1 and the burial of the dead4 ,even in ,new ,england1 which formed an exception1 the evolution of the civic school from the church school was not yet complete4 ,the church charity-school had become1 as we have seen 7p4 #ddi71 a familiar institution before the ,revolution4 ,the ,english ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel in ,foreign ,parts 7p4 #ddi71 which maintained schools in connection with the ,anglican churches in the ,anglican ,colonies and provided an excellent grade of charity-school master1 withdrew at the close of the ,revolutionary ,war from work in this country4 ,the different churches after the war continued their efforts to maintain their church charity-schools1 though there was for a time a decrease in both their numbers and their effectiveness4 ,in the meantime the demand for education grew rather rapidly1 and the task soon became too big for the churches to handle4 ,for long the churches made an effort to keep up1 as they were loath to relinquish in any way their former hold on the training of the young4 ,the churches1 however1 were not interested in the problem except in the old way1 and this was not what the new democracy wanted4 ,the result was that1 with the coming of nationality and the slow but gradual growth of a national consciousness1 national pride1 national needs1 and the gradual development of national resources in the shape of taxable property--all alike combined to make secular instead of religious schools seem both desirable and possible to a constantly increasing number of citizens4 ,,ii4 ,,awakening ,,an ,,educational ,,consciousness ,between about #ahaj and #ahcj a number of new forces--philanthropic1 political1 social1 economic--combined to change the earlier attitude by producing conditions which made state rather than church control and support of education seem both desirable and feasible4 ,the change1 too1 was markedly facilitated by the work of a number of semi-private philanthropic agencies which now began the work of founding schools and building up an interest in education1 the most important of which were3 7#a7 the ,sunday-,school movement2 7#b7 the ,city ,school ,societies2 7#c7 the ,lancastrian movement2 and 7#d7 the ,infant-,school ,societies4 ,these will be described briefly1 and their influence in awakening an educational consciousness pointed out4 ,,the ,,sunday-,,school ,,movement4 ,the ,sunday ,school1 as a means of providing the merest rudiments of secular and religious learning1 had been made1 through the initiative of ,raikes of ,gloucester 7p4 #fag71 a very important ,english institution for providing the beginnings of instruction for the children of the city poor4 ,raikes's idea was soon carried to the ,united ,states4 ,in #aghf a ,sunday ,school after the ,raikes plan was organized in ,hanover ,county1 ,virginia4 ,in #aghg a ,sunday ,school for ,african children was organized at ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina4 ,in #agia ,the ,first ,day1 or ,sunday ,school ,society1 was organized at ,philadelphia1 for the establishment of ,sunday ,schools in that city4 ,in #agic ,katy ,ferguson's ,school for the ,poor was opened in ,new ,york1 and this was followed by an organization of ,new ,york women for the extension of secular instruction among the poor4 ,in #agig ,samuel ,slater's ,factory ,school was opened at ,pawtucket1 ,rhode ,island4 ,though there had been some ,sunday instruction earlier at a few places in ,new ,england1 the introduction of the ,sunday ,school from ,england1 in #aghf1 marked the real beginning of the religious ,sunday ,school in ,america4 ,after the churches had once caught the idea of a common religious school on ,sundays for the instruction of any one1 a number of societies were formed to carry on and extend the work4 ,the most important of these were3 #ahjh4 ,the ,evangelical ,society of ,philadelphia4 #ahaf4 ,the ,female ,union for the ,promotion of ,sabbath ,schools 7,new ,york74 #ahaf4 ,the ,new ,york ,sunday ,school ,union4 #ahaf4 ,the ,boston ,society for the ,moral and ,religious ,instruction of the ,poor4 #ahag4 ,the ,philadelphia ,sunday and ,adult ,school ,union4 #ahbd4 ,the ,american ,sunday ,school ,union4 ,these different types of ,american ,sunday ,schools1 being open to all instead of only to the poor and lowly1 had a small but an increasing influence in leveling class distinctions and in making a common day school seem possible4 ,the movement for secular instruction on ,sundays1 though1 soon met in ,america with the opposition of the churches1 and before long they took over the idea1 superseded private initiative and control1 and changed the character of the instruction from a day of secular work to an hour or so of religious teaching4 ,the ,sunday ,school1 in consequence1 never exercised the influence in educational development in ,america that it did in ,england4 ,,the ,,city ,,school ,,societies4 ,these were patterned after the ,english charity- school subscription societies1 and were formed in a number of ,american cities during the first quarter of the nineteenth century for the purpose of providing the rudiments of an education to those too poor to pay for schooling4 ,these ,societies were usually organized by philanthropic citizens1 willing to contribute something yearly to provide some little education for a few of the many children in the city having no opportunities for any instruction4 ,a number of these ,societies were able to effect some financial connection with the city or the ,state4 ,one of the first of these ,school ,societies was ,the ,manumission ,society1 organized in ,new ,york1 in #aghe1 for the purpose of mitigating the evils of slavery1 to defend the rights of the blacks1 and especially to give them the elements of an education4 ,alexander ,hamilton and ,john ,jay were among its organizers4 ,a free school for colored pupils was opened1 in #aghg4 ,this grew and prospered and was aided from time to time by the city1 and in #ahja by the ,state4 ,finally1 in #ahcd1 all its schools were merged with those of the ,public ,school ,society of the city4 ,in #ahja the first free school for poor white children whose parents belong to no religious society1 and who1 from some cause or other1 cannot be admitted into any of the charity schools of the city1 was opened4 ,this was provided by the ,association of ,women ,friends for the ,relief of the ,poor1 which engaged a widow woman of good education and morals as instructor at #cj per year4 ,this ,association also prospered1 and received some city or state aid up to #ahbd4 ,by #ahbc it was providing free elementary education for #gej children4 ,its schools also were later merged with those of the ,public ,school ,society4 ,,the ,,public ,,school ,,society4 ,perhaps the most famous of all the early subscription societies for the maintenance of schools for the poor was the ,new ,york ,free ,school ,society1 which later changed its name to that of ,the ,public ,school ,society of ,new ,york4 ,this was organized1 in #ahje1 under the leadership of ,de ,witt ,clinton1 then mayor of the city1 he heading the subscription list with a promise of #bjj a year for support4 ,on ,may #ad1 #ahjf1 the following advertisement appeared in the daily papers3 ,,free ,,school ,the ,trustees of the ,society for establishing a ,free ,school in the city of ,new ,york1 for the education of such poor children as do not belong to1 or are not provided for by any religious ,society1 having engaged a ,teacher1 and procured a ,school ,house for the accommodation of a ,school1 have now the pleasure of announcing that it is proposed to receive scholars of the descriptions alluded to without delay2 applications may be made to1 c4 ,four days later the officers of the ,society issued a general appeal to the public 7,r4 #caa71 setting forth the purposes of the ,society and soliciting funds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif4 ,,the ,,first ,,schoolhouse ,,built ,,by ,,the ,,free ,,school ,,society ,,in ,,new ,,york ,,city ,built in #ahji1 in ,tryon ,row4 ,cost1 without site1 #ac1jjj4 ,this ,society was chartered by the legislature to provide schooling for all children who are the proper objects of a gratuitous education4 ,it organized free public education in the city1 secured funds1 built schoolhouses1 provided and trained teachers1 and ably supplemented the work of the private and church schools4 ,by its energy and its persistence it secured for itself a large share of public confidence1 and aroused a constantly increasing interest in the cause of popular education4 ,in #ahec1 after it had educated over #fjj1jjj children and trained over #abjj teachers1 this ,society1 its work done1 surrendered its charter and turned over its buildings and equipment to the public-school department of the city1 which had been created by the legislature in #ahdb4 ,,school ,,societies ,,elsewhere4 ,the ,benevolent ,society of the ,city of ,baltimore for the ,education of the ,female ,poor1 founded in #agii1 and the ,male ,free ,society of ,baltimore1 organized a little later1 were other of these early school societies1 though neither became so famous as the ,public ,school ,society of ,new ,york4 ,the schools of the city of ,washington were started by subscription1 in #ahjd1 and for some time were in part supported by subscriptions from public-spirited citizens4 #d ,this society did an important work in accustoming the people of the capital city to the provision of some form of free education4 ,in #ahjj ,the ,philadelphia ,society #e for the ,free ,instruction of ,indigent ,boys was formed1 which a little later changed to ,the ,philadelphia ,society for the ,establishment and ,support of ,charity ,schools4 ,in #ahad ,the ,society for the ,promotion of a ,rational ,system of ,education was organized in ,philadelphia1 and four years later the public sentiment awakened by a combination of the work of this ,society and the coming of the ,lancastrian system of instruction enabled the city to secure a special law permitting ,philadelphia to organize a system of city schools for the education of the children of its poor4 ,other societies which rendered useful educational service include the ,mechanics and ,manufacturers ,association1 of ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 organized in #aghi 7,rs4 #cjh1 #caj72 ,the ,albany ,lancastrian ,school ,society1 organized in #ahbf1 for the education of the poor of the city in monitorial schools2 and the school societies organized in ,savannah in #ahah1 and ,augusta1 in #ahba1 to afford education to the children of indigent parents4 ,both these ,georgia societies received some support from state funds4 ,the formation of these school societies1 the subscriptions made by the leading men of the cities1 the bequests for education1 and the grants of some city and state aid to these societies1 all of which in time became somewhat common1 indicate a slowly rising interest in providing schools for the education of all4 ,this rising interest in education was greatly stimulated by the introduction from ,england1 about this time1 of a new and what for the time seemed a wonderful system for the organization of education1 the ,lancastrian monitorial plan4 ,,the ,,lancastrian ,,monitorial ,,schools4 ,church-of-,england ideas were not in much favor in the ,united ,states for some time after the close of the ,revolutionary ,war1 and in consequence it was the ,lancastrian plan which was brought over and popularized4 ,in #ahjf the first monitorial school was opened in ,new ,york ,city1 and1 once introduced1 the system quickly spread from ,massachusetts to ,georgia1 and as far west as ,cincinnati1 ,louisville1 and ,detroit4 ,in #ahbf ,maryland instituted a state system of ,lancastrian schools1 with a ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction1 but in #ahbh abandoned the idea and discontinued the office4 ,a state ,lancastrian system for ,north ,carolina was proposed in #ahcb1 but failed of adoption by the legislature4 ,in #ahbi ,mexico organized higher ,lancastrian schools for the ,mexican ,state of ,texas4 ,in #ahah ,lancaster himself went to ,america1 and was received with much distinction4 ,most of the remaining twenty years of his life were spent in organizing and directing schools in various parts of the ,united ,states4 ,in many of the rising cities of the eastern part of the country the first free schools established were ,lancastrian schools4 ,the system provided education at so low a cost 7p4 #fbi7 that it made the education of all for the first time seem possible4 #f ,the first free schools in ,philadelphia 7#ahah7 were an outgrowth of ,lancastrian influence1 as was also the case in many other ,pennsylvania cities4 ,baltimore began a ,lancastrian school six years before the organization of public schools was permitted by law4 ,a number of monitorial high schools were organized in different parts of the ,united ,states1 and it was even proposed that the plan should be adopted in the colleges4 ,a number of ,new ,england cities1 that already had other type schools1 investigated the new monitorial plan and were impressed with its many important points of superiority over methods then in use4 ,the ,report of the ,investigating ,committee 7#ahbh7 for ,boston 7,r4 #cab71 forms a good example of such4 ,as in ,england1 the system was very popular from about #ahaj to #ahcj1 but by #ahdj its popularity was over4 ,,the ,,interest ,,the ,,new ,,plan ,,awakened4 ,it is not strange that the new plan aroused widespread enthusiasm in many discerning men1 and for almost a quarter of a century was advocated as the best system of education then known4 ,two quotations will illustrate what leading men of the time thought of it4 ,de ,witt ,clinton1 for twenty-one years president of the ,new ,york ,free ,school ,society1 and later governor of the ,state1 wrote1 in #ahji3 ,when ,i perceive that many boys in our school have been taught to read and write in two months1 who did not before know the alphabet1 and that even one has accomplished it in three weeks--when ,i view all the bearings and tendencies of this system--when ,i contemplate the habits of order which it forms1 the spirit of emulation which it excites1 the rapid improvement which it produces1 the purity of morals which it inculcates--when ,i behold the extraordinary union of celerity in instruction and economy of expense--and when ,i perceive one great assembly of a thousand children1 under the eye of a single teacher1 marching with unexampled rapidity and with perfect discipline to the goal of knowledge1 ,i confess that ,i recognize in ,lancaster the benefactor of the human race4 ,i consider his system as creating a new era in education1 as a blessing sent down from heaven to redeem the poor and distressed of this world from the power and dominion of ignorance4 ,in a message to the legislature of ,connecticut1 a ,state then fairly well supplied with schools of the ,massachusetts district type1 ,governor ,wolcott said1 in #ahbe3 ,if funds can be obtained to defray the expenses of the necessary preparations1 ,i have no doubt that schools on the ,lancastrian model ought1 as soon as possible1 to be established in several parts of this state4 ,wherever from #bjj to #ajjj children can be convened within a suitable distance1 this mode of instruction in every branch of reading1 speaking1 penmanship1 arithmetic1 and bookkeeping1 will be found much more efficient1 direct1 and economical than the practices now generally pursued in our primary schools4 ,the ,lancastrian schools materially hastened the adoption of the free school system in all the ,northern ,states by gradually accustoming people to bearing the necessary taxation which free schools entail4 ,they also made the common school common and much talked of1 and awakened thought and provoked discussion on the question of public education4 ,they likewise dignified the work of the teacher by showing the necessity for teacher- training4 ,the ,lancastrian ,model ,schools1 first established in the ,united ,states in #ahah1 were the precursors of the ,american normal schools4 ,,coming ,,of ,,the ,,infant ,,school4 ,a curious early condition in ,america was that1 in some of the cities where public schools had been established1 by one agency or another1 no provision had been made for beginners4 ,these were supposed to obtain the elements of reading at home1 or in the ,dame ,schools4 ,in ,boston1 for example1 where public schools were maintained by the city1 no children could be received into the schools who had not learned to read and write 7,r4 #cad a74 ,this made the common age of admission somewhere near eight years4 ,the same was in part true of ,hartford1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 and other cities4 ,when the monitorial schools were established they tended to restrict their membership in a similar manner1 though not always able to do so4 ,in #ahaf there came to ,america1 also from ,england1 a valuable supplement to education as then known in the form of the so-called ,infant ,schools 7p4 #fcj74 ,first introduced at ,boston 7,r4 #cac71 the ,infant ,schools proved popular1 and in #ahah the city appropriated #ejjj for the purpose of organizing such schools to supplement the public-school system4 ,these were to admit children at four years of age1 were to be known as primary schools1 were to be taught by women1 were to be open all the year round1 and were to prepare the children for admission to the city schools1 which by that time had come to be known as ,english grammar schools4 ,providence1 similarly1 established primary 7,infant7 schools in #ahbh for children between the ages of four and eight1 to supplement the work of the public schools1 there called writing schools4 ,,the ,,dame ,,school ,,absorbed4 ,for ,new ,england the establishment of primary schools virtually took over the ,dame ,school instruction as a public function1 and added the primary grades to the previously existing school4 ,we have here the origin of the division1 often still retained at least in name in the ,eastern ,states1 of the primary grades and the grammar grades of the elementary school4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig ,,model ,,school ,,building ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,school ,,society ,erected in #ahdc4 ,cost 7with site71 #ag1jjj4 ,a typical ,new ,york school building1 after #ahcj4 ,the infant or primary school was on the first floor1 the second floor contains the girls' school1 and the third floor the boys' school4 ,each floor had one large room seating #beb children2 the primary schoolroom could be divided into two rooms by folding doors1 so as to segregate the infant class4 ,this building was for long regarded as the perfection of the builder's art1 and its picture was printed for years on the cover of the ,society's ,annual ,reports4 ,an ,infant-,school ,society was organized in ,new ,york1 in #ahbg4 ,the first ,infant ,school was established under the direction of the ,public ,school ,society as the ,junior ,department of ,school ,no4 #h1 with a woman teacher in charge1 and using monitorial methods4 ,a second school was established the next year4 ,in #ahcj the name was changed from ,infant ,school to ,primary ,department1 and where possible these departments were combined with the existing schools4 ,in #ahcb it was decided to organize ten primary schools1 under women teachers1 for children from four to ten years of age1 and after the ,boston plan of instruction4 ,this abandoned the monitorial plan of instruction for the new ,pestalozzian form1 which was deemed better suited to the needs of the smaller children4 ,by #ahdd fifty-six ,primary ,departments had been organized in connection with the upper schools of the city4 ,in ,philadelphia three ,infant-,school ,societies were founded in #ahbg-bh1 and such schools were at once established there4 ,by #ahcj the directors of the school system had been permitted by the legislature of the ,state to expend public money for such schools1 and thirty such1 under women teachers1 were in operation in the city by #ahcg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,essential ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,public ,,school ,,system ,,primary ,,education ,,organized4 ,the ,infant-,school idea was soon somewhat generally adopted by the ,eastern cities1 and changed somewhat to make of it an ,american primary school4 ,where children had not been previously admitted to the schools without knowing how to read1 as in ,boston1 they supplemented the work of the public schools by adding a new school beneath4 ,where the reverse had been the case1 as in ,new ,york ,city1 the organization of ,infant ,schools as ,junior ,departments enabled the existing schools to advance their work4 ,everywhere it resulted1 eventually1 in the organization of primary and grammar school departments1 often with intermediate departments in between1 and1 with the somewhat contemporaneous evolution of the first high schools1 the main outlines of the ,american free public-school system were now complete4 ,these four important educational movements--the secular ,sunday ,school1 the semi-public city ,school ,societies1 the ,lancastrian plan for instruction1 and the ,infant-,school idea--all arising in philanthropy1 came as successive educational ideas to ,america during the first half of the nineteenth century1 supplemented one another1 and together accustomed a new generation to the idea of a common school for all4 ,,iii4 ,,social1 ,,political1 ,,and ,,economic ,,influences ,it is hardly probable1 however1 that these philanthropic efforts alone1 valuable as they were1 could have resulted in the great ,american battle for tax-supported schools1 at as early a date as this took place1 had they not been supplemented by a number of other movements of a social1 political1 and economic character which in themselves materially changed the nature and direction of our national life4 ,the more important of these were3 7#a7 ,the rise of cities and of manufacturing1 7#b7 the extension of the suffrage1 and 7#c7 the rise of new class-demands for schools4 ,,growth ,,of ,,city ,,population ,,and ,,manufacturing4 ,at the time of the inauguration of the ,national ,government nearly every one in ,america lived on the farm or in some little village4 ,the first forty years of the national life were essentially an agricultural and a pioneer period4 ,even as late as #ahbj there were but thirteen cities of #hjjj inhabitants or over in the whole of the twenty-three ,states at that time comprising the ,union1 and these thirteen cities contained but #d4i per cent of the total population of the ,nation4 ,after about #ahbe these conditions began to change4 ,by #ahbj many little villages were springing up1 and these frequently proved the nuclei for future cities4 ,in ,new ,england many of these places were in the vicinity of some waterfall1 where cheap power made manufacturing on a large scale possible4 ,lowell1 ,massachusetts1 which in #ahbj did not exist and in #ahdj had a population of over twenty thousand people1 collected there largely to work in the mills1 is a good illustration4 ,other cities1 such as ,cincinnati and ,detroit1 grew because of their advantageous situation as exchange and wholesale centers4 ,with the revival of trade and commerce after the second war with ,great ,britain the cities grew rapidly both in number and size4 ,the rise of the new cities and the rapid growth of the older ones materially changed the nature of the educational problem1 by producing an entirely new set of social and educational conditions for the people of the ,central and ,northern ,states to solve4 ,the ,south1 with its plantation life1 negro slavery1 and absence of manufacturing was largely unaffected by these changed conditions until well after the close of the ,civil ,war4 ,in consequence the educational awakening there did not come for nearly half a century after it came in the ,north4 ,in the cities in the coast ,states north of ,maryland1 but particularly in those of ,new ,york and ,new ,england1 manufacturing developed very rapidly4 ,cotton-spinning in particular became a ,new ,england industry1 as did also the weaving of wool1 while ,pennsylvania became the center of the iron manufacturing industries4 #g ,the development of this new type of factory work meant the beginnings of the breakdown of the old home and village industries1 the eventual abandonment of the age-old apprenticeship system 7,rs4 #bjj1 #bja71 the start of the cityward movement of the rural population1 and the concentration of manufacturing in large establishments1 employing many hands to perform continuously certain limited phases of the manufacturing process4 ,this in time was certain to mean a change in educational methods4 ,it also called for the concentration of both capital and labor4 ,the rise of the factory system1 business on a large scale1 and cheap and rapid transportation1 all combined to diminish the importance of agriculture and to change the city from an unimportant to a very important position in our national life4 ,the #ac cities of #ahbj increased to #dd by #ahdj1 and to #ada by #ahfj4 ,there were four times as many cities in the ,north1 too1 where manufacturing had found a home1 as in the ,south1 which remained essentially agricultural4 ,,new ,,social ,,problems ,,in ,,the ,,cities4 ,the many changes in the nature of industry and of village and home life1 effected by the development of the factory system and the concentration of manufacturing and population in the cities1 also contributed materially in changing the character of the old educational problem4 ,when the cities were as yet but little villages in size and character1 homogeneous in their populations1 and the many social and moral problems incident to the congestion of peoples of mixed character had not as yet arisen1 the church and charity and private school solution of the educational problem was reasonably satisfactory4 ,as the cities now increased rapidly in size1 became more city-like in character1 drew to them diverse elements previously largely unknown1 and were required by state laws to extend the right of suffrage to all their citizens1 the need for a new type of educational organization began slowly but clearly to manifest itself to an increasing number of citizens4 ,the church1 charity1 and private school system completely broke down under the new strain4 ,school ,societies and ,educational ,associations1 organized for propaganda1 now arose in the cities2 grants of city or state funds for the partial support of both church and society schools were demanded and obtained2 and numbers of charity organizations began to be established in the different cities to enable them to handle better the new problems of pauperism1 intemperance1 and juvenile delinquency which arose4 ,,the ,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,suffrage4 ,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 though framed by the ablest men of the time1 was framed by men who represented the old aristocratic conception of education and government4 ,the same was true of the conventions which framed practically all the early state constitutions4 ,the early period of the national life was thus characterized by the rule of a class--a very well-educated and a very capable class1 to be sure--but a class elected by a ballot based on property qualifications and belonging to the older type of political and social thinking4 ,notwithstanding the statements of the ,declaration of ,independence1 the change came but slowly4 ,up to #ahae but four ,states had granted the right to vote to all male citizens1 regardless of property holdings or other somewhat similar restrictions4 ,after #ahae a democratic movement1 which sought to abolish all class rule and all political inequalities1 arose and rapidly gained strength4 ,in this the new ,states to the westward1 with their absence of old estates or large fortunes1 and where men were judged more on their merits than in an older society1 were the leaders4 ,as will be seen from the map1 every new ,state admitted east of the ,mississippi ,river1 except ,ohio 7admitted in #ahjb71 where the ,new ,england element predominated1 and ,louisiana 7#ahab71 provided for full manhood suffrage at the time of its admission to statehood4 ,seven additional ,eastern ,states had extended the same full voting privileges to their citizens by #ahde1 while the old requirements had been materially modified in most of the other ,northern ,states4 ,this democratic movement for the leveling of all class distinctions between white men became very marked1 after #ahbj2 came to a head in the election of ,andrew ,jackson as ,president1 in #ahbh2 and the final result was full manhood suffrage in all the ,states4 ,this gave the farmer in the ,west and the new manufacturing classes in the cities a preponderating influence in the affairs of government4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4 ,,dates ,,of ,,the ,,granting ,,of ,,full ,,manhood ,,suffrage ,some of the older ,states granted almost full manhood suffrage at an earlier date1 retaining a few minor restrictions until the date given on the map4 ,states shaded granted full suffrage at the time of admission to the ,union4 ,,educational ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,extension ,,of ,,suffrage4 ,the educational significance of the extension of full manhood suffrage to all was enormous and far-reaching4 ,there now took place in the ,united ,states1 after about #ahbe1 what took place in ,england after the passage of the ,second ,reform ,act 7p4 #fdb7 of #ahfg4 ,with the extension of the suffrage to all classes of the population1 poor as well as rich1 laborer1 as well as employer1 there came to thinking men1 often for the first time1 a realization that general education had become a fundamental necessity for the ,state1 and that the general education of all in the elements of knowledge and civic virtue must now assume that importance in the minds of the leaders of the ,state that the education of a few for the service of the ,church and of the many for simple church membership had once held in the minds of ecclesiastics4 ,this new conception is well expressed in the preamble to the first 7optional7 school law enacted in ,illinois 7#ahbe71 which declares3 ,to enjoy our rights and liberties1 we must understand them2 their security and protection ought to be the first object of a free people2 and it is a well-established fact that no nation has ever continued long in the enjoyment of civil and political freedom1 which was not both virtuous and enlightened2 and believing that the advancement of literature always has been1 and ever will be the means of developing more fully the rights of man1 that the mind of every citizen in a republic is the common property of society1 and constitutes the basis of its strength and happiness2 it is therefore considered the peculiar duty of a free government1 like ours1 to encourage and extend the improvement and cultivation of the intellectual energies of the whole4 ,,utterances ,,of ,,public ,,men ,,and ,,workingmen4 ,governors now began to recommend to their legislatures the establishment of tax-supported schools1 and public men began to urge state action and state control4 ,an utterance by ,de ,witt ,clinton1 for nine years governor of ,new ,york1 may be taken as an example of many4 ,in a message to the legislature1 in #ahbf1 defending the schools established1 he said3 ,the first duty of government1 and the surest evidence of good government1 is the encouragement of education4 ,a general diffusion of knowledge is a precursor and protector of republican institutions1 and in it we must confide as the conservative power that will watch over our liberties and guard them against fraud1 intrigue1 corruption1 and violence4 ,i consider the system of our common schools as the palladium of our freedom1 for no reasonable apprehension can be entertained of its subversion as long as the great body of the people are enlightened by education4 ,after about #ahbe many labor unions were formed1 and the representatives of these new organizations joined in the demands for schools and education1 urging the free education of their children as a natural right4 ,in #ahbi the workingmen of ,philadelphia asked each candidate for the legislature for a formal declaration of the attitude he would assume toward the provision of an equal and a general system of education for the ,state4 ,in #ahcj the ,workingmen's ,committee of ,philadelphia submitted a detailed report 7,r4 #cae71 after five months spent in investigating educational conditions in ,pennsylvania1 vigorously condemning the lack of provision for education in the ,state1 and the utterly inadequate provision where any was made4 ,seth ,luther1 in an address on ,the ,education of ,workingmen1 delivered in #ahcb1 declared that a large body of human beings are ruined by a neglect of education1 rendered miserable in the extreme1 and incapable of self-government4 ,stephen ,simpson1 in his ,a ,manual for ,workingmen1 published in #ahca1 declared that it is to education1 therefore1 that we must mainly look for redress of that perverted system of society1 which dooms the producer to ignorance1 to toil1 and to penury1 to moral degradation1 physical want1 and social barbarism4 ,many resolutions were adopted by these organizations demanding free state- supported schools4 #h ,,iv4 ,,alignment ,,of ,,interests1 ,,and ,,propaganda ,,the ,,alignment ,,of ,,interests4 ,the second quarter of the nineteenth century may be said to have witnessed the battle for tax-supported1 publicly controlled and directed1 and non-sectarian common schools4 ,in #ahbe such schools were still the distant hope of statesmen and reformers2 in #ahej they had become an actuality in almost every ,northern ,state4 ,the twenty- five years intervening marked a period of public agitation and educational propaganda2 of many hard legislative fights2 of a struggle to secure desired legislation1 and then to hold what had been secured2 of many bitter contests with church and private-school interests1 which felt that their vested rights were being taken from them2 and of occasional referenda in which the people were asked1 at the next election1 to advise the legislature as to what to do4 ,excepting the battle for the abolition of slavery1 perhaps no question has ever been before the ,american people for settlement which caused so much feeling or aroused such bitter antagonisms4 ,the friends of free schools were at first commonly regarded as fanatics1 dangerous to the ,state1 and the opponents of free schools were considered by them as old-time conservatives or as selfish members of society4 ,naturally such a bitter discussion of a public question forced an alignment of the people for or against publicly supported and controlled schools1 and this alignment of interests may be roughly stated to have been about as follows3 ,i4 ,for ,public ,schools4 ,men considered as3 #a4 ,citizens of the ,republic4 #b4 ,philanthropists and humanitarians4 #c4 ,public men of large vision4 #d4 ,city residents4 #e4 ,the intelligent workingmen in the cities4 #f4 ,non-taxpayers4 #g4 ,calvinists4 #h4 ,new ,england men4 ,,ii4 ,lukewarm1 or against ,public ,schools4 ,men considered as3 #a4 ,belonging to the old aristocratic class4 #b4 ,the conservatives of society4 #c4 ,politicians of small vision4 #d4 ,residents of rural districts4 #e4 ,the ignorant1 narrow-minded1 and penurious4 #f4 ,taxpayers4 #g4 ,lutherans1 ,reformed-,church1 ,mennonites1 and ,quakers4 #h4 ,southern men4 #i4 ,proprietors of private schools4 #aj4 ,the non-,english-speaking classes4 ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,propaganda4 ,to meet the arguments of the objectors1 to change the opinions of a thinking few into the common opinion of the many1 to overcome prejudice1 and to awaken the public conscience to the public need for free and common schools in such a democratic society1 was the work of a generation4 ,to convince the masses of the people that the scheme of state schools was not only practicable1 but also the best and most economical means for giving their children the benefits of an education2 to convince propertied citizens that taxation for education was in the interests of both public and private welfare2 to convince legislators that it was safe to vote for free-school bills2 and to overcome the opposition due to apathy1 religious jealousies1 and private interests1 was the work of years4 ,in time1 though1 the desirability of common1 free1 tax- supported1 non-sectarian1 state-controlled schools became evident to a majority of the citizens in the different ,american ,states1 and as it did the ,american ,state ,school1 free and equally open to all1 was finally evolved and took its place as the most important institution in the national life working for the perpetuation of a free democracy and the advancement of the public welfare4 ,for this work of propaganda hundreds of ,school ,societies and ,educational ,associations were organized2 many conventions were held1 and many resolutions favoring state schools were adopted2 many ,letters and ,addresses to the ,public were written and published2 public-spirited citizens traveled over the country1 making addresses to the people explaining the advantages of free state schools2 many public-spirited men gave the best years of their lives to the state-school propaganda2 and many governors sent communications on the subject to legislatures not yet convinced as to the desirability of state action4 ,at each meeting of the legislatures for years a deluge of resolutions1 memorials1 and petitions for and against free schools met the members4 ,the invention of the steam printing press came at about this time1 and the first modern newspapers at a cheap price now appeared4 ,these usually espoused progressive measures1 and tremendously influenced public sentiment4 ,those not closely connected with church or private-school interests usually favored public tax-supported schools4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,explain why the development of a national consciousness was practically necessary before an educational consciousness could be awakened4 #b4 ,show why it was natural1 suffrage conditions considered1 that the early interest should have been in advanced education4 #c4 ,why did the ,sunday-,school movement prove of so much less usefulness in ,america than in ,england8 #d4 ,show the analogy between the earlier school societies for educational work and other forms of modern associative effort4 #e4 ,explain the great popularity of the ,lancastrian schools over those previously common in ,america4 #f4 ,what were two of the important contributions of the ,infant-,school idea to ,american education8 #g4 ,why are schools and education much more needed in a country experiencing a city and manufacturing development than in a country experiencing an agricultural development8 #h4 ,show how the development of cities caused the old forms of education to break down1 and made evident the need for a new type of education4 #i4 ,show how each extension of the suffrage necessitates an extension of educational opportunities and advantages4 #aj4 ,explain the alignment of each class1 for or against tax-supported schools1 on historical and on economic grounds4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following illustrative selections are reproduced3 #cjg4 ,fowle3 ,the ,schools of ,boston about #agij-ahae4 #cjh4 ,rhode ,island3 ,petition for ,free ,schools1 #agii4 #cji4 ,providence3 ,rules and ,regulations for the ,schools in #ahbj4 #caj4 ,providence3 ,a ,memorial for ,better ,schools1 #ahcg4 #caa4 ,bourne3 ,beginnings of ,public ,education in ,new ,york ,city4 #cab4 ,boston ,report3 ,advantages of the ,monitorial ,system4 #cac4 ,wightman3 ,establishment of ,primary ,schools in ,boston4 #cad4 ,boston3 ,the ,elementary-,school ,system in #ahbc4 #cae4 ,philadelphia3 ,report of ,workingmen's ,committee on ,schools4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,just what advantages for boys and for girls existed in ,boston 7#cjg a1 b7 before the creation of the reading schools8 #b4 ,what improvements and additions did the reading schools 7#cjg c7 introduce8 #c4 ,state the main features of the ,rhode ,island petition 7#cjh7 of #agii4 #d4 ,just what kind of schools do the ,providence regulations 7#cji7 of #ahbj provide for and describe8 #e4 ,despite the many advances made in public schools since the date of the ,providence ,memorial 7#caj71 have relative public and private school expenditures materially changed8 #f4 ,compare the ,new ,york ,public ,school ,society ,address 7#caa7 with the ,english charity-school organization 7#bcg1 #bch7 as to purpose and instruction4 #g4 ,show that a report on modern classroom organization would present advantages over the monitorial plan1 comparable with those outlined by the ,boston ,report 7#cab7 comparing the monitorial and individual plans4 #h4 ,just what does the ,boston ,report on ,primary ,schools 7#cac7 reveal as to the character of education then provided8 #i4 ,just what kind of elementary schools did ,boston have 7#cad7 in #ahbc8 #aj4 ,just what kind of schools existed in the cities of ,pennsylvania in #ahcj1 judging from the ,report 7#cae7 of the ,workingmen's ,committee8 ,was the ,report correct with reference to a monopoly of talent8 ,,supplementary ,,references ,binns1 ,h4 ,b4 ,a ,century of ,education1 #ahjh-aijh4 ,boese1 ,thos1 ,public ,education in the ,city of ,new ,york4 ,cubberley1 ,e4 ,p4 ,public ,education in the ,united ,states4 99 ,fitzpatrick1 ,e4 ,a4 ,the ,educational ,views and ,influences of ,de ,witt ,clinton4 ,mc,manis1 ,j4 ,t4 ,the ,public ,school ,society of ,new ,york ,city1 in ,educational ,review1 vol4 #bi1 pp4 #cjc-aa4 7,march1 #aije47 99 ,palmer1 ,a4 ,e4 ,the ,new ,york ,public ,school ,system4 99 ,reigart1 ,j4 ,f4 ,the ,lancastrian ,system of ,instruction in the ,schools of ,new ,york ,city4 99 ,salmon1 ,david4 ,joseph ,lancaster4 99 ,simcoe1 ,a4 ,m4 ,social ,forces in ,american ,history4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,the ,,american ,,battle ,,for ,,free ,,state ,,schools ,the problem which confronted those interested in establishing state- controlled schools was not exactly the same in any two ,states1 though the battle in many ,states possessed common elements1 and hence was somewhat similar in character4 ,instead of tracing the struggle in detail in each of the different ,states1 it will be much more profitable for our purposes to pick out the main strategic points in the contest1 and then illustrate the conflict for these by describing conditions in one or two ,states where the controversy was most severe or most typical4 ,the seven strategic points in the struggle for free1 tax-supported1 non-sectarian1 state-controlled schools in the ,united ,states were3 #a4 ,the battle for tax support4 #b4 ,the battle to eliminate the pauper-school idea4 #c4 ,the battle to make the schools entirely free4 #d4 ,the battle to establish state supervision4 #e4 ,the battle to eliminate sectarianism4 #f4 ,the battle to extend the system upward4 #g4 ,addition of the state university to crown the system4 ,we shall consider each of these1 briefly1 in order4 ,i4 ,,the ,,battle ,,for ,,tax ,,support ,,early ,,support ,,and ,,endowment ,,funds4 ,in ,new ,england1 land endowments1 local taxes1 direct local appropriations1 license taxes1 and rate-bills had long been common4 ,land endowments began early in the ,new ,england ,colonies1 while rate-bills date back to the earliest times and long remained a favorite means of raising money for school support4 ,these means were adopted in the different ,states after the beginning of our national period1 and to them were added a variety of license taxes1 while occupational taxes1 lotteries1 and bank taxes also were employed to raise money for schools4 ,a few examples of these may be cited3 ,connecticut1 in #aggd1 turned over all proceeds of liquor licenses to the towns where collected1 to be used for schools4 ,new ,orleans1 in #ahbf1 licensed two theaters on condition that they each pay #cjjj annually for the support of schools in the city4 ,new ,york1 in #agii1 authorized four state lotteries to raise #ajj1jjj for schools1 a similar amount again in #ahja1 and numerous other lotteries before #ahaj4 ,new ,jersey 7,r4 #bdf7 and most of the other ,states did the same4 ,congress passed fourteen joint resolutions1 between #ahab and #ahcf1 authorizing lotteries to help support the schools of the city of ,washington4 ,bank taxes were a favorite source of income for schools1 between about #ahbe and #ahfj1 banks being chartered on condition that they would pay over each year for schools a certain sum or percentage of their earnings4 ,these all represent what is known as indirect taxation1 and were valuable in accustoming the people to the idea of public schools without appearing to tax them for their support4 ,the ,national ,land ,grants1 begun in the case of ,ohio in #ahjb1 soon stimulated a new interest in schools4 ,each ,state admitted after ,ohio also received the sixteenth section for the support of common schools1 and two townships of land for the endowment of a state university4 ,the new ,western ,states1 following the lead of ,ohio 7,r4 #bfj7 and ,indiana 7,r4 #bfa71 dedicated these section lands and funds to free common schools4 ,the sixteen older ,states1 however1 did not share in these grants1 so most of them now set about building up a permanent school fund of their own1 though at first without any very clear idea as to how the income from the fund was to be used4 #a ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,school ,,taxation4 ,the early idea1 which seems for a time to have been generally entertained1 that the income from land grants1 license fees1 and these permanent endowment funds would in time entirely support the necessary schools1 was gradually abandoned as it was seen how little in yearly income these funds and lands really produced1 and how rapidly the population of the ,states was increasing4 ,by #ahbe it may be said to have been clearly recognized by thinking men that the only safe reliance of a system of state schools lay in the general and direct taxation of all property for their support4 ,the wealth of the ,state must educate the children of the ,state became a watchword1 and the battle for direct1 local1 county1 and state taxation for education was clearly on by #ahbe to #ahcj in all the ,northern ,states1 except the four in ,new ,england where the principle of taxation for education had for long been established4 #b ,even in these ,states the struggle to increase taxation and provide better schools called for much argument and popular education 7,r4 #caf71 and occasional backward movements 7,rs4 #cag1 #cah7 were encountered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,,the ,,first ,,free ,,public ,,school ,,in ,,detroit ,a one-room school1 opened in the ,second ,ward1 in #ahch4 ,no action was taken in any other ward until #ahdb4 ,the struggle to secure the first legislation1 weak and ineffective as it seems to us to-day1 was often hard and long4 ,campaigns of education had to be prepared for and carried through4 ,many thought that tax-supported schools would be dangerous for the ,state1 harmful to individual good1 and thoroughly undemocratic4 ,many did not see the need for schools at all4 ,portions of a town or a city would provide a free school1 while other portions would not4 ,often those in favor of taxation were bitterly assailed1 and even at times threatened with personal violence4 ,often those in favor of improving the school had to wait patiently for the opposition slowly to wear itself out 7,r4 #cai7 before any real progress could be made4 ,,state ,,support ,,fixed ,,the ,,state ,,system4 ,with the beginnings of state aid in any substantial sums1 either from the income from permanent endowment funds1 state appropriations1 or direct state taxation1 the ,state became1 for the first time1 in a position to enforce quite definite requirements in many matters4 ,communities which would not meet the ,state's requirements would receive no state funds4 ,one of the first requirements to be thus enforced was that communities or districts receiving state aid must also levy a local tax for schools4 ,commonly the requirement was a duplication of state aid4 ,generally speaking1 and recognizing exceptions in a few ,states1 this represents the beginnings of compulsory local taxation for education4 ,as early as #agig ,vermont had required the towns to support their schools on penalty of forfeiting their share of state aid4 ,new ,york in #ahab1 ,delaware in #ahbi1 and ,new ,jersey in #ahdf required a duplication of all state aid received4 ,wisconsin1 in its first constitution of #ahdh1 required a local tax for schools equal to one half the state aid received4 ,the next step in state control was to add still other requirements1 as a prerequisite to receiving state aid4 ,one of the first of such was that a certain length of school term1 commonly three months1 must be provided in each school district4 ,another was the provision of free heat1 and later on free schoolbooks and supplies4 ,when the duplication-of-state-aid-received stage had been reached1 compulsory local taxation for education had been established1 and the great central battle for the creation of a state school system had been won4 ,the right to tax for support1 and to compel local taxation1 was the key to the whole state system of education4 ,from this point on the process of evolving an adequate system of school support in any ,state has been merely the further education of public opinion to see new educational needs4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,battle ,,to ,,eliminate ,,the ,,pauper-,,school ,,idea ,,the ,,pauper-,,school ,,idea4 ,the pauper-school idea was a direct inheritance from ,england1 and its home in ,america was in the old ,central and ,southern ,colonies1 where the old ,anglican ,church had been in control4 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 ,maryland1 ,virginia1 and ,georgia were the chief representatives1 though the idea had friends among certain classes of the population in other of the older ,states4 ,the new and democratic ,west would not tolerate it4 ,the pauper-school conception was a direct inheritance from ,english rule1 belonged to a society based on classes1 and was wholly out of place in a ,republic founded on the doctrine that all men are created equal1 and endowed by their ,creator with certain unalienable rights4 ,still more1 it was a very dangerous conception of education for a democratic form of government to tolerate or to foster4 ,its friends were found among the old aristocratic or conservative classes1 the heavy taxpayers1 the supporters of church schools1 and the proprietors of private schools4 ,citizens who had caught the spirit of the new ,republic1 public men of large vision1 intelligent workingmen1 and men of the ,new ,england type of thinking were opposed on principle to a plan which drew such invidious distinctions between the future citizens of the ,state4 ,to educate part of the children in church or private pay schools1 they said1 and to segregate those too poor to pay tuition and educate them at public expense in pauper schools1 often with the brand of pauper made very evident to them1 was certain to create classes in society which in time would prove a serious danger to our democratic institutions4 ,large numbers of those for whom the pauper schools were intended would not brand themselves as paupers by sending their children to the schools1 and others who accepted the advantages offered1 for the sake of their children1 despised the system4 #c ,the battle for the elimination of the pauper-school idea was fought out in the ,north in the ,states of ,pennsylvania and ,new ,jersey1 and the struggle in these two ,states we shall now briefly describe4 ,,the ,,pennsylvania ,,legislation4 ,in ,pennsylvania we find the pauper-school idea fully developed4 ,the constitution of #agij 7,r4 #bei7 had provided for a state system of pauper schools1 but nothing was done to carry even this constitutional direction into effect until #ahjb4 ,a pauper-school law was then enacted1 directing the overseers of the poor to notify such parents as they deemed sufficiently indigent that1 if they would declare themselves to be paupers1 their children might be sent to some specified private or pay school and be given free education 7,r4 #cae74 ,the expense for this was assessed against the education poor-fund1 which was levied and collected in the same manner as were road taxes or taxes for poor relief4 ,no provision was made for the establishment of public schools1 even for the children of the poor1 nor was any standard set for the education to be provided in the schools to which they were sent4 ,no other general provision for elementary education was made in the ,state until #ahcd4 ,with the growth of the cities1 and the rise of their special problems1 something more than this very inadequate provision for schooling became necessary4 ,the ,philadelphia ,society for the ,establishment and ,support of ,charity ,schools had long been urging a better system1 and in #ahad ',the ,society for the ,promotion of a ,rational ,system of ,education was organized in ,philadelphia for the purpose of educational propaganda4 ,bills were prepared and pushed1 and in #ahah ,philadelphia was permitted1 by special law1 to organize as the first school district in the ,state of ,pennsylvania1 and to provide1 with its own funds1 a system of ,lancastrian schools for the education of the children of its poor4 #d ,,the ,,law ,,of #ahcd4 ,in #ahbg ,the ,pennsylvania ,society for the ,promotion of ,public ,schools began an educational propaganda which did much to bring about the ,free-,school ,act of #ahcd4 ,in an ,address to the ,public it declared its object to be the promotion of public education throughout the ,state of ,pennsylvania1 and the ,address closed with these words3 ,this ,society is at present composed of about #bej members1 and a correspondence has been commenced with #abe members1 who reside in every district in the ,state4 ,it is intended to direct the continued attention of the public to the importance of the subject2 to collect and diffuse all information which may be deemed valuable2 and to persevere in their labors until they shall be crowned with success4 ,memorials were presented to the legislature year after year1 governors were interested1 ,addresses to the ,public were prepared1 and a vigorous propaganda was kept up until the ,free-,school ,law of #ahcd was the result4 ,this law1 though1 was optional4 ,it created every ward1 township1 and borough in the ,state a school district1 a total of #ihg being created for the ,state4 ,each school district was ordered to vote that autumn on the acceptance or rejection of the law4 ,those accepting the law were to organize under its provisions1 while those rejecting the law were to continue under the educational provisions of the old ,pauper-,school ,act4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja4 ,,the ,,pennsylvania ,,school ,,elections ,,of #ahce ,showing the percentage of school districts in each county organizing under and accepting the ,school ,law of #ahcd4 ,percentage of districts accepting indicated on the map for a few of the counties4 ,the results of the school elections of #ahcd are shown1 by counties1 on the below map4 ,of the total of #ihg districts created1 #ejb1 in #df of the then #eb counties 7,philadelphia ,county not voting71 or #eb per cent of the whole number1 voted to accept the new law and organize under it2 #bfd districts1 in #ca counties1 or #bg per cent of the whole1 voted definitely to reject the law2 and #bba districts1 in #df counties1 or #ba per cent of the whole1 refused to take any action either way4 ,in #c counties1 indicated on the map1 every district accepted the law1 and in #e counties1 also indicated every district rejected or refused to act on the law4 ,it was the predominantly ,german counties1 located in the east-central portion of the ,state1 which were strongest in their opposition to the new law4 ,one reason for this was that the new law provided for ,english schools2 another was the objection of the thrifty ,germans to taxation2 and another was the fear that the new state schools might injure their ,german parochial schools4 ,the real fight for free versus pauper schools1 though1 was yet to come4 ,legislators who had voted for the law were bitterly assailed1 and1 though it was but an optional law1 the question of its repeal and the reinstatement of the old ,pauper-,school ,law became the burning issue of the campaign in the autumn of #ahcd4 ,many legislators who had favored the law were defeated for reelection4 ,others1 seeing defeat1 refused to run4 ,petitions for the repeal of the law1 #e and remonstrances against its repeal1 flooded the legislature when it met4 ,the ,senate at once repealed the law1 but the ,house1 largely under the leadership of a ,vermonter by the name of ,thaddeus ,stevens1 #f refused to reconsider1 and finally forced the ,senate to accept an amended and a still stronger bill4 ,this defeat finally settled1 in principle at least1 the pauper-school question in ,pennsylvania1 #g though it was not until #ahgc that the last district in the ,state accepted the new system4 ,,eliminating ,,the ,,pauper-,,school ,,idea ,,in ,,new ,,jersey4 ,no constitutional mention of education was made in ,new ,jersey until #ahdd1 and no educational legislation was passed until #ahaf4 ,in that year a permanent state school fund was begun1 and in #ahbj the first permission to levy taxes for the education of such poor children as are paupers was granted4 ,in #ahbh an extensive investigation showed that one third of the children of the ,state were without educational opportunities1 and as a result of this investigation the first general school law for the ,state was enacted1 in #ahbi4 ,this provided for district schools1 school trustees and visitation1 licensed teachers1 local taxation1 and made a state appropriation of #bj1jjj a year to help establish the system4 ,the next year1 however1 this law was repealed and the old pauper-school plan restablished1 largely due to the pressure of church and private-school interests4 ,in #ahcj and #ahca the state appropriation was made divisible among private and parochial schools1 as well as the public pauper schools1 and the use of all public money was limited to the education of the children of the poor4 ,between #ahbh and #ahch a number of conventions of friends of free public schools were held in the ,state1 and much work in the nature of propaganda was done4 ,at a convention in #ahch a committee was appointed to prepare an ,address to the ,people of ,new ,jersey on the educational needs of the ,state 7,r4 #cbj71 and speakers were sent over the ,state to talk to the people on the subject4 ,the campaign against the pauper school had just been fought to a conclusion in ,pennsylvania1 and the result of the appeal in ,new ,jersey was such a popular manifestation in favor of free schools that the legislature of #ahch instituted a partial state school system4 ,the pauper-school laws were repealed1 and the best features of the short-lived ,law of #ahbi were renacted4 ,in #ahdd a new state constitution limited the income of the permanent state school fund exclusively to the support of public schools4 ,with the pauper-school idea eliminated from ,pennsylvania and ,new ,jersey1 the ,north was through with it4 ,the wisdom of its elimination soon became evident1 and we hear little more of it among ,northern people4 ,the democratic ,west never tolerated it4 ,it continued some time longer in ,maryland1 ,virginia1 and ,georgia1 and at places for a time in other ,southern ,states1 but finally disappeared in the ,south as well in the educational reorganizations which took place following the close of the ,civil ,war4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,battle ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,schools ,,entirely ,,free ,,the ,,schools ,,not ,,yet ,,free4 ,the rate-bill1 as we have previously stated1 was an old institution1 also brought over from ,england1 as the term rate signifies4 ,it was a charge levied upon the parent to supplement the school revenues and prolong the school term1 and was assessed in proportion to the number of children sent by each parent to the school4 ,in some ,states1 as for example ,massachusetts and ,connecticut1 its use went back to colonial times2 in others it was added as the cost for education increased1 and it was seen that the income from permanent funds and authorized taxation was not sufficient to maintain the school the necessary length of time4 ,the deficiency in revenue was charged against the parents sending children to school1 pro rata1 and collected as ordinary tax-bills 7,r4 #cba74 ,the charge was small1 but it was sufficient to keep many poor children away from the schools4 ,the rising cities1 with their new social problems1 could not and would not tolerate the rate-bill system1 and one by one they secured special laws from legislatures which enabled them to organize a city school system1 separate from city-council control1 and under a local board of education4 ,one of the provisions of these special laws nearly always was the right to levy a city tax for schools sufficient to provide free education for the children of the city4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4 ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,referendum ,,of #ahej ,total vote3 ,for free schools1 #ag counties and #bji1cdf voters2 against free schools1 #db counties and #ahd1cjh voters4 ,,the ,,fight ,,against ,,the ,,rate-,,bill ,,in ,,new ,,york4 ,the attempt to abolish the rate-bill and make the schools wholly free was most vigorously contested in ,new ,york ,state1 and the contest there is most easily described4 ,from #ahbh to #ahfh1 this tax on the parents produced an average annual sum of #daj1fhe4ff1 or about one half of the sum paid all the teachers of the ,state for salary4 ,while the wealthy districts were securing special legislation and taxing themselves to provide free schools for their children1 the poorer and less populous districts were left to struggle to maintain their schools the four months each year necessary to secure state aid4 ,finally1 after much agitation1 and a number of appeals to the legislature to assume the rate-bill charges in the form of general state taxation1 and thus make the schools entirely free1 the legislature1 in #ahdi1 referred the matter back to the people to be voted on at the elections that autumn4 ,the legislature was to be thus advised by the people as to what action it should take4 ,the result was a state-wide campaign for free1 public1 tax-supported schools1 as against partially free1 rate-bill schools4 ,the result of the #ahdi election was a vote of #bdi1hgb in favor of making the property of the ,state educate the children of the ,state1 and #ia1ieb against it4 ,this only seemed to stir the opponents of free schools to renewed action1 and they induced the next legislature to resubmit the question for another vote1 in the autumn of #ahej4 ,the result of the referendum of #ahej is shown on the map on page #fhe4 ,the opponents of tax-supported schools now mustered their full strength1 doubling their vote in #ahdi1 while the majority for free schools was materially cut down4 ,the interesting thing shown on this map was the clear and unmistakable voice of the cities4 ,they would not tolerate the rate- bill1 and1 despite their larger property interests1 they favored tax- supported free schools4 ,the rural districts1 on the other hand1 opposed the idea4 ,,the ,,rate-,,bill ,,in ,,other ,,states4 ,these two referenda virtually settled the question in ,new ,york1 though for a time a compromise was adopted4 ,the state appropriation for schools was very materially increased1 the rate- bill was retained1 and the organization of union districts to provide free schools by local taxation where people desired them was authorized4 ,many of these union free districts now arose in the more progressive communities of the ,state1 and finally1 in #ahfg1 after rural and other forms of opposition had largely subsided1 and after almost all the older ,states had abandoned the plan1 the ,new ,york legislature finally abolished the rate-bill and made the schools of ,new ,york entirely free4 ,the dates for the abolition of the rate-bill in the other older ,northern ,states were3 #ahcd4 ,pennsylvania4 #ahfg4 ,new ,york4 #aheb4 ,indiana4 #ahfh4 ,connecticut4 #ahec4 ,ohio4 #ahfh4 ,rhode ,island4 #ahee4 ,illinois4 #ahfi4 ,michigan4 #ahfd4 ,vermont4 #ahga4 ,new ,jersey4 ,the ,new ,york fight of #ahdi and #ahej was the pivotal fight2 in the other ,states it was abandoned by legislative act1 and without a serious contest4 ,in the ,southern ,states free education came with the educational reorganizations following the close of the ,civil ,war4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,battle ,,to ,,establish ,,school ,,supervision ,,beginnings ,,of ,,state ,,control4 ,the great battle for state schools was not only for taxation to stimulate their development where none existed1 but was also indirectly a battle for some form of state control of the local systems which had already grown up4 ,the establishment of permanent state school funds by the older ,states1 to supplement any other aid which might be granted1 also tended toward the establishment of some form of state supervision and control of the local school systems4 ,the first step was the establishment of some form of state aid2 the next was the imposing of conditions necessary to secure this state aid4 ,state oversight and control1 however1 does not exercise itself1 and it soon became evident that the ,states must elect or appoint some officer to represent the ,state and enforce the observance of its demands4 ,it would be primarily his duty to see that the laws relating to schools were carried out1 that statistics as to existing conditions were collected and printed1 and that communities were properly advised as to their duties and the legislature as to the needs of the ,state4 ,we find now the creation of a series of school officers to represent the ,state1 the enactment of new laws extending control1 and a struggle to integrate1 subordinate1 and reduce to some semblance of a state school system the hundreds of little community school systems which had grown up4 ,,the ,,first ,,state ,,school ,,officers4 ,the first ,american ,state to create a state officer to exercise supervision over its schools was ,new ,york1 in #ahab4 ,in enacting the new law #h providing for state aid for schools the first ,state ,superintendent of ,common ,schools in the ,united ,states was created4 ,so far as is known this was a distinctively ,american creation1 uninfluenced by the practice in any other land4 ,it was to be the duty of this officer to look after the establishment and maintenance of the schools throughout the ,state4 #i ,maryland created the office in #ahbf1 but two years later abolished it and did not re-create it until #ahfd4 ,illinois directed its ,secretary of ,state to act1 ex officio1 as ,superintendent of ,schools in #ahbe1 as did also ,vermont in #ahbg1 ,louisiana in #ahcc1 ,pennsylvania in #ahcd1 and ,tennessee in #ahce4 ,illinois did not create a real ,state ,superintendent of ,schools1 though1 until #ahed1 ,vermont until #ahde1 ,louisiana until #ahdg1 ,pennsylvania until #aheg1 or ,tennessee until #ahfg4 ,the first ,states to create separate school officials who have been continued to the present time were ,michigan and ,kentucky1 both in #ahcg4 ,often quite a legislative struggle took place to secure the establishment of the office1 and later on to prevent its abolition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4 ,,status ,,of ,,school ,,supervision ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,by #ahfa ,for a list of the #bh ,city ,superintendencies established up to #ahgj1 see ,cubberley's ,public ,school ,administration1 p4 #eh4 ,for the history of the state educational office in each ,state see ,cubberley and ,elliott1 ,state and ,county ,school ,administration1 ,source ,book1 pp4 #bhc-hg4 ,by #ahej there were ex-officio state school officers in nine and regular school officers in seven of the then thirty-one ,states1 and by #ahfa there were ex-officio officers in nine and regular officers in nineteen of the then thirty-four ,states1 as well as one of each in two of the organized ,territories4 ,the above map shows the growth of supervisory oversight by #ahfa--;forty-nine years from the time the first ,american state school officer was created4 ,the map also shows the ten of the thirty-four ,states which had1 by #ahfa1 also created the office of ,county ,superintendent of ,schools1 as well as the twenty-five cities which had1 by #ahfa1 created the office of ,city ,superintendent of ,schools4 ,only three more cities--,albany1 ,washington1 and ,kansas ,city--were added before #ahgj1 making a total of twenty-eight1 but since that date the number of city superintendents has increased to something like fourteen hundred to-day4 ,,the ,,first ,,state ,,board ,,of ,,education4 ,another important form for state control which was created a little later was the ,state ,board of ,education1 with an appointed ,secretary1 who exercised about the same functions as a ,state ,superintendent of ,schools4 ,this form of organization first arose in ,massachusetts1 in #ahcg1 in an effort to subordinate the district schools and reduce them to a semblance of an organized system4 ,in #ahbf each town 7township7 had been required to appoint a ,school ,committee 7,school ,board7 to exercise general supervision over its schools1 in #ahcd the state permanent school fund was created1 and in #ahcg the reform movement reached its culmination in the creation of the first real ,state ,board of ,education in the ,united ,states4 ,instead of following the usual ,american practice of the time1 and providing for an elected ,state ,school ,superintendent1 ,massachusetts provided for a small appointed ,state ,board of ,education which in turn was to select a ,secretary1 who was to act in the capacity of a state school officer and report to the ,board1 and through it to the legislature and the people4 ,neither the ,board nor the ,secretary were given any powers of compulsion1 their work being to investigate conditions1 report facts1 expose defects1 and make recommendations as to action to the legislature4 ,the permanence and influence of the ,board thus depended very largely on the character of the ,secretary it selected4 ,,horace ,,mann ,,the ,,first ,,secretary4 ,a prominent ,brown ,university graduate and lawyer in the ,state ,senate1 by the name of ,horace ,mann 7#agif-ahei71 who as president of the ,senate had been of much assistance in securing passage of the bill creating the ,state ,board of ,education1 was finally induced by the ,governor and the ,board to accept the position of ,secretary4 ,mr4 ,mann now began a most memorable work of educating public opinion1 and soon became the acknowledged leader in school organization in the ,united ,states4 ,state after ,state called upon him for advice and counsel1 while his twelve annual ,reports to the ,state ,board of ,education will always remain memorable documents4 ,public men of all classes--lawyers1 clergymen1 college professors1 literary men1 teachers--were laid under tribute and sent forth over the ,state explaining to the people the need for a reawakening of educational interest in ,massachusetts4 ,every year ,mr4 ,mann organized a campaign1 to explain to the people the meaning and importance of general education4 ,so successful was he1 and so ripe was the time for such a movement1 that he not only started a great common school revival in ,massachusetts which led to the regeneration of the schools there1 but one which was felt and which influenced development in every ,northern ,state4 ,his twelve carefully written ,reports on the condition of education in ,massachusetts and elsewhere1 with his intelligent discussion of the aims and purposes of public education1 occupy a commanding place in the history of ,american education1 while he will always be regarded as perhaps the greatest of the founders of our ,american system of free public schools4 ,no one did more than he to establish in the minds of the ,american people the conception that education should be universal1 non-sectarian1 and free1 and that its aim should be social efficiency1 civic virtue1 and character1 rather than mere learning or the advancement of sectarian ends4 ,under his practical leadership an unorganized and heterogeneous series of community school systems was reduced to organization and welded together into a state school system1 and the people of ,massachusetts were effectively recalled to their ancient belief in and duty toward the education of the people4 ,,henry ,,barnard ,,in ,,connecticut ,,and ,,rhode ,,island4 ,almost equally important1 though of a somewhat different character1 was the work of ,henry ,barnard 7#ahaa-aijj7 in ,connecticut and ,rhode ,island4 ,a graduate of ,yale1 and also educated for the law1 he turned aside to teach and became deeply interested in education4 ,the years #ahce-cg he spent in ,europe studying schools1 particularly the work of ,pestalozzi's disciples4 ,on his return to ,america he was elected a member of the ,connecticut legislature1 and at once formulated and secured passage of the ,connecticut law 7#ahci7 providing for a ,state ,board of ,commissioners for ,common ,schools1 with a ,secretary1 after the ,massachusetts plan4 ,mr4 ,barnard was then elected as its first ,secretary1 and reluctantly gave up the law and accepted the position at the munificent salary of #c a day and expenses4 ,until the legislature abolished both the ,board and the position1 in #ahdb1 he rendered for ,connecticut a service scarcely less important than the better-known reforms which ,horace ,mann was at that time carrying on in ,massachusetts4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ag4 ,,two ,,leaders ,,in ,,the ,,educational ,,awakening ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,,horace ,,mann 7#agif-ahei7 7,from the painting at the ,westfield1 ,massachusetts1 ,normal ,school7 ,,henry ,,barnard 7#ahaa-aijj7 ,in #ahdc he was called to ,rhode ,island to examine and report upon the existing schools1 and from #ahde to #ahdi acted as ,state ,commissioner of ,public ,schools there1 where he rendered a service similar to that previously rendered in ,connecticut4 ,in addition he organized a series of town libraries throughout the ,state4 ,for his teachers' institutes he devised a traveling model school1 to give demonstration lessons in the art of teaching4 ,from #ahea to #ahee he was again in ,connecticut1 as principal of the newly established state normal school and ex-officio ,secretary of the ,connecticut ,state ,board of ,education4 ,he now rewrote the school laws1 increased taxation for schools1 checked the power of the districts1 there known as school societies1 and laid the foundations of a state system of schools4 ,the work of ,mann and ,barnard had its influence throughout all the ,northern ,states1 and encouraged the friends of education everywhere4 ,almost contemporaneous with them were leaders in other ,states who helped fight through the battles of state establishment and state organization and control1 and the period of their labors has since been termed the period of the great awakening4 ,v4 ,,the ,,battle ,,to ,,eliminate ,,sectarianism ,,the ,,secularization ,,of ,,american ,,education4 ,the ,church1 it will be remembered1 was from the earliest colonial times in possession of the education of the young4 ,not only were the earliest schools controlled by the ,church and dominated by the religious motive1 but the right of the ,church to dictate the teaching in the schools was clearly recognized by the ,state4 ,still more1 the ,state looked to the ,church to provide the necessary education1 and assisted it in doing so by donations of land and money4 ,the minister1 as a town official1 naturally examined the teachers and the instruction in the schools4 ,after the establishment of the ,national ,government this relationship for a time continued4 #aj ,new ,york and the ,new ,england ,states specifically set aside lands to help both church and school4 ,after about #ahjj these land endowments for religion ceased1 but grants of state aid for religious schools continued for nearly a half-century longer4 ,then it became common for a town or city to build a schoolhouse from city taxation1 and let it out rent-free to any responsible person who would conduct a tuition school in it1 with a few free places for selected poor children4 ,still later1 with the rise of the state schools1 it became quite common to take over church and private schools and aid them on the same basis as the new state schools4 ,in colonial times1 too1 and for some decades into our national period1 the warmest advocates of the establishment of schools were those who had in view the needs of the ,church4 ,then gradually the emphasis shifted to the needs of the ,state1 and a new class of advocates of public education now arose4 ,still later the emphasis has been shifted to industrial and civic and national needs1 and the religious aim has been almost completely eliminated4 ,this change is known as the secularization of ,american education4 ,it also required many a bitter struggle1 and was accomplished in the different ,states but slowly4 ,the two great factors which served to produce this change were3 #a4 ,the conviction that the life of the ,republic demanded an educated and intelligent citizenship1 and hence the general education of all in common schools controlled by the ,state2 and #b4 ,the great diversity of religious beliefs among the people1 which forced tolerance and religious freedom through a consideration of the rights of minorities4 ,the secularization of education must not be regarded either as a deliberate or a wanton violation of the rights of the ,church1 but rather as an unavoidable incident connected with the coming to self-consciousness and self-government of a great people4 ,,the ,,fight ,,in ,,massachusetts4 ,the educational awakening in ,massachusetts1 brought on largely by the work of ,horace ,mann1 was to many a rude awakening4 ,among other things1 it revealed that the old school of the ,puritans had gradually been replaced by a new and purely ,american type of school1 with instruction adapted to democratic and national rather than religious ends4 ,mr4 ,mann stood strongly for such a conception of public education1 and being a ,unitarian1 and the new ,state ,board of ,education being almost entirely liberal in religion1 an attack was launched against them1 and for the first time in our history the cry was raised that ,the public schools are ,godless schools4 ,those who believed in the old system of religious instruction1 those who bore the ,board or its ,secretary personal ill-will1 and those who desired to break down the ,board's authority and stop the development of the public schools1 united their forces in this first big attack against secular education4 ,horace ,mann was the first prominent educator in ,america to meet and answer the religious onslaught4 ,a violent attack was opened in both the pulpit and the press4 ,it was claimed that the ,board was trying to eliminate the ,bible from the schools1 to abolish correction1 and to make the schools a counterpoise to religious instruction at home and in ,sabbath schools4 ,the local right to demand religious instruction was insisted upon4 ,mr4 ,mann felt that a great public issue had been raised which should be answered carefully and fully4 ,in three public statements he answered the criticisms and pointed out the errors in the argument 7,r4 #cbb74 ,the ,bible1 he said1 was an invaluable book for forming the character of children1 and should be read without comment in the schools1 but it was not necessary to teach it there4 ,he showed that most of the towns had given up the teaching of the ,catechism before the establishment of the ,board of ,education4 ,he contended that any attempt to decide what creed or doctrine should be taught would mean the ruin of the schools4 ,the attack culminated in the attempts of the religious forces to abolish the ,state ,board of ,education1 in the legislatures of #ahdj and #ahda1 which failed dismally4 ,most of the orthodox people of the ,state took ,mr4 ,mann's side1 and ,governor ,briggs1 in one of his messages1 commended his stand by inserting the following3 ,justice to a faithful public officer leads me to say that the indefatigable and accomplished ,secretary of the ,board of ,education has performed services in the cause of common schools which will earn him the lasting gratitude of the generation to which he belongs4 ,,the ,,attempt ,,to ,,divide ,,the ,,school ,,funds4 ,as was stated earlier1 in the beginning it was common to aid church schools on the same basis as the state schools1 and sometimes1 in the beginnings of state aid1 the money was distributed among existing schools without at first establishing any public schools4 ,in many ,eastern cities church schools at first shared in the public funds4 ,in ,pennsylvania church and private schools were aided from poor-law funds up to #ahcd4 ,in ,new ,jersey the first general school law of #ahbi had been repealed a year later through the united efforts of church and private-school interests1 who unitedly fought the development of state schools1 and in #ahcj and #ahca new laws had permitted all private and parochial schools to share in the small state appropriation for education4 ,after the beginning of the forties1 when the ,roman ,catholic influence came in strongly with the increase in ,irish immigration to the ,united ,states1 a new factor was introduced and the problem1 which had previously been a ,protestant problem1 took on a somewhat different aspect in the form of a demand for a division of the school funds4 ,between #ahbe and #ahdb the fight was especially severe in ,new ,york ,city4 ,in #ahbe the ,city ,council refused to grant public money to any religious ,society1 #aa and in #ahdj the ,catholics carried the matter to the ,state ,legislature4 ,the legislature deferred action until #ahdb1 and then did the unexpected thing4 ,the heated discussion of the question in the city and in the legislature had made it evident that1 while it might not be desirable to continue to give funds to a privately organized corporation1 to divide them among the quarreling and envious religious sects would be much worse4 ,the result was that the legislature created for the city a ,city ,board of ,education1 to establish real public schools1 and stopped the debate on the question of aid to religious schools by enacting that no portion of the school funds was in the future to be given to any school in which any religious sectarian doctrine or tenet should be taught1 inculcated1 or practiced4 ,thus the real public-school system of ,new ,york ,city was evolved out of this attempt to divide the public funds among the churches4 ,the ,public ,school ,society continued for a time1 but its work was now done1 and1 in #ahec1 surrendered its buildings and property to the ,city ,board of ,education and disbanded4 ,,the ,,contest ,,in ,,other ,,states4 ,as early as #ahcj1 ,lowell1 ,massachusetts1 had granted aid to the ,irish ,catholic parochial schools in the city1 and in #ahce had taken over two such schools and maintained them as public schools4 ,in #ahec the representatives of the ,roman ,catholic ,church made a demand on the state legislature for a division of the school fund of the ,state4 ,to settle the question once for all a constitutional amendment was submitted by the legislature to the people1 providing that all state and town moneys raised or appropriated for education must be expended only on regularly organized and conducted public schools1 and that no religious sect should ever share in such funds4 ,this measure failed of adoption at the election of #ahec by a vote of #fe1aaa for and #fe1eab against1 but was re-proposed and adopted in #ahee4 ,this settled the question in ,massachusetts1 as ,mann had tried to settle it earlier1 and as ,new ,hampshire