,,little ,,blue ,,book ,,no4 #fgi       
,edited by ,e4 ,haldeman-,julius        
,chemistry                              
,for ,beginners                         
,hereward ,carrington1 ,ph4,d4          
,author of the following ,little ,blue  
,books3 ,no4 #dia1                      
8,psychology for ,beginners20 ,no4 #dai1
 8,life3 ,its                ,origin and
 ,nature20 ,no4 #ebd1 8,death and ,its  
,problems20 ,no4 #dic1 8,new            
,discoveries in                         
,science20 ,nos4 #dde-ddf1 8,psychical  
,research0 7#b vols471 etc41 etc4       
,,haldeman-,,julius ,,company           
,,girard1 ,,kansas                      
,copyright1 #aibd                       
,haldeman-,julius ,company              
,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states  
,,of ,,america          ,,chemistry     
,,for ,,beginners          ,,contents   
,,part ,i                               
,page    ,introductory                  
#f      ,alchemy                        
#g      ,modern ,chemistry              

#h      ,medival ,chemistry             
#aj      ,john ,dalton                  
#ac      ,the ,atomic ,theory           
#ad      ,the ,elements                 
#ae      ,atomic ,weights               
#af      ,valency                       
#ag      ,the ,periodic ,law            
#ah      ,earlier ,discoveries          
#bj      ,analysis and ,synthesis       
#ba      ,formul and ,equations         
#bb      ,organic vs4 ,inorganic        
,chemistry         #bc      ,organic    
,compounds                         #be  
,catalysis                              
#bf      ,enzymes                       
#bg      ,hormones                      
#bg      ,chemistry of the ,earth       
#bh      ,the ,spectroscope             
#bi      ,astro-,physics and ,chemistry 
#ca      ,spectrum ,analysis            
#ca      ,industrial ,chemistry         
#cc      ,instruments of ,research      
#cf      ,salinity of the ,oceans       
#cg      ,the ,newer ,chemistry         
#ch      ,radio-,activity               

#ci      ,intra-,atomic ,energy         
#ci      ,the ,electrical ,theory of    
,matter           #dj      ,within the  
,atom                           #db     
,electrons                              
#dc      ,the ,nature of ,matter        
#dd                           ,,part    
,,ii      ,the ,elements                
#df      ,radio-,activity               
#di      ,the ,origin of ,life          
#ea      ,creation of ,life             
#eb      ,the ,ether                    
#ec      ,chemistry and ,metaphysics    
#ee          ,,chemistry ,,for          
,,beginners          ,,part ,i      ,the
 ancient ,greeks1 when they looked about
 them on the world in which  they lived1
 came to the definite conclusion that   
everything is in  a constant state of   
flux1 or change4 ,things animate and    
inanimate  gradually disintegrated and  
tended either to disappear 7apparently7 
or  to change into other forms of       
matter4 ,with their true sthetic sense1 
they felt it necessary that there should

 be some one permanent thing  in the    
world1 underlying all the changes which 
they saw going on about  them1 and many 
of their early speculations were devoted
 to the nature  and constitution of this
 one 8permanent thing40 ,thales1 of     
,myletus1  who flourished about #ehe ,b4
 ,c41 and who was1 perhaps1 the first   
great  philosopher and physicist1       
contended that the essential principle  
of  things1--the substance1 or stuff1 of
 all things1--must be water4 ,he  held  
the view that1 by condensation and      
rarefaction of water all things  rise1  
and he actually attempted an            
evolutionary account of the ,genesis  of
 ,man1 ,plants and ,animals1 with this  
idea as a basis for his thought4        
,anaximenes said that air1 or ether1    
must be the substance of  things4       
,heraclitus regarded fire as the most   
primary element in  the universe1--from 
which all else arises4 ,anaximander said
 that the  8unlimited0--a sort of       
boundless1 animated mass--is the        

ultimate  substance4 ,plato1 as we know1
 contended that the permanent reality of
  things was not anything material at   
all1 but was mind1 or spirit4           
,empedocles1 7#die-dce ,b4 ,c47 advanced
 the theory that there are four         
elements--,earth1 ,air1 ,fire and       
,water4 ,anaxagoras contended that      
nothing  changed of itself1 but that it 
is caused or made to change1 and that   
that which produces these changes is the
 permanent reality4 ,this he  believed  
to be a sort of mind or universal       
intelligence 7,nous71 but  he regarded  
this mind as strictly impersonal1 as    
well as immaterial1  and did not attempt
 to answer the difficulty as to how mind
 can affect  matter in any detailed     
manner4    ,it was only natural that1   
prior to the discovery of the laws of   
the  indestructibility of matter and    
energy1 that this sense of 8change0     
should have struck these early thinkers 
very forcibly1 since they had  no means 
of ascertaining that1 when matter       

disappears from our sight1  it is not   
actually destroyed4 ,we now know that1  
when we burn a candle1  the candle      
disappears1 but that the elements       
composing the candle are  merely changed
 into invisible gaseous compounds1 which
 are no longer  visible to the human    
eye4 ,lacking delicate instruments of   
precision1  the ancients could not know 
this2 to them1 the matter of the candle 
would have disappeared4 ,hence1 it was  
only natural that they should  seek the 
ultimate reality behind these changes1  
and speculate as to its  origin and     
nature4          ,,alchemy      ,the    
modern science of chemistry is          
relatively new4 ,it gradually  emerged  
from alchemy1 which practically         
constituted the chemistry  of the middle
 ages4 ,the objects of alchemy were     
various3 7#a7 the  transmutation of the 
base metals into gold1 by means of the  
so-called  8,philosopher's ,stone02 7#b7
 ,the fixation of ,mercury2 7#c7 ,the   
discovery  of the elixir of ,life1 etc4 

,these were the purely chemical aspects 
of  alchemy1 but we now know that the   
alchemists had much more than this  in  
mind1 in their experimental work1 and   
that they hinted at their  true meaning 
in many of their veiled writings4 ,many 
of the higher  types of alchemists were 
also mystics1 and when they wrote in    
chemical  symbols1 they really concealed
 their inner meaning2 they referred1    
very largely1 to the inner spirit of    
man1 and the methods by which  this     
could be changed or transformed into    
some higher spiritual being4  7,see     
8,alchemy ,ancient and ,modern10 by ,h4 
,stanley ,redgrove2 8,alchemy1  ,its    
,scope and ,romance10 by the ,rev4 ,j4  
,e4 ,mercer1 etc47 ,mr4 ,foster  ,damon 
has lately published a series of        
articles in which he has brought        
forward a mass of evidence tending to   
prove that the alchemists were  also    
deep students of psychic phenomena1 and 
that their experiments  relative to the 
8,first ,matter0 were really experiments

 in so-called  8,materialization60 ,he  
has published his findings in a series  
of  articles in the 8,occult ,review40  
,,modern ,,chemistry      ,modern       
chemistry may be said to begin with     
,robert ,boyle 7#afbf-afia74  ,he       
defined an element as a substance which 
could not be decomposed1  but which     
could enter into combination with other 
elements1 giving  compounds capable of  
decomposition into these original       
elements4 ,the  number of elements which
 were thought to exist varied           
greatly1--some  contending that they    
were but few in number1 others that they
 were  numerous4 ,it must be remembered 
that all this was before the time  of   
,dalton1 and that the atomic theory had 
not yet been advanced as  a scientific  
hypothesis1 since the days of the       
ancient ,greeks1 when  ,democritus and  
,epicurus had defended this view4 ,the  
swing of science1  at that time was1    
therefore1 toward the materialism of    
those older  writers1 and the atomic    

theories which they had then proposed4  
,chemistry is that branch of science    
which investigates the nature  and      
properties of matter in all its forms4  
,it is1 perhaps1 the most  materialistic
 of all the sciences1 since it deals    
essentially with  matter4 ,physics deals
 with forces or energies1 or the        
energies  manifested by and through     
matter1 but the two are more or less    
inter-related--especially of late years1
 as we shall see4 ,chemistry is         
essentially an experimental science1 and
 practically everything which  has been 
learned about it has been acquired by   
means of laboratory  experimentation4   
,but here as elsewhere theories have    
woven together the  mass of separate    
facts1 and of them made a consistent and
 philosophical  science4    ,there are  
two main divisions of                   
chemistry--inorganic and organic2  that 
is to say1 the chemistry of 8dead0      
matter1 and the chemistry  of 8living0  
or organic substances4 ,chemical        

experiments may be for  the purpose of  
analysis--discovering the constituents  
of a given  substance2 synthesis1 in    
which a compound substance is 8created0 
from  several simpler ones2 or purely   
experimental1 in which certain tests    
are made1 and the results or rections   
noted4          ,,mediaeval ,,chemistry 
,as before stated1 ,chemistry is more or
 less the direct child of  ,alchemy2 but
 before the modern1 scientific period of
 chemical research  had been reached1   
two transitional stages were first of   
all passed  through4 ,these were 7#a7   
,the so-called 8,iatro-,chemical0       
period--the  period of medical          
mysticism2 and 7#b7 the 8phlogistic0    
period4 ,a few  words will be necessary 
to explain each of these terms1 and the 
period  of chemical development which   
they covered4    ,as may be inferred    
from the name1 the iatro-chemical period
 was one  in which attempts were made to
 combine chemistry and medicine1 and    
make the former serve the latter4 ,all  

