,transcriber's ,note ,italic text displayed as3 italic ,,little ,,blue ,,book ,,no4 #ajej ,edited by ,e4 ,haldeman-,julius ,x-,ray1 ,violet ,ray and ,other ,rays ,with ,their ,use in ,modern ,medicine ,maynard ,shipley ,,haldeman-,,julius ,,company ,,girard1 ,,kansas ,copyright1 #aibf1 ,haldeman-,julius ,company ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,page ,introduction #d ,chapter ,i4 ,everyday ,uses of ,x-,rays #e ,chapter ,,ii4 ,curative ,value of ,x-,rays--,x-,rays ,cure ,whooping ,cough--,x-,rays for ,malaria #ah ,chapter ,,iii4 ,martyrs to ,radiology #cb ,chapter ,,iv4 ,discovery and ,nature of ,x-,rays #dc ,chapter ,v4 ,ultra-,violet ,light in ,health and ,disease--,sunlight and ,infantile ,paralysis #dh ,,introduction ,highly important as are the phenomena of ,radioactivity from the physical1 chemical1 medical1 and philosophic points of view1 they are hardly comparable in their relations to the affairs of our everyday life to the ,roentgen or ,x-rays1 and to the invisible violet or ultra-violet rays4 ,the ,x-rays are utilized today in hundreds of practical ways1 and are vastly important also in surgery1 medicine1 dentistry1 and in biological investigations4 ,it is perhaps not too much to say that the discovery of the so-called ,x-rays should be numbered among the two or three most important revelations of modern science4 ,this will be clearly demonstrated in the course of the chapters to follow4 ,x-,,ray1 ,,violet ,,ray ,,and ,,other ,,rays ,,chapter ,i ,,everyday ,,uses ,,of ,x-,,rays ,to enumerate and describe all the practical uses of ,x-rays1 apart from medicine and scientific research in general1 would require a good many more pages than can be devoted to the subject here4 ,to take a few cases at random1 without describing the instruments and methods employed3 radiography reveals flaws in the structure of iron and steel building and bridge materials1 and in the cylinders of airplane engines1 and so avoids accidents4 ,in ,england a gasoline or petrol tank was shown to have rivet heads on the outside and none on the inside4 ,serious defects in the steel axles of railway and automobile 8under carriages0 have been discovered by radiography4 ,in one case1 at least1 the axles had been drilled in the wrong position and the holes had been simply filled with metal and covered over4 ,an entire lot was rejected in consequence and probably serious accidents were forestalled4 8,cracks in castings1 bad welds and weak places which do not show on the surface of metal are perfectly clear to the searching rays4 ,how much would you give to know that that welded part in your automobile is really solid and perfect1 that it contains no flaw to break down some day when you are twenty miles from a machine shop8 ,a well-known mechanical engineer said recently that in ten years a metallurgical ,x-ray machine will be as vital a part of the equipment in an automobile repair shop1 a foundry1 or machine shop as it is now in a dentist's office40 ,we are assured by ,the ,iron ,trade 7#gc3bf7 that 8the practice of analyzing metals by means of ,x-rays is only in its infancy4 ,there is every reason to believe that soon great advances will be made in determining the crystallization and therefore the properties of metals4 ,students of metallurgy are well aware that the properties of metals and other bodies depend on the nature of their crystallization4 ,the microscope has rendered valuable service largely because it enables the form and arrangement of the crystalline grains to be studied4 ,the ,x-ray carries the same form of inquiry into a region #aj1jjj times more minute1 thereby furnishing new evidence as to crystalline structures1 so that it is now possible to see the atoms and the molecules1 and the way they form crystals4 ,every crystal has its characteristic ,x-ray spectrum and can be identified thereby even when the individual crystals are beyond the resolving power of the microscope and the substance is in danger of being called amorphous4 ,if a specimen contains a mixture of crystalline substances1 the spectrum shows the combined effect of all the substances1 and provided each individual spectrum is known1 the specimen can be analyzed40 ,the ,x-rays are also used to determine the quality of the fabric in automobile tires1 and even to detect irregularities in the centers of golf balls1 and to reveal why some of them fly straighter and farther than others4 8,the professional detective1 too10 says ,mr4 ,wilfred ,s4 ,ogden 7,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,august1 #aibc71 8will find ,x-rays useful in his business4 ,consider the detection of infernal machines1 for example4 ,two or three ,x-ray plates will tell an investigator just what is in a suspicious-looking box4 ,if it is a bomb the ,x-ray will show him how to get it apart and render it harmless4 ,immediate detection of false bottoms in trunks is child's play with the ,x-ray4 ,when the government provided its customs inspectors with ,x-ray machines the gems which smugglers try to hide in the linings of clothes or in hollow-handled hairbrushes might as well be worn openly4 8,the ,x-rays give us one of the easiest ways to detect the alteration of checks and other documents4 ,it is seldom that such an alteration is made with exactly the same ink used on the original4 ,inks even of the same color1 differ in the way they affect the rays4 ,in most cases all that is necessary to detect an alteration is to place the suspected document for a moment under the ,x-rays and make a photograph of it4 ,the new ink used in the alteration will stand out clearly as different from the old4 8,the industrial detective will find ,x-rays just as useful4 ,the adulteration of foods by sawdust1 sand or clay2 the adding of too much filler to paper2 the presence of grit in lubricating oil1 all will be revealed4 8,another use of the rays comes home to every cook and housewife4 ,x-rays constitute the only sure way to tell good eggs from bad4 ,pass each egg in turn through the ,x-rays and let its shadow fall on a chemical screen4 ,you will see exactly what is inside each egg4 ,the ones containing hopeful chicks may be rejected40 ,one of the most remarkable economic or biological uses of the ,x-ray so far developed is the study of silk-worms and their diseases4 ,the ,silk ,association of ,america has established a laboratory--,department of ,sericulture--in the ,canton ,christian ,college1 presided over by a staff of ,chinese and foreign entomologists4 ,here the silk-worm is ,x-rayed by powerful microscopes1 and all his disorders diagnosed and corrected1 says ,mr4 ,philip ,a4 ,yountz 7,scientific ,american1 ,september1 #aibe74 8,numerous autopsies on deceased members of the silk-worm tribe revealed that from #ej to #ajj percent of the worms raised in ,south ,china were infected with diseases that made the infant mortality rate excessively high and destroyed the value of the silk from those hardy enough to survive4 ,the elimination of these diseases would enable ,south ,china to produce four or five times as much silk40 ,in ,great ,britain1 ,x-rays are used in the analysis of coal1 the method being an adaptation of the ,x-ray stereoscope4 ,in ,berlin1 ,s4 ,nalken1 a noted criminologist1 has devised an important improvement in finger-print identification4 ,x-ray pictures are obtained of the finger1 with the muscles and bones4 ,this is done without the use of any chemicals that could obstruct the delicate furrows of the finger lines4 ,moreover1 the finger bone is shaped so characteristically as to aid identification4 ,whenever a certain likeness of finger-lines is discovered1 the bones are examined to see if further research is necessary4 ,picture fakers have been dethroned by application of the ,x-ray to paintings4 ,recently painted 8old masters0 are now easily detected4 ,modern artists use white-lead1 which is more opaque than the 8priming0 or 8sizing0 used by the older artists2 and the ,x-ray device 8made in ,germany0 in #aiad by ,dr4 ,faber1 and further developed by the ,french expert1 ,dr4 ,andr ,chron1 at once distinguishes the old from the new4 ,one picture by ,van ,ostade1 of men drinking at a table1 proved to be a fraud when submitted to the ,x-ray2 it had been painted over a study of dead birds4 ,another1 called 8,the ,royal ,child10 a supposed #afth century work1 now in the ,louvre1 was proved to have been painted during the #aith century over a picture of very much earlier date4 ,during a popular lecture on the ,x-ray in ,london1 before the ,royal ,institution1 the distinguished physicist1 ,prof4 ,g4 ,w4 ,c4 ,kaye1 showed a number of radiograph slides1 among which were two pictures by ,dutch painters1 one representing the ,madonna and the other the ,crucifixion4 ,in the former1 the ,madonna appeared to be looking at something which was non-existent in the canvas1 and a radiograph proved the missing object was a child which some former owner of the picture had painted out4 ,in the second picture1 a woman in the attitude of prayer was found to have been painted over what was in the original the figure of a man in monk's garb4 ,the first ,x-ray pictures ever taken of a mummy were completed by scientists at the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,the pictures showing the skeleton in detail are expected to be a great aid in studying the development of bone formations in the evolution of man4 ,this first subject of the scientists' ,x-ray was a ,south ,american ,indian mummy4 ,fake mummies1 like false gems1 are instantly detected by ,x-ray methods4 ,one of the methods used for detecting the