had settled it in its constitution of #agib1 ,connecticut in its constitution of #ahah1 and ,rhode ,island in its constitution of #ahdb4 ,other ,states now faced similar demands1 but no demand for a share in or a division of the public-school funds1 after #ahdj1 was successful4 ,the demand everywhere met with intense opposition1 and with the coming of enormous numbers of ,irish ,catholics after #ahdf1 and ,german ,lutherans after #ahdh1 the question of the preservation of the schools just established as unified state school systems now became a burning one4 ,petitions for a division of the funds deluged the legislatures 7,r4 #cbc71 and these were met by counter-petitions 7,r4 #cbd74 ,mass meetings on both sides of the question were held4 ,candidates for office were forced to declare themselves4 ,anti-,catholic riots occurred in a number of cities4 ,the ,native-,american ,party was formed1 in #ahda1 to prevent the union of ,church and ,state1 and to keep the ,bible in the schools4 ,in #ahda the ,whig ,party1 in ,new ,york1 inserted a plank in its platform against sectarian schools4 ,in #ahee the national council of the ,know-,nothing ,party1 meeting in ,philadelphia1 in its platform favored public schools and the use of the ,bible therein1 but opposed sectarian schools4 ,this party carried the elections that year in ,massachusetts1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,connecticut1 ,rhode ,island1 ,maryland1 and ,kentucky4 ,to settle the question in a final manner legislatures now began to propose constitutional amendments to the people of their several ,states which forbade a division or a diversion of the funds1 and these were almost uniformly adopted at the first election after being proposed4 ,no ,state admitted to the ,union after #aheh1 except ,west ,virginia1 failed to insert such a provision in its first state constitution4 #ab ,,vi4 ,,the ,,battle ,,to ,,establish ,,the ,,american ,,high ,,school ,the elementary or common schools which had been established in the different ,states1 by #ahej1 supplied an elementary or common school education to the children of the masses of the people1 and the primary schools which were added1 after about #ahbj1 carried this education downward to the needs of the beginners4 ,in the rural schools the ,american school of the #c ,rs provided for all the children1 from the little ones up1 so long as they could advantageously partake of its instruction4 ,education in advance of this common school training was in semi-private institutions--the academies and colleges--in which a tuition fee was charged4 ,the next struggle came in the attempt to extend the system upward so as to provide to pupils1 free of charge1 a more complete education than the common schools afforded4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4 ,a ,,typical ,,new ,,england ,,academy ,pittsfield ,academy1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,,the ,,transition ,,academy4 ,about the middle of the eighteenth century a tendency manifested itself1 in ,europe as well as in ,america1 to establish higher schools offering a more practical curriculum than the old ,latin schools had provided4 ,in ,america it became particularly evident1 after the coming of nationality1 that the old ,latin grammar-school type of instruction1 with its limited curriculum and exclusively college- preparatory ends1 was wholly inadequate for the needs of the youth of the land4 ,the result was the gradual dying-out of the ,latin school and the evolution of the tuition ,academy1 previously referred to briefly on page #dfc4 ,the academy movement spread rapidly during the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,by #ahjj there were #ag academies in ,massachusetts1 #cf by #ahbj1 and #djc by #ahej4 ,by #ahcj there were1 according to ,hinsdale1 #iej incorporated academies in the ,united ,states1 and many unincorporated ones1 and by #ahej1 according to ,inglis1 there were1 of all kinds1 #ajjg academies in ,new ,england1 #afcf in the ,middle ,atlantic ,states1 #bfdj in the ,southern ,states1 #gec in the ,upper ,mississippi ,valley ,states1 and a total reported for the entire ,united ,states of #fjhe1 with #ab1bfj teachers employed and #bfc1jif pupils enrolled4 #ac ,the greatest period of their development was from #ahbj to #ahcj1 though they continued to dominate secondary education until #ahej1 and were very prominent until after the ,civil ,war4 ,,characteristic ,,features4 ,the most characteristic features of these academies were their semi-public control 7,r4 #cbe71 their broadened curriculum and religious purpose1 and the extension of their instruction to girls4 ,the ,latin ,grammar ,school was essentially a town free school1 maintained by the towns for the higher education of certain of their male children4 ,it was aristocratic in type1 and belonged to the early period of class education4 ,with the decline in zeal for education1 after #agej1 these tax-supported higher schools largely died out1 and in their place private energy and benevolence came to be depended upon to supply the needed higher education4 ,one of the main purposes expressed in the endowment or creation of the academies was the establishment of courses which should cover a number of subjects having value aside from mere preparation for college1 particularly subjects of a modern nature1 useful in preparing youths for the changed conditions of society and government and business4 ,the study of real things rather than words about things1 and useful things rather than subjects merely preparatory to college1 became prominent features of the new courses of study4 ,among the most commonly found new subjects were algebra1 astronomy1 botany1 chemistry1 general history1 ,united ,states history1 ,english literature1 surveying1 intellectual philosophy1 declamation1 and debating4 #ad ,not being bound up with the colleges1 as the earlier ,latin grammar schools had largely been1 the academies became primarily independent institutions1 taking pupils who had completed the ,english education of the common school and giving them an advanced education in modern languages1 the sciences1 mathematics1 history1 and the more useful subjects of the time1 with a view to rounding out their studies and preparing them for business life and the rising professions4 ,they thus built upon instead of running parallel to the common school course1 as the old ,latin grammar school had done 7see ,figure #aih1 p4 #fff7 and hence clearly mark a transition from the aristocratic and somewhat exclusive college-preparatory ,latin grammar school of colonial times to the more democratic high school of to-day4 ,the academies also served a very useful purpose in supplying to the lower schools the best-educated teachers of the time4 ,the old ,latin grammar school1 too1 had been maintained exclusively for boys4 ,girls had been excluded as ,improper inconsistent w'th such a ,grammar ,schoole as ye law injoines1 and is ye ,designe of this ,settlem't4 ,the new academies soon reversed this situation4 ,almost from the first they began to be established for girls as well as boys1 and in time many became co-educational4 ,in ,new ,york ,state alone #cb academies were incorporated between #ahai and #ahec with the prefix ,female to their title4 ,in this respect1 also1 these institutions formed a transition to the modern co- educational high school4 ,the higher education of women in the ,united ,states clearly dates from the establishment of the academies4 ,troy 7,new ,york7 ,seminary1 founded by ,emma ,willard1 in #ahba1 and ,mt4 ,holyoke 7,massachusetts7 ,seminary1 founded by ,mary ,lyon1 in #ahcf1 though not the first institutions for girls1 were nevertheless important pioneers in the higher education of women4 ,,the ,,demand ,,for ,,higher ,,schools4 ,the different movements tending toward the building-up of free public-school systems in the cities and ,states1 which we have described in this and the preceding chapter1 and which became clearly defined in the ,northern ,states after #ahbe1 came just at the time when the ,academy had reached its maximum development4 ,the settlement of the question of general taxation for education1 the elimination of the rate-bill by the cities and later by the ,states1 the establishment of the ,american common school as the result of a long native evolution1 and the complete establishment of public control over the entire elementary-school system1 all tended to bring the semi-private tuition academy into question4 ,many asked why not extend the public-school system upward to provide the necessary higher education for all in one common state- supported school4 #ae ,the demand for an upward extension of the public school1 which would provide academy instruction for the poor as well as the rich1 and in one common public higher school1 now made itself felt4 ,as the colonial ,latin grammar school had represented the educational needs of a society based on classes1 and the academies had represented a transition period and marked the growth of a middle class1 so the rising democracy of the second quarter of the nineteenth century now demanded and obtained the democratic high school1 supported by the public and equally open to all1 to meet the educational needs of a new society built on the basis of a new and aggressive democracy4 ,where1 too1 the academy had represented in a way a missionary effort--that of a few providing something for the good of the people 7,rs4 #cai1 #cbe7--the high school on the other hand represented a coperative effort on the part of the people to provide something for themselves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,secondary ,,schools ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,the transitional character of the ,academy is well shown in this diagram4 ,,the ,,first ,,american ,,high ,,school4 ,the first high school in the ,united ,states was established in ,boston1 in #ahba 7,r4 #cbf74 ,for three years it was known as the ,english ,classical ,school 7,r4 #cbg71 but in #ahbd the school appears in the records as the ,english ,high ,school4 ,in #ahbf ,boston also opened the first high school for girls1 but abolished it in #ahbh1 due to its great popularity1 and instead extended the course of study for girls in the elementary schools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf ,,the ,,first ,,high ,,school ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,established at ,boston in #ahba4 ,,the ,,massachusetts ,,law ,,of #ahbg4 ,though ,portland1 ,maine1 established a high school in #ahba1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts1 in #ahbd1 and ,new ,bedford1 ,haverhill1 and ,salem1 ,massachusetts1 in #ahbg1 copying the ,boston idea1 the real beginning of the ,american high school as a distinct institution dates from the ,massachusetts ,law of #ahbg 7,r4 #cbh71 enacted through the influence of ,james ,g4 ,carter4 ,this law formed the basis of all subsequent legislation in ,massachusetts1 and deeply influenced development in other ,states4 ,the law is significant in that it required a high school in every town having #ejj families or over1 in which should be taught ,united ,states history1 bookkeeping1 algebra1 geometry1 and surveying1 while in every town having #djjj inhabitants or over1 instruction in ,greek1 ,latin1 history1 rhetoric1 and logic must be added4 ,a heavy penalty was attached for failure to comply with the law4 ,in #ahce the law was amended so as to permit any smaller town to form a high school as well4 ,this ,boston and ,massachusetts legislation clearly initiated the public high-school movement in the ,united ,states4 ,it was there that the new type of higher school was founded1 there that its curriculum was outlined1 there that its standards were established1 and there that it developed earliest and best4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,to ,,establish ,,and ,,maintain ,,high ,,schools4 ,the development of the ,american high school1 even in its home1 was slow4 ,up to #ahdj not much more than a dozen high schools had been established in ,massachusetts1 and not more than an equal number in the other ,states4 ,the ,academy was the dominant institution1 the cost of maintenance was a factor1 and the same opposition to an extension of taxation to include high schools was manifested as was earlier shown toward the establishment of common schools4 ,the early state legislation1 as had been the case with the common schools1 was nearly always permissive and not mandatory4 ,massachusetts forms a notable exception in this regard4 ,the support for the schools had to come practically entirely from increased local taxation1 and this made the struggle to establish and maintain high schools in any ,state for a long time a series of local struggles4 ,years of propaganda and patient effort were required1 and1 after the establishment of a high school in a community1 constant watchfulness was necessary to prevent its abandonment 7,r4 #cbi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4 ,,high ,,schools ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,by #ahfj ,based on the table given in the ,report of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 #aijd1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aghb-aihi4 ,this table is only approximately correct1 as exact information is difficult to obtain4 ,this table gives #cba high schools by #ahfj1 and all but #ce of these were in the ,states shown on the above map4 ,there were two schools in ,california and three in ,texas1 and the remainder not shown were in the ,southern ,states4 ,of the #cba high schools reported1 over half 7#afg7 were in the three ,states of ,massachusetts 7#gh71 ,new ,york 7#da71 and ,ohio 7#dh74 ,in many ,states1 legislation providing for the establishment of high schools was attacked in the courts4 ,one of the clearest cases of this came in ,michigan1 in a test case appealed from the city of ,kalamazoo1 and commonly known as the ,kalamazoo case4 ,the opinion of the ,supreme ,court of the ,state 7,r4 #ccj7 was so favorable and so positive that this decision deeply influenced development in almost all of the ,upper ,mississippi ,valley ,states4 ,the struggle to establish and maintain high schools in ,massachusetts and ,new ,york preceded the development in most other ,states1 because there the common school had been established earlier4 ,in consequence1 the struggle to extend and complete the public-school system came there earlier also4 ,the development was likewise more peaceful there1 and came more rapidly4 ,in ,massachusetts this was in large part a result of the educational awakening started by ,james ,g4 ,carter and ,horace ,mann4 ,in ,new ,york it was due to the early support of ,governor ,de ,witt ,clinton1 and the later encouragement and state aid which came from the ,regents of the ,university of the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,maine1 ,vermont1 and ,new ,hampshire were like ,massachusetts in spirit1 and followed closely its example4 ,in ,rhode ,island and ,new ,jersey1 due to old conditions1 and in ,connecticut1 due to the great decline in education there after #ahjj1 the high school developed much more slowly1 and it was not until after #ahfe that any marked development took place in these ,states4 ,the democratic ,west soon adopted the idea1 and established high schools as soon as cities developed and the needs of the population warranted4 ,in the ,south the main high- school development dates from relatively recent times4 ,gradually the high school has been accepted as a part of the state common- school system by all the ,american ,states1 and the funds and taxation originally provided for the common schools have been extended to cover the high school as well4 ,the new ,states of the ,west have based their legislation largely on what the ,eastern and ,central ,states earlier fought out4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,state ,,university ,,crowns ,,the ,,system ,,the ,,colonial ,,colleges4 ,the earlier colleges--,harvard1 ,william and ,mary1 ,yale--had been created by the religious-state governments of the earlier colonial period1 and continued to retain some state connections for a time after the coming of nationality4 ,as it early became evident that a democracy demands intelligence on the part of its citizens1 that the leaders of democracy are not likely to be too highly educated1 and that the character of collegiate instruction must ultimately influence national development1 efforts were accordingly made to change the old colleges or create new ones1 the final outcome of which was the creation of state universities in all the new and in most of the older ,states4 ,the evolution of the state university1 as the crowning head of the free public school system of the ,state1 represents the last phase which we shall trace of the struggle of democracy to create a system of schools suited to its peculiar needs4 ,the close of the colonial period found the ,colonies possessed of nine colleges4 ,these1 with the dates of their foundation1 the ,colony founding them1 and the religious denomination they chiefly represented were3 #afcf4 ,harvard ,college ,massachusetts ,puritan #afic4 ,william and ,mary ,virginia ,anglican #agja4 ,yale ,college ,connecticut ,congregational #agdf4 ,princeton ,new ,jersey ,presbyterian #agec-ee ,academy and ,college ,pennsylvania ,non-denominational #aged4 ,king's ,college 7,columbia7 ,new ,york ,anglican #agfd4 ,brown ,rhode ,island ,baptist #agfe4 ,rutgers ,new ,jersey ,reformed ,dutch #agfi4 ,dartmouth ,new ,hampshire ,congregational ,the religious purpose had been dominant in the founding of each institution1 though there was a gradual shading-off in strict denominational control and insistence upon religious conformity in the foundations after #agej4 ,still the prime purpose in the founding of each was to train up a learned and godly body of ministers1 the earlier congregations at least dreading to leave an illiterate ministry to the churches when our present ministers shall lie in the dust4 ,in a pamphlet1 published in #aged1 ,president ,clap of ,yale declared that ,colleges are ,societies of ,ministers1 for training up ,persons for the ,work of the ,ministry and that ,the great design of founding this ,school 7,yale71 was to ,educate ,ministers in our own ,way4 ,in the advertisement published in the ,new ,york papers announcing the opening of ,king's ,college1 in #aged1 it was stated that3 ,,iv4 ,the chief ,thing that is aimed at in this ,college1 is1 to teach and engage the ,children to know ,god in ,jesus ,christ1 and to love and serve him in all ,sobriety1 ,godliness1 and ,richness of ,life1 with a perfect ,heart and a ,willing ,mind3 and to train them up in all ,virtuous ,habits1 and all such useful ,knowledge as may render them creditable to their ,families and ,friends1 ,ornaments to their ,country1 and useful to the ,public ,weal in their generation4 ,these colonial institutions were all small4 ,for the first fifty years of ,harvard's history the attendance at the college seldom exceeded twenty1 and the ,president did all the teaching4 ,the first assistant teacher 7tutor7 was not appointed until #afii1 and the first professor not until #agba1 when a professorship of divinity was endowed4 ,by #ahjj the instruction was conducted by the ,president and three professors--divinity1 mathematics1 and ,oriental languages--assisted by a few tutors who received only class fees1 and the graduating classes seldom exceeded forty4 ,the course was four years in length1 and all students studied the same subjects4 ,the first three years were given largely to the so-called ,oriental languages ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin4 ,in addition1 ,freshmen studied arithmetic2 ,sophomores1 algebra1 geometry1 and trigonometry2 and ,juniors1 natural 7book7 science2 and all were given much training in oratory1 and some general history was added4 ,the ,senior year was given mainly to ethics1 philosophy1 and ,christian evidences4 #af ,the instruction in the eight other older colleges1 before #ahjj1 was not materially different4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4 ,,colleges ,,and ,,universities ,,established ,,by #ahfj ,compiled from data given in the ,reports of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education4 ,of the #bdf colleges shown on the map1 but #ag were state institutions1 and but two or three others had any state connections4 ,,growth ,,of ,,colleges ,,by #ahfj4 ,fifteen additional colleges were founded before #ahjj1 and it has been estimated that by that date the two dozen ,american colleges then existing did not have all told over one hundred professors and instructors1 not less than one thousand nor more than two thousand students1 or property worth over one million dollars4 ,their graduating classes were small4 ,no one of the twenty-four admitted women in any way to its privileges4 ,after #ahbj1 with the firmer establishment of the ,nation1 the awakening of a new national consciousness1 the development of larger national wealth1 and a court decision which safeguarded the endowments1 interest in the founding of new colleges perceptibly quickened1 as may be seen from the adjoining table1 and between #ahbj and #ahhj came the great period of denominational effort4 ,the map shows the colleges established by #ahfj1 from which it will be seen how large a part the denominational colleges played in the early history of higher education in the ,united ,states4 ,up to about #ahgj the provision of higher education1 as had been the case earlier with the provision of secondary education by the academies1 had been left largely to private effort4 ,there were1 to be sure1 a few state universities before #ahgj1 though usually these were not better than the denominational colleges around them1 and often they maintained a non-denominational character only by preserving a proper balance between the different denominations in the employment of their faculties4 ,speaking generally1 higher education in the ,united ,states before #ahgj was provided very largely in the tuitional colleges of the different religious denominations1 rather than by the ,state4 ,of the #bdf colleges founded by the close of the year #ahfj1 as shown on the map1 but #ag were state institutions1 and but two or three others had any state connections4 ,,colleges ,,founded ,,up ,,to #aijj ,before #aghj #aj #aghj-hi #g #agij-ii #g #ahjj-ji #i #ahaj-ai #e #ahbj-bi #bb #ahcj-ci #ch #ahdj-di #db #ahej-ei #ib #ahfj-fi #gc #ahgj-gi #fa #ahhj-hi #gd #ahij-ii #ed --- ,total #did 7,after a table by ,dexter corrected by ,u4,s4 ,comr4 ,educ4 data4 ,only approximately correct47 ,,the ,,new ,,national ,,attitude ,,toward ,,the ,,colleges4 ,after the coming of nationality there gradually grew up a widespread dissatisfaction with the colleges as then conducted1 because they were aristocratic in tendency1 because they devoted themselves so exclusively to the needs of a class1 and because they failed to answer the needs of the ,states in the matter of higher education4 ,due to their religious origin1 and the common requirement that the president and trustees must be members of some particular denomination1 they were naturally regarded as representing the interests of some one sect or faction within the ,state rather than the interests of the ,state itself4 ,with the rise of the new democratic spirit after about #ahbj there came a demand1 felt least in ,new ,england and most in the ,south and the new ,states in the ,west1 for institutions of higher learning which should represent the ,state4 ,it was argued that colleges were important instrumentalities for moulding the future1 that the kind of education given in them must ultimately influence the welfare of the ,state1 and that higher education cannot be regarded as a private matter4 ,the type of education given in these higher institutions1 it was argued1 will appear on the bench1 at the bar1 in the pulpit1 and in the senate1 and will unavoidably affect our civil and religious principles4 ,for these reasons1 as well as to crown our state school system and to provide higher educational advantages for its leaders1 it was argued that the ,state should exercise control over the colleges4 ,this new national spirit manifested itself in a number of ways4 ,in ,new ,york we see it in the reorganization of ,king's ,college1 the rechristening of the institution as ,columbia1 and the placing of it under at least the nominal supervision of the governing educational body of the ,state4 ,in ,pennsylvania an attempt was made to bring the university into closer connection with the ,state1 but this failed4 ,in ,new ,hampshire the legislature tried1 in #ahaf1 to transform ,dartmouth ,college into a state institution4 ,this act was contested in the courts1 and the case was finally carried to the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states4 ,there it was decided1 in #ahai1 that the charter of a college was a contract1 the obligation of which a legislature could not impair4 ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,dartmouth ,,college ,,decision4 ,the effect of this decision manifested itself in two different ways4 ,on the one hand it guaranteed the perpetuity of endowments1 and the great period of private and denominational effort 7see table7 now followed4 ,on the other hand1 since the ,states could not change charters and transform old establishments1 they began to turn to the creation of new state universities of their own4 ,virginia created its state university the same year as the ,dartmouth case decision4 ,the ,university of ,north ,carolina1 which had been established in #aghi1 and which began to give instruction in #agie1 but which had never been under direct state control1 was taken over by the ,state in #ahba4 ,the ,university of ,vermont1 originally chartered in #agia1 was rechartered as a state university in #ahch4 ,the ,university of ,indiana was established in #ahbj4 ,alabama provided for a state university in its first constitution1 in #ahai1 and the institution opened for instruction in #ahca4 ,michigan1 in framing its first constitution preparatory to entering the ,union1 in #ahce1 made careful provisions for the safeguarding of the state university and for establishing it as an integral part of its state school system1 as ,indiana had done in #ahaf4 ,wisconsin provided for the creation of a state university in #ahcf1 and embodied the idea in its first constitution when it entered the ,union in #ahdh1 and ,missouri provided for a state university in #ahci1 ,mississippi in #ahdd1 ,iowa in #ahdg1 and ,florida in #ahef4 ,the state university is today found in every new ,state and in some of the original ,states1 and practically every new ,western and ,southern ,state followed the patterns set by ,indiana1 ,michigan1 and ,wisconsin and made careful provision for the establishment and maintenance of a state university in its first state constitution4 ,there was thus quietly added another new section to the ,american educational ladder1 and the free public-school system was extended farther upward4 ,though the great period of state university foundation came after #ahfj1 and the great period of state university expansion after #ahhe1 the beginnings were clearly marked early in our national history4 ,of the sixteen ,states having state universities by #ahfj 7see ,figure #bjh71 all except ,florida had established them before #ahej4 ,for a long time small1 poorly supported by the ,states1 much like the church colleges about them in character and often inferior in quality1 one by one the state universities have freed themselves alike from denominational restrictions on the one hand and political control on the other1 and have set about rendering the service to the ,state which a state university ought to render4 ,michigan1 the first of our state universities to free itself1 take its proper place1 and set an example for others to follow1 opened in #ahda with two professors and six students4 ,in #ahdd it was a little institution of three professors1 one tutor1 one assistant1 and one visiting lecturer1 had but fifty-three students1 and offered but a single course of study1 consisting chiefly of ,greek1 ,latin1 mathematics1 and intellectual and moral science 7,r4 #cca74 ,as late as #aheb it had but seventy-two students1 but by #ahfj1 when it had largely freed itself from the incubus of ,baptist ,latin1 ,congregational ,greek1 ,methodist intellectual philosophy1 ,presbyterian astronomy1 and ,whig mathematics1 and its remarkable growth as a state university had begun1 it enrolled five hundred and nineteen4 ,,the ,,american ,,free ,,public-,,school ,,system ,,now ,,established4 ,by the close of the second quarter of the nineteenth century1 certainly by #ahfj1 we find the ,american public-school system fully established1 in principle at least1 in all our ,northern ,states 7,r4 #ccb74 ,much yet remained to be done to carry into full effect what had been established in principle1 but everywhere democracy had won its fight1 and the ,american public school1 supported by general taxation1 freed from the pauper-school taint1 free and equally open to all1 under the direction of representatives of the people1 free from sectarian control1 and complete from the primary school through the high school1 and in the ,western ,states through the university as well1 was established permanently in ,american public policy4 ,it was a real democratic educational ladder that had been created1 and not the typical two-class school system of continental ,european ,states4 ,the establishment of the free public high school and the state university represent the crowning achievements of those who struggled to found a state-supported educational system fitted to the needs of great democratic ,states4 ,probably no other influences have done more to unify the ,american ,people1 reconcile diverse points of view1 eliminate state jealousies1 set ideals for the people1 and train leaders for the service of the ,states and of the ,nation than the academies1 high schools1 and colleges scattered over the land4 ,they have educated but a small percentage of the people1 to be sure1 but they have trained most of the leaders who have guided the ,american democracy since its birth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji4 ,,the ,,american ,,educational ,,ladder ,compare this with the figure on page #egg1 and the democratic nature of the ,american school system will be apparent4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,explain the theory of vested rights as applied to private and parochial schools4 #b4 ,does every great advance in provisions for human welfare require a period of education and propaganda8 ,illustrate4 #c4 ,explain just what is meant by the wealth of the ,state must educate the children of the ,state4 #d4 ,show how the retention of the pauper-school idea would have been dangerous to the life of the ,republic4 #e4 ,why were the cities more anxious to escape from the operation of the pauper-school law than were the towns and rural districts8 #f4 ,why were the pauper-school and the rate-bill so hard to eliminate8 #g4 ,explain why1 in ,america1 schools naturally developed from the community outward4 #h4 ,state your explanation for the older ,states beginning to establish permanent school funds1 often before they had established a state system of schools4 #i4 ,show the gradual transition from church control of education1 through state aid of church schools1 to secularized state schools4 #aj4 ,show why secularized state schools were the only possible solution for the ,united ,states4 #aa4 ,show that secularization would naturally take place in the textbooks and the instruction1 before manifesting itself in the laws4 #ab4 ,show how the ,american academy was a natural development in the national life4 #ac4 ,show how the ,american high school was a natural development after the academy4 #ad4 ,show why the high school could be opposed by men who had accepted tax- supported elementary schools4 ,why has such reasoning been abandoned now8 #ae4 ,explain the difference1 and illustrate from the history of ,american educational development1 between establishing a thing in principle and carrying it into full effect4 #af4 ,was the early argument as to the influence of higher education on the ,state a true argument8 ,why8 #ag4 ,what would have been the probable results had the ,dartmouth ,college case been decided the other way8 #ah4 ,show how the opening of collegiate instruction to women was a phase of the new democratic movement4 #ai4 ,show how college education has been a unifying force in the national life4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following illustrative selections are reproduced3 #caf4 ,mann3 ,the ,ground of the ,free-,school ,system4 #cag4 ,governor ,cleveland3 ,repeal of the ,connecticut ,school ,law4 #cah4 ,mann3 ,on the ,repeal of the ,connecticut ,school ,law4 #cai4 ,gulliver3 ,the ,struggle for ,free ,schools in ,norwich4 #cbj4 ,address3 ,the ,state and ,education4 #cba4 ,michigan3 ,a ,rate-,bill1 and a ,warrant for ,collection4 #cbb4 ,mann3 ,on ,religious ,instruction in the ,schools4 #cbc4 ,michigan3 ,petition for a ,division of the ,school ,fund4 #cbd4 ,michigan3 ,counter-,petition against a ,division4 #cbe4 ,connecticut3 ,act of ,incorporation of ,norwich ,free ,academy1 #cbf4 ,boston3 ,establishment of the ,first ,american ,high ,school4 #cbg4 ,boston3 ,the ,secondary-,school ,system in #ahbc4 #cbh4 ,massachusetts3 ,the ,high ,school ,law of #ahbg4 #cbi4 ,gulliver3 ,an ,example of the ,opposition to ,high ,schools4 #ccj4 ,michigan3 ,the ,kalamazoo ,decision4 #cca4 ,michigan3 ,program of ,studies at ,university1 #ahdc4 #ccb4 ,tappan3 ,the ,michigan ,state ,system of ,public ,instruction4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,do ,mann's three propositions 7#caf7 hold equally true to-day8 #b4 ,of what type of person is the reasoning of ,governor ,cleveland 7#cag7 typical8 #c4 ,assuming ,mann's description of ,connecticut progress 7#cah7 to be correct1 how do you account for the legislature following ,governor ,cleveland's recommendations so readily8 #d4 ,did the leaders in ,norwich 7#cai7 use good diplomacy8 #e4 ,point out the essential soundness of the reasoning of the ,new ,jersey ,report 7#cbj74 #f4 ,explain the willingness of people seventy-five years ago to conduct the school business on such a small basis 7#cba7 as the rate-bill indicates4 #g4 ,show that1 as ,mr4 ,mann points out 7#cbb71 sectarian schools and a ,state ,church are near together4 #h4 ,point out the weakness in the argument in the ,michigan petition 7#cbc74 #i4 ,state the purpose and nature of the first ,american high school 7#cbf71 and contrast it with the earlier academy4 #aj4 ,contrast the ,english ,classical ,school 7,high ,school7 of ,boston of #ahbc1 with the older ,latin ,school 7#cbg71 as to purpose and instruction4 #aa4 ,just what did the ,massachusetts ,law of #ahbg 7#cbh7 require8 #ab4 ,has such opposition as that described in #cbi completely died out even now8 #ac4 ,state the line of reasoning and the conclusions of the ,court in the ,kalamazoo ,case 7#ccj74 ,point out how this decision might influence development elsewhere4 #ad4 ,compare the ,university of ,michigan of #ahdc 7#cca7 with a present-day high school4 #ae4 ,show that ,michigan 7#ccb7 had perfected an ,american educational ladder4 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,brown1 ,e4 ,e4 ,the ,making of our ,middle ,schools4 99 ,brown1 ,s4 ,w4 ,the ,secularization of ,american ,education4 ,cubberley1 ,e4 ,p4 ,public ,education in the ,united ,states4 ,dexter1 ,e4 ,g4 ,a ,history of ,education in the ,united ,states4 99 ,hinsdale1 ,b4 ,a4 ,horace ,mann1 and the ,common ,school ,revival in the ,united ,states4 99 ,inglis1 ,a4 ,j4 ,the ,rise of the ,high ,school in ,massachusetts4 ,martin1 ,george ,h4 ,the ,evolution of the ,massachusetts ,public ,school ,system4 99 ,mead1 ,a4 ,r4 ,the ,development of ,free ,schools in the ,united ,states1 as ,illustrated by ,connecticut and ,michigan4 ,taylor1 ,james ,m4 ,before ,vassar ,opened4 99 ,thwing1 ,charles ,f4 ,a ,history of ,higher ,education in ,america4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,education ,,becomes ,a ,,national ,,tool ,i4 ,,spread ,,of ,,the ,,state-,,control ,,idea ,,the ,,five ,,type ,,nations4 ,we have now traced1 in some detail1 the struggles of forward-looking men to establish national systems of education in five great world nations4 ,in each we have described the steps by means of which the ,state gradually superseded the ,church in the control of education1 and the motives and impulses which finally led the ,state to take over the school as a function of the ,state4 ,the steps and impelling motives and rate of transfer were not the same in any two nations1 but in each of the five the political necessities of the ,state in time made the transfer seem desirable4 ,time everywhere was required to effect the change4 ,the movement began earliest and was concluded earliest in the ,german ,states1 and was concluded last in ,england4 ,in the ,german ,states1 ,france1 and ,italy the change came rapidly and as a result of legislative acts or imperial decrees4 ,in ,england and the ,united ,states the transfer took place1 as we have seen1 only in response to the slow development of public opinion4 ,this change in control and extension of educational advantages was essentially a nineteenth-century movement1 and a resultant of the new political philosophy and the democratic revolutions of the later eighteenth century1 combined with the industrial revolution of the nineteenth century4 ,a new political impulse now replaced the earlier religious motive as the incentive for education1 and education for literacy and citizenship became1 during the nineteenth century1 a new political ideal that has1 in time1 spread to progressive nations all over the world4 ,the five great nations whose educational evolution has been described in the preceding chapters may be regarded as having formed types which have since been copied1 in more or less detail1 by the more progressive nations in different parts of the world4 ,the continental ,european two-class school system1 the ,american educational ladder1 and the ,english tendency to combine the two and use the best parts of each1 have been reproduced in the different national educational systems which have been created by the various political governments of the world4 ,the continental ,european idea of a centralized ministry for education1 with an appointed head or a cabinet minister in control1 has also been widely copied4 ,the ,prussian two-class plan has been most influential among the ,teutonic and ,slavic peoples of ,europe1 and has also deeply influenced educational development among the ,japanese2 ,english ideas have been extensively copied in the ,english self-governing dominions2 and the ,american plan has been clearly influential in ,canada1 the ,argentine1 and in ,china4 ,the ,french centralized plan for organization and administration has been widely copied in the state educational organizations of the ,latin nations of ,europe and ,south ,america4 ,in a general way it may be stated that the more democratic the government of a nation has become the greater has been the tendency to break away from the two-class school system1 to introduce more of an educational ladder1 and to bring in more of the ,english conception of granting to localities a reasonable amount of local liberty in educational affairs4 ,,spread ,,of ,,the ,,state ,,control ,,idea ,,among ,,northern ,,nations4 ,the development of schools under the control of the government1 and the extension of state supervision to the existing religious schools1 took place in the different cantons of ,switzerland1 and in ,holland1 ,denmark1 ,norway1 and ,sweden1 somewhat contemporaneously with the development described for the five type nations4 ,the work of ,pestalozzi and ,fellenberg1 and of their disciples and followers1 had given an early impetus to the establishment of schools and teacher-training in the ,swiss cantons1 most being done in the ,german-speaking portions4 ,in ,holland1 where the ,reformation zeal for schools largely died out in the eighteenth century1 the organization of the ,society of ,public ,good1 in #aghd1 by a ,mennonite clergyman1 did much to awaken a new interest in schools for the people and to inaugurate a new movement for educational organization4 ,in #agie a revolution took place in ,holland1 a republic was established1 and the extension of educational advantages followed4 ,from #ahjf to #ahae ,holland was under the rule of ,napoleon4 ,a school law of #ahjf forms the basis of public education in ,holland4 ,this asserted the supremacy of the ,state in education1 and provided for state inspection of schools4 ,in #ahab the ,french scientist1 ,m4 ,cuvier1 reported to ,napoleon that there were #ddea schools in little ,holland1 and that one tenth of the total population was in school4 ,in #ahaf a normal school was established at ,haarlem4 ,both the constitutions of #ahae and #ahdh provided for state control of education1 which has been steadily extended since the beginning of the revival in #aghd4 ,today ,holland provides a good system of public instruction for its people4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,denmark ,in ,denmark and ,sweden the development of state schools has been worked out1 much as in ,england1 in coperation with the ,church1 and the ,church still assists the ,state in the administration and supervision of the school systems which were eventually evolved4 ,in each of these countries1 too1 the continental two-class school system has been somewhat modified by an upward movement of the transfer point between the two and the development of people's high schools1 so as to produce a more democratic type of school and afford better educational opportunities to all classes of the population4 ,the annexed diagram1 showing the organization of education in ,denmark1 is typical of this modification and extension4 ,finland should also be classed with these northern nations in matters of educational development4 ,lutheran ideas as to religion and the need for education took deep hold there at an early date 7p4 #big74 ,a knowledge of reading and the ,catechism was made necessary for confirmation as early as #afhf1 and democratic ideas also found an early home among this people4 ,in consequence the ,finns have for long been a literate people4 ,the law making elementary education a function of the ,state1 however1 dates only from #ahff1 and secondary education was taken over from the ecclesiastical authorities only in #ahgb4 ,similarly1 ,scotland1 another northern nation1 began schools as a phase of its ,reformation fervor4 ,during the eighteenth century the parish schools1 created by the ,acts of #afdf 7,r4 #agi2 p4 #cce7 and #afif1 proved insufficient1 and voluntary schools were added to supplement them4 ,together these insured for ,scotland a much higher degree of literacy than was the case in ,england4 ,the final state organization of education in ,scotland dates from the ,scottish ,education ,act of #ahgb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baa4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,literacy ,,in ,,europe ,,by ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,the map reproduced here1 showing the progress of general education by the close of the nineteenth century1 as measured by the spread of the ability to read and write1 reveals at a glance the high degree of literacy of the northern ,teutonic and mixed ,teutonic nations4 ,it was among these nations that the ,protestant ,reformation ideas made the deepest impression2 it was in these northern ,states that the ,protestant elementary vernacular school1 to teach reading and religion1 attained its earliest start2 it was there that the school was taken over from the ,church and erected into an effective national instrument at an early date2 and it was these nations which had been most successful1 by the close of the nineteenth century1 in extending the elements of education to all and thus producing literate populations4 ,,the ,,state-,,control ,,idea ,,in ,,the ,,south ,,and ,,east ,,of ,,europe4 ,as we pass to the south and east of ,europe we pass not only to lands which remained loyal to the ,roman ,church1 or are adherents of the ,greek ,church1 and hence did not experience the ,reformation fervor with its accompanying zeal for education1 but also to lands untouched by the ,french-,revolution movement and where democratic ideas have only recently begun to make any progress4 ,greece alone forms an exception to this statement1 a constitutional government having been established there in #ahdc4 ,removed from the main stream of ,european civilization1 these nations have been influenced less by modern forces2 the hold of the ,church on the education of the young has there been longest retained2 and the taking-over of education by the ,state has there been longest deferred4 ,in consequence1 the schools provided have for long been inadequate both in number and scope1 and the progress of literacy and democratic ideas among the people has been slow4 ,despite the beginnings made by ,maria ,theresa 7p4 #dge7 in the late eighteenth century1 ,austria dropped backward to a low place in matters of education during the period of reaction following the ,napoleonic wars1 and the real beginnings of state elementary-schools there date from the law of #ahfg4 ,the beginnings in ,hungary date from #ahfh4 ,the beginnings of other state elementary school systems are3 ,greece1 #ahbc2 ,portugal1 #ahdd2 ,spain1 #aheg2 ,roumania1 #ahei2 ,bulgaria1 #ahha2 and ,serbia1 #ahhb4 ,in many of these ,states1 despite early beginnings1 but little real progress has even yet been made in developing systems of national education that will provide gratuitous elementary-school training for all and inculcate the national spirit4 ,in many of these ,states the illiteracy of the people is still high1 #a the people are poor1 the nations are economically backward1 the military and clerical classes still dominate1 and intelligent and interested governments have not as yet been evolved4 ,in ,russia1 though ,catherine ,,ii and her successors made earnest efforts to begin a system of state education1 the period following ,napoleon was one of extreme repressive reaction4 ,the military class and the clergy of the ,greek ,church joined hands in a government interested in keeping the people submissive and devout4 ,in consequence1 at the time of the emancipation of the serfs1 in #ahfa1 it was estimated that not one per cent of the total population of ,russia was then under instruction1 and the ratio of illiteracy by the close of the nineteenth century was the highest in ,europe outside of ,spain1 ,portugal1 and the ,balkan ,states4 ,,the ,,state-,,control ,,idea ,,in ,,the ,,english ,,self-,,governing ,,dominions4 ,the ,english and ,french settlers in ,ontario1 ,quebec1 and the ,maritime ,provinces of ,canada brought the ,english and ,french parochial-school ideas from their home-lands with them1 but these home conceptions were materially modified1 at an early date1 by settlers from the northern ,states of the ,american ,union4 ,these introduced the ,new ,england idea of state control and public responsibility for education4 ,in part copying precedents recently established in the new ,american ,states1 as an outcome of the struggles there to establish free1 tax-supported1 and state-controlled schools1 both ,ontario and ,quebec early began the establishment of state systems of education for their people4 ,a superintendent of education was appointed in ,ontario in #ahdd1 and the ,common ,school ,act of #ahdf laid the foundation of the state school system of the ,province4 ,in the law of #ahga a system of uniform1 free1 compulsory1 and state-inspected schools was definitely provided for4 ,quebec1 in #ahde1 made the ecclesiastical parish the unit for school administration2 in #aheb appointed government inspectors for the church schools2 and in #ahei provided for a ,council of ,public ,instruction to control all schools in the ,province4 ,the ,dominion ,act of #ahfg left education1 as in the ,united ,states1 to the several ,provinces to control1 and state systems of education1 though with large liberty in religious instruction1 or the incorporation of the religious schools into the state school systems1 have since been erected in all the ,canadian ,provinces4 ,following ,american precedents1 too1 a thoroughly democratic educational ladder has almost everywhere been created1 substantially like that shown in the ,figure on page #gjh4 ,in ,australia and ,new ,zealand education has similarly been left to the different ,states to handle1 but a state centralized control has been provided there which is more akin to ,french practice than to ,english ideas4 ,in each ,state1 primary education has been made free1 compulsory1 secular1 and state-supported4 ,the laws making such provision in the different ,states date from #ahgb1 in ,victoria2 #ahge1 in ,queensland2 #ahgh1 in ,south ,australia1 ,west ,australia1 and ,new ,zealand2 and #ahhj1 in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,secondary education has not as yet been made free1 and many excellent privately endowed or fee-supported secondary schools1 after the ,english plan1 are found in the different ,states4 ,in the new ,union of ,south ,africa all university education has been taken over by the ,union1 while the existing school systems of the different ,states are rapidly being taken over and expanded by the state governments1 and transformed into constructive instruments of the ,states4 ,,the ,,state-,,control ,,idea ,,in ,,the ,,south ,,american ,,states4 ,as we have seen in ,chapter ,,xx1 the spirit of nationality awakened by the ,french ,revolution spread to ,south ,america1 and between #ahae and #ahba all of ,spain's ,south ,american colonies revolted1 declared their independence from the mother country1 and set up constitutional republics4 ,brazil1 in #ahbb1 in a similar manner severed its connections from ,portugal4 ,the ,united ,states1 through the ,monroe ,doctrine 7#ahbc71 helped these new ,states to maintain their independence4 ,for approximately half a century these ,states1 isolated as they were and engaged in a long and difficult struggle to evolve stable forms of government1 left such education as was provided to private individuals and societies and to the missionaries and teaching orders of the ,roman ,church4 ,after the middle of the nineteenth century1 the new forces stirring in the modern world began to be felt in ,south ,america as well1 and1 after about #ahgj1 a well-defined movement to establish state school systems began to be in evidence4 ,the ,argentine constitution of #ahec had directed the establishment of primary schools by the ,state1 but nothing of importance was done until after the election of ,dr4 ,sarmiento as ,president1 in #ahfh4 ,under his influence an ,american-type normal school was established1 teachers were imported from the ,united ,states1 and liberal appropriations for education were begun4 ,in #ahgc a general system of national aid for primary education was established1 and in #ahhd a new law laid the basis of the present state school system4 ,though some earlier beginnings had been made in some of the other ,south ,american nations1 ,argentine is regarded as the leader in education among them4 ,this is largely due to the democratic nature of the government which1 in connection with the deep interest in education of ,president ,sarmiento1 #b found educational expression in the creation of an ,american-type educational ladder1 as the accompanying diagram shows4 ,large emphasis has been placed on scientific and practical studies in the secondary colegios4 ,the normal school has been given large importance1 and made a parallel and connecting link in the educational ladder between the primary schools and the universities4 ,the ,argentine school system1 probably due to ,american influences acting through ,president ,sarmiento1 forms an exception to the usual ,south ,american state school system1 as nearly all the other ,states have followed the ,french model and created a ,european two-class school system4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab4 ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,the ,,argentine ,,republic ,in ,chili1 the constitution of #ahcc declared education to be of supreme importance1 and a normal school was established in ,santiago1 as early as #ahdj4 ,the basic law for the organization of a state system of primary instruction1 however1 dates from #ahfj1 and the law organizing a state system of secondary and higher education from #ahgb4 ,in ,peru1 an educational reform movement was inaugurated in #ahgf1 but the war with ,chili 7#ahgi-hd7 checked all progress4 ,in #ahif an ,educational ,commission was appointed to visit the ,united ,states and ,europe1 and the law of #aija marked the creation of a ministry for education and the real beginnings of a state school system4 ,the ,brazilian constitution of #ahbd left education to the several ,states 7twenty and one ,federal ,district71 and a permissive law of #ahbg allowed the different ,states to establish schools4 ,it was not until #ahed1 however1 that public schools were organized in the ,federal ,district1 and these mark the real beginning of state education in ,brazil4 ,since then the establishment of state schools has gradually extended to the coast ,states1 and inland with the building of railway lines and the opening-up of the interior to outside influences4 ,the basis for state-controlled education has now been laid in all the ,states1 but the attendance at the schools as yet is small4 #c ,in some of the other ,south ,american ,states1 such as ,bolivia1 ,ecuador1 and ,venezuela1 but little progress in extending state-controlled schools has as yet been made1 and the training of the young is still left largely to private effort1 the ,church1 and the religious orders4 ,the illiteracy in all the ,south ,american ,states is still high1 in part due to the large native populations1 and much remains to be done before education becomes general there4 ,the state-control idea1 though1 has been definitely established in principle in these countries4 ,with the establishment of stable governments1 the building of railroads and steamship lines1 and the development of an important international commerce--events which there have characterized the first two decades of the twentieth century--early and important progress in state educational organization and in the extension of educational advantages may be expected4 ,,the ,,state-,,school ,,idea ,,in ,,eastern ,,asia4 ,in #ahed ,admiral ,perry effected the treaty of friendship with ,japan which virtually opened that nation to the influences of western civilization1 and one of the most wonderful transformations of a people recorded in history soon began4 ,in #ahfg a new ,mikado came to the throne1 and in #ahfh the small military class1 which had ruled the nation for some seven hundred years1 gave up their power to the new ruler4 ,a new era in ,japan1 known as the ,meiji1 dates from this event4 ,in #ahga the centuries-old feudal system was abolished1 and all classes in the ,state were declared equal before the law4 ,this same year the first newspaper in ,japan was begun4 ,in #ahgb the first educational code for the nation was promulgated by the ,mikado4 ,this ordered the general establishment of schools1 the compulsory education of the people 7,r4 #ccd a71 and the equality of all classes in educational matters4 ,students were now sent abroad1 especially to ,germany and the ,united ,states2 foreign teachers were imported2 an ,american normal-school teacher was placed in charge of the newly opened state normal school2 the ,american class method of instruction was introduced2 schoolbooks and teaching apparatus were prepared1 after ,american models2 middle schools were organized in the towns2 higher schools were opened in the cities2 and the old ,academy of ,foreign ,languages was evolved 7#ahgg7 into the ,university of ,tokyo4 ,in #ahhd the study of ,english was introduced into the courses of the public schools4 ,in #ahhi a form of constitution was granted to the people1 and a parliament established4 #d ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac4 ,,the ,,japanese ,,two-,,class ,,school ,,system4 ,adapting the continental ,european idea of a two-class school system to the peculiar needs of the nation1 the ,japanese have worked out1 during the past half-century1 a type of state-controlled school system which has been well adapted to their national needs4 #e ,instruction in national morality1 based on the ancestral virtues1 brotherly affection1 and loyalty to the constitution and the ruling class 7,r4 #ccd b-c71 has been well worked out in their schools4 ,though the government has remained largely autocratic in form1 the ,japanese have1 however1 retained throughout all their educational development the fundamental democratic principle enunciated in the ,preamble to the ,educational ,code of #ahgb 7,r4 #ccd a71 viz41 that every one without distinction of class or sex shall receive primary education at least1 and that the opportunity for higher education shall be open to all children4 ,so completely has the education of the people been conceived of as one of the most important functions of the ,state that all education has been placed under a centralized state control1 with a ,cabinet ,minister in charge of all administrative matters connected with the education of the nation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bad4 ,,the ,,chinese ,,educational ,,ladder ,since near the end of the nineteenth century what promises to be an even more wonderful transformation of a people-political1 social1 scientific1 and industrial--has been taking place in ,china 7,r4 #cce74 ,a much more democratic type of national school system than that of the ,japanese has been worked out1 and this the new 7#aiab7 ,republic of ,china is rapidly extending in the provinces1 and making education a very important function of the new democratic national life4 #f ,in the beginning1 when displacing the centuries-old ,confucian educational system1 #g the ,chinese adopted ,japanese ideas and organized their schools 7#aije7 somewhat after the ,japanese model4 ,later on1 responding to the influence of many ,american- educated ,chinese and to the more democratic impulses of the ,chinese people1 the new government established by the ,republic of #aiab changed the school system at first established so as to make it in type more like the ,american educational ladder4 ,the new ,chinese school system is shown in the drawing on page #gba4 ,the university instruction is modern and excellent1 and the addition of the cultural and scientific knowledge worked out in western ,europe to the intellectual qualities of this capable people can hardly fail to result1 in time1 in the production of a wonderful modern nation1 #h probably in one of the greatest nations of the mid-twentieth century4 ,in #ahia the independent ,kingdom of ,siam1 #i awakened from its age-long isolation by new world influences1 sent a prince to ,europe to study and report on the state systems of education maintained there4 ,as a result of his report a department of public education was created1 which later evolved into a ministry of public instruction1 and elementary schools were opened by the ,state in the thirteen thousand old ,buddhist temples4 ,these schools offered a two-year course in ,siamese1 followed by a five-year course in ,english1 given by imported ,english teachers4 ,schools for girls were provided1 as well as for boys4 ,since this beginning1 higher schools of law1 medicine1 agriculture1 engineering1 and military science have been added1 taught largely by imported ,english and ,american teachers4 ,in consequence of the new educational organization1 and the new influences brought in1 the whole life of this little kingdom has been transformed during the past three decades4 ,,general ,,acceptance ,,of ,,the ,,state-,,function ,,conception4 ,the different national school systems1 the creation of which has so far been briefly described1 are typical and represent a great world movement which characterized the latter half of the nineteenth century4 ,this movement is still under way1 and increasing in strength4 ,other state school organizations might be added to the list1 but those so far given are sufficient4 ,beginning with the nations which were earliest to the front of the onward march of civilization1 the movement for the state control of education1 itself an expression of new world forces and new national needs1 has in a century spread to every continent on the globe4 ,to-day progressive nations everywhere conceive of education for their people as so closely associated with their social1 political1 and industrial progress1 and their national welfare and prosperity 7,r4 #ccf71 that the control of education has come to be regarded as an indispensable function of the ,state4 ,state constitutions 7,r4 #ccc7 have accordingly required the creation of comprehensive state school systems2 legislators have turned to education with a new interest2 bulky state school codes have given force to constitutional mandates2 national literacy has become a goal2 the diffusion of political intelligence by means of the school has naturally followed the extension of the suffrage2 while the many new forces and impulses of a modern world have served to make the old religious type of education utterly inadequate1 and to call for national action to a degree never conceived of in the days when religious1 private1 and voluntary educational effort sufficed to meet the needs of the few who felt the call to learn4 ,what a few of the more important of these new nineteenth-century forces have been1 which have so fundamentally modified the character and direction of education1 it may be worth while to set forth briefly1 before proceeding further4 ,,ii4 ,,new ,,modifying ,,forces ,,the ,,advance ,,of ,,scientific ,,knowledge4 ,the first and most important of these nineteenth-century forces1 and the one which preceded and conditioned all the others1 was the great increase of accurate knowledge as to the forces and laws of the physical world1 arising from the application of scientific method to the investigation of the phenomena of the material world 7,r4 #ccg74 ,during the nineteenth century the intellect of man was stimulated to activity as it had not been before since the days when little ,athens was the intellectual center of the world4 ,what the ,revival of ,learning was to the classical scholars of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 the movement for scientific knowledge and its application to human affairs was to the nineteenth4 ,it changed the outlook of man on the problems of life1 vastly enlarged the intellectual horizon1 and gave a new trend to education and to scholarly effort4 ,what the scholars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had been slowly gathering together as interesting and classified phenomena1 the scientific scholars of the nineteenth century organized1 interpreted1 expanded1 and applied4 ,since the day of ,copernicus 7p4 #chf7 and ,newton 7p4 #chh7 a growing appreciation of the permanence and scope of natural law in the universe had been slowly developing1 and this the scholars of the nineteenth century fixed as a principle and applied in many new directions4 ,a few of the more important of these new directions may profitably be indicated here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae4 ,,baron ,,justus ,,von ,,liebig 7#ahjc-gc7 ,in the domain of the physical sciences very important advances characterized the century4 ,chemistry1 up to the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century largely a collection of unrelated facts1 was transformed by the labors of such men as ,dalton 7#agff-ahdd71 ,faraday 7#agia-ahfg71 and ,liebig into a wonderfully well-organized and vastly important science4 ,liebig carried chemistry over into the study of the processes of digestion and the functioning of the internal organs1 and reshaped much of the instruction in medicine4 ,liebig is also important as having opened1 at ,giessen1 in #ahbf1 the first laboratory instruction in chemistry for students provided in any university in the world4 ,by many subsequent workers chemistry has been so applied to the arts that it is not too much to say that a knowledge of chemistry underlies the whole manufacturing and industrial life of the present1 and that the degree of industrial preeminence held by a nation to-day is largely determined by its mastery of chemical processes4 ,physics has experienced an equally important development4 ,it1 too1 at the beginning of the nineteenth century was in the preliminary state of collecting1 cordinating1 and trying to interpret data4 ,in a century physics has1 by experimentation and the application of mathematics to its problems1 been organized into a number of exceedingly important sciences4 ,in dynamics1 heat1 light1 and particularly in electricity1 discoveries and extension of previous knowledge of the most far-reaching significance have been made4 ,what at the beginning of the nineteenth century was a small textbook study of natural philosophy has since been subdivided into the two great sciences of physics and chemistry1 and these in turn into numerous well-organized branches4 ,today these are taught1 not from textbooks1 but in large and costly laboratories1 while manufacturing establishments and governments now find it both necessary and profitable to maintain large scientific institutions for chemical and physical research4 ,the great triumph of physics1 from the point of view of the reign of law in the world of matter1 was the experimental establishment 7#ahdi7 of the fundamental principle of the conservation of energy4 ,this ranks in importance in the world of the physical sciences with the theory of evolution in the biological4 ,the perfection of the spectroscope 7#ahei7 revealed the rule of chemical law among the stars1 and clinched the theory of evolution as applied to the celestial universe4 ,the atomic theory of matter #aj was an extension of natural laws in another direction4 ,in #ahdf occurred the most spectacular proof of the reign of natural law which the nineteenth century witnessed4 ,two scientists1 in different lands1 #aa working independently1 calculated the orbit of a new planet1 ,neptune1 and when the telescope was turned to the point in the heavens indicated by their calculations the planet was there4 ,it was a tremendous triumph for both mathematics and astronomy4 ,such work as this meant the firm establishment of scientific accuracy1 and the ultimate elimination of the old theories of witchcraft1 diabolic action1 and superstition as controlling forces in the world of human affairs4 ,the publication by ,charles ,lyell 7#agig-ahge7 of his ,principles of ,geology1 in #ahcj1 marked another important advance in the knowledge of the operations of natural law in the physical world1 and likewise a revolution in thinking in regard to the age and past history of the earth4 ,few books have ever more deeply influenced human thinking4 ,the old theological conception of earthly catastrophes #ab was overthrown1 and in its place was substituted the idea of a very long and a very orderly evolution of the planet4 ,geology was created as a new science1 and out of this has come1 by subsequent evolution1 a number of other new sciences #ac which have contributed much to human progress4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baf4 ,,charles ,,darwin 7#ahji-hb7 ,another of the great books of all time appeared in #ahei1 when ,charles ,darwin 7#ahji-ahhb7 published the results of thirty years of careful biological research in his ,origin of ,species4 ,this swept away the old theory of special and individual creation which had been cherished since early antiquity2 and substituted in its place the reign of law in the field of biological life4 ,this substitution of the principle of orderly evolution for the old theory of special creation marked another forward step in human thinking1 #ad and gave an entirely new direction to the old study of natural history4 #ae ,in the hands of such workers as ,wallace 7#ahbc-aiac71 ,asa ,gray 7#ahaj-hh71 ,huxley 7#ahbe-id71 and ,spencer 7#ahbj-aijc7 it now proved a fruitful field4 ,in #ahef the ,german ,virchow 7#ahba-aijb7 made his far-reaching contribution of cellular pathology to medical science2 between #ahei and #ahfe the ,french scientist ,pasteur 7#ahbb-ie7 established the germ theory of fermentation1 putrefaction1 and disease2 about the same time the ,english surgeon ,lister 7#ahbg-aiad7 began to use antiseptics in surgery2 and1 in #ahgi1 the bacillus of typhoid fever was found4 ,out of this work the modern sciences of pathology1 aseptic surgery1 bacteriology1 and immunity were created1 and the cause and mode of transmission of the great diseases #af which once decimated armies and cities--plague1 cholera1 malaria1 typhoid1 typhus1 yellow fever1 dysentery--as well as the scourges of tuberculosis1 diphtheria1 and lockjaw1 have been determined4 ,the importance of these discoveries for the future welfare and happiness of mankind can scarcely be overestimated4 ,sanitary science arose as an application of these discoveries1 and since about #ahge a sanitary and hygienic revolution has taken place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag ,,louis ,,pasteur 7#ahbb-ie7 ,the above represent but a few of the more important of the many great scientific advances of the nineteenth century4 ,what the thinkers of the eighteenth century had sowed broadcast through a general interest in science1 their successors in the nineteenth reaped as an abundant harvest4 ,the three great master keys of science--the higher mathematics1 the principle of the conservation of energy1 and the principle of orderly evolution of life according to law--so long unknown to man1 had at last been discovered1 and1 with these in their possession1 men have since opened up many of the long-hidden secrets of cause and growth and form and function1 both in the heavens and on the earth1 and have revealed to a wondering world the prodigious and eternal forces of an orderly universe4 ,the fruitfulness of the ,baconian method 7p4 #cij7 in the hands of his successors has far surpassed his most sanguine expectations4 ,,the ,,applications ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,the ,,result4 ,all this work1 as has been frequently pointed out 7,r4 #cch71 had of necessity to precede the applications of science to the arts and to the advancement of the comforts and happiness of mankind4 ,the new studies soon caught the attention of younger scholars2 special schools for their study began to be established by the middle of the nineteenth century2 #ag enthusiastic students of science began forcefully to challenge the centuries-long supremacy of classical studies2 funds for scientific research began to be provided2 the printing-press disseminated the new ideas2 and thousands of applications of science to trade and industry and human welfare began to attract public attention and create a new demand for schools and for a new extension of learning4 ,during the past century the applications of this new learning to matters that intimately touch the life of man have been so numerous and so far-reaching in their effects that they have produced a revolution in life conditions unlike anything the world ever experienced before4 ,in all the days from the time of the ,crusades to the end of the ,napoleonic ,wars the changes in living effected were less1 both in scope and importance1 than have taken place in the century since ,napoleon was sent to ,saint ,helena4 ,,this ,,transformation ,,we ,,call ,,the ,,industrial ,,revolution4 ,this1 as we pointed out earlier 7p4 #dib71 began in ,england in the late eighteenth century4 ,france did not experience its beginnings until after the ,napoleonic ,wars1 though after about #ahbj the transformations there were rapid and far- reaching4 ,in the ,united ,states it began about #ahaj-ae1 and between #ahbj and #ahfj the industrial methods of the people of the northeastern quarter of the ,united ,states were revolutionized4 ,between #ahfj and #aijj they were revolutionized again4 ,in the ,german ,states the transformation began about #ahdj1 though it did not reach its great development until after the establishment of the ,empire1 in #ahga4 ,since the middle of the nineteenth century1 with the development of factories1 the building of railroads1 and the extension of steamship lines1 even the most remote countries have been affected by the new forces4 ,nations long primitive and secluded have been modernized and industrialized2 century-old trades and skills have been destroyed by machinery2 the old home and village industries have been replaced by the factory system2 cities for manufacturing and trade have everywhere experienced a rapid development2 and even on the farm the agricultural methods of bygone days have been replaced by the discoveries of science and the products of invention4 ,almost nothing is done to-day as it was a century ago1 and only in remote places do people live as they used to live4 ,the nature and extent of the change which has been wrought1 and some estimate as to its effect upon educational procedure1 may perhaps be better comprehended if we first contrast living conditions before and after this industrial transformation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah4 ,,man ,,power ,,before ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,steam ,foot power a century ago4 7,from a cut by ,anderson1 ,america's first important engraver7 ,,living ,,conditions ,a ,,century ,,ago4 ,a century ago people everywhere lived comparatively simple lives4 ,the steam engine1 while beginning to be put to use 7p4 #dic71 had not as yet been extensively applied and made the willing and obedient slave of man4 ,the lightning had not as yet been harnessed1 and the now omnipresent electric motor was then still unknown4 ,only in ,england had manufacturing reached any large proportions1 and even there the methods were somewhat primitive4 ,thousands of processes which we now perform simply and effectively by the use of steam or electric power1 a century ago were done slowly and painfully by human labor4 ,the chief sources of power were then man and horse power4 ,the home was a center in which most of the arts and trades were practiced1 and in the long winter evenings the old crafts and skills were turned to commercial account4 ,what every family used and wore was largely made in the home1 the village1 or the neighborhood4 ,travel was slow and expensive and something only the well-to-do could afford4 ,to go fifty miles a day by stage-coach1 or one hundred by sailing packet on the water1 was extraordinarily rapid4 ,one could not travel faster by sea or by land1 as ,huxley remarked1 than at any previous time in the world's history1 and ,king ,george could send a message from ,london to ,york no faster than ,king ,john might have done4 ,the steam train was not developed until about #ahbe1 and through railway lines not for a quarter- century longer4 ,it took four days by coach from ,london to ,york 7#ahh miles72 six weeks by sailing vessel from ,southampton to ,boston2 and six months from ,england to ,india4 ,people moved about but little4 ,a journey of fifty miles was an event--for many something not experienced in a lifetime4 ,to travel to a foreign land made a man a marked individual4 ,benjamin ,franklin tells us that he was frequently pointed out on the streets of ,philadelphia1 then the largest city in the ,united ,states1 as a man who had been to ,europe4 ,george ,ticknor has left us an interesting record 7,r4 #cci7 of his difficulties1 in finding anything in print in the libraries of the time1 about #ahae1 or any one who could tell him about the work of the ,german universities1 which he1 as a result of reading ,madame de ,stal's book on ,germany1 was desirous of attending4 #ah ,everywhere it was a time of hard work and simple living4 ,every youngster had to become useful at an early age4 ,the work of life1 in town or on the farm1 required hard and continual labor from all4 ,farm machinery had not been perfected1 and hand labor performed all the operations of ploughing and sowing1 reaping and harvesting4 ,with the introduction of the factory system1 men1 women1 and children were used to operate machinery1 children being apprenticed to the mills at about eight years of age and working ten to twelve hours a day4 ,this soon worked the life out of human beings1 and in consequence sickness1 wretchedness1 juvenile delinquency1 ignorance1 drunkenness1 pauperism1 and crime increased greatly as cities grew and the factory system drew thousands from the farms to the towns4 ,when ,queen ,victoria came to the throne 7#ahcg7 one person in twelve in ,england was a pauper1 and the lot of the poor was wretched in the extreme4 ,in cities they lived in cellars and basements and hovels4 ,there was practically no sanitation or drainage4 ,streets and alleys were filthy4 ,graveyards were commonly located in the heart of a town4 ,a pure water-supply through water-mains was unknown4 ,pumps and water-carriers supplied nearly all the needs4 ,there was in consequence much sickness1 and such diseases as typhoid and malaria ran rampant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai4 ,,threshing ,,wheat ,a ,,century ,,ago 7,after a woodcut by ,jacque1 in ,l',illustration7 ,,change ,,in ,,living ,,conditions ,,to-,,day4 ,in a century all has been changed4 ,steam and electricity and sanitary science have transformed the world2 the railway1 steamship1 telegraph1 cable1 and printing-press have made the world one4 ,the output of the factory system has transformed living and labor conditions1 even to the remote corners of the world2 sanitary science and sanitary legislation have changed the primitive conditions of the home and made of it a clean and comfortable modern abode2 men and women have been freed from an almost incalculable amount of drudgery and toil1 and the human effort and time saved may now be devoted to other types of work or to enjoyment and learning4 ,thousands who once were needed for menial toil on farm or in shop and home are now freed for employment in satisfying new wants and new pleasures that mankind has come to know1 #ai or may devote their time and energies to forms of service that advance the welfare of mankind or minister to the needs of the human spirit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4 ,a ,,city ,,water-,,supply ,,about #ahcj 7,after a lithograph by ,bellange7 ,labor-saving devices and the applications of scientific work have touched all phases of life and labor of men and women1 and under modern methods of transportation go everywhere4 ,the ,american self-binding reaper is found in the grain-fields of ,russia and the ,argentine2 one may buy cans of kerosene and tinned meats and vegetables almost anywhere in the world today2 sewing machines and phonographs add to the comfort and pleasure of the ,african native and the dweller on the ,yukon2 milady in ,siam uses cosmetics manufactured for the devotees of fashion in ,paris2 the ,sultan of ,sulu wears an elegant ,american wrist-watch2 the ,dahomeny tribesman has a safety razor1 and a mirror of ,french plate2 the ,persian dandy wears shoes and haberdashery made in the ,united ,states2 old ,chinamen up the ,yellow ,river ,valley read their ,confucius by the light of an ,edison ,mazda2 the steam train wends its way up from ,jaffa to ,jerusalem2 the gasoline power boat chugs its course up the ,nile the ,pharaohs sailed2 and modern surgical methods and instruments are used in the hospitals of ,manila and ,singapore1 ,cairo and ,cape ,town4 ,a rupee spent for thread at ,calcutta starts the spindles going in ,manchester2 a new calico dress for a ,mandalay belle helps the cotton-print mills of ,leeds2 a new carving set for a ,fiji ,islander means more labor for some cutlery works in ,sheffield2 a half- dollar for a new undershirt in ,panama means increased work for a cotton mill in ,new ,england2 a new blanket called for against the winter's cold of ,siberia moves the looms of some ,rhode ,island town2 a dime spent for a box of matches in ,alaska means added labor and profit for a match factory in ,california2 a new bath tub in ,paraguay spells increased output for a factory at ,milan or ,turin2 and the ,christmas wishes of the children in ,brazil give work to the toy factories of ,nremberg4 ,trains and huge steamers move today along the great trade routes of the modern world1 exchanging both the people and their products4 ,the holds of the ships are filled with coal and grain and manufactured implements and commodities of every description1 while their steerage space is crowded with modern ,marco ,polos and ,magellans going forth to see the world4 ,the ,hindoo walks the streets of ,cape ,town1 ,london1 ,sydney1 ,new ,york1 ,san ,francisco1 and ,valparaiso2 the ,russian ,jew is found in all the ,old and ,new ,world cities2 the ,englishman and the ,american travel everywhere2 the ,japanese are fringing the ,pacific with their laboring classes2 toiling ,italians and ,greeks are found all over the world2 peasants from the ,balkans gather the prune and orange crops of ,california2 the moujic from the ,russian ,caucasus tills the wheat-fields of the ,dakotas2 while the ,irish1 ,scandinavians1 and ,teutons form the political1 farming1 and commercial classes in many far-distant lands4 ,in the recent ,world ,war ,serbs from ,montana and ,colorado fought side by side with ,serbs from ,belgrade and ,nisch2 ,greeks from ,new ,york and ,san ,francisco helped their brothers from ,athens drive the ,bulgars back up the ,vardar ,valley2 ,italians from ,new ,orleans and ,rio de ,janeiro helped their kinsmen from the valley of the ,po hold back the ,hun from the ,venetian plain2 ,chinese from the valleys of the ,tong-long and the ,yang-tse-,kiang backed up the ,allied armies by tilling the fields of ,france2 and ,algerian and ,senegalese natives helped the ,french hold back the ,teutonic hordes from the ravishment of ,paris4 ,so completely has the old isolation been broken down6 ,so completely is the world in flux6 ,so small has the world become6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba4 ,,the ,,great ,,trade ,,routes ,,of ,,the ,,modern ,,world ,broken lines1 on land1 indicate gaps soon to be closed4 ,compare this with the maps on pages #afa and #beh1 and note the progress in discovery and intercommunication4 ,ships and trains are constantly passing over these routes1 bearing both freight and peoples4 ,it was almost a century from the time instruction in ,greek was revived in ,florence 7#acif7 until ,linacre first lectured on ,greek at ,oxford 7c4 #adib72 six months after the ,x-ray was perfected in ,germany it was in use in the hospitals of ,san ,francisco4 ,in the ,middle ,ages thousands might have died of starvation in ,persia or ,egypt1 a famous city in ,asia ,minor might have been destroyed by an earthquake and many people killed1 or war might have raged for years in the ,orient without a citizen of western ,europe knowing of it all his life4 ,today any important event anywhere within the range of the telegraph or the cable would be reported in tomorrow morning's paper1 and carefully described and illustrated in the magazines at an early date4 ,man is no longer a citizen of a town or a state1 but of a nation and of the world4 ,how intelligently he can use this larger citizenship depends today largely upon the character and the extent of the education he has received4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4 ,,an ,,example ,,of ,,the ,,shifting ,,of ,,occupations4 ,sawing boards by hand1 before the introduction of steam power4 ,,effect ,,of ,,these ,,changes ,,on ,,the ,,laboring-,,classes4 ,at first the effect of the introduction of factory-made goods and labor-saving devices was to upset the old established institutions4 ,trades practiced by the guilds since the ,middle ,ages were destroyed1 because factories could turn out goods faster and cheaper than guild workmen could make them4 ,the age-old apprenticeship system