kinds of weird concoctions were  tried1 
and attempts were made to explain1 on   
chemical principles1 all  the changes   
and reactions occurring in the body--an 
attempt which  was necessarily futile   
for the chemistry of that day4 ,however1
 many  important results were achieved1 
as the consequence of experimentation1  
and chemical science was on the whole   
enriched1 even though the  workers of   
that day were inspired by totally       
erroneous views4    ,the ,phlogistic    
,period takes its name from a           
hypothetical substance  denominated     
8phlogiston40 ,this was supposed to be  
an invisible  principle or entity1      
constituting the basis of ,fire1 and    
corresponds to  the 8pure fire0 of      
,zoroaster4 ,the ,phlogiston theory was 
propounded and  championed by ,stahl1   
and it was defined by him as follows3   
8,phlogiston is 444 a very subtle       
matter1 capable of penetrating the  most
 dense substances2 it neither burns1 nor
 glows1 nor is visible2 it  is agitated 

by an igneous motion1 and it is capable 
of communicating  its motion to material
 particles apt to receive it4 ,the      
particles when  indued with this rapid  
motion constitute visible fire44440     
,this conception dominated the whole    
scientific world for many  years4 ,the  
experimental work undertaken by ,scheele
 and ,priestly1  however1 finally       
enabled ,lavoisier to discover the true 
nature  of 8fire0--combustion4 ,in a    
famous 8,memoir10 published in #aghc1   
entitled 8,reflections ,concerning      
,phlogiston10 he showed that all the    
observed phenomena could be accounted   
for without the presence of any         
hypothetical phlogiston2 in fact1 as he 
himself says1 they 8can be  better      
explained without phlogiston than by    
means of it40 ,his discovery  of oxygen1
 in the atmosphere1 was a fundamentally 
important step in  modern chemical      
science4 ,hitherto1 the air was thought 
to be a single  gas1 or a mixture of    
various gases2 but oxygen was unknown as

 its most  important constituent4       
,lavoisier's discovery finally disposed 
of the  phlogiston idea1 and ushered in 
the new era of scientific chemistry4    
,it may be thought that undue space has 
been devoted to this theory of          
,phlogiston2 but anyone reading the     
history of ,chemistry will realize  the 
extent to which this idea completely    
dominated the minds of men at  that     
time1 and how all chemical researches   
were perverted by it4 ,the  discovery of
 the true nature of combustion was one  
of the fundamental  turning-points in   
the history of scientific thought4      
,the material world in which we live is 
very evidently composed of a  variety of
 substances4 ,at least some of these    
were soon seen to exist  in at least    
three different states--solid1 liquid   
and gaseous4 ,these  seemed to differ   
radically from one another2 ice1 water  
and steam are  as different as one can  
imagine2 and yet1 somehow1 they were the
 same  thing after all2 for ice melts   

and becomes water1 and water1 when      
heated1 becomes steam4 ,on the contrary1
 steam cools and becomes water  again1  
and when it is sufficiently cold1 will  
again form ice4 ,there  must be some    
fundamental ,thing1 therefore1 of which 
water is composed4  ,what is this       
,thing8 ,how many such ,things are there
 in the world8 ,are  there a limitless  
number1 or only a few8 ,if a certain1   
limited number1  how many8 ,and how     
discover them8 ,these were questions    
which naturally  occupied the minds of  
men throughout the ages4 ,no answer was 
found1  however1 and it remained for    
,john ,dalton to discover and formulate 
the  ,law which enabled men to obtain   
their first glimpse of the nature of    
the ultimate constitution of matter4    
,,john ,,dalton      ,john ,dalton      
7#agff-ahdd7 was born in ,eaglesfield1  
in ,cumberland  7,england71 and was the 
son of a poor weaver4 ,endowed with     
natural  aptitude and an indomitable    
will1 he utilized all possible          

opportunities for the study of          
mathematics and natural philosophy4  ,he
 taught school1 while devoting all his  
spare time to his beloved  scientific   
researches4 ,in fact1 he earned his     
living as a private  teacher to the end 
of his life1 never having enough money  
to pursue his  investigations unhampered
 by material considerations4    ,it was1
 of course1 well known that mere        
mixtures were entirely  different things
 from chemical compounds4 ,we can mix   
sand and sugar  together1 but they      
remain sand and sugar1 and can be       
separated again1  having undergone no   
change4 ,or we can mix together two     
liquids or  two gases1 and they also can
 again be separated by suitable means4  
,but when two substances chemically     
combine one with another1 then we  have 
some third thing which is entirely      
different from the original  two1 and   
which possesses properties dissimilar   
from either4 ,now1 what  has happened   
when substances thus combine8 ,what are 

the laws of such  combinations8 ,and    
what are the ultimate constituents of   
matter1 which  render these combinations
 possible8 ,dalton was the first to     
undertake  an explanation of these      
phenomena1 backed up by experimental    
evidence4  ,the historic importance of  
this cannot be overestimated4 ,as ,dr4  
,raphael  ,meldola says1 in his         
8,chemistry03--    8,the doctrine of    
equivalence1 even in its most elastic   
form1 is still  nothing more than a     
quantitative expression of the facts of 
chemical  composition4 ,of course1 there
 must be some underlying principle--some
  explanation of this simplicity of     
multiplicity4 ,such explanation was     
first definitely formulated in #ahjg-jh 
by ,john ,dalton1 who not only          
discovered the law of ,multiple         
,proportions1 but suggested a theory1   
the  introduction of which marks one of 
the greatest epochs in the history  of  
,chemistry4 ,the reason why combination 
takes place in definite  proportions by 

weight1 and why1 when the same element  
has more than  one equivalent the       
principle of integral multiples is      
maintained  is1 according to ,dalton's  
explanation1 because the combination is 
between the ultimate particles of which 
elementary matter is composed4  ,this is
 the notion of the discontinuity or     
discreteness of matter4  ,the           
8particles0 of which matter is          
composed--whatever its state of         
aggregation--are1 from ,dalton's point  
of view1 ultimate in the sense of  being
 indivisible4 ,for this reason he called
 them atoms40          ,,the ,,atomic   
,,theory      ,here1 then1 we have at   
last the ,atomic ,theory--the theory1   
that is1  that all matter1 in all its   
stages1 is built-up of extremely small  
particles which are so small1 indeed1   
that they can no longer be  sub-divided4
 ,they are the ultimate of matter--the  
8building stones of  the ,universe0--of 
which everything1 animate and inanimate1
 is composed4    ,these atoms were held 

to be spherical in shape1 of a certain  
definite  weight and figure1 according  
to the element or substance in question4
  ,thus3 8every particle of water is    
like every other particle of water1     
every particle of hydrogen is like every
 other particle of hydrogen1  etc40     
,these ultimate particles--atoms--were  
held to be indestructible4  ,these atoms
 all had their own particular weights1  
which might be  denoted by number4      
,hence 8atomic weight40    ,these atoms1
 then1 combine1 forming molecules1 or   
compounds of atoms2  and molecules make 
up matter as we see and know it4        
,further1 most of the matter in the     
world is composed of a variety of       
elementary substances1 limited in       
number4 ,when more complex bodies  are  
analyzed or broken-down1 these          
elementary substances are always  found4
 ,the number of those in ,dalton's day  
was unknown2 but they had  long been    
known as elements4 ,elements were1 of   
course1 composed of  their own          

particular atoms2 while all other       
substances were made-up of  combinations
 of elements4          ,,the ,,elements 
,dalton's views ushered in a new era in 
chemistry4 ,prolonged researches  were  
at once undertaken1 in order to         
determine the precise atomic            
weights--investigations which are being 
carried on even today4 ,the  exact size1
 shape1 texture1 etc41 of the atom was  
subject to endless  investigation4 ,the 
nature of chemical combinations 7how two
 elements  combine with one another7    
held the fascinated attention of        
chemists  for a hundred years1 and it is
 only within the past few years that  a 
definite solution has been found1 and   
this has only been rendered  possible by
 the newer views of matter1 entirely    
different from those  maintained during 
the past century4    ,during the hundred
 years which have elapsed since         
,dalton's time1 a  number of new        
elements have been discovered1 and there
 are reasons for  supposing that there  

are some yet to discover4 ,it is now    
believed1  however1 that there are #ib  
primary elements1 of which ,hydrogen has
 the  lowest atomic weight1 and ,uranium
 the highest4 ,typical elements are3    
,oxygen1 ,iron1 ,fluorine1 ,silver1     
,sodium1 ,sulphur1 ,gold1 ,zinc1        
,copper1  etc4 ,a complete list may be  
found in any standard ,chemistry4       
,,atomic ,,weights      ,when work was  
undertaken1 to discover the exact atomic
 weights of these  various elements1 it 
was soon found that these could not be  
expressed  in exact1 whole numbers4     
,fractions or decimal numbers were      
nearly  always found to exist4 ,thus1   
the atomic weight of ,hydrogen was not  
exactly #a1 but #a4jjh2 copper was      
#fc4eg1 etc4 ,for long it was thought   
that these variations were due to errors
 of experiment1 and renewed  attempts   
were made to reach more accurate        
conclusions1 in which these  apparently 
annoying fractions were absent4 ,but the
 most painstaking  experimental work    

only served to confirm these results1   
and still later  researches have shown  
us why this is so4 ,it would take us too
 far  afield1 however1 to go into that  
question at present4    ,the various    
elements were given symbols for the sake
 of brevity2 some  of these represented 
the first letters of the name of the    
element2  some were the first letters of
 the ,latin word for that element4      
,thus1  ,co  ,cobalt1 ,s  ,sulphur1 ,ne 
,neon1 ,bi  ,bismuth4 ,on the other     
hand1  ,fe  ,iron 7,latin1 ferrum71 etc4
 ,this served greatly to abbreviate     
chemical language1 and at the same time 
simplified chemical formul and          
equations4          ,,valency      ,we  
must now explain one or two terms which 
are extremely important  for            
understanding what is to follow4 ,the   
first of these is ,valency4  ,we know   
that chemical combinations take place in
 fixed proportions  by weight2 this is  
known as the 8,constancy of             
,composition40 ,there is  always an     

equivalence noted4 ,this doctrine of    
equivalence is merely  the numerical    
expression of the definiteness of       
chemical change4  ,calculations are made
 from the point-of-view of combining    
with a  unit-weight of hydrogen 7the    
,unit element74 ,in chemical compounds1 
then1 the doctrine of equivalence says  
that these atomic weights  represent    
quantities of different elementary      
substances which are of  the same       
chemical value as measured by their     
capacity for displacing  the same weight
 of hydrogen4    ,a new property of the 
atom is thus brought out1 viz41 its     
value  as measured by the number of     
atoms with which it can combine4 ,this  
property is appropriately described as  
the 8,valency0 of the atom4  ,if the    
atomic weight contains the equivalent   
once1 i4 e41 if the  equivalent and     
atomic weight are identical1 that atom  
can combine only  with one atom of      
hydrogen1 or of chlorine1 bromine1 etc4 
,the formul of  the compounds1 ,h,cl1   