theft of diamonds at the mines is to examine the workmen with ,x-rays4 ,of course1 a fluoroscope is used to make the ,x-ray image visible1 and this is the type used in any regular ,x-ray work4 ,the ,x-rays are now being used in shoe-stores--8foot-o-scope0 instruments--to enable shoe salesmen to see the bones of a customer's foot and thus make correct fittings of shoes4 ,a few years ago there arrived from ,germany a new kind of mechanical doll4 8,a secret mechanism inside enabled it to walk1 sit down or stand up1 and to do other unusual things4 ,the importer in possession of the sample doll would not allow it to be opened4 ,but one of the competitors borrowed the doll4 ,he had promised not to open it4 ,but he made some ,x-ray photographs of it4 ,now he is manufacturing these dolls himself40 ,during the ,world ,war every effort was made to introduce contraband materials into ,germany and if it had not been for the all-seeing eye of the ,roentgen ray1 it would have been impossible to prevent materials of the utmost importance to the enemy from reaching him by way of neutral countries4 ,efforts were made repeatedly to smuggle rubber and copper by burying them in bales or bundles of other materials4 ,it would have been impossible to have made a minute investigation of every bale that was shipped1 but by means of ,x-rays it was possible to see through these bundles and packages and locate any substances that were more or less opaque to the rays4 ,the ,x-ray has been found useful for examining timber up to #ah inches thick for internal knots1 resin pockets1 cracks and other defects4 8,when submarines were active and the supply of the best kinds of wood was uncertain1 it was necessary to make some of the wooden parts out of small pieces of ordinary wood fitted and glued together4 ,the way these pieces were joined and fastened was extremely important4 ,a bit of weak glue inside some little strut might mean a disastrous collapse in the air4 ,but real inspection seemed impossible1 for the places where important faults might exist were hidden from view4 ,finally scientists solved the problem by building an ,x-ray apparatus with which they could look into the inside of each built-up airplane part and tell whether it held some little imperfection which might prove dangerous4 8,this #8internal inspection' of wooden articles by ,x-ray has been applied1 since the war1 to many other articles4 ,hidden joints inside high-class furniture and cabinet work1 invisible knots and flaws inside the wood itself1 can be determined easily by ,x-ray examination40 7,w4 ,s4 ,ogden74 ,the ,scientific ,american 7,september1 #aibd7 published an abstract of a paper read before the ,deutschen ,bunsen-,gesellschaft1 in which ,dr4 ,d4 ,coster showed that 8the relations between the ,x-ray spectra of the different elements are so simple that1 in some respects1 they are more useful for purposes of chemical analysis than ordinary luminous spectra4 ,an important advantage is the fact that the ,x-ray spectrum of an element is quite independent of the nature of the compound containing it4 ,it is easy to detect the presence in a mixture of which not more than one milligram is available4 ,certain precautions are necessary in examining the ,x-ray spectra2 although the number of lines for each element is comparatively limited1 recent observations have shown the existence of a number of weaker lines2 in addition to this1 with the high voltages now generally used1 not only the spectrum of the first order1 but also those of higher orders appear4 ,slight impurities in the material of the anticathode1 and in the subject under examination1 also give their lines1 so that there are often various possibilities to be considered before a given line can be explained4 ,not only the wave length1 but also the typical appearance of the suspected lines must be considered1 as well as their relative intensity4 ,by measuring photometrically the intensity of the spectral lines it is possible1 in some cases1 to obtain a quantitative estimate of the amount of an element present in a mixture40 ,another method of rapid analysis of material in the laboratory by the use of ,x-rays in a much shorter time than that required by the older chemical methods is that devised by ,professor ,urbain1 of the ,minero-,chemical ,laboratory at the ,sorbonne1 with the assistance of ,eugene ,delaunay4 ,mr4 ,delaunay1 who did the actual work of testing the new ,x-ray method1 says there is no risk of error4 ,by employment of ,x-rays the scientist is now able to ascertain the arrangement of the atoms and molecules within the crystal 8network0 7structure--or 8space lattice0 of the crystal74#a ,the results are obtained from the study of the reflection and refraction of the rays by the crystals1 or1 more precisely1 the successive rows of molecules in the crystal4 ,these act toward the extremely short ,x-rays in the same way as a grating spectroscope does to ordinary light-rays4 ,man's ability to lengthen the ultra-violet end of the spectrum is limited by his capacity to provide a diffraction grating1 or a mineral prism1 which can split up light-waves of increasingly greater frequency 7or shortness74 ,the width of a grating space 7a fine line on speculum metal1 which acts as a minute mirror7 must be comparable to the wave length of the light4 ,previous to the discoveries of ,prof4 ,max von ,laue in ,munich 7now in ,zurich71 and ,prof4 ,william ,henry ,bragg1 of the ,university of ,london1 no grating or other material was known whose spaces were as small as the wave length of ,x-rays4 ,laue conceived the brilliant idea that the regular arrangement of the atoms in a crystal might serve the purpose4 ,they did4 ,bragg1 and later his son1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,l4 ,bragg1 of the ,university of ,manchester1 followed up the work of ,laue with results of immeasurable value to science4 ,a very important relation between the atomic number of an element and its ,x-ray spectrum was discovered by the brilliant young ,english physicist1 ,h4 ,g4 ,t4 ,moseley 7#ahhh-aiae71 in his #bfth year1 a year before his death by a ,turkish bullet at the ,dardanelles4 ,while analyzing the characteristic ,x-rays which are given off when any kind of substance is bombarded with cathode rays1 ,moseley found that the atoms of all the different substances emit radiations or groups of radiations which are extraordinarily similar1 but which differ in their wave lengths as we proceed from substance to substance2 the frequencies 7wave lengths7 change by definite steps as one progresses from elements of lower to elements of higher atomic weights4 ,through ,moseley's epoch-making discovery we now know that each of the #ib elements1 from hydrogen to uranium1 is built up by successive additions of one positive charge 7proton7 and one negative electron1 and that the atomic numbers--from #a to #ib--;correspond to the number of protons and electrons in each successively heavier 7and more complex7 atom4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this phase of our subject can only be alluded to in this little book4 ,for an authoritative yet easily understood exposition of the subject1 see ,bragg1 ,w4 ,h4 and ,w4 ,l41 8,x-,rays and ,crystal ,structure02 also ,kaye1 ,g4 ,w4 ,c41 8,x-,rays02 and1 for more advanced reading1 de,broglie1 ,maurice1 8,x-,rays04 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,curative ,,value ,,of ,x-,,rays ,in my ,little ,blue ,book on ,radium 7,no4 #ajjj71 it is shown that the 8emanation0 and the 8gamma rays0 of radioactive substances are being used to great advantage in our hospitals1 but that certain dangers to the patient's normal cells attended employment of these radiations4 ,it is gratifying to note that successful ,x-ray treatments are now being given in cases of cancer1 rays being produced--under high-tension currents--that are almost identical with the gamma rays of radium4 ,moreover1 the ,x-rays have a double value in medicine4 ,in the first place1 they are used as an aid to diagnosis1 forming those branches of radiotherapy known as radioscopy and radiography4 ,then they are also used to great advantage in the alleviation or cure of certain maladies4 ,by means of radioscopic or radiographic examination it may be found that there is a tumor in the chest1 and as a result of that diagnosis it may be decided to institute treatment 7radiotherapy7 by means of ,x-rays or radium rays or the two combined4 ,the method of employing extremely penetrating ,x-rays--under high voltage and amperage--seems to have been first used in ,germany1 during the ,world ,war1 but was soon developed to a high degree of efficiency in ,france1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states1 especially by ,dr4 ,william ,duane1 professor of biophysics at ,harvard4 ,as early as #aiai1 ,professor ,dessauer1 in ,germany1 produced the penetrating ,x-rays by means of a high-tension current ranging from #agj1jjj to #bdj1jjj volts4 ,it was later found1 that rays at #bjj1jjj volts became homogeneous1 so that a further increase was considered as of no therapeutic value4 ,in ,march1 #aibc1 ,dr4 ,i4 ,seth ,hirsch1 head of the ,x-ray department of the ,bellevue ,hospital in ,new ,york1 gave a drastic treatment--for cancer--of four periods of #af hours each with the ,x-rays at #bej1jjj volts1 apparently with satisfactory results4 ,the patient suffered no pain or inconvenience during the treatment with the exception of occasional nausea4 ,a year later an experiment was made in a ,philadelphia laboratory where an ,x-ray treatment of #cjj1jjj volts