began to break down4 ,everywhere people were thrown out of employment1 and a vast shifting of occupations took place4 ,there was much discontent1 and laborers began to unite1 where allowed to do so1 #bj with a view to improving their economic and political condition by concerted action4 ,the political revolutions of #ahdh throughout ,europe were in part a manifestation of this discontent1 and the right to organize was everywhere demanded and in time generally obtained4 ,among the planks in their platform were equality of all before the law2 the limitation of child and woman labor2 better working conditions and wages2 the provision of schools for their children at public expense2 and the extension of the right of suffrage4 ,despite certain unfortunate results following the change from age-old working conditions1 the century of transition has seen the laboring man making gains unknown before in history1 and the peasant has seen the abolition of serfdom #ba and feudal dues4 ,homes have gained tremendously4 ,the drudgery and wasteful toil have been greatly mitigated4 ,to-day there is a standard of comfort and sanitation1 even for those in the humblest circumstances1 beyond all previous conceptions4 ,the poorest workman to-day can enjoy in his home lighting undreamed of in the days of tallow candles2 warmth beyond the power of the old smoky soft-coal grate2 food of a variety and quality his ancestors never knew2 kitchen conveniences and an ease in kitchen work wholly unknown until recently2 and sanitary conveniences and conditions beyond the reach of the wealthiest half a century ago4 ,the caste system in industry has been broken down1 and men and their children may now choose their occupations freely1 #bb and move about at will4 ,wages have greatly increased1 both actually and relatively to the greatly improved standard of living4 ,the work of women and children is easier1 and all work for shorter hours4 ,child labor is fast being eliminated in all progressive nations4 ,in consequence of all these changes for the better1 people to-day have a leisure for reading and thinking and personal enjoyment entirely unknown before the middle of the nineteenth century1 and governments everywhere have found it both desirable and necessary to provide means for the utilization of this leisure and the gratification of the new desires4 ,along with these changes has gone the development of the greatest single agent for spreading liberalizing ideas --the modern newspaper--the most inveterate enemy of absolutism and reaction4 ,despite censorships1 suppressions1 and confiscations1 the press has by now established its freedom in all enlightened lands1 and the cylinder press1 the telegraph1 and the cable have become indispensable adjuncts to the development of that power which every absolutist has come to dread1 and with which every prime minister must daily reckon4 ,,iii4 ,,effect ,,of ,,these ,,changes ,,on ,,education ,,general ,,result ,,of ,,these ,,changes4 ,the general result of the vast and far- reaching changes which we have just described is that the intellectual and political horizon of the working classes has been tremendously broadened2 the home has been completely altered2 children now have much leisure and do little labor2 and the common man at last is rapidly coming into his own4 ,still more1 the common man seems destined to be the dominant force in government in the future4 ,to this end he and his children must be educated1 his wife and children cared for1 his home protected1 and governments must do for him the things which satisfy his needs and advance his welfare4 ,the days of the rule of a small intellectual class and of government in the interests of such a class have largely passed1 and the political equality which the ,athenian ,greeks first in the western world gave to the citizens of little ,athens1 the ,industrial ,revolution has forced modern and enlightened governments to give to all their people4 ,in consequence1 real democracy in government1 education1 justice1 and social welfare is now in process of being attained generally1 for the first time in the history of the world4 ,the effect of all these changes in the mode of living of peoples is written large on the national life4 ,the political and industrial revolutions which have marked the ushering-in of the modern age have been far-reaching in their consequences4 ,the old home life and home industries of an earlier period are passing1 or have passed1 never to return4 ,peoples in all advanced nations are rapidly swinging into the stream of a new and vastly more complex world civilization1 which brings them into contact and competition with the best brains of all mankind4 ,at the same time a great and ever-increasing specialization of human effort is taking place on all sides1 and with new and ever more difficult social1 political1 educational1 industrial1 commercial1 and human-life problems constantly presenting themselves for solution4 ,the world has become both larger and smaller than it used to be1 and even its remote parts are now being linked up1 to a degree that a century ago would not have been deemed possible1 with the future welfare of the nations which so long bore the brunt of the struggle for the preservation and advancement of civilization4 ,,these ,,changes ,,and ,,the ,,school4 ,it is these vast and far-reaching political1 industrial1 and social changes which have been the great actuating forces behind the evolution and expansion of the state school systems which we have so far described4 ,the ,american and ,french political revolutions1 with their new philosophy of political equality and state control of education1 clearly inaugurated the movement for taking over the school from the ,church and the making of it an important instrument of the ,state4 ,the extension of the suffrage to new classes gave a clear political motive for the school1 and to train young people to read and write and know the constitutional bases of liberty became a political necessity4 ,the industrial revolution which followed1 bringing in its train such extensive changes in labor and in the conditions surrounding home and child life1 has since completely altered the face of the earlier educational problem4 ,what was simple once has since become complex1 and the complexity has increased with time4 ,once the ability to read and write and cipher distinguished the educated man from the uneducated2 to-day the man or woman who knows only these simple arts is an uneducated person1 hardly fit to cope with the struggle for existence in a modern world1 and certainly not fitted to participate in the complex political and industrial life of which1 in all advanced nations1 he or she #bc to-day forms a part4 ,it is the attempt to remould the school and to make of it a more potent instrument of the ,state for promoting national consciousness 7,r4 #cdj7 and political1 social1 and industrial welfare that has been behind the many changes and expansions and extensions of education which have marked the past half-century in all the leading world nations1 and which underlie the most pressing problems in educational readjustment to-day4 ,these changes and expansions and problems we shall consider more in detail in the chapters which follow4 ,suffice it here to say that from mere teaching institutions1 engaged in imparting a little religious instruction and some knowledge of the tools of learning1 the school1 in all the leading nations1 has to-day been transformed into an institution for advancing national welfare4 ,the leading purpose now is to train for political and social efficiency in the more democratic types of governments being instituted among peoples1 and to impart to the young those industrial and social experiences once taught in the home1 the trades1 and on the farm1 but which the coming of the factory system and city life have deprived them otherwise of knowing4 ,,new ,,problems ,,to ,,be ,,met ,,by ,,education4 ,as participation in the political life of nations has been extended to larger and larger groups of the people1 and as the problems of government have become more and more complex1 the schools have found it necessary to add instruction in geography1 history1 government1 and national ideals and culture to the earlier instruction4 ,in the less democratic nations which have evolved national school systems1 this new instruction has often been utilized to give strength to the type of government and social conditions which the ruling class desired to have perpetuated4 ,this has been the evident purpose in ,japan 7,r4 #ccd71 though the government of ,imperial ,germany formed perhaps the best illustration of such perversion4 ,this was seen and pointed out long ago by ,horace ,mann 7,r4 #bha74 ,there the idea of nationality through education 7,r4 #cdb7 was carried to such an extreme as made the government oppressive to subject peoples and a menace to neighboring ,states4 #bd ,on the other hand1 the ,french have used their schools for national ends 7,r4 #cda7 in a manner that has been highly commendable4 ,as the social life of nations has become broader and more complex1 a longer period of guidance has become necessary to prepare the future citizens of the ,state for intelligent participation in it4 ,as a result1 child life everywhere has and is still experiencing a new lengthening of the period of dependence and training1 and all national interests now indicate that the period devoted to preparing for life's work will need to be further lengthened4 ,all recent thinking and legislation1 as well as the interests of organized labor and the public welfare1 have in recent decades set strongly against child labor4 ,economically unprofitable under modern industrial conditions1 and morally indefensible1 it has at last come to be accepted as a principle1 by progressive nations1 that it is better for children and for society that they remain under some form of instruction until they are at least sixteen years of age4 ,to this end the common primary school has been continued upward1 part-time continuation schools of various types have been organized for those who must go to labor earlier1 and people's high schools or middle schools have been added 7see ,figure #baj1 p4 #gac7 to give the equivalent of a high-school education to the children of the classes not patronizing the exclusive and limited tuition secondary school4 ,as large numbers of immigrants from distant lands have entered some of the leading nations1 notably ,england and the ,united ,states1 and particularly immigrants from less advanced nations where general education is not as yet common1 and where far different political1 social1 judicial1 and hygienic conditions prevail1 a new duty has been thrust upon the school of giving to such incoming peoples1 and their children1 some conception of the meaning and method and purpose of the national life of the people they have come among4 ,the national schools have accordingly been compelled to give attention to the needs of these new elements in the population1 and to direct their attention less exclusively to satisfying the needs of the well-to-do classes of society4 ,educational systems have in consequence tended more and more to become democratic in character1 and to serve in part as instruments for the assimilation of the stranger within the nation's gates and for the perpetuation and improvement of the national life4 ,,education ,a ,,constructive ,,national ,,tool4 ,one result of the many political1 social1 and industrial changes of a century has been to evolve education into the great constructive tool of modern political society4 ,for ages a church and private affair1 and of no great importance for more than a few1 it has to-day become the prime essential to good government and national progress1 and is so recognized by the leading nations of the world4 ,as people are freed from autocratic rule and take upon themselves the functions of government1 and as they break loose from their age-old political1 social1 and industrial moorings and swing out into the current of the stream of modern world-civilization1 the need for the education of the masses to enable them to steer safely their ship of state1 and take their places among the stable governments of a modern world1 becomes painfully evident4 ,in the hands of an uneducated people a democratic form of government is a dangerous instrument1 while the proper development of natural resources and the utilization of trade opportunities by backward peoples1 without being exploited1 is almost impossible4 ,in ,russia1 ,mexico1 and the ,central ,american republics we see the results of a democracy in the hands of an uneducated people4 ,there1 too often1 the revolver instead of the ballot box is used to settle public issues1 and instead of orderly government under law we find injustice and anarchy4 ,a general system of education that will teach the fundamental principles of constitutional liberty1 and apply science to production in agriculture and manufacturing1 is almost the only solution for such conditions4 ,by contrast with the surrounding republics one finds in ,guatemala #be a country that has used education intelligently as a tool to advance the interests of its people4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4 ,,the ,,philippine ,,school ,,system ,a teacher-training course is given as one of the vocational courses in the ,intermediate ,school1 and the ,normal ,school at ,manila represents one of the secondary school courses4 ,the ,university1 besides the combined five-year college course1 has eight professional courses of from three to five years in length4 ,when the ,united ,states freed ,cuba1 ,porto ,rico1 and the ,philippines from ,spanish rule1 a general system of public education1 modeled after the ,american educational ladder1 was created as a safeguard to the liberty just brought to these islands1 and to education the ,united ,states added courts of justice and bureaus of sanitation as important auxiliary agencies4 ,as a result the peoples of these islands have made a degree of progress in self-government and industry in three decades not made in three centuries under ,spanish rule4 ,the good results of the work done in these islands in establishing schools1 building roads and bridges1 introducing police courts1 establishing good sanitary conditions1 building hospitals and training nurses1 applying science to agriculture1 developing tropical medicine1 and training the people in the difficult art of self- government1 will for long be a monument to the political foresight and intelligent conceptions of government held by the ,american people4 ,in a similar way the ,french have opened schools in ,morocco1 ,algiers1 ,tunis1 ,senegal1 ,madagascar1 and ,french ,indo-,china1 as have the ,english in ,egypt1 ,india1 ,hong ,kong1 #bf the ,west ,indies1 and elsewhere4 ,with the freeing of ,palestine from the rule of the ,turk1 the ,english at once began the establishment of schools and a national university there1 and doubtless they will do the same in time in ,persia and ,mesopotamia4 ,germany1 too1 before the ,world ,war1 but with less benevolent purposes than the ,americans1 the ,french1 or the ,english1 was also busily engaged in extending her influence through education4 ,her universities were thrown open to students from the whole world1 and excellent instruction did they offer4 ,the ,society for the ,extension of ,germanism in ,foreign ,countries rendered an important service4 ,professors were exchanged2 the introduction of instruction in the ,german language into the schools of other nations was promoted2 and ,german schools were founded and encouraged abroad4 ,especially were ,realschulen promoted to teach the wonders of ,german science1 pure and applied4 ,in southern ,brazil and the ,argentine1 and in ,roumania1 ,bulgaria1 and ,turkey1 particular efforts were made to extend ,german influence and pave the way for ,german commercial and perhaps political expansion4 ,primary schools1 girls' schools1 and ,real-schools in numbers were founded and aided abroad1 and their progress reported to the colonial minister at home4 ,all through the ,near ,east the ,german was busily building1 through trade and education1 a new empire for himself4 ,had he been content to follow the slower paths of peaceful commercial and intellectual conquest1 with his wonderful organization he would have been irresistible4 ,with one gambler's throw he dashed his future to the ground1 and unmasked himself before the world6 ,,expansion ,,of ,,the ,,educational ,,idea4 ,in all lands to-day where there is an intelligent government1 the education of the people through a system of state-controlled schools is regarded as of the first importance in moulding and shaping the destinies of the nation and promoting the country's welfare4 ,beginning with education to impart the ability to read and write and cipher1 and as an aid to the political side of government1 the education of the masses has been so expanded in scope during the century that today it includes aims1 classes1 types of schools1 and forms of service scarcely dreamed of at the time the ,state began to take over the school from the ,church1 with a view to extending elementary educational advantages and promoting literacy and citizenship4 ,what some of the more important of these expansions have been we shall state in a following chapter1 but before doing so let us return to another phase of the problem--that of the progress of educational theory--and see what have been the main lines of this progress in the theory as to the educational purpose since the time when ,pestalozzi formulated a theory for the secular school4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,what does the emphasis on the ,people's ,high ,schools in ,denmark indicate as to the political status of the common people there8 #b4 ,explain the educational prominence of ,finland1 compared with its neighbor ,russia4 #c4 ,show the close relation between the character of the school system developed in ,japan and the character of its government4 ,in ,china4 #d4 ,show why the state-function conception of education is destined to be the ruling plan everywhere4 #e4 ,show the close connection between the ,industrial ,revolution and a somewhat general diffusion of the fundamental principles revealed by the study of science4 #f4 ,show how the ,industrial ,revolution has created entirely new problems in education1 and what some of these are4 #g4 ,show the connection between the ,industrial ,revolution and political enfranchisement4 #h4 ,enumerate some of the educational problems we now face that we should not have had to deal with had the ,industrial ,revolution not taken place4 #i4 ,why has the result of these changes been to extend the period of dependence and tutelage of children8 #aj4 ,outline an educational solution of the problem of ,mexico4 ,of ,russia4 ,of ,persia4 #aa4 ,show how ,germany found it profitable to establish ,realschulen in such distant countries as ,turkey1 ,mesopotamia1 and the ,argentine4 #ab4 ,describe the expansion of the educational idea since the days when ,pestalozzi formulated the theory for the secular school4 #ac4 ,what is the social significance of the development of parallel secondary schools and courses1 in all lands8 #ad4 ,contrast the ,american and the ,european secondary school in purpose4 ,why should the ,american be a free school1 while those in ,europe are tuition schools8 #ae4 ,show why the essentially democratic school system maintained in the ,united ,states would not be suited to an autocratic form of government4 #af4 ,show that the weight of a priesthood and the force of religious instruction in the schools would be strong supports for monarchical forms of government4 #ag4 ,homogeneous monarchical nations look after the training of their teachers much better than does such a cosmopolitan nation as the ,united ,states4 ,why8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following illustrative selections are reproduced3 #ccc4 ,switzerland3 ,constitutional ,provisions as to ,education and ,religious ,freedom4 #ccd4 ,japan3 ,the ,basic ,documents of ,japanese ,education4 7a7 ,preamble to the ,education ,code of #ahgb4 7b7 ,imperial ,rescript on ,moral ,education4 7c7 ,instructions as to ,lessons on ,morals4 #cce4 ,ping ,wen ,kuo3 ,transformation of ,china by ,education4 #ccf4 ,mann3 ,education and ,national ,prosperity4 #ccg4 ,huxley3 ,the ,recent ,progress of ,science4 #cch4 ,anon43 ,scientific ,knowledge must precede ,invention4 #cci4 ,ticknor3 ,illustrating ,early ,lack of ,communication4 #cdj4 ,monroe3 ,the ,struggle for ,national ,realization4 #cda4 ,buisson1 ,f43 ,the ,french ,teacher and the ,national ,spirit4 #cdb4 ,fr4 de ,hovre3 ,the ,german ,emphasis on ,national ,ends4 #cdc4 ,stuntz3 ,landing of the ,pilgrims at ,manila4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,compare the ,swiss and ,american ,federal organizations1 and state just what the ,swiss ,constitution 7#ccc7 provides as to education4 #b4 ,suppose you knew nothing about the ,japanese1 what type of government would you take theirs to be from reading the ,imperial ,rescript 7#ccd;b78 #c4 ,in comparing the ,chinese transformation and the ,renaissance 7#cce71 does ,mr4 ,ping propose comparable events8 #d4 ,show that ,mr4 ,mann's argument 7#ccf7 is still sound4 #e4 ,does ,huxley overdraw 7#ccg7 our dependence on science8 #f4 ,from #cch1 show why the ,middle ,ages were so poor in inventions and discoveries4 #g4 ,are there universities anywhere to-day of which we know as little as ,ticknor was able to find out 7#cci7 a century ago8 #h4 ,show that ,monroe's statements are true that the struggle for national realization 7#cdj7 has dominated modern history from the fifteenth century on4 #i4 ,compare the conceptions as to the function of education in a ,state as revealed in the selections as to ,french 7#cda7 and ,german 7#cdb7 educational purpose4 #aj4 ,show the entirely new character of the event 7#cdc7 described by ,stuntz4 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,buisson1 ,f4 and ,farrington1 ,f4 ,e4 ,french ,educational ,ideals of ,to- day4 ,butler1 ,n4 ,m4 ,status of ,education at the ,close of the ,century2 in ,proceedings ,national ,education ,association1 #aijj1 pp4 #ahh-if4 ,davidson1 ,thos4 ,education as ,world ,building2 in ,educational ,review1 vol4 xx1 pp4 #cbe-de4 7,november1 #aijj47 ,doolittle1 ,wm4 ,h4 ,inventions of the ,century4 ,foster1 ,m4 ,a ,century's ,progress in ,science2 in ,educational ,review1 vol4 xviii1 pp4 #cac-ca4 7,november1 #ahii47 99 ,friedel1 ,v4 ,h4 ,the ,german ,school as a ,war ,nursery4 ,gibbons1 ,h4 de ,b4 ,economic and ,industrial ,progress of the ,century4 ,hughes1 ,j4 ,l41 and ,klemm1 ,l4 ,r4 ,progress of ,education in the ,nineteenth ,century4 99 ,huxley1 ,thos4 ,the ,progress of ,science2 in his ,methods and ,results4 99 ,kuo1 ,ping ,wen4 ,the ,chinese ,system of ,public ,education4 ,lewis1 ,r4 ,e4 ,the ,educational ,conquest of the ,far ,east4 ,macknight1 ,thos4 ,political ,progress of the ,century4 99 ,ross1 ,e4 ,a4 ,the ,world ,wide ,advance of ,democracy2 in his ,changing ,america4 ,routledge1 ,r4 ,a ,popular ,history of ,science4 ,sandiford1 ,peter1 ,editor4 ,comparative ,education4 99 ,sedgwick1 ,w4 ,t41 and ,tyler1 ,h4 ,w4 ,a ,short ,history of ,science4 99 ,thwing1 ,c4 ,f4 ,education in the ,far ,east4 ,webster1 ,w4 ,c4 ,general ,history of ,commerce4 ,white1 ,a4 ,d4 ,the-,warfare of ,science and ,theology4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,new ,,conceptions ,,of ,,the ,,educational ,,process ,i4 ,,the ,,psychological ,,organization ,,of ,,elementary ,,instruction ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,normal-,,school ,,training4 ,the training of would-be teachers for the work of instruction is an entirely modern proceeding4 ,the first class definitely organized for imparting training to teachers1 concerning which we have any record1 was a small local training group of teachers of reading and the ,catechism1 conducted by ,father ,dmia1 at ,lyons1 ,france1 in #afgb4 ,the first normal school to be established anywhere was that founded at ,rheims1 in northern ,france1 in #afhe1 by ,abb de la ,salle 7p4 #cdg74 ,he had founded the ,order of ,the ,brothers of the ,christian ,schools the preceding year1 to provide free religious instruction for children of the working classes in ,france 7,r4 #ahb71 and he conceived the new idea of creating a special school to train his prospective teachers for the teaching work of his ,order4 ,shortly afterward he established two similar institutions in ,paris4 ,each institution he called a ,seminary for ,schoolmasters4 ,in addition to imparting a general education of the type of the time1 and a thorough grounding in religion1 his student teachers were trained to teach in practice schools1 under the direction of experienced teachers4 ,this was an entirely new idea4 ,the beginnings elsewhere1 as we have previously pointed out were made in ,german lands1 ,francke's ,seminarium ,praeceptorum1 established at ,halle 7p4 #dai71 in #afig1 coming next in point of time4 ,in #agch ,johann ,julius ,hecker 7#agjg-fh71 one of ,francke's teachers 7p4 #efb71 established the first regular ,seminary for ,teachers in ,prussia1 and in #agdh he established a private ,lehrerseminar in ,berlin4 ,in these two institutions he first showed the ,german people the possibilities of special training for teachers in the secondary school4 ,in #agec the ,berlin institution was adopted as a ,royal ,teachers' ,seminary 7p4 #efc7 by ,frederick the ,great4 ,after this1 and in part due to the enthusiastic support of the ,berlin institution by the ,king1 the teacher-training idea for secondary teachers began to find favor among the ,germans4 ,we accordingly find something like a dozen ,teachers' ,seminaries had been founded in ,german lands before the close of the eighteenth century4 #a ,a normal school was established in ,denmark1 by royal decree1 as early as #aghi1 and five additional schools when the law organizing public instruction in ,denmark was enacted1 in #ahad4 ,in ,france the beginnings of state action came with the action of the ,national ,convention1 which decreed the establishment of the ,superior ,normal ,school for ,france1 in #agid 7p4 #eag74 ,this institution1 though1 was short lived1 and the real beginnings of the ,french higher normal school awaited the reorganizing work of ,napoleon1 in #ahjh 7p4 #eie2 ,r4 #bhc74 ,the schools just mentioned represent the first institutions in the history of the world organized for the purpose of training teachers to teach4 ,the teachers they trained1 though1 were intended primarily for the secondary schools1 and the training was largely academic in character4 ,only in ,silesia was any effort made1 before the nineteenth century1 to give training in special institutions to teachers intended for the vernacular schools4 ,there ,frederick the ,great1 in his ,regulations for the ,catholic ,schools of ,silesia 7,r4 #bge1 a #b7 designated six cathedral and monastery schools as model schools1 where teachers could have the opportunity for learning all that is needed by a good teacher4 ,in another place he defined this as skill in singing and playing the organ sufficient to perform the services of the ,church1 and the art of instructing the young in the ,german language 7,r4 #bge1 a #a74 ,so long as the instruction in the vernacular school consisted chiefly of reading and the ,catechism1 and of hearing pupils recite what they had memorized1 there was of course but little need for any special training for the teachers4 ,it was not until after ,pestalozzi had done his work and made his contribution that there was anything worth mentioning to train teachers for4 ,,pestalozzi',s ,,contribution4 ,the memorable work done by ,pestalozzi in ,switzerland1 during his quarter-century 7#ahjj-be7 of effort at ,burgdorf and ,yverdon1 changed the whole face of the preparation of teachers problem4 ,his work was so fundamental that it completely redirected the education of children4 ,taking the seed-thought of ,rousseau that sense- impression was the only true foundation of human knowledge 7,r4 #bfg71 he enlarged this to the conception of the mental development of human beings as being organic1 and proceeding according to law4 ,his extension of this idea of ,rousseau's led him to declare that education was an individual development1 a drawing-out and not a pouring-in2 that the basis of all education exists in the nature of man2 and that the method of education is to be sought and constructed4 #b ,these were his great contributions4 ,these ideas fitted in well with the rising tide of individualism which marked the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries1 and upon these contributions the modern secular elementary school has been built4 ,these ideas led ,pestalozzi to emphasize sense perception and expression2 to formulate the rule that in teaching we must proceed from the concrete to the abstract2 and to construct a faculty psychology which conceived of education as a harmonious development of the different faculties of the mind4 ,he also tried1 unsuccessfully to be sure1 to so organize the teaching process that eventually it could be so mechanized that there would be a regular ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 for each type of instruction1 which1 once learned1 would give perfection to a teacher4 ,in his ,report of #ahjj 7,r4 #bfg71 which forms a very clear statement of his aims1 he had said3 ,i know what ,i am undertaking2 but neither the difficulties in the way1 nor my own limitations in skill and insight1 shall hinder me from giving my mite for a purpose which ,europe needs so much444 ,the most essential point from which ,i start is this3--,sense-impression of ,nature is the only true foundation of human knowledge4 ,all that follows is the result of this sense-impression1 and the process of abstraction from it4444 ,then the problem ,i have to solve is this3--,how to bring the elements of every art into harmony with the very nature of mind1 by following the psychological mechanical laws by which mind rises from physical sense-impressions to clear ideas4 ,largely out of these ideas and the new direction he gave to instruction the modern normal school for training teachers for the elementary schools arose4 ,,oral ,,and ,,objective ,,teaching ,,developed4 ,up to the time of ,pestalozzi1 and for years after he had done his work1 in many lands and places the instruction of children continued to be of the memorization of textbook matter and of the recitation type4 ,the children learned what was down in the book1 and recited the answers to the teacher4 ,many of the early textbooks were constructed on the plan of the older ,catechism--that is1 on a question and answer plan 7,r4 #cea a74 ,there was nothing for children to do but to memorize such textbook material1 or for the teacher but to see that the pupils knew the answers to the questions4 ,it was school-keeping1 not teaching1 that teachers were engaged in4 ,the form of instruction worked out by ,pestalozzi1 based on sense- perception1 reasoning1 and individual judgment1 called for a complete change in classroom procedure4 ,what ,pestalozzi tried most of all to do was to get children to use their senses and their minds1 to look carefully1 to count1 to observe forms1 to get1 by means of their five important senses1 clear impressions and ideas as to objects and life in the world about them1 and then to think over what they had seen and be able to answer his questions1 because they had observed carefully and reasoned clearly4 ,pestalozzi thus clearly subordinated the printed book to the use of the child's senses1 and the repetition of mere words to clear ideas about things4 ,pestalozzi thus became one of the first real teachers4 ,this was an entirely new process1 and for the first time in history a real technique of instruction was now called for4 ,dependence on the words of the text could no longer be relied upon4 ,the oral instruction of a class group1 using real objects1 called for teaching skill4 ,the class must be kept naturally interested and under control2 the essential elements to be taught must be kept clearly in the mind of the teacher2 the teacher must raise the right kind of questions1 in the right order1 to carry the class thinking along to the right conclusions2 and1 since so much of this type of instruction was not down in books1 it called for a much more extended knowledge of the subject on the part of the teacher than the old type of school-keeping had done4 ,the teacher must now both know and be able to organize and direct4 ,class lessons must be thought out in advance1 and teacher-preparation in itself meant a great change in teaching procedure4 ,emancipated from dependence on the words of a text1 and able to stand before a class full of a subject and able to question freely1 teachers became conscious of a new strength and a professional skill unknown in the days of textbook reciting4 ,out of such teaching came oral language lessons1 drill in speech usage1 elementary science instruction1 observational geography1 mental arithmetic1 music1 and drawing1 to add to the old instruction in the ,catechism1 reading1 writing1 and ciphering1 and all these new subjects1 taught according to ,pestalozzian ideas as to purpose1 called for an individual technique of instruction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4 ,,the ,,first ,,modern ,,normal ,,school ,the old castle at ,yverdon1 where ,pestalozzi's ,institute was conducted and his greatest success achieved4 ,,the ,,normal ,,school ,,finds ,,its ,,place4 ,these new ideas of ,pestalozzi proved so important that during the first five or six decades of the nineteenth century the elementary school was made over4 ,the new conception of the child as a slowly developing personality1 demanding subject-matter and method suited to his stage of development1 and the new conception of teaching as that of directing mental development instead of hearing recitations and keeping school1 now replaced the earlier knowledge- conception of school work4 ,where before the ability to organize and discipline a school had constituted the chief art of instruction1 now the ability to teach scientifically took its place as the prime professional requisite4 ,a science and art of teaching now arose2 methodology soon became a great subject2 the new subject of pedagogy began to take form and secure recognition2 and psychology became the guiding science of the school4 ,as these changes took place1 the normal school began to come into favor in the leading countries of ,europe and in the ,united ,states1 and in time has established itself everywhere as an important educational institution4 ,pestalozzi had himself conducted the first really modern teacher-training school1 and his work was soon copied in a number of the ,swiss cantons4 ,other cantons1 on the contrary1 for a time would have nothing to do with the new idea4 #a4 ,the ,german ,states4 ,the first nation1 though1 to take up the teacher- training idea and establish it as an important part of its state school system was ,prussia4 ,beginning in #ahji with the work of ,zeller 7p4 #efi71 by #ahdj there were thirty-eight ,teachers' ,seminaries1 as the normal schools in ,german lands have been called1 in ,prussia alone4 ,the idea was also quickly taken up by the other ,german ,states1 and from the first decade of the nineteenth century on no nation has done more with the normal school1 or used it1 ends desired considered1 to better advantage than have the ,germans4 ,one of the features of the ,prussian schools which most impressed ,professor ,bache1 when he visited the schools of the ,german ,states in #ahch1 was the excellence of the ,seminaries for ,teachers 7,r4 #cdd71 and these he described 7,r4 #cde7 in some detail in his ,report4 ,horace ,mann1 similarly1 on his visit to ,europe1 in #ahdc1 was impressed with the thoroughness of the training given prospective teachers in the ,teachers' ,seminaries of the ,german ,states 7,r4 #bgh74 ,university pedagogical seminars were also established early 7c4 #ahaj7 #c in the universities1 for the training of secondary teachers1 and this training was continued with increasing thoroughness up to #aiad4 ,every teacher in the ,german ,states1 elementary or secondary1 before that date1 was a carefully-trained teacher4 ,this was a feature of the ,german state school systems of the pre-,war period of which no other nation could boast4 #b4 ,france4 ,after the ,german ,states1 ,france probably comes next as the nation in which the normal school has been most used for training teachers4 ,the ,superior ,normal ,school had been recreated in #ahjh 7,r4 #bhc71 and after the downfall of ,napoleon the creation of normal schools for elementary-school teachers was begun4 ,twelve had been established by #ahcj1 and between #ahcj and #ahcc thirty additional schools for training these teachers were begun 7,r4 #bhe74 ,these rendered a service for ,france 7,r4 #cdf7 quite similar to that rendered by the ,teachers' ,seminaries in ,german lands4 ,during the period of reaction1 from #ahdh to #ahgj1 the normal school did not prosper in ,france1 but since #ahgj a normal school to train elementary teachers has been established for men and one for women in each of the eighty-seven departments into which ,france1 for administrative purposes1 has been divided4 ,satisfactory provision has also been made for the training of teachers for the secondary schools4 #c4 ,the ,united ,states4 ,the ,united ,states has also been prominent1 especially since about #ahgj1 in the development of normal schools for the training of elementary teachers4 ,the ,lancastrian schools had trained monitors for their work1 but the first teacher-training school in the ,united ,states to give training to individual teachers was opened privately1 #d in #ahbc1 and the second in a similar manner1 #e in #ahbg4 ,these were almost entirely academic institutions1 being in the nature of tuition high schools1 with a little practice teaching and some lectures on the ,art of ,teaching added in the last year of the course4 ,in #ahbf ,governor ,clinton recommended to the legislature of ,new ,york the establishment by the ,state of a seminary for the education of teachers in the monitorial system of instruction4 ,nothing coming of this1 in #ahbg he recommended the creation of a central school in each county for the education of teachers 7,r4 #cdi74 ,that year 7#ahbg7 the ,new ,york legislature appropriated money to aid the academies to promote the education of teachers--the first state aid in the ,united ,states for teacher-training4 ,the publication of an ,english edition of ,cousin's ,report 7p4 #eig2 ,r4 #bhd7 in ,new ,york1 in #ahce2 ,calvin ,e4 ,stowe's ,report on ,elementary ,education in ,europe1 #f in #ahcg2 and ,alexander ,d4 ,bache's ,report on ,education in ,europe 7,rs4 #cdd1 #cde71 in #ahch1 with their strong commendations of the ,german teacher-training system1 awakened new interest in the ,united ,states1 in the matter of teacher-training4 ,finally1 in #ahci1 the legislature of ,massachusetts duplicated a gift of #aj1jjj1 and placed the money in the hands of the newly created ,state ,board of ,education 7p4 #fhi7 to be used in qualifying teachers for the common schools of ,massachusetts 7,r4 #cej a74 ,after careful consideration it was decided to create special state institutions1 after the ,german and ,french plans1 in which to give the desired training1 and the ,french term of ,normal ,school was adopted and has since become general in the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,teacher-,,training ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,by #ahfj4 ,a few private training-schools also existed1 though less than half a dozen in all4 ,on ,july #c1 #ahci1 the first state normal school in the ,united ,states opened in the town hall at ,lexington1 ,massachusetts1 with one teacher and three students4 ,later that same year a second state normal school was opened at ,barre1 and early the next year a third at ,bridgewater1 both in ,massachusetts4 ,for these the ,state ,board of ,education adopted a statement as to entrance requirements and a course of instruction 7,r4 #cej b7 which shows well the academic character of these early teaching institutions4 ,their success was largely due to the enthusiastic support given the new idea by ,horace ,mann4 ,in an address at the dedication of the first building erected in ,america for normal-school purposes1 in #ahdf1 he expressed his deep belief as to the fundamental importance of such institutions 7,r4 #cej c74 ,by #ahfj eleven state normal schools had been established in eight of the ,states of the ,american ,union1 and six private schools were also rendering similar services4 ,closely related was the ,teachers' ,institute1 first definitely organized by ,henry ,barnard in ,connecticut1 in #ahci1 to offer four- to six-weeks summer courses for teachers in service1 and these had been organized in fifteen of the ,american ,states by #ahfj4 ,since #ahgj the establishment of state normal schools has been rapid in the ,united ,states1 two hundred having been established by #aiaj1 and many since4 ,the ,united ,states1 though1 is as yet far from having a trained body of teachers for its elementary schools4 ,for the high schools1 it is only since about #ahij that the professional training of teachers for such service has really been begun4 #d4 ,england4 ,in ,england the beginnings of teacher-training came with the introduction of monitorial instruction1 both the ,bell and the ,lancaster ,societies 7p4 #fbe7 finding it necessary to train pupils for positions as monitors1 and to designate certain schools as model and training schools4 ,in #ahcc1 it will be remembered 7p4 #fch71 ,parliament made its first grant of money in aid of education4 ,up to #ahdj this was distributed through the two ,national ,societies1 and in #ahci a portion of this aid was definitely set aside to enable these ,societies to establish model schools 7,r4 #cdg74 ,from this beginning1 the model training-schools for the different religious ,societies were developed4 ,in these model schools prospective teachers were educated1 being trained in religious instruction and in the art of teaching4 ,in #ahcf1 with the founding of the ,home and ,colonial ,infant ,society1 a ,pestalozzian ,training ,college was founded by it4 ,in a further effort to secure trained teachers the government1 in #ahdf1 adopted a plan then in use in ,holland1 and instituted what became known as the pupil-teacher system 7,r4 #cdh74 ,this was an improvement on the waning monitorial training system previously in use4 ,under this1 a favorite old ,english method1 used somewhat for the same purpose a century earlier 7,r4 #bdc71 was adapted to meet the new need4' ,under it promising pupils were apprenticed to a head teacher for five years 7usually from thirteen to eighteen71 he agreeing to give them instruction in both secondary-school subjects and in the art of teaching in return for their help in the schoolroom4 ,beginning in #ahdf1 there were1 by #ahdh1 #bjj pupil teachers2 by #ahfa1 #ac1hga2 and by #ahgj1 #ad1fab4 ,this system formed the great dependence of ,england before the days of national education4 ,in #ahgd the pupil- teacher-center system was begun1 and between #ahgh and #ahif the age for entering as a pupil-teacher was raised from thirteen to sixteen1 and the years of apprenticeship reduced from five to two4 ,in most cases now the academic preparation continues to seventeen or eighteen1 and is followed by one year of practice teaching in an elementary school1 under supervision4 ,after that the teacher may1 or may not1 enter what is there known as a ,training-,college4 #g ,so far the training of teachers has not made such headway in ,england and ,wales as has been the case in the ,german ,states1 ,france1 the ,united ,states1 or ,scotland1 but important progress may be expected in the near future as an outcome of new educational impulses arising as a result of the ,world ,war4 ,,spread ,,of ,,the ,,normal-,,school ,,idea4 ,the movement for the creation of normal schools to train teachers for the elementary schools has in time spread to many nations4 ,as nation after nation has awakened to the desirability of establishing a system of modern-type state schools1 a normal school to train leaders has often been among the first of the institutions created4 ,the normal school1 in consequence1 is found to-day in all the continental ,european ,states2 in all the ,english self-governing dominions2 in nearly all the ,south ,american ,states2 and in ,china1 #h ,japan1 ,siam1 the ,philippines1 ,cuba1 ,algiers1 ,india1 and other less important nations4 ,in all these there is an attempt1 often reaching as yet to but a small percentage of the teachers1 to extend to them some of that training in the theory and art of instruction which has for long been so important a feature of the education of the elementary teacher in the ,german ,states1 ,france1 and the ,united ,states4 ,since about #ahij other nations have also begun to provide1 as the ,german ,states and ,france have done for so long1 some form of professional training for the teachers intended for their secondary schools #i as well4 ,,psychology ,,becomes ,,the ,,master ,,science4 ,everywhere the establishment of normal schools has meant the acceptance of the newer conceptions as to child development and the nature of the educational process4 ,these are that the child is a slowly developing personality1 needing careful study1 and demanding subject-matter and method suited to his different stages of development4 ,the new conception of teaching as that of directing and guiding the education of a child1 instead of hearing recitations and keeping school1 in time replaced the earlier knowledge-conception of school work4 ,psychology accordingly became the guiding science of the school1 and the imparting to prospective teachers proper ideas as to psychological procedure1 and the proper methodology of instruction in each of the different elementary-school subjects1 became the great work of the normal school4 ,teachers thus trained carried into the schools a new conception as to the nature of childhood2 a new and a minute methodology of instruction2 and a new enthusiasm for teaching2--all of which were important additions to school work4 ,a new methodology was soon worked out for all the subjects of instruction1 both old and new4 ,the centuries-old alphabet method of teaching reading was superseded by the word and sound methods2 the new oral language instruction was raised to a position of first importance in developing pupil-thinking2 spelling1 word-analysis1 and sentence-analysis were given much emphasis in the work of the school2 the ,pestalozzian mental arithmetic came as an important addition to the old ciphering of sums2 the old writing from copies was changed into a drill subject1 requiring careful teaching for its mastery2 the back to nature ideas of ,rousseau and ,pestalozzi proved specially fruitful in the new study of geography1 which called for observation out of doors1 the study of type forms1 and the substitution of the physical and human aspects of geography for the older political and statistical2 object lessons on natural objects1 and later science and nature study1 were used to introduce children to a knowledge of nature and to train them in thinking and observation2 while the new subjects of music and drawing came in1 each with an elaborate technique of instruction4 ,by #ahge the normal school in all lands was finding plenty to do1 and teaching1 by the new methods and according to the new psychological procedure1 seemed to many one of the most wonderful and most important occupations in the world4 ,how great a change in the scope1 as well as in the nature of elementary-school instruction had been effected in a century1 the above diagram of ,american elementary-school development will reveal4 ,history and literature1 it will be noticed1 had also come in as additional new subjects1 but these were relatively unimportant in either the elementary school or the normal school until after the coming of ,herbartian ideas1 to which we shall refer a little further on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,elementary-,,school ,,curriculum ,,and ,,of ,,methods ,,of ,,teaching ,accompanying the organization of professional instruction for teachers1 another important change in the nature of the elementary school was effected4 ,,the ,,grading ,,of ,,schoolroom ,,instruction4 ,for some time after elementary schools began it was common to teach all the children of the different ages together in one room1 or at most in two rooms4 ,in the latter case the subjects of instruction were divided between the teachers1 rather than the children4 #aj ,many of the pictures of early elementary schools show such mixed-type schools4 ,in these the children were advanced individually and by subjects as their progress warranted1 #aa until they had progressed as far as the instruction went or the teacher could teach 7,r4 #ceb74 ,from this point on the division of the elementary school into classes and a graded organization has proceeded by certain rather well-defined steps4 ,the first step 7,rs4 #cec1 #ced7 was the division of the school into two schools1 one more advanced than the other1 such as lower and higher1 or primary and grammar4 ,another division was introduced when the ,infant ,school was added1 beneath4 ,the next step was the division of each school into classes4 ,this began by the employment of assistant teachers1 in ,england and ,america known as ushers1 to help the master1 and the provision of small recitation rooms1 off the main large schoolroom1 to which the usher could take his class to hear recitations4 ,the third and final step came with the erection of a new type of school building1 with smaller and individual classrooms1 or the subdivision of the larger schoolrooms4 ,it was then possible to assign a teacher to each classroom1 sort and grade the pupils by ages and advancement1 outline the instruction by years1 and the modern graded elementary school was at hand4 ,the transition to the graded elementary school came easily and naturally4 ,for half a century the course of instruction in the evolving elementary state school had been in process of expansion4 ,pestalozzi paved the way for its creation by changing the purpose and direction1 and greatly enlarging 7p4 #edc7 the field of instruction of the vernacular school4 ,after him other new subjects of study were added 7see diagram1 ,figure #bbf71 new and better and longer textbooks were prepared 7,r4 #cea71 and the school term was gradually lengthened4 ,the way in time became clear1 earliest in the ,german lands and in a few ,american cities1 but by about #ahej in most leading nations1 for that simple reorganization of school work which would divide the school into a number of classes1 or forms1 or grades1 and give one to each teacher to handle4 ,when this point had been reached1 which came about #ahej to #ahfj in most nations1 but earlier in a few1 the modern type of town or city graded elementary school was at hand4 ,teaching had by this time become an organized and a psychological process2 graded courses of study began to appear2 professional school superintendents began to be given the direction and supervision of instruction2 and the modern science of school organization and administration began to take shape4 ,from this point on the further development of the graded elementary public school has come through the addition of new materials of instruction1 and by changing the direction of the school to adapt it better to meeting the new needs of society brought about by the scientific1 industrial1 social1 and political revolutions which we1 in previous chapters1 have described4 ,a few of the more important of these additions and changes in direction we shall now briefly describe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4 ,,an ,,usher ,,and ,,his ,,class4 ,the usher1 or assistant teacher1 is here shown with a class in one of the small recitation-rooms1 off the large schoolroom4 ,,ii4 ,,new ,,ideas ,,from ,,herbartian ,,sources ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,herbart4 ,taking up the problem as ,pestalozzi left it1 a ,german by the name of ,johann ,friedrich ,herbart 7#aggf-ahda7 carried it forward by organizing a truer psychology for the whole educational process1 by erecting a new social aim for instruction1 by formulating new steps in method1 and by showing the place and the importance of properly organized instruction in history and literature in the education of the child4 ,though the two men were entirely different in type1 and worked along entirely different lines1 the connection between ,herbart and ,pestalozzi was1 nevertheless1 close4 #ab ,the two men1 however1 approached the educational problem from entirely different angles4 ,pestalozzi gave nearly all his long life to teaching and human service1 while ,herbart taught only as a traveling private tutor for three years1 and later a class of twenty children in his university practice school4 ,pestalozzi was a social reformer1 a visionary1 and an impractical enthusiast1 but was possessed of a remarkable intuitive insight into child nature4 ,herbart1 on the other hand1 was a well-trained scholarly thinker1 who spent the most of his life in the peaceful occupation of a professor of philosophy in a ,german university4 #ac ,it was while at ,knigsberg1 between #ahaj and #ahcb1 and as an appendix to his work as professor of philosophy1 that he organized a small practice school1 conducted a ,pedagogical ,seminar1 and worked out his educational theory and method4 ,his work was a careful1 scholarly attempt at the organization of education as a science1 carried out amid the peace and quiet which a university atmosphere almost alone affords4 ,he addressed himself chiefly to three things3 7#a7 the aim1 7#b7 the content1 and 7#c7 the method of instruction4 ,,the ,,aim ,,and ,,the ,,content ,,of ,,education4 ,locke had set up as the aim of education the ideal of a physically sound gentleman4 ,rousseau had declared his aim to be to prepare his boy for life by developing naturally his inborn capacities4 ,pestalozzi had sought to regenerate society by means of education1 and to prepare children for society by a harmonious training of their faculties4 ,herbart rejected alike the conventional-social education of ,locke1 the natural and unsocial education of ,rousseau1 and the faculty-psychology conception of education of ,pestalozzi4 ,instead he conceived of the mind as a unity1 instead of being divided into faculties1 and the aim of education as broadly social rather than personal4 ,the purpose of education1 he said1 was to prepare men to live properly in organized society1 and hence the chief aim in education was not conventional fitness1 natural development1 mere knowledge1 nor personal mental power1 but personal character and social morality4 ,this being the case1 the educator should analyze the interests and occupations and social responsibilities of men as they are grouped in organized society1 and1 from such analyses1 deduce the means and the method of instruction4 ,man's interests1 he said1 come from two main sources--his contact with the things in his environment 7real things1 sense- impressions71 and from his relations with human beings 7social intercourse74 ,his social responsibilities and duties are determined by the nature of the social organization of which he forms a part4 ,pestalozzi had provided fairly well for the first group of contacts1 through his instruction in objects1 home geography1 numbers1 and geometric form4 ,for the second group of contacts ,pestalozzi had developed only oral language1 and to this ,herbart now added the two important studies of literature and history1 and history with the emphasis on the social rather than the political side4 ,two new elementary-school subjects were thus developed1 each important in revealing to man his place in the social whole4 ,history in particular ,herbart conceived to be a study of the first importance for revealing proper human relationships1 and leading men to social and national good-will4 ,the chief purpose of education ,herbart held to be to develop personal character and to prepare for social usefulness 7,r4 #cee74 ,these virtues1 he held1 proceeded from enough of the right kind of knowledge1 properly interpreted to the pupil so that clear ideas as to relationships might be formed4 ,to impart this knowledge interest must be awakened1 and to arouse interest in the many kinds of knowledge needed1 a many-sided development must take place4 ,from full knowledge1 and with proper instruction by the teacher1 clear ideas or concepts might be formed1 and clear ideas ought to lead to right action1 and right action to personal character--the aim of all instruction4 ,herbart was the first writer on education to place the great emphasis on proper instruction1 and to exalt teaching and proper teaching-procedure instead of mere knowledge or intellectual discipline4 ,he thus conceived of the educational process as a science in itself1 having a definite content and method1 and worthy of special study by those who desire to teach4 ,,herbartian ,,method4 ,with these ideas as to the aim and content of instruction1 ,herbart worked out a theory of the instructional process and a method of instruction 7,r4 #cef74 ,interest he held to be of first importance as a prerequisite to good instruction4 ,if given spontaneously1 well and good2 but1 if necessary1 forced interest must be resorted to4 ,skill in instruction is in part to be determined by the ability of the teacher to secure interest without resorting to force on the one hand or sugar-coating of the subject on the other4 ,taking ,pestalozzi's idea that the purpose of the teacher was to give pupils new experiences through contacts with real things1 without assuming that the pupils already had such1 ,herbart elaborated the process by which new knowledge is assimilated in terms of what one already knows1 and from his elaboration of this principle the doctrine of apperception--that is1 the apperceiving or comprehending of new knowledge in terms of the old--has been fixed as an important principle in educational psychology4 ,good instruction1 then1 involves first putting the child into a proper frame of mind to apperceive the new knowledge1 and hence this becomes a corner-stone of all good teaching method4 ,herbart did not always rely on such methods1 holding that the committing to memory of certain necessary facts often was necessary1 but he held that the mere memorizing of isolated facts1 which had characterized school instruction for ages1 had little value for either educational or moral ends4 ,the teaching of mere facts often was very necessary1 but such instruction called for a methodical organization of the facts by the teacher1 so as to make their learning contribute to some definite purpose4 ,this called for a purpose in instruction2 the organization of the facts necessary to be taught so as to select the most useful ones2 the connection of these so as to establish the principle which was the purpose of the instruction2 and training in systematic thinking by applying the principle to new problems of the type being studied4 ,the carrying-out of such ideas meant the careful organization of the teaching process and teaching method1 to secure certain predetermined ends in child development1 instead of mere miscellaneous memorizing and school-keeping4 ,,the ,,herbartian ,,movement ,,in ,,germany4 ,herbart died in #ahda1 without having awakened any general interest in his ideas1 and they remained virtually unnoticed until #ahfe4 ,in that year a professor at ,leipzig1 ,tuiskon ,ziller 7#ahag-ahhc71 published a book setting forth ,herbart's idea of instruction as a moral force4 ,this attracted much attention1 and led to the formation 7#ahfh7 of a scientific society for the study of ,herbart's ideas4 ,ziller and his followers now elaborated ,herbart's ideas1 advanced the theory of culture-epochs in child development1 the theory of concentration in studies1 and elaborated the four steps in the process of instruction1 as described by ,herbart1 into the five formal steps of the modern ,herbartian school4 ,in #ahgd a pedagogical seminary and practice school was organized at the ,university of ,jena1 and in #ahhe this came under the direction of ,professor ,william ,rein1 a pupil of ,ziller's1 who developed the practice school according to the ideas of ,ziller4 ,a detailed course of study for this school1 filling two large volumes1 was worked out1 and the practice lessons given were thoroughly planned beforehand and the methods employed were subjected to a searching analysis after the lesson had been given4 ,,herbartian ,,ideas ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,for a time1 under the inspiration of ,ziller and ,rein1 ,jena became an educational center to which students went from many lands4 ,from the work at ,jena ,herbartian ideas have spread which have modified elementary educational procedure generally4 ,in particular did the work at ,jena make a deep impression in the ,united ,states4 ,between #ahhe and #ahij a number of ,americans studied at ,jena and1 returning1 brought back to the ,united ,states this ,ziller-,rein-,jena brand of ,herbartian ideas and practices4 #ad ,from the first the new ideas met with enthusiastic approval4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ah4 ,,two ,,leaders ,,in ,,the ,,reorganization ,,of ,,educational ,,theory ,,johann ,,friedrich ,,herbart 7#aggf-ahda7 ,organizer of the ,psychology of ,instruction ,,friedrich ,,wilhelm ,,troebel 7#aghb-aheb7 ,founder of the ,kindergarten ,new methods of instruction in history and literature1 and a new psychology1 were now added to the normal-school professional instruction4 ,though this psychology has since been outgrown 7,r4 #ceg71 it has been very useful in shaping pedagogical thought4 ,new courses of study for the training-schools were now worked out in which the elementary-school subjects were divided into drill subjects1 content subjects1 and motor- activity subjects4 #ae ,apperception1 interest1 correlation1 social purpose1 moral education1 citizenship training1 and recitation methods became new terms to conjure with4 ,from the normal schools these ideas spread rapidly to the better city school systems of the time1 and soon found their way into courses of study everywhere4 ,practice schools and the model lessons in dozens of normal schools were remodeled after the pattern of those at ,jena1 and for a decade ,herbartian ideas and the new child study vied with one another for the place of first importance in educational thinking4 ,the ,herbartian wave of the nineties resembled the ,pestalozzian enthusiasm of the sixties4 ,each for a time furnished the new ideas in education1 each introduced elements of importance into the elementary-school instruction1 each deeply influenced the training of teachers in normal schools by giving a new turn to the instruction there1 and each gradually settled down into its proper place in educational practice and history4 ,,the ,,herbartian ,,contribution4 ,to the ,herbartians we are indebted in particular for important new conceptions as to the teaching of history and literature1 which have modified all our subsequent procedure2 for the introduction of history teaching in some form into all the elementary- school grades2 for the emphasis on a new social point of view in the teaching of history and geography2 for the new emphasis on the moral aim in instruction2 for a new and a truer educational psychology2 and for a better organization of the technique of classroom instruction4 ,in particular ,herbart gave emphasis to that part of educational development which comes from without--environment acting upon the child--as contrasted with the emphasis ,pestalozzi had placed on mental development from within and according to organic law4 ,with the introduction of normal child activities1 which came from another source about this same time1 the elementary-school curriculum as we now have it was practically complete1 and the elementary school of #ahej was completely made over to form the elementary school of the beginning of the twentieth century4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,kindergarten1 ,,play1 ,,and ,,manual ,,activities ,to another ,german1 ,friedrich ,froebel 7#aghb-aheb71 we are indebted1 directly or indirectly1 for three other additions to elementary education --the kindergarten1 the play idea1 and handwork activities4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,kindergarten4 ,of ,german parentage1 the son of a rural clergyman1 early estranged from his parents1 retiring and introspective by nature1 having led a most unhappy childhood1 and apprenticed to a forester without his wishes being consulted1 at twenty-three ,froebel decided to become a schoolteacher and visited ,pestalozzi in ,switzerland4 ,two years later he became the tutor of three boys1 and then spent the years #ahjh-aj as a student and teacher in ,pestalozzi's ,institute at ,yverdon4 ,during his years there ,froebel was deeply impressed with the great value of music and play in the education of children1 and of all that he carried away from ,pestalozzi's institution these ideas were most persistent4 ,after serving in a variety of occupations--student1 soldier against ,napoleon1 and curator in a museum of mineralogy--he finally opened a little private school1 in #ahaf1 which he conducted for a decade along ,pestalozzian lines4 ,in this the play idea1 music1 and the self-activity of the pupils were uppermost4 ,the school was a failure1 financially1 but while conducting it ,froebel thought out and published 7#ahbf7 his most important pedagogical work--,the ,education of ,man4 ,gradually ,froebel became convinced that the most needed reform in education concerned the early years of childhood4 ,his own youth had been most unhappy1 and to this phase of education he now addressed himself4 ,after a period as a teacher in ,switzerland he returned to ,germany and opened a school for little children in which plays1 games1 songs1 and occupations involving self-activity were the dominating characteristics1 and in #ahdj he hit upon the name ,kindergarten for it4 ,in #ahdc his ,mutter- und ,kose-,lieder1 a book of fifty songs and games1 was published4 ,this has been translated into almost all languages4 ,,spread ,,of ,,the ,,kindergarten ,,idea4 ,after a series of unsuccessful efforts to bring his new idea to the attention of educators1 ,froebel1 himself rather a feminine type1 became discouraged and resolved to address himself henceforth to women1 as they seemed much more capable of understanding him1 and to the training of teachers in the new ideas4 ,froebel was fortunate in securing as one of his most ardent disciples1 just before his death1 the ,baroness ,bertha von ,marenholtz ,bulow-,wendhausen 7#ahaj-ic71 who did more than any other person to make his work known4 ,meeting1 in #ahdi1 the man mentioned to her as an old fool1 she understood him1 and spent the remainder of her life in bringing to the attention of the world the work of this unworldly man who did not know how to make it known for himself4 ,in #ahea the ,prussian ,government1 fearing some revolutionary designs in the new idea1 and acting in a manner thoroughly characteristic of the political reaction which by that time had taken hold of all ,german official life1 forbade kindergartens in ,prussia4 ,the ,baroness then went to ,london and lectured there on ,froebel's ideas1 organizing kindergartens in the ,english ragged schools4 ,here1 by contrast1 she met with a cordial reception4 ,she later expounded ,froebelian ideas in ,paris1 ,italy1 ,switzerland1 ,holland1 ,belgium1 and 7after #ahfj1 when the prohibition was removed7 in ,germany4 ,in #ahgj she founded a kindergarten training-college in ,dresden4 ,many of her writings have been translated into ,english1 and published in the ,united ,states4 ,considering the importance of this work1 and the time which has since elapsed1 the kindergarten idea has made relatively small progress on the continent of ,europe4 ,its spirit does not harmonize with autocratic government4 ,in ,germany and the old ,austro-,hungary it had made but little progress up to #aiad4 ,its greatest progress in ,europe1 perhaps1 has been in democratic ,switzerland4 #af ,in ,england and ,france1 the two great leaders in democratic government1 the ,infant-,school development1 which came earlier1 has prevented any marked growth of the kindergarten4 ,in ,england1 though1 the ,infant ,school has recently been entirely transformed by the introduction into it of the kindergarten spirit4 #ag ,in ,france1 infant education has taken a somewhat different direction4 #ah ,in the ,united ,states the kindergarten idea has met with a most cordial reception4 ,in no country in the world has the spirit of the kindergarten been so caught and applied to school work1 and probably nowhere has the original kindergarten idea been so expanded and improved4 #ai ,the first kindergarten in the ,united ,states was a ,german kindergarten1 established at ,watertown1 ,wisconsin1 in #ahee1 by ,mrs4 ,carl ,schurz1 a pupil of ,froebel4 ,during the next fifteen years some ten other kindergartens were organized in ,german-speaking communities4 ,the first ,english-speaking kindergarten was opened privately in ,boston1 in #ahfj1 by ,miss ,elizabeth ,peabody4 ,in #ahfh a private training-college for kindergartners was opened in ,boston1 largely through ,miss ,peabody's influence1 by ,madame ,matilde ,kriege and her daughter1 who had recently arrived from ,germany4 ,in #ahgb ,miss ,marie ,boelte opened a similar teacher-training school in ,new ,york ,city1 and in #ahgc her pupil1 ,miss ,susan ,blow1 accepted the invitation of ,superintendent ,william ,t4 ,harris1 of ,st4 ,louis1 to go there and open the first public-school kindergarten in the ,united ,states4 #bj ,to-day the kindergarten is found in some form in nearly all countries in the world1 having been carried to all continents by missionaries1 educational enthusiasts1 and interested governments4 #ba ,japan early adopted the idea1 and ,china is now beginning to do so4 ,,the ,,kindergarten ,,idea4 ,the dominant idea in the kindergarten is natural but directed self-activity1 focused upon educational1 social1 and moral ends4 ,froebel believed in the continuity of a child's life from infancy onward1 and that self-activity1 determined by the child's interests and desires and intelligently directed1 was essential to the unfolding of the child's inborn capacities4 ,he saw1 more clearly than any one before him had done1 the unutilized wealth of the child's world2 that the child's chief characteristic is self-activity2 the desirability of the child finding himself through play2 and that the work of the school during these early years was to supplement the family by drawing out the child and awakening the ideal side of his nature4 ,to these ends doing1 self activity1 and expression became fundamental to the kindergarten1 and movement1 gesture1 directed play1 song1 color1 the story1 and human activities a part of kindergarten technique4 ,nature study and school gardening were given a prominent place1 and motor-activity much called into play4 ,advancing far beyond ,pestalozzi's principle of sense- impressions1 ,froebel insisted on motor-activity and learning by doing 7,r4 #ceh74 ,froebel1 as well as ,herbart1 also saw the social importance of education1 and that man must realize himself not independently amid nature1 as ,rousseau had said1 but as a social animal in coperation with his fellowmen4 ,hence he made his schoolroom a miniature of society1 a place where courtesy and helpfulness and social coperation were prominent features4 ,this social and at times reverent atmosphere of the kindergarten has always been a marked characteristic of its work4 ,to bring out social ideas many dramatic games1 such as shoemaker1 carpenter1 smith1 and farmer1 were devised and set to music4 ,the story by the teacher was made prominent1 and this was retold in language1 acted1 sung1 and often worked out constructively in clay1 blocks1 or paper4 ,other games to develop skill were worked out1 and use was made of sand1 clay1 paper1 cardboard1 and color4 ,the gifts and occupations which ,froebel devised were intended to develop constructive and aesthetic power1 and to provide for connection and development they were arranged into an organized series of playthings4 ,individual development as its aim1 motor-expression as its method1 and social coperation as its means were the characteristic ideas of this new school for little children 7,r4 #ceh74 ,,the ,,contribution ,,of ,,the ,,kindergarten4 ,wholly aside from the specific training given children during the year1 year and a half1 or two years they spend in this type of school1 the addition of the kindergarten to elementary-school work has been a force of very large significance and usefulness4 ,the idea that the child is primarily an active and not a learning animal has been given new emphasis1 and that education comes chiefly by doing has been given new force4 ,the idea that a child's chief business is play has been a new conception of large educational value4 ,the elimination of book education and harsh discipline in the kindergarten has been an idea that has slowly but gradually been extended upward into the lower grades of the elementary school4 ,to-day1 largely as a result of the spreading of the kindergarten spirit1 the world is coming to recognize play and games at something like their real social1 moral1 and educational values1 wholly aside from their benefits as concern physical welfare1 and in many places directed play is being scheduled as a regular subject in school programs4 ,music1 too1 has attained new emphasis since the coming of the kindergarten1 and methods of teaching music more in harmony with kindergarten ideas have been introduced into the schools4 ,,instruction ,,in ,,the ,,manual ,,activities4 ,froebel not only introduced constructive work--paper-folding1 weaving1 needlework1 and work with sand and clay and color--into the kindergarten1 but he also proposed to extend and develop such work for the upper years of schooling in a school for hand training which he outlined1 but did not establish4 ,his proposed plan included the elements of the so-called manual-training idea1 developed later1 and he justified such instruction on the same educational grounds that we advance to-day4 ,it was not to teach a boy a trade1 as ,rousseau had advocated1 or to train children in sense-perception1 as ,pestalozzi had employed all his manual activities1 but as a form of educational expression1 and for the purpose of developing creative power within the child4 ,the idea was advocated by a number of thinkers1 about #ahej to #ahfj1 but the movement took its rise in ,finland1 ,sweden1 and ,russia4 ,the first country to organize such work as a part of its school instruction was ,finland1 where1 as early as #aheh1 ,uno ,cygnaeus 7#ahaj-ahhh7 outlined a course for manual training involving bench and metal work1 wood-carving1 and basket-weaving4 ,in #ahff ,finland made some form of manual work compulsory for boys in all its rural schools1 and in its training- colleges for male teachers4 ,in #ahgb the government of ,sweden decided to introduce sloyd work into its schools1 partly to counteract the bad physical and moral effects of city congestion1 and partly to revivify the declining home industries of the people4 ,a sloyd school was established at ,naas1 in #ahgb1 to train teachers1 and in #ahge a second school1 known as a ,sloyd ,seminarium1 was begun4 ,the summer courses of these two schools were soon training teachers from many nations4 ,in #ahgg sloyd work was added to the ,folk ,school instruction of ,sweden4 ,at first the old native sloyd occupations were followed1 such as carpentering1 turning1 wood- carving1 brush-making1 book-binding1 and work in copper and iron1 but later the industrial element gave way to a well-organized course in educational tool work for boys from twelve to fifteen years of age1 after the ,finnish plan4 ,,spread ,,of ,,the ,,manual-,,training ,,idea4 ,france was the first of the larger ,european nations to adopt this new addition to elementary-school instruction1 a training-school being organized at ,paris in #ahgc1 and1 in #ahhb1 the instruction in manual activities was ordered introduced into all the primary schools of ,france4 ,it has required time1 though1 to provide work rooms and to realize this idea1 and it is still lacking in complete accomplishment4 ,in ,england the work was first introduced in ,london1 about #ahhg4 ,the government at once accepted the idea1 encouraged its spread1 and began to aid in the training of teachers4 ,by #aijj the work was found in all the larger cities1 and included cooking and sewing for girls1 as well as manual work for boys4 ,the training for girls goes back still farther1 and was an outgrowth of the earlier schools of industry established to train girls for domestic service 7,r4 #bda74 ,by #ahdf instruction in needlework had been begun in earnest in ,england4 ,in ,german lands needlework was also an early school subject1 while some domestic training for girls had been provided in most of the cities1 before #aiad4 ,manual training for boys1 though1 despite much propaganda work1 had made but little headway up to that time4 ,as in the case of the kindergarten1 the initiative and self-expression aspects of the manual-training movement made no appeal to those responsible for the work of the people's schools1 and1 in consequence1 the manual activities have in ,german lands been reserved largely for the continuation and vocational schools for older pupils4 ,in the ,united ,states the manual-training and household-arts ideas have found a very ready welcome4 ,curious as it may seem1 the first introduction to the ,united ,states of this new form of instruction came through the exhibit made by the ,russian government at the ,centennial ,exhibition of #ahgf1 showing the work in wood and iron made by the pupils at the ,imperial ,technical ,institute at ,moscow4 ,this1 however1 was not the ,swedish sloyd1 but a type of work especially adapted to secondary-school instruction4 ,in consequence the movement for instruction in the manual activities in the ,united ,states1 unlike in other nations1 began as a highly organized technical type of high-school instruction1 #bb while the elementary- school sloyd and the household arts for girls came in later4 ,this type of technical high school has since developed rapidly in this country1 has rendered an important educational service1 and is a peculiarly ,american creation4 ,in ,europe the manual-training idea has been confined to the elementary school1 and no institution exists there which parallels these costly and well-equipped ,american technical secondary schools4 ,the introduction of manual work into the elementary schools came a little later1 and a little more slowly4 ,as early as #ahhj the ,workingmen's ,school1 founded by the ,ethical ,culture ,society of ,new ,york1 had provided a kindergarten and had extended the kindergarten constructive-work idea upward1 in the form of simple woodworking1 into its elementary school4 ,in the public schools1 experimental classes in elementary-school woodworking were tried in one school in ,boston1 as early as #ahhb1 the expense being borne privately4 ,in #ahhh the city took over these classes4 ,in #ahhf a teacher was brought to ,boston from ,sweden to introduce ,swedish sloyd1 and a teacher-training school which has been very influential was established there1 in #ahhi4 ,in #ahgf ,massachusetts permitted cities to provide instruction in sewing1 and ,springfield introduced such instruction in #ahhd1 and elementary-school instruction in knifework in #ahhf4 ,from these beginnings the movement spread1 #bc though at first rather slowly4 ,by #aijj approximately forty cities1 nearly all of them in the ,north ,atlantic group of ,states1 had introduced work in manual training and the household arts into their elementary schools1 but since that time the work has been extended to practically all cities1 and to many towns and rural communities as well4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4 ,,redirected ,,manual ,,training ,a boy mending his shoe instead of making a mortice-joint ,,contribution ,,of ,,the ,,manual-,,activities ,,idea4 ,these new forms of school work were at first advocated on the grounds of formal discipline--that they trained the reasoning1 exercised the powers of observation1 and strengthened the will4 ,the exercises1 true to such a conception1 were quite formal and uniform for all4 ,with the breakdown of the faculty psychology1 and the abandonment in large part of the doctrine of formal discipline in the training of the mind1 the whole manual-training and household-arts work has had to be reshaped4 ,as the writings of ,pestalozzi1 ,herbart1 and ,froebel were studied more closely1 and with the new light on child development gained from child-study and the newer psychology1 these new subjects came to be conceived of in their proper light as means of individual expression1 and to be extended to new forms1 materials1 colors1 and new practical and artistic ends4 ,to-day the instruction in manual work and the household arts in all their forms has been further changed to make of them educational instruments for interpreting the fields of art and industry and home-life in terms of their social significance and usefulness4 ,through these two new forms of education1 also1 the pupils in the elementary schools have been given training in expression and an insight into the practical work of life impossible in the old textbook type of elementary school4 ,in the kindergarten1 manual work1 and the household arts1 ,froebel's principle of education through directed self- activity and self-expression has borne abundant fruit4 ,in the hands of ,french1 ,english1 and ,american educators the original manual-arts idea has been greatly expanded4 ,in ,france some form of expression has been worked out for all grades of the primary school1 and the work has been closely connected with art and industry on the one hand and with the home-life of the people on the other4 ,in ,england the project system as applied to industry1 and the household arts with reference to home-life1 have been emphasized4 ,in the ,united ,states the work has been individualized perhaps more than anywhere else1 applied in many new directions--clay1 leather1 cement1 metal--and used as a very important instrument for self-expression and the development of individual thinking4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,addition ,,of ,,science ,,study ,,the ,,gradual ,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,interest ,,in ,,science4 ,a very prominent feature of world educational development1 since about the middle of the nineteenth century1 has been the general introduction into the schools of the study of science4 ,it is no exaggeration of the importance of this to say that no addition of new subject-matter and no change in the direction and purpose of education1 since that time1 has been of greater importance for the welfare of mankind1 or more significant of new world conditions1 than has been the emphasis recently placed1 in all divisions of state school systems1 on instruction in the principles and the applications of science4 ,from the days of ,francis ,bacon 7p4 #cij7 on1 the study of science has been making slow but steady progress4 ,the early history of modern science we traced in chapter ,,xvii4 ,during the seventeenth century ,english scholars were most prominent in the further development1 due largely to the greater tolerance of new ideas there1 and the ,university of ,cambridge early attained to some reputation 7p4 #dbc7 as a place where instruction in the new scientific studies might be found4 ,after the middle of the eighteenth century1 in large part due to the illuminating work of ,voltaire 7p4 #dhe71 a great interest in science arose among the ,french4 ,in the ,revolutionary days we accordingly find the ,french creating important scientific institutions 7p4 #eah71 and ,napoleon gave frequent evidence of his deep interest in scientific studies4 #bd ,this interest the ,french have since retained4 ,from ,france this new interest in science passed quickly to the ,germans4 ,the new mathematical and physical studies had early found a home at the new ,university of ,gttingen 7p4 #eee71 and largely under ,french influences scientific studies were later introduced into all the ,german universities4 ,early in the nineteenth century the ,german universities took the lead as centers for the new scientific studies 7p4 #egf7--;a lead they retained throughout the century4 ,in ,england the universities had1 by the nineteenth century1 lost much of their seventeenth-century prominence in science1 and had settled down into teaching colleges1 instead of developing1 as had the ,german universities1 into institutions for scientific research4 ,compared with the reformed ,german universities1 actuated by the new scientific spirit1 the ,english universities of the mid-nineteenth century presented a very unfavorable #be aspect 7,r4 #cei74 ,in the ,united ,states1 book instruction in the sciences came in near the close of the eighteenth century1 but the first laboratory instruction in our colleges was not begun until #ahdf1 and our real interest in science teaching dates from an even later period4 ,until the coming of ,german influences1 after the middle of the century1 the ,american college #bf largely followed ,english models and practices4 ,yet1 as we pointed out earlier1 the early nineteenth century witnessed a vast expansion of scientific knowledge1 and by #ahfj the main keys of modern science 7p4 #gbg7 were in the hands of scholars everywhere4 ,the great early development of scientific study had been carried on in a few universities or had been done by independent scholars1 and had influenced but little instruction in the colleges or the schools below4 ,,science ,,instruction ,,reaches ,,the ,,schools ,,but ,,slowly4 ,the textbook organization of this new scientific knowledge1 for teaching purposes1 and its incorporation into the instruction of the schools1 took place but slowly4 #a4 ,the elementary schools4 ,the greatest and the earliest success was made in ,german lands4 ,there the pioneer work of ,basedow 7p4 #ecd7 and the ,philanthropinists had awakened a widespread interest in scientific studies4 ,in ,switzerland1 too1 ,pestalozzi had developed elementary science study and home geography1 and1 when ,pestalozzian methods were introduced into the schools of ,prussia1 the study of elementary science 7,realien7 soon became a feature of the ,volksschule instruction4 ,from ,prussia it spread to all ,german lands4 ,in ,england the ,pestalozzian idea was introduced into the ,infant ,schools1 #bg though in a very formal fashion1 under the heading of object lessons4 ,in this form elementary science study reached the ,united ,states1 about #ahfj1 though a decade later well- organized courses in elementary science instruction began to be introduced into the ,american elementary schools4 #bh ,after the political reaction following the ,napoleonic wars had set in1 on the continent of ,europe1 all thought-provoking studies were greatly curtailed in the people's schools4 ,in ,england1 for other reasons1 object lessons did not make any marked headway1 and as late as #ahfe practically nothing relating to the great new world of scientific knowledge had as yet been introduced into the private and religious elementary schools 7,r4 #cfj7 which1 up to that time1 constituted ,england's chief dependence for the elementary instruction of her people4 #b4 ,the secondary schools4 ,in the secondary schools the earliest work of importance in introducing the new scientific subjects was done by the ,germans and the ,french4 ,in ,german lands the ,realschule obtained an early start 7#agdg2 p4 #dbj71 and the instruction in mathematics and science it included #bi had begun to be adopted by the ,german secondary schools1 especially in the ,south ,german ,states1 before the period of reaction set in4 ,during the reign of ,napoleon the scientific course in the ,french ,lyces was given special prominence4 ,after about #ahae1 and continuing until after #ahdh1 practical and thought-provoking studies were under an official ban in both countries1 and classical studies were specially favored4 #cj ,finally1 in #aheb in ,france and in #ahei in ,prussia1 responding to changed political conditions and new economic demands1 both the scientific course in the ,lyces and the ,realschulen were given official recognition1 and thereafter received increasing state favor and support4 ,the scientific idea also took deep root in ,denmark4 ,there the secondary schools were modernized1 in #ahji1 when the sciences were given an important place1 and again in #ahej1 when many of the ,latin schools were transformed into ,realskoler4 ,in the ,united ,states the academies and the early high schools both had introduced quite an amount of mathematics and book-science1 #ca and1 after about #ahge1 the development of laboratory instruction in science in the growing high schools took place rather rapidly4 ,fellenberg's work in ,switzerland 7p4 #edf7 had also awakened much interest in the ,united ,states1 and by #ahcj a number of ,schools of ,industry and ,science had begun to appear4 #cb ,these made instruction in mathematics and science prominent features of their work4 ,after the ,napoleonic wars1 ,england attained to the first place as an industrial and commercial nation4 ,this led to a continual agitation on the part of manufacturers for some science and art instruction4 ,in #ahec1 ,parliament created a ,state ,department of ,science and ,art 7p4 #fch71 and the promotion of science and art education by government grants was now begun4 ,though the nation had been the first to be transformed by the industrial revolution1 and its foreign trade by #ahej reached all parts of the world1 the secondary schools of ,england had remained largely untouched by the change4 ,they were still mainly the ,renaissance ,latin grammar schools they had been ever since ,dean ,colet 7#aeaj7 marked out the lines for such instruction by founding his reformed grammar school at ,st4 ,pauls 7p4 #bge74 ,their courses of instruction contained little that was modern1 and in their aims and purposes they went back to the days of the ,revival of ,learning for their inspiration 7,r4 #cfa74 ,,the ,,challenge ,,of ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,by the middle of the nineteenth century the scientific and industrial revolutions had produced important changes in the conditions of living in all the then important world nations4 ,particularly in the ,german ,states1 ,france1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states had the effects of the revolutions in manufacturing and living been felt4 ,in consequence there had been1 for some time1 a growing controversy between the partisans of the older classical training and the newer scientific studies as to their relative worth and importance1 both for intellectual discipline and as preparation for intelligent living1 and by the middle of the nineteenth century this had become quite sharp4 ,the faculty psychology1 upon which the theory of the discipline of the powers of the mind by the classics was largely based1 was attacked1 and the contention was advanced that the content of studies was of more importance in education than was method and drill4 ,the advocates of the newer studies contended that a study of the classics no longer provided a suitable preparation for intelligent living1 and the question of the relative worth of the older and newer studies elicited more and more discussion as the century advanced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4 ,,herbert ,,spencer 7#ahbj-aijc7 ,in #ahei one of ,england's greatest scholars1 ,herbert ,spencer1 brought the whole question to a sharp issue by the publication of a remarkably incisive essay on ,what ,knowledge is of ,most ,worth8 ,in this he declared that the purpose of education was to prepare us for complete living1 and that the only way to judge of the value of an educational course was first to classify1 in the order of their importance1 #cc the leading activities and needs of life1 and then measure the course of study by how fully it offers such a preparation4 ,doing so 7,r4 #cfb71 and applying such a test1 he concluded that of all subjects a knowledge of science 7,r4 #cfc7 was always most useful for preparation for life1 and therefore the type of knowledge of most worth4 ,in three other essays #cd he recommended a complete change from the classical type of training which had dominated ,english secondary education since the days of the ,renaissance4 ,still more1 instead of a few being educated by a cultural discipline for a life of learning and leisure1 he urged general instruction in science1 that all might receive training and help for the daily duties of life4 ,these essays attracted wide attention1 not only in ,england but in many other lands as well4 ,they were a statement1 in clear and forceful ,english1 of the best ideas of the educational reformers for three centuries4 ,in his statement of the principles upon which sound intellectual education should be based he merely enunciated theses for which educational reformers had stood since the days of ,ratke and ,comenius4 ,in his treatment of moral and physical education he voiced the best ideas of ,john ,locke4 ,spencer's great service was in giving forceful expression to ideas which1 by #ahfj1 had become current1 and in so doing he pushed to the front anew the question of educational values4 ,the scientific and industrial revolutions had prepared the way for a redirection of national education1 and the time was ripe in ,england1 ,france1 ,german lands1 and the ,united ,states for such a discussion4 ,as a result1 though the questions he raised are still in part unsettled1 a great change in assigned values has since been effected not only in these nations1 but in most other nations and lands which have drawn the inspiration for their educational systems from them4 ,though his work was not specially original1 we must nevertheless class ,herbert ,spencer as one of the great writers on educational aims and purposes1 and his book as one of the great influences in reshaping educational practice4 ,he gave a new emphasis to the work of all who had preceded him1 and out of the discussion which ensued came a new and a greatly enlarged estimate as to the importance of science study in all divisions of the school4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4 ,,thomas ,h4 ,,huxley 7#ahbe-ie7 ,,the ,,new ,,educational ,,purpose4 ,it is perhaps not too much to say that out of ,spencer's gathering-up and forceful statement of the best ideas of his time1 and the discussion which followed1 a new conception of the educational purpose as adjustment to the life one is to live--physical1 economic1 social1 moral1 political--was clearly formulated1 and a new definition of a liberal education was framed4 ,the former found expression in a rather rapid introduction of science-study into the elementary school1 the secondary school1 and the college1 after about #ahfe1 in the school systems of all progressive nations1 and the subsequent extension of the scientific method to such new fields as history1 politics1 government1 and social welfare4 ,the latter--the new definition of a liberal education --was wonderfully well stated in an address 7#ahfh7 by the ,english scientist1 ,thomas ,huxley1 when he said3 #ce ,that man1 ,i think1 has had a liberal education who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will1 and does with ease and pleasure all the work that1 as a mechanism1 it is capable of2 whose intellect is a clear1 cold1 logic engine1 with all its parts of equal strength1 and in smooth working order2 ready1 like a steam engine1 to be turned to any kind of work1 and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind2 whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of ,nature and of the laws of her operations2 one who1 no stunted ascetic1 is full of life and fire1 but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will1 the servant of a tender conscience2 who has learned to love all beauty1 whether of ,nature or of art1 to hate all vileness1 and to respect others as himself4 ,such an one and no other1 ,i conceive1 has had a liberal education2 for he is1 as completely as a man can be1 in harmony with ,nature4 ,he will make the best of her1 and she of him4 ,they will get on together rarely3 she as his ever-beneficent mother2 he as her mouthpiece1 her conscious self1 her minister and interpreter4 ,the inter-relation between the movement for the study of the sciences and the other movements for the improvement of instruction which we have so far described in this chapter1 was close4 ,pestalozzi had emphasized instruction in geography and the study of nature2 ,froebel had given a prominent place to nature study and school gardening2 the manual-arts work tended to exhibit industrial processes and relationships2 and the scientific emphasis on content rather than drill was in harmony with the theories of all the modern reformers4 ,still more1 the scientific movement was in close harmony with the new individualistic tendency of the early part of the nineteenth century1 and with the movements for the improvement of individual and national welfare which have been so prominent a characteristic of the latter half of the century4 ,v4 ,,social ,,meaning ,,of ,,these ,,changes ,a ,,century ,,of ,,progress4 ,pestalozzi1 true to the individualistic spirit of the age in which he lived and worked1 had seen education as an individual development1 and the ends of education as individual ends4 ,the spirit of the ,french ,revolutionary period was the spirit of individualism4 ,with the progress of the ,industrial ,revolution and the consequent rise of new social problems1 the emphasis was gradually shifted from the individual to society--from the single man to the man in the mass4 ,the first educational thinker of importance to see and clearly state this new conception in terms of the school was ,herbart4 ,seeing the educational purpose in far clearer perspective than had those who had gone before him1 he showed that education must have for its function the preparation of man to live in organized society1 and that character and social morality1 rather than individual development1 must in consequence be the larger aims4 ,froebel1 possessed of something of the same insight1 and seeing clearly the educational importance of activity and expression1 had opened up for children a wealth of new contacts with the world about them in the new type of educational institution which he created4 ,his principles1 he said1 when thoroughly worked out and applied to education would revolutionize the world4 ,he did not complete the full educational organization he had planned1 but in the hands of the ,swedes and ,finns similar ideas were worked out in practical form and made a part of school work4 ,applying ,froebel's idea to instruction in the old trades and industries1 declining in importance in the face of the rise of the factory system1 they evolved the manual-training activities1 and these have since been made important tools for giving to young people some intelligent ideas as to the industrial relationships and economic problems of our complex modern life4 ,since this early pioneer work changes in school work have been numerous and of far-reaching importance4 ,the methods and purpose of instruction in the older subjects have been revised2 new studies1 which would serve to interpret to the young the industrial and social revolutions of the nineteenth century1 have been introduced2 the expression-subjects--the domestic arts1 music1 drawing1 clay-modeling1 color work1 the manual arts1 nature study1 gardening--have given a new direction to school work2 and the study of science and the vocations has attained to a place of importance previously unknown4 ,during the past half-century the school has been transformed1 in the principal world nations1 from a disciplinary institution where drill in mastering the rudiments of knowledge was given1 into an instrument of democracy calculated to train young people for living1 for useful service in the office and shop and home1 and to prepare them for intelligent participation in the increasingly complex social and political and industrial life of a modern world4 ,this transformation of the school has not always been easy 7,r4 #cfe71 but the vastly changed conditions of modern life have demanded such a transformation in all progressive nations4 ,,the ,,contribution ,,of ,,john ,,dewey4 ,the foremost ,american interpreter1 in terms of the school1 of the vast social and industrial changes which have marked the nineteenth century1 is ,john ,dewey #cf 7#ahei- 74 ,better perhaps than anyone else he has thought out and stated a new educational philosophy1 suited to the changed and changing conditions of human living4 ,his work1 both experimental and theoretical1 has tended both to re- psychologize 7,r4 #cfd7 and socialize education2 to give to it a practical content1 along scientific and industrial lines2 and to interpret to the child the new social and industrial conditions of modern society by connecting the activities of the school closely with those of real life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bca4 ,a ,,reorganized ,,kindergarten ,drawn from a photograph showing the reconstruction of the kindergarten activities1 as worked out by ,dewey at ,chicago4 ,starting with the premises that the school cannot be a preparation for social life except as it reproduces the typical conditions of social life2 that industrial activities are the most influential factors in determining the thought1 the ideals1 and the social organization of a people2 and that the school should be life1 not a preparation for living2 ,dewey for a time conducted an experimental school1 for children from four to thirteen years of age1 to give concrete expression to his educational ideas4 ,these1 first consciously set forth by ,froebel1 were3 #cg #a4 ,that the primary business of the school is to train in coperative and mutually helpful living4444 #b4 ,that the primary root of all educational activity is in the instinctive1 impulsive attitudes and activities of the child1 and not in the presentation and application of external material4 #c4 ,that these individual tendencies and activities are organized and directed through the uses made of them in keeping up the coperative living 444 taking advantage of them to reproduce1 on the child's plane1 the typical doings and occupations of the larger1 maturer society into which he is finally to go forth2 and that it is through production and creative use that valuable knowledge is clinched4 ,the work of this school #ch was of fundamental importance in directing the reorganization of the work of the kindergarten along different and larger lines1 and also has been of significance in redirecting the instruction in both the social subjects--history 7,r4 #cff71 literature1 etc4--and the manual1 domestic1 and artistic activities of the school4 ,in his subsequent writings he may be said to have stated an important new philosophy for the school in terms of modern social1 political1 and industrial needs4 ,,the ,,dewey ,,educational ,,philosophy4 ,believing that the public school is the chief remedy for the ills of organized society1 ,professor ,dewey has tried to show how to change the work of the school so as to make it a miniature of society itself4 ,social efficiency1 and not mere knowledge1 he has conceived to be the end1 and this social efficiency is to be produced through participation in the activities of an institution of society1 the school4 ,the different parts of the school system thus become a unified institution1 in which children are taught how to live amid the constantly increasing complexities of modern social and industrial life4 ,education1 therefore1 in ,dewey's conception1 involves not merely learning1 but play1 construction1 use of tools1 contact with nature1 expression1 and activity2 and the school should be a place where children are working rather than listening1 learning life by living life1 and becoming acquainted with social institutions and industrial processes by studying them4 ,the work of the school is in large part to reduce the complexity of modern life to such terms as children can understand1 and to introduce the child to modern life through simplified experiences4 ,its primary business may be said to be to train children in coperative and mutually helpful living4 ,the virtues of a school1 as ,dewey points out1 are learning by doing2 the use of muscles1 sight and feeling1 as well as hearing2 and the employment of energy1 originality1 and initiative4 ,the virtues of the school in the past were the colorless1 negative virtues of obedience1 docility1 and submission4 ,mere obedience and the careful performance of imposed tasks he holds to be not only a poor preparation for social and industrial efficiency1 but a poor preparation for democratic society and government as well4 ,responsibility for good government1 under any democratic form of organization1 rests with all1 and the school should prepare for the political life of to-morrow by training its pupils to meet responsibilities1 developing initiative1 awakening social insight1 and causing each to shoulder a fair share of the work of government in the school4 ,we have now before us the great contributions to a philosophy for the educational process made since the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,many other workers in different lands1 but more particularly in ,german lands1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states1 have added their labors to the expansion and redirection of the school4 ,they are too numerous to mention and1 though often nationally important1 need not be included here4 ,still more1 the contributions of ,pestalozzi1 ,herbart1 ,froebel1 ,spencer1 ,dewey1 and their followers and disciples are so interwoven in the educational theory and practice of to-day that it is in most cases impossible to separate them from one another4 #ci ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,how do you explain the long-continued objection to teacher-training8 #b4 ,contrast oral and objective teaching with the former individual instruction4 #c4 ,show how complete a change in classroom procedure this involved4 #d4 ,show how ,pestalozzian ideas necessitated a technique of instruction4 #e4 ,why is it that ,pestalozzian ideas as to language and arithmetic instruction have so slowly influenced the teaching of grammar1 language1 and arithmetic8 #f4 ,how do you explain the decline in importance of the once-popular mental arithmetic8 #g4 ,show how child study was a natural development from the ,pestalozzian psychology and methodology4 #h4 ,explain what is meant by the statements that ,herbart rejected3 7a7 ,the conventional-social ideal of ,locke4 7b7 ,the unsocial ideal of ,rousseau4 7c7 ,the faculty-psychology conception of ,pestalozzi4 #i4 ,explain what is meant by saying that ,herbart conceived of education as broadly social1 rather than personal4 #aj4 ,show in what ways and to what extent ,herbart3 7a7 ,enlarged our conception of the educational process4 7b7 ,improved the instruction content and process4 #aa4 ,explain why ,herbartian ideas took so much more quickly in the ,united ,states than did ,pestalozzianism4 #ab4 ,state the essentials of the kindergarten idea1 and the psychology behind it4 #ac4 ,state the contribution of the kindergarten idea to education4 #ad4 ,show the connection between the sense impression ideas of ,pestalozzi1 the self-activity of ,froebel1 and the manual activities of the modern elementary school4 #ae4 ,explain why scientific studies came into the schools so slowly1 up to about #ahfj1 and so very rapidly after about that time4 #af4 ,explain the particularly long resistance to the introduction of scientific studies by industrial ,england4 #ag4 ,state the comparative importance of content and drill in education4 #ah4 ,does the reasoning of ,herbert ,spencer appeal to you as sound8 ,if not1 why not8 #ai4 ,show how the argument of ,spencer for the study of science was also an argument for a more general diffusion of educational advantages4 #bj4 ,would schools have advanced in importance as they have done had the industrial revolution not taken place8 ,why8 #ba4 ,why is more extended education called for as industrial life becomes more diversified1 its parts narrower1 and its processes more concealed8 #bb4 ,point out the social significance of the educational work of ,john ,dewey4 #bc4 ,point out the value1 in the new order of society1 of each group of school subjects listed in footnote #a on page #gfc4 #bd4 ,contrast the virtues of a school before ,pestalozzi's time and those of a modern school4 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections illustrative of the contents of this chapter are reproduced3 #cdd4 ,bache3 ,the ,german ,seminaries for ,teachers4 #cde4 ,bache3 ,a ,german ,teachers' ,seminary ,described4 #cdf4 ,bache3 ,a ,french ,normal ,school ,described4 #cdg4 ,barnard3 ,beginnings of ,teacher-,training in ,england4 #cdh4 ,barnard3 ,the ,pupil-,teacher ,system ,described4 #cdi4 ,clinton3 ,recommendation for ,teacher-,training ,schools4 #cej4 ,massachusetts3 ,organizing the ,first ,normal ,schools4 7a7 ,the ,organizing ,law4 7b7 ,admission and ,instruction in4 7c7 ,mann3 ,importance of the ,normal ,school4 #cea4 ,early ,textbooks3 ,examples of ,instruction from 7a7 ,davenport3 ,history of the ,united ,states4 7b7 ,morse3 ,elements of ,geography--,map4 7c7 ,morse ,elements of ,geography4 #ceb4 ,murray3 ,a ,typical ,teacher's ,contract4 #cec4 ,bache3 ,the ,elementary ,schools of ,berlin in #ahch4 #ced4 ,providence3 ,grading the ,schools of4 #cee4 ,felkin3 ,herbart's ,educational ,ideas4 #cef4 ,felkin3 ,herbart's ,educational ,ideas ,applied4 #ceg4 ,titchener3 ,herbart and ,modern ,psychology4 #ceh4 ,marenholtz-,blow3 ,froebel's ,educational ,views4 #cei4 ,huxley3 ,english and ,german ,universities ,contrasted4 #cfj4 ,huxley3 ,mid-nineteenth-,century ,elementary ,education in ,england4 #cfa4 ,huxley3 ,mid-nineteenth-,century ,secondary ,education in ,england4 #cfb4 ,spencer3 ,what ,knowledge is of ,most ,worth8 #cfc4 ,spencer3 ,conclusions as to the ,importance of ,science4 #cfd4 ,dewey3 ,the ,old and ,new ,psychology ,contrasted4 #cfe4 ,ping3 ,difficulties in ,transforming the ,school4 7a7 ,relating ,education to ,life4 7b7 ,the ,old ,teacher and the ,new ,system4 #cff4 ,dewey3 ,socialization of ,school ,work illustrated by ,history4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,contrast the instruction in a ,german ,teachers' ,seminary 7#cde7 or a ,french normal school 7#cdf7 of #ahch1 as described by ,bache1 with that of an ,american normal school of to-day4 #b4 ,what do the beginnings of teacher training in ,england 7#cdg1 #cdh7 indicate as to conceptions then existing as to the educational process8 #c4 ,show1 by comparison1 that the beginnings of the ,american normal school were ,german1 rather than ,english in origin4 #d4 ,just what educational conditions does ,governor ,clinton 7#cdi7 indicate as existing in ,new ,york ,state1 in #ahbg8 #e4 ,contrast the instruction in the early ,massachusetts normal schools 7#cej7 with that in the ,german 7#cde7 and ,french 7#cdf7 of about the same time4 #f4 ,what do the three professional courses reproduced 7#cde1 #cdf1 #cej b7 indicate as to the development of pedagogical work by about #ahdj8 #g4 ,compare the textbook types1 given in #cea1 with modern textbooks in equivalent subjects4 #h4 ,just what light on school teaching1 in #ahda1 does the teacher's contract given 7#ceb7 throw8 #i4 ,state the steps in the evolution of a graded system of schools 7#cec1 #ced74 #aj4 ,state the essentials of ,herbart's educational ideas 7#cee1cef71 and the nature of the advances made over his predecessors4 #aa4 ,state the essentials of ,froebel's educational ideas1 as explained by the ,baroness von ,marenholtz-,blow 7#ceh74 #ab4 ,explain the difference between the universities of the two nations 7#cei74 #ac4 ,contrast elementary education in ,england 7#cfj7 with that in the ,united ,states at the same period4 #ad4 ,would you add anything else to ,spencer's requirements to prepare for complete living8 ,what8 ,why8 #ae4 ,how do you explain science being written against in our theologies and frowned upon from our pulpits 7#cfc7 when it is of such importance as ,spencer concludes8 #af4 ,contrast the old and the new psychology 7#ceg1 #cfd74 #ag4 ,have the difficulties experienced in the transformation of instruction in ,china 7#cfe7 been essentially different than with us8 ,how8 #ah4 ,apply ,dewey's idea as to the socialization of history 7#cff7 to instruction in geography4 ,,supplementary ,,references ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,national ,education in ,europe4 99 ,bowen1 ,h4 ,c4 ,froebel and ,education through ,self-,activity4 ,compayr1 ,g4 ,herbart and ,education by ,instruction4 99 ,de ,garmo1 ,chas4 ,herbart and the ,herbartians4 ,dewey1 ,john4 ,the ,school and ,social ,progress4 7,nine numbers47 99 ,dewey1 ,john4 ,the ,school and ,society4 ,gordy1 ,j4 ,p4 ,rise and ,growth of the ,normal ,school ,idea in the ,united ,states4 ,circular of ,information1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 ,no4 #h1 #ahia4 ,hollis1 ,a4 ,p4 ,the ,oswego ,movement4 99 ,jordan1 ,d4 ,s4 ,spencer's ,essay on ,education2 in ,cosmopolitan ,magazine1 vol4 xxix1 pp4 #ace-di4 7,sept4 #aijb47 ,judd1 ,c4 ,h4 ,the ,training of ,teachers in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,germany4 7,bulletin #ce1 #aiad1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education47 ,monroe1 ,will ,s4 ,history of the ,pestalozzian ,movement in the ,united ,states4 99 ,parker1 ,s4 ,c4 ,history of ,modern ,elementary ,education4 ,ping ,wen ,kuo4 ,the ,chinese ,system of ,public ,education4 ,spencer1 ,herbert4 ,education3 ,intellectual1 ,moral1 and ,physical4 ,vanderwalker1 ,n4 ,c4 ,the ,kindergarten in ,american ,education4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,new ,,tendencies ,,and ,,expansions ,i4 ,,political ,,the ,,enlarged ,,conception ,,of ,,public ,,education4 ,the new ideas as to the purpose and functions of the ,state promulgated by ,english and ,french eighteenth-century thinkers1 and given concrete expression in the ,american and ,french revolutions near the close of the century1 imparted1 as we have seen1 a new meaning to the school and a new purpose to the education of a people4 ,in the theoretical discussion of education by ,rousseau and the empirical work of ,pestalozzi a new individualistic theory for a secular school was created1 and this ,prussia1 for long moving in that direction1 first adopted as a basis for the state school system it early organized to serve national ends4 ,the new ,american ,states1 also long moving toward state organization and control1 early created state schools to replace the earlier religious schools2 while the ,french ,revolution enthusiasts abolished the religious school and ordered the substitution of a general system of state schools to serve their national ends4 ,from these beginnings1 as we have seen1 the state-school idea has in course of time spread to all continents1 and nations everywhere to-day have come to feel that the maintenance of a more or less comprehensive system of state schools is so closely connected with national welfare and progress as to be a necessity for the ,state 7,r4 #cfg74 ,in consequence1 state ministries for education have been created in all the important world nations2 state and local school officials have been provided generally to see that the state purpose in creating schools is carried out2 state normal schools for the preparation of teachers have been established2 comprehensive state school codes have been enacted or educational decrees formulated2 and constantly increasing expenditures for education are to-day derived by taxing the wealth of the ,state to educate the children of the ,state4 ,,change ,,from ,,the ,,original ,,purpose4 ,the original purpose in the establishment of schools by the ,state was everywhere to promote literacy and citizenship4 ,under all democratic forms of government it was also to insure to the people the elements of learning that they might be prepared for participation in the functions of government4 #a ,this is well expressed in the quotations given 7p4 #ebe7 from early ,american statesmen as to the need for the education of public opinion and the diffusion of knowledge among the people4 ,the same ideas were expressed by ,french writers and statesmen of the time1 and by the ,english after the passage of the ,reform ,bills of #ahcb and #ahfg 7p4 #fdb74 ,with the gradual extension of the franchise to larger and larger numbers of the people1 the extension of educational advantages naturally had to follow4 ,the education of new citizens for their political and civil duties as members of society and freemen became a necessity1 and closely followed each extension of the right to vote4 ,in all democratic governments the growing complexity of modern political society has since greatly enlarged these early duties of the school4 ,to-day1 in modern nations where general manhood suffrage has come to be the rule1 and still more so in nations which have added female suffrage as well1 the continually increasing complexity of the political1 economic1 and social problems upon which the voters are expected to pass judgment is such that a more prolonged period of citizenship education is necessary if voters are to exercise1 in any intelligent manner1 their functions of citizenship4 ,in nations where the initiative1 referendum1 and recall have been added1 the need for special education along political1 economic1 and social lines has been still further emphasized4 ,at first instruction in the common-school branches1 with instruction in morals or religion added1 was regarded as sufficient4 ,in ,states1 such as the ,german1 where religious instruction was retained in the schools1 this has been made a powerful instrument in moulding the citizenship and upholding the established order4 ,the history of the different nations has also been used by each as a means for instilling desired conceptions of citizenship1 and some work in more or less formal civil government has usually been added4 ,to-day all these means have been proven inadequate for democratic peoples4 ,in consequence1 the work in civil government is being changed and broadened into institutional and community civics2 the work of the elementary school is being socialized1 along the lines advocated by ,dewey2 and instruction in economic principles and in the functions of government is being introduced into the secondary schools4 ,instead of being made mere teaching institutions1 engaged in promoting literacy and diffusing the rudiments of learning among the electorate1 schools are to- day being called upon to grasp the significance of their political and social relationships1 and to transform themselves into institutions for improving and advancing the welfare of the ,state 7,r4 #cfh74 ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,,nationality4 ,in ,prussia the promotion of national solidarity was early made an important aim of the school4 ,this has in time become a common national purpose1 as there has dawned upon statesmen generally the idea that a national spirit or culture is an artificial product which transcends social1 religious1 and economic distinctions1 and that it could be manufactured by education 7,r4 #cdj74 ,in consequence of this discovery the school has been raised to a new position of importance in the national life1 and has become the chief means for developing in the citizenship that national unity and national strength so desirable under present-day world conditions4 ,in the ,german ,states1 where this function of the school has in recent times been perverted to carry forward imperialistic national ends 7,r4 #cdb72 in ,france1 where it has been intelligently used to promote a rational type of national strength 7,r4 #cda72 in ,italy1 where divergent racial types are being fused into a new national unity2 in ,cuba1 ,porto ,rico1 and the ,philippines 7,r4 #cdc7 where the ,united ,states has used education to bring backward peoples up to a new level of culture1 and to develop in them firm foundations of national solidarity2 in ,china 7,r4 #cce7 where an ancient people1 speaking numerous dialects1 is making the difficult transition from an old culture to the newer western civilization2 and in ,algiers and ,morocco1 where the spirit of ,french nationality is being fused into dark-skinned tribesmen-- everywhere to-day1 where public education has really taken hold on the national life1 we find the school being used for the promotion of national solidarity and the inculcation of national ideals and national culture4 ,to such an extent has this become true that practically all the pressing problems of the school to-day1 in any land1 find their ultimate explanation in terms of the new nineteenth-century conceptions of political nationality4 ,since the development of world trade routes following long rail and steamship lines1 along which people as well as raw materials and manufactured articles pass to and fro1 the entrance of new and diverse peoples into distant national groups has created a new problem of nationalization that before the early nineteenth century was largely unknown4 ,previous to the nineteenth century the problem was confined almost entirely to peoples conquered and annexed by the fortunes of war4 ,to-day it is a voluntary migration of peoples1 and a migration of such proportions and from such distant and unlike civilizations that the problem of assimilating the foreigner has become1 particularly in the ,english-speaking nations and colonies1 to which distant and unrelated peoples have turned in largest numbers1 #b a serious national problem4 ,the migration of #cb1ajb1fga persons to the ,united ,states1 between #ahbj and #aiad1 from all parts of the world1 has been a movement of peoples compared with which the migrations of the ,germanic tribes--,angles1 ,saxons1 ,jutes1 ,goths1 ,visigoths1 ,vandals1 ,suevi1 ,danes1 ,burgundians1 ,huns--into the old ,roman ,empire in the fourth and fifth centuries pale into insignificance4 ,no such great movement of peoples was ever known before in history1 and the assimilative power of the ,american nation has not been equal to the task4 ,the ,world ,war revealed the extent of the failure to nationalize the foreigner who has been permitted to come1 and brought the question of ,americanization to the front as one of the most pressing problems connected with ,american national education4 ,with the world in flux racially as it now is1 the problem of the assimilation of non-native peoples is one which the schools of every nation which offers political and economic opportunity to other peoples must face4 ,this has called for the organization of special classes in the schools1 evening and adult instruction1 community-center work1 nationalization programs1 compulsory attendance of children1 state oversight of private and religious schools1 and other forms of educational undertakings undreamed of in the days when the ,state first took over the schools from the ,church the better to promote literacy and citizenship4 ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,industrial ,,revolution4 ,the effects of the great industrial and social changes which we have previously described are written large across the work of the school4 ,as the civilization in the leading world nations has increased in complexity1 and the ramifications of the social and industrial life have widened1 the school has been called upon to broaden its work1 and develop new types of instruction to increase its effectiveness4 ,an education which was entirely satisfactory for the simpler form of social and industrial life of two generations ago has been seen to be utterly inadequate for the needs of the present and the future4 ,it is the far-reaching change in social and industrial and home-life1 brought about by the ,industrial ,revolution1 which underlies most of the pressing problems in educational readjustment to-day4 ,as the industrial life of nations has become more diversified1 its parts narrower1 and its processes more concealed1 new and more extended training has been called for to prepare young people for the work of life2 to reveal to them something of the intricacy and interdependence of modern political and industrial and social groups2 and to point out to them the importance of each one's part in the national political and industrial organization4 ,with the ever-increasing subdivision and specialization of labor1 the danger from class subdivision has constantly increased1 and more and more the school has been called upon to instill into all a political and social consciousness that will lead to unity amid increasing diversity1 and to concerted action for the preservation and improvement of the national life4 ,more education than formerly has also been demanded to enable future citizens to meet intelligently national and personal problems1 and with the widening of the suffrage and the spread of democratic ideas there has come a necessary widening of the educational ladder1 so that more of the masses of the people may climb4 ,even in nations having the continental- ,european two-class school system1 larger educational opportunities for the masses have had to be provided4 ,this has come through the provision of middle schools1 continuation schools1 higher primary schools1 and people's high schools1 #c as in ,germany1 ,france 7see diagram1 p4 #eih71 the ,scandinavian countries 7p4 #gac2 ,r4 #cgj71 and ,japan 7p4 #gbj74 ,in nations having an ,american-type educational ladder1 it has led to the multiplication of secondary schools and secondary-school courses1 that a larger and larger percentage of the people may be prepared better to meet the increasingly complex and increasingly difficult conditions of modern political1 social1 and industrial life4 ,in the more advanced and more democratic nations we also note the establishment of systems of evening schools1 adult instruction1 university extension1 science and art instruction in special centers1 the multiplication of libraries1 and the increasing use of the lecture1 the stereopticon1 and the public press1 for the purpose of keeping the people informed4 ,no nation has done more to extend the advantages of secondary education to its people than has the ,united ,states2 ,france has been especially prominent in adult instruction2 ,england has done noteworthy work with university extension and science and art instruction2 while the ,united ,states has carried the library movement farther than any other land4 ,all these1 again1 are extensions of educational opportunity to the masses of the people in a manner undreamed of a century ago4 ,,university ,,expansion4 ,the modern university first attained its development in ,prussia 7pp4 #eec-ee71 while in ,england and in the nations which drew their inspiration from her1 the teaching college1 with its narrow range of studies and disciplinary instruction 7,r4 #cca71 continued to dominate higher education until past the middle of the nineteenth century 7,r4 #cei74 ,the old universities of ,france1 aside from ,paris1 were virtually destroyed in the days of the ,revolution1 and their re-creation as effective teaching and research institutions has been a relatively recent 7#ahif7 event4 ,the universities of ,italy and ,spain ceased to be effective teaching institutions centuries ago1 and only recently have begun to give evidences of new life4 ,within the past three quarters of a century1 and in many nations within a much shorter period of time1 the university has very generally experienced a new manifestation of popular favor1 and is to-day looked upon as perhaps the most important part1 viewed from the standpoint of the future welfare of the ,state1 of the entire system of public instruction maintained by the ,state4 ,in it the leaders for the ,state are trained2 in it the thinking which is to dominate government a quarter-century later is largely done2 out of it come the creative geniuses whose work1 in dozens of fields of human endeavor1 will mould the political1 social1 and scientific future of the nation 7,r4 #cfi74 ,every government depending upon a two-class school system must of necessity draw its leaders in the professions1 in government1 in pure and applied science1 and in many other lines from the small but carefully selected classes its universities train4 ,in a democracy1 depending entirely upon drawing its future leaders from among the mass1 the university becomes an indispensable institution for the training of leaders and for the promotion of the national welfare4 ,in a democratic government one of the highest functions of a university is to educate leaders and to create the standards for democracy4 ,the university has1 accordingly1 in all lands1 recently experienced a great expansion4 ,the ,german universities have been prominent modern institutions for a century and a half4 ,realizing1 as no other people have done1 their value in developing skilled leaders for the ,state1 promoting the national welfare1 integrating the ,empire1 and as centers for building up among students of other nationalities a good-will toward ,germany1 large sums have been spent on their further development since #ahga4 ,within the past quarter-century new and strong ,french universities have been created1 #d and old universities in ,italy1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,greece have been awakened to a new life4 ,the ,english universities have been made over1 since #ahgj1 and new municipal universities in ,sheffield1 ,bristol1 ,leeds1 ,manchester1 ,birmingham1 ,liverpool1 and ,london have set new standards in ,english higher education4 ,the universities of ,scotland1 ,holland1 ,switzerland1 and the ,scandinavian countries have also recently attained to world prominence4 ,in ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,japan1 ,china1 the ,philippines1 ,india1 ,egypt1 ,palestine1 ,algiers1 and ,south ,africa1 new universities have been created to advance the national welfare4 ,the ,south ,american nations have also established a number of promising new foundations1 and given new life to older ones4 ,often nations swinging out into the current of western civilization have developed their universities before popular education really got under way4 ,in no country has the development of university instruction been more rapid than in the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,new and important state universities are to-day found in most of the ,american ,states and ,canadian ,provinces1 some ,states maintaining two4 ,these have been relatively recent creations to serve democracy's needs1 and upon the support of these state universities large and increasing sums of money are spent annually4 #e ,in no nation of the world1 too1 has private benevolence created and endowed so many private universities of high rank as in the ,united ,states1 #f and these have fallen into their proper places as auxiliary agents for the promotion of the national welfare in government1 science1 art1 and the learned professions4 ,from small collegiate institutions with a very limited curriculum1 a century ago1 stimulated in part by the ,german example and in part responding to new national needs1 universities to-day1 in all the leading world nations1 have developed into groups of well-organized professional schools1 ministering to the great number of special needs of modern life and government4 ,the university development since the middle of the nineteenth century has been greater than at any period before in world history1 and with the spread of democracy1 dependent as democracy is upon mass education to obtain its leaders1 the university has become the soul of the ,state 7,r4 #cfi74 ,the university development of the next half- century1 the world as a whole considered1 may possibly surpass anything that we have recently witnessed4 ,,the ,,state ,,school ,,systems ,,as ,,organized4 ,we now find state school systems organized in all the leading world nations4 ,in many the system of public instruction maintained is broad and extensive1 beginning often with infant schools or kindergartens1 continuing up through elementary schools1 middle schools1 continuation schools1 secondary schools1 and normal schools1 and culminating in one or more state universities4 ,in addition there are to- day1 in many nations1 state systems of scientific and technical schools and institutions1 and vocational schools and schools for special classes1 to which we shall refer more in detail a little further on4 ,the support of all these systems of public instruction to-day comes largely from the direct or indirect taxation of the wealth of the ,state4 ,being now conceived of as essential to the welfare and progress of the ,state1 the ,state yearly confiscates a portion of every man's property and uses it to maintain a service deemed vital to its purposes4 ,the sums spent to-day on education by modern ,states seem enormous1 compared with the sums spent for education under conditions existing a century ago4 ,in ,england1 for example1 where the first national aid was granted1 in #ahcc1 in the form of a parliamentary grant of #bj1jjj 7approximately #ajj1jjj71 the parliamentary grants for elementary schools had reached approximately #ab1jjj1jjj by #aiaj1 with an additional national aid for universities of over #a1ajj1jjj4 ,the year following the ,world ,war the grants were #cb1hec1aaa4 ,in ,france a treasury grant of #ej1jjj francs 7approximately #aj1jjj7 was first made for primary schools1 in #ahaf4 ,this was doubled in #ahbi1 and in #ahca was raised to a million francs4 ,by #ahej1 the state aid for primary education had reached #c1jjj1jjj francs2 by #ahgj1 #aj1jjj1jjj francs2 by #ahhj1 #cj1jjj1jjj2 and by #aiad1 approximately #bbj1jjj1jjj francs4 ,in addition the ,state was paying out #be1jjj1jjj francs for secondary schools1 and #aj1jjj1jjj francs for universities4 ,in the ,united ,states the total expenditures for maintenance only of public elementary and secondary schools was #fi1ajg1fab1 in #ahgj-ga2 had reached #bad1ifd1fah by the end of the nineteenth century2 and was #fdj1gag1jec in #aiae-af1 with an additional #aja1geb1edb for universities4 ,by #aibj the total expenditures for the maintenance of public elementary1 secondary1 and higher education in the ,united ,states will probably total a billion dollars4 ,these rapidly increasing expenditures merely record the changing political conception as to the national importance of enlarging the educational opportunities and advantages of those who are to constitute and direct the future ,state4 ,,ii4 ,,scientific ,in no phase of the remarkable educational development made by nations1 since the middle of the nineteenth century1 has there been a more important expansion of the educational service than in the creation of schools dealing with the applications of science to the affairs of the national life4 ,still more1 no extension of instruction into new fields has ever yielded material benefits1 increased productivity1 alleviated suffering1 or multiplied comforts and conveniences as has this new development in applied scientific education during the past three quarters of a century4 ,,science ,,instruction ,,in ,,the ,,schools4 ,at first this new work came in1 as we have seen 7p4 #ggd71 but slowly1 and its introduction into the secondary schools of ,france1 ,germany1 ,england1 the ,united ,states1 and other nations for a time met with bitter opposition from the partisans of the older type of intellectual training4 ,in ,germany it was not until after ,emperor ,william ,,ii came to the throne 7#ahhh7 that the ,realschulen really found a warm partisan1 he demanding 7#ahij71 in the name of the national welfare1 that the secondary schools depart entirely from the basis that has existed for centuries--the old monastic education of the ,middle ,ages--and that young ,germans and not young ,greeks and ,romans be trained in the schools 7,r4 #cfh74 ,during his reign the ,realschulen 7six-year course7 and ,oberrealschulen 7nine-year course7 were especially favored1 while permission to found additional ,gymnasien became hard to obtain4 ,the scientific course in the ,french ,lyces similarly did not prosper until after the coming of the ,third ,republic 7#ahga7 and the rise of modern scientific and industrial demands4 ,in ,england it was not until after #ahgj that the endowed secondary schools began to include science instruction1 and laboratory instruction in the sciences began to be introduced into the secondary schools of the ,united ,states at about the same time4 ,in the ,united ,states1 too1 the first manual-training high school was not established until #ahhj1 but by #ahij the creation of such schools was clearly under way4 ,other nations--,switzerland1 ,holland1 the ,scandinavian countries--also began to include laboratory science instruction in the work of their secondary schools at about the same time4 ,the decade of the seventies witnessed a rising interest in instruction in science which carried such work into the secondary schools of all progressive nations4 ,to-day1 in nearly all lands1 we find secondary-school courses in science1 or special secondary schools for scientific instruction1 occupying a position of at least equal importance with the older classical courses or schools4 ,as science instruction has become organized1 and a knowledge of the principles of science has become diffused1 object lessons1 ,realien1 nature study1 or elementary science instruction has very generally been put into the elementary or people's schools for the younger pupils4 ,as a result1 young people finishing the elementary schools to-day know more relating to the laws of the universe1 and the applications of these laws to human life and industry1 than did distinguished scholars two centuries ago4 ,all this work in the elementary schools1 middle schools1 people's high schools1 secondary schools1 or special technical schools of middle or secondary grade has been of much value in diffusing scientific knowledge and scientific methods of thinking and working among large numbers of people1 as well as in revealing to many the possibilities of a scientific career4 ,the great and important development of scientific instruction1 however1 since about #ahfj1 has been in the fields of advanced applied science or technical education1 and has taken place chiefly in new and higher specialized schools and research foundations4 ,the fields in which the greatest scientific advances have been made1 and to which we shall here briefly refer1 have been engineering1 agriculture1 and medicine4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,technical ,,education4 ,the beginnings of technical education were made earliest in ,france1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states1 and in the order named4 ,france and ,german lands1 but particularly ,france1 inherited through the monasteries what survived of the old ,roman skills and technical arts4 ,in the building of bridges1 roads1 fortifications1 aqueducts1 and imposing public buildings1 the ,romans had shown the possession of engineering ability of a high order4 ,some of this knowledge was retained by the monks of the early ,middle ,ages1 as is evidenced by the monasteries they erected and the churches they built4 ,later it passed to others1 and is evidenced in the great cathedrals and town halls of ,europe1 and particularly of northern ,france4 ,in military and civil engineering the ,french were also the true successors of the ,romans4 ,as early as #agdg a special engineering school for bridges and highways 7cole des ,ponts et ,chausses7 had been created1 and a little later a special school to train mining engineers 7cole des ,mines7 was added4 ,these were the first of the world's higher technical schools4 ,after the ,revolution1 the new need for military and medical knowledge1 as well as the general ,french interest in applied science1 led to the creation of a large number of important higher technical institutions 7list1 p4 #eah71 most of which have persisted to the present and been enlarged and extended with time4 ,napoleon also created a ,school of ,arts and ,trades 7,r4 #bhb71 and a number of military schools 7p4 #eij74 ,in ,german lands there was early founded a series of trade schools1 #g which have in time been developed into important technical universities4 ,after the creation of the ,imperial ,german ,empire1 in #ahga1 these schools were especially favored by the government1 and their work was raised to a rank equal to that of the older universities4 ,to the excellent training given in these institutions the ,german leadership in applied science and industry1 before #aiad1 was largely due4 #h ,it has been the particular function of these technical universities to apply scientific knowledge to the industries and the arts1 and to show the technical schools beneath and the directors of ,german industries how further to apply it 7,r4 #cga74 ,of their work a recent ,report #i well says3 ,while in other countries the development of science has been academic1 in ,germany every new principle elaborated by science has revolutionized some industry1 modified some manufacturing process1 or opened up an entirely new field of commercial exploitation4 ,in the chemical industries of ,germany 444 there is one trained university chemist for every forty working-people4 ,it is important to realize that the development of ,germany's manufactures and commerce has depended not upon the establishment of any monopoly in the domain of science1 not upon any special advancement of science within her own boundaries1 but primarily upon the practical utilization of the results of scientific research in ,germany and other countries4 ,the creation of the ,united ,states ,military ,academy1 at ,west ,point1 in #ahjb1 marks the ,american beginnings in technical education4 ,in #ahbd the ,rensselaer ,polytechnic ,institute was begun1 largely as a manual-labor school after the ,fellenberg plan1 to give instruction in the applications of science to the common purposes of life1 and about #ahej this developed into one of the earliest of our four-year engineering colleges4 ,in #ahdf the ,united ,states organized a college for naval engineering1 at ,annapolis1 to do for the ,navy what ,west ,point had done for the ,army4 ,in #ahfa the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology was founded1 opening its doors in #ahfe4 ,this was the first of a number of important new engineering colleges1 and eight others had been established1 by private funds1 before #ahhj4 ,the development in ,england came a little later4 ,good engineering schools have since been developed in connection with the new municipal universities1 while good engineering colleges have also been created at ,oxford and ,cambridge1 as well as at the ,scottish and ,irish universities4 ,,the ,,new ,,impulses ,,to ,,development4 ,during the first six decades of the nineteenth century1 ,france1 the ,german ,states1 and the ,united ,states were slowly moving toward the creation of special schools for technical education4 ,after about #ahfj the movement increased with great rapidity4 ,a number of events contributed to this change in rate of development1 the most important of which were3 #a4 ,the development attained by pure science1 by about #ahfj4 7,see chapter ,,xxvii1 part ,,ii1 p4 #gbc47 #b4 ,the ,industrial ,revolution 7p4 #gbh71 which changed nations from an agricultural to an industrial status1 opened up the possibilities of vast world trade1 and created enormous demands for technically trained men to supervise and develop the rapidly growing industries of nations4 #c4 ,the ,london ,exhibition of #ahea1 which displayed to the world the applications of science to trade1 manufacturing1 and the arts1 made in particular by ,england4 ,this opened the eyes of ,europe and ,america to the possibilities of technical education1 and led to the creation1 in #ahec1 of a national ,department of ,science and ,art 7p4 #fch7 for ,england4 ,this began the stimulation1 by money grants1 of technical education and instruction in drawing1 and exerted from the first an important influence on ,english education4 #d4 ,the passage by the ,congress of the ,united ,states of the ,morrill ,land-,grant-,college ,act1 in #ahfb1 which provided for the creation of colleges of engineering1 military science1 and agriculture1 in each of the ,american ,states4 #e4 ,the militarily successful wars of ,prussia against ,denmark1 in #ahfd2 ,austria1 #ahff2 and ,france1 #ahgj-ga4 ,these revealed to other nations the importance of sound military and engineering education for a nation1 and so tremendously stimulated ,german technical education that the new nation soon arose1 in many lines1 to a position of world industrial leadership 7#cfi74 #f4 ,the ,centennial ,exposition at ,philadelphia1 in #ahgf1 which repeated the work of the ,london ,exhibition of #ahea1 and gave a new meaning to the scientific and engineering education then developing in the new ,american ,land-,grant ,colleges4 #g4 ,the work of ,virchow in ,germany 7#ahef7 in developing pathology2 of ,pasteur in ,france1 after #ahei1 in establishing the germ theory of disease2 the ,english surgeon ,lister1 about the same time1 in developing antiseptic surgery2 and the new work of physiologists and chemists4 ,combined these have remade medical science1 and have opened up immense possibilities for benefiting mankind4 ,following these important stimuli to activity1 the important nations of the world began the earnest development of technical education1 and later medical education1 with the result that this new development has affected educational practice all over the world4 ,the new ideas have spread to all continents1 and to-day the call for technical education comes not only from the older nations and such new countries as ,canada1 ,australia1 ,south ,africa1 and the ,south ,american ,states1 but from such ancient and backward civilizations as ,japan1 ,china1 ,siam1 the ,philippines1 the ,east ,indies1 ,egypt1 ,persia1 and ,turkey4 ,in consequence to-day numerous and expensive engineering colleges and research institutions are maintained by the important world nations4 ,to- day the trained engineer goes to work his wonders in all corners of the globe1 and his task has become primarily that of organizing and directing men in the work of controlling the forces and materials of nature so that they may be made to benefit the human race4 ,so rapid has been the development that1 out of the earlier comprehensive type of engineering1 to-day dozens of specialized types of engineering education and specialization have been evolved1 covering such related fields as civil1 mechanical1 mining1 metallurgical1 electrical1 architectural1 chemical1 electro-chemical1 marine1 naval1 sanitary1 biological1 and public-health engineering4 ,no longer can a nation hope to develop its resources1 care properly for the modern needs of its people1 or be counted among the important industrial or agricultural nations if it neglects the development of technical education4 ,,science ,,applied ,,to ,,agriculture4 ,france also was the direct inheritor1 through the monks1 of the old ,roman agricultural knowledge and skills1 though up to the nineteenth century no attempt to organize agricultural instruction took place anywhere in ,europe4 ,the earliest effort in that direction was a proposal made in #agge by ,abb ,rosier1 in ,france1 to ,turgot1 then ,minister of ,finance1 on ,a ,plan for a ,national ,school of ,agriculture4 ,nothing coming of the proposal1 the ,abb submitted the proposal to the ,national ,assembly1 in #aghi1 and the same idea was later presented to ,napoleon1 but without results4 ,the first person to give practical form to the idea was ,fellenberg 7p4 #edf71 who conducted his manual-labor agricultural institute at ,hofwyl1 from #ahjf to #ahdd1 and inaugurated a plan of educational procedure which was soon afterwards copied in ,switzerland1 ,france1 the ,south ,german ,states1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states4 ,one of the earliest institutions to be established outside of ,switzerland was the ,institute of ,agriculture and ,forestry1 founded by the ,agricultural ,society of ,wrtemberg1 in #ahag1 at ,hohenheim1 near ,stuttgart4 ,the earliest schools to teach agriculture in ,france were the ,royal ,agronomic ,institution at ,grignon 7#ahbg72 the ,institute at ,coetbo 7#ahcj71 and the ,agricultural ,school at ,san ,juan 7#ahcc74 ,by #ahdg twenty-five agricultural schools were in operation in ,france1 to several of which orphan asylums and penal colonies were attached4 ,in #ahdh the ,french ,government reorganized the instruction in agriculture and gave it a national basis4 ,it ordered the creation of a farm school in each department of ,france2 a number of higher schools for agricultural instruction at central places2 and a ,national ,agronomic ,institute for more advanced instruction4 ,a treasury grant of #b1ejj1jjj francs to establish the system was voted4 ,in #ahgc elementary instruction in agriculture was ordered given in all village and rural elementary schools4 ,in the ,united ,states a number of agricultural societies were formed early in the century1 and a private school of agriculture was opened in ,maine1 in #ahba1 and another in ,connecticut1 in #ahbd4 ,with the opening-up of the new ,west to farming and the change of the ,east to manufacturing1 after about #ahbe1 the agitation for agricultural education for a time died out1 reappearing in ,michigan1 in #ahej4 ,in that year a new constitution was adopted which required the legislature to create a ,state ,school of ,agriculture1 and in #aheg the ,michigan ,agricultural ,college opened its doors4 ,two years later a ,farmers' ,high ,school1 which later became the ,pennsylvania ,state ,college1 was opened in central ,pennsylvania4 ,in #ahfb1 in the midst of the greatest civil war in history1 the ,american ,congress passed the very important ,morrill ,act1 which provided for the creation of a college to teach agriculture1 mechanic arts1 and military science in each of the ,american ,states4 ,it was a decade before many of these institutions opened1 and for a time they amounted to but little4 ,they had but few students1 little money1 and the instruction was very elementary and but poorly organized4 ,cornell ,university1 in ,new ,york ,state1 was one of the first 7#ahfh7 of the new institutions to get under way and find its work4 ,the ,centennial ,exposition 7#ahgf7 gave the needed emphasis to the engineering courses1 and by #ahhj these were well established4 ,the agricultural courses did not flourish for two decades longer1 and the military science not until the ,world ,war1 ,despite feeble beginnings1 the result of the aid given by the national government has in time proved very valuable1 and to-day very large sums of money are being appropriated by the ,american ,states and ,territories for instruction in engineering1 agriculture1 home economics1 and related sciences1 and large numbers of students are now enrolled for this technical training4 ,,the ,,recent ,,new ,,interest ,,in ,,agricultural ,,education4 ,since the latter part of the nineteenth century agricultural education has awakened new interest in many lands4 ,the ,german ,states have created many schools for instruction in agriculture and forestry4 ,denmark has regenerated the rural life of the nation 7,r4 #cgj7 by its ,people's ,high ,schools and its special schools for instruction in agriculture4 ,italy has recently made special efforts to extend agricultural instruction to its people4 ,canada1 ,australia1 and ,new ,zealand have established agricultural schools4 ,in ,algiers1 ,morocco1 ,japan1 ,china1 the ,philippines1 and ,india1 good beginnings in agricultural education have been made4 ,as agricultural knowledge has been worked out and classified1 and agricultural instruction has become organized1 it has become possible to relegate some of the more elementary instruction to the school below4 ,this was done in ,european nations before it took place in the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahhh the first ,american agricultural high school was established in ,minnesota4 ,by #ahih there were ten such schools in the ,united ,states1 but since #aijj the development has been very rapid4 ,by #aibj probably a thousand high schools were offering instruction in agriculture1 while elementary instruction in agriculture had been introduced into the rural and village schools of practically every ,american agricultural ,state4 ,the agricultural schools1 colleges1 and experimental stations established by the national1 state1 and local educational authorities of different nations have added another new division to the work of public education1 and one which is both very costly and very remunerative4 ,out of the work of these schools has come a vast quantity of useful knowledge1 and hundreds of important applications of science to farm and home life4 ,old breeds in stock and grains have been improved1 new breeds have been derived1 and productivity has been greatly increased4 ,through the teachings of home economics the farmer's home is being transformed1 while the applications of science made in these schools are modifying almost every phase of agricultural life and rural living4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,sanitary ,,science4 ,closely related to sanitary1 biological1 and public-health engineering has been the enormous recent development of medicine and surgery4 ,within half a century instruction in these subjects has been entirely transformed1 and large and costly laboratories and hospitals are now required for the work4 ,there has also been much specialization in medical training1 within recent years1 and especially has preventive medicine been developed4 ,extending the newly found biological and medical knowledge to the animal and vegetable worlds has resulted in a similar development of veterinary medicine #aj and plant pathology4 ,a combination of medical knowledge with engineering and chemistry has produced the sanitary engineer1 while medical knowledge and applied biology has produced the public-health expert4 #aa ,so important1 too1 has the control of all kinds of disease become1 now that people1 animals1 insects1 plants1 and goods move so freely along the great trade routes of the world1 that nations everywhere feel the necessity1 now that scientific research has revealed to questioning man the methods of transmission of the diseases which once decimated armies and cities1 destroyed stocks1 and ruined harvests1 of developing ample quarantine service and medical staffs to cope with diseases--human1 animal1 and plant--from without1 and to control those which arise within4 ,nations too poor as yet to provide such service for themselves are today having such provision made for them by other nations1 or by great national foundations1 #ab so that other lands may be protected from the ravages of their diseases and the economic wealth of all may be increased4 ,the element of ,christian charity has also entered into the service1 the labors of ,dr4 ,grenfell in ,labrador1 and the work of the ,rockefeller medical and surgical boat traveling among the ,philippine ,islands and its hookworm work on every continent1 being good examples of such ,christian effort4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4 ,,the ,,peking ,,union ,,medical ,,college ,a well-equipped center for instruction in western medicine1 endowed by the ,rockefeller ,foundation4 ,a similar school is being created at ,shanghai1 in central ,china4 ,existing medical schools at two other points1 and nineteen hospitals scattered over the ,republic1 have also been aided by this ,american foundation4 ,in addition1 many medical missionaries1 ,chinese physicians1 and nurses have been sent to the ,united ,states for study4 ,to improve health standards and living conditions throughout the world is the purpose of the work of the ,foundation1 which now has work under way on every continent4 ,,applied ,,science ,,the ,,nation',s ,,protector4 ,to-day applied science stands everywhere as the nation's protector4 ,applied in sanitation and preventive medicine it has reduced the death rate1 prolonged life1 and protects homes from many hidden dangers4 ,in the engineering fields it has transformed the face of the earth and all our ways of living and doing business4 ,applied to industry it builds factories and railways1 and works out new processes to eliminate wastes1 improve production1 and utilize by-products4 ,thousands of labor-saving inventions owe their origin to a new truth worked out in some laboratory1 and applied in another4 ,applied chemistry has wrought wonders in advancing industry1 protecting the public welfare1 eliminating unnecessary labor1 and making life richer for all4 ,to-day the engineer with his railway and irrigating dam and power plant in the desert has replaced the monk as the vanguard of the forces of civilization4 ,the scientist in his laboratory in part replaces armies and navies as the protector of the nation's safety4 ,the scientifically trained ,red ,cross nurse is fast replacing the unskilled devotion of the older ,sister of ,charity4 ,the doctor and the surgeon at the medical mission are carrying a very practical type of ,christian civilization into far-away lands4 ,the laboratory expert in the quarantine station has succeeded the priest with bell and book in keeping pestilence away from the land4 ,the public-health officer in the little town1 and the sanitary engineer in the city1 protect the health and happiness of millions of homes4 ,the plant pathologist and veterinarian guard the crops and herds from which food and clothing are derived4 ,the scientific experts in plant and animal industries work steadily to improve breeds and increase yields4 ,when one compares present-day scientific knowledge with that represented in the thirteenth-century ,encyclopaedia of ,bartholomew ,anglicus 7,r4 #gg72 our modern knowledge of diseases with the theories as to disease advanced by ,hippocrates 7p4 #aig71 and taught for so many centuries in ,christian ,europe2 our modern knowledge of bacterial transmission with the mediaeval theories of ,divine wrath and diabolic action2 our modern ability to annihilate time and space compared with early nineteenth-century conditions2 or modern applied science with the very limited technical knowledge possessed by the guilds of the later ,middle ,ages--the stories of ,aladdin and his wonderful lamp seem to have been even more than realized in our practical everyday life4 ,engineering1 agriculture1 and modern medicine stand as three of the great applications of modern science to human affairs1 and as three of the most important and costly additions to state educational effort made since the time when nations began to accept the political philosophy of the eighteenth-century reformers and to take over the school from the ,church1 because by so doing the interests of the ,state could better be advanced thereby4 ,,iii4 ,,vocational ,,what ,,is ,,vocational ,,education8 ,in a certain sense1 all education is vocational1 in that it aims to prepare one for some vocation in life4 ,in ,greece and ,rome education was vocational1 in that it prepared one to be a citizen in the ,state4 ,during the ,middle ,ages education was to prepare for a vocation in the ,church4 ,later the vocation of a scholar appeared1 and still later that of a gentleman4 ,in modern times a large range of state services have been opened up as vocations4 ,since the beginning of the nineteenth century1 with the extension of educational advantages to increasing numbers of the people1 preparation for more intelligent living and citizenship have come to be new motives in education4 ,to-day we no longer use the term vocational education in this rather general sense1 but restrict its use to the specific training of individuals for some useful employment4 ,training for law1 medicine1 the ministry1 teaching1 engineering1 scientific agriculture1 nursing1 and commerce are examples of vocational education in its higher ranges4 ,the development of education along these lines has previously been described4 ,in this division of this chapter we shall use the term in a still more common and still more restricted sense1 as meaning the training of the younger people of a ,state to do well certain specific things1 by teaching them processes and the practical applications of knowledge1 chiefly science and art1 to the work of the vocation they expect to follow to earn their living4 ,the ,report of the ,american ,commission on ,national ,aid to ,vocational ,education 7#aiad7 defined vocational education 7p4 #af7 as follows3 ,wherever the term vocational education is used in this ,report1 it will mean1 unless otherwise explained1 that form of education whose controlling purpose is to give training of a secondary grade to persons over fourteen years of age1 for increased efficiency in useful employment in the trades and industries1 in agriculture1 in commerce and commercial pursuits1 and in callings based upon a knowledge of home economics4 ,the occupations included under these are almost endless in number and variety4 ,,the ,,need ,,for ,,vocational ,,education4 ,used in this sense vocational education is an application of technical knowledge1 worked out in the higher schools1 to the ordinary vocations of a modern industrial world4 ,as such it is a product of the ,industrial ,revolution and the breakdown of the age- old system of apprenticeship training1 #ac and represents another of the important recent extensions of educational advantages to the masses of the people who labor with their hands to earn their daily bread4 ,besides further democratizing education by extending its advantages to those who work in the shop and the office and on the farm1 vocational education tends to correct many of the evils of modern industrial life4 ,it puts the worker in possession of a great body of scientific knowledge relating to his work which shops and offices cannot give1 and it keeps him1 for several years after he becomes a wage earner and at a very impressionable period of his life1 under the directing care of the school4 ,it thus tends to counteract the specialization and routine of the workshop1 which wears out his body before nature has completed its development in form and power1 blunts the intelligence which the school had tried to awaken1 shrivels up his heart and imagination1 and destroys his spirit of work4 ,,vocational ,,education ,,in ,,europe ,,and ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,for almost half a century the leading nations of western ,europe1 in an effort to readjust their age-old apprenticeship system of training to modern conditions of manufacture1 and to develop new national prestige and strength1 have given careful attention to the education of such of their children as were destined for the vocations of the industrial world4 ,germany1 ,austria1 ,switzerland1 and ,france have been leaders1 with ,germany most prominent of all4 #ad ,no small part of the great progress made by that country in securing world-wide trade1 #ae before the ,world ,war1 was due to the extensive and thorough system of vocational education worked out for ,german youths 7,r4 #cga74 ,in commercial education1 too1 the ,germans1 up to #aiad1 led the world4 ,even more1 they were the only great national group which had done much to develop commercial training4 ,next to ,germany probably came the ,united ,states4 ,the marked economic progress of ,switzerland during the past quarter-century has likewise been due in large part to that type of education which would enable her1 by skillful artisanship1 to make the most of her very limited resources ,france has profited greatly1 during the past half-century also1 from vocational education along the lines of agriculture and industrial art4 ,in ,denmark1 agricultural education has remade the nation 7,r4 #cgj71 since the days of its humiliation and spoliation at the hands of ,prussia4 ,england1 though keenly sensitive to ,german trade competition1 made only very moderate efforts in the direction of vocational education until ,germany plunged the world in war in an effort more quickly to dominate commercially4 ,now1 in the ,fisher ,education ,act of #aiah 7p4 #fdi71 ,england has t last laid foundations for a great national system of vocational education4 ,japan1 also1 recently laid large plans for a national system of vocational training4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,trades ,,in ,,modern ,,industry ,under the old conditions of apprenticeship a boy learned all the processes and became a tailor4 ,to-day1 in a thoroughly organized clothing factory1 thirty-nine different persons perform different specialized operations in the manufacture of a coat4 ,in the ,united ,states but little attention was given to educating young people for the vocations of life until about #aije-aj1 though modern manufacturing conditions had before this largely destroyed the old apprenticeship type of training4 ,endowed with enormous natural resources2 not being pressed for the means of subsistence by a rapidly expanding population on a limited land area2 able to draw on ,europe for both cheap manual labor and technically educated workers2 largely isolated and self- sufficient as a nation2 lacking a merchant marine2 not being thrown into severe competition for international trade2 and able to sell its products #af to nations anxious to buy them and willing to come for them in their own ships2 the people of the ,united ,states did not1 up to recently1 feel any particular need for anything other than a good common-school education or a general high-school education for their workers4 ,the commercial course in the high school1 the manual-training schools and courses1 and some instruction in drawing and creative art were felt to be about all that it was necessary to provide4 ,,the ,,national ,,commission ,,on ,,vocational ,,education4 ,largely since #aiaj1 due in part to expanding world commerce and increasing competition in world trade2 in part to a national realization that the battles of the future are to be largely commercial battles2 and in part to the dawning upon the ,american people of the conception1 first thought out and put into practice by ,imperial ,germany 7,r4 #cga71 that that nation will triumph in foreign trade1 with all that such triumph means to-day in terms of the happiness and welfare of its citizenship 7,r4 #cgb71 which puts the greatest amount of skill and brains into what it produces and sells4 ,after a number of sporadic efforts in different parts of the country1 #ag and the introduction of a number of bills into ,congress which failed to secure passage1 the favorite ,english plan was followed and a ,presidential ,commission was appointed 7#aiac7 to inquire into the matter1 and to report on the desirability and feasibility of some form of national aid to stimulate the development of vocational education4 ,the ,commission made its report in #aiad1 and submitted a plan for gradually increasing national aid to the ,states to assist them in developing and maintaining what will virtually become a national system of agricultural1 trade1 commercial1 and home-economics education4 ,,the ,,commission',s ,,findings4 ,the ,commission found that there were1 in #aiaj1 in round numbers1 #ab1ejj1jjj persons engaged in agriculture in the ,united ,states1 of whom not over one per cent had had any adequate preparation for farming2 and that there were #ad1bej1jjj persons engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits1 not one per cent of whom had had any opportunity for adequate training4 #ah ,in the whole ,united ,states there were fewer trade schools1 of all kinds1 than existed in the little ,german kingdom of ,bavaria1 a ,state about the size of ,south ,carolina2 while the one ,bavarian city of ,munich1 a city about the size of ,pittsburgh1 had more trade schools than were to be found in all the larger cities of the ,united ,states1 put together4 ,the ,commission