,h,br1 etc41 expresses this fact4 ,if   
the equivalent  is contained twice in   
the atomic weight1 then that atom can   
obviously  combine with two atoms of    
hydrogen1 chlorine1 etc42 if it is      
contained  three times in the atomic    
weight1 the combining capacity or       
valency of  the atom is three2 and so   
forth4          ,,the ,,periodic ,,law  
,the work which had been done upon the  
atomic weights rendered possible  one of
 the most brilliant generalizations of  
modern times1 in this  field4 ,this was 
the ,periodic ,law4 ,in the year #ahfd1 
,newlands  published a ,table containing
 the various elements arranged in the   
order  of their atomic weights4 ,in a   
side column the differences between     
these  weights were given1 each being   
deducted from the one next higher in the
  scale4 ,the next year1 ,newlands      
announced his 8law of octaves10 which   
he deduced from his arrangement of the  
elements4 ,he said in part that3  8,if  
the elements are arranged in the order  

of their equivalents1 with  a few slight
 transpositions 444 it will be observed 
that elements1  belonging to the same   
group usually appear on the same        
horizontal  line4444 ,it will also be   
seen that the number of analogous       
elements  generally differ either by    
seven or by some multiple of seven2 in  
other words1 members of the same group  
stand to each other in the same         
relation as the extremities of one or   
more octaves in music40    ,this pioneer
 work of ,newlands rendered possible the
 ,periodic ,law1 as  finally formulated 
and worked out in detail by ,mendeleeff4
 ,briefly1 the  ,law states that 8the   
properties of an element are a periodic 
function  of its atomic weight40        
,this is merely another way of saying   
that if you know the atomic weight  of  
an element1 you also know its           
properties1 since these are fixed  or   
invariable4 ,mendeleeff arranged the    
elements in various 8,groups10          
according to their atomic weights1 and  

it was found that the properties  of the
 elements periodically recur as the     
weights of the atoms rise4  ,there were 
certain empty spaces in ,mendeleeff's   
,table1 waiting for new  elements which 
should fit into these empty spaces1 if  
discovered4 ,at  the time they had not  
been discovered2 but several of them    
have been  since1 and it is a remarkable
 fact that they invariably fit into his 
table exhibiting all the properties     
which they should theoretically         
exhibit1 and might have been predicted  
to1 years before4 ,this is one of  the  
surest confirmations of the accuracy of 
,mendeleeff's general ,law1  and is one 
of the finest generalizations ever made 
in science4    ,the conclusion which we 
may draw from this ,law is that there is
 a  definite relationship between the   
chemical elements4 ,how or why  this    
relationship existed was not known at   
the time1 and only became  clear half a 
century later1 when the newer           
discoveries concerning the  ultimate    

constitution of matter rendered this    
clear4          ,,earlier ,,discoveries 
,mendeleeff's ,law could not have been  
formulated had not an immense  amount of
 research work preceded it1 and a number
 of new elements been  discovered4 ,such
 was1 however1 the case4 ,immediately   
following the  great work of ,lavoisier1
 a host of brilliant chemists appeared1 
and  rapid and important advances were  
made in consequence4 ,cadmium was       
discovered by ,stromeyer in #ahag2      
lithium in the same year by ,arfvedson4 
,silicon was isolated in #ahaj by       
,berzelius4 ,in #ahbg1 ,wohler isolated 
aluminum2 and the same scientist also   
isolated beryllium the following  year4 
,bromine was discovered by ,balard in   
#ahbf2 iodine1 in #ahaa1 by  ,courtois4 
,tellurium had been discovered by       
,muller von ,reichenstein  in #aghb2    
,berzelius discovered an element closely
 analogous to  it--selenium--in #ahag4  
,elements continued to be added to the  
list--and  then no more6 ,had every     

element been discovered8 ,some were     
inclined to  think so4 ,with the        
discovery of ,radium1 by the ,curies1   
however1 another  whole list of elements
 was brought to light--all of which have
 been  added to the ,table of the       
,periodic ,law4    ,meanwhile1 further  
discoveries of the curious properties of
 matter  were being made4 ,for example1 
it had been noticed that at least three 
distinct varieties of sulphur existed3  
7#a7 ,a pale yellow1 brittle  solid2    
7#b7 translucent needles2 and 7#c7 soft 
and rubber-like sulphur4  ,these were   
all different physical varieties of one 
and the same  substance--nevertheless   
they are all sulphur6 ,this element1    
then1 can  assume more than one form1   
and because of this1 the term           
8allotropic0  has been applied1 to      
signify the varieties of appearance     
which the same  substance can be made to
 assume4 ,a good example of this        
afforded by  charcoal1 graphite 7or     
black-lead7 and diamond1--which would   

hardly be  suspected of being all the   
same substance2 and yet they are6       
,,analysis ,,and ,,synthesis            
,compounds may be broken up into their  
constituents1 during the process  of    
analysis1 or they may be made to combine
 one with another1 in  synthesis4 ,all  
the resources of modern science have    
been brought to  bear1 in efforts to    
effect these various alterations or     
changes4 ,great  heat1 extreme cold1    
chemical regents1 enormous pressures1   
high vacua1  electrical currents and    
sparks1 bombardment with radio-activity1
  etc4--all have been employed in these 
chemical investigations4 ,suitable      
laboratories have been constructed1     
encasing immense boilers1 huge          
refrigeration machines1 electrical      
contrivances of all kinds1 etc4  ,what  
tremendous strides have been made in    
this field during the past              
century--from the simple glass retorts1 
flasks and apparatus of a  century ago6 
,but this only shows us how tremendous  

would be our  progress could men but    
learn to work together1 in harmony1     
welded  together by a common            
interest1--instead of butchering one    
another1 or  wasting their precious     
lives and energies in scandals and      
political  intrigues6    ,but let us    
return to earth again--to matter--the   
subject of chemistry6                   
,,formulae ,,and ,,equations      ,we   
have seen that the various chemical     
elements combine with one  another in   
certain proportions4 ,in order to       
express these varied  reactions1        
chemical formul have been devised1 which
 can be read at  a glance1 showing the  
changes which have taken place in any   
given  combination4 ,when one atom of   
one element combines with one atom of   
another1 the letters signifying these   
elements are simply written side  by    
side1 thus3 ,h,cl4 ,when1 however1 two  
atoms of one element combine  with one  
of another1 a small figure is placed    
under and to the right  of the element1 

thus3 ,h,o4 ,here we see at a glance    
that two atoms of  hydrogen have        
combined with one of oxygen1 forming    
water4 ,this is  the simplest type of   
formula1 and is often known as the      
empirical  formula4 ,there is1 however1 
another way of writing a formula1 which 
is  more expressive1 thus3              
,b                                 ,a,c 
,b    ,this is known as a structural or 
constitutional formula1 and from  it we 
can see at a glance that ,a is bivalent1
 ,c is quadrivalent1 and ,b  univalent4 
,this type of formula shows us more     
readily than the other  the structure of
 the molecule in question4 ,the         
complexity of such  formul naturally    
increases with the complexity of the    
molecules1 and  in many cases may be    
extremely intricate4 ,ordinary chemical 
formul1  however1 are written           
empirically4 ,any chemical changes which
 take place  as the result of some      
reaction are expressed in this manner4  
,,organic ,,vs4 ,,inorganic ,,chemistry 

,as before stated1 chemistry has been   
divided into two  categories--organic   
and inorganic4 ,it was stated at the    
time that  these divisions represented  
the chemistry of living and dead matter1
  respectively4 ,as a matter-of-fact1   
this description is not quite  accurate4
 ,this was the older view of the        
observed facts1 because it  was believed
 that some mysterious 8vitality0 was    
responsible for the  peculiar substances
 found in living bodies1 but the chemist
 has now  succeeded in making1 in the   
laboratory1 a number of these substances
  which were thought to be the result of
 life only2 and in addition has         
succeeded in making great numbers of    
organic compounds not found in  the     
living body4 ,over #aej1jjj 8organic0   
compounds are now known to the  chemist1
 only a small fraction of which are     
known to be the product of  8vitality40 
,all living things--animal and          
vegetable--contain carbon1  as their    
most important constituent1 so that the 

modern view of  organic chemistry is    
that it is1 very largely1 the chemistry 
of carbon  compounds4 ,whether or not   
any form of 8vitality0 exists aside from
 the  living matter studied is a        
question usually passed over by chemists
 as  beyond their province4    ,there is
 no doubt1 however1 that the human body 
presents many problems  still           
unexplained by modern chemistry4 ,take1 
for example1 the miracle  of digestion4 
,a potato1 a cabbage1 an apple1 a       
chicken running about  the yard1 a piece
 of candy--all these are eaten by little
 ,mary ,jones1  and are somehow turned  
into the body of little ,mary ,jones1   
making  hair1 teeth1 eyes1 lungs1 liver1
 nerves1 brain1 etc4 ,the food material 
is somehow transformed into the living  
body of the person eating  it6 ,much has
 been discovered as to the innumerable  
changes which  the food undergoes during
 the various stages of digestion1 but   
the  final result--how this pabulum is  
converted into bodily tissue--is  still 