was used4 ,it seems that alleviation rather than cure has been the result of nearly all cases where cancer had been well advanced4 ,other important improvements1 meanwhile1 were being introduced by the ,german specialists1 during the ,world ,war and later1 among which was the just mentioned method of giving large tissue-destroying doses1 requiring from ten to #ae hours2 to this was added careful filtration of the rays1 and the invention of the ionto--a quantimeter for exact measurements4 ,a number of malignant diseases is reported to have yielded to this new system of massive doses under higher voltage4 ,but ,professor ,duane has stated that neither ,x-rays nor the gamma rays of radium should be considered as a permanent cure for cancer4 ,until recently the tubes in which ,x-rays are produced have always been made of glass4 ,the latest discovery is a tube made of fused silica1 or vitreosil4 ,vitreosil permits the passage of the short rays1 will stand a much higher temperature than glass1 and is much stronger4 ,this means more continuous service from ,x-rays4 ,according to ,dr4 ,francis ,c4 ,wood1 director of the ,crocker ,institute of ,cancer ,research of ,columbia ,university1 a marked advance in the treatment of cancer has been made possible by a new type of ,x-ray tube1 the invention of ,dr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,ulrey1 of the ,westinghouse ,company4 ,the new tube has a higher emissive power--in other words1 it is as if the candle-power of an ordinary lamp were increased six-fold4 ,it is besides designed for use with higher voltages than have previously been practical in ,roentgenology4 ,the result is to reduce the necessary exposure from two or three hours per patient to #bj minutes1 and to increase the life of the tubes4 ,incidentally1 the new tube gives a greater proportion of the type of rays that cure certain forms of cancer1 and less of the sort that attack healthy tissue4 ,a revolutionary discovery by ,dr4 ,jacques ,forestier1 of ,aix-les-,bains1 ,france1 for which a gold medal was awarded him in #aibe by the ,french ,academy1 has made possible a method of exact diagnosis by ,x-rays heretofore deemed by many workers impossible of attainment4 ,as is well known1 it is not difficult to make an ,x-ray picture of the bones of the body4 ,they are so much denser than the soft parts of the body that1 even with the ordinary photographic plate1 it has been possible to photograph them fairly well4 ,by pumping the stomach full of gas or air--which are highly transparent to the ,x-rays--and then applying the ,x-ray1 it has sometimes been possible to locate the beginnings of cancer of the stomach1 and the place of malignant growth4 ,another method in common use is to give the patient about a pint of some substance opaque to ,x-rays1 such as bismuth carbonate1 thus making it possible to record the passage of the mixture1 the outline of the stomach and the intestines thus being made visible4 ,in this way ulcers of the stomach have been frequently located4 ,bismuth and similar substances could not be injected into the brain or spinal cord1 on account of their poisonous effect on the highly sensitive cells of these regions4 ,now1 thanks to the method discovered by ,dr4 ,forestier1 the cavities of the brain and spine can be safely explored1 as well as the network of bronchial tubes in the lung--the so-called 8bronchial tree40 ,in an interview with ,mr4 ,david ,dietz1 ,dr4 ,forestier said 7in part73 8,i make use of a ,french oil called lipiodol4 ,it is a chemical compound composed of poppyseed oil and iodine4 ,the chemical previously had been used as a treatment for certain diseases1 such as goiter4 ,but no one had ever thought of using it in ,x-ray work4 8,i noticed that where patients had been treated with lipiodol opaque spots appeared when ,x-ray pictures were made of the treated parts4 ,it occurred to me1 therefore1 that lipiodol could be used as a means of making photographs4 8,accordingly1 in company with ,dr4 ,sicard of ,paris1 ,i began to experiment4 ,we worked with animals until we were convinced of the correctness of our method4 ,when we were sure that it was safe we tried it on human beings4 ,i have used it in more than #e1jjj cases in ,europe without having a single adverse result4 8,the lipiodol is injected into the brain cavity or the canal of the spinal cord or the bronchial tubes and then a regular ,x-ray photograph is made4 ,the oil renders the injected part opaque to ,x-rays and they show up as sharp black images in the photographs4 8,the method is of particular value when a patient is suffering from paralysis which has been caused by a pressure of a tumor or growth somewhere along the spinal cord4 ,in this case a drop of the oil is injected into the spinal canal at the base of the brain4 ,in a healthy patient it would immediately travel to the base of the spine4 ,but in the paralyzed patient it only travels as far as the point of compression4 ,the ,x-ray picture therefore reveals the drop of oil as a black spot4 ,the surgeon then knows the exact spot at which to operate in order to find the growth causing the pressure1 which in turn results in paralysis4 8,in diagnosing the lungs with the use of lipiodol the injection in the bronchial tree enables the ,x-ray worker to tell at once whether the patient is suffering from diseases of the bronchial tubes themselves1 or from diseases of the lung tissue1 such as tuberculosis40 ,it is gratifying to be able to relate that along with the improvements already described1 progress has also been made in the preparation of photographic plates required by the radiographer4 ,until recently no photographic plate had been made which fully met the requirements of ,x-ray work1 and there was little contrast in ,x-ray photographs4 ,they were all much too sensitive to the longer 7visible7 wave lengths1 and produced blurring effects4 ,early in #aiba an excellent photographic plate1 #be times more rapid than anything previously known1 was invented by ,dr4 ,leonard ,a4 ,levey1 a prominent member of the ,roentgen ,society4 ,it makes an ,x-ray photograph of the vital organs of the living body whose movements have hitherto blurred the images on the ordinary photographic plate4 ,distinct pictures of the heart1 lungs and stomach can now be made4 ,dr4 ,levey has made snapshot photographs of the heart1 lungs and kidneys4 ,all were taken in a flash with the ,x-rays on the new plate4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,becher has called the attention of ,americans to the achievement of ,dr4 ,schleussner1 an eminent ,german authority in photochemical matters1 who has succeeded1 after years of investigation1 in sensitizing photographic plates for ,x-ray use by an addition of certain organic salts which are absorbed by the grains of silver bromide on the photographic plate4 ,the plate thus formed is very responsive to the soft rays of an ,x-ray tube4 ,the soft rays are relatively longer than the hard ,roentgen rays4 ,one could compare the soft rays to blue-violet light1 if their effects on this new photographic plate are used for the comparison4 ,photographs taken with such plates give very contrasting effects4 ,on the 8,neo-,roentgen plate0 the effect of the yellow light was almost nil4 ,for this reason1 developing the plate is considerably facilitated1 as the plate can be exposed to yellow light and the attendant1 who need not be a skilled operator1 can examine the plate in a rather brilliant light without necessarily guessing at possible results4 ,the examination of the plate under a ruby light is1 therefore1 completely done away with4 ,it follows that if the new ,x-ray plate should come into general use1 much clearer ,x-ray photographs would be possible2 the time of exposure could be decreased2 an unskilled operator could develop the plate in a room flooded with yellow light4 ,such improved plates are now being extensively used4 ,while not attempting to enumerate all the special affections to which ,x-ray therapy is now being successfully applied1 a few uses may be mentioned4 ,x-,,rays ,,cure ,,whooping ,,cough ,in a preliminary report published in the ,medical and ,surgical ,journal 7,boston71 ,dr4 ,henry ,i4 ,bowditch and ,dr4 ,ralph ,d4 ,leonard express the belief that a valuable cure for whooping cough has been found in ,x-ray treatment of this disease1 which has stubbornly resisted most1 if not all1 of the other remedies applied4 ,definite improvement was noted in most of #bf cases of active pertussis 7whooping cough7 treated with the ,x-ray1 the subjects of which ranged in age from three months to #dj years1 with disease stages from one to ten weeks4 ,the physicians added that they could not give any rational explanation of the action through which the ,x-ray appeared to produce beneficial results4 ,the report said3 8,each patient received three or four applications of the ,x-ray at intervals of two or three days40 ,many of these cases have not been observed sufficiently long to determine the final result4 ,nevertheless1 8it is evident to us that there resulted a definite improvement in these patients which cannot be explained by mere accident4444 ,it does not seem likely that the beneficial result is due to any direct bactericidal property of the ,x-ray4 8,we feel warranted in classifying a small percentage of these #bf cases under the heading of 8prompt cures40 ,by this we mean that after two or three applications of ,x-rays1 covering a period of six days1 the spasms and whoops entirely disappeared and the patients were clinically well1 except for1 possibly1 a very slight