further found that there were #be1jjj1jjj persons in the nation1 eighteen years of age or over1 engaged in farming1 mining1 manufacturing1 and mechanical pursuits1 and in trade and transportation1 and of these the ,report said3 ,if we assume that a system of vocational education1 pursued through the years of the past1 would have increased the wage-earning capacity of each of these persons to the extent of only ten cents a day1 this would have made an increase of wages for the group of #b1ejj1jjj a day1 or #gej1jjj1jjj a year1 with all that this would mean to the wealth and life of the nation4 ,this is a very moderate estimate1 and the facts would probably show a difference between the earning power of the vocationally trained and the vocationally untrained of at least twenty-five cents a day4 ,this would indicate a waste of wages1 through lack of training1 amounting to #f1bej1jjj every day1 or #a1hge1jjj1jjj for the year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4 ,,school ,,attendance ,,of ,,american ,,children1 ,,fourteen ,,to ,,twenty ,,years or ,,age ,based on an estimate made by the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education in #aijg 7,bulletin ,no4 #a1 p4 #bi71 and based on conditions then existing1 but probably still approximately true4 ,in evening schools all classes were counted--public1 private1 ,y4,m4,c4,a41 ,y4,w4,c4,a41 etc4 ,public and private day schools1 both elementary and secondary1 also were counted4 ,the ,commission estimated that a million new young people were required annually by our industries1 and that it would need three years of vocational education1 beyond the elementary-school age1 to prepare them for efficient service4 ,this would require that three million young people of elementary-school age be continually enrolled in schools offering some form of vocational training4 ,this was approximately three times the number of young people then enrolled in all public and private high schools in the ,united ,states1 and following any kind of a course of study4 ,in addition1 the untrained adult workers then in farming and industry also needed some form of adult or extension education to enable them to do more effective work4 ,the ,commission further pointed out that there were in the ,united ,states1 in #aiaj1 #g1bbj1bih young people between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years1 only #a1jcb1dfa of whom were enrolled in a high school of any type1 public or private1 day or evening 7,fig4 #bcd71 and few of those enrolled were pursuing studies of a technical type4 ,,american ,,beginnings2 ,,meaning ,,of ,,the ,,work4 ,in #aiag the ,american ,congress made the beginnings of what is destined to develop rapidly into a truly national system of vocational education for the boys and girls of secondary-school age in the ,united ,states4 ,this new addition to the systems of public instruction now provided is one which in time will bring returns out of all proportion to its costs4 ,without it the national prosperity and happiness would be at stake1 and the position the ,united ,states has attained in the markets of the world could not possibly be maintained 7,r4 #cgb74 ,this new ,american legislation is based on the best continental ,european experience1 and is somewhat typical of recent national legislation for similar objects elsewhere4 ,it is to include vocational training for agriculture1 the trades and industries1 commerce1 and home economics4 #ai ,a certain portion of the money appropriated annually by the national government is to be used for making or coperating in studies and investigations as to needs and courses in agriculture1 home economics1 trades1 industries1 and commerce4 ,the courses must be given in the public schools2 must be for those over fourteen years of age and of less than college grade2 and must be primarily intended for those who are preparing to enter or who have entered 7part-time classes7 a trade or a useful industrial pursuit4 ,as nation after nation becomes industrialized1 as all except the smallest and poorest nations are bound to become in time1 vocational education for its workers in the field1 shop1 and office will be found to be another state necessity4 ,only the ,state can adequately provide this1 for only the ,state can finance or properly organize and integrate the work of so large and so important an undertaking4 ,though costly1 this new extension of state educational effort will be found to be a wise business investment for every industrial and commercial nation4 ,considered nationally1 the workers of any nation not provided with vocational education will find themselves unable to compete with the workers of other nations which do provide such specialized training4 ,,iv4 ,,sociological ,a ,,new ,,estimate ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,child ,,life4 ,as we saw in chapter ,,xviii1 which described the opportunities for and the kind of schooling developed up to the middle of the eighteenth century1 but little of what may be called formal education had been provided up to then for the great mass of children1 even in the most progressive nations4 ,we also noted the extreme brutality of the school4 ,such was the history of childhood1 so far as it may be said to have had a history at all1 up to the rise of the great humanitarian movement early in the nineteenth century4 #bj ,neglect1 abuse1 mutilation1 excessive labor1 heavy punishments1 and often virtual slavery awaited children everywhere up to recent times4 ,the sufferings of childhood at home were added to by others in the school 7p4 #dee7 for such as frequented these institutions4 ,after the coming of mills and manufacturing the lot of children became1 for a time1 worse than before4 ,the demand for cheap labor led to the apprenticing of children to the factories to tend machines1 instead of to a master to learn a trade1 and there they became virtual slaves and their treatment was most inhuman4 #ba ,conditions were worse in ,england than elsewhere1 not because the ,english were more brutal than the ,french or the ,germans1 but because the ,industrial ,revolution began earlier in ,england and before the rise of humanitarian influences4 ,england was a manufacturing nation decades before ,france1 and longer still before ,germany4 ,by the time ,germany had changed from an agricultural to a manufacturing nation 7after #ahga71 the new humanitarianism and new economic conditions had placed a new value on child life and child welfare4 ,since about #ahej an entirely new estimate has come to be placed on the importance of national attention to child welfare1 though the beginnings of the change date back much earlier4 ,as we have seen 7p4 #cbe71 ,england early began to care for the children of its poor4 ,in the ,poor-,relief and ,apprenticeship ,law of #afja 7,r4 #agd7 ,england organized into law the growing practice of a century 7p4 #cbf7 and laid the basis for much future work of importance4 ,in this legislation1 as we have seen1 the foundations of the ,massachusetts school law of #afdb were laid4 ,in the ,virginia laws of #afdc and #afdf 7,r4 #bjj a7 and the ,massachusetts law of #affj1 providing for the apprenticeship of orphans and homeless children1 the beginnings of child- welfare work in the ,american ,colonies were made4 ,many of the ,catholic religious orders in ,europe had for long cared for and brought up poor and neglected children1 and in #agbi the first private orphanage in the new world was established by the ,ursulines 7p4 #cdf7 in ,new ,orleans4 ,the first public orphanage in ,america was established in ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 in #agij2 the first in ,england at ,birmingham1 in #ahag1 and in #ahbd the ,new ,york ,house of ,refuge was founded4 ,the latter was the forerunner of the juvenile reformatory institutions established later by practically all of the ,american ,states4 ,these have developed chiefly since #ahej4 ,to-day most of the ,american ,states and governments in many other lands also provide state homes for orphan and neglected children1 where they are clothed1 fed1 cared for1 educated1 and trained for some useful employment4 ,,child-,,labor ,,legislation4 ,one of the best evidences of the new nineteenth- century humanitarianism is to be found in the large amount of child-labor legislation which arose1 largely after #ahej1 and which has been particularly prominent since #aijj4 ,under the earlier agricultural conditions and the restricted demand for education for ordinary life needs1 child labor was not especially harmful1 as most of it was out of doors and under reasonably good health conditions4 ,with the coming of the factory system1 the rise of cities and the city congestion of population1 and other evils connected with the ,industrial ,revolution1 the whole situation was changed4 ,humanitarians now began to demand legislation to restrict the evils that had arisen4 ,this demand arose earliest in ,england1 and resulted in the earliest legislation there4 ,the year #ahjb is important in the history of child-welfare work for the enactment1 by the ,english ,parliament1 of the first law to regulate the employment of children in factories4 ,this was known as the ,health and ,morals of ,apprentices ,act 7,r4 #cgc74 ,this ,act1 though largely ineffectual at the time1 ordered important reforms which aroused public opinion and which later bore important fruit4 ,by it the employment of work-house orphans was limited2 it forbade the labor of children under twelve1 for more than twelve hours a day2 provided that night labor of children should be discontinued1 after #ahjd2 ordered that the children so employed must be taught reading and writing and ciphering1 be instructed in religion one hour a week1 be taken to church every ,sunday1 and be given one new suit of clothes a year2 ordered separate sleeping apartments for the two sexes1 and not over two children to a bed2 and provided for the registration and inspection of factories4 ,this law represents the beginnings of modern child-labor legislation4 ,it was #ahdc before any further child-labor legislation of importance was enacted1 and #ahgh before a comprehensive child-labor bill was finally passed4 ,in the ,united ,states the first laws regulating the employment of children and providing for their school attendance were enacted by ,rhode ,island in #ahdj1 and ,massachusetts in #ahdb4 ,factory legislation in other countries has been a product of more recent forces and times4 ,to-day important child-labor legislation has been enacted by all progressive nations1 and the leading world nations have taken advanced ground on the question4 ,all recent thinking is opposed to children engaging in productive labor4 ,with the rise of organized labor1 and the extension of the suffrage to the laboring man1 he has joined the humanitarians in opposition to his children being permitted to labor4 ,from an economic point of view also1 all recent studies have shown the unprofitableness of child labor and the large money-value1 under present industrial conditions1 of a good education4 ,as a result of much agitation and the spread of popular education1 it has at last come to be a generally accepted principle 7,r4 #cgd7 that it is better for children and better for society that they should remain in school until they are at least fourteen years of age1 and be specially trained for some useful type of work4 ,shown to be economically unprofitable1 and for long morally indefensible1 child labor is now rapidly being superseded by suitable education and the vocational training and guidance of youth in all progressive nations4 ,,compulsory ,,school-,,attendance ,,legislation4 ,the natural corollary of the taxation of the wealth of the ,state to educate the children of the ,state1 and the prohibition of children to labor1 is the compulsion of children to attend school that they may receive the instruction and training which the ,state has deemed it wise to tax its citizens to provide4 ,except in the ,german ,states1 compulsory education is a relatively recent idea1 though in its origins it is a child of the ,protestant ,reformation theory as to education for salvation4 ,luther and his followers had stood for the education of all1 supported by 7,r4 #aef7 and enforced by 7,r4 #aeh7 the ,state4 ,this idea of the education of all to read the ,bible took deep root1 as we have seen1 with both ,lutherans and ,calvinists4 ,in #afai the little ,duchy of ,weimar made the school attendance of all children1 six to twelve years of age1 compulsory1 and the same idea was instituted in ,gotha by ,duke ,ernest 7p4 #cag71 in #afdb2 the same year that the ,massachusetts ,general ,court ordered the ,selectmen of the towns to ascertain if parents and the masters of apprentices 7,r4 #aij7 were training their children in learning and labor and to read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of the country4 ,this latter law is remarkable in that1 for the first time in the ,english-speaking world1 a legislative body representing the ,state ordered that all children should be taught to read4 ,five years later 7#afdg7 the ,massachusetts ,court ordered the establishment of schools 7,r4 #aia7 better to enforce the compulsion1 and thus laid the foundations upon which the ,american public-school systems have since been built4 ,in ,holland1 the ,synod of ,dort 7#afah7 had tried to institute the idea of compulsory education 7,r4 #agf71 and in #afdf the ,scotch ,parliament had ordered the compulsory establishment of schools 7,r4 #agi74 ,in ,german lands the compulsory-attendance idea took deep root1 and in consequence the ,germans were the first important modern nation to enforce1 thoroughly1 the education of all4 ,in #agag ,king ,frederick ,william ,i issued 7p4 #eee7 the first compulsory-education law for ,prussia1 ordering that hereafter wherever there are schools in the place the parents shall be obliged1 under severe penalties1 to send their children to school1444 daily in winter1 but in summer at least twice a week4 ,he further ordered that the fees for the poor were to be paid from the community's funds4 ,finally ,frederick the ,great organized the earlier procedure into comprehensive codes1 and made 7#agfc1 ,r4 #bgd1 ,section #aj2 #agfe1 ,r4 #bge d7 detailed provisions relating to the compulsion to attend the schools4 ,in the ,code of #agid 7p4 #efe7 the final legislative step was taken when it was ordered that the instruction in school must be continued until the child is found to possess the knowledge necessary to every rational being4 ,by the middle of the eighteenth century the basis was clearly laid in ,prussia for that enforcement of the compulsion to attend schools which1 by the middle of the nineteenth century1 had become such a notable characteristic of all ,german education4 ,the same compulsory idea early took deep root among the ,scandinavian peoples4 ,in consequence the lowest illiteracy in ,europe1 at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 was to be found 7see map1 p4 #gad7 among the ,finns1 ,swedes1 ,norwegians1 ,danes1 and ,germans4 ,the compulsory-attendance idea died out in ,america1 in the ,netherlands1 and in part in ,scotland4 ,in ,england and in the ,anglican ,colonies in ,america it never took root4 ,in ,france the idea awaited the work of the ,national ,convention1 which 7#agib7 ordered three years of education compulsory for all4 ,war and the lack of interest of ,napoleon in primary education caused the requirement1 however1 to become a dead letter4 ,the ,law of #ahcc provided for but did not enforce it1 and real compulsory education in ,france did not come until #ahhb4 ,in ,england the compulsory idea received but little attention until after #ahgj1 met with much opposition1 and only recently have comprehensive reforms been provided4 ,in the ,united ,states the new beginnings of compulsory-attendance legislation date from the ,rhode ,island child-labor law of #ahdj1 and the first modern compulsory-attendance law enacted by ,massachusetts1 in #aheb4 ,by #ahhe1 fourteen ,american ,states and six ,territories had enacted some form of compulsory-attendance law4 ,since #aijj there has been a general revision of ,american state legislation on the subject1 with a view to increasing and the better enforcement of the compulsory-attendance requirements1 and with a general demand that the ,national ,congress should enact a national child- labor law4 ,as a result of this legislation the labor of young children has been greatly restricted2 work in many industries has been prohibited entirely1 because of the danger to life and health2 compulsory education has been extended in a majority of the ,american ,states to cover the full school year2 poverty1 or dependent parents1 in many ,states no longer serves as an excuse for non-attendance2 often those having physical or mental defects also are included in the compulsion to attend1 if their wants can be provided for2 the school census has been changed so as to aid in the location of children of compulsory school-attendance age2 and special officers have been authorized or ordered appointed to assist school authorities in enforcing the compulsory-attendance and child-labor laws4 ,having taxed their citizens to provide schools1 the different ,states now require children to attend and partake of the advantages provided4 ,the schools1 too1 have made a close study of retarded pupils1 because of the close connection found to exist between retardation in school and truancy and juvenile delinquency4 ,,one ,,result ,,of ,,this ,,legislation4 ,one of the results of all this legislation has been to throw1 during the past quarter of a century1 an entirely new burden on schools everywhere4 ,such legislation has brought into the schools not only the truant and the incorrigible1 who under former conditions either left early or were expelled1 but also many children who have no aptitude for book learning1 and many of inferior mental qualities who do not profit by ordinary classroom procedure4 ,still more1 they have brought into the school the crippled1 tubercular1 deaf1 epileptic1 and blind1 as well as the sick1 needy1 and physically unfit4 ,by steadily raising the age at which children may leave school1 from ten or twelve up to fourteen and sixteen1 schools everywhere have come to contain many children who1 having no natural aptitude for study1 would at once1 unless specially handled1 become a nuisance in the school and tend to demoralize schoolroom procedure4 ,these laws have thrown upon the school a new burden in the form of public expectancy for results1 whereas a compulsory- education law cannot create capacity to profit from education4 ,under the earlier educational conditions the school1 unable to handle or educate such children1 dealt with them much as the ,church of the time dealt with religious delinquents4 ,it simply expelled them or let them drop from school1 and no longer concerned itself about them4 ,to-day the public expects the school to retain and get results with them4 ,consequently1 within the past twenty-five years the whole attitude of the school toward such children has undergone a change2 many different kinds of classes and courses1 that might serve better to handle them1 have been introduced2 and an attempt has been made to salvage them and turn back to society as many of them as possible1 trained for some form of social and personal usefulness4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,defectives4 ,another nineteenth-century expansion of state education has come in the provision now generally made for the education of defectives4 ,to-day the state school systems of ,christian nations generally make some provision for state institutional care1 and often for local classes as well1 for the training of children who belong to the seriously defective classes of society4 ,this work is almost entirely a product of the new humanitarianism of modern times4 ,excepting the education of the deaf1 seriously begun a little earlier1 all effective work dates from the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,at first the feasibility of all such instruction was doubted1 and the work generally was commenced privately4 ,out of successes thus achieved1 public institutions have been built up to carry on1 on a large scale1 what was begun privately on a small scale4 ,it is now felt to be better for the ,state1 as well as for the unfortunates themselves1 that they be cared for and educated1 as suitably and well as possible1 for self-respect1 self- support1 and some form of social and vocational usefulness4 ,in consequence1 the compulsory-attendance laws of the leading world ,states to-day require that defectives1 between certain ages at least1 be sent to a state institution or be enrolled in a public-school class specialized for their training4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bce4 ,,abb ,,de ,l',p,e 7#agab-hi7 ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,work4 ,up to the middle of the eighteenth century a number of private efforts at the education of the deaf are on record1 all dating however from the pioneer work of a ,spanish ,benedictine1 in #aegh4 ,in #agfj a new era in the education of the deaf was begun when ,abb de l'pe opened a school at ,paris for the oral instruction of poor deaf mutes1 and ,thomas ,braidwood 7#agae-ahjf7 began similar work at ,edinburgh4 ,a few years later 7#aggh7 a third school was opened at ,leipzig4 ,this last was established under the patronage of the ,elector of ,saxony1 and was the first school of its kind in the world to receive government recognition4 ,the ,paris school was taken over as a state institution by the ,constituent ,assembly1 in #agia4 ,in ,england the instruction of the deaf remained a private and a family monopoly until #ahai4 ,in #ahag the first school in ,america was opened1 at ,hartford1 ,connecticut1 by the ,reverend ,thomas ,h4 ,gallaudet1 and ,massachusetts1 in #ahai1 sent the first pupils paid for at state expense to this institution4 ,in #ahbc ,kentucky created the first state school for the training of the deaf established in the new world1 and ,ohio the second1 in #ahbg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4 ,,rev4 ,,thomas ,h4 ,,gallaudet ,,teaching ,,the ,,deaf ,,and ,,dumb ,from a bas-relief on the monument of ,gallaudet1 erected by the deaf and dumb of the ,united ,states1 in the grounds of the ,american ,asylum1 at ,hartford1 ,connecticut4 ,the education of the blind began in ,france1 in #aghd2 ,england1 in #agia2 ,austria1 in #ahjd2 ,prussia1 in #ahjf2 ,holland1 in #ahjh2 ,sweden1 in #ahaj2 ,denmark1 in #ahaa2 ,scotland1 in #ahab2 in ,boston and ,new ,york1 in #ahcb2 and in ,philadelphia1 in #ahcc4 ,all were private institutions1 and general interest in the education of the blind was awakened later by exhibiting the pupils trained4 ,the first book for the blind was printed in ,paris1 in #aghf4 ,the first kindergarten for the blind was established in ,germany1 in #ahfa2 the first school for the colored blind1 by ,north ,carolina1 in #ahfi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4 ,,educational ,,institutions ,,maintained ,,by ,,the ,,state ,as state institutions1 other than public schools4 ,before the nineteenth century the feeble-minded and idiotic were the laughing-stock of society1 and no one thought of being able to do anything for them4 ,in #ahaa ,napoleon ordered a census of such individuals1 and in #ahaf the first school for their training was opened at ,salzburg1 ,austria4 ,the school was unsuccessful1 and closed in #ahce4 ,the real beginning of the training of the feeble-minded was made in ,france1 by ,edouard ,sguin1 ,the ,apostle of the ,idiot1 in #ahcg1 when he began a life-long study of such defectives4 ,by #ahde three or four institutions had been opened in ,switzerland and ,great ,britain for their study and training1 and for a time an attempt was made to effect cures4 ,gallaudet had tried to educate such children at ,hartford1 about #ahbj1 and a class for idiots was established at the ,blind ,asylum in ,boston1 in #ahdh4 ,the interest thus aroused led to the creation of the ,massachusetts ,school for ,idiotic and ,feeble-,minded ,youth1 in #ahea1 the first institution of its kind in the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahfg the first city school class to train children of low-grade intelligence was organized in ,germany1 and all the larger cities of ,germany later organized such special classes4 ,norway followed with a similar city organization1 in #ahgd2 and ,england1 ,switzerland1 and ,austria1 about #ahib4 ,the first ,american city to organize such classes was ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 in #ahic4 ,since that time special classes for children of low-grade mentality have become a common feature of the large city school systems in most ,american cities4 ,in #ahcb the first attempt to educate crippled children1 as such1 was made in ,munich4 ,the model school in ,europe for the education of cripples was established in ,copenhagen1 in #ahgb4 ,the work was begun privately in ,new ,york ,city1 in #ahfa1 and first publicly in ,chicago1 in #ahii4 ,the ,london ,school ,board first began such classes in ,england1 in #ahih4 ,dependents1 orphans1 children of soldiers and sailors1 and incorrigibles of various classes represent others for whom modern ,states have now provided special state institutions4 ,to-day a modern ,state finds it necessary to provide a number of such specialized institutions1 or to make arrangements with neighboring ,states for the care of its dependents1 if it is to meet what have come to be recognized as its humanitarian educational duties4 ,the more important of these special state institutions are shown in the diagram given in ,fig4 #bcg4 ,public playgrounds and play directors1 vacation schools1 juvenile courts1 disciplinary classes1 parental schools1 classes for mothers1 visiting home-teachers and nurses1 and child-welfare societies and officers1 are other means for caring for child life and child welfare which have all been begun within the past half-century4 ,the significance of these additions lies chiefly in that the history of the attitude of nations toward their child life is the history of the rise of humanitarianism1 altruism1 justice1 order1 morality1 and civilization itself4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,superior ,,children4 ,all the work described above and relating to the work of defectives1 delinquents1 and children for some reason in need of special attention and care has been for those who represent the less capable and on the whole less useful members of society--the ones from whom society may expect the least4 ,they are at the same time the most costly wards of the ,state4 ,wholly within the second decade of the present century1 and largely as a result of the work of the ,french psychologist ,alfred ,binet 7#aheg-aiaa7 we are now able to sort out1 for special attention1 a new class of what are known as superior1 or gifted children1 and to the education of these special attention is to-day here and there beginning to be directed4 ,educationally1 it is an attempt to do for democratic forms of national organization what a two-class school system does for monarchical forms1 but to select intellectual capacity from the whole mass of the people1 rather than from a selected class or caste4 ,we know now that the number of children of superior ability is approximately as large as the number of the feeble in mind1 and also that the future of democratic governments hinges largely upon the proper education and utilization of these superior children4 ,one child of superior intellectual capacity1 educated so as to utilize his talents1 may confer greater benefits upon mankind1 and be educationally far more important1 than a thousand of the feeble-minded children upon whom we have recently come to put so much educational effort and expense4 ,questions relating to the training of leaders for democracy's service attain new significance in terms of the recent ability to measure and grade intelligence1 as also do questions relating to grading1 classification in school1 choice of studies1 rate of advancement1 and the vocational guidance of children in school4 ,net ,average ,worth of a ,person ,age ,worth #j #ij #e #iej #aj #bjjj #bj #djjj #cj #dajj #dj #cfej #ej #bijj #fj #afej #gj #ae #hj -#gjj 7,calculations by ,dr4 ,william ,farr1 formerly ,registrar of ,vital ,statistics for ,great ,britain4 ,based on pre-war values47 ,,the ,,new ,,interest ,,in ,,health4 ,another new expansion of the educational service which has come in since the middle of the nineteenth century1 and which has recently grown to be one of large significance1 is work in the medical inspection of schools1 the supervision of the health of pupils1 and the new instruction in preventive hygiene4 ,this is a product of the scientific and social and industrial revolutions which the nineteenth century brought1 rather than of humanitarian influences1 and represents an application of newly discovered scientific knowledge to health work among children4 ,its basis is economic1 though its results are largely physical and educational and social 7,r4 #cge74 ,the discovery and isolation of bacteria2 the vast amount of new knowledge which has come to us as to the transmission and possibilities for the elimination of many diseases2 the spread of information as to sanitary science and preventive medicine2 the change in emphasis in medical practice1 from curative to preventive and remedial2 the closer crowding together of all classes of people in cities2 the change of habits for many from life in the open to life in the factory1 shop1 and apartment2 and the growing realization of the economic value to the nation of its manhood and womanhood2 have all alike combined with modern humanitarianism and applied ,christianity to make progressive nations take a new interest in child health and proper child development4 ,european nations have so far done much more in school health work than has the ,united ,states1 though a very commendable beginning has been made here4 ,,medical ,,inspection ,,and ,,health ,,supervision4 ,medical inspection of schools began in ,france1 in #ahcg1 though genuine medical inspection1 in a modern sense1 was not begun in ,france until #ahgi4 ,the pioneer country for real work was ,sweden1 where health officers were assigned to each large school as early as #ahfh4 ,norway made such appointments optional in #ahhe1 and obligatory in #ahia4 ,belgium began the work in #ahgd4 ,tests of eyesight were begun in ,dresden in #ahfg4 ,frankfort-on-,main appointed the first ,german school physician in #ahhh4 ,england first employed school nurses in #ahhg2 and1 in #aijg1 following the revelations as to low physical vitality growing out of the ,boer ,war1 adopted a mandatory medical-inspection and health-development act applying to ,england and ,wales1 and the year following ,scotland did the same4 ,argentine and ,chili both instituted such service in #ahhh1 and ,japan made medical inspection compulsory and universal in #ahih4 ,in the ,united ,states the work was begun voluntarily in ,boston1 in #ahid1 following a series of epidemics4 ,chicago organized medical inspection in #ahie1 ,new ,york ,city in #ahig1 and ,philadelphia in #ahih4 ,from these larger cities the idea spread to the smaller ones1 at first slowly1 and then very rapidly4 ,the first school nurse in the ,united ,states was employed in ,new ,york ,city1 in #aijb1 and the idea at once proved to be of great value4 ,in #aijf ,massachusetts adopted the first state medical inspection law4 ,in #aiab ,minnesota organized the first ,state ,division of ,health ,supervision of ,schools in the ,united ,states1 and this plan has since been followed by other ,states4 ,from mere medical inspection to detect contagious diseases1 in which the movement everywhere began1 it was next extended to tests for eyesight and hearing1 to be made by teachers or physicians1 and has since been enlarged to include physical examinations to detect hidden diseases and a constructive health-program for the schools4 ,the work has now come to include eye1 ear1 nose1 throat1 and teeth1 as well as general physical examinations2 the supervision of the teaching of hygiene in the schools1 and to a certain extent the physical training and playground activities2 and a constructive program for the development of the health and physical welfare of all children4 ,all this represents a further extension of the public-education idea4 ,v4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,organization ,,of ,,education ,an important recent development in the field of public education1 and in a sense an outgrowth of all the preceding recent development which we have described1 has been the organization of collegiate and university instruction in the history1 theory1 practice1 and administration of education4 ,still more recent has been the organization of ,teachers' ,colleges and ,schools of ,education to give advanced training in educational research and in the solution of the practical problems of school organization and administration4 ,so important has this recent development become that no history of educational progress would be complete without at least a brief mention of this recent attempt to give scientific organization to the educational process4 ,,early ,,beginners4 ,though the teachers' seminaries had been organized in ,germany and other northern lands toward the close of the eighteenth century1 the normal school in ,france early in the nineteenth1 and the training-college in ,england and the normal school in the ,united ,states by the close of the first third of that century1 the work in these remained for a long time almost entirely academic in nature and elementary in character4 ,this was also true of the superior normal school for training teachers for the lyces of ,france4 ,the reason for this is easy to find4 ,the writings of the earlier educational reformers were little known2 the contributions of ,herbart and ,froebel had not as yet been popularized2 there was no organized psychology of the educational process1 and no psychology better than that of ,john ,locke2 the detailed ,pestalozzian procedure had not as yet been worked out in the form of teaching technique2 the history of the development of educational theory or of educational practice had not been written2 and almost no philosophy of the educational purpose had been formulated which could be used in the training-schools4 ,in consequence the training of teachers1 both for elementary and secondary instruction1 #bb was almost entirely in academic subjects1 with some talks on school-keeping and class organization and management added1 and at times a little philosophy as to educational work1 such as habit-formation1 morality1 thinking1 and the training of the will4 ,educational journalism did not begin in either ,europe or ,america until near the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century1 and it was #ahej before it attained any significance1 and #ahdj to #ahej before any important pedagogical literature arose4 #bc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bch4 ,,karl ,,georg ,,von ,,raumer 7#aghc-ahfe7 ,,new ,,influence4 ,in #ahdc there appeared1 in ,germany1 the first two volumes of a very celebrated and influential ,history of ,education1 by a professor of mineralogy in the ,university of ,erlangen1 by the name of ,karl ,gcorg von ,raumer4 ,as a young man in ,paris 7#ahjh-ji71 studying the great mineral collections found there1 he read and was deeply stirred by ,fichte's ,address to the ,german ,nation 7p4 #efg74 ,as a result he went to ,yverdon1 in #ahji1 and spent some months in studying the work in ,pestalozzi's ,institute4 ,this interest in education he never lost1 and thereafter1 as professor of mineralogy at ,halle and ,erlangen1 he also gave lectures on pedagogy 7,uber ,pdagogik74 ,the outgrowth of these lectures was his four- volume ,history of ,pedagogy from the ,revival of ,classical ,studies to our own ,time4 #bd ,the work was done with characteristic ,german thoroughness1 and for long served as a standard organization and text on the history of the development of educational theory and practice since the days of the ,revival of ,learning4 ,the work of von ,raumer stimulated many to a study of the writings of the earlier educational reformers1 and numerous books and papers on educational history and theory soon began to appear4 ,most important1 for ,american students1 was ,henry ,barnard's monumental ,american ,journal of ,education1 begun in #ahee1 and continued for thirty-one years4 ,this is a great treasure-house of pedagogical literature for ,american educators4 ,after #ahej the organization of a technique of instruction for the elementary-school subjects took place rapidly1 in the normal schools of all lands1 as it had earlier in the ,german teachers' seminaries4 ,by #ahfh the study of the new ,herbartian psychology and educational theory was well under way in ,germany1 and by #ahij in the ,united ,states4 ,by #ahge the kindergarten1 with its new theory of child life1 was also beginning to make itself felt in both ,europe and ,america4 ,between #ahej and #ahge ,weber1 ,lotze1 ,fechner1 and ,wundt laid the foundations for a new psychology 7,r4 #ceg71 and in #ahgh ,wundt opened the first laboratory for the experimental study of psychology at the ,university of ,leipzig4 ,in #ahij ,william ,james published his two-volume work on ,principles of ,psychology1 a book so original and lucid in treatment that it at once gave a new teaching organization to modern psychology4 ,after about #ahhj1 the extension of education upward and outward in the ,united ,states1 and the rapid development of state school systems which had by that time begun1 began to make new demands for better scientific and legal and administrative organization1 and this gave rise to a new type of educational literature4 ,after von ,raumer's work1 probably the greatest single stimulative influence of the mid-nineteenth century was that exerted by the marked successes of the ,prussian armies in a series of short but very decisive wars4 ,against ,denmark 7#ahfd7 and ,austria 7#ahff71 but in particular in the ,franco-,prussian ,war of #ahgj-ga1 the ,prussian armies proved irresistible4 ,these military operations attracted new attention to education1 and the ,prussian schoolmaster has triumphed became a common world saying4 ,this1 coupled with the remarkable national development of ,united ,germany which almost immediately set in1 caused progressive nations to turn to the study of education with increased interest4 ,the ,english and ,scottish universities now began to establish lectureships in the theory and history of education1 #be and the first university chairs in education in the ,united ,states were founded4 ,,the ,,university ,,study ,,of ,,education4 ,in no country in the world have the universities1 within the past three decades1 given the attention to the study of ,education--a term that in ,english-speaking lands has replaced the earlier and more limited ,pedagogy--that has been given in the ,united ,states4 #bf ,after the ,united ,states the newer universities of ,england probably come next4 ,up to #ahij less than a dozen chairs of education had been established in all the colleges of the ,united ,states1 and their work was still largely limited to historical and philosophical studies of education1 and to a type of classroom methodology and school management1 since almost entirely passed over to the normal schools4 ,by #aibj there were some four hundred colleges in the ,united ,states giving serious courses on educational history and procedure and administration1 many of them maintaining large and important professional ,schools of ,education for the more scientific study of the subject1 and for the training of leaders for the service of the nation's schools4 ,in the great advances which have taken place in the organization of education1 during these three decades1 no institution in the world has exerted a more important influence than has ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 in the ,city of ,new ,york1 which was organized in #ahhg as ,the ,new ,york ,college for the ,training of ,teachers1 but since #ahij has been affiliated with ,columbia ,university1 under its present name4 ,this institution has been a model copied by many others over the world2 has trained a large percentage of the leaders in education in the ,united ,states2 and has been particularly influential with students from ,england1 the ,english self-governing dominions1 ,china1 and ,south ,america4 ,to-day1 in all the state universities and in many non-state institutions in the ,united ,states1 we find well-organized ,teachers' ,colleges engaged in a work which two decades ago was being attempted by but a few institutions anywhere1 ,in the municipal universities of ,england1 in ,canada1 in ,japan and ,china1 and in other democratic lands1 we find the beginnings of a similar development of the scientific study of education4 ,in these ,schools or ,colleges for the scientific study of education the best thinking on the problems of the reorganization and administration of education1 and the most new and creative work1 has been and is being done4 #bg ,,the ,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,present4 ,pestalozzi dreamed that he might be able to psychologize instruction and reduce all to an orderly procedure1 which1 once learned1 would make one a master teacher4 ,what he was not able to accomplish he died thinking others after him would do4 ,the problem of education has had1 with time1 no such simple and easy solution4 ,instead1 with the development of state school systems1 the extension of education in many new directions to meet new needs1 and the application to the study of education of the same scientific methods which have produced such results in other fields of human knowledge1 we have come to-day to have hundreds of problems1 many of which are complex and difficult and which influence deeply the welfare of society and the ,state4 ,that these problems1 even with time1 will receive any such simple solution as that of which ,pestalozzi dreamed1 may well be doubted4 ,in the days of church control1 memoriter instruction1 and a school for religious ends1 education was a simple matter2 to-day it partakes of the difficulty and complexity which characterize most of the problems of modern world ,states4 ,in consequence of this important change in the character of education a great number of important problems in educational organization1 practice1 and procedure now face us for solution4 ,space can here be taken to mention only the more prominent of these present-day educational problems4 ,on the administrative side is a whole group of problems relating to forms of organization3 the proper educational relationships between the ,state and its subordinate units2 the development of a state educational policy3 the types of instruction the ,state must provide1 and compel attendance upon2 questions of taxation and support1 compulsory attendance1 and child labor2 the training and oversight of teachers for the service of the ,state2 problems of child health and welfare2 the provision of adequate and professional supervision2 the provision of continuation schools1 and of industrial and vocational training2 the supervision of school buildings for health and sanitary control2 and the relation of the ,state to private and parochial education4 ,the problem of how to produce as effective and as thorough education for leadership with a one-class school system as with a two- class2 the opening-up of opportunity for youth of brains in any social class to rise and be trained for service2 the selection and proper training of those of superior intelligence2 the elimination of barriers to the advancement of children of large intellectual endowment2 and what best to do with those of small intellectual capacity1 form another important group of present-day educational problems4 ,vocational training and technical education1 and the relation and the proper solution of these questions to national happiness and prosperity and human welfare1 form still another important group4 ,the many questions which hinge upon instruction2 the elimination of useless subject-matter2 the best organization of instruction2 proper aims and ends2 moral and civic training2 the most economical organization of school work2 the saving of time2 and what are desirable educational reorganizations1 all these form a group of instructional problems of large significance for the future of public education4 ,still more in detail1 but of large importance1 are the questions relating to the scientific measurement of the results of instruction2 the erection of attainable goals in teaching2 and the introduction of scientific accuracy into educational work4 ,still another important group of problems relates to the readjustment of inherited school organization and practices1 the better to meet the changed and changing conditions of national life--social1 industrial1 political1 religious1 economic1 scientific--brought about by the industrial and social and scientific and political revolutions which have taken place4 ,these represent some of the more important new problems in education which have come to challenge us since the school was taken over from the ,church and transformed into the great constructive tool of the ,state4 ,their solution will call for careful investigation1 experimentation1 and much clear thinking1 and before they are solved other new problems will arise4 ,so probably it will ever be under a democratic form of government2 only in autocratic or strongly monarchical forms of government1 where the study of problems of educational organization and adjustment are not looked upon with favor1 can a school system to-day remain for long fixed in type or uniform in character4 ,education to-day has become intricate and difficult1 requiring careful professional training on the part of those who would exercise intelligent control1 and so intimately connected with national strength and national welfare that it may be truthfully said to have become1 in many respects1 the most important constructive undertaking of a modern ,state4 ,,questions ,,for ,,discussion #a4 ,show that education must be extended and increased in efficiency in proportion as the suffrage is extended1 and additional political functions given to the electorate4 ,illustrate4 #b4 ,trace the changes in the character of the instruction given in the schools1 paralleling such changes4 #c4 ,explain the difference in use of the schools for nationality ends in ,germany and ,france4 #d4 ,of what is the recent development of evening1 adult1 and extension education an index8 #e4 ,show why university education is more important in national life to-day than ever before in history4 #f4 ,compare the rate of development of universities during the nineteenth century1 and all time before the nineteenth4 ,of what is the difference in rate an index8 #g4 ,explain why ,americans have been less successful in introducing science instruction into their schools than have the ,germans4 ,agriculture than the ,french4 #h4 ,explain the breakdown of the old apprenticeship education4 #i4 ,explain the ,american recent rapid acceptance of the agricultural high school1 whereas the agricultural colleges for a long time faced opposition and lack of interest and support4 #aj4 ,explain the continued emphasis of high-school studies leading to the professions rather than the vocations1 though so small a percentage of people are needed for professional work4 #aa4 ,in ,germany this was largely regulated by the ,government2 show how it would be much easier there than in the ,united ,states4 #ab4 ,show why ,european nations would naturally take up vocational training ahead of the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 ,australia1 or ,south ,america4 #ac4 ,explain the reasons for the new conceptions as to the value of child life which have come within the past hundred years1 in all advanced nations4 ,why not in the less advanced nations8 #ad4 ,show the relation between the breakdown of the apprentice system1 the ,industrial ,revolution1 and the rise of compulsory school attendance4 #ae4 ,show that compulsory school attendance is a natural corollary to general taxation for education4 #af4 ,how do you account for the relatively recent interest in the education of defectives and delinquents8 ,of what is this interest an expression8 #ag4 ,does the obligation assumed to educate involve any greater exercise of state authority or recognition of duty than the advancement of the health of the people and the sanitary welfare of the ,state8 #ah4 ,what additional unsolved problems would you add to the list given on the preceding page8 ,,selected ,,readings ,in the accompanying ,book of ,readings the following selections illustrative of the contents of this chapter are reproduced3 #cfg4 ,mc,kechnie1 ,w4 ,s43 ,the ,environmental ,influence of the ,state4 #cfh4 ,emperor ,william ,,ii43 ,german ,secondary ,schools and ,national ,ends4 #cfi4 ,van ,hise1 ,chas4 ,r43 ,the ,university and the ,state4 #cgj4 ,friend3 ,what the ,folk ,high ,schools have done for ,denmark4 #cga4 ,u4,s4 ,commission3 ,the ,german ,system of ,vocational ,education4 #cgb4 ,u4,s4 ,commission3 ,vocational ,education and ,national ,prosperity4 #cgc4 de ,montmorency3 ,english ,conditions before the ,first ,factory-,labor ,act4 #cgd4 ,giddings1 ,f4 ,r43 ,the ,new ,problem of ,child ,labor4 #cge4 ,hoag1 ,e4 ,b41 and ,terman1 ,l4 ,m43 ,health ,work in the ,schools4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,readings #a4 ,explain why it is now so important that the ,state properly environ 7#cfg7 its youth4 #b4 ,what were the actuating motives behind the ,german ,emperor's speech 7#cfh78 ,was he right in his position as to the relation of the schools and national needs and welfare8 #c4 ,explain ,van ,hise's conception 7#cfi7 that the university is ,the ,soul of the ,state4 #d4 ,does ,denmark form any exception as to what might be done 7#cgj7 in any country1 such as ,russia8 ,mexico8 #e4 ,show that the results justified the ,german emphasis 7#cga7 on vocational training4 ,how do you explain this ,german far-sightedness8 #f4 ,what will be the result when many nations 7#cgb7 become highly skilled8 #g4 ,show the growth of humanitarian influences by contrasting conditions in ,england in #ahjb 7#cgc71 and conditions to-day4 #h4 ,would the ,english #ahjb conditions be found in any ,christian land today8 ,why8 #i4 ,show that the child-labor problem 7#cgd7 is a product of the ,industrial ,revolution4 #aj4 ,viewed in the light of history1 what would we say of the present opposition to health work 7#cge7 in the schools8 ,,supplementary ,,references 99 ,allen1 ,e4 ,a4 ,education of ,defectives2 in ,butler1 ,n4 ,m41 ,education in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #gga-hbj4 ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,national ,education in ,europe4 99 ,commission on ,national ,aid to ,vocational ,education1 ,report1 vol4 ,i4 7,document #ajjd1 ,h4 ,r41 #fc;d ,congress1 #b;d session1 ,washington1 #aiad47 ,cook1 ,w4 ,a4 ,a ,brief ,survey of the ,development of ,compulsory ,education in the ,united ,states2 in ,elementary ,school ,teacher1 vol4 #ab1 ,,pp4 #ccl-#ce 7,march1 #aiab47 99 ,dean1 ,a4 ,d4 ,the ,worker and the ,state4 ,eliot1 ,c4 ,w4 ,education for ,efficiency4 ,farrington1 ,f4 ,e4 ,commercial ,education in ,germany4 ,foght1 ,h4 ,w4 ,rural ,denmark and its ,schools4 ,friend1 ,l4 ,l4 ,the ,folk ,high ,schools of ,denmark4 7,bulletin ,no4 #c1 #aiad1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education47 99 ,hoag1 ,e4 ,b41 and ,terman1 ,l4 ,m4 ,health ,work in the ,schools4 ,kandel1 ,i4 ,l1 ,the ,junior ,high ,school in ,european ,systems2 in ,educational ,review1 vol4 #eh1 pp4 #cje-bi4 7,nov4 #aiai47 99 ,munroe1 ,j4 ,p4 ,new ,demands in ,education4 99 ,payne1 ,g4 ,h4 ,the ,child in ,human ,progress4 ,smith1 ,a4 ,t41 and ,jesien1 ,w4 ,s4 ,higher ,technical ,education in ,foreign ,countries4 7,bulletin ,no4 n1 #aiag1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education47 ,snedden1 ,d4 ,s4 ,vocational ,education4 99 ,terman1 ,l4 ,m4 ,the ,intelligence of ,school ,children4 ,waddle1 ,c4 ,w4 ,introduction to ,child ,psychology1 chap4 ,i4 ,ware1 ,fabian4 ,educational ,foundations of ,trade and ,industry4 ,,conclusion2 ,,the ,,future ,we have now reached the end of the story of the rise and progress of man's conscious effort to improve himself and advance the welfare of his group by means of education4 ,to one who has followed the narrative thus far it must be evident how fully this conscious effort has paralleled the history of the rise and progress of western civilization itself4 ,beginning first among the ,greeks--the first people in history to be smitten with the passion for truth4 the first possessing sufficient courage to put faith in reason1 and the first to attempt to reconcile the claims1 of the ,state and the individual and to work out a plan of ordered liberty--a new spirit was born and in time passed on to the western world4 ,as ,butcher well says 7,r4 #aa71 the ,greek genius is the ,european genius in its first and brightest bloom1 and from a vivifying contact with the ,greek spirit ,europe derived that new and mighty impulse which we call ,progress4 ,hellenizing first the ,eastern ,mediterranean1 and then taking captive her rude conqueror1 the ,hellenization of the ,roman and early ,christian world was the result4 ,then followed the reaction under early ,christian rule1 and the fearful deluge of barbarism which for centuries well-nigh extinguished both the ancient learning and the new spirit4 ,finally1 after the long mediaeval night1 came time's burst of dawn1 first and for a long time confined to ,italy1 but later extending to all northern lands1 and in the century of revival and rediscovery and reconstruction the ,greek passion for truth and the ,greek courage to trust reason were reawakened1 and once more made the heritage of the western world4 ,once again the ,greek spirit1 the spirit of freedom and progress and trust in the power of truth1 became the impulse that was to guide and dominate the future4 ,to follow reason without fear of consequences1 to substitute scientific for empirical knowledge1 to equip men for intelligent participation in civic life1 to discover a rational basis for conduct1 to unfold and expand every inborn faculty and energy1 and to fill man with a restless striving after an ideal--these essentially ,greek characteristics in time came to be accepted by an increasing number of modern men1 as they had been by the thoughtful men of the ancient ,greek world1 as the law and goal of human endeavor4 ,from this point on the intellectual progress of the western world was certain1 though at times the rate seems painfully slow4 ,the great events which stand before1 modern history--milestones1 as it were1 along the road to the intellectual progress of mankind in the recovery of the ,greek spirit--were the revival of the ancient learning1 the ,protestant appeal to reason1 the recovery and vast extension of the old scientific knowledge1 the assertion of the rights of the individual as opposed to the rights of the ,state1 and the growth of a new humanitarianism1 induced by the teachings of ,christianity1 which has softened old laws and awakened a new conception of the value of child and human life4 ,out of these great historic movements have come modern scholarship1 the inestimable boon of religious liberty1 the firm establishment of the idea of the reign of law in an orderly universe1 the conception of government as in the interests of the governed1 the substitution of democracy and political equality for the rule of a class or an autocratic power1 and the assertion of the right to an education at public expense as a birthright of every child4 ,the common school1 the education of all1 equality of rights and opportunity1 full and equal suffrage1 the responsibility of all for the advancement of the common welfare1 and liberty under law have been the natural consequences and the outcome of these great struggles to set free and quicken the human spirit4 ,the ,peace of ,westphalia 7#afdh71 which marked the close of a century of effort to crush human reason and religious liberty with violence and oppression1 marked a turning-point in the history of the world4 ,though religious intolerance and bigotry might still persist in places for centuries to come1 this ,peace acknowledged the futility of persecution to stamp out human inquiry1 and marked the downfall of intellectual medievalism4 ,the work of the political philosophers of the eighteenth century1 the establishment of a new political ideal by the leaders of the ,american ,revolution1 and the drastic sweeping-away of ancient abuses in ,church and ,state in the ,revolution in ,france1 applied a new spirit to government1 ushered in the rule of the common man1 and began the establishment of democracy as the ruling form of government for mankind4 ,the recent ,world ,war in ,europe was in a sense a sequel to what had gone before4 ,one result of its outcome1 despite certain reactionary but temporary old-type governments that the near future may see set up in places1 has been the elimination of the mediaeval theory of the divine right of kings from the continent of ,europe1 and the establishment of the democratic type of government as the ruling type of the future4 ,some of the nations for a time will be in a sense experimental1 as shown on the above map1 and even well-governed ,germany must learn new forms and ways1 but in time government of and by and for the people is practically certain to become established everywhere on the continent of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bci4 ,,the ,,established ,,and ,,experimental ,,nations ,,of ,,europe ,the established nations are in white2 the experimental nations shaded4 ,after a time ,germany should become white also4 ,still more1 the outcome of the ,world ,war would seem to indicate that democratic forms of government are destined in time to extend to peoples everywhere who have the capacity for using them4 ,the great problem of the coming century1 then1 and perhaps even of succeeding centuries1 will be to make democracy a safe form of government for the world4 ,this can be done only by a far more general extension of educational opportunities and advantages than the world has as yet witnessed4 ,in the hands of an uneducated proletariat democracy is a dangerous instrument4 ,in ,russia1 ,mexico1 and in certain of the ,central ,american ,republics we see what a democracy results in in the hands of an uneducated people4 ,there1 too often1 the revolver instead of the ballot box is used to settle public issues1 and instead of orderly government under law we have a reign of injustice and anarchy4 ,only by the slow but sure means of general education of the masses in character and in the fundamental bases of liberty under law can governments that are safe and intelligent be created4 ,in a far larger sense than anything we have as yet witnessed1 education must become the constructive tool for national progress4 ,the great needs of the modern world call for the general diffusion among the masses of mankind of the intellectual and spiritual and political gains of the centuries1 which are as yet1 despite the great recent progress made in extending general education1 the possession of but a relatively small number of the world's population4 ,among the more important of these are the religious spirit1 coupled with full religious liberty and tolerance2 a clear recognition of the rights of minorities1 so long as they do not impair the advancement of the general welfare2 the general diffusion of a knowledge of the more common truths and applications of science1 particularly as these relate to personal hygiene1 sanitation1 agriculture1 and modern industrial processes2 the general education of all1 not only in the tools of knowledge1 but in those fundamental principles of self-government which lie at the basis of democratic life2 training in character1 self-control1 and in the ability to assume and carry responsibility2 the instilling into a constantly widening circle of mankind the importance of fidelity to duty1 truth1 honor1 and virtue2 the emphasis of the many duties and responsibilities which encompass all in the complex modern world1 rather than the eighteenth-century individualistic conception of political and personal rights2 the clear distinction between liberty and license2 and the conception of liberty guided by law4 ,in addition each man and woman should be educated for personal efficiency in some vocation or form of service in which each can best realize his personal possibilities1 and at the same time render the largest service to that society of which he forms a part4 ,the great needs of the modern world also call for that form of education and training which will not merely impart literacy and prepare for economic competence and national citizenship1 but which will give to national groups a new conception of national character and international morality and create new standards of value for human effort4 ,national character and international morality are always the outgrowth of the personality of a people1 and this in turn calls for the inculcation of humane ideals1 the proper discipline of the instincts1 the training of a will to do right1 good physical vigor1 and1 to a large degree1 the development of individual efficiency and economic competence4 ,moral and religious instruction1 as it has been given1 will not suffice1 because it does not reach the heart of the problem4 ,no nation has shown more completely the utter futility of religious instruction to produce morality than has ,germany1 where the instruction of all in the principles of religion has been required for centuries4 ,the problem of the twentieth century1 then1 and probably of other centuries to come1 is how the constructive forces in modern society1 of which the schools of nations should stand first1 can best direct their efforts to influence and direct the deeper sources of the life of a people1 so that the national characteristics it is desired to display to the world will be developed because the schools have instilled into every child these national ideals4 ,many forces must coperate in such a task1 but unless the schools of nations become clearly conscious of national needs and of international purposes1 become inspired by an ideal of service for the welfare of mankind1 substitute among national groups competition in the things of the spirit--art1 architecture1 music1 sports1 education1 letters1 sanitation1 housing1 public works1 and such applications of science as minister to health and happiness--for competition in the creation of material wealth1 the piling-up of armaments1 the extension of national boundaries1 and the present overemphasis of a narrow nationalism1 and direct the energies of coming generations to the carrying-out of this new and larger human service1 nations must inevitably fail to reach the world position they might otherwise have occupied1 destructive international competition and warfare will continue1 and the advancement of world civilization and international well-being will be greatly retarded thereby4 ,in this work of advancing world civilization1 the nations which have long been in the forefront of progress must expect to assume important roles4 ,it is their peculiar mission--for long clearly recognized by ,great ,britain and ,france in their political relations with inferior and backward peoples2 by the ,united ,states in its excellent work in ,cuba1 ,porto ,rico1 and the ,philippines2 and clearly formulated in the system of mandatories under the ,league of ,nations--to help backward peoples to advance1 and to assist them in lifting themselves to a higher plane of world civilization4 ,in doing this a very practical type of education must naturally play the leading part1 and time1 probably much time1 will be required to achieve any large results4 ,disregarding the large need for such service among the leading world nations1 the map reproduced on the opposite page reveals how much of such work still remains to be done in the world as a whole4 ,the ,white ,man's ,burden truly is large1 and the larger world tasks of the twentieth century for the more advanced nations will be to help other peoples1 in distant and more backward lands1 slowly to educate themselves in the difficult art of self-government1 gradually establish stable and democratic governments of their own1 and in time to take their places among the enlightened and responsible peoples of the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4 ,,the ,,educational ,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,future ,transition peoples are shaded2 dependant and backward peoples black4 ,the mandatories of the ,league of ,nations will be in the black areas1 and will have to be carried by the nations which have made the most progress in civilization and shown in the highest sense of responsibility for the welfare of peoples that have come under their care4 ,the black areas reveal ,the ,white ,man's ,burden of the future4 ,at the bottom of all this work and service lie the new human-liberty conceptions first worked out and formulated for the world by little ,greece1 ,in time the ideas to which they gave expression have become the heritage of what we know as our western civilization1 and the warp and woof of the intellectual and political life of the modern world4 ,as a result of the ,industrial ,revolution1 and of the new political and commercial and social forces of our time1 this western civilization1 using education as its great constructive tool1 is now spreading to every continent on the globe4 ,the task of succeeding centuries will be to carry forward and extend what has been so well begun2 to level up the peoples of the earth1 as far as inherent differences in capacity will permit2 and to extend1 through educative influences1 the principles and practices of a ,christian civilization to all4 ,in establishing intelligent and interested government1 and in moulding and shaping the destinies of peoples1 general education has become the great constructive tool of modern civilization4 ,a hundred and fifty years ago education was of but little importance1 being primarily an instrument of the ,church and used for church ends4 ,to-day general education is an instrument of government1 and is rightfully regarded as a prime essential to good government and national progress4 ,with the spread of the democratic type the importance of the school is enhanced1 its control by the ,state becomes essential1 its continued expansion to include new types of schools and new forms of educational opportunities and service a necessity1 the study of its organization and administration and problems becomes a necessary function of government1 while the training it can give is dignified and made the birthright of every boy and girl4 ,,footnotes ,,preface #a ,syllabus of ,lectures on the ,history of ,education1 with ,bibliographies1 #ast ed41 #cjb pp41 illustrated1 ,new ,york1 #aijb2 #b;d ed41 with classified bibliographies1 #ceh pp41 illustrated4 ,new ,york1 #aije4 ,,part ,i ,,chapter ,i #a ,the average size of an ,illinois county is #eej square miles1 or an area #bb x #be miles square4 ,the ,state of ,west ,virginia contains #bd1jbb square miles1 and ,rhode ,island #ajfg square miles4 ,rhode ,island would be approximately #cj x #cf miles square1 which would make ,attica approximately #bj x #cf miles square in area4 #b ,the nearest analogy we have to the ,greek ,city-,states exists in the local town governments of the ,new ,england ,states1 particularly ,massachusetts1 and the local county-unit governmental organizations of a number of the ,southern ,states1 though in each of these cases we have a state and a federal government above to unify and direct and control these small local governments1 which did not exist1 except temporarily1 in ,greece4 ,if an area the size of ,west ,virginia were divided into some twenty independent counties1 which could arrange treaties1 make alliances1 and declare war1 and which sometimes united into leagues for defense or offense1 but which were never able to unite to form a single ,state1 we should have a condition analogous to that of mainland ,greece4 #c ,a sea- faring people1 the ,greeks became to the ancient ,mediterranean world what the ,english have been to the modern world4 ,southern ,italy became so thickly set with small ,greek cities that it was known as ,magna ,graecia4 ,on the island of ,sicily the city of ,syracuse was founded 7#gcd ,b4,c471 and became a center of power and a home of noted ,greeks4 ,the city of ,marseilles1 in southern ,france1 dates from an ,ionic settlement about #fjj ,b4,c4 ,the presence of another seafaring people1 the ,phoenicians1 along the northern coast of ,africa and southern and eastern ,spain1 probably checked the further spread of ,greek colonies to the westward4 ,the city of ,cyrene1 in northern ,africa1 dates from about #fcj ,b4,c4 ,greek colonists also went north and east1 through the ,dardanelles and on into the ,black ,sea4 7,see map1 ,figure #b47 ,salonica and ,constantinople date back to ,greek colonization4 ,many of the colonies reflected great honor and credit on the motherland1 and served to spread ,greek manners1 language1 and religion over a wide area4 #d ,it is the great mixed races that have counted for most in history4 ,the strength of ,england is in part due to its wonderful mixture of peoples-- ,britons1 ,angles1 ,saxons1 ,jutes1 ,danes1 ,northmen1 to mention only the more important earlier peoples which have been welded together to form the ,english people4 #e ,athens1 however1 permitted the children of foreigners to attend its schools1 particularly in the later period of ,athenian education4 #f ,when ,i compare the customs of the ,greeks with these 7the ,romans71 ,i can find no reason to extol either those of the ,spartans1 or the ,thebans1 or even of the ,athenians1 who value themselves the most for their wisdom2 all who1 jealous of their nobility and communicating to none or to very few the privileges of their cities 444 were so far from receiving any advantage from this haughtiness that they became the greatest sufferers by it4 7,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 in his ,roman ,antiquities book ,,ii1 chap4 ,,xvii47 #g ,in ,sparta the number of citizens was still less4 ,at the time of the formulation of the ,spartan constitution by ,lycurgus 7about #hej ,b4,c47 there were but #ijjj ,spartan families in the midst of #bej1jjj subject people4 ,this disproportion increased rather than diminished in later centuries4 #h ,the ,austrian-,magyar combination1 which held together and dominated the many tribes of the former ,austro-,hungarian ,empire1 is an analogous modern situation1 though on a much larger scale4 #i ,two ,greek poems illustrate the ,spartan mother1 who was said to admonish her sons to come back with their shields1 or upon them4 ,the first is3 ,eight sons ,daementa at ,sparta's call ,sent forth to fight3 one tomb received them all4 ,no tears she shed1 but shouted1 ',victory6 ,sparta1 ,i bore them but to die for thee4' ,the second3 ,a ,spartan1 his companion slain1 ,alone from battle fled3 ,his mother1 kindling with disdain ,that she had borne him1 struck him dead2 ,for courage and not birth alone4 ,in ,sparta testifies a son4 ,go1 tell at ,sparta1 thou that passest by1 ,that here1 obedient to her laws1 we lie4 7,epitaph on the three hundred who fell at ,thermopylae47 #aj ,an ,athenian saying1 of a man who was missing1 was3 ,either he is dead or has become a schoolmaster4 ,to call a man a schoolmaster was to abuse him1 according to ,epicurus4 ,demosthenes1 in his attack on ,aeschines1 ridicules him for the fact that his father was a schoolmaster in the lowest type of reading and writing school4 ,as a boy1 he says1 you were reared in abject poverty1 waiting with your father on the school1 grinding the ink1 sponging the benches1 sweeping the room1 and doing the duty of a menial rather than of a freeman's son4 ,lucian represents kings as being forced to maintain themselves in hell by teaching reading and writing4 #aa ,women were not supposed to possess any of the privileges of citizenship1 belonging rather to the alien class4 ,they lived secluded lives1 were not supposed to take any part in public affairs1 and1 if their husbands brought company to the house1 they were expected to retire from view4 ,in their attitude toward women the ,greeks were an oriental rather than a modern or western people4 #ab ,we learn first the names of the elements of speech1 which are called grammata2 then their shape and functions2 then the syllables and their affections2 lastly1 the parts of speech1 and the particular mutations connected with each1 as inflection1 number1 contraction1 accents1 position in the sentence2 then we begin to read and write1 at first in syllables and slowly1 but when we have attained the necessary certainty1 easily and quickly4 7,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 ,de ,compos4 ,verb1 cap #be47 #ac ,fragments of a tile found in ,attica have stamped upon them the syllables ar1 bar1 gar2 er1 ber1 ger2 etc4 ,a bottle-shaped vase has also been found which1 in addition to the alphabet1 contains pronouncing exercises as follows3 bi-ba-bu-be zi-za-zu-ze pi-pa-pu-pe gi-ga-gu-ge mi-ma-mu-me etc4 #ad ,learning to read must have been a difficult business in ,hellas1 for books were written only in capitals at this time4 ,there were no spaces between the words1 and no stops were inserted4 ,thus the reader had to exercise his ingenuity before he could arrive at the meaning of a sentence4 7,freeman1 ,k4 ,j41 ,schools of ,hellas1 p4 #hg47 #ae ,the ,greeks had no numbers1 but only words for numbers1 and used the letters of the ,greek alphabet with accents over them to indicate the words they knew as numbers4 ,counting and bookkeeping would of course be very difficult with such a system4 #af ,these poems1 especially ,homer1 ,hesiod1 and ,theognis1 served at the same time for drill in language and for recitation1 whereby on the one hand the memory was developed and the imagination strengthened1 and on the other the heroic forms of antiquity and healthy primitive utterances regarding morality1 and full of homely common sense1 were deeply engraved on the young mind4 ,homer was regarded not merely as a poet1 but as an inspired moral teacher1 and great portions of his poems were learned by heart4 ,the ,iliad and the ,odyssey were in truth the ,bible of the ,greeks4 7,laurie1 ,s4 ,s41 ,pre-,christian ,education1 p4 #beh47 #ag ,davidson1 ,thos41 ,aristotle1 pp4 #gc-ge4 #ah ,plutarch later expressed well the ,greek conception of musical education in these words3 ,whoever be he that shall give his mind to the study of music in his youth1 if he meet with a musical education proper for the forming and regulating his inclinations1 he will be sure to applaud and embrace that which is noble and generous1 and to rebuke and blame the contrary1 as well in other things as in what belongs to music4 ,and by that means he will become clear from all reproachful actions1 for now having reaped the noblest fruit of music1 he may be of great use1 not only to himself1 but to the commonwealth2 while music teaches him to abstain from everything that is indecent1 both in word and deed1 and to observe decorum1 temperance1 and regularity4 7,monroe1 ,paul1 ,history of ,education1 p4 #ib47 #ai ,a flat circle of polished bronze1 or other metal1 eight or nine inches in diameter4 #bj ,there were no home influences in ,hellas4 ,the men-folk lived out of doors4 ,the young ,athenian from his sixth year onward spent his whole day away from home1 in the company of his contemporaries1 at school or palaestra1 or in the streets4 ,when he came home there was no home life4 ,his mother was a nonentity1 living in the woman's apartments2 he probably saw little of her4 ,his real home was the palaestra1 his companions his contemporaries and his paidagogos4 ,he learned to disassociate himself from his family and associate himself with his fellow citizens4 ,no doubt he lost much by this system1 but the solidarity of the ,state gained4 7,freeman1 ,k4 ,j41 ,schools of ,hellas1 p4 #bhb47 #ba ,no doubt the ,athenian public was by no means so learned as we moderns are2 they were ignorant of many sciences1 of much history1--in short of a thousand results of civilization which have since accrued4 ,but in civilization itself1 in mental power1 in quickness of comprehension1 in correctness of taste1 in accuracy of judgment1 no modern nation1 however well instructed1 has been able to equal by labored acquirements the inborn genius of the ,greeks4 7,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p41 ,old ,greek ,education47 #bb ,the great institutions of the ,greek ,city-,state were in themselves highly educative4 ,the chief of these were3 #a4 ,the ,assembly1 where the laws were proposed1 debated1 and made4 #b4 ,the ,juries1 on which citizens sat and where the laws were applied4 #c4 ,the ,theater1 where the great masterpieces of ,greek literature were performed4 #d4 ,the ,olympian and other ,games1 which were great religious ceremonies of a literary as well as an athletic and artistic character1 and to which ,greeks from all over ,hellas came4 #e4 ,the city life itself1 among an inquisitive1 imaginative1 and disputatious people4 ,,chapter ,,ii #a ,the culmination came in what is known as the ,age of ,pericles1 who was the master mind at ,athens from #dei to #dca ,b4,c4 ,during the fifth century ,b4,c4 such names as ,themistocles and ,pericles in government1 ,phidias and ,myron in art1 ,herodotus and ,thucydides in historical narrative1 ,aeschylus1 ,sophocles1 and ,euripides in tragic drama1 and ,aristophanes in comedy1 graced ,athens4 #b ,with the ,greeks1 morality and the future life never had any connection4 #c ,the early ,greek philosophers tried to explain the physical world about them by trying to discover what they called the first principle1 from which all else had been derived4 ,thales 7c4 #fbd-edh ,b4,c471 the father of ,greek science1 had concluded that water was the original source of all matter2 ,anaximenes 7c4 #ehh-ebd ,b4,c471 that air was the first principle2 ,heraclites 7c4 #ebe-dge ,b4,c471 fire2 and ,pythagoras 7c4 #ehj-ejj ,b4,c471 number4 #d ,there was now demanded ability to discuss all sorts of social1 political1 economic1 and scientific or metaphysical questions2 to argue in public in the marketplace or in the law courts2 to declaim in a formal manner on almost any topic2 to amuse or even instruct the populace upon topics of interest or questions of the day2 to take part in the many diplomatic embassies and political missions of the times--the ability1 in fact1 to shine in a democratic society much like our own and to control the votes and command the approval of an intelligent populace where the function of printing-press1 telegraph1 railroad1 and all modern means of communication were performed through public speech and private discourse1 and where the legal1 ecclesiastical1 and other professional classes of teachers did not exist4 7,monroe1 ,paul1 ,history of ,education1 pp4 #aji- #aj47 #e ,the importance of a political career in the new ,athens will be better understood if we remember that the influence on public opinion to-day exerted by the pulpit1 bar1 public platform1 press1 and scholar was then concentrated in the public speaker1 and that the careers now open to promising youths in science1 industry1 commerce1 politics1 and government were then concentrated in the political career4 ,it must also be remembered that the ,greeks had always been a nation of speakers1 both the content and the form of the address being important4 #f ,each of these philosophers proposed an ideal educational system designed to remedy the evils of the ,state4 ,xenophon 7c4#daj-cfb ,b4,c471 in his ,cyropaedia1 purporting to describe the education of ,cyrus of ,persia1 proposed a ,spartan modification of the old ,athenian system4 ,plato 7#dbi-cdh ,b4,c471 in his ,republic1 proposed an aristocratic socialism as a means of securing individual virtue and state justice4 ,he first presents the super- civic man1 an ideal destined for great usefulness among the ,christians later on4 ,aristotle 7#chd-cbb ,b4,c471 in his ,ethics1 and in his ,politics1 outlined an ideal state and a system of education for it4 #g ,it is beyond all conception what that man espied1 saw1 beheld1 remarked1 observed4 7,goethe47 ,one of the richest and most comprehensive geniuses that has ever appeared--a man beside whom no age has an equal to place4 7,hegel47 ,aristotle1 ,nature's private secretary1 dipping his pen in intellect4 7,eusebius47 #h ,as ,alexander passed conquering through ,asia1 he restored to the ,east1 as garnered grain1 that ,greek civilization whose seeds had long ago been received from the ,east4 ,each conqueror in turn1 the ,macedonian and the ,roman bowed before conquered ,greece and learnt lessons at her feet4 7,butcher1 ,s4 ,h41 ,some ,aspects of the ,greek ,genius1 p4 #dc47 #i ,webster1 ,d4 ,h41 ,ancient ,history1 p4 #cjb4 #aj ,previous to this1 paper had been made from the papyrus plant1 but ,egypt1 having forbidden its export1 necessity again became the mother of invention4 #aa ,with this exception1 never before the ,italian ,renaissance was there such interest in collecting books4 ,almost every book written in antiquity was gathered here1 and the library at ,alexandria became the ,british ,museum or the ,bibliothque ,nationale of the ancient world4 ,every book entering ,egypt was required to be brought to this library4 #ab ,he founded the science of geography4 ,before his time ,greek students had concluded that the world was round1 instead of flat1 as stated in the ,homeric poems4 ,by careful measurements he determined its size1 within a few thousand miles of its actual circumference1 and predicted that one might sail from ,spain to the ,indies along the same parallel of latitude4 #ac ,from the tradition that seventy scholars labored on it4 #ad ,henry ,sumner ,maine4 ,,chapter ,,iii #a ,this struggle of the common people 7plebeians7 for an equal place with the ruling class 7patricians7 before the law1 in religious matters1 and in politics1 covered two and a half centuries1 the old restrictions being broken down but gradually4 ,the most important steps in the process were3 #eji ,b4,c4 ,magistrates forbidden to scourge or execute a ,roman citizen without giving him a chance to appeal to the people in their popular assembly4 ,this right of appeal was regarded as the ,magna ,charta of ,roman liberty4 #did ,b4,c4 ,plebeian soldiers granted officers of their own 7,tribunes7 to protect them against patrician cruelty and injustice4 #dea-ddi ,b4,c4 ,laws must be written--,code commission appointed4 ,result1 the ,laws of the ,twelve ,tables 7,r4 #ab72 these mark the beginning of the great ,roman legal system4 #dde ,b4,c4 ,intermarriage between the two orders legalized4 #cfg ,b4,c4 ,right to hold office granted1 and one of the ,consuls elected each year to be a plebeian4 #bej ,b4,c4 ,by this date the distinctions between the two orders had disappeared2 patricians and plebeians intermarried and formed one compact body of citizens in the ,roman ,state4 #b ,the scholar who compares carefully the ,greek constitutions with the ,roman will undoubtedly consider the former to be finer and more finished specimens of political work4 ,the imperfect and incomplete character which the ,roman constitution presents1 at almost any point of its history1 the number of institutions it exhibits which appear to be temporary expedients merely1 are necessary results of its method of growth to meet demands as they rose from time to time2 they are evidence1 indeed1 of its highly practical character4 7,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 #b;d ed41 p4 #bj47 #c ,the same opportunity came to ,athens after the ,persian ,wars and to ,sparta after the ,peloponnesian ,war1 but neither possessed the creative power along political and governmental lines1 or the tolerance for the ideas and feelings of subject peoples1 to accomplish anything permanent4 ,rome succeeded where previous ,states had failed because of her