largely a mystery4 ,we know1 for        
example1 that proteins are  broken-up   
into simpler compounds1 the most        
important of which are the  amino-acids4
 ,fats are broken up into fatty acids   
and glycerine1 and  substances          
resembling soaps are formed in the body4
 ,carbohydrates are  resolved into      
levulose1 glucose1 maltose1 etc41 which 
are utilizable  by the human system4    
,but just how these substances are      
converted into  bodily tissue is still  
largely a problem4          ,,organic   
,,compounds      ,the living matter of  
the body is composed of a variety of    
substances1  of which protoplasm may be 
taken as typical4 ,this is highly       
complex1  and while it can be imitated  
by the chemist1 its living properties   
have  not been reproduced4 7,see my book
 on 8,life3 ,its ,origin and ,nature10  
in  the present series47 ,the various   
secretions and excretions of the body   
have been studied exhaustively by       
physiological chemists4 ,plants have    

also been studied minutely from a       
similar point-of-view4    ,a number of  
important discoveries have resulted from
 this work1  however1 and nearly all the
 essential animal and vegetable         
substances  are at present accessible to
 artificial synthesis from their very   
elements4 ,even protein matter seems to 
have lost much of its mystery  since we 
have learned from ,emil ,fischer's work 
that amino-acids can  be combined in the
 same way as they occur in protein4     
,compounds of  ,amino-acids can be      
obtained1 which show all the main       
reactions of  protein substances4 ,emil 
,fischer1 of ,berlin1 was the same      
chemist  who1 in #ahhf1 discovered how  
to prepare grape-sugar from glycerine4  
,a considerable number of plant         
alkaloids have also been artificially   
prepared in the course of the last five 
or six decades4 ,the most  important    
coloring matters of plants--for         
instance1 alizarin and  indigotin1--are 
no longer extracted from plants for     

technical  purposes1 but are accessible 
from the products of coal-tar4          
,,catalysis      ,we now come to a      
remarkable series of chemical phenomena1
 which have  been much studied during   
the past century1 and which have a      
bearing  upon both organic and inorganic
 chemistry4 ,more than a century ago1   
it was discovered that certain chemical 
substances1 which will not  normally    
combine with one another1 can be made to
 do so1 if another  substance is brought
 into contact with them4 ,this third    
substance does  not in any way enter    
into the combination1 or share in the   
reaction2  its mere presence seems to   
bring it about4 ,thus1 oxygen and       
hydrogen  may be mixed together2 but if 
a small amount of 8platinum black0 be   
introduced1 an explosion of the gases at
 once occurs4 ,hydroperoxide  is rapidly
 split into oxygen and water when in    
contact with 8platinum  black10 etc4    
,these contact-effects are very curious1
 and have engaged  the attention of     

chemists for a long time4 ,berzelius is 
responsible for  the term now generally 
used--catalysis4 ,we now speak of       
catalytic  power1 catalytic reactions1  
and so forth4    ,these catalytic       
rections soon became very important     
factors in organic  chemistry and       
biology1 as well as in the field of     
inorganic chemistry4  ,in #ahcc1 ,payen 
and ,persoz in ,paris made the discovery
 that germinating  seeds contain a      
peculiar contact-substance1 which       
transforms starch  into sugar4 ,this    
substance they named ,diastase4 ,similar
 effects were  noted to occur           
elsewhere1--particularly in the protein 
digestion in  the stomach of man and the
 higher animals4 ,we now know that many 
such  rections occur in the living      
cells1 and the chemical phenomena of    
life  have had an entirely new light    
thrown upon them by these findings4     
,,enzymes      ,they led1 in short1 to  
the discovery of the so-called ,enzymes4
  ,until relatively recently1 the       

expression 8,ferment0 was used1 as the  
phenomena were akin to fermentation4    
,soluble ferments are termed  ,enzymes1 
and the phenomena connected with living 
protoplasm are now  known to be largely 
due to the action of a group of         
,enzymes4 ,these are  catalytic         
substances1 are of a limited field of   
action1 of colloidal  nature1 and very  
little resistant to heat4 ,when injected
 into the  veins of animals1 other      
substances are at once manufactured1    
which  have been called 8anti-enzymes10 
which have the effect of offsetting     
their action4 ,sunlight and ultra-violet
 light destroy enzymes4 ,their          
importance in the field of biology may  
be discerned when it is stated  that    
researches have shown us that1 e4 g41   
the amount of protein  digested in a    
certain time is not proportional to the 
quantity of the  enzyme itself1 but to  
the square root of the quantity of the  
enzyme4          ,,hormones      ,these 
enzymes must not be confused with other 

internal secretions1 such  as the       
hormones4 ,these are substances         
generated by the so-called  ductless    
glands1--such as the thyroid1 the       
pituitary1 the adrenals1  etc4 ,these   
ductless glands secrete substances which
 when absorbed into  the blood-stream   
greatly affect the life of the body1 its
 functions1  its structure and its      
growth1 and to a certain extent at least
 the  mental life4 ,researches in this  
field are of relatively recent origin1  
but of extreme importance4 ,i have      
mentioned this subject at greater       
length in my little book on 8,life3 ,its
 ,origin and ,nature10 in the  present  
series1 and the interested reader may   
refer to such a work as  ,dr4 ,louis    
,berman's 8,the ,glands ,regulating     
,personality10 for further  details4    
,there is no matter anywhere in the     
universe1 living or dead1 which  modern 
chemistry does not attempt to analyze4  
,not only in the  laboratory are these  
tests undertaken1 with minute particles 

of matter4  ,the very earth on which we 
dwell has been subjected to chemical    
analysis1 and so have the stars1 the    
planets and suns which circle  around us
 in space1--perhaps separated from us by
 many millions  of miles4 ,the ability  
to do this is assuredly one of the      
greatest  achievements of the mind of   
man1 and represents one of the greatest 
conquests over nature1 over time and    
space4          ,,chemistry ,,of ,,the  
,,earth      ,the water constituting our
 seas1 lakes1 rivers and oceans2 the air
  constituting our atmosphere2 the      
materials of the earth on which we      
dwell--clay1 rock1 mud1 granite1        
metals--all have been analyzed1  and    
their chemical composition accurately   
determined4 ,it has even  been possible 
to measure the density and weight of our
 earth1 and to  calculate its age1 from 
the salinity of its oceans4 7,of this   
more  anon47 ,but when it comes to      
ascertaining with great accuracy the    
chemical constitution of distant stars1 

that seems a feat well-nigh  impossible1
 and unless the process by means of     
which it is accomplished  were          
explained1 it might very well be        
disbelieved4    ,how1 then1 can this be 
accomplished8    ,for our explanation1  
we must go back to a classical          
experiment made  by ,sir ,isaac ,newton4
 ,he proved that white light1 when made 
to pass  through a glass prism1 is split
 up into a variety of colors4 ,there are
  seven primary colors1 constituting the
 visible spectrum4 ,these are red1      
orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 indigo and 
violet4 ,we now know that there  are    
both 8ultra-violet0 and 8infra-red0     
rays1 invisible to the eye1  above and  
below the spectrum1 but this was not    
known until long after4  ,the essential 
fact is that light1 when passed through 
a prism1 is split  up into its primary  
colors4          ,,the ,,spectroscope   
,the instruments employed were          
necessarily soon refined1 and the modern
  8spectroscope0 resulted1--a piece of  

apparatus of great delicacy1  capable of
 studying these effects with exactitude4
    ,the function of the spectroscope is
 to receive a sample of light and  to   
separate its different components4 ,in a
 broad sense1 everything  that can be   
seen has a spectrum--flame1 blue sky1   
red hot metal1 the  sun1 the electric   
spark1 etc4 ,we can at once divide these
 things  into two classes1 7#a7 those   
that are visible because they emit light
  of their own2 7#b7 those that can be  
seen only by virtue of their            
reflecting1 diffusing or transmitting   
light that falls upon them from  other  
sources4 ,the former are called         
8emission spectra0 and the latter       
8absorption spectra40    ,now1 when     
practically any spectrum be examined in 
this way1 it will  be seen that certain 
bands of shadow1 or dark lines1 cut     
across the  light spectrum1 in          
absorption spectra1 these are the things
 which  are studied4 ,thus1 when we     
observe the spectrum of the sun1 or of  

many of the stars1 we find that the     
spectrum may be described as a          
continuous spectrum1 from which a number
 of narrow lines are omitted4  ,the     
lines consequently appear dark on a     
bright ground4 ,these are called        
8absorption lines40    ,just why these  
dark lines appear would take us too far 
afield to  explain here2 suffice it to  
say that every chemical element has been
  found to yield a different spectrum2  
that is to say1 the number and          
arrangement of these dark lines will    
indicate the presence of the  element in
 question4 ,whenever certain lines      
appear on the spectrum1 we  may be sure 
that such-and-such an element is        
present4 ,thus1 ,kirchhoff  first proved
 that two of these dark lines were      
caused by the white  light of the solar 
photosphere having suffered absorption  
at the  sun1 by passing through a       
stratum of glowing sodium vapor4 ,sodium
 was  thus shown to be present in the   
sun4 ,other elements were similarly     