cough4 8,the bulk of the cases1 however1 we have classified as relieved4 ,this group consists of perhaps #gj percent of the total4 ,by relieved we mean that there has been a gradual diminution in the number of spasms4 8,there is a small percentage of cases1 perhaps #aj to #ae percent1 which apparently were not relieved4 ,in this group are included one moribund case and one rather difficult feeding case4 8,while our evidence so far is not sufficient to warrant any definite conclusions1 we have the feeling that the ,x-ray at the present time may be of more value in the treatment of pertussis than any other form of treatment1 including serum40 ,x-,,rays ,,for ,,malaria ,an ,italian physician1 ,dr4 ,antonio ,pais1 of ,venice1 has since #aiaf been successfully treating malaria by means of ,x-rays4 ,this treatment is1 however1 not employed as a substitute for quinine1 but merely to reinforce its action4 ,the ,x-rays are directed toward the region of the spleen1 and the effect is to reduce its enlargement4 ,at the same time the composition of the blood is modified4 ,the success obtained by ,dr4 ,pais has1 according to the ,bibliothque ,universelle et ,rvue ,suisse 7,lausanne71 been so great that the ,italian ,government decided to introduce his method of treatment into the military hospitals4 ,since the war the treatment has been studied by ,prof4 ,b4 ,grassi1 who made a report1 at an ,italian scientific meeting1 in which he declared the action of ,x-rays upon chronic malaria to be 8truly marvelous40 ,the ,bibliothque ,universelle says1 regarding earlier treatments3 8,the attempt was made by them to destroy the parasite contained in the spleen4 ,but it is now known that the ,x-rays employed for therapeutic action have no effect upon micro-organisms1 although they may be injurious to the elements of the blood4 ,in the method devised by ,dr4 ,pais1 the ,x-rays are employed to stimulate the functioning of the spleen1 of the marrow1 and of the lympathic elements by means of slight but prolonged excitation2 they are employed in infinitesimal doses--homeopathically1 so to speak4 ,thus the result is absolutely different as well as the method40 ,dr4 ,james ,b4 ,murphy demonstrated that accompanying cancer grafts on immune animals there occurs a general increase in the circulating lymphocytes and hyperplasia of the lymphoid tissue4 ,when the lymphoid tissue of immune animals was destroyed1 the immunibility was annulled4 ,two methods of increasing the lymphocytes have been found1 namely1 diffuse small doses of ,x-rays1 and dry heat4 ,mice with lymphocytosis induced by these agents show ,increased resistance to replants of their own tumors4 ,the results afford ground for hope of human application4 7,reported in ,scientific ,american ,monthly1 ,january1 #aibj1 page #if47 ,it has been found that actively growing tissue1 whether normal or pathological1 is the most susceptible to ,x-rays1 and it is comparatively easy to sterilize a number of species of animals without otherwise injuring them4 7,prof4 ,james ,w4 ,mayor1 ,science1 ,september #bc1 #aiba47 ,c4 ,r4 ,bardeen found that ,x-rays prevent worms from regenerating lost parts4 ,observations of the effect of exposure to ,x-rays on the fertility of animals were described in a paper by ,prof4 ,l4 ,h4 ,snyder of the ,north ,carolina ,college of ,agriculture4 ,exposure of male rats to ,x-rays1 he said1 had rendered them sterile at the end of two months1 the animals regaining fertility when no longer subjected to the rays4 ,if not handled with due caution and skill1 ,x-rays may do more harm than good1 provoking malignant growths as well as retarding their development4 ,as early as #aiaa1 ,otto ,heese published a record of #ed cases of cancer caused by means of improper handling of these powerful rays4 ,in the early days of ,x-ray therapy the nature and effects of these radiations were wholly unknown4 ,operators did not hesitate to test and adjust their tubes by throwing the shadow of their hands on the flouroscope4 ,x-rays do not make objects visible to the human eye1 and to see the effects of them it is necessary to interpose a special screen between the eyes and object through which the ,x-rays are to penetrate4 ,the cardboard screen is coated with a fluorescent substance1 such as barium-platinum-cyanide1 or calcium tungstate4 ,this screen is best placed in one end of a black wooden or pasteboard box1 against the other end of which the eyes are placed when in use4 ,this screen under the influence of ,x-rays becomes luminous and enables one to see shadows or silhouettes of objects of denser material interposed between the eyes and the ,x-ray tube1 when the tube is in operation4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,martyrs ,,to ,,radiology ,it was not until several years after the discovery of ,x-rays by ,roentgen1 in ,december1 #ahie--;after operators had been severely burned in laboratories and hospitals all over the world1 and surgeons and physicians began to compare notes1 that the pathological effects of ,x-rays were discovered and understood4 ,says ,john ,macy 7in his memorial volume on ,walter ,james ,dodd1 heroic victim of #ej separate operations due to ,x-ray burn73 8,it is easy now to understand what was happening to ,dodd and his contemporaries4 ,in a modern ,x-ray machine the strength of the current1 the quality of the spark1 all the conditions1 are determined by metrical instruments4 ,in the early days the operator tested his tube and adjusted it by throwing the shadow of his hand on the fluoroscope2 by the look of the shadow he judged how the machine was behaving4 ,first he used the left hand until that became too sore1 then the right4 ,and until devices were found to focus and confine the rays1 the face of the operator was exposed1 and sometimes the neck and chest were burned4 ,a limited exposure to the ,x-ray is as harmless as a walk in the sunlight4 ,it is the repeated1 continuous bombardment of the ray that is calamitous4 ,dodd and the other pioneers lived in the ,x-ray40 ,john ,l4 ,bauer was the first victim of the ,x-ray1 in #aijf4 ,he was followed in #aiad by ,henry ,green1 who1 although he knew he was doomed1 and in spite of the fact that he had become almost helpless physically because so much flesh had been cut away in amputating cancerous growths1 persisted in his work to the end4 ,major ,eugene ,wilson ,caldwell of the ,medical ,reserve ,corps of the ,united ,states ,army1 the inventor of the ,caldwell liquid interrupter and other devices for therapeutic use1 lost his life in #aiah4 ,dr4 ,charles ,infroit of the ,salpetrire ,hospital1 ,paris1 died on ,november #bi1 #aibj4 ,one of ,dr4 ,infroit's hands became infected in #ahih as a result of his continuous use of the ,x-ray1 and an operation was performed4 ,after that he had #bd other operations1 #bb of them performed in the last ten years of his life1 the last on ,august #a1 #aibj1 when his right arm and left wrist were amputated4 ,dr4 ,charles ,vaillant1 whose heroic services to humanity have made necessary #ac amputations until now he is armless1 on ,february #ai1 #aibc1 received from ,united ,states ,ambassador ,herrick the ,carnegie plaque1 while the cravat of the ,paris ,gold ,medal of the ,french ,legion of ,honor was conferred upon the martyr4 ,physicians say further amputations are inevitable1 and that these will result in ,vaillant's death4 ,in #aiba1 the eminent ,english radiologists1 ,dr4 ,cecil ,lyster and ,dr4 ,ironside ,bruce1 and ,dr4 ,adolphe ,leroy of the ,st4 ,antonie ,hospital in ,paris1 died martyrs to their noble profession4 8,all of these men went knowingly to death4 ,perhaps they did not take their sacrifices in the spirit of the saint1 possessed by a vision of suffering humanity4 ,theirs may have been the ardor of the scientist1 the endurance of a worker who hears the challenge of nature's silence and goes to battle4 ,but in themselves they express the powerful urge of a spirit that longs to see1 to feel1 to know1 and to possess all the mysteries of the universe4 ,it is the same spirit that makes men rebel and agonize for a better order of humanity4 ,these men seem better than the world that produces them4 ,but each of them1 when he dies1 may pull the rest of humanity a little closer to his level40 ,dr4 ,frederick ,henry ,baetjer of ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital has only two of his ten fingers left4 ,he lost the other eight as the result of burns received in ,x-ray experimentation4 ,dr4 ,francis ,carter ,wood1 ,x-,ray and radium expert of the ,crocker ,special ,fund ,cancer ,laboratory of ,new ,york1 calls particular attention to the fact that 8the deaths which are occurring now are the results of repeated exposures ten or more years ago1 when no one knew what the effect of the rays might be4 ,the burns suffered then were the result of continuous exposure without protection against the rays4 ,one exposure1 or a moderate number of them1 would do no harm2 but before the present perfection of the apparatus it was necessary to adjust the focus for each picture1 and the operator would do this by looking at his bare hands through the fluoroscope4 ,this resulted in chronic burns1 and the burned flesh formed a fertile soil for cancer4 ,lead one-quarter of an inch thick will stop both radium and ,x-rays40 ,in ,dr4 ,wood's opinion1 workers in ,x-rays today 8need not suffer any ill effects except through their own carelessness40 ,a discovery which promises to put an end to the dangers to life and limb risked by those who engage in working with ,x-rays was communicated to the ,academy of ,sciences of ,paris as early as ,may1 #aibj4 ,it is the result of experiments by ,dr4 ,pesch of the ,faculty of ,montpelier1 who himself is one of the sufferers from ,x-rays1 and who has long been seeking the means of protecting his young confrres4 ,he found that deep red rays are antagonistic to the ultra-violet rays which produce irritation and burning of the skin1 and certain oxidations4 ,thus1 by the simultaneous application of both rays he secures immunity for ,x-ray workers4 ,he has already proved that erythema can be prevented by the application of red rays4 ,daniel ,berthelot1 who announced the discovery to the ,academy1 recalled that as long ago as #ahgb the antagonism of extreme rays of the spectrum had been foreseen by ,becquerel in his study of phosphorescence4 ,dr4 ,pesch employs a filter composed of a plastic material that allows only the red and yellow rays to pass4 ,it is claimed that by means of this filter not only are the ,x-rays made harmless1 but its employment effects a cure for radio-dermatitis1 the affection which has maimed or killed so many of the early workers in ,x-ray therapy4 ,according to ,dr4 ,g4 ,contremoulins1 ,chief of the principal laboratory of the ,paris hospitals1 whose researches and experiments were begun in ,february1 #ahif1 the usual methods of protection even today are not always adequate4 ,says he 7in ,la ,dmocratie ,nouvelle1 ,paris1 ,april1 #aiba73 8,young radiologists1 especially those born of the war1 take no heed of the experience acquired by their elders1 being quite convinced that the glasses1 gloves and aprons containing lead offer a perfect protection--they even imagine that strictly speaking they might get along without them4 8,like a child which hides behind a wooden door to shield itself from the bullets of a machine gun1 our young radiologists believe they are safe when they have donned their gloves and examine their patients behind a sheet of lead glass4 ,but1 unfortunately1 these enable them only to avoid those superficial skin affections caused by the most absorbable rays of the spectrum4 8,but they receive1 alas1 those other radiations which are more penetrating1 and these slowly produce lesions of all the ductless glands in the body1 whose internal secretions we now know to be of such vital importance in the bodily economy40 ,the modern employment of #bjj1jjj volts under three milliamperes gives rise to the need of great caution in the use of ,x-rays4 ,even the health of persons in adjoining rooms or buildings1 ,dr4 ,contremoulins believes may be imperiled4 ,in the ,popular ,science ,monthly for ,october1 #aiba1 this veteran radiologist makes some startling revelations4 ,to quote a few passages3 8,in ,april1 #ahif1 five months after the discovery of ,x-rays--or ,roentgen rays1 as they are also named in honor of their discoverer--a pose of eight hours was required for a correct radiograph of a profile head1 the tube being placed ten inches from the sensitive plate4 8,in ,april1 #aiba1 a similar image was obtained in four hours at a distance of #ij yards from the apparatus4 ,this means that the radiation with modern apparatus is more than #bj1jjj times stronger than was possible in #ahif4 8,with the very weak radiation that ,i have used for my experiments1 corresponding to the ordinary radiographic and radioscopic work1 it has been easy for me to obtain images of metallic objects and human bones placed on a sensitive plate #ae feet from the radiating source1 although the rays pass directly through a slab of marble an inch thick1 a sheet of lead one-tenth of an inch thick1 and a flooring eight inches deep1 built of oak boards and rough plaster4 8,fifty feet from this same source ,i have been able in four hours to fog a photographic plate placed behind a wall of brick and stone #bj inches thick4 ,also in the same time ,i have obtained a correct radiograph of a skull and a crab1 #bfb feet from the ,x-ray machine4 ,all these experiments were made with a #ag-;centimeter spark and two milliamperes of current4 8,if photographic plates are so readily affected by these rays1 we must admit that animal cells also are affected to an appreciable degree4 ,the ,x-rays that are being used to cure a patient may at the same time inflict radio-dermatitis on other persons exposed to their influence in adjoining rooms or buildings4 ,nothing will suffice for safety but to cover the walls and floors of ,x-ray rooms with sheets of lead from a quarter to half an inch thick1 according to the power of the source and its distance from the lining4444 8,biologic reactions from ,x-rays take two forms4 ,the first is a skin lesion known as radio-dermatitis1 caused by the skin's absorbing a large quantity of radiations4 ,the second results from the improvements in ,x-ray tubes and the use of filters absorbing the radiations of long wave length1 currently named #8soft radiation4' ,this reaction takes place deep beneath the skin upon the active cells that are the most vulnerable4 ,it is principally the internal secretion glands that are affected4 ,among those who continually receive even weak doses1 a gradual lessening of vitality takes place1 leading slowly to a physiological impoverishment that inevitably carries them off sooner or later40 ,dr4 ,contremoulins was able to escape serious injury up to the outbreak of the ,world ,war1 but is now a victim of his services to wounded soldiers4 ,as a result of his efforts--and due also1 partly1 to suits brought against a ,paris physician by neighbors who alleged that their health had been impaired1 resulting 7perhaps7 in two cases of cancer--a thorough-going investigation was undertaken by the ,french ,ministry of ,hygiene4 ,dr4 ,declere of the ,academy of ,medicine presided over a committee which included ,mme4 ,curie1 ,m4 ,becquerel1 a radiologist2 ,dr4 ,vaillant and a number of specialists4 ,a leading member of the ,academy said he did not believe that ,x-rays menaced persons who did not come into direct contact with them4 8,i intend to study the question by three methods10 he said4 8,first1 we shall make a purely physical examination1 studying the action of the rays and in what measure they exert themselves at certain distances4 ,second1 we shall experiment with the living tissues of rabbits1 trying various distances several hours a day and noting the effect on the red and white corpuscles and glands of the animals4 ,then1 since it is impossible to make such experiments on human bodies1 we shall collect data based on #be years' experience with ,x-rays to see whether physicians in close contact have been burned40 ,while ,x-ray treatment cannot be said to cure a deep-seated cancer1 it is undoubtedly being given with highly beneficial results in many cases1 alleviating much suffering and retarding the growth of malignant tissues4 ,as is well known1 tuberculosis can advance to a dangerous stage before it exhibits physical symptoms recognizable by physicians4 ,the ,x-ray not only brings to light incipient consumption1 but reveals the exact place and extent of the lesion4 ,any abnormalities of the alimentary tract1 also1 may readily be brought to view1 as well as certain effects produced on certain arteries1 due to arterio-sclerosis or to angina pectoris 7a very painful form of heart disease74 ,it has been well said that 8the list of diseases1 the presence and extent of which are betrayed or confirmed by the ,x-ray1 would fill pages and would include most of the enemies to human health4 ,among them may be mentioned many forms of tuberculosis1 occult abscesses whose ramifying consequences physicians were once unable to refer to their source1 tumors1 cancers1 kidney stones1 gastric ulcers1 diseases of the heart40 ,the martyrdom of radiologists has not been in vain4 ,in cases of emergency1 ,x-ray diagnosis may now be given patients in their own homes4 ,a surgical ,x-ray outfit that can be carried in an ambulance and taken to the bedside of a patient too ill for removal to a hospital passed a successful trial in ,england1 thus adapting an emergency war-time arrangement to civilian use4 ,a generator in the ambulance operates the tube1 which has a special mounting that enables it to be placed over the patient's bed1 and adjusted for height and position by hand-wheels4 ,the control apparatus is mounted on a separate stand1 and connected with the ambulance outside by a cable wound on a reel4 ,provision is made for developing the exposed plates at once1 so that a diagnosis can be made in a few minutes4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,discovery ,,and ,,nature ,,of ,x-,,rays ,in ,march1 #aibc1 there passed from this world one of the most beautiful exemplars of the true scientific spirit that earth has ever seen--,dr4 ,william ,conrad ,roentgen1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,professor of ,experimental ,physics in the ,university of ,munich1 the discoverer of ,x- or ,roentgen ,rays4 ,born at ,lennep1 on ,march #bg1 #ahde1 ,professor ,roentgen filled a number of important posts before his death in #aibc1 in which year he was awarded the ,nobel ,prize in ,physics--an award which brought with it a gift of #dj1jjj4 ,although suffering from the poverty which resulted in ,germany as an aftermath of the ,world ,war1 ,professor ,roentgen refused to utilize the ,nobel ,prize award for his own personal uses4 ,he gave the entire sum to a research society to enable other students to carry on their investigations4 ,while occupying the chair of ,professor of ,physics and ,director of the ,physical ,institute at ,wrzburg1 ,dr4 ,roentgen made the discovery--in #ahie--;for