larger insight1 tolerance1 patience1 and constructive to create a great world empire4 #d ,caesar extended ,roman citizenship to certain communities in ,gaul and in ,sicily1 and began the further extension of the process of assimilation by taking the conquered provincial into citizenship in the ,empire4 ,this was carried on and extended by succeeding ,emperors until finally1 in #bab ,a4,d41 ,roman citizenship was extended to all free-born inhabitants in all the provinces4 #e ,for example1 ,balbus1 a ,spaniard1 was ,consul in ,rome forty years before the ,christian era1 and another ,spaniard1 ,nerva1 had become ,emperor before the close of the first century ,a4,d4 ,many commanders in the army and governors in the provinces were provincials by birth4 #f ,roman citizenship was much more than a mere name4 ,a ,roman citizen could not be maltreated or punished without a legal trial before a ,roman court4 ,if accused in a capital case he could always protect himself from what he considered an unjust decision by an appeal to ,caesar2 that is1 to the ,emperor at ,rome4 ,the protection of law was always extended to his property and himself1 wherever in the ,roman ,empire he might live or travel4 #g ,both literature and inscriptions testify abundantly to the affectionate regard in which ,roman rule was held4 ,the rule may have been far from perfect1 judged from a modern point of view1 but it was so much better and so much more orderly than anything that had gone before that it was accepted in all quarters4 #h ,every house was protected from the evil spirits of the outside world by ,janus1 and had its sacred fire presided over by ,vesta4 ,every house had its protecting ,lares4 ,the cupboard where the food was stored was blest by and under the charge of the ,penates4 ,the daily worship of these household deities took place at the family meal1 the father offering a little food and a little wine at the sacred hearth4 ,every house father1 too1 had his guardian ,genius1 whose festival was celebrated on the master's birthday4 ,in a similar fashion the ,state had its temples1 its sacred fire and votive offerings1 and various divinities ruled the elements and sent or withheld success4 ,almost every activity in life was presided over by some deity1 whom it was necessary to propitiate before engaging in it4 ,davidson says1 with reference to the practical nature of their religion1 that ,while the ,athenians rejoiced before their gods1 the ,romans kept a debtor and creditor account with theirs1 and were very anxious that the balance should be on the right side4 #i ,among our ancestors1 says ,pliny1 one learned not only through the ears1 but through the eyes4 ,the young1 in observing the elders1 learned what they would soon have to do themselves1 and what they would one day teach to their successor4 #aj ,such careful physical training as was given in a ,greek palaestra and gymnasium would have been regarded by the ,romans as most effeminate4 ,unlike the ,greeks1 who strove for a harmonious bodily development1 the ,romans exercised for usefulness in war4 ,cicero exclaims1 with reference to ,greek gymnasial training3 ,what an absurd system of training youth is exhibited in their gymnasia6 ,what a frivolous preparation for the labors and hazards of war6 #aa ,macaulay1 in his ,horatius1 describes the results of the education of this early period as follows3 ,then none were for the party1 ,but all were for the ,state2 ,and the rich man loved the poor1 ,and the poor man loved the great4 ,then lands were fairly portioned ,and spoils were fairly sold2 ,for the ,romans were like brothers ,in the brave days of old4 #ab ,the ,romans1 says the historian ,wilhelm ,ihne1 were distinguished from all other nations1 not only by the extreme earnestness and precision with which they conceived their law and worked out the consequences of its fundamental principles1 but by the good sense which made them submit to the law1 once established1 as an absolute necessity of political health and strength4 ,it was this severity in thinking and acting which1 more than any other cause1 made ,rome great and powerful4 #ac ,the lot of a captive in war1 everywhere throughout the ancient world1 was to be taken and sold as a slave by his captors4 ,many educated ,greeks were thus taken in the capture of ,greek cities in southern ,italy and sold as slaves in ,rome4 ,these were let out by their masters as teachers of the new learning4 ,even the thrifty ,cato1 who vigorously opposed the new learning on principle1 was not averse to permitting his educated ,greek slaves to conduct schools and thus add to his private fortune4 #ad ,these men had little choice otherwise4 ,grain from ,spain and ,africa became so cheap that a farmer could not raise enough on his small farm to pay his taxes and support his family1 so he was obliged to sell his land to men who turned it into large cattle and sheep ranches4 ,he would not emigrate to the provinces1 as ,englishmen have done to ,canada and ,australia1 but instead went to the cities1 where he led a hand-to-mouth existence in a type of tenement house4 ,it was from such sources that the ,roman mob1 demanding free grain and entertainment in return for its votes1 was made up4 #ae ,arithmetic was not easy for the ,romans1 partly because they had no figure or other sign for zero1 partly because they used a decimal system for counting and a duodecimal for their money1 and partly because the ,roman system of notation 7,i1 ,v1 ,x1 ,l1 ,c1 ,d1 ,m7 did not adapt itself to quick calculation4 ,try1 for example1 these simple sums3 ,add3 ,,cclvii ,subtract3 ,,lxviii ,,cix ,,xxxiv ------ ------ ,multiply3 ,,cxxv ,divide3 ,,xii ,,cxxxii ,,xii ------ ---- #af ,finger reckoning 7whence digits7 with the ,romans attained a prominence probably never reached with any other people4 ,bills and accounts were reckoned up on the fingers1 in the presence of the patron4 ,eighteen positions of the fingers of the left hand stood for the nine units and the nine tens1 and eighteen positions of the fingers of the right hand stood for the nine hundreds and the nine thousands4 ,for larger sums1 such as ten thousand and more1 various parts of the body were touched4 ,any one who betrayed1 according to ,quintilian1 by an uncertain or awkward movement of his fingers1 a want of confidence in his calculations1 was thought to be but imperfectly trained in arithmetic4 #ag ,there was much complaint that parents were slow with their fees1 and at times forgot them entirely if the boy did not turn out well4 ,finally1 in the reign of ,diocletian 7#bhd-cje ,a4,d471 in an effort to relieve the distress of schoolmasters1 prices were legally fixed at approximately the equivalent of #a4bj per month per pupil for teaching reading and #a4hj for arithmetic1 measured in money values of a decade ago4 ,these were regarded as hard times prices4 #ah ,reading aloud1 with careful attention to pronunciation1 accent1 quantity1 and expression1 formed an important part of the training in literature of a ,latin youth4 ,correct reading of ,latin was a much more difficult art1 as practiced1 than is the reading of ,english1 as all of us well know who learned properly to intone our ,arma virumque cano1 ,trojae qui primus ab oris ,italiam1 fato profugus1 ,lavinaque venit4 ,the lack of use of small letters and spacing between the words 7,r4 #ba71 as well as poor punctuation1 also added to the difficulty4 #ai ,a nonsensical minuteness was followed here1 and many trivialities were emphasized4 ,juvenal tells us1 in his ,seventh ,satire1 written about #acj ,a4,d41 that a teacher was expected to read all histories and know all authors as well as his finger ends4 ,that1 if questioned1 he should be able to tell the name of ,anchises' nurse1 and the name and native land of the stepmother of ,anchemotus--tell how many years ,acestes lived--how many flagons of wine the ,sicilian king gave to the ,phrygians4 ,this reminds us of some of the dissected study of ,english and ,latin until recently given in our colleges and high schools4 #bj ,quintilian well states the aim of this higher education when he says that the man who can duly sustain his character as a citizen1 who is qualified for the management of public and private affairs1 and who can govern communities by his counsels1 settle them by means of laws1 and improve them by judicial enactments1 can certainly be nothing else but an orator4 #ba ,in his ,lives of ,eminent ,grammarians and ,rhetoricians1 chap4 ,i4 ,suetonius lived from #ge to #afj ,a4,d41 and was an advocate at ,rome and private secretary to the ,emperor ,hadrian4 #bb ,there was a general dread of ,greek higher learning on the part of the older ,romans1 and this found expression in many ways4 ,among these was an edict of the ,senate1 in #afa ,b4,c41 directing the ,praetor to see that no philosophers or rhetoricians be suffered at ,rome 7,r4 #bj71 a decree which could not be enforced1 and the edict of the ,censors1 in #ib ,b4,c4 7,r4 #bj71 expressing their disapproval of the ,latin schools of rhetoric4 #bc ,these seven studies became the famous studies of the church schools of the ,middle ,ages1 with ,grammar as the greatest and most important study 7see chap4 ,,vii2 ,r4 #gd74 ,the curriculum of the ,middle ,ages was a direct inheritance from ,rome4 #bd ,see ,quintilian1 ,institutes of ,oratory1 book ,i1 chap4 ,x1 #bb1 #cg1 and #df4 ,this chapter is devoted largely to a description of the use of these studies4 #be ,sample questions which were debated to bring out the fine distinctions in ,roman ,law and ,ethics were3 7a7 ,was a slave about whose neck a master had hung the leather or golden token 7worn by free youths only71 in order to smuggle him past the boundary1 freed when he reached ,roman soil wearing this insignia of freedom8 7b7 ,if a stranger buys a prospective draught of fishes and the fisherman draws up a casket of jewels1 does the stranger own the jewels8 #bf ,in the later centuries of the ,empire1 people went to hear a man who could orate or declaim1 as people now do to hear a great political orator1 a revivalist preacher1 or a popular actor or singer4 ,a form of amusement for distinguished travelers passing through a city was to have some one orate before them4 ,this power of using words for mere pleasurable effect1 says ,professor ,dill1 in his ,roman ,society in the ,last ,century of the ,western ,empire1 on the most trivial or the most extravagantly absurd themes1 was for many ages1 in both ,west and ,east1 esteemed the highest proof of talent and cultivation4 #bg ,each ,greek rhetorician in ,rome was given one hundred sestertia 7about #djjj7 yearly from the ,imperial ,treasury1 ,quintilian probably being one of the first to receive a state salary4 #bh ,he ,claudius was also attentive to provide a liberal education for the sons of their chieftains2444 and his attempts were attended with such success that they1 who lately disdained to make use of the ,roman language1 were now ambitious of becoming eloquent4 ,hence the ,roman habit began to be held in honor1 and the toga was frequently worn4 ,tacitus's ,account of ,britain1 ,agricola1 chap4 #ba4 #bi ,england offers us the nearest modern analogy4 ,this was one of the last of the great ,european nations to establish popular education1 but for centuries previous thereto the great private1 tuition1 grammar schools of ,england--,eton1 ,harrow1 ,rugby1 ,winchester1 and others--together with the ,universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge1 prepared a succession of leaders for the ,state--men who have steered ,england's destinies at home and abroad and made her a great world power4 #cj ,this grew up1 as all law grows1 by enacted laws and decisions of the courts1 and in time came to be an enormous body of law4 ,lacking the printed law books and indices of to-day1 to obtain a knowledge of ,roman law became a formidable task4 ,finally the practical ,roman mind codified it1 and reduced it to system and order4 ,the ,theodosian ,code1 of #dch ,a4,d41 and the ,justinian ,code1 of #ebh and #ecd ,a4,d41 were the final results4 ,these codes were compact1 capable of duplication with relative ease1 and later became the standard textbooks throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,the great importance of these codifications may be appreciated when we know that almost all the original laws and decisions from which they were compiled have been lost4 #ca ,the ,romanic countries--,france1 ,spain1 ,italy--have drawn their law most completely from the ,justinian ,code4 ,due to ,spanish and ,french occupation of parts of ,america1 ,roman legal ideas also entered here1 the ,louisiana ,code of #ahbd being ,roman in law and technical expressions and spirit1 though ,english in language4 ,spanish and ,portuguese settlement of the ,south ,american continent has carried ,roman law there4 #cb ,the ,roman alphabet is the alphabet of all ,north and ,south ,america1 ,australia1 ,africa1 and all of ,europe except ,russia1 ,greece1 ,germany1 ,austria-,hungary1 and a few minor ,slavic and ,teutonic peoples4 ,even in ,germany and ,austria1 ,roman letters were rapidly superseding the more difficult ,german letters in the printing of papers and books for the better-educated classes before the ,great ,war4 ,in ,india1 ,siam1 ,china1 and ,japan1 ,roman letters are also being increasingly used4 ,,chapter ,,iv #a ,the ,farmer's ,calendar1 given in the accompanying ,book of ,readings 7,r4 #ad71 illustrates very well the gods and sacrifices for one phase of ,roman life4 ,petronius1 in his ,satires1 says1 ,our country is so full of divinities that it is much easier to find a god than a man4 #b ,the chief objects of pagan religion were to foretell the future1 to explain the universe1 to avert calamity1 and to obtain the assistance of the gods4 ,they contained no instruments of moral teaching analogous to our institution of preaching1 or to the moral preparation for the reception of the sacrament1 or to confession1 or to the reading of the ,bible1 or to religious education1 or to united prayer for spiritual benefits4 ,to make men virtuous was no more the function of the priest than of the physician4 7,lecky1 ,w4 ,e4 ,h41 ,history of ,european ,morals1 chap1 iv47 #c ,seneca 7#d-fe ,a4,d471 the tutor of the ,emperor ,nero1 and the ,greek freedman ,epictetus 7d4 #ajj ,a4,d47 both expounded ,stoicism at ,rome during the first ,christian century1 and the ,thoughts of the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius 7#afa-ahj ,a4,d47 represents one of the finest expositions of the application of this philosophy to the problems of human life4 #d ,see ,proverbs1 xxxi1 for a good statement of the ancient ,hebrew ideal of womanhood4 #e ,this collective term is applied to the first five books of the ,old ,testament1 and includes ,genesis1 ,exodus1 ,leviticus1 ,numbers1 and ,deuteronomy4 ,these five books form a wonderful collection of the historical and legal material relating to the wanderings and experiences and practices of the people4 #f ,chapter #a of the ,gospel according to ,saint ,matthew gives1 in detail 7#a-af71 the genealogy of ,jesus1 concluding with the following verse3 #ag4 ,so all the generations from ,abraham to ,david are fourteen generations2 and from ,david until the carrying away into ,babylon are fourteen generations2 and from the carrying away into ,babylon unto ,christ are fourteen generations4 #g ,to many of these churches he wrote a series of epistles4 ,these constitute a little more than one fourth of the ,new ,testament4 ,see accompanying ,book of ,readings 7or ,romans1 ,i1 #a-ag7 for the introductory part of ,paul's ,epistle to the ,romans4 #h ,its missionaries were ,jews1 a turbulent race1 not to be assimilated1 and as much despised and hated by pagan ,rome as by the mediaeval ,christians4 ,wherever it attracted any notice1 therefore1 it seems to have been regarded as some rebel faction of the ,jews1 gone mad upon some obscure point of the national superstition--an outcast sect of an outcast race4 7,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #ci47 #i ,starting from an insignificant province1 from a despised race1 proclaimed by a mere handful of ignorant workmen1 demanding self-control and renunciation before unheard of1 certain to arouse in time powerful enemies in the highly cultivated and critical society which it attacked1 the odds against it were tremendous4 7,ibid41 p4 #da47 #aj ,it is not easy to imagine how1 in the face of an ,asia ,minor1 a ,greece1 an ,italy the ,roman split up into a hundred small republics2 of a ,gaul1 a ,spain1 an ,africa1 an ,egypt1 in possession of their old national institutions1 the apostles could have succeeded1 or even how their project could have been started4 ,the unity of the ,empire was a condition precedent of all religious proselytism on a grand scale if it was to place itself above the nationalities4 7,renan1 ,e41 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhj2 ,influence of ,rome on the ,christian ,church47 #aa ,in ,acts xxv1 #a-ab1 it is recorded that the ,apostle ,paul1 accused by the ,jews and virtually on trial for his life before the provincial governor ,festus1 fell back on his ,roman citizenship and successfully appealed to ,caesar4 7,see footnote #c1 page #eg47 #ab ,the miracle of miracles1 greater than dried-up seas and cloven rocks1 greater than the dead rising again to life1 was when the ,augustus on his throne1 ,pontiff of the gods of ,rome1 himself a god to the subjects of ,rome1 bent himself to become the worshiper of a crucified provincial of his ,empire4 7,freeman1 ,e4 ,a41 ,periods of ,european ,history1 p4 #fg47 #ac ,in #cai and #cbf the clergy were exempted from all public burdens1 and only the poor were to be admitted to the clergy4 ,in #cdc the clergy were exempted from public burdens and from every disquietude of civil office4 ,in #cgg all clergy were exempted from personal taxes4 7,see ,r4 #ch47 #ad ,from the ,roman world the idea has spread1 through the ,greek ,catholic ,church1 to ,greece1 parts of the ,balkans1 and ,russia2 through the ,roman ,catholic ,church to all western ,europe and the two ,americas2 and through the ,protestant churches which sprang from the ,roman ,catholic by secession1 and the ,mohammedan faith1 to include almost all the world4 ,only among uncivilized tribes and in ,asia do we find any great number of fundamentally different religious conceptions4 #ae ,paul to the ,romans 7x1 #i7 stated the fundamentals of belief as follows3 ,if thou shalt confess with thy mouth the ,lord ,jesus1 and shalt believe in thine heart that ,god hath raised him from the dead1 thou shalt be saved4 #af ,m4 ,boissier4 ,la ,fin du ,paganisme1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bjj4 #ag ,justin ,martyr 7#aje8-afg71 a former ,greek teacher and philosopher1 continued to follow his profession1 wear his ,greek philosopher's garb1 and held that the teachings of ,christianity were already contained in ,greek philosophy1 and that ,plato and ,socrates were ,christians before the coming of the ,christian faith4 ,clement 7c4 #afj-;c4 #bae71 the successor of ,pantaeus as head of the catechetical school at ,alexandria1 held to the harmony of the ,gospels with philosophy1 and that ,plato was ,moses ,atticized4 ,origen 7c4 #ahe-;c4 #bed71 a pupil and successor of ,clement1 and the most learned of all the early ,christian ,fathers1 labored to harmonize the ,christian faith with ,greek learning and philosophy1 and did much to formulate the dogmas of the early ,church4 ,saint ,basil 7#cca-cgi7 tried to allay the rising prejudice against pagan learning1 and to show the helpfulness to the ,christian life of the ,greek literature and philosophy4 ,gregory of ,nazianzus 7c4 #ccj-;c4 #cij7 was filled with indignation and protested loudly at the closing of the pagan schools to ,christians by the edict of the ,emperor ,julian1 in #cfb4 #ah ,tertullian 7c4 #aej-bcj7 had been well educated in ,greek literature and philosophy1 and had attained distinction as a lawyer4 ,saint ,jerome 7c4 #cdj-dbj7 was saturated with pagan learning1 but later advised against it4 ,saint ,augustine 7#ced-dcj71 the master mind among the ,latin ,fathers1 was for years a teacher of oratory and rhetoric in ,roman schools1 and had written part of an encyclopaedia on the liberal arts before his conversion4 ,many others who became prominent in the ,western ,church had in their earlier life been teachers in the ,roman higher schools4 #ai ,dreaming that he had died and gone to ,heaven1 he was asked1 ,who art thou8 ,on replying1 ,a ,christian1 he heard the awful judgment1 ,it is false3 thou art no ,christian2 thou art a ,ciceronian2 where the treasure is1 there the heart is also4 #bj ,the knowledge of ,greek remained alive longer in ,ireland than anywhere else in the western world1 being known there as late as the seventh century4 ,greek was also preserved in parts of ,spain for two centuries after it had died out in ,italy4 #ba ,in the ,west there was no other great city than ,rome4 ,at the period of its maximum greatness1 in the first century ,b4,c41 it was a city of approximately #dej1jjj people4 #bb ,after many struggles and conflicts between the ,bishops of ,constantinople1 ,alexandria1 and ,rome1 the ,bishop of ,rome was finally recognized by the second great ,church ,council1 held at ,constantinople in #cha1 as the head of the entire ,church 7,canon #c71 corresponding to the ,emperor on the political side of the dying ,empire4 ,the separation of the eastern and western churches was rapid after this time4 7,see ,map1 p4 #ajc47 #bc ,the word pagan as applied to unbeliever illustrates this progress of the ,church1 being derived from the ,latin paganus1 meaning countryman1 villager1 rustic4 #bd ,see the accompanying ,book of ,readings for a drawing and detailed explanation of the monastery of ,saint ,gall1 in ,switzerland 7,r4 #fi74 ,this was one of the most important monasteries of the ,middle ,ages4 ,,part ,,ii ,,chapter ,v #a ,the period from the reign of ,augustus ,caesar through that of ,marcus ,aurelius 7#ca ,b4,c4-#aib ,a4,d47 was known as the good ,roman peace4 ,no other large section of the western world has ever known such unbroken peace and prosperity for so long a time4 ,piracy ceased upon the seas1 and trade and commerce flourished4 ,the cities and the great middle class in the population were prosperous4 ,travel was safe and common1 and men traveled both for business and pleasure4 ,the ,christian ,state within a ,state had not yet taken form4 ,literature and learning flourished4 ,the law became milder4 ,the rights of the accused became better recognized4 ,a certain broad humanity pervaded the administration of both law and government4 ,there was much private charity4 ,hospitals were established4 ,women were given greater freedom1 larger intellectual advantages1 and a better position in the home than they were to know again until the nineteenth century4 ,it was the ,golden ,age of the ,empire4 ,toward the close of the period the ,christian ,father1 ,tertullian1 wrote3 ,every day the world becomes more beautiful1 more wealthy1 more splendid4 ,no corner remains inaccessible4444 ,recent deserts bloom4444 ,forests give way to tilled acres4444 ,everywhere are houses1 people1 cities4 ,everywhere there is life4 #b ,slavery in ,rome came to be much more demoralizing than ever was the case in the ,united ,states4 ,instead of an ignorant people of an inferior race1 the ,roman slave was often the superior of his master--the unfortunate captive in an unsuccessful war against an oppressor4 ,the holding of such educated and intelligent people in slavery was far more degrading to a ruling people than would have been the case had their slaves been ignorant and of inferior racial stock4 #c ,the ,roman ,state had come to be essentially a collection of cities4 ,rome1 ,alexandria1 ,antioch1 ,corinth1 ,carthage1 ,ephesus1 and ,lyons were great cities1 judged even by present-day standards1 throbbing with varied industries and a strong intellectual life4 ,in addition there were hundreds of other cities scattered all over the ,empire1 each with its own municipal life1 while on the frontier were stockaded villages serving as centers of trade with the barbarian tribes beyond4 #d ,chief among the new ideals that sapped the old ,roman strength must be mentioned the new ,christian religion1 with its doctrine of other- worldliness and its system of government not responsible to the ,empire4 ,another influence was the rise of a super-civic philosophy1 derived chiefly from the writings of ,plato 7see footnote #a1 page #db71 which held that certain men could be above the ,state and yet by their wisdom in part direct it4 ,the two influences combined to undermine the resisting strength of the ,state4 #e ,not only was the future of western ,european civilization settled there1 but that of ,north and ,south ,america as well4 ,had ,saracenic civilization come to dominate ,europe1 the ,koran might have been taught to- day in the theological schools of ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 ,san ,francisco1 ,buenos ,aires1 and ,valparaiso1 and the ,christian religion been the possession only of the ,greek and ,russian churches1 while our literature and philosophy and civilization would have been tinctured1 through and through1 with oriental ideas and ,mohammedan conceptions4 #f ,it is hard for us to imagine what happened1 for the ,indians we know to-day represent a much higher grade of civilization than did the ,german invaders4 ,if we could imagine the ,united ,states overrun by the ,indians of a hundred and fifty years ago1 as the ,german tribes overran the ,roman ,empire1 and becoming the rulers of a people superior to them in numbers and intellect1 we should have something analogous to the ,roman situation4 #g ,as allies1 citizens1 soldiers1 colonists1 and slaves the ,germans had long been filtering into the ,roman world1 and the ,roman world was in part ,germanized before the barriers were broken4 ,these ,german-,romans helped to assimilate the ,germans who came later1 much as ,italian-,americans in the ,united ,states help to receive and assimilate new ,italians when they come4 #h ,the historical importance of the mere fact that it was an organic unity which ,rome established1 and not simply a collection of fragments artificially held together by military force1 that the civilized world was made1 as it were1 one nation1 cannot be overstated4444 ,it was a union1 not in externals merely1 but in every department of thought and action2 and it was so thorough1 and the ,gaul became so completely a ,roman1 that when the ,roman government disappeared he had no idea of being anything else than a ,roman4444 ,it was because of this that1 despite the fall of ,rome1 ,roman institutions were perpetual4 7,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 #b;d ed41 p4 #cj47 #i ,a ,germanic king1 when he feared no ,roman general or emperor1 could usually be made to stand in awe when a ,christian priest or bishop appealed to ,heaven and the saints1 and threatened him with eternal hell-fire if he did not do his bidding4 #aj ,the ,church1 it must be remembered1 maintained its separate system of government and kept up the old forms of the ,roman law4 ,it had also its courts and its exemptions for the clergy1 and these it forced the barbarians to respect4 ,during half a dozen centuries it was the chief force that made life tolerable for myriads of men and women1 and almost the only force upholding any semblance of humane ideals4 #aa ,clotilda1 wife of the heathen ,clovis1 was a ,burgundian princess and a devout ,christian1 who had long tried to persuade her husband to accept her faith4 ,in #dif1 during a battle with the ,alemanni1 near the present city of ,strassburg1 ,clovis vowed that if the ,god of ,clotilda would give him victory1 he would do as she desired4 ,the ,alemanni were crushed1 and he and three thousand of his chiefs were at once baptized4 #ab ,draper1 ,john ,w41 ,intellectual ,development of ,europe1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ade-df4 #ac ,the extent of the ,benedictine order alone may be seen from the ,benedictine statement that ,pope ,john ,,xxii1 who died in #accd1 after an exact inquiry1 found that1 since the first rise of the order1 there had been of it #bd popes1 near #bjj cardinals1 #gjjj archbishops1 #ae1jjj bishops1 #ae1jjj abbots of renown1 above #djjj saints1 and upwards of #cg1jjj monasteries4 ,there had been likewise1 of this order1 #bj emperors1 #aj empresses1 #dg kings and above #ej queens1 #bj sons of emperors and #dh sons of kings1 about #ajj princesses and daughters of kings and emperors1 besides dukes1 marquises1 earls1 countesses1 etc41 innumerable4 ,from this it may be inferred how fully the ,church was the ,state during the long period of the ,middle ,ages4 #ad ,draper1 ,john ,w41 ,intellectual ,development of ,europe1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #dcg4 ,,chapter ,,vi #a ,from the sixth to the twelfth centuries4 #b ,the story which has come down to us of the ,german warrior who1 on being shown into an anteroom1 saw some ducks swimming in the floor and dashed his battle-axe at them to see if they were real1 thus ruining the beautiful mosaic1 is typical of the time4 #c ,during the period of ,rome's greatness the publishing business became an important one4 ,manuscripts were copied in numbers by trained writers1 and books were officially published4 ,both public and private libraries became common1 men of wealth often having large libraries4 ,these were found in the provincial towns as well as in the large ,italian cities1 and in country villas as well as in town houses4 ,by the beginning of the eighth century books had become so scarce that monasteries guarded their treasures with great care 7,r4 #fe71 and books were borrowed from long distances that copies might be made4 #d ,charlemagne 7,king of ,frankland1 #gfh-had71 for example1 found it necessary to order that priests and monks must show themselves capable of changing the wording of the masses for the living and the dead1 as circumstances required1 from singular to plural1 or from masculine to feminine4 #e ,longfellow's poem ,monte ,cassino is interesting reading here4 ,of ,benedict he says3 ,he founded here his ,convent and his ,rule ,of prayer and work1 and counted work as prayer2 ,the pen became a clarion1 and his school ,flamed like a beacon in the midnight air4 #f ,sometimes as early as eleven to twelve years of age4 ,the novitiate course was two years1 but as the vows could not be taken before eighteen1 the course of instruction often covered six to eight years4 #g ,to teach a novice to copy accurately a manuscript book was quite a different thing from the teaching of writing to-day1 ,it was more nearly comparable to present-day instruction in lettering in a college engineering course1 as it called for a degree of workmanship and accuracy not required in ordinary writing4 #h ,the ,vulgate1 a ,latin translation of the ,bible made by ,saint ,jerome1 at the close of the fourth century4 ,the ,old ,testament he translated mostly from the ,hebrew and ,chaldaic1 and the ,new ,testament he revised from the older ,latin versions4 ,this is the only version of the ,scriptures which the ,roman ,catholic ,church admits as authentic4 #i ,letters from one monastery to another1 and from one country to another1 begging the loan of some ancient book1 have been preserved in numbers4 ,lupus1 ,abbot of ,ferrires in ,france1 for example1 wrote to ,rome in #hee1 and addressing himself to the ,pope in person1 requested a complete copy of ,cicero's ,de ,oratore1 which he desired4 #aj ,the ,missal is a book containing the service of the mass for the entire year4 ,the ,psalter the book of ,psalms4 #aa ,from manu scriptum1 meaning written by hand4 #ab ,so expensive of time and effort was the production of books by this method that many of the manuscripts now extant were written crosswise on sheets from which the previous writing had been largely erased by chemical or mechanical means4 ,how many valuable ancient manuscripts were lost in this manner no one knows4 ,fortunately the practice was not common until after the thirteenth century1 when the rise of the universities and the spread of learning made new demands for skins for writing purposes4 #ac ,that the printing was not always carefully done is shown by the constant need1 throughout the ,middle ,ages1 of correct copies for comparison4 ,the following injunction of the ,abbot ,alcuin to the monks at ,tours1 given at the beginning of the ninth century1 is illustrative of the need for care in copying3 ,here let the scribes sit who copy out the words of the ,divine ,law1 and likewise the hallowed sayings of ,holy ,fathers4 ,let them beware of interspersing their own frivolities in the words they copy1 nor let a trifler's hand make mistakes through haste4 ,let them earnestly seek out for themselves correctly written books to transcribe1 that the flying pen may speed along the right path4 ,let them distinguish the proper sense by colons and commas1 and set the points1 each one in its due place1 and let not him who reads the words to them either read falsely or pause suddenly4 ,it is a noble work to write out holy books1 nor shall the scribe fail of his due reward4 ,writing books is better than planting vines1 for he who plants a vine serves his belly1 but he who writes a book serves his soul4 #ad ,west1 ,a4 ,f41 ,alcuin1 pp4 #gb-gc4 #ae ,the largest monastic library on the ,continent was ,fulda1 which specialized in the copying of manuscripts4 ,in #aefa it had #ggd volumes4 ,in ,england the largest collections were at ,canterbury1 which in the fourteenth century possessed #fih volumes1 and at ,peterborough1 which had #cdd volumes at about the same time4 ,the library of ,croyland1 also in ,england1 burned in #ajia1 at that time contained approximately #gjj volumes4 ,these represented the largest collections in ,europe4 #af ,the ,hortus ,delicarum of the ,abbess ,herrard1 of the convent of ,hohenburg1 in ,alsace1 was a famous illustration of artistic workmanship4 ,this was an attempt to embody1 in encyclopaedic form1 the knowledge of her time4 ,the manuscript was embellished with hundreds of beautiful pictures1 and was long preserved as a wonderful exhibition of mediaeval skill4 ,it was lost to civilization1 along with many other treasures1 when the ,prussians bombarded ,strassburg1 in #ahgj4 #ag ,he there enjoyed advantages which could not perhaps have been found anywhere else in ,europe at the time--perfect access to all the existing sources of learning in the ,west4 ,nowhere else could he acquire at once the ,irish1 the ,roman1 the ,gallician1 and the ,canterbury learning2 the accumulated stores of books which ,benedict 7founder and abbot7 had bought at ,rome and at ,vienne2 or the disciplinary instruction drawn from the monasteries on the ,continent1 as well as from ,irish missionaries4 7,bishop ,stubbs1 ,dictionary of ,christian ,biography1 article on ,bede47 #ah ,west1 ,a4 ,f41 ,alcuin1 pp4 #de-dg4 #ai ,annals of ,xanten1 #hdf ,a4,d4 #bj ,ibid41 #hea ,a4,d4 #ba ,annals of ,saint ,vaast1 #hhd ,a4,d4 #bb ,it is related that ignorant court officials1 fearing the king's displeasure1 sought to learn from their children4 #bc ,through ,alfred's efforts1 the compilation of the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle was begun1 that the people of ,england might be able to read the history of their country in their own language4 ,,chapter ,,vii #a ,anderson tells of a monastic student's notebook on conduct which has been preserved1 and which prescribes that the young man is to kneel when answering the ,abbot1 not to take a seat unasked1 not to loll against the wall1 nor fidget with things within reach4 ,he is not to scratch himself1 nor cross his legs like a tailor4 ,he is to wash his hands before meals1 keep his knife sharp and clean1 not to seize upon vegetables1 and not to use his spoon in the common dish4 #b ,this expression came into common use in the fifth century1 when the ,christian writers summarized the ancient learning under these seven headings or studies1 following earlier ,greek and ,roman classifications4 7,see p4 #gj74 #c ,the ,doctrinale1 by ,alexander de ,villa ,die4 ,this was in rhyme1 and became immensely popular4 ,it was the favorite text until the fifteenth century4 #d ,donatus begins as follows3 ,how many parts of speech are there8 ,eight4 ,what are they8 ,noun1 pronoun1 verb1 adverb1 participle1 conjunction1 preposition1 and interjection4 ,what is a noun8 ,a part of speech with case1 signifying a body or thing particularly or commonly4 ,how many attributes have nouns8 ,six4 ,what are they8 ,quality1 comparison1 gender1 number1 figure1 case4 ,etc41 etc4 #e ,the following from ,priscian1 reproduced by ,graves1 illustrates the method of instruction as applied to the first book of the ,aeneid of ,vergil4 ,what part of speech is arma8 ,a noun4 ,of what sort8 ,common4 ,of what class8 ,abstract4 ,of what gender8 ,neuter4 ,why neuter8 ,because all nouns whose plurals end in a are neuter4 ,why is not the singular used8 ,because this noun expresses many different things4 ,etc41 etc4 ,this form of textbook writing was common1 not only during the ,middle ,ages1 but well into modern times4 ,the famous ,new ,england ,primer was in part in this form1 and many early ,american textbooks in history and geography were written after this plan4 #f ,vergil1 due to his beautiful poetic form and to his love of nature and life1 was especially guarded against during the early ,middle ,ages as the most seductive of the ancient ,latin writers4 ,it is not at all inappropriate that1 in ,dante's ,inferno1 ,vergil should have been the person to guide ,dante through hell and purgatory1 but should not have been allowed to accompany him into paradise4 #g ,textbooks on the art of letter-writing began to appear by the eleventh century1 explaining in detail how to prepare the five divisions of a letter3 7#a7 the salutation 7salutatio71 7#b7 the art of introducing the subject properly and making a good impression 7captatio benevolentiae71 7#c7 the body of the letter 7narratio71 7#d7 how to make the request 7petitio71 and 7#e7 a fitting conclusion 7conclusio74 #h ,anderson reproduces a portion of a chapter by ,capella on the number four1 which is illustrative of the mediaeval study of the properties of number3 ,what shall ,i call four8 in which is a certain perfection of solidarity2 for it is composed of length and depth1 and a full decade is made up from those four numbers added together in order1 that is1 from one1 two1 three1 four4 ,similarly a hundred is made up of the four decades1 that is1 ten1 twenty1 thirty1 forty1 which are a hundred2 and again four numbers from a hundred on amount to a thousand1 that is1 #ajj1 #bjj1 #cjj1 #djj4 ,so ten thousand is made up of another series4 ,what is to be said of the fact that there are four seasons of the year1 four quarters of the heavens1 and four principles of the elements8 ,there are also four ages of man1 four vices1 and four virtues4 #i ,anderson reproduces a paragraph from ,maurus1 showing how number was applied to ,holy ,writ4 ,it reads3 ,a real thinker1 says ,maurus1 will not pass on indifferently when he reads that ,moses1 ,elijah1 and our ,lord fasted forty days4 ,without strict observance and investigation the matter cannot be explained4 ,the number #dj contains the number #aj four times1 by which all is signified which concerns the temporal4 ,for1 according to the number #d1 the days and the seasons run their course4 ,the day consists of morning1 midday1 evening1 and night1 the year of spring1 summer1 autumn1 winter4 ,further1 we have the number #aj to recognize ,god and the creature4 ,the three 7trinity7 indicated the ,creator2 the seven1 the creature which consists of body and spirit4 ,in the latter is the three3 for we must love ,god with our whole heart and soul and mind4 ,in the body1 on the other hand1 the four elements of which it consists reveal themselves clearly4 ,so if we are moved through that which is signified by the number #aj to live in time--for #aj is taken four times--chaste1 withholding ourselves from worldly lusts1 that means to fast forty days4 ,so the ,holy ,scriptures contain suggestively in many different numbers all sorts of secrets which must remain hidden to those who do not understand the meaning of numbers4 #aj ,gerbert 7#iec-ajjc7 was one of the most learned monks of his day1 having studied in the ,saracen schools of ,spain4 ,he afterwards became ,pope ,sylvester ,,ii 7#iii-ajjc74 ,because of his scientific knowledge in an age of superstition he was accused of transactions with the devil4 #aa ,for example1 the ,stabat ,mater and the ,dies ,irae1 two thirteenth- century hymns4 ,the former has been called the most pathetic and the latter the most sublime of all mediaeval poems4 #ab ,cassiodorus was an educated later ,roman1 who had been chief minister to ,theodoric1 the ,ostrogothic king1 and had done much to carry over ,latin learning and civilization into the new rgime4 ,he later founded the monastery of ,viviers1 in southern ,italy1 and spent the latter part of his life there in writing and contemplation4 ,he urged the monks to study1 and those who had no head for learning he advised to read ,cato and ,columella on agriculture1 and then to devote themselves to it4 #ac ,wisdom hath builded her house2 she hath hewn out her seven pillars4 7,proverbs1 ,,ix1 #a47 #ad ,abelson1 in his monograph on ,the ,seven ,liberal ,arts1 reduces each of these textbooks to their equivalent in a modern #afmo printed page1 with the following results3 ,cassi- ,capella ,boethius odorus ,isidore ,alcuin ,maurus ,subject 7c4 #dbe7 7c4 #ebj7 7c4 #ege7 7c4 #fcj7 7c4 #hjj7 7c4 #hdd7 _/,grammar444444 #aa -- #be #ej #ed #ee ,rhetoric44444 #ad -- #e-a_/b #ad #bf -- ,dialectic4444 #aa -- #ah #ad #be -- _/,arithmetic444 #aa #dj #b #b -- -- ,geometry44444 #ae #cj #b #a -- -- ,astronomy4444 #i -- #ae #c #bc #fj ,music44444444 #aa #fg #b #ab -- -- --- --- --- --- --- --- ,totals in pages #hb #acg #fi-a_/b #if #abh #aae #ae ,the mediaeval serf was the successor of the ,roman slave1 and was a step upward in the process of the evolution of the free man4 ,the serf was tied to the soil and by obligations of personal service to the lord4 ,gradually1 due to economic causes1 the personal service was changed from general to definite service1 and finally to a fixed rental sum4 ,when a fixed money payment took the place of personal service the free man had been evolved4 ,this took place rapidly with the rise of cities and industry toward the latter part of the ,middle ,ages4 #af ,the ,german private duel and the ,american fist fight are the modern survivals of the time when personal insults1 easily taken1 and private grievances were settled in the noble way by sword and battle-axe and torch4 #ag ,in the earlier days of noblemen's education reading and writing were regarded as effeminate1 but in the later times the nobles became increasingly literate4 ,by the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries many began to pride themselves on their patronage of learning4 #ah ,rhyming in the vernacular language came to be an important part of the training1 and many old love songs and songs expressing the joy of life date from this period4 ,chaucer's knight is described as3 ,syngynge he was or floytynge playing1 al the day2 ,he was as fressh as is the monthe of ,may4 ,short was his gowne1 with sleves longe and wyde4 ,wel cowde he sitte on hors and faire ryde2 ,he cowde songes make and wel endite1 ,juste and eek daunce1 and wel purtreye and write4 ,so hote he loved1 that by nighterdale night time ,he slept no more than doth the nightingale4 #ai ,from the life of the ,frankish ,abbot1 ,john of ,gorze1 ,abbot at ,gorze in the tenth century4 #bj ,leach1 ,a4 ,f41 ,educational ,charters1 p4 #adc4 #ba ,ibid41 p4 #adg4 #bb ,anselm 7#ajcc-aaji71 ,archbishop of ,canterbury from #ajic to #aaji1 formulated the early mediaeval view when he said3 ,i do not seek to know in order that ,i may believe1 but ,i believe in order that ,i may know4 ,the ,christian ought to advance to knowledge through faith1 not to come to faith through knowledge4 ,the proper order demands that we believe the deep things of ,christian faith before we presume to reason about them4 #bc ,monroe1 ,paul1 ,text-,book in the ,history of ,education1 p4 #beh4 ,,chapter ,,viii #a ,in the school of ,nisibis the ,church possessed an institution1 which for centuries secured her a system of higher education1 and therewith an important social and political position4 ,to the older literature1 consisting of translations1 there was added1 from the middle of the fifth century onward1 a large number of philosophical1 scientific1 and medical treatises belonging to ,greek antiquity1 and especially the works of ,aristotle4 ,through these ,greek wisdom and learning1 clothed in ,syrian attire1 found a home on these borders of ,christendom4 7,mller1 ,d4 ,k41 ,kirchengeschichte1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bgh47 #b ,by the year #fjj ,a4,d4 the triumph of the oriental element in ,christendom had well-nigh banished learning and education from the domain of the ,church1 giving place to a gloomy1 unquestioning faith which sank ever deeper and deeper in the mire of superstition4 ,what enlightenment survived had found a home beyond the limits of the ,roman ,empire1--in ,ireland1 in the extreme ,west2 in ,syria1 in the far ,east4 7,davidson1 ,thomas1 ,history of ,education1 p4 #acc47 #c ,this was determined as being #ef-a_/c miles1 which would make the circumference of the earth #bj1bhj miles4 ,the correct distance is #fi miles4 #d ,the fanaticism of the eastern ,arabs now reasserted itself1 and higher education ,in the ,mohammedan countries of the ,east drew permanently to a close4 ,a harsh1 rigid orthodoxy1 fatal to educational progress1 now triumphed4 ,the coming of the ,turks only made matters worse1 and with their advent education throughout ,arabia and ,asia ,minor became a thing of the past4 ,some day it will be the task of western ,europe to hand back schools and learning to the ,mohammedan ,east4 ,this may be one of the by-products of the great ,world ,war4 #e ,the ,alhambra1 built between #abch and #aced1 at ,granada1 is an exquisite example of their art4 7,see plate in vol4 #a1 p4 #feh1 of the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 #aath ed41 for an illustration of their architecture and art47 #f ,it was an age of superstition and miracles1 diabolic influences1 witchcraft and magic1 private warfare1 trials by ordeal1 robber bands1 little dirty towns1 no roads1 unsanitary conditions1 and miserable homes4 ,even the nobility had few comforts and conveniences1 and personal cleanliness was not common4 ,disease was punishment for sin and to be cured by prayer1 while the insane were scourged to cast out the devils within them4 #g ,frederic ,,ii was ,emperor of the mediaeval ,holy ,roman ,empire1 ruling from #abbg to #abej4 ,though a ,german by birth1 he had lived long in ,sicily1 and spent most of his time in ,italy after becoming ,emperor4 ,he greatly admired the ,saracens for their learning1 and tried to transfer some of their knowledge to ,christian ,europe4 ,he lived1 however1 at a time when the ,papacy was cementing its temporal power and the ,pope was becoming the ,emperor of ,europe4 ,this encroachment ,frederick resisted and tried to break1 but without success4 ,at his death the mediaeval ,german dream of world empire perished2 ,germany was left a collection of feudal ,states2 and the temporal power of the ,pope was henceforth for centuries to come undisputed4 #h ,christianity had not as yet been introduced among the mixed ,slavic and ,germanic tribes along the eastern ,baltic4 ,in ,prussia and ,lithuania1 where missionary efforts had been made from #ijj on1 success did not come until more than three centuries later4 7,see art4 ,missions1 ,ency4 ,brit41 #aath ed41 vol4 #ah47 #i ,the more important questions arising concerned the ,trinity1 the ,eucharist1 and ,transubstantiation4 #aj ,this discussion was over what was known as nominalism vs4 realism4 ,anselm of ,canterbury 7#ajcd-aaji71 basing his argument largely on some parts of ,plato1 had declared that ideas constituted our real existence4 ,roscellinus of ,compigne 7#ajej-aaje71 basing his argument on parts of the ,organon of ,aristotle1 had held that ideas or concepts are only names for real1 concrete things4 ,anselm1 as a realist1 contended that the human senses are deceptive1 and that revealed truth alone is reliable4 ,roscellinus1 as a nominalist1 held that truth can be reached only through investigation and the use of reason4 ,the church accepted the realism of ,anselm as correct1 and ,roscellinus was compelled to recant4 ,the stifling effect of such an attitude toward honest doubt can be imagined4 #aa ,mc,cabe1 ,joseph1 ,peter ,abelard1 p4 #g4 #ab ,by the beginning of the eleventh century this cathedral school had become the most important in ,france1 a position which it retained for centuries4 ,it was the great center for theological study1 and drew to it a succession of eminent teachers--,william of ,champeaux1 ,abelard1 ,peter the ,lombard--and1 in time1 thousands of students4 #ac ,the term scholasticism comes from scholasticus1 because it was chiefly in the cathedral schools that scholasticism arose4 ,it means1 literally1 the method of thinking worked out by the teachers in the cathedral schools4 #ad ,the ,english philosopher ,john ,locke 7#afcb-agjd7 once said that when he considered the inertness of the ,middle ,ages he was led to think that ,god had been content to make man a two-legged animal1 leaving to ,aristotle the task of making him a thinking being4 ,the worship of ,aristotle is easily explained by the great amount of information his works contained1 his logical method and skillful classification of knowledge1 and the way his ideas as to causes fitted into ,christian reasoning4 #ae ,the ,dominicans1 or ,black ,friars1 were a new teaching and preaching monastic order1 founded in #abaf4 ,it was a revival of monasticism1 directed toward more modern ends4 ,the ,dominicans established themselves in connection with the new universities1 and sought to control education and to defend orthodoxy4 ,another new order of this same period was that of the ,franciscans1 or ,gray ,friars1 founded by ,saint ,francis in #abab4 ,their work was directed still more to preaching1 missions1 and public service4 ,they were a less intellectual but a more democratic brotherhood4 ,it was the ,franciscans who followed the armies of ,spain to ,mexico1 and later built and conducted the missions of the central and southern ,california coast4 #af ,special translations of ,aristotle's ,rhetoric and ,politics1 from the original ,greek texts1 obtained at ,constantinople by the ,crusaders1 were made for ,thomas ,aquinas at his special request1 about #abfj1 by ,william of ,moerbeke1 who knew enough ,greek to perform the task4 ,this gave him better translations from which to lecture and write4 #ag ,in #ebi the ,eastern ,emperor1 ,justinian 7see p4 #gf71 directed that an orderly compilation be prepared of the many and confused laws and decisions which had been made in the ,roman ,empire1 with a view to producing a standard body of ,roman law in place of the unwieldy mass of contradictory material then existing4 ,the result was the ,corpus ,juris ,civilis1 worked out by a staff of eminent lawyers between #ebi and #ecc 7,r4 #ic74 ,this consisted of ,i4 ,the ,code1 in twelve books1 containing the ,statutes of the ,emperors2 ,,ii4 ,the ,digest1 in fifty books1 containing pertinent extracts from the opinions of celebrated ,roman lawyers2 ,,iii4 ,the ,institutes1 in four books1 being an elementary textbook on the law for the use of students2 ,,iv4 ,the ,novellae1 or new ,statutes1 the final edition of which was issued in #efe1 and included the laws from #ecc on4 ,this was preserved and used in the ,east1 but came too late to be of much service to the ,western ,empire4 #ah ,the subdivisions were as follows3 ,i4 ,contained #ajf distinctions1 relating to ecclesiastical persons and affairs4 ,,ii4 ,contained #cf distinctions1 relating to problems arising in the administration of canon law4 ,,iii4 ,contained #e distinctions1 relating to the ritual and sacraments of the ,church4 #ai ,the additions were3 ,i4 ,the ,decretals of ,pope ,gregory ,,ix1 issued in #abcd1 in five books4 ,,ii4 ,a ,supplement to the above by ,pope ,boniface ,,viii 7,liber ,sextus71 issued in #abih4 ,,iii4 ,the ,constitutions of ,clementine1 issued in #acag4 ,,iv4 ,several additions of ,papal ,laws1 not included in any of the above4 #bj ,he held that the body contained four humors--blood1 phlegm1 yellow bile1 and black bile4 ,disease was caused by an undue accumulation of some one of the four4 ,hence the office of the physician was to reduce this accumulation by some means such as blood-letting1 purging1 blisters1 diaphoretics1 etc4 ,in the monastery of ,saint ,gall 7see ,diagram1 ,r4 #fi7 a blood-letting room was a part of the establishment1 and this practice was continued until well into the nineteenth century4 #ba ,galen was born at ,pergamon1 in the reign of the ,emperor ,hadrian4 ,he studied medicine at ,pergamon1 ,smyrna1 and ,alexandria1 and for a time lived in ,rome4 ,returning to ,pergamon he was appointed physician to the athletes in the gymnasium there4 ,he later went back to ,rome and became physician to the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,he is credited with five hundred works on literature1 philosophy1 and medicine1 one hundred and eighteen of which have survived4 ,in medicine he wrote on anatomy1 physiology1 diagnosis1 pathology1 therapeutics1 materia medica1 surgery1 hygiene1 and dietetics4 ,he was the first to use the pulse as a means of detecting physical condition4 #bb ,saint ,augustine1 ,the ,city of ,god1 book xxii1 chap4 #bd4 #bc ,often spoken of as ,constantius ,africanus4 ,it is recorded that he studied the arts in ,babylon1 visited ,egypt and ,india1 and returned to his home in ,carthage one of the most learned men of his age4 ,suspected of dealings with the ,devil he fled to ,salernum 7c4 #ajfe71 taught there for many years1 published many medical works of his own1 and finally retired to the monastery of ,monte ,cassino1 dying there in #ajhg4 #bd ,in #ajfd a company of seven thousand is said to have started for the ,holy ,land4 #be ,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 #b;d ed41 p4 #bfa4 #bf ,from ,clermont the enthusiasm spread over ,france like wildfire4 ,stirring preachers1 whereof the most notable was ,peter the ,hermit1 set all ,france1 peasant and noble1 to arming4 ,it was the old gospel of ,mohammed recast in ,christian guise3--pardon for sin and the spoils of the infidel if victorious6--a swift road to heaven if slain in the battle6 ,pressed with this hope and enthusiasm1 armies to be reckoned by the hundreds of thousands were launched upon the ,east4 7,davis1 ,w4 ,s41 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,europe1 p4 #ie74 #bg ,of the thousands of petty lords and knights who went to the hot ,east1 clad in the heavy armor of northern ,europe1 large numbers left their bones along the way or in the ,syrian sands1 and the landholdings at home reverted to the ,crown4 ,this was a crushing blow to the old feudal regime1 advanced the cause of civilization1 and helped in the rise of the modern nations4 ,especially was this true in ,france and ,england1 whose knights went in large numbers to the ,east4 ,in ,germany the knights and nobles1 as a class1 refused to have anything to do with the ,crusades1 and hence they were not killed off or impoverished1 but remained to rule and multiply and be troublesome4 ,this is one reason for the much earlier rise and greater strength of ,french than ,german nationality1 and one reason why ,germany has been so much slower than ,france and ,england in developing a democratic type of civilization4 #bh ,as presented to the eye1 a typical mediaeval city would be a remarkable sight4 ,its extent would be small1 both because of the limited population1 and the need of making the circuit of the walls to be defended as short as possible2 but within these walls the huge1 many-storied houses would be wedged closely together4 ,the narrow streets would be dirty and ill-paved--often beset by pigs in lieu of scavengers2 but everywhere there would be bustling human life with every citizen elbowing close to everybody else4 ,out of the foul streets here and there would rise parish churches of marvelous architecture1 and in the center of the town extended the great square--market-place--where the open-air markets would be held1 and close by it1 dwarfing the lesser churches1 the tall gray cathedral-- the pride of the community2 close by1 also1 the ,city ,hall1 an elegant secular edifice1 where the council met1 where the great public feasts could take place1 and above which rose the mighty belfry1 whence clanged the great alarm-bell to call the citizens together in mass meeting1 or to don armor and man the walls4 7,davis1 ,w4 ,s41 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,europe1 p4 #adf47 #bi ,in ,italy1 in particular1 the cities became strong and powerful1 and eventually overthrew the rule of the bishops and defeated the ,german ,emperor1 ,frederick ,i1 in a long battle to preserve their independence4 ,in ,flanders such cities as ,ypres1 ,bruges1 and ,ghent1 came to dominate there4 ,in #acjb their burghers defeated the ,french army2 and in the sixteenth century they helped to break the autocratic power of ,spain in a great struggle for human and civic freedom4 ,by the thirteenth century ,hamburg1 ,lbeck1 ,bremen1 ,augsburg1 and ,nuremburg were important commercial cities in ,germany4 #cj ,they came there because1 due to their plundering and murdering proclivities1 ,venice forbade her merchants to go to them4 #ca ,so poor were the mediaeval bridges that the old prayer-books contained formulas for commending one's soul to ,god ere starting to cross a bridge4 #cb ,the peasants were of two classes3 7#a7 serfs1 who were not free and who were attached to the soil1 but unlike slaves had plots of land of their own and could not be sold off the land2 and 7#b7 villeins1 who were personally free1 but still were bound to their lord for much menial service and for many payments in produce and money4 #cc ,the ,church originally held many serfs and villeins1 as did the nobles4 ,it began the process of setting them free1 encouraging others to do likewise4 ,in time it became common1 as it did in our ,southern ,states before the ,civil ,war1 for nobles in dying to set free a certain number of their serfs and villeins4 ,these went as free men to the rising cities4 #cd ,the mediaeval guild was an important institution1 and the guild idea was applied to many forms of mediaeval associations4 ,thus we read of guilds of notaries in ,florence1 pleaders' and attorneys' guilds in ,london1 medical guilds and barber-surgeons' guilds in various cities1 and of the book-writers-and-sellers' guild in ,paris4 ,in a religious pageant given at ,york1 ,england1 on ,corpus ,christi ,day1 #adae1 fifty-one different local guilds presented each a scene4 7,see ,cheyney1 ,e4 ,p41 ,english ,towns and ,gilds41 ,pa4 ,sources1 vol4 ,,ii1 no4 ,i47 #ce ,the ready money of the merchant was as effective a weapon as the sword of the noble1 or the spiritual arms of the ,church4 ,very speedily1 also1 the men of the cities began to seize upon one of the weapons which up to that time had been the exclusive possession of the ,church1 and one of the main sources of its power1--knowledge and intellectual training4 ,with these two weapons in its hands1 wealth and knowledge1 the ,third ,estate forced its way into influence1 and compelled the other two 7,estates7 to recognize it as a partner with themselves in the management of public concerns4 7,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 #b;d ed4 p4 #bii47 #cf ,in ,hamburg1 for example1 the city council established four writing schools in #adjb1 to which the church authorities objected4 ,the council refused to give them up1 and for this was laid under the ban of the ,church1 compelled to recede1 admit that it had no right to establish such schools1 and pay the costs involved in the contest4 #cg ,for example1 the three most widely read books of the thirteenth century were ,reynard the ,fox1 a profoundly humorous animal epic2 ,the ,golden ,legend1 which so deeply impressed ,longfellow2 and the ,romance of the ,rose1 for three centuries the most read book in ,europe4 #ch ,despite all the criticisms one may offer against business1 commerce has always been a great civilizing force4 ,while not anxious to pay heavy taxes1 the merchant has always been willing to pay what has been necessary to support a public power capable of maintaining order and security for property4 ,feudal turmoil1 private warfare1 and plundering are deadly foes of commerce1 and these have come to an end where commerce and industry have gained the ascendant4 #ci ,as a rule a master craftsman might teach his trade to all his sons1 but could have only one other apprentice who received board1 lodging1 clothing1 and training1 as one of the family4 ,the guild still supervised the apprentice1 protecting him from bad usage or defective training by the master4 #dj ,this required the production of a masterpiece4 ,this piece of work had to be produced to prove high competency4 ,for example1 in the shoemakers' guild of ,paris1 a pair of boots1 three pairs of shoes1 and a pair of slippers1 all done in the best possible manner1 were required4 #da ,of thirty-three guilds investigated by ,leach1 all maintained song schools1 and twenty-eight maintained a grammar school as well4 ,in ,london1 ,merchant ,taylors' ,school1 ,stationers' ,school1 and the ,mercers' ,school are present-day survivals of these ancient guild foundations4 ,,chapter ,,ix #a ,by the twelfth century the cathedral schools had passed the monastic schools in importance1 and had obtained a lead which they were ever after to retain 7,r4 #ga74 #b ,as contrasted with the monasteries1 which were under a ,rule4 ,the opportunities offered by such open institutions in the ,middle ,ages can hardly be overestimated4 #c ,frederick ,i1 of the mediaeval ,holy ,roman ,empire of ,germany and ,italy4 #d ,no individual during the ,middle ,ages was secure in his rights1 even of life or property1 certainly not in the enjoyment of ordinary freedom1 unless protected by specific guarantees secured from some organization4 ,politically1 one must owe allegiance to some feudal lord from whom protection was received2 economically1 one must secure his rights through merchant or craft guild2 intellectual interests and educational activities were secured and controlled by the ,church4 7,monroe1 ,p41 ,text ,book in the ,history of ,education1 p4 #cag47 #e ,at first the older institutions organized themselves without charter1 securing this later1 while the institutions founded after #acjj usually began with a charter from pope or king1 and sometimes from both 7,r4 #ajj74 #f ,the degree of master was originally the license to practice the teaching trade1 and analogous to a master shoemaker1 goldsmith1 or other master craftsmen4 #g ,the universities1 then1 at their origins1 were merely academic associations1 analogous1 as societies of mutual guaranty1 to the corporations of working men1 the commercial leagues1 the trade-guilds which were playing so great a part at the same epoch2 analogous also1 by the privileges granted to them1 to the municipal associations and political communities that date from the same time4 7,compayr1 ,g41 ,abelard and the ,rise of the ,universities1 p4 #cc47 #h ,m4 ,bimbenet1 in his ,history of the ,university of ,orleans 7,paris1 #ahec7 reproduces several articles from the statutes of the guilds1 the provisions of which are identical with those contained in the statutes of the universities4 7,ibid41 p4 #ce47 #i ,bologna and ,paris were the great master universities of the thirteenth century1 while those founded on a model of either were more in the nature of journeymen institutions4 #aj ,between #afjj and #agjj1 although most of the cities capable of supporting universities were provided with them1 twenty-one more were created1 chiefly in ,germany and ,holland4 ,the first ,american university 7,harvard7 was established in #afcf1 and the second 7,yale7 in #agjb4 ,in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries1 without counting the ,united ,states or any western-hemisphere country1 forty more were created4 ,among the important nineteenth-century creations were ,berlin1 #ahaj2 ,christiana1 #ahaa2 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahai2 ,brussels1 #ahcd2 ,london1 #ahcf2 and ,athens1 #ahcf4 #aa ,see ,compayr1 ,g41 ,abelard1 pp4 #hg-ij for list of these strikes4 #ab ,it is impossible to fix the period at which the system of degrees began to be organized4 ,things were done slowly4 ,at the outset1 and until towards the end of the twelfth century1 there existed nothing resembling a real conferring of degrees in the rising universities4 ,in order to teach it was necessary to have a respondent1 a master authorized by age and knowledge4444 ,the 'license to teach1' nevertheless1 became by slow degrees1 as master and pupils multiplied1 a preliminary condition of teaching1 a sort of diploma more and more requisite1 and of which the bishops 7or their representatives1 the chancellors7 were the dispensers4 ,up to the fourteenth century there was hardly any other clearly-defined university title4 7,compayr1 ,g41 ,abelard1 pp4 #adb-dc47 #ac ,it is manifest that the universities borrowed from the industrial corporations their 'companionships1' their 'masterships1' and even their banquets2 a great repast being the ordinary sequel of the reception of the baccalaureate or doctorate4 7,compayr1 ,g41 ,abelard1 p4 #ada47 #ad ,the term professor has become general in its significance1 and is used in all countries4 ,in ,england the term master was retained for the higher degree1 while in ,germany the term doctor was retained1 and the doctorate made their one degree4 ,america followed the ,english plan in the establishment of the early colleges1 and the degree of ,a4,b4 and ,a4,m4 were provided for4 ,later1 when the ,german university influence became prominent in the ,united ,states1 the doctor's degree was superimposed on the ,english plan4 #ae ,at ,paris1 for example1 there were four nations--,france1 ,picardy1 ,normandy1 and ,england4 ,these were again divided into tribes1 as for example1 there were five tribes of the ,french--,paris1 ,sens1 ,rheims1 ,tours1 and ,bourges4 ,orleans had ten nations--,france1 ,germany1 ,lorraine1 ,burgundy1 ,champagne1 ,picardy1 ,normandy1 ,touraine1 ,guyenne1 and ,scotland4 ,in those days these represented separate nationalities1 who little understood one another1 and carried their constant quarrels up to the very lecture benches of the professors4 #af ,a contemporary writer1 ,jacobus de ,vitriaco1 has left us an account of student life at ,paris1 in which he says3 ,the students at ,paris wrangled and disputed not merely about the various sects or about some discussions2 but the differences between the countries also caused dissensions1 hatreds and virulent animosities among them1 and they impudently uttered all kinds of affronts and insults against one another4 ,they affirmed that the ,english were drunkards and had tails2 the sons of ,france proud1 effeminate and carefully adorned like women4 ,they said that the ,germans were furious and obscene at their feasts2 the ,normans vain and boastful2 the ,poitevins traitors and always adventurers4 ,the ,burgundians they considered vulgar and stupid4 ,the ,bretons were reputed to be fickle and changeable1 and were often reproached for the death of ,arthur4 ,the ,lombards were called avaricious1 vicious and cowardly2 the ,romans1 seditious1 turbulent and slanderous2 the ,sicilians1 tyrannical and cruel2 the inhabitants of ,brabant1 men of blood1 incendiaries1 brigands and ravishers2 the ,flemish1 fickle1 prodigal1 gluttonous1 yielding as butter1 and slothful4 ,after such insults from words they often came to blows4 7,pa4 ,trans4 and ,repts4 from ,sources1 vol4 ,,ii1 no4 #c1 pp4 #ai-bj47 #ag ,in an ,american university the term college or school has largely replaced the term faculty2 in ,europe the term faculty is still used4 ,thus we say ,college of ,liberal ,arts1 or ,school of ,law1 instead of ,faculty of ,arts1 etc4 #ah ,for example1 one of our modern state universities is organized into the following faculties1 schools1 and colleges3 7#a7 college of liberal arts2 7#b7 school of medicine2 7#c7 school of law2 7#d7 school of fine arts2 7#e7 school of pure science2 7#f7 college of engineering2 7#g7 college of agriculture2 7#h7 school of history1 economics1 and social sciences2 7#i7 school of business administration2 7#aj7 college of education2 7#aa7 school of household arts2 7#ab7 school of pharmacy2 7#ac7 school of veterinary medicine2 7#ad7 school of library science2 7#ae7 school of forestry2 7#af7 school of sanitary engineering2 7#ag7 the graduate school2 and 7#ah7 the university-extension division4 #ai ,he was called ',the ,philosopher'2 and so fully were scholars convinced that it had pleased ,god to permit ,aristotle to say the last word upon each and every branch of knowledge that they humbly accepted him1 along with the ,bible1 the church fathers1 and the canon and ,roman law1 as one of the unquestioned authorities which together formed a complete guide for humanity in conduct and in every branch of science4 7,robinson1 ,j4 ,h41 ,history of ,western ,europe1 p4 #bgb47 #bj ,this tendency increased with time1 due both to the development of secondary schools which could give part of the preparation1 and to the increasing number of students who came to the university for cultural or professional ends and without intending to pass the tests for the mastership and the license to teach4 ,finally the arts course was reduced to three or four years 7the usual college course71 and the master's degree to one1 and for the latter even residence was waived during the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,the ,a4,m4 degree has recently been rehabilitated and now usually signifies a year of hard study in ,english and ,american universities1 though a few eastern ,american institutions still play with it or even grant it as an honorary degree4 ,in ,germany the arts course disappeared1 being given to the secondary schools entirely in the late eighteenth century1 and the universities now confer only the degree of doctor4 #ba ,for a list of the books used in the faculty of medicine at ,montpellier1 in #acdj1 see ,rashdall1 ,h41 ,universities of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 ,i1 p4 #abc2 pt4 ,,ii1 p4 #ghj4 #bb ,after the latter part of the thirteenth century the book-writing and selling trade was organized as a guild industry1 and the copying of texts for sale became common4 ,then arose the practice of erasing as much of the writing from old books as could be done1 and writing the new book crosswise of the page4 ,in this way the expense for parchment was reduced1 and in the process many valueless and a few valuable books were destroyed4 ,still1 the cost for books during the days of parchment must have been high4 ,walsh estimates that an ordinary folio volume probably cost from #djj to #ejj francs in our #aiad values1 that is1 between #hj and #ajj4 #bc ,in ,germany the old mediaeval expression has been retained1 and the announcements of instruction there still state that the professor will read on such and such subjects1 instead of offer courses1 as we say in the ,united ,states4 #bd ,norton1 in his ,readings in the ,history of ,education2 ,mediaeval ,universities1 pp4 #ei-ge1 gives an extract from a text 7,gratian7 and gloss by various writers1 on the question--,shall ,priests be ,acquainted with ,profane ,literature1 or ,no8 which see for a good example of mediaeval university instruction and the manner in which a small amount of knowledge was spun out by means of a gloss4 #be ,not many early library catalogues have been preserved1 but those which have all show small libraries before the days of printing4 ,at ,oxford1 where the university was broken up into colleges1 each of which had its own library1 the following college libraries are known to have existed3 ,peterhouse ,college 7#adah71 #cjd volumes2 ,kings ,college 7#adec71 #agd volumes2 ,queens ,college 7#adgb71 #aii volumes2 ,university ,library 7#adgc71 #ccj volumes4 ,the last two were just before the introduction of printing4 ,the ,peterhouse library 7#adah7 was classified as follows3 ,subject ,chained ,loanable ,theology444444444444 #fa #fc ,natural ,philosophy44 #bf ,moral ,philosophy4444 #e #ai ,metaphysics444444444 #c ,logic444444444444444 #e #ae ,grammar4444444444444 #f ,poetry44444444444444 #d #ac ,medicine444444444444 #ae #c ,civil ,law44444444444 #i #bj ,canon ,law44444444444 #ah #ai ,totals44444444444444 #aeb #aeb 7,clarke4 ,j4 ,w41 ,the ,care of ,books1 pp4 #ade1 #adg47 #bf ,survivals of these old privileges still exist in the ,german universities which exercise police jurisdiction over their students and have a university jail1 and in the ,american college student's feeling of having the right to create a disturbance in the town and break minor police regulations without being arrested and fined4 #bg ,see ,compayr1 ,g41 ,abelard1 p4 #bja1 for illustrations4 ,,part ,,iii ,,chapter ,x #a ,one of the best known of the ,troubadours was ,arnaul de ,marveil4 ,the following specimen of his art reveals both the new love of nature and the reaction which had clearly set in against the other-worldliness of the preceding centuries3 ,oh6 how sweet the breeze of ,april1 ,breathing soft as ,may draws near1 ,while1 through nights of tranquil beauty1 ,songs of gladness meet the ear3 ,every bird his well-known language ,uttering in the morning's pride4 ,reveling in joy and gladness ,by his happy partner's side4 ,when around me all is smiling1 ,when to life the young birds spring1 ,thoughts of love ,i cannot hinder ,come1 my heart inspiriting- ,nature1 habit1 both incline me ,in such joy to bear my part3 ,with such sounds of bliss around me ,could ,i wear a sadden'd heart8 #b ,in the ,middle ,ages man as an individual had been held of very little account4 ,he was only part of a great machine4 ,he acted only through some corporation--the commune1 guild1 the order4 ,he had but little self- confidence1 and very little consciousness of his ability single-handed to do great things or overcome great difficulties4 ,life was so hard and narrow that he had no sense of the joy of living1 and no feeling for the beauty of the world around him1 and1 as if this world were not dark enough1 the terrors of another world beyond were very near and real4 7,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 #b;d ed41 p4 #cfc47 #c ,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 #b;d4 ed41 p4 #cfd4 #d ,petrarch refused to have the works of the ,scholastics in his library4 ,though a university man1 he was out of sympathy with the university methods of his time4 #e ,florence was essentially the city of intelligence in early modern times4 ,other nations have surpassed the ,italians in their genius 444 but nowhere else except at ,athens has the whole population of a city been so permeated with ideas1 so highly intellectual by nature1 so keen in perception1 so witty and so subtle1 as at ,florence4 7,symonds1 ,j4 ,a41 ,the ,renaissance in ,italy47 #f ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e41 in his ,harvard ,lectures on the ,revival of ,learning1 pp4 #ce-da1 gives a list of the more important later finds1 which see4 #g ,of the ,florentine scholars one of the most famous was ,niccol ,niccoli 7#acfc-adcf71 of whom ,sandys says3 ,famous for his beautiful penmanship1 he was much more than a copyist4 ,he collected manuscripts1 compared and collated their various readings1 struck out the more obvious corruptions1 restored the true text1 broke it up into convenient paragraphs1 added suitable summaries at the head of each1 and did much toward laying the foundation of textual criticism4 7,sandys1 ,j4 ,e41 ,harvard ,lectures on the ,revival of ,learning1 p4 #ci47 #h ,for example1 ,laurentius ,valla 7#adjg-eg7 of ,pavia1 exceeded ,niccoli in ability in textual criticism4 ,he extended this method to the ,new ,testament and1 at the request of ,king ,alphonso1 of ,naples1 subjected the so-called ,donation of ,constantine1 a document upon which the ,papacy based in part its claims to temporal power1 to the tests of textual criticism and showed its historical impossibility4 ,this1 indeed1 was a new and daring spirit in the mediaeval world1 but it represented the spirit and method of the modern scholar4 #i ,for example1 ,ciriaco1 of ,ancona 7#acia-adej71 has been called the ,schliemann of his time4 ,he spent his life in travel and in copying and editing inscriptions4 ,after exploring ,italy1 he visited the ,greek isles1 ,constantinople1 ,ephesos1 ,crete1 and ,damascus4 ,one of his contemporaries1 ,flavio ,blondo1 of ,forli 7#achh-adfc71 published a four-volume work on the antiquities and history of ,rome and ,italy4 ,these two men helped to found the new science of classical archaeology4 #aj ,classical scholars assert that ,greek became extinct in the ,italy of the ,roman ,church in #fij ,a4,d4 ,greek was taught at ,canterbury in the days of the learned ,theodore1 of ,tarsus 7,r4 #ei a71 who died in #fij4 ,irish monks1 who carried ,greek from ,gaul to ,ireland in the fifth century1 brought it back in the seventh century to ,saint ,gall1 founded by them in #fad4 ,john the ,scot1 an ,irish monk who was master of the ,palace ,school under ,charles the ,bald 7c4 #hde-ee71 is said to have been able to read ,greek4 ,roger ,bacon1 the ,oxford monk 7#abad-id71 also knew a little ,greek4 ,william of ,moerbeke1 in #abfj1 was able to translate the ,rhetoric and ,politics of ,aristotle for ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,greek monks were still found in the extreme south of ,italy at the time of the ,renaissance1 and ,greek has remained a living language in a few villages there up to the present time4 #aa ,gian ,antonio ,campano2 trans4 by ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds1 ,the ,renaissance in ,italy1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdi4 #ab ,for long it was thought that the revival of the study of ,greek in the ,west dated from the fall of ,constantinople1 in #adec1 but this idea has been exploded by classical scholars4 ,the events we have enumerated in this chapter show this1 and at least five of the important ,greek scholars who taught in ,italy came before that date4 ,as the ,turks closed in on this wonderful eastern city1 for so long the home of ,greek learning and culture1 many other ,greek scholars fled westward4 ,the principal ,greek authors had1 however1 been translated into ,latin before then4 #ac ,some of the ,italian universities participated but little in the new movement4 ,bologna and ,pavia1 in particular1 held to their primacy in law and were but little affected by the revival4 #ad ,bessarion 7c4 #adjc-gb71 at one time ,archbishop of ,nicaea and afterwards a cardinal at ,rome1 is said to have been surrounded by a crowd of ,greek and ,latin scholars whenever he went out1 and who escorted him every morning from his palace to the ,vatican4 ,he was a great patron of learned ,greeks who fled to ,italy4 ,on his death he gave his entire library of ,greek manuscripts to ,venice1 and this collection formed the foundation of the celebrated library of ,saint ,mark's4 #ae ,symonds1 ,j4 ,a41 ,the ,renaissance in ,italy1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aci4 #af ,in #adcf1 ,niccol de ,niccoli1 a copyist of ,florence1 died1 leaving his collection of eight hundred manuscripts to the ,medicean ,library for the use of the public1 meaning thereby any scholar4 ,this is said to have been the first public-library collection in western ,europe4 #ag ,nicholas as a monk had had his enthusiasm for the new movement awakened1 and had gone deeply into debt for manuscripts4 ,he was helped by ,cosimo de' ,medici4 ,when he became ,pope 7#addg-ee7 he collected scholars about him1 built up the university at ,rome1 laid the foundations of the great ,vatican ,library1 and made ,rome a great literary center4 ,after the death of ,lorenzo the ,magnificent at ,florence1 in #adib1 the glory that had been ,florence passed to ,rome1 and it in turn became the cultural center of ,christendom4 #ah ,much earlier1 another ,oxford man had returned from study under ,guarino at ,ferrara--,william ,gray 7#addi7--;but he seems to have made no impression4 ,a few other scholars went before ,linacre and ,grocyn and ,colet1 but these men were the first to attract attention on their return4 #ai ,agricola's real name was ,roelof ,huysman1 meaning ,roelof the husbandman4 ,in keeping with a common practice of the time he ,latinized his name1 taking the equivalent ,roman word4 #bj ,this was bound in two volumes1 and in #aiaa a copy of it was sold at a sale of old books1 in ,new ,york ,city1 for #ej1jjj4 #ba ,a second edition of this ,psalter was printed two years later1 and contains at the end1 in ,latin1 a statement which ,robinson translates as follows3 ,the present volume of the ,psalms1 which is adorned with handsome capitals and is clearly divided by means of rubrics1 was produced not by writing with a pen1 but by an ingenious invention of printed characters3 and was completed to the glory of ,god and the honor of ,saint ,james by ,john ,fust1 a citizen of ,mayence1 and ,peter ,schoifher of ,gernsheim1 in the year of our ,lord #adei1 on the #bith of ,august4 #bb ,the usual early edition was three hundred copies4 #bc ,at ,florence about three hundred editions are said to have been printed before #aejj2 at ,bologna1 #bih2 at ,milan1 #fbe2 and at ,rome1 #ibe4 #bd ,the following numbers of different editions are said to have been printed at the northern cities before #aejj3 ,paris1 #gea2 ,cologne1 #ecj2 ,strassburg1 #ebf2 ,nuremberg1 #chb2 ,leipzig1 #cea2 ,basel1 #cbj2 ,augsburg1 #bef2 ,louvain1 #aaf2 ,mayence1 #acd2 ,deventer1 #afi2 ,london1 #acj2 ,oxford1 #g2 ,saint ,albans1 #d4 #be ,by #aejj it is said that a book could be purchased for the equivalent of fifty cents which a half century before would have cost fifty dollars4 ,,chapter ,,xi #a ,much as universities have contributed to intellectual progress1 hostility to new types of thinking and to new subjects of study has been1 through all time1 a characteristic of many of their members1 and often it has required much pressure from progressive forces on the outside to overcome their opposition to new lines of scholarship and public service4 #b ,for a list of these treatises1 see ,monroe's ,cyclopedia of ,education1 vol4 v1 p4 #aed4 #c ,the distinguished author1 ,montaigne1 was mayor in #aehj4 #d ,this order had begun as an institution for the instruction of the poor1 emphasizing the use of the ,bible and the vernacular1 but when the new learning came in from ,italy1 classical learning was added and the instruction of the brotherhood became largely humanistic4 #e ,the influence of the old ,greek classical terms in this connection is interesting1 and is another evidence of the permanence of ,greek ideas4 ,sturm here adopted the ,italian nomenclature1 ,vittorino da ,feltre having called his school a ,gymnasium ,palatinum1 or ,palace ,school4 ,guarino wrote of gymnasia ,italorum4 ,both derived the term from the ,gymnasia of ancient ,greece1 just as the academies of the ,italian cities took their name from the ,academy of ,plato at ,athens 7p4 #dd74 ,another famous ,greek school was the ,lyceum1 founded by ,aristotle 7p4 #dd74 ,all these names came in during the ,revival of ,learning in ,italy1 and were applied to the new classical schools at a time when every term1 and even the names of men1 were given classical form4 ,as a result the ,italian secondary schools of to-day are known as ginnasio1 and the ,german classical secondary schools as gymnasia4 ,the ,french took their term from the ,lyceum1 hence the ,french lyces4 ,the ,english named their classical schools after the chief subject of study1 hence the ,english grammar schools4 ,in #afch ,milton visited ,italy1 and was much entertained in ,florence by members of the academy and university