identified1 not only in the sun1 but in 
the millions of stars in the  heavens4  
,by means of spectrum analysis1         
therefore1 it has been possible  to     
detect and identify the various chemical
 elements present in any  given sun or  
star in space4                          
,,astro-,,physics ,,and ,,chemistry     
,in this manner1 about forty terrestrial
 elements have been shown to  exist in  
the sun4 ,carbon1 oxygen1 iron1 silicon1
 nickel1 etc41 exist in  the sun just as
 they do on our earth4 ,on the other    
hand1 many elements1  such as mercury1  
nitrogen1 sulphur1 and boron do not     
appear1 although  they are found in     
abundance on the earth4 ,yet several    
elements were  shown to exist in the sun
 which up to that time had not been     
discovered  here4 ,helium is an example4
 7,from the ,greek1 ,helios1 the ,sun74 
,and  yet1 when attention was directed  
to this element1 it was soon found  in  
our earth1 and is today so common that  
helium gas is employed  to inflate      

balloons1 in preference to hydrogen1 on 
account of its  non-combustibility4     
,,spectrum ,,analysis      ,spectrum    
analysis1 then1 tells us the precise    
chemical constitution of  the various   
suns1 or stars1 in space1 and it also   
tells us that these  stars are incapable
 of supporting life such as we know it4 
,as ,dr4 ,e4  ,walter ,maunder says1 in 
his book1 8,are the ,planets            
,inhabited803    8,the application of   
the spectroscope to astronomy is not    
confined  to the sun1 but reaches much  
further4 ,the stars also yield their    
spectra1 and we are compelled to        
recognize that they also are suns2      
intensely heated globes of glowing gas1 
rich in the same elements as  those     
familiar to us on the ,earth and known  
by their spectral lines  to be present  
on the sun4 ,the stars1 therefore1      
cannot themselves be  inhabited worlds  
any more than the sun1 and at a stroke  
the whole of  the celestial luminaries  
within the furthest range of our most   

powerful  telescopes are removed from   
our present search 7i4 e41 whether or   
not life may exist upon them74 ,only    
those members of our solar system  that 
shine by reflecting the light of the sun
 can be cool enough for  habitation1 the
 true stars cannot be inhabited1 for1   
whatever their  quality and order1 they 
are all suns1 and must necessarily be in
 far  too highly heated a condition to  
be the abode of life4 ,many of them     
may1 perhaps1 be a source of light and  
heat to attendant planets1 but  there is
 no single instance in which such a     
planet has been directly  observed2 no  
dark1 non-luminous body has ever been   
actually seen in  attendance on a star4 
,many double or multiple stars are      
known1 but  these are all instances in  
which one sun-like body is revolving    
round  another of the same order4 ,we   
see no body shining by reflected light  
outside the limits of the solar system4 
,planets to the various stars  may exist
 in countless numbers1 but they are     

invisible to us44440    ,thus has the   
science of chemistry been wafted across 
hundreds of  millions of miles of space1
 and has enabled us to tell1 not only   
the  composition of these distant       
bodies1 but also the degree of their    
habitability1 and their possible sources
 as abodes of life4                     
,,industrial ,,chemistry      ,but if   
all this is of purely theoretical       
interest1 the chemistry of our  earth   
and its products is of immense practical
 importance4 ,it may be  applied1 and   
the day of 8industrial chemistry0 is    
here4 ,by studying  the chemistry of    
soils1 the farmer has been enabled to   
increase both  the quality and the      
quantity of his crops4 ,by employing    
artificial  fertilizers1 production has 
been greatly increased4 ,an analysis of 
the earth's strata has thrown great     
light upon geology4 ,analytical         
chemistry has proved of service in      
criminology1--by enabling experts  to   
detect poisons1 blood-stains1 etc4      

7,unfortunately1 it has also  been      
applied detrimentally1 in the           
manufacture of explosives1 poison       
gases1 etc41 employed in war47          
,dentistry and surgery have been        
rendered  painless by the discovery of  
ansthetics4 ,the wholesale manufacture  
of  illuminating gas has been           
instrumental in lighting millions of    
homes4  ,the manufacture of steel1      
paper1 ink1 dyes1 stains1 paints1       
perfumes1  bread1 and a thousand-and-one
 useful articles of our daily lives has 
been rendered possible by the progress  
of chemical research4 ,artificial       
preservatives have enabled us to keep   
food-stuffs for long periods of  time4  
,by the discovery of the nature of iron 
rust1 bridges1 buildings1  etc41 have   
been preserved intact4 ,our food1 our   
clothes1 our very lives  themselves1 may
 be said to depend upon modern chemistry
 for their  maintenance and             
preservation4    ,let us pass in rapid  
summary a few of these results4 ,let us 

take1 for  example1 glass4    ,glass is 
made from silica4 ,what is silica8 ,it  
is a substance of  remarkable           
infusibility1 and is the oxide of       
silicon1 which is a  near neighbor of   
carbon4 ,glass is made by mixing sand1  
limestone and  carbonate of soda or     
potash in large pots1 and melting them  
together at  a temperature of #c1ejj ,f4
 ,the sand1 being silica1 combines with 
the  lime of the carbonate of lime1 to  
give silicate of lime1 and with the     
soda 7or potash7 of the carbonate of    
soda 7or potash7 to give silicate  or   
soda 7or potash74 ,these two silicates  
become intimately fused and  form the   
glass1 which remains liquid in the pot4 
,it is then blown into  various shapes  
or rolled into thin sheets for window   
glass4 ,we know  what an effect windows 
have had upon the comforts of modern    
life6    ,by mixing together several    
metals1 alloys are obtained which very  
often have properties quite different   
from those of the substances  which     

compose them4 ,thus3 ,bronze is a       
mixture of copper and tin2  plumber's   
solder is an alloy of lead and tin2     
brass is an alloy of  copper and zinc2  
ferro-silicon is a union of silicon and 
iron1 etc4  ,many of these alloys are of
 great utility in the various arts and  
sciences1 as well as in manufacture4    
,gilding1 silvering and electroplating  
have been rendered possible by  modern  
chemistry4 ,alumina and porcelain have  
been produced4 ,alumina  is the oxide of
 aluminum4 ,one variety of clay known as
 8kaolin0 is  employed in the           
manufacture of porcelain4 ,china and    
earthenware are  made by very similar   
processes4 ,alcohol1 wine and beer have 
depended  upon scientific chemistry for 
their production4 ,ice can be           
manufactured  artificially by means of  
freezing mixtures4 ,the manufacture of  
oxygen  gas has rendered possible high  
altitude flights by aviators4 ,camphor  
can now be manufactured1 instead of     
depending upon nature's resources  for  

this valuable substance4 ,wood-pulp1    
starch and sugar owe much to  modern    
chemistry4 ,artificial silk is          
manufactured on a large scale4  ,soaps  
and fats have likewise been developed in
 vast quantities4 ,the  perfume milady  
uses has been developed by the chemist4 
,colors and dyes  now constitute an     
enormous industry4 ,for our medicines we
 depend upon  the chemist1 when visiting
 the nearest drug store4 ,these are but 
a few  examples1 which might be         
lengthened almost indefinitely1         
illustrating  the extent to which we are
 dependent upon modern chemistry1 in our
  daily lives4    ,and chemistry is     
capable of explaining many things which 
would be  unintelligible without its    
aid4 ,let us take a simple example by   
way  of illustration4 ,you have probably
 noticed that a frozen potato has  a    
characteristic sugary taste4 ,the cause 
of it is this3 the potato  contains in  
its tissues a great quantity of starch1 
as well as a  diastase capable of       

transforming this starch at the moment  
of its  sprouting4 ,these two substances
 are kept apart by the membrane of  the 
tissue4 ,but if a frost occurs1 the ice 
tears this membrane1 and  the starch    
comes in contact with this diastase and 
is1 therefore1  transformed into sugar1 
just as it is when the sprouting of the 
potato  begins4          ,,instruments  
,,of ,,research      ,these applications
 of chemistry have been rendered        
possible by improved  methods of        
investigation1 a greater knowledge of   
the nature of matter  itself1 and the   
perfection of scientific instruments of 
precision4  ,these instruments are so   
much finer and more delicate than our   
senses  that they have been the means of
 disclosing the actual constitution  of 
matter4 ,a man might sit and 8meditate0 
upon the nature of matter  for years1   
but he would be no nearer an actual     
proof as to its  constitution than he   
was at the beginning4 ,it is generally  
conceded  that ,aristotle possessed one 

of the finest minds the world has ever  
known2 yet any school boy today knows   
more of the ultimate constitution  of   
matter than did ,aristotle4 ,the reason 
for this is that instrumental  methods  
of research have enabled us to see and  
measure the ultimate  properties of     
matter1--which our unaided senses would 
never permit  us to do4 ,the development
 of science in other fields1 therefore1 
has  rendered possible the rapid growth 
of chemistry1 during the past  century2 
and chemistry1 in turn1 has assisted the
 other sciences4 ,thus  does all        
knowledge work hand in hand1 when       
co-operation is rendered  possible6     
,,salinity ,,of ,,the ,,oceans    ,i    
referred some time ago to the           
calculations which had been made as to  
the age of the earth1 based upon        
researches as to the salinity of the    
ocean4 ,as we know1 the water of all the
 oceans is salt water2 only that  of    
rivers and lakes is 8fresh40 ,but the   
degree of the ocean's saltness  is not  

quite constant4 ,it varies1 since       
evaporation is constantly  taking place2
 sediments are deposited2 and above all 
vast quantities of  water are being     
poured into the ocean by the hundreds of
 rivers which  flow into it1 carrying   
all kinds of earthy deposits which have 
been  washed away by their passage      
through the river-beds over which they  
flow4    ,in #agae1 the famous          
astronomer ,edmund ,halley published a  
paper entitled  8,a ,short ,account of  
the ,saltness of the ,ocean4444 ,with a 
,proposal by  ,help ,thereof to         
,discover the ,age of the ,world40 ,no  
definite progress  was made1 however1   
until #ahii1 when ,joly pointed out that
 of the many  elements which enter into 
the composition of salt water1 sodium   
alone  tends to accumulate4 ,all the    
others are sooner or later rejected1    
associating themselves with the detrital
 sediments1 or forming chemical  or     
organic sediments by their ultimate     
precipitation4 ,he accordingly  used    