which his name is chiefly known--though his researches led to important advances in several other departments of physics4 ,while experimenting with a highly exhausted vacuum tube on the conductivity of electricity through gases1 ,dr4 ,roentgen noticed that a paper screen covered with potassium platinocyanide--a phosphorescent substance--which chanced to be lying nearby1 became fluorescent under action of some radiation emitted from the tube1 which at the time was enclosed in a box of black cardboard4 ,professor ,roentgen then found1 by experiment1 that this heretofore unknown radiation had the power to pass through various substances which are impenetrable to ordinary light-rays4 ,he found that if a thick piece of metal--a coin1 for example1--were placed between the tube and a plate covered with the phosphorescent substances1 a sharp shadow was cast upon the plate4 ,on the other hand1 thin plates of aluminum and pieces of wood cast only partial shadows4 ,thus was it demonstrated that the rays which produced the phosphorescence on the glass of the vacuum tube could penetrate bodies quite opaque to ordinary light-rays4 ,like ordinary light1 these rays affected a photographic plate2 but owing to their peculiar behavior in regard to reflection and refraction1 ,roentgen was led to put forward the hypothesis that the rays were due to longitudinal1 rather than to transverse waves in the 8ether40 ,they will ionize gases1 but they cannot be reflected1 polarized or deflected by a magnetic or electric field1 as are ordinary light-rays4 7,it has been shown that the scattered secondary rays show polarization47 ,being in doubt as to the real nature of these penetrating rays1 ,roentgen called them 8,x-rays40 ,in #ahif ,professor ,roentgen was the recipient of the ,rumford ,medal of the ,royal ,society4 ,this honor was shared by his compatriot ,philipp ,lenard4 ,lenard was the discoverer of the rays emanating from the outer surface of a plate composed of 7any7 material permeable by cathode rays4 ,by impinging on solids1 the cathode rays 7negative electrons7 generate ,x-rays4 8,lenard rays10 which are similar in all their known properties to cathode rays projected from the cathode of a vacuum tube1 do not emanate from the cathode4 7,unlike the ,x-rays1 cathode rays may be deflected from their natural course along 8straight lines0 by the application of a magnetic or electric field47 ,professor ,lenard1 as also ,hertz1 discoverer of the now well-known 8wireless waves10 had already demonstrated that a portion of the cathode rays could pass through a thin film of a metal such as aluminum4 ,when ,roentgen rays 7,x-rays7 are allowed to fall upon any substance1 the matter emits cathodic 7or secondary ,roentgen7 rays4 8,the characteristic secondary radiation may be compared with the phosphorescence produced by ultra-violet light1 and the cathodic secondary rays with the photoelectric effect0 7,sir ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson74#b ,the penetrating power 78hardness07 of these rays appears to be determined solely by the nature of the elements in the emitting substance4 ,the velocity of the cathodic 7or secondary ,roentgen7 rays seems to be quite independent of the matter exposed to the primary rays1 but increases as the hardness 7penetrating power7 of the primary ,roentgen rays increases4 ,the character of the emitted rays1 in brief1 appears to be quite unaffected by the chemical or physical condition of the element4 ,red-hot iron1 for example1 exhibits the same characteristic ,roentgen radiation as iron at room temperature4 ,but the penetrating power 7hardness7 of this characteristic 7emitting7 radiation increases gradually and continuously with increasing atomic weight of the emitting elements4 ,the complete independence of the penetrating power of the characteristic ,roentgen radiation from external surroundings indicates strongly that it is closely connected with the nature of the nuclei 78cores07 of the atoms giving rise to it4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,when ultra-violet light is allowed to fall upon a metal it causes the metal to emit electrons and thus to acquire a positive charge1 the velocity of the emitted electrons being exactly proportional to the frequency of the incident light4 ,or when light of ,x-ray type falls upon the surface of almost any substance1 it takes hold of an electron in the atoms of that surface and hurls it out into space with a speed exactly proportional to the wave length of the light4 ,this phenomenon is known as the photoelectric effect4 ,,chapter ,v ,,ultra-,,violet ,,light ,,in ,,health ,,and ,,disease ,that both the compound rays of ordinary sunlight and ultra-violet rays 78artificial sunlight07 are highly effective in the treatment of a number of complaints is now well known4 ,they are both in general use for the external treatment of rickets1 tuberculosis1 and a number of other diseases4 ,light-rays are also applied to hasten the healing of wounds4 ,the use of the sun as a healing agent seems first to have been developed in a scientific way by ,dr4 ,neils ,r4 ,finsen1 a young ,danish physician who was later awarded the ,nobel ,prize in ,medicine4 ,his original researches were undertaken toward the end of the #aith century4 ,then ,dr4 ,rollier opened the first sunlight clinic in #aijc1 and in #aiaj established his school at ,leysin1 in the ,alps4 ,dr4 ,rollier is now treating about #a1jjj patients1 mostly afflicted with various forms of tuberculosis of the bone4 ,the sun cure is also used to some extent for pulmonary tuberculosis1 and with considerable success4 7,see my ,man's ,debt to the ,sun1 ,little ,blue ,book ,no4 #hjh1 ,chapter ,,iv47 ,according to ,dr4 ,rollier1 exposure of the diseased to the sun's rays is efficacious in the treatment of anemia1 malnutrition1 bone and gland infections and various types of tuberculosis1 and is a body builder for convalescents4 ,on the outskirts of ,san ,rafael1 ,california1 is a novel sun sanitarium1 ,helios ,sanitarium1 modeled after the ,alpine sanitaria of ,dr4 ,rollier4 ,two investigators have recently studied the comparative germ-destroying power of the blood in healthy and ill persons1 before and after exposure to sunlight4 ,it was found that the germ-killing power of the blood was increased when the sun bath lasted for a certain length of time4 ,it was shown that too long or too short an exposure decreased the blood's power4 ,it was decreased also in patients who had fever4 ,several other conditions were found to influence the results4 ,physicians believe that several points of practical value may emerge from these experiments4 ,one important and useful result is that they offer a new method to guide and gauge the effects of treatment in tuberculosis and other diseases4 ,the practice of ,x-ray treatment 7since #aiaj included under the more general term radiotherapy7 includes treatment not only by ,x-rays1 but also by all kinds of rays--treatment by heat1 by the sun's rays1 by ultra-violet rays1 and even by violet rays4 ,the rays of radioactive substances used in medicine come under the etymological term of radiotherapy4 ,but in general practice1 amongst radiologists1 the term is applied to treatment by ,x-rays alone4 ,nevertheless1 it is now well established that the ultra-violet rays are not only bactericidal1 but that they also play an important role in the treatment of certain diseases1 and in the maintenance of good health4 ,on the other hand1 these rays produce a certain irritability among persons of the white race in the tropics1 which cannot be regarded as healthful in their general effects4 ,since the amount of ultra-violet light coming from the sun has been shown by ,abbott to be variable1 it may be that some of the irritability which seems to be general among the inmates of our public institutions on certain days is due to this change in the sun's outpour of ultra-violet radiation4 ,as ,dr4 ,e4 ,e4 ,free remarked not long ago3 8,put these facts together4 ,ultra-violet rays affect life4 ,the amount of ultra-violet coming from the sun is variable4 ,does this mean that some of the obscure1 day by day variations of health can be due to this8 ,some days everybody seems happy and cheerful4 ,other days everybody is depressed4 ,still other days are breeders of #8nerves4' ,maybe the ultra-violet does it4 ,maybe not4 ,doubtless the investigators will find out presently40 ,recent experiments at the ,maine ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 conducted under the direction of ,dr4 ,john ,w4 ,gowen1 have led to the important discovery that milk from cows that have been treated with ultra-violet light1 from mercury-vapor quartz lamps1 contains a much larger amount of the substance--presumably a vitamine1 or vitamines--that prevents rickets in children and young animals4 ,at any rate1 it was found that the milk from cows deprived of sunlight and ultra-violet light was quite deficient in the anti-rachitic factor4 ,animals and birds fed on the sunless milk uniformly developed rickets4 ,the ,holstein-,friesian cows used in the experiments were of nearly the same age and calving date and all received like treatment as to feed1 temperature1 etc41 and stood side by side in the same barn4 8,throughout the treatment10 says ,dr4 ,gowen1 8these cows did not leave the barn4 ,for one month none of the cows received ultra-violet light4 ,for the second month two cows received ultra-violet light #ae minutes a day1 generated from a ,cooper-,hewitt alternating current light at three feet above their backs4 ,for the third month these cows