there4 ,in #afdd he published his ,tractate on ,education1 in which he outlined his plan for a series of classical academies for ,england4 ,milton was a church reformer1 as were the ,puritans1 and the ,puritans1 in settling ,america1 brought over first the term grammar school1 and later the term academy to ,england4 #f ,melanchthon1 in his famous ,saxony plan of #aebh1 had provided for but three classes 7,r4 #afa74 ,the class-for-each-year idea was new in ,german lands4 #g ,this became a fixed practice1 ,latin being the one language of the school4 ,a century later1 when it was attempted by the ,jansenists1 in ,france1 to teach ,greek directly through the vernacular1 the practice was loudly condemned by the ,jesuits as impious1 because it broke the connection between ,france and ,rome4 #h ,his phrase book1 ,de ,copia ,verborum et ,rerum1 went through sixty editions in his lifetime1 and was popular for a century after his death4 ,his book of proverbs1 the ,adagia1 was in both ,latin and ,greek1 and was widely used4 ,his ,book of ,sayings from the ,ancients 7,apophthegmata7 was a collection of little stories1 much like some of our best modern books for elementary-school use4 ,his ,colloquies1 or ,latin dialogues1 were widely used for two centuries in ,protestant countries4 ,these four were written between #aeaa and #aeai1 and largely for use in ,saint ,paul's ,school4 ,his ,latin edition of ,theodorus ,gaza's ,greek ,grammar 7#aeaf7 gave ,english schools for the first time a standard text4 #i ,they were ,on the ,first ,liberal ,education of ,children 7#aebi71 and ,on the ,order of ,study 7#aeaa74 #aj ,his ,praise of ,folly 7#aeji71 and his ,ciceronian 7#aebh74 #aa ,the introduction of the new learning into the ,english universities was easier than elsewhere1 because the ,english universities had broken up into groups of residence halls1 known as colleges4 ,if the old colleges could not be reformed new ones could be created1 and this took place4 ,trinity ,college1 at ,cambridge1 founded in #aedj1 was from the first a center of humanistic studies4 ,that same year the ,king founded royal professorships of ,civil ,law1 ,hebrew1 and ,greek at ,cambridge4 #ab ,elizabeth had had for her tutor ,roger ,ascham1 author of ,the ,scholemaster1 and a teacher of ,greek at ,cambridge 7,r4 #aci74 #ac ,for generations this famous grammar was to ,england what ,donatus was to mediaeval ,europe4 ,it was also used in the grammar schools of ,new ,england4 ,lily visited ,jerusalem and studied under the best ,latin teachers in ,rome1 so that he ranks with ,linacre1 ,grocyn1 and ,colet as an introducer of classical culture into ,england4 #ad ,winchester was the first of the so-called great public schools of ,england1 of which ,eton1 ,saint ,paul's1 ,westminster1 ,harrow1 ,charterhouse1 ,rugby1 ,shrewsbury1 and ,merchant ,taylors' are the other eight4 ,the foundation statutes of ,winchester made elaborate provision for a ,warden1 a ,head ,master1 ten ,fellows1 three ,chaplains1 an ,usher1 seventy scholars1 three ,chapel ,clerks1 sixteen ,choristers1 and a large staff of servants1 as did ,henry ,,viii later on for ,canterbury 7,r4 l#gb a74 ,the ,warden and ,fellows were the trustees4 ,in addition to the seventy scholars 7,foundationers7 other non-foundationers 7,commoners7 were to be admitted to instruction4 ,the admission requirements were to be reading1 plain song1 and ,old ,donatus1 and the school was to teach ,grammar1 the first of the ,liberal ,arts4 ,except for the change in the nature of the instruction when the new learning came in1 this and the other public schools remained almost unchanged until the second half of the nineteenth century4 #ae ,statutes for this school had provided the following entrance regulations3 ,but first see that they can the ,catechisme in ,english or ,latyn1 that every one of the said two hundred fifty schollers can read perfectly write competently1 or els lett them not be admitted in no wise4 #af ,his ,the ,positions 7#aeha71 and ,the ,elementarie 7#aehb74 ,see ,chapter ,,xviii4 #ag ,solomon ,lowe1 in his ,grammar1 published in #agbf1 gives a bibliography of #abh ,phrase ,books which had appeared by that time4 ,the following selection from the ,colloquies of ,corderius 7,r4 #acf7 illustrates their nature3 ,col4 #g4 ,clericus ,col4 #g4 ,clericus1 ,the ,master4 ,magister4 ,c4 ,master1 may not ,i and my uncle's ,licetne1 ,magister1 ut ego son go home8 patrulis emus domom8 ,m4 ,to what end8 ,quid e8 ,c4 ,to my sister's daughter's wedding4 ,ad nuptias consobrinae4 ,m4 ,when is she to be married8 ,quando est nuptura8 ,c4 ,to-morrow4 ,crstino die4 ,m4 ,why will you go so quickly8 ,cur tam cit vultis ire8 ,c4 ,to ,,change ,,our ,,cloaths4 ,ut mutmus vestimenta4 #ah ,sturm1 ,trotzendorf1 and ,neander insisted on the use of ,latin in all conversation in the school1 and the ,jesuits later on subjected boys to a whipping if reported as having used the vernacular4 #ai ,leach1 ,a4 ,f41 ,english ,schools at the ,reformation1 p4 #aje4 ,,chapter ,,xii #a ,up to this time the only ,latin ,bible had been the ,vulgate 7p4 #aca71 translated by ,jerome in the fourth century4 ,erasmus went back to and edited the original ,greek manuscripts1 and then prepared a new parallel ,latin translation1 the two being printed side by side4 ,he also added many explanations of his own which mercilessly exposed the mistakes of the theologians and the ,church1 and pointed out the errors in translation which were embodied in the ,vulgate4 ,this work passed through numerous editions and sold in thousands of copies all over ,europe4 ,so dangerous was this comparative method that ,greek was judged a heretical tongue4 ,no one should lecture on the ,new ,testament1 it was declared1 without a previous theological examination4 ,it was held to be heresy to say that the ,greek or ,hebrew text read thus1 or that a knowledge of the original language is necessary to interpret the ,scriptures correctly4 #b ,this was accomplished between #achb and #achd4 ,wycliffe translated only a part of the ,old ,testament1 and the ,gospels of ,saint ,matthew and ,saint ,mark of the ,new4 ,the remainder was done under his direction by others4 ,the translation was from the ,latin ,vulgate1 and was crude and imperfect4 ,the large number of copies of parts of this translation which have survived1 in manuscript form1 to the present time show that it must have awakened much interest1 and been widely copied and recopied during the century before the invention of printing4 #c ,the heretic1 it should be remembered1 was the anarchist of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,church regarded heresy as a crime1 worthy of the most severe punishments4 ,the ,church and the civil governments proceeded against the heretic as against an enemy of society and order4 ,heretics could not give evidence in a civil court1 were prohibited from marrying or from giving a son or daughter in marriage1 and even to speak with a heretic was an offense4 ,even torture and death were regarded as justified to stamp out heresy4 #d ,what would have been the result had the ,council of ,constance succeeded where it failed8 ,it seems certain that one result would have been the formation of a government for the ,church like that which was taking shape at the same time in ,england--a limited monarchy with a legislature gradually gaining more and more the real control of affairs4 ,it seems almost equally certain that with this the churches of each nationality would have gained a large degree of local independence1 and the general government of the ,church have assumed by degrees the character of a great federal and constitutional ,state4 ,if this had been the case1 it is hard to see why all the results which were accomplished by the reformation of ,luther might not have been attained as completely without the violent disruption of the ,church4 7,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilisation during the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #djc47 #e ,in #acjb the first ,estates-,general of ,france supported the ,king1 and denied the right of the ,pope to any supremacy over the ,state in ,france4 ,in ,england1 about the same time1 the right of the ,pope to levy taxation on the ,english was disputed by ,king and ,parliament4 ,in #addf ,william ,,iii of ,saxony limited the powers of ecclesiastical courts1 and forbade appeals from ,saxon decisions to any foreign court4 #f ,the ,london ,academy1 #ahic1 p4 #aig1 published evidence to show that there was a widespread demand among the bishops of ,spain for church reformation1 during the fifteenth century1 and along the same lines that ,luther advocated later4 #g ,but all these attempts at reformation in the ,church1 large and small1 had failed1 as had those of the early fifteenth century to reform its government1 leaving the ,church as thoroughly mediaeval in doctrine and in practical religion as it was in polity4 ,it was the one power1 therefore1 belonging to the ,middle ,ages which still stood unaffected by the new forces and opposed to them4 ,in other directions the changes had been many2 here nothing had been changed4 ,and its resisting power was very great4 ,endowed with large wealth1 strong in numbers in every ,state1 with no lack of able and thoroughly trained minds1 its interests1 as it regarded them1 in maintaining the old were enormous1 and its power of defending itself seemed scarcely to be broken4444 ,the ,church had remained unaffected by the new forces which had transformed everything else4 ,it was still thoroughly mediaeval4 ,in government1 in doctrine1 and in life it still placed the greatest emphasis upon those additions which the peculiar conditions of the ,middle ,ages had built upon the foundations of the primitive ,christianity1 and it was determined to remain unchanged4 7,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 pp4 #djf1 #dab47 #h ,every reform movement produces two kinds of reformers1 each seeking the same ultimate goal1 but differing materially as to methods of work4 ,in the religious conflict these two types are well represented by ,erasmus and ,luther4 ,erasmus was as deeply interested in religious reform as ,luther and devoted the energies of a lifetime to trying to secure reform1 but he believed that reformation should come from within1 and that the way to obtain it was to remain within the old organization and work to reform it4 ,luther represented the other type1 the type which feels that things are too bad for mere reform to be effective1 and that what is wanted is rebellion against the old4 ,the two types seldom agree as to means1 and usually part company4 ,one is content to be known as a conservative or a conformer2 the other delights in being classed as a progressive or even as a radical4 #i ,the early ,protestant theory was that an individual's ,christian religious life1 convictions1 and salvation were to be worked out through a direct study of the ,scriptures1 acceptance of the obvious teachings of ,christ as there presented1 and direct appeal to ,god through prayer for help in leading a ,christian life4 ,the ,catholic position1 on the other hand1 came to be that the individual's religious life was to be achieved through the intervention of the ,church1 which claimed on historical grounds to have been founded by ,christ1 and to be his official representative and mediator in the world4 ,it was through the teachings of this ,church that the individual was to receive his ideas of the ,christian religion1 to be stimulated to believe these1 to be kept in the path of righteousness1 and to obtain salvation4 7,parker1 ,s4 ,c41 ,history of ,modern ,elementary ,education1 p4 #ce47 #aj ,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #dac4 #aa ,a good illustration of the way parts of ,germany and ,german ,switzerland were divided by religious differences is to be found in the ,canton of ,appenzell1 in northeastern ,switzerland4 ,as each small governmental division had to follow the religion of the ruling prince in ,germany1 so in ,switzerland the cantons divided on religious lines4 ,to compromise matters in ,appenzell the canton was divided into two half cantons1 following the religious wars of #aeig--;,inner ,rhoden1 of sixty- three square miles1 exclusively ,roman ,catholic1 and ,outer ,rhoden1 of ninety-six square miles1 entirely under the ,swiss ,reformed ,church4 #ab ,calvinism is also a product of the northern humanism1 ,calvin's difficulties with the ,church arising out of his study of the ,greek texts4 ,calvin had received an excellent theological and legal education1 and used the knowledge and training derived from both to help him formulate a comprehensive system of belief4 #ac ,like the famous ,sentences of ,peter ,lombard 7p4 #aga71 it formed a splendid textbook of the new faith4 ,calvin based his work on the infallibility of the ,bible1 as against that of the ,church and ,pope1 and presented1 in a remarkably clear and logical manner1 the principles of ,calvinistic doctrine4 ,before #afcj1 as many as seventy-four full editions and fourteen partial editions of the ,institutes had been printed1 and in nine different languages4 #ad ,this went through seventy-seven editions 7fourteen in ,english7 before #afcj1 and in nearly all the languages of ,europe1 and was one of four ,catechisms1 one of which was required of all ,oxford undergraduates in #aegh4 ,it was adopted by the ,scotch1 ,huguenot1 ,french-,swiss1 and ,walloon 7,dutch7 churches1 and was widely used in ,holland1 ,england1 and ,america4 7,see ,calvin and ,calvinism1 in ,monroe's ,cyclopedia of ,education1 vol4 ,i47 #ae ,by #aefj the ,calvinists had two thousand houses for religious worship in ,france1 and demanded religious freedom4 ,in #aefb the persecutions began in earnest1 and for the next thirty-six years religious warfare ruled in ,france4 ,in #aeih the ,edict of ,nantes established religious freedom1 though this was revoked in #afhe4 #af ,even the celebrated ,peace of ,augsburg 7#aeee7 which left to each ,german prince and each town and knight the liberty to choose between the beliefs of the ,roman ,church and the ,lutheran1 provided only for religious freedom for the rulers1 and only one alternative4 ,calvinists1 for example1 hated equally by ,catholic and ,lutheran1 were not included4 ,so deeply was the idea of ,church and ,state as inseparable embedded in the minds of men that no provision was made for the religious freedom of subjects4 ,this was a much later evolution1 coming first in ,america4 #ag ,in the proposals for the ,league of ,nations ,covenant1 made at the conclusion of the ,world ,war1 in #aiai1 religious freedom for all persons in any ,state in the ,league was finally decided to be a necessary principle for any world league4 #ah ,paulsen1 ,fr41 ,german ,education1 ,past and ,present1 pp4 #if-ig4 #ai ,the terms atheist and atheism now arose1 as the modern substitutes for excommunication and imprisonment1 and during the next two centuries these were applied1 by the churchmen of the time1 to almost every prominent philosopher and scientist and independent thinker4 #bj ,very severe measures were enacted to prevent the spread of the contagion of heresy4 ,all ,protestant literature was forbidden circulation in ,catholic lands4 ,the printing-press1 as a disseminator of heresy1 was placed under strict license4 ,certain books were ordered burned4 ,perhaps the most extreme and ruthless measure was the prohibition1 under penalty of death1 of the reading of the ,bible4 ,that this harsh act was carried out the record of martyrs shows4 ,as one example may be mentioned the sister of the ,flemish artist ,matsys and her husband1 he being decapitated and she buried alive in the square fronting the cathedral at ,louvain1 in #aedc1 for having been caught reading the sacred ,book4 ,,chapter ,,xiii #a ,dr4 ,philip ,schaff1 the ,church historian1 says3 ,schleiermacher reduced the whole difference between ,romanism and ,protestantism to the formula1 ',romanism makes the relation of the individual to ,christ depend on his relation to the ,church3 ,protestantism1 vice versa1 makes the relation of the individual to the ,church depend on his relation to ,christ4' 7,quoted by ,g4 ,b4 ,adams1 from a pamphlet1 ,luther ,symposiac1 ,union ,seminary1 #ahhc47 #b ,the importance of writing before the days of printing can readily be appreciated4 ,just as the monk was carefully trained to copy manuscript1 so the clerk for a city or a business house needed to be carefully trained to read and write4 ,writing formed a distinct profession1 there being the city writer 7city clerk1 we say71 ,latin and vernacular secretaries1 traveling writers1 writing teachers1 etc4 ,writing masters sometimes taught reading also1 but usually not4 ,in some ,french cities the guild of writing masters was granted an official monopoly of the privilege of teaching writing in the city4 #c ,reckoning schools were to meet direct commercial needs in the cities1 and were seldom found outside of commercial towns4 ,the arithmetic taught in the ,latin schools as a part of the ,seven ,liberal ,arts was largely theoretical2 the arithmetic in the reckoning schools was practical4 ,the work of the professional reckoner in time developed similarly to that of the professional writer1 and often the two were combined in one person4 ,when employed by a city he was known as the city clerk4 ,in #adhb the first reckoning book to be published in ,germany appeared1 filled with merchant's rules and applied problems in denominate numbers and exchange4 ,see an interesting monograph by ,jackson1 ,l4 ,l41 ,sixteenth ,century ,arithmetic 7,trs4 ,college ,pubs41 ,no4 #h1 #aijf74 #d ,luther tried to make a translation so simple that even the unlearned might profit by listening to its reading4 ,to insure that his translation should be in a language that would be perfectly clear and natural to the common people1 he went about asking questions of laborers1 children1 and mothers to secure good colloquial expressions4 ,it sometimes took him weeks to secure the right word1 but so satisfactory was the result that it fixed the standard for modern ,german1 and still stands as the most conspicuous landmark in the history of the ,german language4 #e ,the ,french version of this great original work represents the first use of ,french as a language for an argumentative treatise1 and1 as ,calvin's work was more widely discussed than any other ,protestant theological treatise1 it did much to fix the character of this national language4 #f ,tyndale's translation is not only the first which goes back to the original tongues1 but it is so noble a translation in its mingled tenderness and majesty1 its ,saxon simplicity1 and its smooth1 beautiful diction that it has been but little improved on since4 ,every succeeding version is little more than a revision of ,tyndale's4 7,j4 ,paterson ,smyth1 ,how ,we ,got ,our ,bible47 ,the following extract from ,matthew is illustrative3 ,o oure father which art in heven1 halewed be thy name4 ,let thy kingdom come4 ,thy wyll be fulfilled1 as well in erth1 as hit ys in heven4 ,geve vs this daye oure dayly breade4 ,and forgeve vs oure treaspases1 even as we forgeve them whych treaspas vs4 ,lede vs nott in to temptacion1 but delyvre vs from yvell4 ,amen4 #g ,the most famous of ,luther's ,german hymns1 and one expressive of the ,protestant spirit1 is the one beginning3 ,ein feste ,burg ist unser ,gott1 ,a mighty fortress is our ,god1 ,ein gute ,wehr und ,waffen4 ,a bulwark never failing4 ,this hymn has often been called ,the ,marseillaise of the ,reformation4 #h ,the evolution1 during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 of the ,german vernacular school-teacher out of the parish sexton is one of the interesting bits of our educational history4 #i ,magdeburg is typical1 where the ,lutherans united all the parish schools under the supervision of one pastor4 #aj ,wittenberg1 founded in #aejb as a new-learning university1 and in which ,luther1 ,melanchthon1 and ,bugenhagen were professors1 was the first of the universities to become ,protestant4 ,gradually the other universities in ,protestant ,germany threw off their allegiance to the ,pope1 and took on that of the ruling prince4 #aa ,the first ,protestant university to be founded was ,marburg1 in ,hesse1 in #aebg4 ,when this later went over to ,calvinism1 a new university was founded at ,giessen1 in #afjg1 by a migration of the ,lutheran professors4 ,other ,protestant universities founded were ,knigsberg 7#aedd7 ,jena 7#aeee71 ,helmstadt 7#aegf71 and the free-city universities of ,altdorf 7#aegc71 ,strassburg 7#afba71 ,rinteln 7#afba71 ,duisberg 7#afee7 and ,kiel 7#affe74 ,the support of these came1 to a considerable extent1 from old monastic or ecclesiastical foundations which had been dissolved after the ,reformation4 #ab ,this was in response to a petition to the ,king1 nearly two years before4 ,the ,king finally granted the request1 though maintaining that he was not compelled by ,god's ,word to set forth the ,scriptures in ,english1 yet 'of his own liberality and goodness was and is pleased that his said loving subjects should have and read the same in convenient places and times4' 7,procter and ,frere1 ,history of the ,book of ,common ,prayer1 p4 #cj47 #ac ,the injunctions directed that 'a ,bible of the largest volume in ,english' be set up in some convenient place in every church1 where it might be read1 only without noise1 or disturbance of any public service1 and without any disputation1 or exposition4 7,ibid41 p4 #cj47 #ad ,the right to read the ,bible was later revoked1 during the closing years of ,henry ,,viii's reign 7d4 #aedg71 by an act of ,parliament1 in #aedc1 which provided that no woman 7unless she be a noble or gentle woman71 no artificers1 apprentices1 journeymen1 servingmen1 under the degree of yeomen 444 husbandmen1 or laborers should read or use any part of the ,bible under pain of fines and imprisonment4 #ae ,these were1 distributed by reigns1 as follows3 ,henry ,,viii 7#aeji-aedg7 #fc schools ,edward ,,vi 7#aedg-aeec7 #ej ,mary 7#aeec-aeeh7 #ai ,elizabeth 7#aeeh-afjc7 #ach ,james ,i 7#afjc-afbe7 ,charles ,i 7#afbe-afdi7 #adb ,protectorate 7#afdi-affj7 ,charles ,,ii 7#affj-afhe7 ,james ,,ii 7#afhe-afhh7 #adf ,,chapter ,,xiv #a ,these ,calvinists had a common program of broad scope--not merely doctrinal1 but also political1 economic1 and social4 ,their common program and their social ideals demanded education of all as instruments of ,providence for church and commonwealth4 ,their industrious habits and productive economic life provided funds for education4 ,their representative institutions in both church and commonwealth not only necessitated general diffusion of knowledge1 but furnished the organization necessary for founding1 supervising1 and maintaining1 in wholesome touch with the common man1 both elementary and higher institutions of learning4 ,their disciplined and responsive conscience1 their consequent intensity of moral conviction and spirit of self- sacrifice for the common weal1 compelled them to realize1 in concrete and permanent form1 their ideals of college and common school4 7,foster1 ,h4 ,d41 ,in ,monroe's ,cyclopedia of ,education1 vol4 i1 p4 #dii47 #b ,in #afbe a list of the famous men of the city of ,louvain1 in ,belgium1 was printed4 ,more than one fourth of those listed had studied in the colleges of ,geneva4 #c ,foster1 ,h4 ,d41 ,monroe's ,cyclopedia of ,education1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #dia4 #d ,in ,monroe's ,cyclopedia of ,education1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #dih4 #e ,that public schools abounded throughout the ,netherlands is evident4 ,every study of the archives of town or province discloses their presence4 ,the minutes of every religious body bear overwhelming testimony not only to the existence of schools1 but also a zealous interest in their maintenance4 7,kilpatrick1 ,w4 ,h41 ,dutch ,schools of ,new ,netherlands1 p4 #cg47 #f ,for long the ,church had had the ,inquisition1 but1 while it had rendered loyal and iniquitous service1 the results had been in no way commensurate with the bitter hatred which its work awakened4 ,excommunication1 persecution1 imprisonment1 the stake1 and the sword had been tried extensively1 but with only partial success4 ,in education the reformers had shown the ,church a new method1 which was positive and effective and did not awaken opposition1 and from the reformer's zeal for ,latin grammar schools to provide an intelligent ministry the ,church took its cue of establishing schools to train its future leaders4 ,it was a long-headed and far-sighted plan1 and its success was proportionately large4 #g ,this is not true of their missions in foreign lands1 where the mission priests usually gave elementary instruction4 ,elementary schools were maintained in the ,jesuit missions of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,thus a mission school was established at ,quebec as early as #afce1 and one at ,newtown1 in ,catholic ,maryland1 in #afdj4 ,after #agdj elementary parish schools were opened by the ,jesuits among the ,german ,catholics in ,pennsylvania4 ,from these beginnings ,catholic parish schools have been developed in the ,united ,states4 #h ,the ,order was restablished in #ahad and it has since been allowed to restablish itself in most countries1 though not in ,france or ,germany4 ,there are #da ,jesuit colleges in ,america1 in #ba states4 7,for list see ,monroe's ,cyclopedia of ,education1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #edj47 ,in the revision of its course of instruction1 in #ahcb1 modern studies were added1 but the ,society has never played any such conspicuous part in education since its restablishment as it did during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 #i ,it is an interesting speculation as to whether the fact that the ,jesuits made such headway in ,german lands1 and so deeply impressed their training on the children of the nobility there1 has had any connection with the attitude of ,german and ,austrian political leaders in their governmental and political policies since that time4 #aj ,by the middle of the eighteenth century the ,jesuits had lost much of their former vigor1 and their colleges their former large influence4 ,they had become powerful and arrogant1 mixed deeply in political intrigues1 quarreled with any one who crossed their path1 and refused to change their instruction to meet new intellectual needs4 ,they were finally driven from ,france1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,german lands1 and were ultimately abolished as an ,order4 #aa ,the care with which the ,ratio ,studiorum was worked out is typical of the thoroughness of the ,order4 ,a preliminary outline of work was followed for many years1 the whole being experimental4 ,reports on it were made1 and finally a preliminary ,ratio was issued1 in #aehf4 ,this was again revised and cast into final form1 in #aeii4 ,in this form it remained until #ahcb1 when some modern studies were added4 #ab ,dabney1 ,r4 ,h41 ,the ,causes of the ,french ,revolution1 p4 #bjc4 #ac ,for example1 the ,states-,general of ,france met four times during the seventeenth century1 with weighty problems of religion and state for consideration1 yet in three of the four meetings resolutions were passed urging the clergy to establish schoolmasters in all the towns and villages1 and a general system of compulsory education for all4 #ad ,les vrais ,constitutions des ,religieuses de la ,congrgation de ,nostre ,dame1 chap4 xi1 sec4 #f1 #b;d ed41 ,toul1 #afid4 #ae ,see especially ,felix ,cadet1 ,port-,royal ,education 7,scribners1 ,new ,york1 #ahih71 for translations of many of the brief pedagogical writings of members of the ,order4 #af ,father ,demia1 at ,lyons1 had organized what was probably the first training-school for masters1 in #afgb4 ,la ,salle's training-school dates from #afhd4 ,francke's ,german ,seminarium ,praeceptorum1 at ,halle1 the first in ,german lands1 dates from #afif4 #ag ,the numerous pictures of schools and educational literature well into the nineteenth century show the general prevalence of the individual method of instruction4 ,it was the method in ,american schools until well toward the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,to have graded the children and introduced class instruction in #afhd was an important advance which the world has been slow in learning4 #ah ,everything was according to rule1 even the ferule1 which must be made of two strips of leather1 ten to twelve inches long1 sewed together4 ,all offenses1 and the number and location of the blows for each1 were specified4 ,later the corporal punishment was replaced by penances4 ,,chapter ,,xv #a ,representing not over one tenth of the population1 the ,protestants in ,france had from the first been subjected to much persecution4 ,in the ,massacre of ,saint ,bartholomew 7#aegb7 over one thousand had been massacred in ,paris and ten thousand more in the provinces4 ,after some warfare1 a treaty was made1 in #aeih1 under which the so-called ,edict of ,nantes guaranteed religious toleration for the ,protestants4 ,in #afhe this was revoked1 and their ministers were given fifteen days to leave ,france4 ,the members were1 however1 forbidden to leave4 ,many1 though1 got away1 escaping to the ,low ,countries1 ,england1 and to ,america4 #b ,the culmination of this dissatisfaction came in #afdi1 when ,charles ,i was beheaded and ,the ,commonwealth was established under ,cromwell4 ,during the troubled times which followed 7#afdi-fj7 much damage was done to the churches of ,england by way of eliminating vestiges of popery4 #c ,some of these went back to ,england--many after the establishment of the ,protestant ,commonwealth under ,cromwell 7#afdi74 ,it has been estimated1 for three of the early colonies1 that the population by decades was approximately as follows3 #afcj #afdj #afej #affj ,new ,netherlands44444444444444 #ejj #ajjj #cjjj #fjjj ,massachusetts4444444444444444 #acjj #adjjj #ahjjj #bejjj ,virginia4444444444444444444444 #cjjj #hjjj #agjjj #ccjjj #d ,the name and the form came alike from old ,england1 where an irregular area known as a town or a township1 constituted the unit of representation in the shiremoats and the membership of the church parish4 ,almost every town and parish officer known in ,england was created by the new towns in ,new ,england1 with practically the same functions as in the old home4 #e ,the settlers were in the first freshness of their ,utopian enthusiasm1 and their church establishment was the very heart of their enterprise4 ,it became therefore a matter of primary importance to educate preachers4 ,for ages preparation for the ministry had consisted mainly in acquiring a knowledge of ,latin1 the sacred tongue of western ,christendom4 ,though the ,latin service was no longer used by ,protestants1 and the ,vulgate ,bible had been dethroned by the original text1 and though the main stream of ,english theology was by this time flowing in the channel of the mother tongue1 the notion that all ministers should know ,latin had still some centuries of tough life in it4 7,eggleston1 ,e41 ,the ,transit of ,civilization1 p4 #bbe47 #f ,for example1 the town of ,boston1 in #afda1 devoted the income from ,deere ,island to the support of schools1 and ,plymouth1 in #afgj1 appropriated the income from the ,cape ,cod fishing industry to the support of grammar schools 7,r4 #aid c74 ,these are among the earliest of the permanent endowments for education in ,america4 #g ,see ,the ,development of ,school ,support in ,colonial ,massachusetts1 by ,george ,l4 ,jackson1 for a careful study of the different early methods of school support4 #h ,the ,puritan emigrants to ,new ,england represented a sturdy and well- educated class of ,english country squires and yeomen4 ,they came of thrifty and well-to-do stock1 the shiftless and incompetent not being represented4 ,all had had good educational advantages1 and many were graduates of ,cambridge ,university4 ,it has been asserted that probably never since has the proportion of college men in the community been so large4 #i ,martin1 ,geo4 ,h41 ,the ,evolution of the ,massachusetts ,public-,school ,system1 pp4 #ad-af4 #aj ,the charging of a tuition fee to those who could afford to pay was a common ,european practice of the time1 nevertheless the public authorities --at that time a mixture of civil and church officials--provided the school1 employed and licensed the teacher1 determined the textbooks to be used1 and laid down the conditions under which the school should be conducted4 ,the schoolmaster assisted the church by participating in the ,sunday services4 ,the elementary school of the ,dutch1 which was copied in the ,new ,netherland1 was thus a combination of a public and parochial1 and a free and pay school4 #aa ,this was1 of course1 much more true of ,new ,york ,city and ,island than of the outlying ,dutch villages4 ,in these latter a public school was for long maintained4 #ab ,draper1 ,a4 ,s41 ,origin and ,development of the ,new ,york ,common ,school ,system4 #ac ,among the ,german ,lutherans1 who constituted nearly one fourth of the total population of the colony1 a school is claimed to have been established alongside the church by each of the congregations at the earliest possible period after its formation4 ,the close connection between these ,lutheran congregations and their schools may be seen from the following contract1 dated at ,lancaster1 in #aggd3 ,i1 the undersigned1 ,john ,hoffman1 parochial teacher of the church at ,lancaster1 have promised in the presence of the congregation1 to serve as choirister1 and1 as long as we have no pastor1 to read sermons on ,sunday4 ,in summer ,i promise to hold cathechetical instruction with the young1 as becomes a faithful teacher1 and also to lead them in the singing and attend to the clock4 #ad ,the seventeenth-century ,virginia legislation relating to education is as follows3 #afdc4 ,orphans to be educated according to the competence of their estate4 #afdf4 ,if the estate be so meane and inconsiderate that it will not reach to a free education1 then that orphan shall be bound to some manuall trade 444 except some friends or relatives be willing to keep them4 #affj-fa4 ,to avoid sloth and idleness 444 as also for the relief of parents whose poverty extends not to giving their children breeding1 the justices of the peace should 444 bind out children to tradesmen or husbandmen to be brought up in some good and lawful calling4 #ae ,perhaps the most remarkable1 because the most widespread and complex illustration of the educational genius of ,calvinism is to be found in the ,american colonies1 where the various ,european streams of ,calvinism so converged that the seventeenth-century colonists were predominantly ,calvinists--not merely the ,puritans of ,new ,england1 but the ,dutch1 ,walloons1 ,huguenots1 ,scotch1 and ,scotch-,irish1 with a considerable ,puritan admixture in ,anglican ,virginia and ,catholic ,maryland4 7,foster1 ,h4 ,d41 in ,monroe's ,cyclopedia of ,education1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #dih47 #af ,to illustrate how omnipresent this religious atmosphere was1 ,i cannot do better than to cite the occasion when ,judge ,sewell found that the spout which conducted the rain water from his roof did not perform its office4 ,after patient searching1 a ball belonging to the small childeren was found lodged in the spout4 ,thereupon the father sent for the minister and had a season of prayer with his boys that their mischief or carelessness might be set in its proper aspect and that the event might be sanctified to their spiritual good4 ,powers of darkness and of light were struggling for the possession of every soul1 and it was the duty of parents1 ministers1 and teachers to lose no opportunity to pluck the children as brands from the burning4 7,johnson ,clifton1 ,old-,time ,schools and ,schoolbooks1 p4 #ab47 ,,chapter ,,xvi #a ,thales had guessed that water was the primal element from which all had been derived2 ,anaximenes guessed air2 ,heraclitus fire2 ,pythagoras held that number was the essence of all things2 ,empedocles thought that fire and heat1 accompanied by indestructible forces1 formed the basis2 ,xenophanes had guessed air1 fire1 water1 and earth1 and had worked out a complete scheme of creation4 ,for an interesting discussion of these early attempts to explain creation1 see ,j4 ,w4 ,draper1 ,history of the ,intellectual ,development of ,europe1 vol4 #a1 chap4 iv4 #b ,among the treatises by him accepted as genuine are ,on ,airs1 ,waters1 and ,places2 ,on ,epidemics2 ,on ,regimen in ,acute ,diseases2 ,on ,fractures2 and ,on ,injuries of the ,head4 #c ,for example1 ,hippocrates had held that the human body contains four humors--blood1 phlegm1 yellow bile1 and black bile--and that disease was caused by the undue accumulation of some one of these humors in some organ1 which it was the business of the physician to get rid of by blood- letting1 blistering1 purging1 or other means4 #d ,from a collection of doggerel rhymes put out by two pastors and doctors of theology at ,basle1 in #afah1 by the names of ,grassner and ,gross1 to interpret the orthodox theory of comets to peasants and school children4 #e ,the earth is a sphere1 situated in the center of the heavens2 if it were not1 one side of the heavens would appear nearer to us than the other1 and the stars would be larger there4 ,the earth is but a point in comparison to the heavens1 because the stars appear of the same magnitude and at the same distance inter se1 no matter where the observer goes on the earth4 ,it has no motion of translation4444 ,if there were a motion1 it would be proportionate to the great mass of the earth and would leave behind animals and objects thrown into the air4 ,this also disproves the suggestion made by some1 that the earth1 while immovable in space1 turns round on its own axis4 7,ptolemy1 ,digest of argument of ,book #a of the ,almagest47 #f ,in the dedicatory letter ,copernicus states that he had had the completed manuscript in his study for thirty-six years1 and published it now only on the urging of friends4 #g ,to secure the greatest possible accuracy he constructed a wooden outdoor quadrant some ten feet in radius1 with a brass scale1 thus permitting readings to a fraction of an inch4 #h ,the current view was that comets were formed by the ascending of human sins from the earth1 that they were changed into a kind of gas1 and ignited by the anger of ,god4 ,this poisoned stuff then fell down on people's heads1 causing all kinds of mischief1 such as pestilence1 sudden death1 storms1 etc4 7,dryer1 ,j4 ,l4 ,e41 ,tycho ,brahe47 #i ,for over fifty years he was the knight militant of science1 and almost alone did successful battle with the hosts of ,churchmen and ,aristotelians who attacked him on all sides--one man against a world of bigotry and ignorance4 ,if then444 when face to face with the terrors of the ,inquisition he1 like ,peter1 denied his ,master1 no honest man1 knowing all the circumstances1 will be in a hurry to blame him4 7,fahie1 ,j4 ,j41 ,galileo1 ,his ,life and ,work47 #aj ,see ,routledge1 ,r41 ,a ,popular ,history of ,science1 pp4 #ace-cf1 for a good digest of ,bacon's inductive investigation1 as a result of which he arrived at the conclusion that ,heat is an expansive bridled motion1 struggling in the small particles of bodies4 #aa ,bacon himself died a victim of one of his inductive experiments4 ,wishing to try out his theory that cold would prevent or retard putrefaction1 he killed a chicken1 cleaned it1 and packed it in snow4 ,in so doing he contracted a cold which caused his death4 ,,chapter ,,xvii #a ,see footnote #a1 p4 #bgb1 on the origin of the term4 ,six years before the publication of the ,tractate1 ,milton had visited ,italy1 and had been much entertained in ,florence by members of the ,academy and ,university there4 ,in the ,tractate he outlined a plan for a series of classical ,academies for ,england1 many of which were established4 ,from ,england the term was carried to ,america1 and became the name for a great development of semi-private secondary schools which flourished during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries4 #b ,unlike ,england and ,france1 the ,german lands long remained feudal and not united4 ,as late as the beginning of the nineteenth century ,germany was made up of more than three hundred little principalities1 of which sixty were free cities4 ,each little principality was self-governing and maintained its little court4 #c ,richard ,mulcaster 7#aeca-afaa71 for forty-eight years a famous ,london ,latin grammar-school master1 often classed as a precursor of the sense realists1 in two books1 published in #aeha and #aehb1 had urged the great importance of a study of the ,english tongue1 and of using it as a medium for instruction4 ,in his ,elementarie 7#aehb7 he had said3 ,our own language bears the joyful title of our liberty and freedom1 the ,latin remembers us of our thralldom and bondage4 ,i love ,rome1 but ,london better2 ,i favor ,italy1 but ,england more4 ,i honor the ,latin1 but ,i worship the ,english4 7,r4 #bbf47 #d ,the school was opened with #dcc boys and girls enrolled4 ,it was divided into six classes4 ,in the first three ,german only was used4 ,in the first two classes the children were taught to read and write ,german1 ,genesis being the reading book of the second class4 ,in the third class ,german grammar was studied4 ,music1 religion1 and the elements of arithmetic were also taught in these classes4 ,in the fourth class ,latin was begun1 studying ,terence1 and ,latin grammar was worked out from the constructions4 ,in the sixth and highest class ,greek was taught4 ,a good education was to be given in six years1 through the saving of time4 #e ,this was written out in his native ,czech tongue1 but was not published at the time4 ,a quarter of a century later it appeared in ,latin1 with his collected works1 as published by his patron at ,amsterdam 7#afeg74 ,it was then forgotten for two centuries4 ,in #ahda the manuscript was found at ,lissa1 and published in the original at ,prague1 in #ahdh4 ,the first ,english edition appeared in #ahif4 #f ,see the ,english edition edited by ,m4 ,w4 ,keatinge1 ,a4 and ,c4 ,black1 ,london1 #ahif4 #g ,the following is illustrative3 ,sec4 #eah 7,geometria74 ,ex concursu linearum fit angulus qui est vel rectus1 quern linea incidens perpendicularis efficit1 ut est 7in subjecto schemate7 angulus ,a ,c ,b2 vel acutus1 minor recto1 ,a ut ,b ,c ,d2 vel obtusus1 major recto1 ut ,a ,c ,d4 ,illustration3 ,b ,d _/ _/ ,a------------- ,c #h ,a very good reprint of the #agbg ,english edition1 with pictures from the first edition of #afeh1 was brought out by ,c4 ,w4 ,bardeen1 of ,syracuse1 ,new ,york1 in #ahhg4 ,this ought to be in all libraries where the history of education is taught4 #i ,basedow's ,elementarwerk mit ,kupfern 7,elementary ,reading ,book1 with copperplate pictures71 published in #aggc 7see p4 #ece71 was the first attempt1 and not a particularly successful one either1 to improve on the ,orbis ,pictus4 #aj ,this term was at first applied in derision1 just as ,methodism was applied to the ,english religious reformers in the eighteenth century1 but the term was soon made reputable by the earnestness and ability of those who accepted it4 #aa ,francke's father had been counselor to ,duke ,ernest of ,gotha1 who had created for his little duchy the most modern-type school system of the seventeenth century4 ,how much ,francke's progressive ideas in educational matters go back to the work of ,duke ,ernest forms an interesting speculation4 #ab ,francke had the rare ability to see clearly what needed doing1 and then to do it regardless of obstacles or consequences4 ,the magnitude of his work in ,halle is simply marvelous1 and yet what he actually accomplished is insignificant in comparison with what he inspired others to do4 ,he showed how practical ,christianity could be incorporated in the work of the common schools2 his plan was immediately adopted by ,frederick ,william ,i and made well-nigh universal in ,prussia4 ,he showed how the ,realien could be profitably employed in a ,latin school1 and even made a constituent part of a university preparatory course2 as a result of his methods1 and especially of his suggestion that schools should be founded for the exclusive purpose of fitting the youth of the citizen class for practical life1 there has since grown up in ,germany a class of ,real- schools4 7,russell1 ,j4 ,e41 ,german ,higher ,schools1 p4 #fd47 #ac ,paulsen1 ,fr41 ,the ,german ,universities1 p4 #cf4 #ad ,as late as #ahje1 according to ,paulsen1 of the whole number of students in the universities of ,prussia1 there were but #add in the combined medical faculties1 as against #eee in theology1 and #ajcf in law4 #ae ,francke relates that1 as a student at ,erfurt 7c4 #afge71 he was able to study physics and botany1 along with his theological studies4 ,oxford records show the publication of a list of plants in the ,physick ,garden there as early as #afdh4 ,the garden was endowed about that time by the ,earl of ,danby1 and in #agfd lectures on botany were begun there4 ,lord ,bacon1 in his ,advancement of ,learning 7#afje71 had written3 ,we see likewise that some places instituted for physic 7medicinae7 have annexed the commodity of gardens for simples of all sorts1 and do likewise command the use of dead bodies for anatomies4 #af ,thomasius was made professor of theology1 and ,francke professor of ,greek and ,oriental languages4 ,both had been expelled from the ,university of ,leipzig4 ,christian ,wolff1 who had been banished by ,frederick ,william ,i1 was recalled and made professor of philosophy4 ,it was he who made philosophy talk ,german4 ,,chapter ,,xviii #a ,quick1 ,r4 ,h41 ,essays on ,educational ,reformers1 #bf4 ed41 p4 #ig4 #b ,locke was the first to lay the basis for modern scientific psychology to supersede the philosophic psychology of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,in his ,essay on the ,conduct of the ,human ,understanding 7#afij7 upon which he spent many years of labor1 he first applied the methods of scientific observation to the mind1 analyzed experiences1 and employed introspection and comparative mental study4 ,he thus built up a psychology based on the analysis of experiences1 and came to the conclusion that our knowledge is derived by reflection on experience coming through sensation4 ,he is consequently called the founder of empirical psychology1 and the forerunner of modern experimental psychology and child study4 ,his philosophy1 and his theory of education as well1 thus came to be a philosophy of experience--a rejection of mere authority1 and a constant appeal to reason as a guide4 #c ,freedom and self-reliance1 these are the watchwords of these two marvelously modern men 7,montaigne and ,locke74 ,expansion1 real education1 drawing out1 widening out1 that is the burden of their preaching2 and voices in the wilderness theirs were6 ,narrowness1 bigotry1 flippancy1 inertia1 these were the rule until ,rousseau's time1 and even his voice was to fall upon deaf ears in ,england4 7,monroe1 ,jas4 ,p41 ,evolution of the ,educational ,ideal1 p4 #abb47 #d ,schmidt1 ,karl1 ,geschichte der ,pdagogik1 translated in ,barnard's ,american ,journal of ,education4 #e ,rules for the schools of ,dorchester1 ,massachusetts4 #f ,duke ,eberhard ,louis's ,renewed ,organization of the ,german ,school1 #agbi2 republished #aghb4 #g ,one of the earliest horn books known appears in the illuminated manuscript shown in ,figure #dd1 which dates from #aejc4 ,the first definitely known horn book in ,england dates from #aehg1 while most1 of the specimens found in museums date from about the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,as improvements or variations of the horn book1 cardboard sheets and wooden squares1 known as battledores1 appeared after #aggj4 ,on these the illustrated alphabet was printed4 7,see ,tuer1 ,a4 ,w41 ,history of the ,horn ,book1 #b vols41 illustrated1 ,london1 #ahhf1 for detailed descriptions47 #h ,the diversity of religious primers which had grown up by #aefe led ,henry ,,viii to cause to be issued a unified and official ,primer1 containing the ,pater ,noster1 ,ave ,maria1 ,credo1 and the ,ten ,commandments4 #i ,the title-page of an edition of #agae declares that edition to be3 ,the ,protestant ,tutor1 instructing ,youth and ,others1 in the compleat method of ,spelling1 ,reading1 and ,writing ,true ,english3 ,also discovering to them the ,notorious ,errors1 ,damnable ,doctrines1 and cruel ,massacres of the bloody ,papists which ,england may expect from a ,popish ,successor4 #aj ,this was compiled by the ,westminster ,assembly of ,divines1 called together by ,parliament1 in #afdc1 composed of #aba clergymen1 #cj of the laity1 and #e special commissioners from ,scotland4 ,it held #aafc sessions1 extending over six years1 and framed the series of #ajg questions and answers which appeared in the ,primer as ,the ,shorter ,catechism4 #aa ,so great was the sale of this book that the author was able to support his family during the twenty years 7#ahjg-bg7 he was at work on his ,dictionary of the ,english ,language1 entirely from the royalties from the ,speller though the copyright returns were less than one cent a copy4 ,at the time of his death 7#ahdc71 the sales were still approximately a million copies a year1 and the book is still on sale4 #ab ,in ,nuremberg1 as an example of ,german practice1 the guild of writing and arithmetic masters continued1 throughout all of the eighteenth century1 and even into the nineteenth1 as an organization separate from that of other types of teachers4 #ac ,francke1 in his ,institutions at ,halle 7p4 #dah71 had tried to develop a number-concept1 and apply the teaching4 ,in the ,braunschweig-,lneburg school decree of #agcg appeared directions for beginning number work by counting the fingers1 apples1 etc41 and basing the multiplication table on addition4 ,a few ,german writers during the eighteenth century suggested better instruction1 ,basedow 7chapter ,,xxii7 tried to institute reform in the teaching of the subject1 but it was left for ,pestalozzi 7chapter ,,xxi7 to give the first real impetus to the rational teaching of the subject4 #ad ,such offices were not considered in any sense as degrading1 and the attaching of the new duty of instructing the young of the parish in reading and religion dignified still more the other church office4 ,as schools grew in importance there was a gradual shifting of emphasis1 and finally a dropping of the earlier duties4 ,many early school contracts in ,america 7,rs4 #aje2 #bcf7 called for such church duties on the part of the parish teacher4 ,see also footnote1 p4 #cgj4 #ae ,in #agbb country schoolmasters in ,prussia were ordered selected from tailors1 weavers1 blacksmiths1 wheelwrights1 and carpenters1 and in #agch they were granted the tailoring monopoly in their villages1 to help them to live4 ,later ,frederick the ,great ordered that his crippled and superannuated soldiers should be given teaching positions in the elementary vernacular schools of ,prussia4 #af ,the ,society for the ,promotion of ,christian ,knowledge1 organized in #afji to aid the ,church and provide schools at home1 and the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel in ,foreign ,parts1 organized in #agjb to supply ministers and teachers for churches and schools in the ,english colonies4 #ag ,in #agjd the ordinary charge in ,london for a ,school of #ej ,boys ,cloathed comes to about #ge per ,annum1 for which a ,school-,room1 ,books1 and ,firing are provided1 a ,master paid1 and to each ,boy is given yearly1 #c ,bands1 #a ,cap1 #a ,coat1 #a ,pair of ,stockings1 and one ,pair of ,shooes4 ,a girls' school of the same size cost #fj per annum1 which paid for the room1 books1 mistress1 fixing and providing each girl with #b ,coyfs1 #b ,bands1 #a ,gown and ,petticoat1 #a ,pair of knit ,gloves1 #a ,pair of ,stockings1 and #b ,pair of ,shooes4 #ah ,mc,carthy1 ,justin ,h41 ,ireland since the ,union1 p4 #ac4 #ai ,frederick the ,great1 in the ,general ,school ,regulations issued in #agfc 7,r4 #bgd1 #ae71 strictly prohibited the keeping of hedge schools in the towns and rural districts of ,prussia4 #bj ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress 7#afgh17 ,defoe's ,robinson ,crusoe 7#agai71 and ,gulliver's ,travels 7#agbf71 ,the publication of these tremendously stimulated the desire to read4 #ba ,strype1 ,john1 ,stowe's ,survey of ,london1 #agbj2 bk4 #a1 pp4 #aii1 #bja- #jb4 #bb ,paulsen1 ,friedrich1 ,german ,education1 p4 #ada4 #bc ,barnard1 ,henry4 ,translated from ,karl von ,raumer2 in his ,american ,journal of ,education1 vol4 v41 p4 #eji4 #bd ,salmon1 ,david1 ,the ,education of the ,poor in the ,eighteenth ,century2 in ,educational ,record1 ,london1 #aijh4 #be ,if you would comprehend the success of ,rousseau's mile1 call to mind the children we have described1 the embroidered1 gilded1 dressed-up1 powdered little gentlemen1 decked with sword and sash1444 alongside of these1 little ladies of six years1 still more artificial1--so many veritable dolls to which rouge is applied1 and with which a mother amuses herself for an hour and then consigns them to her maids for the rest of the day4 ,this mother reads mile4 ,it is not surprising that she immediately strips the poor little thing 7of its social harness of whalebone1 iron1 and hair7 and determines to nurse her next child herself4 7,taine1 ,h4 ,a41 ,the ,ancient ,rgime1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bgc47 #bf ,montmorency1 ,j4 ,e4 ,g4 de41 ,the ,progress of ,education in ,england1 pp4 #df1 #ej4 #bg ,a change now took place in the intellectual life of ,germany3 ,the nation began to make itself independent of ,french influence4 ,in literature ,klopstock and ,lessing broke the fetters of ,french classicism4 ,an ardent desire for a deeper culture peculiar to the ,german people asserted itself4 ,but the soil of the national life was too poor in genus for a purely ,german culture1 hence scholars looked for new models and found them in classical antiquity4 ,the ancient authors became again the masters of culture and taste2 with this difference1 though1 that it was not desired to learn how to express their thoughts as well as the learner's thoughts in ,latin1 but to become familiar with their manner of thinking and feeling1 for the purpose of enlarging and ennobling ,german thought and speech4 ,from this standpoint ,greek1 on account of its more valuable literature1 assumed a higher importance1 and1 by degrees1 a superiority over ,latin4 7,nohle1 ,e41 ,history of the ,german ,school ,system1 pp4 #dh- #di47 #bh ,if any one be destined for a studious career1 let him not shirk his ,greek lessons1 inasmuch as he would thereby suffer irretrievable loss4444 ,he who reads the classic writers1 studying mathematical reasoning at the same time1 trains his mind to distinguish what is true or false1 beautiful or unsightly1 fills his memory with manifold fine thoughts1 attains skill in grasping the ideas of others as well as in fluently expressing his own1 acquires a number of excellent maxims for the improvement of the understanding and the will1 and thus learns by practice nearly all that a good compendium of philosophy could teach him in systematic order and dogmatic form4 7,school ,regulations for ,braunschweig-,lneburg1 of #agcg47 #bi ,be assured that if you forget your ,greek1 yes1 even your ,latin too1 you still have the advantage of having given your mind a training and discipline that will go with you into your future occupation4 7,friedrich ,gedike1 #agee-ahjc47 ,,part ,,iv ,,chapter ,,xix #a ,the ,period of the ,enlightenment had two main aims3 7#a7 the perfection of the individual1 which gave a new emphasis to education1 and 7#b7 the mastery of man over his environment1 which expressed itself through the new scientific studies4 ,in ,german lands elementary education1 a regenerated classical education1 and the ,realschule were the fruits of this period4 #b ,frederick used to say that his subjects might think as they pleased so long as they behaved as he ordered4 #c ,though ,prussia was primarily ,lutheran1 ,catholics1 ,mennonites1 ,jews1 and ,huguenots early found a home in the kingdom4 ,frederick used to say that all religions must be tolerated1 for in this country every man must go to heaven in his own way4 #d ,after the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes 7p4 #cja2 #afhe71 over #bj1jjj ,french ,huguenots--merchants1 manufacturers1 skilled workmen--found an asylum in ,prussia alone4 ,settling in the ,rhine countries1 they contributed much to the future development of this region4 #e ,for the first time since ,luther1 the ,german people could call a great hero their own1 whether they were the subjects of ,frederick or not4 ,joyous pride in this prince1 whose achievements in times of peace were no less than those in time of war1 brought national consciousness to life again and this national feeling found expression in literature4 ,it was the restoration of confidence in themselves that gave the ,germans the courage to break with ,french rules and ,french models1 and to seek independently after ideals of beauty4 ,and this self-confidence they owed to ,frederick the ,great4 7,priest1 ,g4 ,m41 ,history of ,german ,literature1 p4 #aaf47 #f ,though ,joseph ,,ii claimed to be a good ,catholic1 he felt that monasticism had outlived its usefulness as an institution1 and that its continuance was inimical to the interests of organized society and the ,state4 ,this view has since been taken by the rulers of every progressive modern nation4 #g ,the ,cortes1 or ,national ,parliament1 met but three times during the century1 and when it did meet possessed but few powers and exercised but little influence4 #h ,the first ,russian university was established at ,kiev1 in #aehh2 the second at ,dorpat1 in #afcb2 the third at ,moscow1 in #agee2 and the fourth at ,kasan1 in #ahjd4 ,the ,university of ,petrograd dates from #ahai4 #i ,the great difference between a church and true religion must always be kept in mind4 ,religion is a thing of the spirit1 and its principle represents the loftiest thoughts of the race2 a church is a human governing institution1 and clearly subject to its own ambitions and the human frailties of its age4 #aj ,that is1 #be1jjj to #cj1jjj families4 ,there were also1 in even numbers1 #hc1jjj monks in #bejj monasteries 7one for every ninety square miles in ,france71 #cg1jjj nuns in #aejj convents1 and #fj1jjj priests4 ,of the soil of ,france1 the ,king and towns owned one fifth1 the clergy and the monks one fifth1 the nobility one fifth1 the bourgeoisie one fifth1 and the peasantry one fifth4 #aa ,in #aghh the #aca bishops and archbishops of ,france had an average income of #ajj1jjj francs1 and #cc abbots and #bg abbesses had incomes ranging from #hj1jjj to #ejj1jjj francs4 ,the ,cardinal de ,rohan1 ,archbishop of ,strasbourg1 had an income of more than #a1jjj1jjj francs1 and the #cjj ,benedictine monks at ,cluny had an income of more than #a1hjj1jjj francs4 #ab ,the real importance of ,esprit des lois is not that of a formal treatise on law1 or even on polity4 ,it is that of an assemblage of the most fertile1 original1 and inspiriting views on legal and political subjects1 put in language of singular suggestiveness and vigour1 illustrated by examples which are always apt and luminous1 permeated by the spirit of temperate and tolerant desire for human improvement and happiness1 and almost unique in its entire freedom at once from doctrinairism1 visionary enthusiasm1 egotism1 and an undue spirit of system4 ,the genius of the author for generalization is so great1 his instinct in political science so sure1 that even the falsity of his premises frequently fails to vitiate his conclusions4 7,saintsbury1 ,george1 in ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 vol4 ,,xviii1 p4 #ggg47 #ac ,by the captivating prospects which he held out of future progress1 and by the picture which he drew of the capacity of society to improve itself1 ,turgot increased the impatience which his countrymen were beginning to feel against the despotic government1 in whose presence amelioration seemed to be hopeless4 ,these1 and similar speculations of the time1 stimulated the activity of the intellectual classes1 cheered them under the persecutions to which they were exposed1 and emboldened them to attack the institutions of their native land4 7,buckle1 ,h4 ,t41 ,history of ,civilisation in ,england1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #eig47 #ad ,duruy1 ,v41 ,history of ,france1 p4 #ebc4 #ae ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 #aath ed41 vol4 viii1 p4 #bjd4 #af ,the real king of the eighteenth century was ,voltaire2 but ,voltaire1 in his turn1 was a pupil of the ,english4 ,before ,voltaire became acquainted with ,england1 through his travels and his friendships1 he was not ,voltaire1 and the eighteenth century was still undeveloped4 7,cousin1 ,history of ,philosophy47 #ag ,the first ,frenchmen who in the eighteenth century turned their attention to ,england were amazed at the boldness with which1 in that country1 political and religious questions of the deepest moment were discussed--questions which no ,frenchman in the preceding age had dared to broach4 ,with wonder they discovered in ,england a comparative freedom of the public press1 and saw with astonishment how in ,parliament itself the government of the ,crown was attacked with impunity1 and the management of its revenues actually kept under control4 ,to see the civilization and prosperity of ,england increasing1 while the power of the upper classes and the ,king diminished1 was to them a revelation4444 ,england1 said ,helvetius1 is a country where the people are respected1 a country where each citizen has a part in the management of affairs1 where men of genius are allowed to enlighten the public upon its true interests4 7,dabney1 ,r4 ,h41 ,causes of the ,french ,revolution1 p4 #ada47 #ah ,tennyson1 in his ,you ask me why1 well describes the growth of constitutional liberty in ,england when he says that ,england is3 ,a land of settled government1 ,a land of just and old renown1 ,where freedom broadens slowly down1 ,from precedent to precedent4 #ai ,james ,i1 in #afjd1 had declared3 ,as it is atheism to dispute what ,god can do1 so it is presumption and a high contempt in a subject to dispute what a king can do4 ,for this attitude the ,commons continually contested his authority1 his son lost his crown and his head1 and his grandson was driven from the throne and from ,england4 ,by contrast1 and as showing the different attitude toward self-government of the two peoples1 the ,german ,emperor ,william ,,ii1 three centuries later1 so continually boasted of his rule by divine right that ,me and ,god became an international joke1 and to his assumption the ,german people took little or no exception4 #bj ,the passage of the ,bill of ,rights 7#afhi7 ended the divine-right-of- kings idea in ,england for all time4 ,this prohibited the ,king from keeping a standing army in times of peace1 gave every subject the right to petition for a redress of grievances1 gave ,parliament the right of free debate1 prohibited the ,king from interfering in any way with the proper execution of the laws1 declared that members ought to be elected to ,parliament without interference1 and gave the ,commons control of all forms of taxation4 #ba ,though the ,english first developed regulated or constitutional government1 they themselves have no single written constitution4 ,instead1 the foundations of ,english constitutional government rest on ,magna ,charta 7#abae71 the ,petition of ,rights 7#afbh71 and the ,bill of ,rights 7#afhi71 these three constituting the ,bible of ,english ,liberty4 #bb ,at first used as a term of ridicule1 from the very methodical manner in which the ,wesleyans organized their campaigns4 #bc ,if we except the great ,puritan movement of the seventeenth century1 no such appeal had been heard since the days when ,augustine and his band of monks landed in ,kent and set forth on their mission among the barbarous ,saxons4 ,the results answered fully to the zeal that awakened them4 ,better than the growing prosperity of extending commerce1 better than all the conquests of the ,east or the ,west1 was the new religious spirit which stirred the people of both ,england and ,america1 and provoked the ,national ,church to emulation in good works--which planted schools1 checked intemperance1 and brought into vigorous activity all that was best and bravest in a race that when true to itself is excelled by none4 7,montgomery1 ,d4 ,h41 ,english ,history1 p4 #cbb47 #bd ,the contrast between eighteenth-century ,england and ,france1 in the matter of religious liberty1 is interesting4 ,in ,france the ,church took care1 during the whole of the eighteenth century1 that the persecution process should go on4 ,in #agag an assembly of seventy-four ,protestants having been surprised at ,andure1 the men were sent to the galleys and the women to prison4 ,an edict of #agbd declared that all who took part in a ,protestant meeting1 or who had any direct or indirect communication with a ,protestant preacher1 should have their heads shaved and be imprisoned for life1 and the men condemned to perpetual servitude in the galleys4 ,in #agde and #agdf1 in the province of ,dauphine1 #bgg ,protestants were condemned to the galleys and a number of women flogged4 ,from #agdd to #ageb six hundred ,protestants in the east and south of ,france were condemned to various punishments4 ,in #aggd the children of a ,calvinist of ,rennes were taken from him4 ,up to the very eve of the ,revolution ,protestant ministers were hanged in ,languedoc1 and dragoons were sent against their congregations4 7,dabney1 ,r4 ,h41 ,causes of the ,french ,revolution1 p4 #db47 #be ,back as early as #afie the ,commons had refused to renew the press- licensing act1 enacted in #afcg1 to control heresy4 ,this had confined printing to ,london1 ,oxford1 and ,cambridge1 and to twenty master printers and four letter founders for the realm4 ,this refusal marks the beginning of the freedom of the press in ,england4 ,in #agji the copyright law was enacted1 and in #aggf the redress against publishers of libelous articles was confined to the ordinary courts of law4 ,a century ahead of ,france1 and more than two centuries ahead of ,teutonic and ,romanic lands1 ,england provided for a free press and open discussion4 #bf ,george ,,iii1 always consistently wrong1 opposed this extension of popular rights4 ,in #agga he wrote the ,prime ,minister1 ,lord ,north3 ,it is highly necessary that this strange and lawless method of publishing debates in the papers should be put a stop to4 ,but is not the ,house of ,lords the best court to bring such miscreants before2 as it can fine1 as well as imprison1 and has broader shoulders to support the odium of so salutary a measure4 #bg ,it is evident that a nation perfectly ignorant of physical laws will refer to supernatural causes all the phenomena by which it is surrounded4 ,but as soon as natural science begins to do its work there are introduced the elements of a great change4 ,each successive discovery1 by ascertaining the law that governs events1 deprives them of that apparent mystery in which they were formerly involved4 ,the love of the marvelous becomes proportionally diminished2 and when any science has made such progress as to enable it to fortell the events with which it deals1 it is clear that the whole of those events are at once withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the supernatural1 and brought under the authority of natural power8 ,hence it is that1 supposing other things equal1 the superstition of a nation must always bear an exact proportion to the extent of its physical knowledge4 7,buckle1 ,h4 ,t41 ,history of ,civilization in ,england1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bfi47 #bh ,the ,charter of this ,society stated the purpose to be to increase knowledge by direct experiment1 and that the object of the ,society was the extension of natural knowledge1 as opposed to that which is supernatural4 ,as an institution embodying the idea of intellectual progress it was most bitterly assailed by partisans of the old flunking4 #bi ,birmingham1 ,sheffield1 ,leeds1 and ,manchester1 for example1 great manufacturing cities early in the nineteenth century1 were insignificant villages in ,cromwell's day4 ,the steam engine made the coal and iron deposits of northern ,england of immense value1 and the smoky mill towns that arose in the north began to displace southern agricultural ,england in population1 wealth1 and importance4 #cj ,for example1 in #aggd ,john ,howard began his great work in prison reform2 in #aggb pressing to death was abolished2 in #aghj the ducking-stool was used for the last time2 and soon thereafter the earlier laws relating to the death penalty were modified1 and the slave trade abolished4 ,up to the middle of the eighteenth century as many as one hundred and sixty offenses were punishable by death4 #ca ,the ,declaration of ,independence was written by ,thomas ,jefferson1 a great admirer of ,french life and a propagandist for ,french ideas4 #cb ,compare the ,american preamble with the following sentence from the ,social ,contract 7,book ,i1 chap1 ix7 of ,rousseau3 ,i shall close this chapter and this book with a remark which ought to serve as a basis for the whole social system2 it is that instead of destroying natural equality1 the fundamental pact1 on the contrary1 substitutes a moral and lawful equality for the physical inequality which nature imposed upon men1 so that1 although unequal in strength or intellect1 they all become equal by convention and legal right4 #cc ,i read attentively the cahiers drawn up by the three ,orders before their union in #aghi4 ,i see that here the change of a law is demanded1 and there of a custom--and ,i make note of them4 ,i continue thus to the end of this immense task1 and1 when ,i come to put side by side all these particular demands1 ,i see1 with a sort of terror1 that what is called for is the simultaneous and systematic abolition of all the laws and of all the customs existing in the country2 whereupon ,i instantly perceive the approach of the vastest and most dangerous revolutions that have taken place in the world4 7,de ,tocqueville1 ,a4 ,c41 ,state of ,society in ,france before the ,revolution of #aghi1 p4 #bai47 #cd ,for example1 the clergy of ,rodez and ,saumur demanded that there may be formed a plan of national education for the young2 the clergy of ,lyons that education be restricted to a teaching body whose members may not be removable except for negligence1 misconduct1 or incapacity2 that it may no longer be conducted according to arbitrary principles1 and that all public instructors be obliged to conform to a uniform plan adopted by the ,states- ,general2 the clergy of ,blois that a system of colleges under church control be formed 7,r4 #beb72 the nobility of ,lyons that a national character be impressed on the education of both sexes2 the nobility of ,paris that public education be perfected and extended to all classes of citizens2 the nobility of ,blois that better facilities for the education of children1 and elementary textbooks adapted to their capacity1 wherein the rights of man and the social duties shall be clearly set forth shall be provided1 and to this end that there be established a council composed of the most enlightened scholars of the capital and of the provinces and of the citizens of the different orders1 to formulate a plan of national education1 for the benefit of all classes of society1 and to edit elementary textbooks4 ,the ,third ,estate of ,blois demanded the establishment of free schools in all the rural parishes4 #ce ,see footnote #a1 page #afe4 ,one of the great results of the ,french ,revolution was the abolition of serfdom in central and western ,europe4 ,the last ,european nation to emancipate its serfs was ,russia1 where they were freed in #ahfa4 #cf ,great was the difference between ,france at the end of #agia and at the end of #agic4 ,at the former date all looked hopeful for the future2 the king was the father of his people2 the ,constitution of #agia was to regenerate ,france1 and set an example to ,europe2 all old institutions had been renovated2 everything was new1 and popular on account of its novelty4444 ,by the end of #agic all looked threatening for the future2 for the purpose of repelling her foreign foes1 who included nearly the whole of ,europe1 ,france submitted to be ground down by the most despotic and arbitrary government ever known in modern history1--the ,great ,committee of ,public ,safety2 the ,reign of ,terror was in full exercise1 and it was doubtful whether the energy1 audacity1 and concentrated vigour of the ,great ,committee would enable ,france to be victorious over ,europe1 and thus secure for her the right of deciding on the character of their own government4 ,she was to be successful1 but at what a cost6 7,stephens1 ,h4 ,m41 ,the ,french ,revolution1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eab47 #cg ,the ,code ,napolon1 prepared in #ahjd1 was the first modern code of civil laws1 though ,frederick the ,great had earlier prepared a partial code of ,prussian laws4 ,what the ,justinian ,code was to ancient ,rome1 this1 organized into better form1 was to modern ,france4 ,this ,code1 prepared under ,napoleon's direction1 substituted one uniform code of laws worthy of a modern nation for the thousands of local laws which formerly prevailed in ,france4 ,,chapter ,x #a ,the complaints were largely along such lines as that the instruction was confined to a few ,latin authors2 that instruction in the ,french language was neglected2 that instruction in the history and geography of ,france should be introduced2 that time was wasted in copying and learning notebooks filled with vain distinctions and frivolous questions2 that training in the use of the ,french language should be substituted for the disputations in ,latin2 that in religion the study of the ,bible was neglected for books of devotion and propaganda compiled by the members of the ,order2 that moral casuistry and religious bigotry were taught2 and that the discipline was unnecessarily severe and wrong in character4 #b ,in #agei the ,jesuits were expelled from ,portugal1 in #agfg from ,spain1 and in #aggc the ,pope at ,rome1 recognizing that the members of this ,society have not a little troubled the ,christian commonwealth1 and that for the welfare of ,christendom it were better that the ,order should disappear1 abolished the ,society entirely4 ,forty years later it was reconstituted in a modernized form4 #c ,little boys wore their hair long and powdered1 carried a sword1 and had coats with gilded cuffs1 while little girls were dressed in imitation of the lady of fashion4 ,proper deportment was an important part of a child's training4 #d ,the iconoclastic nature of ,rousseau's volume may be inferred from its opening sentence1 in which he says3 ,everything is good as it comes from the hand of the author of nature2 everything degenerated in the hand of man4 ,in another place he breaks out3 ,man is born1 lives1 and dies in a state of slavery4 ,at his birth he is stitched into swaddling clothes1 at his death he is nailed in his coffin2 and as long as he preserves the human form he is held captive by our institutions4 #e ,i do not presume to exclude ecclesiastics1 but ,i protest against the exclusion of laymen4 ,i dare claim for the nation an education which depends only on the ,state1 because it belongs essentially to the ,state2 because every ,state has an inalienable and indefeasible right to instruct its members2 because1 finally1 the children of the ,state ought to be educated by the members of the ,state4 7,la ,chalotais47 #f ,education cannot be too widely diffused1 to the end that there may be no class of citizens who may not be brought to participate in its benefits4 ,it is expedient that each citizen receive the education which is adapted to his needs4 7,rolland47 #g ,condorcet had not been a member of the ,constituent ,assembly1 but for some years had been deeply interested in the idea of public education1 and had published five articles on the subject4 ,his ,report was a sort of embodiment1 in legal form1 of his previous thinking on the question4 #h ,all the educational aims of the past were now relegated to a second place1 and man became a political animal1 brought into the world to know1 to love1 and to obey the ,constitution4 ,the ,declaration of the ,rights of ,man became the new ,catechism of childhood4 #i ,this was created on a grand and visionary scale4 ,its purpose was to supply professors for the higher institutions4 ,it opened with a large attendance1 and lectures on mathematics1 science1 politics1 and languages were given by the most eminent scholars of the time4 ,a normal school1 though1 it hardly was1 and in #agie it closed--a virtual failure4 ,in #ahjh ,napoleon re-created it1 on a less pretentious and a more useful scale1 and since then it has continued and rendered useful service as a training- school for teachers for the higher secondary schools of ,france4 #aj ,a total of #aje of these ,central ,schools were to be established1 five in ,paris1 and one in each of the one hundred chief towns in the departments4 ,by #agif there were #dj1 by #agig there were #eb1 by #agih there were #ei1 by #agii there were #hf1 and by #ahjj there were #ia such schools in existence4 ,this1 times considered1 was a remarkable development4 #aa ,the commercial depression of #agdj fell upon a generation of ,new ,englanders whose minds no longer dwelt preeminently upon religious matters1 but who were1 on the contrary1 preeminently commercial in their interests4 7,green1 ,m1 ,l41 ,development of ,religious ,liberty in ,connecticut1 p1 #bbf47 #ab ,prominent in the ,indiana constitutional convention of #ahaf were a number of ,frenchmen of bearing and ability1 then residing in the old territorial capital--,vincennes4 ,how much they influenced the statement of the article on education is not known1 but it reads as though ,french revolutionary ideas had been influential in shaping it4 #ac ,for the original ,bill of #aggi in full1 in the original spelling1 see the ,biennial ,report of the ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction for ,virginia1 #aijj-ja1 pp4 lxx-lxxv4 #ad ,though ,jefferson had been ,governor of ,virginia during the ,revolutionary ,war2 had repeatedly served in the ,virginia legislature and in ,congress2 and had twice been ,president of the ,united ,states1 he counted all these as of less importance than the three services mentioned1 and in preparing the inscription to be placed on his tomb he included only these three4 ,,chapter ,,xxi #a ,as a man who sought after glory1 and whose gloomy temper took umbrage at everything1 ,rousseau complained that his mile did not obtain the same success as his other writings4 ,he was truly hard to please6 ,the anger of some1 the ardent sympathy of others2 on the one hand1 the parliamentary decrees condemning the book and issuing a warrant for the author's arrest1 the thunders of the ,church1 and the famous mandate of the ,archbishop of ,paris2 on the other hand1 the applause of the philosophers1 of ,clairant1 ,duclos1 and d',alembert1--what more1 then1 did he want8 mile was burned in ,paris and ,geneva1 but it was read with passion2 it was twice translated in ,london1 an honor which no ,french work had received up to then4 ,in truth never did a book make more noise and thrust itself so much on the attention of men4 ,by its defects1 no less than by its qualities1 by the inspired and prophetic character of its style1 as well as by the paradoxical audacity of its ideas1 mile swayed opinion and stirred up the more generous parts of the human soul4 7,compayr1 ,g41 ,jean-,jacques ,rousseau1 p4 #ajj47 #b ,paulsen1 ,fr41 ,german ,education1 ,past and ,present1 p4 #aeg4 #c ,within three years ,basedow had collected seven thousand ,reichsthaler1 subscriptions coming to him from such widely scattered sources as ,joseph ,,ii of ,austria1 ,empress ,catherine of ,russia1 ,king ,christian ,,vii of ,denmark1 the wealthy class in ,basle1 the ,abbot of the monastery of ,einsiedel in ,switzerland1 the royal government of ,osnabruck1 the ,grand ,prince ,paul1 and others4 ,jews and ,freemasons seem to have taken particular interest in his ideas4 ,freemason lodges in ,hamburg1 ,leipzig1 and ,gttingen were among the generous contributors4 #d ,see ,barnard's ,american ,journal of ,education1 vol4 v1 pp4 #dhg-ebj1 for an account of the examinations and the institution4 #e ,the pedagogical character of the ,real school was established by ,basedow and his followers4 ,originally the plan was to provide for the middle classes what would be called nowadays manual training schools1 in which the scientific principles underlying the various trades and business vocations should have a prominent place4 ,these schools were to be one step removed from the trade schools for the lower classes4 ,but under the influence of the ,philanthropinists the ,real school was transformed into a modern humanistic school1 and placed in competition with the humanistic ,gymnasium4 7,russell1 ,j4 ,e41 ,german ,higher ,schools1 pp4 #fe-ff47 #f ,his two most important followers were ,joachim ,heinrich ,campe 7#agdf- #ahah71 who succeeded ,basedow at ,dessau and later founded a ,philanthropinum at ,hamburg1 and ,christian ,gotthilf ,salzmann 7#agdd-ahaa71 who founded a school at ,schnepfenthal1 in ,saxe-,gotha4 ,both these men had for a time been teachers with ,basedow at ,dessau4 ,campe translated ,locke's ,thoughts and ,rousseau's mile into ,german1 wrote a number of books for children 7chief among which was the famous ,robinson der ,jnger71 and also prepared a number of treatises for teachers4 ,salzmann's school1 opened in #aghd in the ,thuringen forest1 made much of gardening1 agricultural work1 animal study1 home geography1 nature study1 gymnastics1 and recreation1 as well as book study4 ,it was distinctively a small but high-grade experimental school1 so successful that in #ahhd it celebrated its one hundredth anniversary4 ,a pupil in the school was ,carl ,ritter1 the founder of modern geographical study4 #g ,the picture shown in ,leonard and ,gertrude is very crude4 ,everywhere is visible the rough hand of the painter1 a strong1 untiring hand1 painting an eternal image1 of which this in paper and print is the merest sketch4444 ,read it and see how puerile it is1 how too obvious are its moralities4 ,read it a second time1 and note how earnest it is1 how exact and accurate are its peasant scenes4 ,read it yet again1 and recognize in it the outpouring of a rare soul1 working1 pleading1 ready to be despised1 for fellow souls4 7,j4 ,p4 ,monroe1 ,the ,educational ,ideal1 p4 #ahb47 #h ,when ,i now look back and ask myself3 ,what have ,i specially done for the very being of education1 ,i find ,i have fixed the highest supreme principle of instruction in the recognition of sense impression as the absolute foundation of all knowledge4 ,apart from all special teaching ,i have sought to discover the nature of teaching itself1 and the prototype1 by which nature herself has determined the instruction of our race4 7,pestalozzi1 ,how ,gertrude teaches her ,children1 ,x1 ,section #a47 #i ,what he did was to emphasize the new purpose in education1 but vaguely perceived1 where held at all1 by others2 to make clear the new meaning of education which existed in rather a nebulous state in the public mind2 to formulate an entirely new method1 based on new principles1 both of which were to receive a further development in subsequent times1 and to pass under his name2 and finally1 to give an entirely new spirit to the schoolroom4 7,monroe1 ,paul1 ,text ,book in the ,history of ,education1 p4 #fjj47 #aj ,in #ahji the ,german1 ,carl ,ritter1 a former pupil of ,salzmann 7see footnote #b1 p4 #ech7 and the creator of modern geographical study1 visited ,pestalozzi at ,yverdon4 ,of this visit he writes3 ,i have seen more than the paradise of ,switzerland1 ,i have seen ,pestalozzi1 ,i have learned to know his heart and his genius4 ,never have ,i felt so impressed with the sanctity of my vocation as when ,i was with this noble son of ,switzerland4 ,i cannot recall without