sodium as the index of the age of the   
oceans4 ,he assumed that the  annual    
increase of sodium has been more or less
 constant1 being added  to every year by
 the quantity washed into the ocean by  
the rivers4 ,how  long a period of time 
would it require to reach its present   
degree  of saltness8 ,taking all the    
oceans as one1 the volume of the ocean  
is approximately #cbj1jjj1jjj cubic     
miles4 ,its density 7according to       
,murray7 is #a4jbf4 ,on the basis of    
these figures1 ,joly1 and after  him    
,sollas and others1 calculated that it  
would require from #hj to  #aej million 
years for the present degree of salinity
 to be reached4  ,ninety or a hundred   
million years would be a fair estimate4 
,indirectly  therefore1 the study of the
 salinity of the oceans has thrown light
  upon the age of our earth1 and its    
chemical constitution throughout        
geological ages4          ,,the ,,newer 
,,chemistry      ,it will be seen1      
therefore1 that chemistry has not only  

proved of the  utmost practical value to
 mankind1 but that it has been          
instrumental  in solving some of the    
greatest enigmas confronting the mind of
 man1  and in settling some             
philosophical and even theological      
questions4  7,the age of the earth1 the 
composition and habitability of distant 
stars1 etc47 ,attempts have been made to
 account for life itself along  purely  
physico-chemical lines4 ,and all this   
was attempted--and in part  even        
rendered possible--before the ultimate  
constitution of matter was  known6      
,during the present generation1 an      
entirely new light has been  thrown upon
 this central problem1 and the ideas of 
centuries have been  discarded4 ,let us 
trace the final steps of research in    
this direction1  and see how the latest 
findings of modern science have thrown  
light  upon the world-old problem of the
 ultimate constitution of matter4       
,,radio-,,activity      ,we saw at the  
very beginning of this little book that1

 from time  immemorial1 something       
corresponding to ,atoms were regarded as
 the  ultimate 8building stones0 of the 
universe--tiny particles1 incapable  of 
diversion1 beyond which it was          
impossible to go4 ,beginning with       
,epicurus and ,democritus1 this idea    
took scientific form2 it was held by    
many philosophers throughout the ages2  
it formed the basis of ,dalton's  atomic
 theory1 and was assumed by the         
,periodic ,law4 ,it was not until  the  
last years of the preceding century that
 this idea was called into  question4   
,the discovery of radium1 by the        
,curies1 caused a sensation  in the     
scientific world4 ,how account for the  
phenomena observed8 ,radium  seemed to  
give off energy continuously1 without   
losing any2 heat was  constantly being  
radiated without lessening the original 
amount4 ,had  the secret of perpetual   
motion been discovered8 ,what was       
happening8 ,the  discovery of other     
radio-active elements only tended to    

increase the  problem1 instead of       
solving it4 ,here was some new property 
of matter1  hitherto unsuspected1 going 
on before the eyes of chemists1 which   
they  could not understand or explain4  
,,intra-,,atomic ,,energy               
,professor ,e4 ,rutherford1 of ,m',gill 
,university1 ,canada1 was among the     
first to propose a new and startling    
theory4 ,he said3 ,suppose that  the    
atoms are not indivisible8 ,suppose that
 they are capable of  being split-up    
into something still smaller and finer8 
,if the atoms  themselves are being     
disintegrated1 immense quantities of    
energy would  probably be               
available--8intra-atomic energy0--which 
would account  for the results obtained4
 ,it is true that we should no longer   
have  our stable atoms2 they would      
vanish and be represented by something  
else4 ,and that 8something0 would no    
longer be matter1 in the sense  that we 
now understand it2 but we could account 
for the observed facts  7radio-activity1

 etc471 and we can then endeavor to     
discover what  atoms are resolved into  
later on4 ,this theory was soon proved  
to be  true2 atoms were shown to be     
divisible1 and capable of being split-up
  into something still smaller1 which   
were no longer 8matter0 in the old      
sense4 ,matter1 in short1 had           
technically disappeared1 and had been   
resolved into its component parts4 ,this
 being so1 the question at once  arose3 
,of what is matter 7the atom7 composed8 
,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,matter            
,without going into great detail1 or    
attempting to trace the history  of the 
various discoveries which led up to it1 
it may now be stated  definitely that   
matter is built-up of electricity4 ,for 
the proof of  this1 the scientific world
 has to thank ,sir ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson1 who
 first  popularized this view in his    
book 8,electricity and ,matter40 ,he was
  closely seconded by ,sir ,oliver      
,lodge1 ,sir ,william ,crookes1 and many
  other eminent scientists4 ,on this    

view1 matter totally disappears1  as    
such2 it becomes super-sensible2 it is  
resolved into energy4  ,electricity and 
the ether somehow are responsible for   
matter1 but just  how was not at the    
time understood4    ,it took many years 
of patient research to arrive at        
definite  conclusions2 in fact1 it may  
be said that definite conclusions have  
not  even yet been reached1--though more
 or less unanimity of opinion exists  as
 to the structure of atoms4 ,the new    
theory of matter is that each  atom is  
built up of negative 8electrons10 and   
positive 8protons0--the  former         
revolving round the latter in orbits    
analogous to those of our  solar system4
 ,the protons1 positively charged1      
remain in the center  of the atom2 the  
electrons1 negatively charged1 circle   
about them1  just as our planets circle 
about the sun4 ,the number of these     
protons  and electrons varies according 
to the nature of the element4 ,hydrogen 
representing unity1 has but one electron

 revolving around a single  proton2     
helium comes next1 with two2 and so on1 
up the scale1 until  we reach uranium1  
which has ninety-two4 ,the positive and 
the negative  charges balance one       
another in all stable atoms2 and when   
this is not  the case1 the atom tends to
 go to pieces or disintegrate2 electrons
 are  shot off1 which join some other   
atom1 and radio-activity results4 ,the  
nature of the element itself is         
accordingly changed1 and may even be  so
 fundamentally changed by this process  
that it turns into something  else2 i4  
e41 the transmutation of one element    
into another has taken  place1 as       
dreamed of by the alchemists6 ,hence we 
often hear of the 8new  alchemy40 ,this1
 in rough outline1 is the modern        
conception of the  atom1 and of the     
constitution of matter generally4       
,,within ,,the ,,atom      ,let us now  
endeavor to analyze the atom more       
closely1 in the light of  these newer   
researches4 ,we have seen that the      

electrons revolve round  the central    
protons4 ,these protons are probably    
composed of electrons  and hydrogen     
nuclei4 ,the total central 8sun0--to use
 the astronomical  analogy--is known as 
the nucleus4 ,the relative sizes of     
these bodies  may be appreciated when it
 is stated that they have been compared 
to  the sizes of the planets1 relative  
to the distances separating them  from  
the sun4 ,vast spaces exist1 therefore1 
within the atom1 in which  the electrons
 revolve4 ,yet the atoms themselves are 
inconceivably  small6 ,the following    
quotation from ,bertrand ,russell's 8,a4
 ,b4 ,c4 of  ,atoms0 will perhaps make  
this clear4 ,he says3    8,it will help 
us to picture the world of atoms if we  
have1 to begin  with1 some idea of the  
size of these units4 ,let us begin with 
a gramme  of hydrogen 7#a_/dec of a     
pound71 which is not a very large       
quantity4 ,how  many atoms will it      
contain8 ,if the atoms were made up into
 bundles of  a million-million1 and then

 into a million-million of these        
bundles1  we should have about a gramme 
and a half of hydrogen4 ,that is to say1
  the weight of one atom of hydrogen is 
about a million-millionth of  a         
million-millionth of a gramme and a     
half4 ,other atoms weigh more  than the 
atom of hydrogen1 but not enormously    
more2 an atom of oxygen  weighs sixteen 
times as much1 an atom of lead rather   
more than #bjj  times as much4 ,per     
contra1 an electron weighs very much    
less than a  hydrogen atom2 it takes    
about #a1hej electrons to weigh as much 
as one  hydrogen atom40                 
,,electrons      ,the inner rings of    
electrons give rise to ,x-rays when they
 are  disturbed1 and it is chiefly by   
means of ,x-rays that their constitution
  is studied4 ,the nucleus itself is the
 source of radio-activity4444 ,the  most
 complex atom known is that of uranium1 
which has1 in its normal  state1 #ib    
electrons revolving round the nucleus1  
while the nucleus  itself probably      

consists of #bch hydrogen nuclei and    
#adf electrons4444    ,under normal     
conditions1 when the hydrogen atom is   
unelectrified1  the electron simply     
continues to go round and round the     
nucleus1  just as the earth continues to
 go round and round the sun4 ,the       
electron may move in any one of a       
certain set of orbits1 some larger1     
some smaller1 some circular1 some       
elliptical4 ,but when the atom is       
undisturbed1 it has a preference for the
 smallest of the circular  orbits1 in   
which the distance between the nucleus  
and the electron is  about half a       
hundred-millionth of a centimetre4 ,it  
goes round in this  tiny orbit with very
 great rapidity2 in fact its velocity is
 about a  hundred-and-thirty-fourth of  
the velocity of light1 which is #ahf1jjj
  miles a second4 ,thus the electron    
manages to cover about #a1djj miles in  
every second4 ,to do this1 it has to go 
round its tiny orbit about seven        
thousand million times in a millionth of