received ultra-violet light for #cj minutes a day under the same conditions4 ,in the meantime ,rhode ,island ,red chickens were allowed to develop rickets1 shown both clinically and by ,x-ray photographs4 ,they were divided into two lots1 one lot of these chickens receiving milk from the ultra-violet cows1 the other of two lots of chickens1 milk from the control cows4 ,both lots received all the milk they wished4 ,the chickens have now been under treatment #ej days4 ,the lot receiving milk from cows exposed to ultra-violet light are in good condition with no appearance of rickets in ,x-ray plates4 ,the lot receiving normal milk has moved progressively toward more extreme clinical and ,x-ray rickets4 ,the experiment was repeated1 using the milk from these same cows on ,white ,leghorn chickens showing clinical and ,x-ray rickets4 ,five chickens were in each lot4 ,after #ch days' treatment four of the lot receiving milk from the ultra-violet cows are almost cured of rickets1 showing only a very slight stiffness4 ,the fifth chicken shows some stiffness4 ,four of the lot receiving the normal milk show constantly increasing symptoms of the more advanced stages of clinical rickets4 ,these results point to the conclusion that more of the substance necessary to cure rickets is absorbed by the cow exposed to ultra-violet light and secreted by her in her milk4 ,the cows prevented from receiving ultra-violet light are not able to secrete this anti-rachitic substance in sufficient quantities to cure or allay the process of clinical rickets4 ,the results thus point to an environmental factor transmitted by the cow to her offspring through the medium of her milk4 ,they further suggest that the high incidence of rickets in children during the late winter months is due to their mothers not receiving ultra-violet light either during pregnancy or while in lactation4 ,furthermore1 it would appear that cows' milk produced especially for baby-feeding should be from cows which have access to ultra-violet light either from the sun or from some other source4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,little of the ,university of ,maine1 and his associates1 fully demonstrated the value of sunlight to animal life through experiments on a flock of #bcc chicks4 ,the chicks were divided into three groups and all were given the same diet4 ,one group was kept in natural sunlight1 the second was kept in sunlight that went through window glass1 and the third was given both natural sunlight and extra ultra-violet rays produced artificially4 ,the last class grew the best4 ,the class that got only natural sunlight grew normally4 ,the class kept behind window glass all developed bone disease4 ,the glass of the greenhouse allowed the light of the sun and the heat of infra-red rays to get through4 ,but it screened out the ultra-violet waves4 ,the beneficent effects of invisible ultra-violet rays are seen in both the organism exposed to them and the food consumed4 ,this is true whether the rays come direct from the sun or by means of a quartz lamp4 ,ordinary glass lamps prevent the ultra-violet rays from passing out4 ,but not all kinds of foodstuffs by any means are favorably affected by the rays4 ,only those foods which contain fat seem to be materially improved4 ,the value of milk and of cod liver oil is greatly enhanced by exposure to the rays4 ,dr4 ,benjamin ,kramer has been highly successful in treating babies affected with rickets by subjecting milk itself to the action of ultra-violet light4#c ,as early as #aibc1 it had been shown by feeding experiments with various types of animals at the ,university of ,wisconsin that sunlight was acting either directly upon the animal or upon its food4 ,the same dietary was found to produce contradictory results4 ,it was established--especially by ,h4 ,steenbock and ,e4 ,b4 ,hart--that sunlight is indispensable to man and beast1 in that it is the determinant of the efficiency with which calcium can be assimilated and retained4 7,see their report1 ,journal of ,biological ,chemistry1 ,vol4 #fb1 page #egg1 #aibe47 ,calcium1 it is pointed out1 needs to be conserved because in proportion to the body needs it is not found abundantly in foods and feeds4 ,steenbock and ,hart tell us that sunlight plays the particular rle of conservator 8by virtue of its content of ultra-violet radiations of approximately #bej to #cjb millimicrons in wave-length1 but unfortunately these are not present in sufficient degree to provide a wide margin of safety for the animal4 ,as a result we have rickets in the young and poor dentition1 restricted lactation1 abortion and impoverishment of the skeleton in lime to a dangerous extent in the adult4444 ,the ultra-violet rays bring their effect through the medium of certain compounds widely distributed in plant and animal tissue1 so that practically any foodstuff can be #8anti-rachitically' activated4 #8,make hay while the sun shines' is more than a mere poetic slogan1 for hay made in the dark is devoid of rickets-preventing properties0 7,science1 ,december #d1 #aibe74 ,the careful experiments of ,j4 ,s4 ,hughes showed that chickens receiving a standard scratch feed and mash1 supplemented with sprouted oats and buttermilk1 developed rickets 7weak legs7 when deprived of direct sunlight4 ,chicks receiving the same feed but given sun baths developed normally1 although they were confined in a very small pen1 with little opportunity to exercise4 ,light from ordinary electric bulbs had very little1 if any1 beneficial action4 ,light from the ,hereus mercury arc lamp was very beneficial4 ,cod liver oil also proved to be effective in preventing rickets in chickens as in mammals4#d ,that such fats as olive oil and lard may be activated by exposure to ultra-violet rays and used as a substitute for cod liver oil in the treatment of rickets is evidenced by experiments reported by the ,department of ,agricultural ,chemistry of the ,university of ,wisconsin4 ,in the series of experiments now published1 olive oil and lard were exposed to the action of the ultra-violet rays from a powerful mercury-vapor quartz lamp1 for periods of time ranging from half an hour to #ag hours4 ,after exposure to the rays these fats were fed to a group of experimental rats in which rickets had been produced1 and the activated olive oil and lard were found to have the same beneficial results that follow the administration of cod liver oil4 ,the weight of the rats increased and an analysis of the bones showed an increase in the calcium content4 ,some of the activated olive oil1 which had been stored in a stoppered bottle1 showed no change in potency ten months later4 ,it was found also that the fats might be activated by the rays from the open carbon arc1 the iron arc1 and sunlight2 but that exposure for such prolonged periods as #ag hours destroyed their potency4 ,this destruction took place even on cod liver oil4#e ,it has long been known that human tissue is more actively changed by light when it has been 8sensitized40 ,quinine1 esculin1 fluoresceine1 etc41 are examples of tissue sensitizers1 in addition to their other effects4 ,the most powerful of all known sensitizers is haemato-porphyrin--or simply 8porphyrin40 ,this sensitizer is a purple substance closely allied to the haemoglobin that gives blood its red color4 ,subtracting its iron and albumin from haemoglobin by appropriate chemical processes leaves porphyrin4 ,this substance reacts strongly to the ultra-violet rays1 in rare cases causing a disease which turns the teeth to a deep purple hue4 ,victims of this uncommon ailment have to wear gloves constantly1 and when going out of doors during the day time must put on heavy veils4#f ,porphyrin is capable of dissolving the red corpuscles of the most dissimilar animals in the presence of sunlight4 ,but neither the haemato-porphyrin nor the light alone is capable of injuring the animals4 ,only the combined effect of the two can harm them4 ,a physician experimentally injected an exceedingly minute quantity into himself and then exposed himself to a moderate light1 and became very ill4 ,hausmann found that even the diffused sunlight of an early spring day in ,vienna was sufficient to cause the death of white mice which had been subjected to small quantities of this strange substance4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,van ,leersum1 of ,holland1 proved by experiments with rats that the utilization of lime by our bodies can be controlled almost at will by this 8sensitization0 process4 ,rickets1 or a condition indistinguishable from rickets1 can be produced or cured by proper control of the sensitization4 ,,sunlight ,,and ,,infantile ,,paralysis ,an article by ,science ,service1 quoted in ,science1 ,september #aa1 #aibe1 says3 ,another of the dreaded diseases of childhood1 infantile paralysis1 which1 like rickets1 graduates large quotas of cripples1 has responded to the good influence of the sun's rays4 ,dr4 ,g4 ,murray ,levick1 medical director of the ,heritage ,craft ,schools at ,chailey1 ,sussex 7,england71 who originated the treatment1 said that no other method has ever had as good results as this in the treatment of infantile paralysis4 ,dr4 ,levick first deduced that neurasthenia in grown-ups and rickets in the young are due to the same cause4 ,both these diseases1 he claims1 are nutritional disturbances of the nerve centers affecting the bones in the young1 and the nervous systems in the old4 ,the action of sunlight on the skin forms a substance which is carried into the blood and feeds the nerve centers as well as the bones4 ,his