emotion this society of strong men1 struggling with the present1 with the aim of clearing the way for a better future1 men whose only joy and reward is the hope of raising the child to the dignity of man4 ,i left ,yverdon resolved to fulfill my promise made to ,pestalozzi to carry his method into geography4444 ,pestalozzi did not know as much geography as a child in our ,primary ,schools1 but1 none the less1 have ,i learned that science from him1 for it was in listening to him that ,i felt awaken within me the instinct of the natural methods2 he showed me the way4 7,guimps1 ,baron de1 ,pestalozzi1 his ,aim and ,work1 p4 #afg47 #aa ,the young ,german student of geology and mineralogy1 ,karl ,george von ,raumer 7#aghc-ahfe71 was in ,paris1 in #ahjh4 ,while there he read ,pestalozzi's ,how ,gertrude teaches her ,children1 and what ,fichte had said of his work in his ,addresses to the ,german ,nation 7see chapter xxii74 ,these sent him to ,yverdon to see for himself4 ,he remained two years1 and returned to ,germany as a teacher4 ,in #ahdf he published his four-volume ,geschichte der ,pdagogik1 the first important history of education to be written4 #ab ,in #ahad ,king ,frederick ,william ,,iii himself visited ,pestalozzi1 at ,neufchatel4 ,his queen1 ,louise1 was deeply touched by reading the mile1 and frequently spent hours in the ,prussian schools witnessing work conducted after the ideas of ,pestalozzi4 ,,chapter ,,xxii #a ,one of the first acts of the reign of ,frederick the ,great was to recall ,wolff from banishment4 ,in doing so he said3 ,a man that seeks truth1 and loves it1 must be reckoned precious in any human society4 #b ,it was a bold declaration1 but one which exactly described the great change which had taken place4 ,the older university instruction was everywhere based upon the assumption that the truth had already been given1 that instruction had to do with its transmission only1 and that it was the duty of the controlling authorities to see to it that no false doctrines were taught4 ,the new university instruction began with the assumption that the truth must be discovered1 and that it was the duty of instruction to qualify and guide the student in this task4 ,by assuming this attitude the university was the first to accept the consequences of the conditions which the ,reformation had created4 7,paulsen1 ,fr41 ,the ,german ,universities1 p4 #df47 #c ,he who reads the works of the ancients will enjoy the acquaintance of the greatest men and the noblest souls who ever lived1 and will get in this way1 as it happens in all refined conversation1 beautiful thoughts and expressive words4 ,we thus receive1 in early childhood1 doctrines and philosophy and wisdom of life from the wisest and best educated men of all ages2 we thus learn to recognize and understand clearness1 dignity1 charm1 ingenuity1 delicacy1 and elegance in language and action1 and gradually accustom ourselves to them4 7,gesner1 ,johann ,matthias47 #d ,the sacristan or custodian of the church was frequently also the teacher of the elementary school1 the two offices being combined in one person4 ,out of this combination the elementary teacher was later evolved4 7,see p4 #ddf47 #e ,when the schoolmaster had to pass an examination before the clergyman of the place by order of the inspector1 the local authorities1 owing to the lamentable life of a schoolmaster1 were glad to find persons at all who were willing to accept an engagement for such a position4 ,in consequence an otherwise intolerable indulgence in examining and employing teachers took place1 especially in districts where large landholders had patriarchal sway4 7,schmid1 ,k4 ,a41 ,encydopdie1 vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #bhg47 #f ,austria at that time included not only the ,austro-,hungarian ,empire of #aiad1 but extended further into the ,german ,empire and ,italy1 and included ,belgium and ,luxemburg as well4 #g ,bassewitz1 ,m4 ,fr4 von1 ,die ,kurmark ,brandenburg1 p4 #cdb4 7,leipzig1 #ahdg47 #h ,these lectures were listened to by ,napoleon's police and passed to print by his censor1 not being regarded as containing anything seditious or dangerous4 #i ,he set all his hopes for ,germany on a new national system of education4 ,one ,german ,state was to lead the way in establishing it1 making use of the same right of coercion to which it resorted in compelling its subjects to serve in the army1 and for the exercise of which certainly no better justification could be found than the common good aimed at in national education4 7,paulsen1 ,fr41 ,german ,education1 ,past and ,present1 p4 #bdj47 #aj ,never have the souls of men been so deeply stirred by the idea of raising the whole existence of mankind to a higher level4 ,something like the enthusiasm which had taken hold of the minds at the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution was again at work1 the only difference being that the strong current of national feeling directed it toward an aim which1 if more limited1 was1 for that very reason1 more practicable and more defined4 7,paulsen1 ,fr41 ,german ,education1 ,past and ,present1 p4 #ahc47 #aa ,as a result of the overthrow of ,napoleon1 the ,congress of ,vienna restored to ,prussia and ,france substantially the boundaries they had at the opening of the ,napoleonic ,wars4 ,still more important for the future was the consolidation of some four hundred ,states and petty ,german kingdoms into thirty-eight ,states4 #ab ,friedrich ,adolph ,wilhelm ,diesterweg became a pupil in one of the earliest normal schools in ,prussia1 that at ,frankfort2 then a teacher2 and in #ahbj became a director of a ,teachers' ,seminary at ,moers4 ,from #ahcc to #ahdi he was head of the normal school at ,berlin4 ,he has often been called der deutsche ,pestalozzi4 #ac ,made in a letter to ,baron von ,altenstein1 ,prussian ,minister for ,education4 #ad ,herbart's seminar at the university of ,knigsberg was officially recognized1 in #ahaj2 ,gedike's seminar in ,berlin was formally taken over by the university1 in #ahab2 the seminar in ,stettin1 founded in #ahjd1 was reorganized in #ahaf2 ,breslau began pedagogical work1 in #ahac2 and in #ahag it was stated that the purpose of the reorganized seminar in ,halle was 'the training of skilled teachers for the ,gymnasien4' 7,russell1 ,james ,e41 ,german ,higher ,schools1 p4 #ig47 #ae ,gesner at ,gttingen and ,wolff at ,halle laid down the lines for these in the middle eighteenth century4 ,the early nineteenth-century foundations were at ,knigsberg1 #ahaj2 ,berlin1 #ahab2 ,breslau1 #ahab2 ,bonn1 #ahai2 ,griefswald1 #ahbj2 and ,mnster1 #ahbe4 #af ,all prospective gymnasial teachers1 whether graduates of the universities or not1 were now required to take examinations in philosophy1 pedagogy1 theology1 and the main gymnasial subjects1 showing marked proficiency in one of the following groups1 and a reasonable knowledge of the other two3 namely1 7#a7 ,greek1 ,latin1 ,german2 7#b7 ,mathematics and the ,natural ,sciences2 7#c7 ,history and ,geography4 #ag ,see ,russell1 ,jas4 ,e41 ,german ,higher ,schools1 p4 #aja1 for the detailed ,gymnasial ,program promulgated in #ahcg4 #ah ,in #ahdj there were six ,prussian universities2 by #aijj the number had increased to eleven1 and three technical universities in addition4 ,in the other ,german ,states eleven additional universities and six technical universities were in existence1 in #aijj4 #ai ,benjamin ,franklin visited ,gttingen1 as early as #agff1 but the first ,american student to take a degree at a ,german university was ,benjamin ,s4 ,barton1 of ,philadelphia1 who took his doctor's degree at ,gttingen1 in #agii4 ,by #ahbe ten ,american students had studied one or more semesters at ,gttingen4 ,that year the first ,american student registered at ,berlin1 and in #ahbg the first at ,leipzig4 7,see ,hinsdale1 ,b4 ,a41 in ,report1 ,u4,s4 ,commissioner of ,education1 #ahig-ih1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #fjc-af47 #bj ,the remark attributed to ,bismarck is interesting in this connection4 ,of the students who attend the ,german universities1 he said1 one-third die prematurely as the result of disease arising from too great poverty and undernourishment while students2 another one-third die prematurely or amount to little due to bad habits and drinking and disease contracted while students2 the remaining third rule ,europe4 #ba ,barnard1 ,henry1 ,american ,journal of ,education1 vol4 xx1 p4 #cfe4 #bb ,this was proposed by ,czar ,alexander ,i of ,russia in #ahae1 and became a personal alliance of the ,czar of ,russia1 the ,emperor of ,austria1 and the ,king of ,prussia1 to promote religion1 peace1 and order4 ,other princes were asked to join this continental ,league to enforce peace and1 under the rule of ,prince ,metternich1 chief minister of ,austria1 it dominated ,europe until after the political revolutions of #ahdh4 #bc ,as a young man ,altenstein had been in charge of a subordinate division of the ,department of ,public ,instruction under ,humboldt1 and was a man of somewhat liberal ideas4 ,now he was compelled to fall in with the ideas of the political leaders and the wishes of the king1 though he still did something to hold back the reactionary forces and preserve much of what had been gained4 #bd ,paulsen1 ,fr41 ,german ,education1 ,past and ,present1 p4 #bdf4 #be ,it was this same ,frederick ,william ,,iv who had for a time refused to grant constitutional government to ,prussia1 saying3 ,no written sheet of paper shall ever thrust itself like a second providence between the ,lord ,god in heaven and this land4 ,in #ahej1 however1 he was forced to grant a limited form of constitutional government to his people4 #bf ,the motive which dictated the law of #ahgb on school supervision 7namely1 placing the ,state in complete control of the supervision of religious as well as other instruction7 was1 as is well understood1 to strengthen the hands of the government in its struggle with the ,catholic hierarchy1 which was then prominently before the public4 ,the law affirmed again the sovereign right of the ,state over the whole school system1 including the elementary or people's schools4 7,nohle1 ,dr4 ,e41 ,history of the ,german ,school ,system1 p4 #gi47 #bg ,alexander1 ,thomas1 ,the ,prussian ,elementary ,schools1 pp4 #ecg-ch4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii #a ,the commune in ,france was the smallest unit for local government1 and corresponded to the district1 town1 or township with us1 or with the ,church parish under the old rgime4 ,there were approximately #cg1jjj communes in ,france4 ,the ,department was a much larger unit1 ,france being divided1 for administrative purposes1 into #hb ,departments1 these corresponding to a rather large county4 #b ,by this term what is known elsewhere as secondary school must be understood4 ,see footnote1 page #bgb1 for explanation of the term4 #c ,the ,university had at its disposal approximately #b1ejj1jjj francs a year4 ,this was derived from a state grant of #djj1jjj francs1 the income from the property still remaining from the old confiscated universities1 and the remainder largely from examination fees4 ,in #ahej its property was taken over by the ,state1 and the ,university was changed into a state department4 #d ,this type of administrative organization is at first not easy for the ,american student to understand4 ,the ,university of the ,state of ,new ,york-- virtually the department of public instruction for the ,state--is our closest ,american analogy4 ,on the banishment of ,napoleon and the restoration of the monarchy1 in #ahae1 the ,grand ,master and ,council were replaced by a ,commissioner of ,public ,instruction1 with ,assistant ,commissioners for the different divisions1 and in #ahbj this was further changed into a ,royal ,council of ,public ,instruction4 #e ,in #aiji a decree restored ,greek and ,latin to their old place of first importance in the ,lyces1 thus destroying the strong interest in scientific instruction1 in so far as the higher secondary schools were concerned1 which had characterized the ,revolution4 #f ,report on the ,condition of ,public ,instruction in ,germany1 and particularly in ,prussia4 ,paris1 #ahca4 ,reprinted in ,london1 #ahcd2 ,new ,york ,city1 #ahce4 #g ,franois ,pierre ,guillaume ,guizot was ,minister for public ,instruction from #ahcb to #ahcg1 and head of the ,french government from #ahdj to #ahdh4 ,he was throughout his entire political career a conservative1 anxious to preserve constitutional government under a monarchy and stem the tide of republicanism4 #h ,we see here the beginnings of education in agriculture1 in which the ,french were pioneers4 #i ,the schools1 though1 were not very successful1 because of social reasons4 ,parents who could afford to do so sent their children to the much higher-priced ,communal ,colleges or ,lyces1 where ,latin was the main study1 in preference to sending them to a scientific1 modern-type1 middle- class school1 as conferring a better social distinction on both pupils and parents4 #aj ,by #ahch there were #ad1hgc public schools the property of the communes2 by #ahdg there were #bc1gfa2 and by #ahea but #bejj out of approximately #cg1jjj communes were without schools4 ,there were also over six thousand religious schools by #ahej4 ,by #ahcd the number of boys in the communal schools was #a1fef1hbh1 and a decade later over two millions4 ,the thirteen normal schools of #ahcj had grown to seventy-six by #ahch1 with over #bejj young men then in training for teaching4 ,in #ahcf the ,law of #ahcc was extended to include1 where possible1 schools for girls as well1 and the creation of a new set of normal schools to train schoolmistresses was begun4 ,by #ahdh over three and a half millions of children1 of both sexes1 were receiving instruction in the primary schools4 ,in #ahce primary inspectors1 those sinews of public instruction1 as ,guizot termed them1 were established1 one for every ,department1 by royal decree4 ,by #ahdg there were two inspectors-general1 and #ac inspectors and sub-inspectors at work in ,france4 #aa ,this was in large part due to manufacturing and business needs1 as ,france was rapidly forging ahead during the period as a manufacturing and commercial nation4 #ab ,prominent among these1 perhaps most prominent1 was ,jules ,ferry1 ,mayor of ,paris during the trying period of #ahgj-ga1 then member of the ,french legislature and ,minister of ,public ,instruction in a number of cabinets between #ahgi and #ahhe4 ,drawing his inspiration from ,condorcet's ,plan of ,education 7p4 #ead2 ,r4 #bef7 and ,edgar ,quinet's ,instruction of the ,people 7,r4 #bhi71 he brought about the enactment of a series of reform school laws commonly known as the ,ferry ,laws4 ,these provided for free1 compulsory1 elementary education1 to be given by laymen2 secondary education for girls2 the extension of normal schools2 and enlarged aid by the ,state in the building up of popular education4 #ac ,the non-sectarian school is not the work of a few advanced thinkers imposed upon a docile country4 ,they would not have been able to create anything enduring if the ,french conscience had not been ready to follow them4 ,this is what the adversaries of our schools do not wish to understand1 cannot understand1 or are anxious to conceal from those whom they direct4 ,certainly they have the right to attempt a reaction according to their own preferences4 ,they have no right to believe1 nor even to allow it to be believed1 that the creation of the non-sectarian school was the coup de force of an audacious minority4 ,the non-sectarian school has come because the nation wished it4 ,the program of moral instruction1 long prophesied1 conceived1 and hoped for1 was in the traditions of ,france as she marched forward toward her republican aspirations4 ,this program is not only the conscious effort of the men who gave the school a new mission-- that of laying the foundation of social peace through elementary instruction2 it is the expression of the republican conscience of #ahhb4 7,moulet1 ,alfred1 ,d'une ducation morale dmocratique47 #ad ,to each man his proper sphere2 to the minister of religion the liberty of preaching the doctrine of the different churches1 to teachers who teach in the name of the ,state1 that is1 of society1 the right of limiting themselves to the field of universal human morals1 together with the duty of refraining from any attack on religious beliefs4 ,neutrality is guaranteed by the secularization of the teaching body1 and it must be strictly observed4 7,compayr1 ,gabriel47 #ae ,the most striking feature is that1 in place of the one single and uniform course for all pupils1 several are provided for their selection4 ,here is obvious the influence of the elective courses common in the ,united ,states1 whose existence and success were reported on to the ,minister of ,public ,instruction by the ,commission to the ,world ,exposition at ,chicago1 in #ahic4 ,the courses last seven years4 ,the school period is divided into two cycles1 first one of four years1 and then one of three4 ,in the first cycle1 the pupils have a choice of two sections1 one emphasizing the ancient and modern languages1 the other the modern languages and science4 ,in the second cycle there are four sections1 viz41 ,graeco-,latin2 ,latin- modern languages2 ,latin-scientific2 and scientific-modern languages4 7,compayr1 ,gabriel1 ,education in ,france47 #af ,arnold1 ,matthew1 ,schools and ,universities on the ,continent1 p4 #aae1 7,london1 #ahfh47 #ag ,for example1 by the ,peace of ,lunville 7#ahja71 by which ,napoleon took from the ,germans all territory west of the ,rhine and consolidated it1 he extinguished #aah free cities1 principalities1 and petty states4 ,in addition1 he extinguished the separate existence of #afj others east of the ,rhine4 ,the importance of such consolidations for the future of ,germany has been large4 #ah ,bologna1 for example1 had #aff professors in the early seventeenth century1 but by #agcg it had but #fb4 ,the universities came chiefly to be places where young men obtained degrees but not learning4 ,at ,naples a noble family by the name of ,avellino came to have the power of virtually selling degrees in law and medicine4 #ai ,not only were schools built up1 but commerce1 roads1 and in particular scientific agriculture were subjects of deep interest to ,cavour4 ,he saw1 very clearly1 that if ,sardinia was to be the nucleus of a future ,italy1 ,sardinia must show unmistakably her worthiness to lead4 #bj ,by #ahei ,sardinia had come to include ,savoy and ,lombardy1 and was the largest ,state in northern ,italy4 ,a year later all but ,venetia and the ,states of the ,church had been added4 #ba ,the ,law of #ahgg fixed the instruction in the primary schools1 for the three compulsory years1 as reading1 writing1 the ,italian language1 elements of civics1 arithmetic1 and the metric system4 ,the omission of religious instruction excited much opposition from church authorities1 but without effect4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv #a ,prussia and ,holland possibly form exceptions in the matter4 ,frederick the ,great 7p4 #dgd7 was noted for his liberality in religious matters4 ,there different varieties of ,protestants1 ,catholics1 and ,jews were all tolerated1 and there they mingled and intermarried4 ,so well were the ,jews received that the type--,german-,jew--is to-day familiar to the world4 #b ,as early as #afgj1 in the celebrated ,bates case1 the ,english court held that a teacher could not be dispossessed from his school for teaching without the ,bishop's license1 if he were the nominee of the founder or patron4 ,this led 7p4 #dch7 to a great increase in endowed schools4 #c ,in the ,cox case 7#agjj71 another important legal decision1 the ,english court held that there was not and never had been any ecclesiastical control over any schools other than grammar schools1 and that teachers in elementary schools did not need to have a license from the ,bishop4 ,the year following1 in the case of ,rex v4 ,douse1 the same principle was affirmed in even clearer language4 #d ,it was not until #aggi that an ,act 7#ai ,geo4 ,,iii1 c4 #dd7 granted full freedom to ,dissenters to teach4 ,in #agia a supplemental ,act 7#ca ,geo4 ,,iii1 c4 #cb1 s4 #ac-ad7 granted similar liberty to ,roman ,catholics4 #e ,it was this second ,society that did notable work in the ,anglican ,colonies of ,america1 and particularly in and about ,new ,york ,city 7p4 #cfi74 ,see ,kemp1 ,w4 ,w41 ,support of ,schools in ,colonial ,new ,york by the ,s4,p4,g4 7,new ,york1 #aiac47 #f ,begun1 in #agjd1 in ,london1 these were continued yearly there until #ahgg4 ,they were also preached for more than a century in many other places4 ,to these sermons the children marched in procession1 wearing their uniforms1 and a collection for the support of the schools was taken4 ,of the first of these occasions in ,london1 ,strype2 in his edition of ,stow1 says3 ,it was a wondrous surprising1 as well as a pleasing sight1 that happened ,june the #hth1 #agjd1 when all the boys and girls maintained at these schools1 in their habits1 walked two and two1 with their ,masters and ,mistresses1 some from ,westminster1 and some through ,london2 with many of the ,parish ministers going before them2 and all meeting at ,saint ,andrews'1 ,holburn1 ,church1 where a seasonable sermon was preached444 upon ,genesis xviii1 #ai1 ,i know him that he will command his children1 etc41 the children 7about #bjjj7 being placed in the galleries4 #g ,the religious revival under ,wesley owed1 perhaps1 more than is generally suspected to the ,christian teaching in these new and humble elementary schools4 7,montmorency1 ,j4 ,e4 ,g4 de1 ,the ,progress of ,education in ,england1 p4 #ed47 #h ,he gathered together the children 7#ij at first7 employed in the pin factories of ,gloucester1 and paid four women a shilling each to spend their ,sundays in instructing these poor children in reading and the ,church ,catechism4 #i ,sunday being a day of rest and the mills and factories closed1 the children ran the streets and spent the day in mischief and vice4 ,in the agricultural districts of ,england farmers were forced to take special precautions on ,sundays to protect their places and crops from the depredations of juvenile offenders4 #aj ,in a very special way they met the sentiment of the times4 ,they were cheap--many were conducted by purely voluntary teachers--they did not teach too much1 and they had the further merit of not interfering with the work of the week4 7,birchenough1 ,c41 ,history of ,elementary ,education in ,england and ,wales1 p4 #dj47 #aa ,in a ,manchester ,sunday ,school1 in #ahcd1 there were #bgjj scholars and #abj unsalaried teachers1 all but two or three of whom were former pupils in the ,sunday ,schools1 now teaching others1 free of charge1 in return for the advantages once given them4 #ab ,the amount of instruction rarely1 if ever1 exceeds the first four rules of arithmetic1 with reading and writing4 ,the class of children instructed is presumed to be of the very poorest1 living in the most crowded districts4 ,no doubt a large number come under this designation1 but not a few better-to-do persons are found ready to take advantage for their children of the free instruction thus held out to them1 and even at times almost pressed upon them4 7,bartley1 ,george ,c4 ,t41 ,the ,schools for the ,people1 p4 #che47 #ac ,the ,reverend ,george ,crabbe 7#aged-ahcb74 ,the schools of the ,borough4 #ad ,french ,revolutionary thought represented an attack on over- interference1 vested interests1 superstition1 and tyranny of every form4 ,it showed a marked propensity to ignore history1 and to judge everything by its immediate reasonableness4 ,it pictured a society free from all laws and coercion1 freed from all clerical influence and ruled by benevolence1 a society in which all men had equal rights and were able to attain the fullest self-realization4 ,in its strictly educational aspects1 it demanded the withdrawal of education from the ,church and the setting up of a state system of secular instruction4 7,birchenough1 ,c41 ,history of ,elementary ,education in ,england and ,wales1 p4 #bj47 #ae ,the ideas of ,malthus were especially offensive to his brother clergymen1 and created quite a furor4 ,many regarded him as an insane and unorthodox fanatic4 ,a prevailing idea of the time was that of a beautiful order ,providentially arranged1 and it was the custom to give everything a rose-colored hue4 ,the poor were thought to be contented in their poverty1 and the rich and the aristocratic considered themselves divinely appointed to rule over them4 ,malthus saw the fallacy of such thinking1 and stated matters in the light of biologic and political truths4 #af ,foster1 ,john1 ,an ,essay on the ,evils of ,popular ,ignorance1 p4 #bei4 #ag ,bell1 ,reverend ,dr4 ,andrew1 ,an ,experiment in ,education made at the ,male ,asylum at ,madras1 ,suggesting a ,system by which a ,school or a ,family may teach itself under the ,superintendence of the ,master or ,parent4 ,london1 #agig4 #ah ,lancaster1 ,joseph1 ,improvements in ,education as it ,respects the ,industrial ,classes of the ,community4 ,london1 #ahjc2 ,new ,york1 #ahjg4 #ai ,both ,bell and ,lancaster worked with great energy to organize schools after their respective plans1 and quarreled with equal energy as to who originated the idea4 ,while both probably did1 the idea nevertheless is older than either4 ,in #agij ,chevalier ,paulet organized a monitorial school in ,paris2 while the ,english schoolmaster1 ,john ,brinsley 7#aehg-affe71 in his ,ludus ,literarius1 or the ,grammar ,schooles 7#afab71 laid down the monitorial principle in explicit language4 #bj ,this ,society adopted1 as a fundamental principle1 that the national religion should be made the foundation of national education1 and according to the excellent liturgy and catechism adopted by our ,church for that purpose4 #ba ,when ,lancaster had his famous interview with ,king ,george ,,iii1 that monarch was impressed1 as he naturally might be1 by the statement that one master 'could teach five hundred children at the same time4' ',good1' said the ,king2 ',good1' echoed a number of wealthy subscribers to ,lancaster's projects4 7,binns1 ,h4 ,b41 ,a ,century of ,education1 p4 #bii47 #bb ,in #ahjg ,mr4 ,whitbread1 an ardent supporter of schools1 said1 in an address before the ,house of ,commons3 ,i cannot help noticing that this is a period particularly favorable for the institution of a national system of education1 because within a few years there has been discovered a plan for the instruction of youth which is now brought to a state of great perfection1 happily combining rules by which the object of learning must be infallibly attained with expedition and cheapness1 and holding out the fairest prospect of utility to mankind4 #bc ,when ,lancaster first hired the large hall in ,borough ,road which later became an important training-college1 and opened it as a mutual- instruction school1 he announced3 ,all that will may send their children1 and have them educated freely1 and those who do not wish to have education for nothing1 may pay for it if they please4 #bd ,in #ahbj1 ,brougham1 in introducing his ,bill for the ,better ,education of the ,poor in ,england and ,wales1 gave statistics as to the progress of education at that time in ,england4 ,his estimate as to the numbers being educated were3 #dcj1jjj in endowed and privately managed schools2 #bbj1jjj in monitorial schools2 #ej1jjj being educated at home2 #ajj1jjj educated only in ,sunday ,schools2 #ec1jjj being educated in dame schools4 ,from these figures he argued that one in fifteen of the population of ,england and one in twenty in ,wales were attending some form of school1 but with only one in twenty-four in ,london4 ,the usual period of school attendance for the poorer classes was only one and a half to two years4 #be ,known as the ,health and ,morals of ,apprentices ,act4 ,it limited the working hours of apprentices to twelve2 forbade night work2 required day instruction to be provided in reading1 writing1 and arithmetic2 required church attendance once a month2 and provided for the registration and inspection of factories4 ,the ,act was very laxly enforced1 and its chief value lay in the precedent of state interference which it established4 #bf ,whitbread proposed a national system of rate-aided schools to provide all children in ,england with two years of free schooling1 between the ages of seven and fourteen4 #bg ,see ,j4 ,e4 ,g4 de ,montmorency's ,state ,intervention in ,english ,education1 pp4 #bdh-he1 for ,brougham's address to the ,commons in #ahbj on ,the ,education of the ,poor2 and pp4 #bhe-cbd for his address before the ,house of ,lords in #ahce1 on ,the ,education of the ,people4 ,both addresses contain an abundance of data as to existing conditions and needs4 #bh ,so called because the ,house of ,lords rejected the first two passed by the ,commons1 and finally accepted the third only because the ,king had agreed to create enough new ,lords to pass the bill unless it was enacted by the upper ,house4 #bi ,this was a development of the monitorial system of training1 and was virtually an apprenticeship form of teacher-training4 #cj ,in #ahhe the same liberty was extended to rural laborers4 ,this added two million more voters1 and gave ,england almost full manhood suffrage4 ,finally1 in #aiah1 some five million women were added to the voting classes4 #ca ,nearly two million children had been provided with school accommodations1 three fourths of which had been done by those associated with the ,church of ,england4 ,in doing this the ,church had spent some #f1bgj1jjj on school buildings1 and had raised some #h1ejj1jjj in voluntary subscriptions for maintenance4 ,the ,government had also paid out some #f1ejj1jjj in grants1 since #ahcc4 ,in #ahgj it was estimated that #a1dej1jjj children were on the registers of the state-aided schools1 while #a1ejj1jjj children1 between the ages of six and twelve1 were unprovided for4 #cb ,speech before the ,house of ,commons1 ,july #bc1 #ahgj4 #cc ,the clergy of the ,national ,society exhibited amazing energy and succeeded1 according to their own account1 in doing in twelve months what in the normal course of events would have taken twenty years4 ,by the end of the year they had lodged claims for #bhhe building grants1 out of a total of #ccdb4 ,they also set to work1 without any governmental assistance1 to enlarge their schools and so increased denominational accommodation enormously4 ,the voluntary contributions in aid of this work have been estimated at over #c1jjj1jjj4 ,at the same time the annual subscriptions doubled4444 ,by #ahhf1 over #c1jjj1jjj places had been added1 one-half of which were due to voluntary agencies1 and ,voluntary ,schools were providing rather more than two-thirds of the school places in the country4 ,in #ahig the proportion had fallen to three-fifths4 7,birchenough1 ,c41 ,history of ,elementary ,education1 pp4 #ach1 #adj47 #cd ,these were the seven endowed secondary boarding schools--,winchester 7#achb71 ,eton 7#addj71 ,shrewsbury 7#aeeb71 ,westminster 7#aefj71 ,rugby 7#aefg71 ,harrow 7#aega71 and ,charterhouse 7#afaa7--;and the two endowed day schools1-- ,saint ,paul's 7#aeaj7 and ,merchant ,taylors' 7#aefa74 #ce ,at least one hundred towns1 the ,report showed1 with a population of five thousand or over had no endowed secondary school1 and ,london1 with a population then 7#ahfg7 of over three million1 had but twenty-six schools and less than three thousand pupils enrolled4 ,all the new manufacturing cities were in even worse condition than ,london4 #cf ,the ,university of ,london was originally founded in #ahcf1 and reorganized in #aijj4 #cg ,the scientist ,thomas ,huxley was a ,london ,school ,board member1 and1 speaking as such1 he expressed the views of many when he said3 ,i conceive it to be our duty to make a ladder from the gutter to the university along which any child may climb4 #ch ,royal 7,bryce7 ,commission on ,secondary ,education1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bii4 ,london1 #ahie4 #ci ,known as the ,education ,act1 #aiah 7#h and #i ,geo4 ,v1 ch4 #ci74 ,the ,act has been reprinted in full in the ,biennial ,survey of ,education1 #aiaf-ah1 of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 in the chapter on ,education in ,great ,britain4 ,it also has been reprinted as an appendix to ,moore1 ,e4 ,c41 ,what the ,war teaches about ,education1 ,new ,york1 #aiai4 ,,chapter ,,xxv #a ,the ,constitution1 as ,john ,quincy ,adams expressed it1 was extorted from the grinding necessities of a reluctant people to escape anarchy and the ultimate entire loss1 of independence1 and many had grave doubts as to the permanence of the ,union4 ,it was not until after the close of the ,war of #ahab that belief in the stability of the ,union and in the capacity of the people to govern themselves became the belief of the many rather than the very few1 and plans for education and national development began to obtain a serious hearing4 #b ,after the beginning of the national life a number of ,states founded and endowed a state system of academies4 ,massachusetts1 in #agig1 granted land endowments to approved academies4 ,georgia1 in #aghc1 created a system of county academies for the ,state4 ,new ,york extended state aid to its academies1 in #ahac1 having put them under state inspection as early as #aghg4 ,maryland chartered many academies between #ahja and #ahag1 and authorized many lotteries to provide them with funds1 as did also ,north ,carolina4 ,the ,rhode ,island ,general ,assembly chartered many academies1 and aided them by lotteries4 ,ohio1 ,kentucky1 and ,indiana1 among western ,states1 also provided for county systems of academies4 #c ,the study of ,latin and a little ,greek had constituted the curriculum of the old ,latin grammar school1 and its purpose had been almost exclusively to prepare boys for admission to the colony colleges4 ,in true ,english style1 ,latin was made the language of the classroom1 and even attempted for the playground as well4 ,as a concession1 reading1 writing1 and arithmetic were sometimes taught4 ,the new academies1 while retaining the study of ,latin1 and usually ,greek1 though now taught through the medium of the ,english1 added a number of new studies adapted to the needs of a new society4 ,english grammar was introduced and soon rose to a place of great importance1 as did also oratory and declamation4 ,arithmetic1 algebra1 geometry1 geography1 and astronomy were in time added1 and surveying1 rhetoric 7including some literature71 natural and moral philosophy1 and ,roman antiquities were frequently taught4 ,girls were admitted rather freely to the new academies1 whereas the grammar schools had been exclusively for boys4 ,for better instruction a female department was frequently organized4 #d ,thomas ,jefferson's name appears in the first subscription list as giving #bjj1 and he was elected a member of the first governing board4 ,the chief sources of support of the schools1 which up to #ahdd remained pauper schools1 were subscriptions1 lotteries1 a tax on slaves and dogs1 certain license fees1 and a small appropriation 7#aejj7 each year from the city council4 #e ,this organization opened the first schools in ,philadelphia for children regardless of religious affiliation1 and for thirty-seven years rendered a useful service there4 #f ,all at once1 comparatively1 a new system had been introduced which not only improved but tremendously cheapened education4 ,in #ahbb it cost but #a4bb per pupil per year to give instruction in ,new ,york ,city1 though by #ahdd the per-capita cost1 due largely to the decreasing size of the classes1 had risen to #b4gj1 and by #aheb to #e4hc4 ,in ,philadelphia1 in #ahag1 the expense was #c1 as against #ab in the private and church schools4 ,one finds many notices in the newspapers of the time as to the value and low cost of the new system4 #g ,the cotton-spinning industry illustrates the rapid growth of manufacturing in the ,united ,states4 ,the #ae cotton mills of #ahjg had increased to #hja1 by #ahca2 and to #abdj1 by #ahdj4 ,the ,south owed its prosperity chiefly to cotton-growing and shipping1 and did not develop factories and workshops until a much more recent period4 #h ,among many resolutions adopted by the laboring organizations the following is typical3 ,at a ,general ,meeting of ,mechanics and ,workingmen held in ,new ,york ,city1 in #ahbi1 it was ,resolved1 that next to life and liberty1 we consider education the greatest blessing bestowed upon mankind4 ,resolved1 that the public funds should be appropriated 7to a reasonable extent7 to the purpose of education upon a regular system that shall insure the opportunity to every individual of obtaining a competent education before he shall have arrived at the age of maturity4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi #a ,connecticut and ,new ,york both had set aside lands1 before #ahjj1 to create such a fund1 ,connecticut's fund dating back to #agej4 ,delaware1 in #agif1 devoted the income from marriage and tavern licenses to the same purpose1 but made no use of the fund for twenty years4 ,connecticut1 in #agie1 sold its ,western ,reserve in ,ohio for #a1bjj1jjj1 and added this to its school fund4 ,new ,york1 in #ahje1 similarly added the proceeds of the sale of half a million acres of state lands1 though the fund then formally created accumulated unused until #ahab4 ,tennessee began to build up a permanent state school fund in #ahjf2 ,virginia in #ahaj2 ,south ,carolina in #ahaa2 ,maryland in #ahab2 ,new ,jersey in #ahaf2 ,georgia in #ahag2 ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,kentucky1 and ,louisiana in #ahba2 ,vermont and ,north ,carolina in #ahbe2 ,pennsylvania in #ahca2 and ,massachusetts in #ahcd4 ,these were established as permanent state funds1 the annual income only to be used1 in some way to be determined later1 for the support of some form of schools4 #b ,now for the first time direct taxation for schools was likely to be felt by the taxpayer1 and the fight for and against the imposition of such taxation was on in earnest4 ,the course of the struggle and the results were somewhat different in the different ,states1 but1 in a general way1 the progress of the conflict was somewhat as follows3 #a4 ,permission granted to communities so desiring to organize a school taxing district1 and to tax for school support the property of those consenting and residing therein4 #b4 ,taxation of all property in the taxing district permitted4 #c4 ,state aid to such districts1 at first from the income from permanent endowment funds1 and later from the proceeds of a small state appropriation or a state or county tax4 #d4 ,compulsory local taxation to supplement the state or county grant4 #c ,concerning the system1 ,the ,philadelphia ,society for the ,establishment and ,support of ,charity ,schools1 in an ,address to the ,public1 in #ahah1 said3 ,in the ,united ,states the benevolence of the inhabitants has led to the establishment of ,charity ,schools1 which1 though affording individual advantages1 are not likely to be followed by the political benefits kindly contemplated by their founders4 ,in the country a parent will raise children in ignorance rather than place them in charity schools4 ,it is only in large cities that charity schools succeed to any extent4 ,these dispositions may be improved to the best advantage1 by the ,legislature1 in place of ,charity ,schools1 establishing ,public ,schools for the education of all children1 the offspring of the rich and the poor alike4 #d ,in #ahba the counties of ,dauphin 7,harrisburg71 ,allegheny 7,pittsburg71 ,cumberland 7,carlisle71 and ,lancaster 7,lancaster7 were also exempted from the state pauper-school law1 and allowed to organize schools for the education of the children of their poor4 #e ,some #cb1jjj persons petitioned for a repeal of the law1 #ff of whom signed by making their mark1 and not more than five names in a hundred1 reported a legislative committee which investigated the matter1 were signed in ,english script4 ,it was from among the parochial-school ,germans that the strongest opposition to the law came4 #f ,for ,stevens's speech in defense of the ,law of #ahcd1 see ,report of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 #ahih-ii1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eaf-bd4 #g ,by #ahcf the new free-school law had been accepted by #ge per cent of the districts in the ,state1 by #ahch by #hd per cent1 and by #ahdg by #hh per cent4 #h ,this ,state had enacted an experimental school law1 and made an annual state grant for schools1 from #agie to #ahjj4 ,then1 unable to renact the law1 the system was allowed to lapse and was not restablished until the ,new ,england element gained control1 in #ahab4 #i ,by his vigorous work in behalf of schools the first appointee1 ,gideon ,hawley1 gave such offense to the politicians of the time that he was removed from office1 in #ahba1 and the legislature then abolished the position and designated the ,secretary of ,state to act1 ex officio1 as ,superintendent4 ,this condition continued until #ahed1 when ,new ,york again created the separate office of ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction4 #aj ,when ,connecticut sold its ,western ,reserve1 in #agie1 and added the sum to the ,connecticut school fund1 it was stated to be for the aid of schools and the gospel4 ,in the sales of the first national lands in ,ohio 7#a1ejj1jjj acres to ,the ,ohio ,company1 in #aghg2 and #a1jjj1jjj acres in the ,symmes ,purchase1 near ,cincinnati1 in #aghh71 section #af in each township was reserved and given as an endowment for schools1 and section #bi for the purposes of religion4 #aa ,the ,public ,school ,society continued to receive money grants1 it being regarded as a non-denominational organization1 though chartered to teach the sublime truths of religion and morality contained in the ,holy ,scriptures in its schools4 ,in #ahbh the ,society was even permitted to levy a local tax to supplement its resources1 it being estimated that at that time there were #aj1jjj children in the city with no opportunities for education4 #ab ,the question may be regarded as a settled one in our ,american ,states4 ,our people mean to keep the public-school system united as one state school system1 well realizing that any attempt to divide the schools among the different religious denominations 7the ,world ,almanac for #aiag lists #di different denominations and #aga different sects in the ,united ,states7 could only lead to inefficiency and educational chaos4 #ac ,the movement gained a firm hold everywhere east of the ,missouri ,river1 the ,states incorporating the largest number being ,new ,york with #hhg1 ,pennsylvania with #ebd1 ,massachusetts with #djc1 ,kentucky with #ccj1 ,virginia with #cag1 ,north ,carolina with #bgb1 and ,tennessee with #bfd4 ,some ,states1 as ,kentucky and ,indiana1 provided for a system of county academies1 while many ,states extended to them some form of state aid4 ,in ,new ,york ,state they found a warm advocate in ,governor ,de ,witt ,clinton1 who urged 7#ahbg7 that they be located at the county towns of the ,state to give a practical scientific education suited to the wants of farmers1 merchants1 and mechanics1 and also to train teachers for the schools of the ,state4 #ad ,the new emphasis given to the study of ,english1 mathematics1 and book-science is noticeable4 ,new subjects appeared in proportion as the academies increased in numbers and importance4 ,of #adi new subjects for study appearing in the academies of ,new ,york1 between #aghg and #ahgj1 #bc appeared before #ahbf1 #ajj between #ahbf and #ahdj1 and #bf after #ahdj4 ,between #ahbe and #ahbh one half of the new subjects appeared4 ,this also was the maximum period of development of the academies4 #ae ,the existence of a number of colleges1 basing their entrance requirements on the completion of the classical course of the academy1 and the establishment of a few embryo state universities in the new ,states of the ,west and the ,south1 naturally raised the further question of why there should be a gap in the public-school system4 ,the increase of wealth in the cities tended to increase the number who passed through the elementary course and could profit by more extended education2 the academies had popularized the idea of more advanced education2 while the new manufacturing and commercial activities of the time called for more training than the elementary schools afforded1 and of a different type from that demanded by the small colleges of the time for entrance4 #af ,for an interesting table showing the simple entrance requirements of ,harvard in #afdb1 #agcd1 #ahjc1 #ahbe1 #ahej1 #ahge1 and #ahhe1 see ,report of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 #aijb1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #icj-cc4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii #a ,in ,spain1 for example1 the percentage of illiteracy in #ahfj was #ge4eb2 in #ahgj #gj4ja per cent2 in #ahhg1 #fh4ja per cent2 in #ahij1 #fc4gh per cent2 and in #aiaj1 #ei4ce per cent4 ,the percentage for #aibj will probably not be less than for #aiaj1 due to the closing of many schools for lack of teachers during the ,world ,war4 ,in #aiaf ten provinces had an illiteracy of over #gj per cent1 and but five had less than #dj per cent4 ,in ,madrid and ,barcelona1 cities as large as ,baltimore and ,cleveland1 the illiteracy approaches a third of the population in ,madrid1 and a half in ,barcelona4 #b ,while an exile from the ,argentine1 ,dr4 ,sarmiento was commissioned by ,chili to visit1 study1 and report on the state school systems of the ,united ,states and ,europe4 ,while in the ,united ,states he became intimately acquainted with ,horace ,mann4 ,later he was ,minister from the ,argentine to the ,united ,states1 being recalled1 in #ahfh1 to assume the presidency of the ,republic4 ,he was deeply impressed with the type of educational opportunity provided in the schools of the ,united ,states and1 through an appointed ,minister of ,education1 impressed his ideas on the ,argentine nation4 #c ,in #aiaj only about #c per cent of the total population was in any type of school4 #d ,the ,mikado still retained1 through his ministers1 very large powers1 while the parliament was a consultative assembly rather than a legislative one4 ,the form of government has been much like that of the ,german ,empire before the ,world ,war4 #e ,the ,japanese ,government has so far been a military autocracy1 and the ,japanese have been the ,prussians of the ,orient4 ,the two-class school system has accordingly met the needs of a benevolent autocracy fairly well4 ,with the rise of a liberal party in ,japan1 and the beginning of some democratic life1 we may look for progressive changes in their schools which will tend to produce a more democratic type of educational organization4 #f ,the idea of education for all classes1 the aim of all educators and statesmen of western countries1 scarcely entered the minds of the leaders of ,china under the traditional system of education4 ,with the introduction of the new educational system1 however1 the problem of universal education suddenly came into prominence4 ,indeed1 it is the stated goal of the new educational policy4 7,ping ,wen ,kuo1 ,the ,chinese ,system of ,public ,education1 p4 #adi47 #g ,education in ,china has been common1 for a class1 for over four thousand years4 ,the schools were private1 but a detailed national system of examinations was provided by the ,state1 and all who expected any state preferment were required to pass these state examinations4 ,the system was based on the old ,confucian classics4 ,under it schools existed in all the chief towns1 and the examination system exerted a strong unifying influence on the nation4 ,in #ahdb ,china opened five treaty ports to the ships and commerce of western nations1 and from #ahdb to #aijc a process of gradual transition from the ancient examination system to modern conditions took place4 #h ,a nation that has preserved its identity by peaceful means for three milleniums2 that has made the soil produce subsistence for a multitudinous population during that long period1 while ,western peoples have worn out their soil in less than that many centuries2 that has produced many of the most influential of modern inventions1 such as printing1 gunpowder1 and the compass2 that has developed such mechanical ingenuity and commercial ability as are shown in its everyday life1 undoubtedly possesses the ability to accomplish results by the use of methods worked out by the ,western world4 ,when modern scientific knowledge is added by the ,chinese to the skill which they already have in agriculture1 in commerce1 in industry1 in government1 and in military affairs1 results will be achieved1 on the basis of their physical stamina and moral qualities1 which will remove the ignorance1 the indifference1 and the prejudice of the ,western world regarding things ,chinese4 7,monroe1 ,paul1 ,editorial introduction to ,ping ,wen ,kuo's ,the ,chinese ,system of ,public ,education47 #i ,though appearing small on the map1 ,siam is a nation of six millions of people and an area over three and a half times that of the six ,new ,england ,states4 #aj ,through metaphysics first2 then through alchemy and chemistry1 through physical and astronomical spectroscopy1 lastly through radio- activity1 science has slowly groped its way to the atom4 7,soddy1 ,f41 ,matter and ,energy47 #aa ,adams in ,england1 and ,leverrier in ,france4 ,the planet ,uranus had for long been known to be erratic in its movements1 and ,adams and ,leverrier concluded1 working from ,newton's law for gravitation1 that it must be due to the pull of an unknown planet4 ,both calculated the orbit of this unknown body1 ,adams sending his calculations to the ,royal ,observatory at ,greenwich1 and ,leverrier to the observatory at ,berlin4 ,at both observatories the new planet--later named ,neptune--was picked up by the telescope at the position indicated4 #ab ,this theory of catastrophes held that at a number of successive epochs1 of which the age of ,noah was the latest1 great revolutions or disasters had taken place on the earth's surface1 in which all living things were destroyed4 ,later the world was restocked1 and again destroyed4 ,this explained the successive strata1 and the fossils they contained4 ,for this theory ,lyell substituted a slow and orderly evolution1 covering ages1 and completely upset the ,mosaic chronology4 #ac ,for example3--mineralogy1 petrography1 petrology1 crystallography1 stratigraphy1 and paleontology4 #ad ,darwin's ,origin of ,species had come into the theological world like a plow into an ant-hill4 ,everywhere those thus rudely awakened from their old comfort and repose had swarmed forth angry and confused4 ,reviews1 sermons1 books1 light and heavy1 came flying at the new thinker from all sides4 7,white1 ,a4 ,d41 ,the ,warfare of ,science and ,theology1 vol4 #a1 p4 #gj47 #ae ,natural history as a study goes back to the days of ,aristotle1 in ,greece1 but it had always been a study of fixed forms4 ,darwin destroyed this conception1 and vitalized the new subject of biology4 ,from this botany and zoology have been derived1 and from these again many other new sciences1 such as physiology1 morphology1 bacteriology1 anthropology1 cytology1 entomology1 and all the different agricultural sciences4 #af ,the bacillus of tuberculosis was isolated in #ahhb1 ,asiatic cholera in #ahhc1 lockjaw and diphtheria in #ahhd1 and bubonic plague in #ahid4 #ag ,schools of engineering1 mining1 agriculture1 and applied science are types4 #ah ,the book on ,germany 7,de l',allemagne7 by ,madame de ,stal 7#agff- #ahag71 a brilliant ,french novelist1 was published and immediately confiscated in ,france in #ahaa1 and republished in ,england in #ahac4 ,it is one of the most remarkable books on one country written by a native of another which had appeared up to that time4 ,through reading it many ,english and ,americans discovered a new world4 #ai ,for example1 it has been estimated that one fifteenth of the working population of modern industrial nations devotes itself to transportation2 another one fifteenth to maintaining public services--light1 gas1 telephone1 water1 sewage1 streets1 parks--unknown in earlier times2 and another one fifteenth to the manufacture and distribution and care of automobiles4 ,add still further the numbers employed in connection with theaters1 moving-picture shows1 phonographs1 magazines and the newspapers1 soft-drink places1 millinery and dry goods1 hospitals1 and similar appendages of civilization1 and we get some idea of the increased labor efficiency which the applications of science have brought about4 #bj ,labor unions were legalized in ,england in #ahbe4 ,in the ,united ,states they arose about #ahbe-cj1 and for a time played an important part in securing legislation to better the condition of the workingman and to secure education for his children4 ,in continental ,europe1 the reactionary governments following the downfall of ,napoleon forbade assemblies of workingmen or their organization1 as dangerous to government4 ,in consequence1 labor organizations in ,france were not permitted until #ahdh1 and in ,germany and ,austria not until after the middle of the century4 ,in ,japan1 as late as #aiai1 laborers were denied the right to organize4 #ba ,up to #aghi serfdom was the rule on the continent of ,europe2 by #ahej there was practically no serfdom in central and western ,europe1 and in #ahff serfdom was abolished in ,russia4 ,for the worker and farmer the years between #aghi and #ahdh were years of rapid progress in the evolution from mediaeval to modern conditions of living4 #bb ,under conditions existing up to the close of the eighteenth century1 in part persisting up to the middle of the nineteenth on the continent1 and still found in unprogressive lands1 a close limitation of the rights of labor was maintained4 ,children followed the trade of their fathers1 and the right of an apprentice later to open a shop and better his condition was prohibited until after he had become an accepted master 7p4 #baj7 in his craft4 ,guild members1 too1 were not permitted to branch out into any other line of activity1 or to introduce any new methods of work4 ,all these old limitations the ,industrial ,revolution swept away4 #bc ,women in ,europe have secured the ballot rapidly since the end of the nineteenth century4 ,with manhood suffrage secured1 universal suffrage is the next step4 ,women were given the right to vote and hold office in ,finland in #aijf2 in ,norway in #aijg2 in ,denmark in #aiaf2 in ,england in #aiah2 in ,germany in #aiai2 and in the ,united ,states in #aibj4 #bd ,see an excellent brief article ,on ,german ,education1 by ,e4 ,c4 ,moore1 in ,school and ,society1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #hhf-hi4 #be ,a ,state approximately the size of ,illinois1 and containing a population of about two million people4 ,the great development of this country is in reality a history of the work of ,president ,manuel ,estrada ,cabrera1 who was president from #ahih to #aibj4 ,his ruling interest has been public education1 believing that in universal education rests the future greatness of the ,state4 ,he accordingly labored to establish schools1 and to bring them up to as high a level as possible4 ,the government has spent much in building modern-type schoolhouses and in subsidizing schools1 holding that with the proper training of the younger generation the future position of the nation rests4 ,a sincere admirer of the ,united ,states1 ,american models have been copied4 ,when the ,united ,states entered the ,world ,war1 ,guatemala was the first ,central ,american republic to follow4 ,during the ,war ,president ,cabrera would allow nothing to interfere with the advancement of free and compulsory education in the ,state4 7,see ,domville- ,fife1 ,c4 ,w41 ,guatemala and the ,states of ,central ,america47 #bf ,imagine how the streams of ,celestials circulating between ,hong ,kong and the mainland spread the knowledge of what a civilized government does for the people6 ,at ,shanghai and ,tientsin1 veritable fairylands for the ,chinese1 they cannot but contrast the throngs of rickshas1 dog-carts1 broughams1 and motor cars that pour endlessly through the spotless asphalt streets with the narrow1 crooked1 filthy1 noisome streets of their native city1 to be traversed only on foot or in a sedan chair4 ,even the young mandarin1 buried alive in some dingy walled town of the far interior1 without news1 events1 or society1 recalled with longing the lights1 the gorgeous tea houses1 and the alluring 'sing-song' girls of ,foochow ,road1 and cursed the stupid policy of a government that penalized even enterprising ,chinamen who tried to 'start something' for the benefit of the community4 7,ross1 ,e4 ,a41 ,changing ,america1 p4 #bb47 ,,chapter ,,xxviii #a ,the earliest ,teachers' ,seminaries in ,german lands were3 #agej4 ,alfeld1 in ,hanover4 #agec4 ,wolfenbttel1 in ,brunswick4 #agfd4 ,glatz1 in ,prussia4 #agfe4 ,breslau1 in ,prussia4 #agfh4 ,carlsruhe1 in ,baden4 #agga4 ,vienna1 in ,austria4 #aggg4 ,bamberg1 in ,bavaria4 #aggh4 ,halberstadt1 in ,prussia4 #aggi4 ,coburg1 in ,gotha4 #aghj4 ,segeberg1 in ,holstein4 #aghe4 ,dresden1 in ,saxony4 #agid4 ,weissenfels1 in ,prussia4 #b ,my views of the subject1 said he1 came out of a personal striving after methods1 the execution of which forced me actively and experimentally to seek1 to gain1 and to work out what was not there1 and what ,i yet really knew not4 #c ,see footnote #a1 page #egc1 for places and dates4 #d ,by the ,reverend ,samuel ,r4 ,hall1 who conducted the school as an adjunct to his work as a minister4 ,the school accordingly traveled about1 being held at ,concord1 ,vermont1 from #ahbc to #ahcj2 at ,andover1 ,massachusetts1 from #ahcj to #ahcg2 and at ,plymouth1 ,new ,hampshire1 from #ahcg to #ahdj4 #e ,by ,james ,carter1 at ,lancaster1 ,massachusetts4 #f ,in #ahcf1 ,calvin ,stowe1 a professor in the ,lane ,theological ,seminary at ,cincinnati1 went to ,europe to buy books for the library of the institution1 and the legislature of ,ohio commissioned him to examine and report upon the systems of elementary education found there4 ,the result was his celebrated ,report on ,elementary ,education in ,europe1 made to the legislature in #ahcg4 ,in it chief attention was given to contrasting the schools of ,wrtemberg and ,prussia with those found in ,ohio4 ,the report was ordered printed by the legislature of ,ohio1 and later by the legislatures of ,pennsylvania1 ,massachusetts1 ,michigan1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,virginia1 and did much to awaken ,american interest in advancing common school education4 #g ,these are higher institutions which offer two1 three1 or four years of academic and some professional education1 and may be found in connection with a university2 may be maintained by city or county school authorities2 or may be voluntary institutions4 ,in #aiaj-aa there were eighty-three such institutions in ,england and ,wales4 #h ,in ,china1 for example1 as soon as the new general system of education had been decided upon1 normal schools of three types--higher normal schools1 lower normal schools1 and teacher-training schools--were created1 and missionary teachers1 foreign teachers1 and students returning from abroad were used to staff these new schools4 ,by #aiaj as many as thirty higher normal schools1 two hundred and three lower normal schools1 and a hundred and eighty-two training classes had been established in ,china under government auspices4 7,ping ,wen ,kuo1 ,the ,chinese ,system of ,public ,education1 p4 #aef47 #i ,the beginnings in the ,united ,states date from about #ahij1 and in ,england even later4 ,in ,france1 on the other hand1 the training of teachers for the secondary schools goes back to the days of ,napoleon4 #aj ,a common division was between the teacher who taught reading1 religion1 and spelling1 and the teacher who taught writing and arithmetic 7,r4 #cjg74 ,writing being considered a difficult art1 this was taught by a separate teacher1 who often included the ability to teach arithmetic also among his accomplishments4 #aa ,a good example of this may be found in the monitorial schools4 ,the ,new ,york ,free ,school ,society 7p4 #ffj71 for example1 reported in its ,fourteenth ,annual ,report 7#ahai7 that the children in its schools had pursued studies as follows3 #big children have been taught to form letters in sand4 #fae have been advanced from letters in sand1 to monosyllabic reading on boards4 #fhf from reading on boards1 to ,murray's ,first ,book4 #cce from ,murray's ,first ,book1 to writing on slates4 #bah from writing on slates1 to writing on paper4 #cda to reading in the ,bible4 #bgg to addition and subtraction4 #aec to multiplication and division44 #fj to the compound of the four first rules4 #bj to reduction4 #bd to the rule of three4 #ab ,herbart had visited ,pestalozzi at ,burgdorf1 in #agii1 just after graduating from ,jena and while acting as a tutor for three ,swiss boys1 and had written a very sympathetic description of his school and his theory of instruction4 ,herbart was one of the first of the ,germans to understand and appreciate the genial and noble ,pestalozzi4 #ac ,the son of a well-educated public official1 ,herbart was himself educated at the ,gymnasium of ,oldenburg and the ,university of ,jena4 ,after spending three years as a tutor1 he became1 at the age of twenty-six1 an under teacher at the ,university of ,gttingen4 ,at the age of thirty-three he was called to succeed ,kant as professor of philosophy at ,knigsberg1 and from the age of fifty-seven to his death at sixty-five he was again a professor at ,gttingen4 #ad ,charles ,de ,garmo's ,essentials of ,method1 published in #ahhi1 marked the beginning of the introduction of these ideas into this country4 ,in #ahib ,charles ,a4 ,mc,murry published his ,general ,method1 and in #ahig1 with his brother1 ,frank1 published the ,method in the ,recitation4 ,these three books probably have done more to popularize ,herbartian ideas and introduce them into the normal schools and colleges of the ,united ,states than all other influences combined4 ,another important influence was the ,national ,herbart ,society1 founded in #ahib by students returning from ,jena1 in imitation of the similar ,german society4 #ae ,the studies which have come to characterize the modern elementary school may now be classified under the following headings3 ,drill subjects ,content subjects ,expression subjects ,reading ,literature ,kindergarten ,work ,writing ,geography ,music ,spelling ,history ,manual ,arts ,language ,civic ,studies ,domestic ,arts ,arithmetic ,manners and ,conduct ,plays and ,games ,nature ,study ,school ,gardening ,agriculture ,vocational ,subjects #af ,next1 perhaps1 would come ,italy1 which is strongly democratic in spirit4 ,in the cities of ,holland one finds many privately supported kindergartens1 but the ,state has not made them a part of the school system4 ,in ,norway and ,sweden the kindergarten practically does not exist4 ,the kindergarten will always do best among self-governing peoples1 and seldom meets with favor from autocratic power4 #ag ,in the best ,english ,infant ,schools a profound revolution has taken place in recent years4 ,formal lessons in the #c ,rs have disappeared1 and the whole of the training of the little ones has been based on the principles of the kindergarten as enunciated by ,froebel4 ,much of the old routine still remains2 nevertheless there is no part of the ,english educational system so brimful of real promise as the work that is now being done in the best ,infant ,schools4 7,hughes1 ,r4 ,e41 ,the ,making of ,citizens 7#aijb71 p4 #dj47 #ah ,in ,france1 the ,infant ,school or kindergarten is known as the ,maternal ,school4 ,pupils are received at two years of age1 and carried along until six4 ,in the lower division the school is largely in the nature of a day nursery1 but in the upper division many of the features of the kindergarten are found4 #ai ,since ,froebel's day we have learned much about children that was then unknown1 especially as to the muscular and nervous organization and development of children1 and with this new knowledge the tendency has been to enlarge the gifts and change their nature1 to introduce new occupations1 elaborate the kindergarten program of daily exercises1 and to give the kindergarten more of an out-of-door character4 ,especially has the work of ,dewey 7p4 #ghj7 and the child-study specialists been important in modifying kindergarten procedure4 #bj ,by #ahhj some #cjj kindergartens and #aj kindergarten training-schools1 mostly private undertakings1 had been opened in the cities of thirty of the ,states of the ,union4 ,by #ahij philanthropic kindergarten associations to provide and support kindergartens had been organized in most of the larger cities1 and after that date cities rapidly began to adopt the kindergarten as a part of the public-school system1 and thus add1 at the bottom1 one more rung to the ,american educational ladder4 ,to-day there are approximately #ijjj public and #aejj private kindergartens in the cities of the ,united ,states1 and training in kindergarten principles and practices is now given by many of the state normal schools4 #ba ,in #aiah1 for example1 according to a recent ,report to the ,zionist ,board of ,education in the ,united ,states1 there were over #ecjj children in kindergartens in ,palestine1 #abe kindergarten teachers there1 and a ,college for ,kindergarten ,teachers had been organized in the ,holy ,land to train additional teachers4 #bb ,the ,saint ,louis ,manual ,training ,high ,school1 founded in #ahhj in connection with ,washington ,university1 first gave expression to this new form of education1 and formed a type for the organization of such schools elsewhere4 ,privately supported schools of this type were organized in ,chicago1 ,toledo1 ,cincinnati1 and ,cleveland before #ahhf1 and the first public manual-training high schools were established in ,baltimore in #ahhd1 ,philadelphia in #ahhe1 and ,omaha in #ahhf4 ,the shop-work1 based for long on the ,russian system1 included wood-turning1 joinery1 pattern-making1 forging1 foundry and machine work4 ,the first high school to provide sewing1 cooking1 dressmaking1 and millinery for girls was the one at ,toledo1 established in #ahhf1 though private classes had been organized earlier in a number of cities4 #bc ,a few of the earlier adaptations of the idea may be given4 ,in #ahhb ,montclair1 ,new ,jersey1 introduced manual training into its elementary schools1 and in #ahhe the ,state of ,new ,jersey first offered state aid to induce the extension of the idea4 ,in #ahhe ,philadelphia added cooking and sewing to its elementary schools1 having done so in the girls' high school five years earlier4 ,in #ahhh the ,city of ,new ,york added drawing1 sewing1 cooking1 and woodworking to its elementary-school course of study4 #bd ,in #ahjb ,napoleon provided for instruction in natural history1 astronomy1 chemistry1 physics1 and mineralogy in the scientific course of the lyces1 and in #ahad enlarged this instruction4 ,he also established numerous technical and military schools1 with instruction based on mathematics and science4 #be ,the ,royal ,commissioners which reported on the condition of the ,university of ,oxford1 in #ahej1 said3 ,it is generally acknowledged that both ,oxford and the country at large suffer greatly from the absence of a body of learned men devoting their lives to the cultivation of science1 and to the direction of academical education4 ,the fact that so few books of profound research emanate from the ,university of ,oxford materially impairs its character as a seat of learning1 and consequently its hold on the respect of the nation4 #bf ,book instruction in the new sciences goes back1 in the universities of most lands1 to the late eighteenth century1 but laboratory instruction is a much more recent development4 ,chemistry was the first science to develop1 being the mother of science instruction1 and probably the first chemical laboratory in the world to be opened to students was that of ,liebig at ,giessen1 in #ahbf4 ,the first ,american university to provide laboratory instruction in chemistry was ,harvard1 in #ahdf4 ,the instruction in science in most of the universities1 up to at least #ahej1 was book instruction4 7,see schedule of studies for ,university of ,michigan1 ,r4 #cca47 ,the first ,american university to be founded on the ,german model was ,johns ,hopkins1 in #ahgf4 #bg ,by ,charles ,mayo and his sister1 who opened a private ,pestalozzian school1 about #ahbe4 ,miss ,mayo published her ,lessons on ,objects1 explaining the method1 and this became very popular in ,england after about #ahcj4 ,both the ,mayos were prominent in the ,infant-,school movement1 which adopted a formalized type of ,pestalozzian procedure4 #bh ,in #ahga ,dr4 ,william ,t4 ,harris1 then ,superintendent of ,city ,schools in ,saint ,louis1 published a well-organized course for the orderly study of the different sciences4 ,this attracted wide attention1 and was in time substituted for the scattered lessons on objects which had preceded it4 ,this in turn has largely given way1 in the lower grades1 to nature study4 #bi ,at the time of ,professor ,bache's visit1 in #ahch1 the instruction included ,latin1 ,french1 ,english1 ,german1 history1 religion1 music1 drawing1 mathematics1 natural history1 physics1 chemistry1 and geography4 #cj ,scientific instruction in the ,lyces was not in favor in ,france after #ahae1 and in #ahdj it was materially reduced1 on the ground that it was injuring classical studies4 #ca ,astronomy1 botany1 chemistry1 and natural philosophy had been prominent studies in the ,american academies4 ,between about #ahbe and #ahdj was the great period of their introduction4 ,the first ,american high school 7,boston1 #ahba7 provided for instruction in geography1 navigation and surveying1 astronomy1 and natural philosophy4 ,by #ahej the rising high schools were incorporating scientific studies quite generally4 ,the instruction was still textbook instruction1 but some lecture-table demonstrations had begun to be common4 #cb ,the ,oneida ,school of ,science and ,industry1 the ,genesee ,manual-,labor ,school1 the ,aurora ,manual-,labor ,seminary1 and the ,rensselaer ,school1 all founded in the ,state of ,new ,york1 between #ahbe and #ahcj1 were among the most important of these early institutions4 #cc ,spencer's classification of life activities and needs1 in the order of their importance1 was 7,r4 #cfb73 #a ,those ministering directly to self-preservation4 #b4 ,those which secure for one the necessities of life1 and hence minister indirectly to self-preservation4 #c4 ,those which have for their end the rearing and discipline of offspring4 #d4 ,those involved in the maintenance of proper social and political relations4 #e4 ,those which fill up the leisure part of life1 and are devoted to the gratification of tastes and feelings4 #cd ,all were republished in book form1 in #ahfa1 under the title of ,education2 ,intellectual1 ,moral1 and ,physical4 ,the volume contains four essays3 ,what ,knowledge is of ,most ,worth82 ,intellectual ,education2 ,moral ,education2 and ,physical ,education4 ,the first essay served as an introduction to the other three4 #ce ,a ,liberal ,education1 in his ,science and ,education4 p4 #hf4 #cf ,for many years head of the ,school of ,education at the ,university of ,chicago1 but more recently ,professor of ,philosophy at ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york ,city4 #cg ,dewey1 ,john1 in ,elementary ,school ,record1 p4 #adb4 #ch ,described in ,the ,elementary ,school ,record1 a series of nine monographs1 making a volume of #bda pages4 ,university of ,chicago ,press1 #aijj4 #ci ,a very good example of this is to be found in the work of ,colonel ,francis ,w4 ,parker 7#ahcg-aijb7 in the ,united ,states4 ,it was he who introduced ,germanized ,pestalozzian-,ritter methods of teaching geography2 he who strongly advocated the ,herbartian plan for concentration of instruction about a central core1 which he worked out for geography2 he who insisted so strongly on the ,froebelian principle of self-expression as the best way to develop the thinking process2 he who advocated science instruction in the schools2 and he who saw educational problems so clearly from the standpoint of the child that he1 and the pupils he trained1 did much to bring about the reorganization in elementary education which was worked out in the ,united ,states between about #ahge and #aijj4 ,,chapter ,,xxix #a ,for long the knowledge-conception dominated instruction1 it being firmly believed by the advocates of schools that knowledge and virtue were somewhat synonymous terms4 #b ,it is to democratic ,england and the ,united ,states1 and to the ,english self-governing dominions1 that the greatest flood of emigrants from less advanced civilizations have gone4 ,south ,america has also experienced a large recent immigration1 but this has been mainly of peoples from the ,latin races1 and hence easier of assimilation4 #c ,see a good article on this development by ,i4 ,l4 ,kandel1 in the ,educational ,review for ,november1 #aiai1 entitled ,the ,junior ,high ,school in ,european ,systems4 #d ,paris1 for example1 has become the greatest university in ,europe1 exceeding ,berlin 7#aiad7 in students by approximately #be per cent and in expenditures #dj per cent4 #e ,the rise of these great universities is the most epoch-making feature of our ,american civilization1 and they are to become more and more the leaders and the makers of our civilization4 ,they are of the people4 ,when a state university has gained solid ground1 it means that the people of a whole state have turned their faces toward the light2 it means that the whole system of state schools has been welded into an effective agent for civilization4 ,those who direct the purposes of these great enterprises of democracy cannot be too often reminded that the highest function of a university is to furnish standards for a democracy4 7,pritchett1 ,henry ,s41 in ,atlantic ,monthly47 #f ,the gifts and bequests for colleges and universities in the ,united ,states1 from #ahga to #aiaf1 totaled #fdg1ecf1fjh1 and by #aibj probably have reached #gej1jjj1jjj4 #g ,the oldest was ,charlottenburg 7#agii71 ,darmstadt 7#ahbb71 ,carlsruhe 7#ahbe71 ,munich 7#ahbg71 ,dresden 7#ahbh71 ,nuremberg 7#ahbi71 ,stuttgart 7#ahbi71 ,cassel 7#ahcj71 ,hanover 7#ahca71 ,augsburg 7#ahcc71 and ,brunswick 7#ahce74 ,a similar school1 which later developed into a technical university1 was founded at ,prague1 in ,bohemia1 in #ahjf4 #h ,the ,german technical training produces an engineer who is not only older in years1 but also more mature in experience and in judgment than the average graduate of an engineering college in ,america4 ,whether or not it would be wise to adopt--so far as that would be possible--,german methods in the schools and colleges of the ,united ,states1 it must nevertheless be recognized that those methods have given ,germany a leadership in applied science and in industry which she will keep unless the educational authorities of other nations find some way of producing men of like calibre4 7,munroe1 ,james ,p41 ,technical ,education2 in ,monroe's ,cyclopedia of ,education47 #i ,report of ,commission on ,national ,aid to ,vocational ,education1 ,washington1 #aiad1 p4 #ij4 #aj ,the first veterinary school in the world was established at ,lyons1 ,france1 in #agfb2 the second at ,alfort1 a suburb of ,paris1 in #agff2 the third at ,berlin1 in #agib2 and the fourth at ,london1 in #agic4 #aa ,the development of scientific training for nursing1 begun by the ,germans near the end of their wars with ,napoleon1 is another example of the creation of a new profession through the application of science4 ,this was carried to new levels by ,miss ,florence ,nightingale1 who began work in ,london1 in #ahfj1 after her experiences in the ,crimean ,war of #ahed-ef1 and has been greatly improved since #ahgj as a result of the new medical knowledge and methods which have come in since that time4 ,the provision of training for nurses1 and the certification of doctors and nurses for practice1 are other new developments in the field of state education4 ,similarly is the training and certification of dentists1 veterinarians1 and pharmacists1 all of which are nineteenth-century additions4 #ab ,the work of the ,rockefeller ,foundation1 an ,american ,foundation organized to promote the well-being of mankind throughout the world1 in spending millions to provide ,china with a modern system of western medical education and hospital service1 is perhaps the greatest example of a scientifically organized service ever tendered by the people of one nation to those of another4 #ac ,large-scale production1 extreme division of labor1 and the all- conquering march of the machine1 have practically driven out the apprenticeship system through which1 in a simpler age1 young helpers were taught1 not simply the technique of some single process1 but the 'arts and mysteries of a craft' as well4 ,the journeyman and the artisan have given way to an army of machine workers1 performing over and over one small process at one machine1 turning out one small part of the finished article1 and knowing nothing about the business beyond their narrow and limited task4 7,report of the ,commission on ,national ,aid to ,vocational ,education1 vol4 i1 pp4 #ai-bj47 #ad ,in no country will you find the problem taken up in so thorough a manner2 in no country will you find an attempt made to cover1 by means of industrial schools1 the occupations of everyone1 from the lowly laborer to the director of the great manufacturing establishment4 ,the ,state provided industrial training for every person who will be better off with it than without it4 ,no occupation is too humble to receive the attention of the ,german authorities2 and the opinion prevails there that science and art have a place in every occupation known to man4 7,cooley1 ,e4 ,g41 in ,report to the ,commercial ,club of ,chicago1 #aiab47 #ae ,for example1 the foreign trade of ,germany1 in #ahhj1 was #ca per capita of the total population1 and that of the ,united ,states was #cb4 ,thirty years later1 in #aiaj1 ,germany's foreign trade had increased to #fb per capita1 and that of the ,united ,states to only #cg4 #af ,chiefly raw products--a prodigal waste of natural resources4 ,what every nation should do is to work up its raw products at home1 and sell finished goods rather than raw products--sell brains1 rather than materials4 7,r4 #cgj47 #ag ,the first trade school in the ,united ,states was established privately1 in ,new ,york ,city1 in #ahha4 ,by #aijj some half-dozen had been similarly established in different parts of the country4 ,in #aijb a trade school for girls was founded in ,new ,york ,city1 which did pioneer work4 ,in #aijf ,massachusetts created a ,state commission on ,industrial ,education1 and later provided for the creation of industrial schools4 ,in #aijg ,wisconsin enacted the first trade-school law1 and ,new ,york ,state followed in #aiji4 #ah ,germany before #aiad formed an interesting contrast to such conditions4 ,there few untrained youths were to be found1 and the nation1 before #aiad1 was rapidly moving toward universal vocational education4 #ai ,as illustrative of the general character of the vocations to be trained for1 a few of the more common ones may be mentioned3 ,in agriculture3 ,the work of general farming1 orcharding1 dairying1 poultry-raising1 truck gardening1 horticulture1 bee culture1 and stock-raising4 ,in the trades and industries3 ,the work of the carpenter1 mason1 baker1 stonecutter1 electrician1 plumber1 machinist1 toolmaker1 engineer1 miner1 painter1 typesetter1 linotype operator1 shoecutter and laster1 tailor1 garment maker1 straw-hat maker1 weaver1 and glove maker4 ,in commerce and commercial pursuits3 ,the work of the bookkeeper1 clerk1 stenographer1 typist1 auditor1 and accountant4 ,in home economics3 ,the work of the dietitian1 cook and housemaid1 institution manager1 and household decorator4 #aj ,the snail's pace at which the race has moved toward humanitarianism is indicated by ,payne's estimate 7p4 #f7 that the race is perhaps two hundred and forty thousand years old1 civilized man a few hundred years old1 and a humanitarianism large enough to have any real concern in any organized fashion for the protection of children scarcely fifty years old4 ,the fact that organizations in great number1 laws1 penalties1 and constant vigilance are still everywhere needed to secure for children their inherent rights is evidence enough that we have still a long way to go before we reach the golden age4 7,waddel1 ,c4 ,w41 ,an ,introduction to ,child ,psychology1 p4 #e47 #ba ,as late as #ahdj children of ten to fifteen years of age and younger were driven by merciless overseers for ten1 twelve1 sixteen1 even twenty hours a day in the lace mills4 ,fed the coarsest food1 in ways more disgusting than those of the boarding schools described by ,dickens1 they slept1 when they had opportunity1 often in relays1 in beds that were constantly occupied4 ,they lived and toiled1 day and night1 in the din and noise1 filth and stench1 of the factory that coined their life's blood into gold for their exploiters4 ,sometimes with chains about their ankles1 to prevent their attempts to escape1 they labored until epidemics1 disease1 or premature death brought welcome relief from a slavery that was forbidden by law for negro slaves in the colonies4 7,payne1 ,g4 ,h41 ,the ,child in ,human ,progress47 #bb ,an exception to this statement is to be found in the work of the ,pedagogical ,seminars1 organized in the ,german universities in the second decade of the nineteenth century1 which were intended for the professional training of ,german university students for teaching in the ,german secondary schools4 7,see footnote #a1 page #egc47 #bc ,when the first teachers' training-school in ,america was opened at ,concord1 ,vermont1 by the ,reverend ,samuel ,r4 ,hall1 in #ahbc1 it included1 besides a three-year academy-type academic course1 practice teaching in a rural school in winter1 and some lectures on the ,art of ,teaching4 ,without a professional book to guide him1 and relying only upon his experience as a teacher1 ,hall tried to tell his pupils how to organize and manage a school4 ,to make clear his ideas he wrote out a series of ,lectures on ,school-keeping1 which some friends induced him to publish4 ,this1 the first professional book in ,english issued in ,america for teachers1 appeared in #ahbi4 #bd ,geschichte der ,padagogik vom ,wiederaufblhen klassicher ,studien bis auf unsere ,zeit4 ,vols4 ,i and ,,ii1 #ahdc2 vol4 ,,iii1 #ahdg2 vol4 ,,iv1 #ahee4 ,much of this was translated into other languages4 ,barnard's ,american ,journal of ,education1 begun in #ahee1 published a translation of much of von ,raumer's work for ,american readers4 #be ,in #ahgf ,s4 ,s4 ,laurie 7#ahbi-aiji7 was elected to one of the first chairs in education in ,great ,britain1 that of ,professor of the ,theory1 ,history1 and ,practice of ,education in the ,university of ,edinburgh4 #bf ,probably the first lectures on ,pedagogy given in any ,american college were given in #ahcb1 in what is now ,new ,york ,university4 ,from #ahej to #ahee the city superintendent of schools of ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 was ,professor of ,didactics1 in ,brown ,university4 ,in #ahfj a course of lectures on the ,philosophy of ,education1 ,school ,economy1 and the ,teaching ,art was given to the seniors of the ,university of ,michigan4 ,in #ahgc a ,professorship of ,philosophy and ,education was established in the ,university of ,iowa4 ,this was the first permanent chair created in ,america4 ,in #ahgi a ,department of the ,science and ,art of ,teaching was created at the ,university of ,michigan4 ,in #ahha a ,department of ,pedagogy was created at the ,university of ,wisconsin1 and in #ahhd similar departments at the ,university of ,north ,carolina and at ,johns ,hopkins ,university4 #bg ,in education1 as in other lines of work1 the statement of ,richard ,h4 ,quick that the distinctive function of a university is not action1 but thought1 has been exemplified4