 a second2 that is to say1 in  a        
millionth of a second it has to live    
through about seven thousand  million of
 its 8years06    ,such figures1 such    
facts1 stagger the imagination4 ,the    
mind of man  cannot really conceive     
them4 ,and yet we know that they are not
  fanciful2 calculations and indirect   
measurements have been made with  the   
utmost exactitude4 ,and1 after all1 the 
infinitely little is no  more staggering
 than the infinitely great4 ,for in     
astronomy we know  that stars billions  
of miles distant from us in space have  
been seen1  measured1 photographed and  
analyzed4 ,tens of thousands of         
8light-years0  separate us from them 7i4
 e41 space which would be travelled by  
light1 speeding at #ahf1jjj miles a     
second74 ,and yet the structure of  the 
atom closely resembles the planetary    
system6 ,is the whole ,universe1  great 
and small1 built according to the same  
plan1 according to the  same model8 ,it 
would appear so6    ,it will be seen    

from the above that the modern science  
of chemistry  overlaps other sciences in
 many directions--physics1 biology1     
astronomy1 etc4 ,these sciences are to a
 certain extent now inter-woven  and    
inter-blended4 ,where the one ends and  
the other begins it is hard  to say4    
,again we see the importance of         
co-operation in these various  fields of
 inquiry6          ,,the ,,nature ,,of  
,,matter      ,these newer researches in
 chemistry have finally enabled us to   
realize  the ultimate constitution of   
matter2 we have seen that it is composed
  of atoms1 but these atoms themselves  
are complex things2 they in turn  are   
composed of electrons1 and in the last  
analysis matter may be said  to be      
non-existent6 ,it has been resolved into
 electricity4 ,but this  conception of  
matter has also enabled us to explain   
many things before                      
inexplicable--chemical combination1     
radio-activity1 and what not4 ,the      
world-old problem as to the nature of   

matter has at last been solved4  ,it now
 devolves upon the physicist to explain 
the ultimate nature of  electricity6    
,matter1 then1 in a sense1 can          
dissociate1 disintegrate1 dematerialize4
  ,it can also integrate1 materialize1  
come into existence4 ,matter can be     
made to vanish and reappear4 ,the old   
law of the 8indestructibility of        
matter0 is not valid1 as generally      
understood4 ,matter can be resolved     
into energy4 ,and this energy is        
radiated into space1 or converted into  
other modes of energy1 and finally into 
heat1 which is in turn radiated  into   
the surrounding medium4 ,the whole      
universe seems to resemble a  clock1    
which has been wound-up1 and is slowly  
running down4 ,even the  law of the     
8conservation of energy0 has been called
 into question 7,see  ,le,bon1 8,the    
,evolution of ,matter10 and 8,the       
,evolution of ,forces074 ,is  the whole 
,universe in some mysterious manner also
 being wound-up8 ,or  does it move in   

vast cycles1 of alternate action and    
inaction1 as the  ,hindu philosophers   
have always contended8 ,these are       
ultimate questions  which only the      
science of the future can solve6        
,,part ,,ii      ,we have now made a    
rapid survey of the history of          
chemistry1 and  traced the evolution of 
thought which has rendered possible the 
newer  conceptions of the constitution  
of matter4 ,we must now say a few  words
 as to the nature of the various        
elements themselves1 and give a  brief  
account of some modern researches4 ,a   
few practical hints as to  experiments  
may also be of interest to the reader4  
,we have seen that when two chemical    
elements combine1 some third  substance 
is formed1 quite different in properties
 from the original  two4 ,thus1 water   
seems to us entirely different from the 
two invisible  gases which compose      
it--oxygen and hydrogen4 ,yet a simple  
experiment  will prove that such is the 
case4 ,we can decompose water by means  

of  an electric current1 when the       
original gases are given off1 in the    
proportion of two to one--hydrogen      
collecting at the negative pole1 and    
oxygen at the positive4 ,this process   
can be kept up until all the water  has 
been decomposed1 and only hydrogen and  
oxygen gases remain4 ,this  process of  
electrical decomposition is known as    
electrolysis4          ,,the ,,elements 
,hydrogen is the lightest of all gases1 
and1 as we have seen1 the  simplest of  
the elements1 in its constitution4 ,like
 all gases1 it can  be liquefied1 and   
even frozen solid into a hard lump1 like
 ice4 ,on the  other hand1 even the     
densest of substances can be liquefied1 
and even  turned into gas or vapor at a 
sufficiently high temperature4 7,gases  
are  rendered liquid or solid at a very 
low temperature47 ,liquid air1 for      
example1 is so cold that when a can of  
it is set upon a block of ice  the      
liquid air boils and gives off 8steam06 
,oxygen gas constitutes about one-fifth 

of our atmospheric air 7the  other four 
parts being nitrogen7 and is the most   
essential element  in supporting life4  
,without it1 life would at once become  
extinct4  ,all forms of combustion take 
place very rapidly in oxygen1 and the   
combustion going on within the human    
body is no exception to this rule4  ,the
 atmospheric nitrogen acts as a sort of 
dilutant1 being an inert  gas4 ,if a    
mouse be placed under a jar of pure     
oxygen gas1 it will  often run round and
 round until it drops dead with         
exhaustion4 ,in an  atmosphere of pure  
oxygen1 we should soon burn up1 and live
 our lives  too rapidly4    ,oxygen has 
a great tendency to combine with various
 other elements1  particularly metals4  
,thus1 iron rust is due to the          
combination of  oxygen with iron2 the   
blackening and tarnishing of cooking    
pots is due  to the slow oxidation of   
copper1 etc4    ,in breathing1 we take  
in oxygen from the air1 which combines  
with the  gases in the lungs1 forming   

carbon dioxide4 ,curiously enough1      
plants  thrive upon this gas1 which is  
so poisonous to human beings1 and in    
turn give off oxygen4 ,hence the value  
of plants and flowers in the  room1 or  
in any densely inhabited area4          
,nitrogen is a very important element1  
entering into many chemical             
combinations4 ,it forms the basis of    
explosives1 used in war4 ,until         
relatively recently1 this element had to
 be obtained from substances  dug out of
 the ground1 but during the late war1   
methods were devised  for obtaining it  
from the air4 8,nitrogen fixation0      
became possible4 ,if  it had not been   
for this discovery1 ,germany would have 
had to give up  the war in #aiaf1 at the
 latest4    ,nitrogen combines with     
hydrogen1 to form ammonia2 with oxygen  
and  water1 to form nitric acid2 with   
nitric acid and potash to form          
gunpowder1 etc4    ,certain oxides      
combine with water1 to form what are    
known as bases4  ,bases can combine with

 acids1 giving rise to salts4    ,carbon
 is an essential element for all living 
matter2 it combines  with oxygen1 to    
yield carbonic acid2 with hydrogen1     
giving rise to a  great number of       
compounds1 such as benzene1 turpentine1 
etc4 ,marsh gas1  illuminating gas1     
acetylene1 etc41 are compounds of       
carbon4    ,chlorine is a very important
 element1 combining with sodium to  form
 common salt4 ,as we have seen1 the     
saltness of the sea is due to  this     
substance4 ,owing to its great affinity 
for hydrogen1 chlorine  decomposes      
water1 setting free oxygen4 ,the result 
of this is that a  mixture of chlorine  
and water has strong bleaching          
qualities4    ,chlorine also combines   
with hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid4
 ,on the  other hand1 it shows little   
sympathy for oxygen1 forming but few    
stable  compounds4 ,chloroform1 so long 
useful in surgical anaesthesia1 is a    
compound of chlorine1 carbon and        
hydrogen4    ,sulphur can assume a      

variety of appearances 7allotrophic     
variation7  as we have seen4 ,sulphuric 
acid1 etc41 are its compounds4 ,the     
latter  substance is used for bleaching 
violets1 but the flowers become violet  
again when put into an ammonia solution4
    ,sodium is a metal1 which burns when
 thrown into water4 ,it is the  other   
constituent of common salt1 and enters  
into a great variety of  combinations4  
,carbonate of soda is one of these4     
,many of the elements--iron1 nickel1    
gold1 platinum1 silver1 etc41--are  too 
well known to necessitate more than a   
brief note4 ,it is interesting  to      
notice1 however1 that there are certain 
8family relations0 among a  number of   
the elements4 ,thus1 sodium and         
potassium are 8related02 and  so are    
barium1 strontium and calcium4 ,again1  
oxygen and sulphur have a  number of    
points in common1--although one is a    
solid and the other a  gas6 ,gold stands
 rather apart from the rest4    ,two    
very interesting groups should be       

mentioned in this place4 ,the  first is 
the group of rare gases--argon1 neon1   
etc41--most of which  have been         
discovered only recently4 ,they are     
inert1 and partly on  account of this1  
and partly on account of their rarity1  
their discovery  was so long delayed4   
,,radio-,,activity      ,the second list
 is the radio-active group of           
elements1--uranium1  radium1 thorium1   
actinium1 etc4 ,these all possess their 
characteristic  properties in varying   
degrees1--giving off alpha1 beta and    
gamma rays4  ,a certain mysterious      
8emanation0 is also emitted by          
radio-active  elements1 but the study of
 these rays and their influence would   
take us  into the realm of 8physics10   
and would more properly belong to a book
  on physics than in the present1       
dealing with chemistry4    ,one very    
interesting fact should1 however1 be    
mentioned in this  connection1 and that 
is the evolution of matter which has    
been  observed1 as the result of        