success in treating neurasthenia with sun's rays led him to apply it to cases of infantile paralysis1 a disease which is a severe shock to the nervous system and which results in muscular atrophy4 ,under the action of sunlight a renutrition of nerve centers takes place4 ,synthetic sunlight produced by him with an electric arc light of his own invention proved as good as natural sunlight1 and could be better regulated to the patient's endurance4 ,he used two distinct kinds of light-rays1 the short ultra-violet rays for nerve nutrition1 and the long red and infra-red rays for muscle treatment4 ,red rays1 as can be seen when the hand is held up against the sunlight1 penetrate the flesh to a considerable extent1 and can therefore stimulate the sleeping muscle4 ,dr4 ,levick warns that immediate success must not be expected4 ,he has found constant improvement where short daily treatments were continued over a period of several years4 ,while the method may not be effective in extreme cases1 it is nevertheless a test which will soon show after a few treatments whether any rejuvenation of the nerve fiber is taking place4 ,it is now admitted that the 7red7 heat-waves may play some part in heliotherapy--exposure to direct sunlight for medical purposes4 ,dr4 ,lazarus-,barlow1 ,professor of ,experimental ,pathology in the ,university of ,london1 concludes that even though heat-rays may also play some part in curative processes1 8experience of the treatment of wounds by sunlight in ,france during the ,world ,war indicated that a degree of benefit arises from exposure to sunlight which cannot be attributable to warmth and ultra-violet rays4 ,on the other hand1 in the ,finsen light treatment of lupus 7a tubercular affection of the skin of the face1 occurring in several forms7 and in the treatment of tuberculosis at high altitudes1 ultra-violet rays play a predominant part40 ,as the ultra-violet rays penetrate but a fraction of a millimeter into the epithelium1 8it is uncertain how the rays act40 ,the suggestion is here ventured that since the recently discovered ,millikan ,rays are particularly powerful under the same conditions that make application of the ultra-violet rays practicable as a therapeutic agency1 it may later be found that these highly penetrating rays1 of exceedingly short wave length1 aid greatly in effecting some of the cures now attributed wholly to the longer 7and less penetrating7 ultra-violet rays or the much shorter ,x-rays4#g ,professor ,lazarus-,barlow calls attention to the fact that it is precisely those tubercular persons who tan easily who are said to derive the greatest benefit from a sojourn at high altitude4 ,very remarkable is a recently adopted machine which 8pours ultra-violet light through a funnel down the throat of a patient40 ,the new apparatus1 first used in ,london1 is employed for treatment of various mouth and throat diseases1 8thus making it possible for patients to take internal baths of artificial sunlight0 7,science1 ,february #bf1 #aibf74 ,in ,england1 where the sky is so often overclouded1 it is natural that much attention has been given to ultra-violet ray therapy4 ,a recent press dispatch tells us3 8,london recently had #bc consecutive days on which no beam of the sun could force its way through the mantle of cloud and fog which spread over that section of ,england4 ,now the ,britons are making artificial suns that may be available for both indoor and outdoor illumination4 ,arc lights throwing powerful ultra-violet rays are being installed in beauty shops and hotels1 and patrons are given opportunity to bathe their bodies in this brilliance4 ,these rays are being billed as more potent than sun baths1 and citizens who have small chance to see the orb of day get their sunshine and their medicine at one swoop40 ,two ,indian scientists1 ,s4 ,s4 ,bhatnagar and ,r4 ,b4 ,lal1 of the ,university of the ,punjab1 ,lahore1 discovered in #aibe that germs grow faster when exposed to 8polarized0 light than to ordinary light4 7,ordinary light--according to the undulatory theory--is due to vibrations transverse to the direction of the ray1 but varying so rapidly as to show no particular direction of their own1 the fronts of the light-waves crisscrossing at all angles4 ,when1 by any means1 these vibrations are given a definite direction1 the light is said to be polarized1 the fronts of the waves being all arranged in the same direction1 though the path of the rays may be plane1 elliptical1 circular1 or rotary1 according to the method of polarization employed47 ,the ,indian experimenters took cultures of the germs of typhoid fever and cholera1 and exposed one set to ordinary light1 and another to a beam of polarized light4 ,the latter multiplied much faster than did the germs under ordinary light4 ,it was demonstrated in #aibe by ,dr4 ,elizabeth ,s4 ,semmens1 of ,bedford ,college1 ,london1 that the digestion of starch takes place more readily under polarized light than in ordinary light4 ,prolonged exposure to the ultra-violet rays will destroy any germs known to science4 7,cathode rays--which are shorter than ultra-violet rays--will kill not only germs1 but insects as well1 by means of a device developed by ,prof4 ,w4 ,d4 ,coolidge47 8,bacteria10 says ,dr4 ,coolidge1 8have been rayed1 and an exposure of a tenth of a second has been found sufficient to kill even highly resistant bacterial spores4 ,fruit flies1 upon being rayed for a small fraction of a second1 instantly showed almost complete collapse1 and in a few hours were dead40 ,this may lead to the application of cathode rays as a germicide1 but their effect on higher forms of life shows that their unskilled use would be most dangerous4 ,for example1 ,dr4 ,coolidge relates3 8,the ear of a rabbit was rayed over a circular area one centimeter in diameter for one second4 ,after several days a scab formed which fell off a few days later1 taking the hair with it4 ,two weeks later a profuse growth of snow-white hair started which soon became much longer than the original gray hair4 ,another area was rayed for #ej seconds4 ,in this case1 scabs developed on both sides of the ear1 which scabs later fell out1 leaving a hole4 ,the edge of this hole is now covered with snow-white hair40 ,a very interesting problem to scientists relates to the question as to whether or not insects are color-blind4 ,it may be that we now have at least a partial answer to this vexed question1 and in terms of ultra-violet radiations4 ,dr4 ,frank ,e4 ,e4 ,germann1 of ,cornell ,university1 calls attention to some recent experiments which show conclusively that at least one kind of insects 7flies7 have a range of vision in the ultra-violet1 just as we have in the visible spectrum4 ,it was also made 8perfectly evident that flowers do have their characteristic ultra-violet radiations0 7,science1 ,march #bf1 #aibf1 page #cbe74 ,it is due 8to our own egotism that we call the insect color-blind40 ,a given type of insect might in reality be visiting flowers of the same color as far as it was concerned1 while to us it appeared to be visiting flowers of all colors4 8,might not two flowers1 one red and one blue1 both give out the same group of wave lengths in the ultra-violet1 and thus be identical in color to an insect seeing only the ultra-violet8 ,moreover1 what is to prevent two different kinds of red flowers from giving out two entirely different sets of wave lengths in the ultra-violet1 and thus appearing to have entirely different colors to an insect80 ,in a very real sense1 science is only at the beginning of the discoveries it will yet make in its investigations of the nature and action of ultra-violet1 cathode and ,x-rays4 ,,footnotes3 #c ,it is interesting to note in this connection that ,kuzelmass and ,mc,quarrie have suggested that oxidation of cod liver oil gives rise to ultra-violet radiation4 7,see ,science1 ,september #ai1 #aibd47 #d ,paper read before the #ffth meeting of the ,american ,chemical ,society1 held in ,milwaukee1 ,wis41 ,september #ajth to #adth1 #aibc4 #e ,dr4 ,harriette ,chick and her co-workers of the ,vienna ,university ,child ,clinic discovered1 first1 that the action of cod liver oil on the bone-lesions of rickets has an exact parallel in that of the ultra-violet rays of sunlight1 or of the rays from a mercury-vapor quartz lamp2 and1 second1 that the oil and the rays were effective substitutes the one for the other4 ,see my ,man's ,debt to the ,sun1 ,little ,blue ,book ,no4 #hjh1 page #di4 #f ,the only creature that has porphyrin as part of its normal body-covering is a tropical bird called the touraco1 parts of whose feathers are dyed a brilliant red by a porphyrin-copper compound known as turacin4 ,this pigment is remarkable also because it seems to be the only normal occurrence of copper as a coloring compound in feathers or skin4 ,turacin is soluble in weak alkali1 so that when it rains and the bird comes into contact with such alkaline solutes as frequently occur in nature1 the turacin bleaches out6 ,although porphyrin is rare as a normal coloring in adult animals1 it is the commonest pigment found in the shells of birds' eggs4 ,almost all eggs1 from the hen's brown to the robin's blue1 contain it4 #g ,the length of the very short ,x-rays was accurately determined by a new method developed by ,compton and ,doan in #aibe1 and was found to be about three billionths of an inch4 ,transcriber's ,notes pg #ai ,changed3 ,in ,march1 #aibc1 ,dr4 ,i4 ,seth ,hirsh to3 ,in ,march1 #aibc1 ,dr4 ,i4 ,seth ,hirsch pg #db ,changed3 unable to refer to their soure to3 unable to refer to their source