spectrum analysis4 ,we have heard much  
of  organic evolution1 meaning the      
evolution of life upon our planet4 ,it  
is equally true that there is an        
inorganic evolution1 in which the       
gradual development of chemical elements
 may similarly be traced4 ,thus1  it has
 been noticed that1 in the hottest      
stars1 7gaseous7 the fewest  chemical   
elements exist2 in those of medium      
temperature 7metallic71  more elements  
are found1 while in those having the    
lowest temperature  7carbon stars7 the  
greatest number of chemical elements are
 to be  distinguished4 ,this seems to   
prove that the higher the temperature1  
the fewer the elements1 which in turn   
leads to the conclusion that all        
elements are perhaps ultimately         
,,one--as ,sir ,william ,crookes        
suggested  many years ago4 ,as these    
stars cool1 more and more elements seem 
to be  8crystallized out10 so to        
say1--the many being formed from the    
fewer4  ,the newer researches on the    

constitution of matter render this idea 
all  the more plausible4          ,,the 
,,origin ,,of ,,life      ,just here1 it
 might be well to point out the late    
place occupied by  life1 in this process
 of inorganic evolution4 ,the ,absolute 
,zero of  inter-stellar space is about  
-#bgc;,c4 ,on the other hand1 the       
temperature  of the hottest stars is    
more than #cj1jjj6 7,argo1 ,alnitam1    
etc47 ,the  temperature must fall from  
this to a few degrees above ,zero 7the  
boiling point of water71 before life can
 become manifest at all4 ,life  as we   
know it can only exist between the      
boiling and the freezing  points of     
water4 ,this point is only reached      
towards the very end of the  scale4 ,it 
has therefore been said that1 cosmically
 speaking1 life is  only a 8flash in the
 pan between two eternities0--but for us
 that flash  in the pan is everything6  
,the question of the origin of life upon
 our planet has been discussed  at some 
length in my little book on 8,life3 ,its

 ,origin and ,nature10 in  the present  
series4 ,it may be of interest to       
mention here1 however1  a few of the    
experiments which have been made upon   
the artificial  creation of life1 by    
means of inorganic chemicals1 since     
these properly  fall into place in a    
book devoted to chemistry4    ,dr4 ,h4  
,charlton ,bastian1 of ,england1        
conducted many years ago a series  of   
experiments of this character1 in which 
he claimed to have made  living matter  
from sterilized chemicals4 ,he placed   
these in a glass  bottle which had been 
sterilized1 heated the contents until   
steam  issued from the mouth of the     
flask1 and then instantly sealed up the 
bottle1 preventing the entrance of air4 
,the flasks were then put  away for     
several days1 and at the end of that    
time were found1 upon  examination1 to  
contain living organisms4               
8,,creation0 ,,of ,,life      ,the      
reader will probably be interested in   
knowing the precise chemical  formul    

employed for obtaining these astonishing
 results4 ,several such  formul are     
given in ,dr4 ,bastian's book1 8,the    
,evolution of ,life10 of  which the     
following are samples3      ,sodium     
silicate1 two1 or three1 drops4         
,ammonium phosphate1 four1 or six1      
grains4    ,dilute phosphoric acid1     
four1 or six1 drops4    ,distilled      
water1 one fluid ounce4    ,another     
formula is the following3      ,sodium  
silicate1 three drops4    ,liquor ferri 
pernitratis1 eight drops4    ,distilled 
water1 one fluid ounce4    ,the reader  
can try the experiment for himself4 ,it 
should be said1  however1 that although 
,dr4 ,bastian's results were undoubted1 
they  failed to carry conviction to the 
scientific world as a whole1 since  they
 contended that some experimental error 
must have crept in1  to render these    
results possible2 and it is significant1
 in this  connection1 that the same     
experiments repeated by other men failed
 to  yield the same striking results4   

,chemistry1 then1 enters into           
practically every field of inquiry--the 
constitution of human beings1 no less   
than that of metals1 earths or  distant 
nebul4 ,everything material in the      
,universe is composed of  elements1 of  
atoms1 and these atoms are built-up1 as 
we have seen1  of electrons1 which are  
not matter at all1 but bundles of       
energy4 ,no  two particles of matter in 
the world actually touch1 or come near  
to  touching one another4 ,it is an     
interesting thought1 when one stops  to 
think of it that1 for instance1 the     
steel pillar supporting a               
8sky-scraper10 upon which rests an      
enormous weight 7the whole of the       
superstructure7 is not really dense and 
solid1 as it appears1 but is  actually  
tenuous and shadowy1 and that no two of 
its atoms ever touch  one another2 they 
are separated by relatively vast spaces1
 filled only  with the hypothetical     
8ether40 ,the whole weight of the       
building may be  said to rest upon      

nothing1--or at most upon ether1 which  
thus bears its  strain6          ,,the  
,,ether      ,and what is this ether8   
,is it matter in some subtle form1 or is
 it  something else8 ,we do not know2   
certainly it is no form of matter known 
to us1 and its reality has even been    
called into question of late4  ,hckel1  
as we know1 contended 78,the ,riddle of 
the ,universe07 that the  ether must be 
like some extremely attenuated jelly1   
and that a sphere  of it the size of the
 earth would probably weigh about #bej  
pounds6 ,such  crude conceptions have   
long since been given up4 ,it is far    
more subtle  than this4 ,is it analogous
 to the finest gas8 ,some have thought  
so2 and  yet ,sir ,oliver ,lodge1 one of
 the greatest authorities upon the      
ether1  has contended that it is more   
dense and solid than platinum or gold1  
and that matter represents mere         
8bubbles0 within this dense medium1     
capable of moving freely through it4 ,in
 support of this view1 he has  cited 7in

 his 8,ether of ,space07 the enormous   
gravitational pull of the  earth upon   
the moon1 e4 g41 or of the sun upon the 
earth4 ,the mass  of the earth is       
approximately #f1jjj trillion tons2 that
 of the moon  one-eightieth of this4    
,from these data1 the gravitational pull
 of the  earth upon the moon can be     
calculated2 and1 regarding this1 ,sir   
,oliver  says3    8,a pillar of steel   
which could transmit this force1        
provided it could  sustain a tension of 
#dj tons to the square inch1 would have 
a diameter  of about #djj miles4444 ,if 
this force were to be transmitted by a  
forest  of weightless pillars1 each a   
square foot in cross section1 with a    
tension of #cj tons to the square inch  
throughout1 there would have to  be #e  
million million of them40               
,calculating the gravitational pull of  
the sun on the earth1 in a  similar     
manner1 it was calculated that the      
strain in this case would  have to be   
borne by 8a million million round rods  

or pillars each  thirty feet in         
diameter40    ,it may readily be seen1  
then1 from these figures1 that something
  enormously dense1 apparently1 must    
exist in order to bear this strain1  and
 this must be the ether4 ,and yet no    
physical experiments have proved  to us 
the existence of the ether2 we only     
infer its presence1 and  say that it    
must exist1 in order to account for     
certain phenomena  observed in physics4 
,it was1 ,i think1 ,lord ,kelvin who    
remarked that no  man could believe in  
the ether without at the same time      
believing it  to possess opposite and   
contradictory properties6 ,indeed1 it   
would seem  so6          ,,chemistry    
,,and ,,meta-,,physics      ,such       
speculations as these lead us far       
afield1 into the realm of  mathematics1 
metaphysics and ultimate realities4     
,even the most  material of all the     
sciences--chemistry--leads thither when 
pushed to  its final analysis4 ,the     
visible1 sensible universe vanishes1 and

 is  replaced by the invisible1 the     
super-sensible4 ,yet science has been   
our guide throughout4 ,william ,james   
once remarked that metaphysics  is      
merely 8persistently clear thinking40   
,it endeavors to find the  ultimate     
causes of things1 the noumena behind    
phenomena1 the reality  behind          
appearances4 ,the physical world in     
which we live is a world  of phenomena  
only2 real in a sense1 and for all      
practical purposes1  and yet the        
greatest of all unrealities in another  
sense4 ,it is a  mere world of          
appearances2 a phantasmagoria of        
fleeting shapes and  shadows4 ,we feel  
that reality must exist somehow1        
somewhere2 yet we  can never find it4   
,we can no more find it by chemical     
analysis than  we can discover the mind 
and soul of man by dissecting the brains
 of  corpses1--or even by vivisection6  
,something always escapes us--the ,soul 
of ,things1 the ,ultimate ,reality1 the 
,great ,unknown4    ,such thoughts and  

speculations as these1 however1 need not
 occupy the  mind of the practical      
chemist4 ,for him1 atoms exist1 so do   
elements1  so does 8matter40 ,for       
practical1 daily life1 we certainly have
 to live  as if matter existed1 and the 
chemist has to proceed with his work    
upon the assumption that matter actually
 does exist--it is 8real40  ,certain it 
is that the practical furtherance and   
application of this  science can come   
about in no other way4 ,chemistry has   
revolutionized  our lives2 it has       
penetrated all fields of commerce and   
industry1 and  its practical application
 has rendered possible and pleasant the 
lives  of countless thousands of persons
 now living upon our planet4 ,we owe    
more to chemistry than we can ever      
repay--or rather to those brilliant  and
 unselfish men who have built up the    
modern science of chemistry4 ,it  is my 
hope that the present little book may in
 some degree have helped  to emphasize  
this fact4          ,transcriber's      

,notes      ,punctuation1 hyphenation1  
and spelling were made consistent when a
  predominant preference was found in   
the original book2 otherwise they  were 
not changed4    ,simple typographical   
errors were corrected2 unbalanced       
quotation  marks were remedied when the 
change was obvious1 and otherwise left  
unbalanced4    ,this book uses both     
8reactions0 and 8rections04    ,page    
#ag3 8,cobalt0 was printed as 8,cobolt02
 changed here4    ,page #bc3 ,the       
8constitutional0 formula in the original
 book was printed  with the two 8,b0s   
stacked1 one above the other1 and in a  
smaller font  that could fit both of    
them on one line of normal-sized text4  
,page #di3 8allotrophic0 was printed    
that way2 probably should be            
8allotropic04